An Aerial root is a root which is above the ground. Different plants have grown them. They can have different functions:
For support: Sometimes such roots are grown for support. Ivy plants have them to cling to structures, such as stone walls, or other trees. The Banyan tree (also known as strangler fig) grows them downward from branches into the forest floor. Eventually, the host tree dies.
Roots for breathing: Some plants grow in environments where there is much water in the soil. They may then grow such roots (upwards) to breathe air. Black mangroves have such roots, for example.
As a parasite. Parasites sometimes grow these, into the host to get nutrients. One example of this is the mistletoe.
Roots to propagate: Some plants have above-ground roots. In some places, little plants (with leaves and roots) develop. They will drop off at some point, and develop into new plants (that are clones of the parent). Examples for this are strawberries or the spider plant.

Images

References

Plant anatomy

Aerial root


John Arthur Alexander Edgecombe (22 October 1932 – 26 September 2010) was a British jazz promoter, whose involvement with Christine Keeler inadvertently alerted authorities to the Profumo affair.

Early life
Edgecombe was born on 22 October 1932 in St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda, the youngest of eight children. He often accompanied  his father on his schooner running petrol from Trinidad to Antigua. In 1942, his father took United States citizenship and disappeared.

The young Edgecombe worked his passage aboard a British ship carrying sugar to Liverpool. From there he moved to Cardiff, where he stayed for some years, lodging at a mission for seamen. Searching for his missing father, he hid on a ship bound for Texas, but on arrival was arrested and put back on board for the return trip. When he docked in Britain, magistrates jailed him for 28 days as a stowaway. After leaving prison, he made his way to London, where he became involved in petty crime, serving three months for an attempted jewel theft. He ran a drinking and drugs den in premises rented from Peter Rachman, and reportedly acted as a pimp to his girlfriend.

Profumo scandal
It was in this "shebeen" that he first encountered Lucky Gordon, who threatened to tip off the police about the drinking den. Edgecombe closed it down, and moved into the jazz scene, driving musicians to gigs, and dealing small quantities of cannabis.

In September 1962, he met a nightclub hostess, Christine Keeler, and moved into her flat in Sheffield Terrace. Keeler was involved with several men, and it was this web of relationships and jealousy that triggered the events that led to what became known as the Profumo affair. Keeler told Edgecombe that Gordon had assaulted her and held her captive after she ended their relationship. Edgecombe confronted Gordon with a knife in the Flamingo Club on 27 October 1962, and Gordon required 17 stitches in the face. Edgecombe asked Keeler to help him find a solicitor before surrendering to the police, but she refused and said that she would give evidence against him.

On 14 December 1962, Edgecombe took a taxi to the Marylebone home of osteopath Stephen Ward, where Keeler was in hiding along with friend Mandy Rice-Davies. When she refused to come out, he fired at least five shots at the front door with a semi-automatic pistol in an unsuccessful attempt to shoot out the lock on the door. He fled from the scene before the police arrived, but was arrested later that evening. His subsequent arrest set in motion the unravelling of Keeler's relationship with Secretary of State for War John Profumo and Russian naval attaché Yevgeny Ivanov, with Keeler's non-appearance at his trial at the Old Bailey in March 1963 finally giving the British press the excuse it needed to publish the story.

Edgecombe was acquitted of assaulting Gordon, but was convicted and sentenced to seven years for possession of a firearm with the intent to endanger life. He served five years before being paroled.

On his release in 1968, Edgecombe became a jazz promoter, running a club called Edges, and worked as a film and television extra. In 1987, he made an extended appearance on an edition of the live television discussion programme After Dark alongside Tony Blackburn, Peter Tatchell, Victoria Gillick and others. Edgecombe also appeared briefly in the 1989 TV documentary The Scandal Story where he described and reenacted the shooting incident outside the actual Marylebone house.

He wrote and published his version of events of the Profumo Affair in a book titled Black Scandal in 2002. He died of lung cancer and kidney cancer in London, aged 77, on 26 September 2010.

Cultural references
In the 1989 film Scandal, Edgecombe was portrayed by singer Roland Gift.
Edgecombe was portrayed by Wayne Robinson in Andrew Lloyd Webber's stage musical Stephen Ward the Musical, which opened at the Aldwych Theatre on 19 December 2013.
 He was portrayed by Nathan Stewart-Jarrett in the 2019 British TV drama The Trial of Christine Keeler.

Notes

External links
 Johnny Edgecombe obituary
 Where Are They Now? Christine Keeler and the Profumo Affair

1932 births
2010 deaths
20th-century British criminals
Antigua and Barbuda emigrants to England
Deaths from kidney cancer
Deaths from lung cancer in England
British prisoners and detainees
Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales
British people convicted of assault

Johnny Edgecombe


A convention center, in American English, is an exhibition hall, or conference center. It is designed to hold a convention. In British English very large venues suitable for major trade shows are known as exhibition centres. The term "convention centre" is sometimes used for intermediate venues between exhibitions centres and "conference centres", which are much smaller and contain lecture halls and meeting rooms.

References

Convention center


Sutjeska () is an urban neighborhood of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia. It is located in Belgrade's municipality of Zemun.

Location
Sutjeska is located west of the old core of Zemun. It is bordered by the neighborhoods of Sava Kovačević on the west (bounded by the Šilerova street), Gornji Grad on the north (Ugrinovačka street), Novi Grad's sub-neighborhood of Vojni Put I on the south-west (Pazovački put), while Prvomajska street marks the southern border of the neighborhood.

Characteristics
The neighborhood is predominantly residential, with 7,446 inhabitants by the 2002 census of population. It has its own ambulance and elementary school.

It was named after the Battle of Sutjeska which took place in 1943 between Partisans and the Axis forces, where Partisan leader Sava Kovačević  was killed. Back-to-back neighborhoods of Blok Sutjeska and Blok Sava Kovačević also exist in another Belgrade's neighborhood, Krnjača, in the municipality of Palilula.

Neighborhoods

Bački Ilovik
North-west extension. It is a triangularly shaped and bounded by the streets of Bačka on the east, Ugrinovačka on the north and Pazovački put on the south, it is mostly inhabited by the Romani people. Several companies for collecting old materials (iron, aluminium, paper, etc.) are located in the neighborhood.

Meandri
North-east, residential extension, bounded by the streets of Zagorska on the south, Rade Končara on the east and Ugrinovačka on the north. The name means meanders.

Zemun Bačka
Zemun Bačka is the northernmost extension of the neighborhood and unlike the rest of Sutjeska, mostly industrial area. In the north it extends in the direction of Nova Galenika while the neighborhood of Altina begins just west, across the Belgrade-Novi Sad highway. A roundabout of the bus lines 18 and 83, which connect Zemun with downtown Belgrade is located in the neighborhood.

References

External links

Neighborhoods of Belgrade

Sutjeska, Zemun


A nuclear chain reaction is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy isotope atom such as uranium or plutonium splits and the neutrons released by the fissioning of that atom strike and split other heavy atoms which, as a result, hit others one after another after another. Chain reactions are the main way of getting nuclear energy. Power plants use a slow chain reaction to make steam. Fast reactions can make a nuclear explosion. Nuclear reactions make ionizing radiation that is harmful to life.

Nuclear physics

Nuclear chain-reaction


An intelligence agency is a government agency. Its job is to collect, analyse, and use information to support its government.

There are two parts to this, and usually they are done by separate agencies. The first part is to collect information (to "spy") on other countries. The other side is to watch people in the home country who might cause problems. A third activity is to defend against foreign intelligence agencies in the home country. This is called counter-intelligence, and is often done by a separate agency.

What the agencies discover is called "intelligence". It may be used to help law enforcement, security, defence and foreign policy.

The methods of information gathering are sometimes covert (hidden) and sometimes quite open. A covert method might be to steal and copy secret documents. An open method would be to read all published work on some important matter, and analyse it. Much important material is published openly in democratic countries.

To get hold of secret information, these organisations use espionage, intercept signals (tap phones, hack computers), cryptanalysis (break codes), and think about what the information means. Putting together and communicating information is known as intelligence analysis and assessment.

Some agencies have been involved in assassination, arms trafficking, coups d'état, and the placement of misinformation (propaganda) as well as other covert operations, in order to support their own or their governments' interests.

Examples

British
SIS The Secret Intelligence Service, usually called MI6. Collects intelligence ("spies on") from other countries.
The Security Service, usually called MI5. Does counter-intelligence against foreign threats.
GCHQ Government Communication Headquarters. Intercepts signals, decodes them, passes the information on to other agencies. The home of cryptanalysis, the successor to Bletchley Park.
Joint Intelligence Committee. Informs government as to what is going on.

Japan
Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office
Defense Intelligence Headquarters
Public Security Intelligence Agency

U.S.A.
The United States has about 17 major intelligence groups, and many other smaller groups. These are the most important:
CIA: The Central Intelligence Agency. Spies on foreign countries, and takes covert action against enemies of the U.S. abroad.
Defense Intelligence Agency
National Security Agency. Interception and Cryptanalysis of foreign communication, and protecting US communication from same.
United States Intelligence Community is the coordinating group for government intelligence agencies, headed by the Director of National Intelligence.

