Richard Allen Wagner (December 14, 1942 – July 30, 2014) was an American rock guitarist, songwriter and author best known for his work with Alice Cooper, Lou Reed, and Kiss. He also fronted his own Michigan-based bands, the Frost and the Bossmen.

Performing career
Born in Oelwein, Iowa, Wagner grew up in the Owosso, Michigan, area and graduated from Waterford Township high school in 1961. His first band, called the Bossmen, was a favorite in the Detroit area and scored radio play with the Wagner-penned composition "Baby Boy", "You're the Girl for Me" and others. Wagner formed his next band, the Frost, with Donny Hartman, Bobby Rigg and Gordy Garris, in the late 1960s and built up a substantial following in the Michigan area. The band featured the dual lead guitars of Wagner and Hartman. The band released three studio albums during their tenure together on Vanguard Records: 1969's Frost Music and Rock and Roll Music, plus 1970's Through the Eyes of Love. Wagner was the principal songwriter, arranger and lead vocalist of the Frost. Their live appearances brought out large crowds of young fans throughout the region.

In 1972, Wagner moved to New York and formed the short-lived group "Ursa Major". The original line-up included Billy Joel on keyboards and Rick Mangone on drums. As Billy Joel had to leave the band for personal reasons, Wagner replaced him with former Amboy Dukes bassist Greg Arama. They released one seminal, acclaimed self-titled studio album as a power trio. The band toured nationally with Jeff Beck and then with Alice Cooper.

In 1973, Wagner was recruited by producer Bob Ezrin for Lou Reed's band along with Steve Hunter. Wagner and Hunter were featured guitarists on Reed's dark and controversial third solo studio album, Berlin (1973). Soon after, Wagner and Hunter were joined by Prakash John, Pentti "Whitey" Glan and Ray Colcord for Reed's Rock 'n' Roll Animal Tour. As band leader and arranger, Wagner took the early Reed songs that had been recorded by the Velvet Underground and rearranged them for the concert stage. The new arrangements left behind the laid back feeling that had been established by the prior Reed band and won Reed his first gold album. The band toured internationally with Reed, culminating in the album Rock 'n' Roll Animal (1974), recorded live at the New York Academy of Music in December 1973. Readers of Guitar World ranked the Hunter/Wagner solos on the 1973 live version of "Sweet Jane" 81st among the 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of all time.

It was during Wagner's days with the Frost that he first met Alice Cooper. Producer Bob Ezrin brought both Wagner and Steve Hunter into the studio to play guitar on the early Alice Cooper albums. Wagner had already been featured on the band's fifth studio album School's Out (1972), notably for playing the memorable guitar solo on the track "My Stars". Wagner continued to play lead guitar (sometimes uncredited) on every Alice Cooper band album that followed, through the break-up of the original group.

When the members of the original Alice Cooper group parted ways in 1974, Wagner officially teamed up with Alice Cooper and became his principal co-writer, lead guitarist and band director. Together they wrote their first concept album, Welcome to My Nightmare. Produced by Bob Ezrin, the album was released in 1975. The Nightmare Tour became the largest and longest touring rock show of the time. The live show also featured the dueling lead guitars of Wagner and Hunter in a guitar battle captured in the film of the same name. The film became a TV special and was later released on home video in 1976. The world tour covered more than 120 cities over an eighteen-month period. Wagner continued to co-write songs and play lead guitar on additional Cooper albums, including: Goes to Hell (1976), The Alice Cooper Show (1977), Lace and Whiskey (1977), From the Inside (1978; written by the team of Alice Cooper, Dick Wagner and Bernie Taupin), Zipper Catches Skin (1982), DaDa (1983) and Hey Stoopid (1991) among others.

At the suggestion of producer Bob Ezrin, Wagner contributed guitar tracks to the highly successful fourth studio album by Kiss, Destroyer (1976)  the first Kiss album to prominently feature outside musicians. Though uncredited, Wagner replaced Ace Frehley as lead guitarist for the tracks "Flaming Youth" and "Sweet Pain", while also playing the acoustic guitar found on the ballad "Beth". As one of Ezrin's hired guns throughout much of the 1970s and 1980s, Wagner continued to lend his playing (and in some cases, songwriting) talents to albums including Peter Gabriel's self-titled solo debut (1977), Air Supply, Aerosmith's Get Your Wings (1974; Wagner played the guitar solos on "Same Old Song and Dance" and "Train Kept A-Rollin'", the latter with Steve Hunter), Hall & Oates' Along the Red Ledge (1978), Kiss's Revenge (1992), and Burton Cummings' Dream of a Child (1978). Wagner produced and co-wrote songs for Mark Farner's solo debut and a pair of albums for the star of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, Tim Curry, and more.