References

Intelligence agency


The Linear Pottery culture was an important culture in the Neolithic(later Stone Age) of Europe.  It was from 5500–4500 BC.
It is abbreviated as LBK and is also known as the Linear Band Ware, Linear Ware, Linear Ceramics or Incised Ware culture.

The most evidence for the culture is in Central Europe. It is important evidence for early farming in Europe. The pottery after which it was named has simple cups, bowls, vases and jugs, without handles. They were made as kitchen dishes, or for carrying food and drink. The pots had line patterns on them.

Farming
The LBK people lived over a period of 1000 years, long before the Bronze Age and farmed crops like wheat, lentils and peas. They also kept cows and dogs, and sometimes hunted in the forests around them for other animals, like deer.

Food and health
Their diet probably didn't contain enough energy for them, as they often did not grow as tall as the people who came before them, or as people do now. This might have also been because of disease, which can spread more easily in a village than it can when people are moving about a lot and not seeing many other people, as people did before the Neolithic. People in the LBK culture probably died quite young, in their twenties or thirties, and many of their children would die before they grew up.
If a person was very sick and in a lot of pain, the LBK people might have had access to opium which did not make them better but took away the pain. They probably knew how to make some illnesses better by using wild herbs as medicine.

Religion
The LBK people probably worshiped a mother goddess, who represented the fertility of the land they farmed.

Tools
Because this was before the Bronze or Iron Ages, there were no metal tools, and everything the LBK people had was made from either stone, wood and plants (such as flax which could be made into clothing, and things that could be got from animals (like leather or fur). They even had sickles, which are used for cutting down grass and are half-moon shaped blades with a handle coming off one end; however theirs were made of wood with sharp stone points glued into them for the cutting.

Housing
The LBK people lives in rectangular longhouses, and digging up an area often shows several clusters of about 6 of these long houses. The people in nearby clusters of houses probably knew each other and shared or traded their goods. Their houses were made of wood, mud and straw and they might have let their animals stay in there too.

War
Some LBK settlements have palisades, or long walls around them, to defend themselves from other people who might attack them. There are also some skeletons of LBK people that look like they died from battle injuries, and some look like they may have even been eaten by cannibals. This shows that there was a lot of war between nearby groups.

Important sites include Nitra in Slovakia; Bylany in the Czech Republic; Langweiler and Zwenkau in Germany; Brunn am Gebirge in Austria; Elsloo, Sittard, Köln-Lindenthal, Aldenhoven, Flomborn and Rixheim on the Rhine; Lautereck and Hienheim on the upper Danube; Rössen and Sonderhausen on the middle Elbe.

The Excavations at Oslonki in Poland had a large fortified settlement.  There were nearly 30 longhouses and over 80 graves.  This makes it one of the richest  settlements in archaeological finds from all of central Europe.

Archaeology
Stone Age
History of Europe

Linear Pottery culture


Merle Dale Miller (May 17, 1919 – June 10, 1986) was an American writer, novelist, and author who is perhaps best remembered for his best-selling biography of Harry S. Truman, and as a pioneer in the gay rights movement.

Miller came out of the closet in an article in the New York Times Magazine on January 17, 1971, "What It Means to Be a Homosexual." The response of over 2,000 letters to the article, more than ever received by that newspaper, led to a book publication later that year. The book was reprinted by Penguin Classics in 2012, with a new foreword by Dan Savage and a new afterword by Charles Kaiser.

Life and career
Merle Miller was born in Montour, Iowa, and raised in Marshalltown, Iowa, attending the University of Iowa and the London School of Economics. Before World War II, he was a Washington correspondent for the late Philadelphia Record. During the war, Miller served both in the Pacific and in Europe as a war correspondent and editor for Yank, The Army Weekly.

Following his discharge from the Army, he was editor of both Harper and Time magazines. He also worked as a book reviewer for The Saturday Review of Literature and as a contributing editor for The Nation. His work appeared frequently in the New York Times Magazine.

During the course of a writing career that spanned several decades, Miller wrote numerous novels, including the best-selling classic post war novel, That Winter (1948). His other novels are Island 49 (1945); The Sure Thing (1949); Reunion (1954); A Day in Late September (1956); A Secret Understanding (1956); A Gay and Melancholy Sound (1961); and What Happened (1972). He also wrote the novel The Warm Feeling, but since the publisher did not give him the opportunity to read and edit the manuscript, he publicly disowned the novel and would not have anything to do with it.

His works of non-fiction include We Dropped the A-Bomb (1946), a book he wrote in collaboration with Abe Spitzer, a radioman who was on the bomber The Great Artiste, one of the three B-29s that dropped the atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; The Judges and The Judged (1952); Only You Dick Daring (1964), Miller's scathing account of trying to make a show with CBS for the 1963-1964 television season; and On Being Different: What It Means To Be a Homosexual (1971). Miller was a contributor to A Treasury of Great Reporting; ""The Best of Yank; and Yank: The GI Story of the War.

In 1967 he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest," vowing to refuse to pay taxes raised to fund the Vietnam War.

Miller wrote many television plays and was the author of the screenplays, "The Rains of Ranchiphur" (1955), which starred Richard Burton and Lana Turner, and "Kings Go Forth," (1958), featuring Frank Sinatra and Natalie Wood. He wrote several drafts of a screenplay for "A Walk on the Wild Side," but by the time the screen version was being shot it was so far removed from what he had written or had in mind that he refused any screen credit. His postwar career as a television script writer and novelist was interrupted by the advent of Senator Joseph McCarthy and Miller's inclusion on the "Blacklist." He did not re-enter TV until the late 1950s and early 60s.

After the success of Plain Speaking Miller wrote two more biographies, Lyndon, A Biography of President Lyndon Baines Johnson, and Ike the Soldier, a biography of General Dwight David Eisenhower. He had completed all the interviews and research with the intention of writing a second volume, to be titled Ike the President, but died just after finishing the first volume Ike the Soldier.

Miller died on June 10, 1986, in Danbury Hospital in Connecticut, from peritonitis following surgery to remove a ruptured appendix.

Merle Miller Special Collections containing all of his taped interviews, research material, notes and correspondence are housed at three presidential libraries in Missouri, Texas and Kansas, as well as the University of Iowa and Boston University. They are all open and available to the public.

Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman

In 1962, Miller was hired by producer Robert Alan Aurthur as part of a team to interview and write the script for a proposed series on ex-President Harry Truman. He spent hundreds of hours with Truman both at the Truman Library in Independence, Missouri, and at the Carlyle Hotel in New York City, but all three of the major networks were not interested in the series and turned it down. Miller felt that perhaps the time was not right, that many people were not aware of the greatness of the man, and that it was possible that the country was not ready to look back at the Truman years. He also felt one of the reasons it was never shown on television, even as late as 1962, was that he had been a blacklisted writer.

Miller did not know what to do with the interviews, some on tape and some taking up four full-sized file cabinets. He wanted to write a book about Truman, but he did not want it to be a biography. Truman died in 1972, and Miller was asked to appear on television and tell some Truman stories, some of which he had been entertaining friends with over the years. Someone at the station suggested that he should write a book that made use of some of the stories. He still had the tapes and the mountains of notes he had made after each conversation, and so he went home and put together a thirty-page proposal. It was turned down by at least eight publishers before it was picked up by G. P. Putnam's Sons.Plain Speaking is a book based on conversations between Miller and the 33rd president of the United States, as well as others who knew Truman over the years. Robert A. Aurthur said, "No one will ever study or write about the time of Truman again without a bow of gratitude to Merle Miller. Never has a President of the United States, or any head of state for that matter, been so totally revealed, so completely documented...."

In October 1974, on a stop in Independence, Missouri, promoting the book, Miller was presented the key to the city by Mayor Richard King, who stated: "You captured the spirit of Harry S. Truman, and President Truman represents the spirit of Independence." While there Miller was interviewed by the editor of a local newspaper and asked if he had received any serious criticism of his treatment of the Truman tapes. "Only minor criticism," Miller replied. "One of the controversial points was Mr. Truman's interpretation of the meeting with MacArthur at Wake Island. I'm satisfied that the account Mr. Truman gave me is correct."

The book received generally positive reviews, although one later critic—Dr. Robert Ferrell of Indiana University—has questioned the authenticity and accuracy of some of the statements that Miller attributed to Truman.

Within a short time of publication, Plain Speaking was listed as number one on the New York Times best-selling list where it remained for over a year. It stayed in print, either in hard or soft cover for many years and, as late as 2004, was published as a "Classic Bestseller" by Black Dog and Leventhal.Plain Speaking was adapted for television in 1976 by the Public Broadcasting Service, for which Ed Flanders received an Emmy Award for his portrayal of Truman.

Controversy
In 1995 Plain Speaking became the focus of a controversy. Robert H. Ferrell, a historian who had also published a biography of Truman, asserted that Miller had fabricated many of the quotes in his book.Plain Faking? by Ferrell, Robert H.; Heller, Francis H. Note that the direct link to this article is missing the byline for Ferrell.

In Plain Speaking, Miller quoted Truman as referring to General Douglas MacArthur as a "dumb-son-of-a-bitch" and quoted Truman as asserting that Dwight Eisenhower, his successor in the Oval Office, tried to divorce his wife Mamie in order to marry Kay Summersby, his English chauffeur and secretary during World War II. In Miller's recounting, Truman claimed that General George C. Marshall wrote Eisenhower a letter threatening to ruin his career if he divorced his wife. According to Ferrell, Truman never actually said any of this, and he accused Miller of simply making up Truman's quotes to make his book more interesting and lively. A similar issue occurred with comments that Miller claimed Truman said about his former attorney general and later Supreme Court appointee, Justice Tom C. Clark. Ferrell claimed that Miller's papers on file in the Truman presidential library include no references to a number of Truman's quotes in Plain Speaking, and in his opinion the quotes are most likely forgeries created by Miller, and are not real Truman quotes or statements. Ferrell also noted that Miller waited until nearly two years after Truman's death to publish Plain Speaking. In 1963 Truman wrote a letter to Miller which read: "I thank you for sending me the article which you [Miller] proposed for the Saturday Evening Post. I am not in favor of such articles, especially this one which has so many misstatements of fact in it. I am sorry that that is the case and if you publish it I shall make that statement public." According to Ferrell, Truman did not mail the letter to Miller, but instead chose to hire a law firm and threatened to sue, which forced Miller to withdraw the proposed article for the Saturday Evening Post, and, in Ferrell's view, led him to wait until after Truman's death to publish Plain Speaking to avoid the possibility of any legal action.

Truman biographer David McCullough also criticized the historical accuracy of Plain Speaking, noting that in Truman's famous meeting with General MacArthur on Wake Island in 1950, "MacArthur [in the book] would be pictured deliberately trying to upstage Truman by circling the airstrip, waiting for Truman to land first, thus putting the President in the position of having to wait for the general. But it did not happen that way. MacArthur was not only on the ground, he had arrived the night before." McCullough also wrote that "[in] many of his observations to Miller, [Truman] was more harsh than he meant or that he indicated at the time."

With regard to any criticism of the book, Miller had this to say in the preface to Plain Speaking: "Truman told it the way he remembered it. So as I think Mr. Truman would have said, the hell with the purists. There are already hundreds of books and there will be hundreds more to clear up those small details that Mr. Truman and his friends may have misremembered...."

Notes

References
 Plain Speaking an Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman. G.P. Putnam Sons. New York. 1974. On Being Different: What It Means to Be a Homosexual, Penguin Classics, 2012 reprint.
 Book of the Month Club News. February 1974. Merle Miller: A Sense of History by Robert Alan Aurthur
 Merle Miller's journals and other writings. 1936 to 1986. Property of the Estate of Merle Miller. Carol V. Hanley, Executrix
 The Examiner. Eastern Jackson County's Daily Newspaper. Independence, Missouri.Wednesday. October 30, 1974

McCullough, David. Truman.'' Simon & Schuster. New York. 1992.

External links
Harry S. Truman Library. Merle Miller Papers.
University of Iowa Library Manuscript Register. Merle Miller Papers.
 Boston University Special Collections. Archival Research Center. Merle Miller Papers.

20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
20th-century American biographers
20th-century American memoirists
American tax resisters
Novelists from Iowa
People from Danbury, Connecticut
Alumni of the London School of Economics
1919 births
1986 deaths
People from Marshalltown, Iowa
American LGBT novelists
American male biographers
20th-century American male writers
LGBT people from Iowa
20th-century American LGBT people

Merle Miller


Paid inclusion is a search engine marketing product where the search engine company charges fees related to inclusion of websites in their search index. The use of paid inclusion is controversial and paid inclusion's popularity has decreased over time among search engines.

Definition of paid inclusion
The FTC defined paid inclusion as "Paid inclusion can take many forms. Examples of paid inclusion include programs where the only sites listed are those that have paid; where paid sites are intermingled among non-paid sites; and where companies pay to have their Web sites or URLs reviewed more quickly, or for more frequent spidering of their Web sites or URLs, or for the review or inclusion of deeper levels of their Web sites, than is the case with non-paid sites."

Note that paid inclusion is different from paid placement. With paid placement, companies pay search engines to rank higher than they would have ranked if relevancy was the only ranking factor. Paid placement also gives companies guaranteed top rankings if they pay for it. With paid inclusion, top rankings are not guaranteed and only inclusion within the search engine is. Therefore, a company who paid for inclusion within a search engine will still have its rankings determined by relevancy.

History of paid inclusion
In the early days of search, paid inclusion was a convenient way for search engines, such as Inktomi, Microsoft, Ask, Yahoo, Overture, AltaVista, and FAST, to obtain revenue. Unlike the other major search engines, Google decided to avoid paid inclusion and, instead, pursue higher relevancy using AdSense as its revenue source. As time went by, search engines such as Microsoft and Ask moved away from paid inclusion—both search engines ended paid inclusion programs in 2004.

Google's incorporation of paid inclusion
In 2012, Google re-incorporated paid inclusion within its search, though in a different form. Google Flights, Google Hotel Finder, and Google Shopping all have new forms of paid inclusion programs. Some critics, such as Danny Sullivan, founder of Search Engine Watch, criticize this move as a step away from the Founders Letter that was a part of Google's IPO. Aaron Wall of the popular SEO site SEOBook.com criticize Google's use of paid inclusion as a way to push almost all organic rankings below the fold.

Mixed views on paid inclusion
Paid inclusion has its advantages and drawbacks. The advantage of a paid inclusion search engine is that spam is reduced while relevancy improves. However, detractors of paid inclusion allege that it causes searches to return results based more on the economic standing of the interests of a web site, and less on the relevancy of that site to end-users. Ask Jeeves reported that paid inclusion reduced relevancy and, in 2004, ended its paid inclusion program.

Guidelines for paid inclusion
The FTC has advised search engines to clearly mark paid placement and paid inclusion in accordance with Section 5 of the FTC Act. For this is only a guideline and not a law, companies with search algorithms such as Nextag and Google are not legally bound to follow it.

See also
Search engine optimization
Favored placement
Instant indexing

References

Online advertising methods
Search engine optimization

Paid inclusion


TouchFLO 3D is a graphical user interface designed by HTC. It is used in the HTC Touch Family of Pocket PCs and was preceded by TouchFLO. TouchFLO 3D has been ported to Windows Mobile and Android, and is used in the HTC Touch Diamond, HTC Touch Pro, HTC Touch HD, HTC MAX 4G, HTC Touch Diamond2 and HTC Touch Pro2. The HTC Touch Viva, HTC Touch 3G and HTC Touch2 have a simpler version entitled TouchFLO 2D, where they have the same scrolling tab on the bottom of the screen, however they do not have any 3D visual effects. From the HTC Hero and HTC HD2 onwards, TouchFLO 3D has been heavily extended and is now being referred to, along with other usability improvements, as HTC Sense. The HTC Touch2 runs a version of TouchFLO 2D that is similar in style to HTC Sense.

Main Elements

Today Screen Plugin

The Today screen plugin is the main aspect of TouchFLO 3D, and consists of several tabs, which can be viewed by sliding a finger along the bottom bar or touching one of the visible icons. The tabs to the immediate right and left of the current tab can be accessed by swiping in the relevant direction. The tabs are:

 Home - Displays the date and time, the time the alarm is set for, any missed calls, and upcoming calendar appointments. Flicking the clock upwards reveals more appointments.
 People - Shows pictures of contacts in a Rolodex style which can be flipped through. An alternate slider bar of contacts is also included on the right side of the tab for faster browsing. On the Touch Diamond2 and Touch Pro2, when you select a contact, TouchFLO 3D tabs related to that contact appear:
Details - Contact details
Messages - All SMS/MMS messages sent between you and the contact
Email - All email received from the contact
Updates and Events - Facebook updates and new events related to the contact
Call History (All) - All calls between you and the contact
 Messages - Displays received text messages that fly on and off screen.
 Mail - Displays received email messages, from up to 4 different email accounts, in an envelope. Individual emails may be flipped through.
 Internet - Displays a link to open the Opera web browser, bookmarks to favorite websites, and a built-in YouTube application.
 Calendar - Displays a month view calendar, tapping any box will open the relevant day, displaying a list of appointments for that day. On the Touch Diamond2, the current weather and the forecast weather will appear on the corresponding day in this view.
 Stock - Displays graphs and quotes for user-selected companies. If the right softkey is touched, it will bring up a small 2 tab "TouchFLO" menu to view markets and individual companies. Not available on the HTC Touch Diamond and HTC Touch Pro.
 Photos and Videos - Shows photos and videos that can be flipped through, and buttons to launch the camera to take pictures and record video.
 Music - Displays cover art of music that flips through in a linear format. Music can be played directly from the tab, and can be forwarded/rewound by touching the progress slider. The library, which can be accessed pressing the Left Softkey, also uses the TouchFLO 3D interface to allow users to sort music by:
 Now Playing
 Artists
 Albums
 Playlists
 All Songs
 Genres
 Composers
 Purchased
 Weather - Displays weather for up to 10 cities selected from a predefined list, including a 5-day forecast. Additional cities can be added by disabling TouchFLO and editing the weather database.
 Settings - Provides access to the following system settings:
 Sync Data - to start ActiveSync
 Sound - to change the ringtone and profile settings
 Wallpaper - to set the background image of the Home tab
 Communications - to turn Airplane Mode, Phone, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi on or off
 Customize Tabs - to hide tabs or change the order in which they are displayed. Only available on the HTC Touch HD, HTC Touch Pro 2 and HTC Tilt 2.
 Data - to change weather download settings
 About - displays TouchFLO 3D version information
 Programs - Displays a grid of 18 programs that the user  can choose to allow them to launch programs quickly. A list of every program installed on the device is also available.