In 1978, Wagner released a solo studio album called Richard Wagner, produced by Bob Ezrin, and released on Atlantic Records. The album title confused both record stores and disc jockeys, who relegated the record to the classical music bin, assuming it was a classical music record composed by the 19th-century classical composer with the same name.

Songwriting credits
One of the best-known songs written by Wagner is "Only Women Bleed". Written during Wagner's days with the Frost and titled "Movin' On", Wagner was unhappy with his lyrics and did not release it. After starting his collaboration with Alice Cooper, Wagner played the song for him. Alice had a title for a song he had been wanting to write. While keeping the main riff and vocal melodies, Cooper and Wagner penned new lyrics and recorded it for Cooper's debut solo studio album Welcome to My Nightmare. The song delivered a message against domestic violence. Since its initial release in 1975 "Only Women Bleed" has been covered by more than 30 artists, including Tina Turner, Etta James, Guns N' Roses, Lita Ford, Carmen McRae and Tori Amos.

Following "Only Women Bleed", Wagner co-wrote a series of hit power ballads with Alice Cooper, including "I Never Cry", "You and Me" and "How You Gonna See Me Now" (the latter written by Cooper, Wagner and Bernie Taupin).  Other songs co-written by Wagner brought him public recognition as a songwriting talent. First "Shine Silently" with Nils Lofgren, who performed it originally on his fifth solo studio album Nils (1979), then as part of Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band's 1990 eponymous first live album. "Just as I Am", written by Wagner with Rob Hegel, was a Top 20 hit for Air Supply.  At the behest of producer Bob Ezrin, Wagner flew to Toronto and recorded guitar on seven tracks of the Air Supply studio album that included this song. Another power ballad, "I Might As Well Be on Mars", again with Alice Cooper, was featured on Cooper's twelfth solo studio album Hey Stoopid (1991).

One of the songs Wagner was most proud of is "Remember the Child", written to address the issue of child abuse. Written from the point of view of a child, the lyrics and song melody deliver a powerful and poignant message to adults that a child will forever remember the love or abuse of their childhood. New York Times best selling author John Bradshaw selected "Remember the Child" as the theme song for his award-winning PBS television special, "Homecoming: Reclaiming and Healing Your Inner Child". Bradshaw invited Wagner to join him on his nationwide tour to perform the song as a cathartic and healing piece of music to the thousands who attended Bradshaw's lectures and seminars. Embraced by psychiatrists and psychologists in their practices, the song has been used as a tool to evoke emotion from patients who are unable to express feelings. In 1996, Wagner was invited by Leo Najar, conductor of the Saginaw Bay Symphony Orchestra to perform a two and a half hour concert of his songs with the symphony.  Wagner entitled the concert, The Remember the Child Concert, raising funds for child abuse agencies in central Michigan through his Remember the Child Foundation.

Later life and career
Wagner moved to Phoenix, Arizona, in 2005 where he was writing a new studio album with Alan Gordon (Happy Together, Celebrate). In 2007 he wrote songs for the artist Wednesday for her debut studio album Torch Rock, released on his independent record label Desert Dreams Records. Because of the efforts of his career strategist and publicist Al Gomes, Wednesday's studio album, produced by Wagner, was placed on the official ballot by The Recording Academy for the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Three years later, Gomes assisted in getting Wagner and songwriting partner Alice Cooper's song "Something to Remember Me By" (from 2011's Welcome 2 My Nightmare) placed on the 55th Annual Grammy Awards ballot for Best Rock Performance and Best Rock Song.

A film about the work of Dick Wagner and Steve Hunter, titled Rock and Roll Animals, was in production in 2007 by Noble Savage Productions. In filmed interviews, Alice Cooper talks about hiring Dick Wagner, writing with him and hiring the greatest guitar players to be in his band. Fred Mandel, keyboardist with the Alice Cooper Band was also interviewed. The film was never completed, but the clips are on YouTube.