Each tab has two soft keys which provide access to functions associated with a tab or tab customisation.

System Status Screen
Instead of requiring users to touch the small status icons at the top of the screen (battery, volume, signal, etc.), the System Status Screen appears when the system status area is pressed, providing larger, finger-friendly buttons.

Revisions

TouchFLO 3D debuted in 2008 on the HTC Touch Diamond. Early updates removed many of the animations to increase the perception of speed. Since then, it has been altered several times:

HTC Touch Pro
The Tasks screen is only available on the HTC Touch Pro. It may be accessed by opening the keyboard while viewing TouchFLO 3D.

HTC Touch HD
The HTC Touch HD added the Stock tab and the ability to rearrange or hide tabs. Also, from the Touch HD onwards, TouchFLO 3D was designed for WVGA screens rather than VGA screens.

HTC Touch Diamond2/HTC Touch Pro2/HTC Tilt 2 (AT&T)
At the 2009 Mobile World Congress, more extensive changes were revealed. A Calendar tab, featuring month and day views, was introduced. The Stock tab was revised; it no longer displays graphs, but instead displays the quote and whether it has increased or decreased. The contacts tab was also changed: tapping on a contact displays a subscreen with several new tabs: a contact details tab, and tabs which display text messages, emails, and the call history associated with that contact. The Settings tab has been expanded to include more aspects such as G-sensor and contact card. In addition, a replacement for the Tasks Screen has been devised: all tabs now have an arrangement in landscape format. To give extra screen space, the slider will shrink to a small button on the bottom left, which when pressed will expand to reveal the entire slider.  Alternatively, in both portrait and landscape modes, a quick swipe left or right can flip tabs one at a time.

Third Party Interest
There have been several third-party add-on tabs created. These include:
Profile: to change the ringtone and profile settings
Comm Manager: to turn Airplane Mode, Phone, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi on or off (imitates the included Comm Manager application - see Communications above)
Calendar
Call History
Internet television
AT&T

Also, a 3rd party TouchFLO 3D clone, called ThrottleLauncher , is available for many other devices.

See also
TouchFLO
HTC Sense

References

External links
TouchFLO 3D Tour
Review of TouchFLO 3D on the::unwired
TF3D clone, ThrottleLauncher

HTC Corporation
Pocket PC software
Graphical user interfaces

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Don Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio de Toledo, 3rd Marquess of Cerralvo () (c. 1565, Spain – June, 1652, Madrid) was a Spanish nobleman, inquisitor of Valladolid, and viceroy of New Spain. He held the latter position from November 3, 1624 to September 16, 1635.

Early career and appointment as viceroy of New Spain
Rodrigo Pacheco y Osorio was born in Spain in the 1560s. He was a relative of Juan Antonio Pacheco, viceroy of Catalonia. After distinguishing himself in military service, he was named inquisitor of Valladolid.

When the rioting and disorders involving the previous viceroy, Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves, and the archbishop of Mexico, Juan Pérez de la Serna came to the attention of King Philip IV of Spain, he chose Pacheco y Osorio to investigate the causes and take charge of the government. Pacheco received specific, detailed instructions, among them to uncover the true causes of the disorders and punish those in the wrong. He was given extraordinary powers to accomplish these ends.

Foreign threats
He arrived in Mexico City on November 3, 1624, and took up the reins of government. However, his specific instructions were put aside so that he could deal with more urgent matters. Spain was now at war with France and the Dutch Republic, and a Dutch fleet was menacing the Pacific port of Acapulco. Pacheco immediately busied himself with the defense of Acapulco.

On December 15, 1628 Dutch Admiral Piet Hein captured a Spanish fleet in the straits between Florida and the Bahamas. This fleet was transporting 12 million pesos (mostly gold) and much merchandise from New Spain to the mother country.

Later in his administration, Dutch corsairs occupied the city of Campeche (April 17, 1633), but were driven out by 200 militiamen under the command of Captain Francisco Maldonado. However they returned August 12, under Jean de Fors, and sacked the city.

To protect against Indian incursions from the north, Pacheco established the presidio of Cerralvo in the New Kingdom of León y Castilla (present day Nuevo León).

The drainage projects
The other major problem facing the new viceroy was drainage, a perennial problem for Mexico City resulting in major flooding from the early sixteenth century through to the late nineteenth century.  After major flooding in 1607, there was a large-scale project to drain water from the city via a combination of an open drainage ditch and tunnels. The project was known as the Desagüe and was a hugely expensive undertaking in terms of finances and diversion of Indian labor. Concerned that the construction on dikes and the drainage system had been suspended, Pacheco y Osorio restarted some construction in 1626. He restored and reinforced the walls surrounding the city and began some other minor projects to complete the earlier plans of the engineer Adrian Boot. The following year, the Río Cuautitlán broke through the dike that separated it from Lake Zumpango. The waters rose half a meter, flooding the city. The city government asked the viceroy to order the construction of more drainage projects. Time passed in consultations, and the water receded.
In 1629 the city suffered its worse flooding in recorded history. The Río Aculhuacán broke through its dikes, flooding the entire city from 1 to 2 meters deep. Transportation was by canoe, and many families left the city permanently. The rains continued, and the flood waters did not recede. Probably 30,000 persons died, and it was feared that the capital might disappear completely. Parts of the city remained flooded for four years. On May 19, 1630, the viceroy ordered the capital moved to Tacubaya, nearby but on higher ground, pending an open discussion in the guilds of the city. The guilds were opposed, resolving instead to restart the engineering works. By the end of the year, the engineer Enrico Martínez had restarted the work. By 1632 the Huehuetoca canal had finally been completed and the Calzada de San Cristóbal, atop a wall surrounding the city that served as a dike, had been renovated.

Return to Spain
The viceroy was not an honest administrator of public funds. Because he directed many public works, much money passed through his hands, and was diminished somewhat in the transaction. He returned to Spain in September, 1635 an immensely rich man. Philip IV heaped honors on him, making him councillor of state, lord of the bedchamber and majordomo of the palace. Later he was Spanish ambassador to Vienna. He died in Madrid in June, 1652.

References

 "Pacheco y Osorio, Rodrigo," Enciclopedia de México, v. 10. Mexico City, 1988.
 García Puron, Manuel, México y sus gobernantes, v. 1. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrua, 1984.
 Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes de México. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, .

1560s births
1652 deaths
Spanish colonial governors and administrators
Marquesses of Spain
Viceroys of New Spain

Rodrigo Pacheco, 3rd Marquess of Cerralvo


Survival horror is a video game genre based on horror movies where the main character has to survive while in danger and escape, for example during a zombie attack. Survival Horror games are influenced by both Western and Japanese culture.

The name "survival horror" was first used by the horror game Resident Evil, but there had been some earlier games which created the genre, among them Alone in the Dark. Survival Horror games are different from other video games because the main character of the games are usually ordinary people and the amount of ammunition and resources the player has is usually not very much: to not be prepared or equipped for the situation is often important for the genre. A few Survival Horror games are Resident Evil and Bioshock.

Horror
Video game genres

Survival horror


Clinton Presba Anderson (October 23, 1895 – November 11, 1975) was an American politician who represented New Mexico in the United States Senate from 1949 until 1973. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as United States Secretary of Agriculture from 1945 until 1948 and represented New Mexico's at-large congressional district from 1941 until 1945.

Early life and education
Anderson was born in Centerville, South Dakota, on October 23, 1895. His parents were Andrew Jay and Hattie Belle Anderson (née Presba). He was educated in the public school system of South Dakota and attended Dakota Wesleyan University (1913–1915) and the University of Michigan (1915–1916) but did not receive a degree from either institution.

Career

Early career
After his father broke his back in 1916, Anderson left the University of Michigan to go home to help to support his family. He worked for several months for a newspaper in Mitchell, South Dakota, until he became seriously ill with tuberculosis. He was not aware of his illness until he attempted to join the US military in 1917 upon America's entrance into World War I. Doctors gave him six months to live. One gave him the advice to check himself into the Methodist Sanitarium in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He promptly did so, and while recovering there, he occasionally wrote for the Albuquerque Herald.

In 1919, as soon as he was well enough to leave the sanitarium, he gained employment with the Albuquerque Morning Journal, now called the Albuquerque Journal, and he was sent to Santa Fe to cover the New Mexico Legislature. Very critical of how the Republican Party was running the state, he befriended some New Mexico Democratic legislators and gave them his ideas on bills before the legislature. Some of the ideas eventually became state law, and Anderson began a lifelong association with the Democratic Party.

His long career of public service began as executive secretary of the New Mexico Public Health Association in 1919. There, he raised money to fight tuberculosis, established county health programs, and was instrumental in founding the New Mexico Department of Health.

In the early 1920s, Anderson pursued private business affairs. In 1922, he started in the insurance business with the New Mexico Loan and Mortgage Company. Anderson was soon able to buy the business and change the name to the Clinton P. Anderson Agency, a successful and enduring enterprise.

Actively involved in the Rotary Club of Albuquerque since 1919, he was elected to the International Board in 1930 and became president of Rotary International in 1932, a position that introduced him to many business and political contacts.

New Mexico government and politics
Anderson returned to public life, becoming chairman of the New Mexico Democratic Party in 1928 and state treasurer of New Mexico in 1933. That was followed by appointments as director of the Bureau of Revenue, relief administrator for the State of New Mexico, Western States Field Coordinator for the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, State Director of the National Youth Administration, chairman of the New Mexico Unemployment Security Division, and managing director of the Coronado Cuarto Centennial Commission, among others. It was Anderson's style to take on a newly created position or an emergency situation, to organize it, and then to leave when he felt that all was running smoothly.

In 1940, a conflict among members of the state Democratic Party resulted in Congressman John J. Dempsey being disqualified from running for another term as New Mexico's only representative. Party members convinced Anderson to run for the seat, which he won by using his many business and political contacts throughout the state. For the next three decades, he divided his time between Albuquerque and Washington, D.C.

Anderson became known for his thorough investigative work, and during his three terms in the House of Representatives, he was assigned to several special committees, including the chairmanship of the Special Committee to Investigate Food Shortages in 1945. The committee argued for a streamlined food distribution system and emphasized long-range planning for increasing food production. His success in that assignment, along with their personal friendship, led to his appointment by President Harry S. Truman as United States secretary of agriculture.

Truman administration

Shortly after Harry S. Truman became president in 1945, he selected Anderson to serve as his Secretary of Agriculture. His most immediate concern was the reorganization of the domestic agricultural economy, which for the previous four years, had been focused on supporting the American war effort in the Second World War. Anderson addressed issues such as price controls, shortages, and subsidies, and he played an important role in developing postwar agricultural policies.

The domestic situation was only one of Anderson's concerns as Secretary of Agriculture. The looming worldwide food crisis, which was becoming more evident by 1946, led President Truman to establish the Famine Emergency Committee.

Anderson made two controversial moves to change the drastic problems. Firstly, he used his organizational skills to incorporate all existing food and agricultural activities under his office. Secondly, he advised Truman to enlist former President Herbert Hoover to serve as chairman of the Famine Emergency Committee. During the crisis, Anderson, Truman, and Hoover worked together very closely. Many of Hoover's proposals on alleviating the international food shortage were adopted by the Truman administration, and it became Anderson's responsibility to implement the proposals. The three men can be credited with preventing an even larger international disaster.

U.S. food production and worldwide distribution was stabilized by 1948, and Anderson decided to retire from the Cabinet. As with every project he had undertaken, Anderson left after he had resolved the problems faced.

U.S. Senate

Election

Anderson considered retiring altogether after resigning from the cabinet. However, state Democrats, led by retiring Senator Carl Hatch, convinced Anderson to run for Hatch's seat against the formidable and distinguished diplomat Patrick J. Hurley.

The two well-established candidates faced off in one of the most heated campaigns of the 1948 election. The nationwide campaigning of the Truman administration against an 'obstructionist' Republican Congress made Republicans lose across the country, including Hurley.

Anderson's re-election in 1954 against former Governor of New Mexico Edwin L. Mechem was less heated but more significant because the Democrats had lost the Senate in 1952. Anderson prevailed, with the Democrats regaining control of the Senate, and went on to be re-elected by wide margins in 1960 and 1966.

Accomplishments
During his tenure, Anderson was one of the most outspoken proponents of the U.S. space program. He was instrumental in gaining funding for the program while chairing the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences from 1963 to 1973. As chairman of the committee during the most active period of space exploration and the most important time of the space race, Anderson held a key policymaking role in Washington, not to mention the purse strings for NASA.

Anderson sponsored the final wilderness bill, which passed the Senate by a vote of 73–12 on April 9, 1963, passed the House of Representatives by a vote of 373–1 on July 30, 1964, and it was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on September 3, 1964. Richard McArdle, chief of the Forest Service from 1952 to 1962, remarked, "Without Clinton Anderson there would have been no Wilderness Law." Anderson is also known for the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act, and for forcing cancellation of the 1954 Dixon-Yates contract with the AEC for power from the TVA for the city of Memphis.

He also served as chairman of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (84th and 86th Congresses), Joint Committee on Construction of Building for Smithsonian (84th-92nd), Joint Committee on Navaho-Hopi Indians (84th-92nd), Special Committee on Preservation of Senate Records (85th and 86th, Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (87th and 88th), Special Committee on National Fuel Policy (87th).

Failed confirmation of Lewis Strauss
In 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhower nominated Lewis Strauss to serve as Secretary of Commerce. Previously, Strauss had served in numerous government positions in the administrations of Presidents Truman and Eisenhower. The previous 13 nominees for the Cabinet position had won Senate confirmation in an average of eight days. Because of both personal and professional disagreements, Anderson took up the cause to make sure that Strauss would not be confirmed by the Senate. Anderson found an ally in Senator Gale W. McGee on the Senate Commerce Committee, which had jurisdiction over Strauss's confirmation. During and after the Senate hearings, McGee charged Strauss with "a brazen attempt to hoodwink" the committee.
After 16 days of hearings the committee recommended Strauss's confirmation to the full Senate by a vote of 9–8. In preparation for the floor debate on the nomination, the Democratic majority's main argument against the nomination was that Strauss's statements before the committee were "sprinkled with half truths and even lies... and that under rough and hostile questioning, [he] can be evasive and quibblesome."

Despite an overwhelming Democratic majority, the 86th United States Congress was not able to accomplish much of its agenda since the President had immense popularity and a veto pen. With the 1960 elections nearing, congressional Democrats sought issues on which they could conspicuously oppose the Republican administration. The Strauss nomination proved to be tailor-made.

Just after midnight on June 19, 1959, the Strauss nomination failed by a vote of 46–49. It marked only the eighth time in U.S. history that a Cabinet appointee had failed to be confirmed by the Senate.

Personal life
On June 22, 1921, Anderson had married Henrietta McCartney, and he returned to Albuquerque with his new wife. They had two children: Sherburne Presba Anderson and Nancy Anderson.

His age and growing health problems made Anderson retire on January 3, 1973, after he had served four terms in the U.S. Senate. He died at his home in Albuquerque on November 11, 1975, from a massive stroke, and he was buried at Fairview Memorial Park in Albuquerque. His wife, Henrietta McCartney Anderson, died on June 7, 1994, at the age of 94.

Legacy
He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1977. In the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Anderson was played by Mason Adams.

References

External links

Clinton P. Anderson Papers, 1848-1975, University of New Mexico, Center for Southwest Research
Clinton P. Anderson Papers, 1945-1948, Harry S. Truman Library
Clinton P. Anderson Photographs, 1946-1975, University of New Mexico, Center for Southwest Research

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1895 births
1975 deaths
People from Centerville, South Dakota
American Presbyterians
United States Secretaries of Agriculture
Truman administration cabinet members
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from New Mexico
Democratic Party United States senators from New Mexico
State treasurers of New Mexico
20th-century American politicians
University of Michigan alumni

Clinton Anderson


Welfare economics is a field of economics that looks at the problem of allocating resources. It uses techniques from microeconomics to assess general well-being. From this assessment, it tries to find an allocation of productive factors as to desirability and economic efficiency within an economy, often  relative to competitive general equilibrium. It analyzes social welfare in terms of economic activities of the individuals that compose the theoretical society considered. Individuals and their economic activities are the basic units for aggregating to social welfare. The aggregation may focus on a group of people, a community, or a society. There is no "social welfare" apart from the "welfare" associated with its individual units.

Welfare economics typically takes individual preferences as given and tries to improve  welfare in terms of  Pareto efficiency. As an example, social state B is "better" than social state A, if at least one person prefers B and no one else opposes it. Another aspect of welfare treats income/goods distribution, including equality, as a further dimension of welfare.

Social welfare refers to the overall welfare of society. With sufficiently strong assumptions, it can be defined as the sum of the welfare of all the individuals in the society. Welfare may be measured either cardinally in terms of "utils" or dollars, or measured ordinarily in terms of Pareto efficiency. The cardinal method in "utils" is rarely used in pure theory today. Its main problem is that different kinds of "utility" cannot easily be summed up without losing the meaning of the measurement. In applied welfare economics money-value estimates are often used. One example of applied welfare economics is cost-benefit analysis.  Money-value estimates are a useful form of measurement where income-distribution effects are factored into the analysis or seem unlikely to change the analysis.

The capabilities approach to welfare argues that freedom - what people are free to do or be - should be included in welfare assessments, and the approach has been particularly influential in development policy circles where the emphasis on multi-dimensionality and freedom has shaped the evolution of the Human Development Index.

Other classifying terms in welfare economics include externalities, equity, justice, inequality, and altruism.

References

subfields of economics

Welfare economics


51 Dons is a 2014 American documentary film directed by Ron Luscinski and written by Luscinski, Tom Davis and Danny Llewelyn. Narrated by Johnny Mathis, it covers the 1951 San Francisco Dons football team and its unique stand against racism. The team, including future NFL players and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees Bob St. Clair and Gino Marchetti, declined an invitation to play in the Orange Bowl that would have required them to leave their African-American players Ollie Matson and Burl Toler home. This act was one of the contributing factors that led to the end of organized football at the University of San Francisco. The university's athletic news director, Pete Rozelle, went on to become the commissioner of the NFL, where he reshaped American football.