In 2006, Wagner cooperated with the Italian rock singer Chris Catena in recording a cover version of "Theme for an Imaginary Western", the famous rock song by Jack Bruce and Pete Brown, which will be released in the third studio album of the Italian singer around 2015.

In 2007, Wagner suffered a massive heart attack and stroke. After arriving DOA at a Scottsdale hospital, he spent two weeks in a coma, awakening with a paralyzed left arm. While recovering from his heart attack, Wagner continued to write songs and began writing his memoirs, which ultimately became his book, Not Only Women Bleed (2011).

As he slowly recovered from his heart attack and stroke, Wagner manifested unusual symptoms, including difficulty walking and concentrating, loss of balance, and symptoms of dementia, threatening his music career and his life. In 2011, Wagner was diagnosed with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH), a type of dementia which affects, among other things, fine motor skills and gait. In late 2011, after successful surgery at Barrow Neurological Hospital in Phoenix, Arizona, Wagner was able to make a significant recovery, regaining almost all of the dexterity which had been lost over the course of the disorder's progression.

Wagner's former band the Frost was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends online Hall of Fame in 2008. The group's recording of "Mystery Man", a Wagner composition, was voted a Legendary Michigan Song in 2009. He continued to recover from his near-fatal heart attack and recorded with long-time collaborator Steve Hunter on an unnamed single for Wednesday.

Wagner released a new solo studio album in October 2009, titled Full Meltdown on Desert Dreams Records. It features 15 lost and newly discovered songs recorded by Wagner between 1979 and 1995. He also produced the band Warsaw Pact and the independent artist Brandon Bullard with releases from both in early 2010. Wagner scored with Alice Cooper and the British funk rock band the Velvet Hearts the soundtrack to the Indie horror film Silas Gore, A Film Trilogy (2010). Similar to his original work on the debut Alice Cooper solo studio album Welcome to My Nightmare, Wagner also contributed lead guitar to the final track, "The Underture", from the album Welcome 2 My Nightmare (2011). It represents instrumental versions of several songs from each album.

In 2010, Gibson honored the guitar tandem of Dick Wagner and Steve Hunter with two places in the Top 50 Guitar Solos of All Time - #25 for "Intro to Sweet Jane" (Lou Reed), and as #41 "Train Kept A Rollin' (Aerosmith). In 2012, Gibson published Riff This Way: Aerosmith's Top 10 Riff-Heavy Tracks, placing Dick Wagner with two winning guitar solos: The #1 Best Aerosmith Guitar Solo for his lead guitar on "Same Old Song and Dance", and also #4, honoring his performance as lead guitarist with Steve Hunter on "Train Kept A Rollin'". Wagner won a number of BMI Songwriter awards and other international music awards and his work has been featured on albums earning more than 35 gold and platinum records.

In 2011, Wagner's memoirs, Not Only Women Bleed, Vignettes from the Heart of a Rock Musician, were released to tremendous acclaim, spending more than two weeks at No. 1 on Amazon's Hot New Releases in Biographies & Memoirs of Entertainers.  His book has won five international book awards.

In 2012, Wagner was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame.

The same year, Wagner joined forces with the Mugshots - the only European band ever produced by the musician - and spent two weeks in Italy to produce their acclaimed release "Love, Lust and Revenge" (GCM Music/Alka Records/Black Widow Records), on which he is featured as lead guitarist as well. Susan Michelson is featured as associated producer, British ladies Never the Bride provided backing vocals, American actress Suzi Lorraine is featured on the cover. The record was then mixed in Phoenix by Otto D'Agnolo at Chaton Studios, and mastered by Wagner's longtime friend and collaborator, Gil Markle. The Mugshots - "a majestic Euro-American combination
of classic rock and dark stories" in the musician's words - are known to be the only band to have recorded a cover version of "Pass the Gun Around", written by Wagner back in 1983 for Alice Cooper's eighth solo studio album DaDa.

In 2013 and 2014, after suffering more than six years of extreme health adversities: two heart attacks, a stroke, a paralyzed left arm, a diagnosis of hydrocephalus (NPH) two brain surgeries, a pacemaker and more, Wagner's guitar playing facilities had returned, and he fully resumed performing, touring with the Dick Wagner Band, writing songs and producing music. His book tour for Not Only Women Bleed took him to more than 40 states. With personal appearances in documentary films and writing film scores, Wagner had three songs featured in the multi-award-winning documentary "Louder than Love" (including the opening song and the closing credits song). Leading up to his death, Wagner's projects included producing and writing for Danish rock star, Maryann Cotton, in a concept album and TV project reminiscent of Wagner's shock rock history, a featuring in the forthcoming third solo album of the Italian rocker Chris Catena, entitled Return of the Freak.