Synopsis
In 1951, future Pro Football Hall of Famers Gino Marchetti, Bob St. Clair and Ollie Matson powered the University of San Francisco Dons to a 9–0 record. As one of the nation's top teams, USF seemed assured of their first-ever bowl bid  and a payout that would save their cash-strapped program. The Dons were invited to Miami under one condition: They take the field without their two African American stars, Matson and Burl Toler. The Dons refused. By choosing not to play, they set a precedent of racial equality more than a decade before the Civil Rights Movement. The Dons' stand against racism is recognized by contemporary African-American studies scholars Dr. Harry Edwards and Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech writer, Dr. Clarence Benjamin Jones, as evidence of sports acting as an engine for social justice in America. Both men state this case in the film.

Production
Filming began in late 2013. There were over 40 interviews filmed. Filming locations included in and around the University of San Francisco campus, Kezar Stadium, California Memorial Stadium on the Cal Berkeley campus, Carmel-by-the-sea and the Greater Los Angeles area.

The surviving members of the 1951 Dons team who appear on camera include Bob St. Clair, Ralph Thomas (American football), Dick Columbini and Bill Henneberry. Several former NFL stars such as Rosey Grier, Gene Washington, Jamie Williams and Toi Cook are featured as well. In addition, many of Matson and Toler's children and grandchildren appear.

This is the only film Johnny Mathis has chosen to narrate. Mathis has personal ties to the story, as he was a close friend of Ollie Matson while a track athlete at San Francisco's Washington High. Mathis later sang at Matson's wedding.

Reception
'51 Dons premiered on ESPN on Sunday, February 9, 2014, in primetime to a strong critical reaction. It subsequently aired 12 times nationally in the U.S. on ESPN Networks  and three times throughout Canada on TSN. To date, the film has been seen by over one million viewers.

ESPN senior director, programming & acquisitions, Doug White said, "ESPN is proud to have '51 Dons as part of our annual Black History Month programming. The film displays the team's solidarity as they support two of their own, forgoing an opportunity to play in a bowl game and the monetary value of a championship."

See also
 List of American football films

References

External links

 University of San Francisco News & Communication

2014 films
2014 documentary films
2010s American films
2010s English-language films
2010s sports films
American documentary television films
American sports documentary films
Documentary films about American football
Documentary films about racism in the United States
ESPN Films films
San Francisco Dons football
Sports television films
Films set in San Francisco
Films set in 1951

'51 Dons


A ship's cat is a cat that rides along on a ship.  Ship's cats have been very popular in history, and date back to ancient times.

Cats have been carried on ships for many reasons - most importantly, to catch mice and rats.  On a ship, these rodents can damage ropes and wooden parts of the ship.  Once electricity was discovered, rodents would also damage ships' electrical wiring.  Also, rodents threatened the ship's cargo - the things it carried.  Rodents would eat the food carried to feed the crew.  If the ship was carrying things like grain as part of its cargo, rodents could also cause the ship to lose money by eating the cargo.  Also, rats and mice spread disease, which is dangerous for ships that are at sea for long periods of time.  For example, rat fleas can carry plague, and rats on ships may have been one of the main reasons why the Black Death spread.

Cats naturally attack and kill these rodents. Cats also have a natural ability to get used to new surroundings, so they could get used to serving on ships. They also offered companionship (friendship), a sense of home and security, and lifted sailors' spirits.  This was helpful to sailors who could be away from home for long periods, especially in times of war.

Early history
Cats were probably domesticated about 9,500 years ago.  Not long after that, people began taking cats aboard boats and ships.  The Ancient Egyptians took cats on board Nile boats to catch birds in the thickets along the riverbanks.  The ancient Egyptians also carried cats on trading ships to control rodents.  Traders from other areas soon started doing the same thing.  This led to the spread of cats throughout the world.  Cats eventually reached nearly all parts of the world that could be reached by ship. Phoenician cargo ships are thought to have brought the first domesticated cats to Europe in about 900 BC.

Cats and superstition
Cats in Ancient Egypt were worshipped as deities (powerful spirits).  For many centuries, cats have had a reputation as magical animals. Many sailors believed myths and superstitions about cats. Cats were thought of as smart, lucky animals.  Sailors usually took very good care of their ship's cats to keep them happy.  Some sailors believed that six-toed cats were better at catching pests. They may have thought that extra toes give a cat better balance, which would be important when at sea. In some places, all six-toed cats became known as "ship's cats".

Cats were believed to have miraculous powers that could protect ships from dangerous weather.  Sometimes, fishermen's wives would keep black cats at home too. They believed that these cats would use their special powers to protect their husbands at sea. Many sailors believed that it was lucky if a cat came up to a sailor on deck, but unlucky if it came only halfway and then turned around. Another popular belief was that cats could start storms through magic stored in their tails.  Other sailors also believed that if a ship's cat fell or was thrown overboard, a terrible storm would come and sink the ship, and if the ship was able to survive, it would be cursed with nine years of bad luck.  Still other sailors thought that if a cat licked its fur against the grain, it meant a hail storm was coming; if it sneezed, rain was coming; and if it was frisky, wind was coming.

Some of these beliefs are partly true. Cats can notice slight changes in the weather, because of their very sensitive inner ears.  (Their inner ears also allow cats to land on their feet when falling.) Cats often get nervous and restless when they sense low atmospheric pressure, which often comes before stormy weather.

Famous Ship's Cats

Blackie

Blackie was HMS Prince of Wales'''s ship's cat.  He became famous during the Second World War.  Blackie's ship, Prince of Wales, carried Prime Minister Winston Churchill across the Atlantic Ocean to Naval Station Argentia in Newfoundland in August 1941.  There, Churchill secretly met with the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and the two signed the Atlantic Charter.  But as Churchill started to leave Prince of Wales, Blackie came up to him.  Churchill bent down to say goodbye to Blackie, and the moment was photographed and reported in the world media.  In honour of the success of the visit, Blackie was renamed Churchill.  Blackie survived the sinking of HMS Prince of Wales later that year and was taken to Singapore with the survivors.  He could not be found when Singapore was evacuated the following year and nobody knows what happened to him (though there is a chance he may have died by then).

Chibbley
Chibbley was the ship's cat aboard the tall ship Picton Castle.  She was rescued from an animal shelter.  She circumnavigated the world - sailed all the way around it - five times. Because Picton Castle' was a training ship, Chibbley had many visitors.  She became a celebrity, and people even sent her fan mail.  Chibbley died on November 10, 2011, in Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. She had sailed over 180,000 miles at sea.

Convoy

Convoy was the ship's cat aboard HMS Hermione.  He was named "Convoy" because he often went with the ship on convoy escort duties (where the ship would sail with a group of other ships for protection).  Like the ship's sailors, Convoy was listed in the ship's book, and given a full kit, including a tiny hammock where he would sleep. He was killed along with 87 of his crew mates when Hermione was torpedoed and sunk on 16 June 1942 by German submarine U-205.

Emmy
Emmy was the ship's cat on RMS Empress of Ireland. She was an orange tabby cat who never missed a voyage. However, on 28 May 1914, Emmy tried to escape the ship. The crew could not get her to return to the ship, and Empress of Ireland left without her.  This was thought to be a very bad sign. Early the next morning, Empress of Ireland ran into SS Storstad while sailing through fog at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River.  Empress of Ireland sank quickly, killing over 1,000 people.

Felix
Felix was the ship's cat aboard Mayflower II when she set sail from Devon, England, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1957.  The goal of this voyage was to show cooperation between the UK and the US after World War II. Felix was given his own life jacket for the trip.  During the voyage, he broke one of his paws. The paw was set by the ship's doctor.  After Felix returned to the US, photos and stories about him appeared in National Geographic magazine, Life magazine, and Yankee magazine. The cat and the rest of the crew marched in a New York ticker tape parade and toured the East Coast that summer. Felix was eventually adopted by the cabin boy's girlfriend, Ann Berry, and settled in Waltham, Massachusetts. The captain of the Mayflower II wrote a children's book about Felix called Felix and his Mayflower II Adventures. The book was published during the celebration of the ship's fiftieth anniversary at Plimoth Plantation.

Mrs. Chippy

Mrs. Chippy was the ship's cat aboard Endurance, the ship used by Sir Ernest Shackleton for his Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition.  (The Expedition's goal was to cross the Antarctic by land.)  After about a month, the crew realized that "Mrs. Chippy" was actually a male cat.  However, by then, everyone was used to the name "Mrs. Chippy," and kept using it.

The ship became lost, trapped and then crushed in pack ice.  At that point, Shackleton ordered his men to shoot the sled dogs and Mrs. Chippy, because he did not think they could survive.

Simon
Simon was the ship's cat of HMS Amethyst during the Yangtze Incident in 1949, during the Chinese Civil War.  During the Yangtze Incident, the HMS Amethyst was attacked and was trapped on the Yangtze River for months.  The ship and its crew were badly hurt in the attacks on the ship.  These attacks killed 25 of Amethyst's crew, including the commanding officer.  Simon was also hurt in the attacks, but soon he recovered.  He started killing rats again, which was very important since the rodents had been destroying the ship.  Simon also did the important job of keeping up the crew's spirits.

After the Amethyst finally escaped the Yangtze River and returned to Britain, Simon was given the rank of 'Able Seacat' Simon.  He became a celebrity.  However, not long after he returned to Britain, he died from an infection.  Many people sent tributes to honor Simon, and his obituary appeared in The Times (an important newspaper in London).  After Simon's death, he was awarded the Dickin Medal.  He is the only cat ever to earn this award.  Simon was also buried with full naval honors.

Trim
Trim sailed on many ships commanded by Matthew Flinders during 1801-1803.  These ships' goals were to circumnavigate (sail all the way around) Australia, and also to create maps of its coastline. Trim became a favourite of the crew, and was the first cat to circumnavigate Australia. Trim stayed with Flinders until Trim's death.  A statue to Trim was later built in his honor.  It sits on a window sill on the outside of the State Library, in Sydney, Australia. There have also been many books written about Trim.

U-boat
U-boat was another ship's cat aboard a Royal Navy ship in the Second World War.  Whenever his ship came into port, U-boat would take shore leave (he would leave the ship to do things on shore). He would spend days on shore, and usually would return only just before his ship sailed away. One day, U-boat did not return in time for roll call and his ship was forced to sail away without him. As the ship pulled away, U-boat was seen running down the dock after the sailing ship. He made a death-defying leap onto the ship and made it aboard. The crew thought that he seemed unafraid by what had just happened, and calmly started to wash himself on deck. The crew members were very happy that U-boat had come back, since they thought he brought them good luck.

Unsinkable Sam (Oscar)
Oscar was the ship's cat of the German battleship Bismarck. When Bismarck was sunk on 27 May 1941, only 116 sailors out of over 2,200 survived. Oscar was picked up by the destroyer HMS Cossack. Cossack herself was torpedoed and sunk on 24 October, 1941.  159 sailors were killed, but Oscar again survived to be rescued, and was taken to Gibraltar.  He became the ship's cat of HMS Ark Royal.  Then this ship, too, was torpedoed and sunk in November of 1941. Oscar was again rescued, and it was decided that it was time for him to have a home on land. By now, Oscar had been renamed "Unsinkable Sam."  He was given a new job as mouse-catcher in the Governor General of Gibraltar's office buildings.  He eventually returned to the UK and spent the rest of his life at the 'Home for Sailors'. A portrait of him hangs in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich.

Ship's cats today

Starting in 1975, the Royal Navy no longer allowed cats or any other pets to ride on any Royal Navy ships.  This rule was created because of concern about hygiene (cleanliness).

Cats still ride on many private ships today.  For example, Toolbox is a ship's cat who rides on the second Kalmar Nyckel.

American sailor Robin Lee Graham sailed with many cats on his ships Dove and Return of Dove'', while he was trying to circumnavigate the world by himself (starting in 1965).

References

Other websites
 Cats in the sea services
 Famous Naval Cats

Cats
Ships

Ship's cat


A bastard is a person who was born of parents who are not married to one another. It is considered by some cultures and individuals as a nasty or insulting word, or sometimes even profanity, with the term illegitimate being a little more polite. Some cultures see illegitimate children as dirty or bad, and only accept sexual relations between married couples.

Related pages
 Illegitimacy

Pejoratives
English profanity

Bastard


Shushanik Kurghinian (Popoljian) (1876-1927) was an Armenian poet. Kurghinian received little or no recognition for her outstanding poems. Although a socialist with some stirring poems of labour's rebellion to her name, she remained a dim star even in the Soviet era. Today she is almost unknown, away from the literary canon in Armenia and the Diaspora.

Background
Shushanik Kurghinian was born on August 18, 1876, in Alexandrapol, in the Yerevan province of Eastern Armenia, into a poor family of Popolji Harout. In her autobiography Shushanik writes of her childhood: "Sometimes father would bring his [shoe-repair] 'workstation' home, in order to save money, and I would work for him – demanding my wages, every single kopek (Coin). My mother, having been raised in a traditional household, would reprove my 'ill behavior toward my parent,'and blamed those harmful books for corrupting me."

Works
`Whoever is without hope, dulled, without spirit,
alone and lacking faith...
bring them to me
my spirit is free
I will give them of my soul...'
(Selected Works, 1982 Yerevan p260)

Other websites
`I Want to Live: Poems of Shushanik Kurghinian' or at ArmeniaPedia.org

Armenian poets
Autobiographers
1876 births
1927 deaths

Shushanik Kurghinian


Leda is a person in Greek mythology.  She was the daughter of a king, and the wife of King Tyndareos of Sparta.

Zeus seduced her as a swan, and Leda laid two eggs.  When they hatched, her children Helen,  Klytaimnestra, Castor and Pollux) came out.  Helen was a child of Zeus, and the myths vary on who was the father of the others.

People in Greek mythology

Leda


Sai Baba of Shirdi (d. October 15, 1918) was a spiritual master who lived in India. His followers believed that he was a saint or satguru.  Some say he was an incarnation of Lord Krishna while others think of him as an incarnation of Lord Dattatreya. He lived the longest part of his life in a village in India called Shirdi.

Although Sai Baba died almost 100 years ago, still today large numbers of people follow him or have great respect for him. He is very well respected in India, both by Hindus and Muslims. There are many temples built all over India to honor Sai Baba of Shirdi.

References

Year of birth unknown
1918 deaths
Indian religious leaders
Spiritual teachers
People from Maharashtra

Sai Baba of Shirdi


Events
 April 13 – Frederick Barbarossa issues the Gelnhausen Charter
 November 18 – Philip II becomes King of France
 During the third year of the Jisho era of Japan, a devastating whirlwind damages Kyoto.
 Emperor Antoku, reign of 81st emperor of Japan starts (1180-1185)
 Afonso I of Portugal is taken prisoner by Ferdinand II of Leon
 Artois is annexed by France
 Prince Mochihito amasses a large army and instigates the Genpei War between Taira and Minamoto clans
 Frederick Barbarossa removes Henry the Lion from the Duchy of Saxony, and created the Duchies of Westphalia and Styria
 Alexius II Comnenus becomes Byzantine emperor
 The Wittelsbach family takes control of Bavaria
 Kilij Arslan II allies with Saladin after the death of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus
 Alexander Neckam becomes a lecturer in Paris, and writes De Natura Rerum, an early mention of chess (approximate date)
 Estimation: Hangzhou, capital of Southern Song China becomes the largest city of the world, taking the lead from Fes in the Almohad Empire.
 Last major volcanic eruption of Sunset Crater, in Arizona

Births
 August 6 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (died 1239)
 Berenguela of Castile, queen of Alfonso IX of Castile (died 1246)
 Gilbert de Clare, 5th Earl of Hertford, English soldier (died 1230)

Deaths
 September 18 – King Louis VII of France (born 1120)
 September 24 – Manuel I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (born 1118)
 October 25 – John of Salisbury, French bishop
 Al-Mustadi, Caliph
 William de Braose, 3rd Lord of Bramber
 Abraham ben David, philosopher (martyred)
 Roman of Kiev
 Yaroslav II of Kiev
 Prince Mochihito, son of Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan
 Minamoto no Yorimasa, Japanese warlord (born 1106)

References

1180


The Centre for Policy Studies (CPS) is a think tank and pressure group in the United Kingdom. Its goal is to promote coherent and practical policies based on its founding principles of: free markets, "small state," low tax, national independence, self determination and responsibility. While being independent, the centre has historical links to the Conservative Party.

It was co-founded by Sir Keith Joseph, Alfred Sherman and Margaret Thatcher
in 1974 to challenge the post war consensus of Keynesianism, and to champion economic liberalism in Britain. With this in mind Keith Joseph originally wanted the think tank to study the social market economy, naming it the 'Ludwig Erhard Foundation' and 'Institute for a social market economy' until it was eventually settled on the benign 'Centre for Policy Studies'.

The centre has since played a global role in the dissemination of free market economics alongside policy proposals claimed to be on the basis of responsibility and individual choice. It also asserts that it prioritises the concepts of duty, family, liberty, and the rule of law. The CPS states that it has a goal of serving as "the champion of the small state."

Influence
The CPS sought reassessment of Conservative economic policy during the period in opposition from 1974 to 1979. The CPS released reports such as Stranded on the Middle Ground? Reflections on Circumstances and Policies and   Monetarism is Not Enough (1974 and 1976). Monetarism is Not Enough was described by Margaret Thatcher as "one of the very few speeches which have fundamentally affected a political generation's way of thinking.". Keith Joseph's keynote speeches, also published by the CPS, aimed to lead the way in changing the climate of opinion in Britain and set the intellectual foundations for the privatisation reforms of the 1980s. In 1981 Sherman brought the Swiss monetarist Jurg Niehans over to Britain to advise on economic management. Niehans wrote a report critical of the government's economic management that was crucial in influencing the change of policy in the 1981 budget; this tightened the government's fiscal stance to make possible a looser monetary policy. However Hugh Thomas, who had been appointed Chairman of the CPS in 1979 found Sherman impossible to work with. In the summer of 1983, following a row over the relationship of the CPS with the Conservative Party, Sherman was summarily sacked from the CPS in a "virulent" letter from Thomas.

The CPS did not consciously represent itself as a partisan institute; 'blame' for the collectivist post-war consensus was placed on both sides of the political parties for operating within the same ideological framework. The CPS continually advocated a liberal economic approach and was hugely influential during Margaret Thatcher's administration, operating as a key driving force towards her hallmark policies of privatisation, deregulation and monetarism

In her own words, its job was to 'expose the follies and self-defeating consequences of government intervention....'to think the unthinkable'. In 1982, it released  Telecommunications in Britain, which urged the Government to embrace a fuller agenda of privatization in the telecoms sector. The paper recommended the privatization of British Telecom and the introduction of competition to the sector –both of which were implemented. Another key publication was The Performance of the Privatised Industries (1996) – a four volume statistical analysis which showed how the privatization agenda had benefitted the consumer by ushering in lower prices and higher quality service. It argued that the taxpayer had benefitted greatly from privatisation – not just from the initial windfall from receipts, but also from higher tax revenues than had ever been received from the same companies when they were in state ownership.

According to the 2014 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report (Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program, University of Pennsylvania), CPS is number 89 (of 150) in the "Top Think Tanks Worldwide (U.S. and non-U.S.)" and number 69 (of 80) in the "Top Think Tanks in Western Europe".

Funding
Think tank Transparify, which is funded by the Open Society Foundations, ranked the CPS as one of the four least transparent think tanks in the UK in relation to funding. Transparify's report How Transparent are Think Tanks about Who Funds Them 2016? rated them as 'highly opaque,' one of 'a handful of think tanks that refuse to reveal even the identities of their donors.

In November 2022, the funding transparency website Who Funds You? gave the CPS an E grade, the lowest transparency rating (rating goes from A to E).

History
In 2009, the CPS celebrated its 35th anniversary for which the Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron MP, gave a speech highlighting the role the CPS played in the Conservative Party's victory in the 1979 election crediting them with 'a great rebirth of intellectual ideas, of intellectual vigour, and of intellectual leadership'

Reports
In September 2011 the CPS published Guilty Men by Peter Oborne and Frances Weaver. The report sought to identify the politicians, institutions and commentators who the authors felt had tried to take Britain into the European single currency and claims to expose attacks carried out by the Euro supporters. Oborne particularly identifies William Hague, Iain Duncan Smith and Lord Owen as three voices of opposition to early Euro entry that suffered personal attacks from these sources.

In October 2011, Andrew Tyrie MP's After the Age of Abundance influenced the Chancellor's conference speech and subsequent Treasury policy.

Dominic Raab MP's November 2011 paper Escaping the Strait Jacket called for the number one economic and social priority for the Coalition beyond deficit reduction to be to encourage job creation. He called for 10 employment regulation reforms, including excluding small businesses from a range of regulations and creating a new 'no fault dismissal', recommendations that have found much support in the Conservative Party.

'How to Cut Corporation Tax' by David Martin and Taxing Mansions: the taxation of high value property by Lucian Cook were published prior to the Budget 2012 and respectively made arguments for a lower rate of corporation tax and against the proposed 'mansion tax'.

George Trefgarne's 'Metroboom: lessons from Britain's recovery in the 1930s' sought to revise the perception of the decade as universally destitute, a view attributed to Shadow Chancellor Ed Balls. Trefgarne presented a BBC Daily Politics Soapbox piece on the recovery experienced under the National Government of the time.

In May 2012, Ryan Bourne and Thomas Oechsle published Small is a Best, a report claiming that economies with small governments tend to grow faster than those with big governments.

In June 2012, the CPS published Tim Morgan's The Quest for Change and Renewal. Morgan says the paper in on how to "... rescue capitalism and re-empower the individual to a build a winning centre-right ideology ...".

Projects
CapX was founded by the CPS on 21 June 2014 in collaboration with Signal Media.

Policies
Economy – The CPS 'believes in regulation that does not inhibit the growth of business, taxes that do not act as a disincentive to work or to investment in the UK, and a leaner more effective state that avoids unnecessary intervention in the economy'.

Family – The CPS advocates that fiscal policy should be reformed to support marriage through the tax system and to remove the welfare penalty on two-parent families. State intervention in family life should focus on protection of vulnerable children; it should not extend to managing their day-to-day lives and removing responsibility and judgment from parents.

Energy – Recent CPS publications have argued that the UK must develop its nuclear, clean coal (including coal gasification) and efficient renewable supplies of energy.

Public Services – The CPS has been a consistent advocate for greater choice and diversity of provision, opening up state monopolies to new providers and putting greater power and responsibility in the hands of parents and patients.

Drugs – The CPS' Prison and Addiction forum (PANDA) was set up in 2008. It provides an independent forum of debate about drugs policy for academics, practitioners, psychiatrists, and specialist commentators. Its aim is to identify the reforms required in the UK to get our drug problem under control, to prevent drug use and to offer substance abusers the help and necessary care to combat their abuse.

Broadcasting – The CPS believes that public intervention should be focussed on where there is genuine 'market failure' and the remit and funding of the BBC should reflect this.

People
 Chairman: Michael Spencer
 Director: Robert Colvile
 Deputy Chairman: Graham Brady MP
 Head of Policy: Alex Morton
 Head of Communications: Robyn Staveley
Head of Tax: Tom Clougherty
 Head of Business Policy: Nick King
 Head of External Relations: Callum Price

Notable Research Fellows
 Janet Daley (Columnist)
 Cristina Odone (Columnist)
 Kieron O'Hara
 Yorick Wilks

Notable Advisory Council members

 Brian Griffiths, Baron Griffiths of Fforestfach
 Charles Powell, Baron Powell of Bayswater
 David Ruffley MP
 David Willetts MP
 Michael Fallon MP
 Philip Norton, Baron Norton of Louth
 Oliver Letwin MP
 Howard Flight
 John Redwood MP
 Andrew Roberts
 Andrew Tyrie MP
 Tim Montgomerie

See also
 List of UK think tanks

References

External links
 Centre for Policy Studies official site
 Centre for Policy Studies papers at London School of Economics (LSE) Archives

1974 establishments in the United Kingdom
Organisations associated with the Conservative Party (UK)
Organizations established in 1974
Political and economic think tanks based in the United Kingdom
Think tanks based in the United Kingdom

Centre for Policy Studies


Sarah Caroline Olivia Colman CBE (born 30 January 1974) is an English actress, known professionally Olivia Colman. She has won an Academy Award, three BAFTA Awards, three BIFA Awards, one Golden Globe Award, and has been nominated twice for an Emmy Award.

Colman first came to prominence for her supporting role as Sophie Chapman in the Channel 4 comedy series Peep Show (2003–2015). Her other TV comedy roles include Green Wing (2004–2006), Beautiful People (2008–2009), Rev. (2010–2014) and Twenty Twelve (2011–2012). She also played various roles in That Mitchell and Webb Look (2006–2008), alongside her Peep Show co-stars David Mitchell and Robert Webb. Colman's move to drama saw her receive critical acclaim for her performance in Paddy Considine's film Tyrannosaur (2011). Her other film roles include PC Doris Thatcher in Hot Fuzz (2007), Carol Thatcher in The Iron Lady (2011), Queen Elizabeth in Hyde Park on Hudson (2012), Bethan Maguire in Locke (2013), Margaret Lea in The Thirteenth Tale (2013), Marion in Tale of the Brave (2014) and the Hotel Manager in The Lobster (2015). Colman played Queen Elizabeth II in the third and fourth season of the original Netflix series The Crown.

A three-time BAFTA TV Award winner, she won Best Female Comedy Performance for Twenty Twelve and Best Supporting Actress for Accused in 2013, before winning Best Actress in 2014 for her role as DS Ellie Miller in the ITV crime series Broadchurch. Colman was also nominated for the International Emmy Award for Best Actress for Broadchurch. For her performance in the AMC/BBC miniseries The Night Manager, she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film and was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.

References

Other websites

1974 births
Living people
Actors from Norfolk
English movie actors
English television actors
People from Norwich
Academy Award winning actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors

Olivia Colman


An abjad is an alphabet in which all of the letters are consonants. Even though vowels can be added in some abjads, they are not needed to write a word correctly. Abjad are commonly written from right to left, rather than left to right, like in other writing systems. Well-known examples of abjads are the Arabic alphabet and the Hebrew alphabet.

Abjads are the first writing systems that were made to show only a word's pronunciation, instead of its meaning, unlike ideographs or ideograms, and were created before full alphabets like the Greek alphabet, which have letters for both consonants and vowels.

The earliest known abjad in the world is the Phoenician alphabet. Since in Afro-Asiatic languages, the root meaning of a word is found in its consonants, abjads are widely used in those languages. There are also languages without consonant roots that use abjads, such as Persian and Urdu, both of which use the Arabic alphabet.

Alphabet

Abjad


In the Russian Orthodox church history, the Old Believers (, read starovery or staroobryadtsy) became separated after 1666-1667. They split from the  hierarchy of the Russian Orthodox Church as a protest against church reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon. Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church followed before the reform.

Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as raskol (раскол). This word comes from a Russian word расколоться, that means "to cleave apart").

Background
Patriarch Nikon (1605-1681; 1651-1658 as patriarch) wanted to bring the Russian Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church closer together. For this reason, he changed a few rituals and texts in 1651. These changes were made to the Russian rituals to be closer to the Greek ones of Nikon's time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon did this without the support of the clergy. and without a council. When the changes were done, people who still practised the old rites were persecuted.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Old Believers