On July 30, 2014, Wagner died of respiratory failure at the age of 71.

Charitable contributions
In November 2013, Wagner released his song and video tribute, "If I Had the Time (I Could Change the World)", on various digital download sites to raise money for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Wagner gathered more than 50 musicians to record at Sunset Sound Recorders in Los Angeles, including Mark Farner on lead vocals; Danny Seraphine on drums; Leland Sklar; Fred Mandel on piano; Elliot Easton; Jennifer Batten;  Merrilee Rush; and Trini Lopez and Laurie Beebe Lewis on lead vocals.

In November 2011 Wagner, along with Detroit musicians Ray Goodman, Dennis Burr, Prakash John, Jim McCarty, Johnny Bee Badanjek, Jimmie Bones, Ty Stone, Robert Wagner, Muruga and Pat Lewis, recorded Motor City Music at Harmonie Park Studios in Detroit in support of Franciscan friar Brother Al Mascia's "Bicycle Ministry." Mascia pedals a bicycle cart around the streets of downtown Detroit, delivering hot drinks, food and warm clothing to the homeless. The donated proceeds enable Brother Al to purchase additional supplies.

Wagner was also the First Artist Ambassador for Guitars for Vets.

Recovering from hydrocephalus, Wagner became a National Spokesperson for Hydrocephalus.org.

To support awareness of violence against women and children, Wagner and his production company, Desert Dreams Productions, created a video featuring Desert Dreams artist, Wednesday, performing her gospel-inflected version of "Only Women Bleed," at Alice Cooper's Christmas Pudding Show in Phoenix, Arizona. Footage from her performance, featuring Wagner on guitar, was interspersed with researched data on abuse among a variety of age groups and cultures, along with empowering photos of women from around the world.

Following Wagner's death in 2014, his son Robert and Remember the Child Fund chairperson Susan Michelson have carried on his legacy of supporting children's charities, organizing the Dick Wagner "Remember the Child" Memorial Concert in Detroit. The annual concert event, which benefits Children's Miracle Network Hospitals and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, ran for three years (2015 through 2017).

Discography
The Bossmen
 Personally Yours: The Complete Anthology of the Bossmen (Compilation)

The Frost
 Frost Music 1969 (Vanguard VSD-6520)
Rock and Roll Music 1969 (Vanguard VSD-6541)
Through the Eyes of Love 1970 (Vanguard VSD-6556)
Live at the Grande Ballroom 1969 2001 (Vanguard VSD-6553)

 Early Frost 1969 (Compilation) (Vanguard VSD 79392)

Ursa Major
 Ursa Major (1972)

Alice Cooper (band)
 School's Out (1972)
 Billion Dollar Babies (1973)
 Muscle of Love (1973)

Alice Cooper (solo)
 Welcome to My Nightmare (1975)
 Alice Cooper Goes to Hell (1976)
 Lace and Whiskey (1977)
 The Alice Cooper Show (1977)
 From the Inside (1978)
 Zipper Catches Skin (1982)
 DaDa (1983)
 Hey Stoopid (1991) (co-songwriting on one track only)
 Welcome 2 My Nightmare (2011)

Lou Reed
 Rock 'n' Roll Animal (1974)
 Lou Reed Live (1975)

Kiss
 Destroyer (1976)
 Revenge (1992)

The Throbs
The Language of Thieves and Vagabonds (as co-producer) (1991)

Solo
 Dick Wagner (originally released as Richard Wagner) (1978)
 Rock History (1999)
 Home at Last Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 (2008)
 Remember the Child (2008)
 Full Meltdown (compilation of unreleased recordings) (2009)
 Captured (2014)

Meat Loaf
 Midnight at the Lost and Found (1983) (songwriting credit for 'Fallen Angel')

Chris Catena's Rock City Tribe
 Truth in Unity (2020) (lead guitar in the song "Theme from an Imaginary Western" recorded in 2006)

References

External links
Official website
Production Company
Official book website

Interview on Outsight Radio Hours
Songfacts Website Interview from 2013
The Bossmen website

1942 births
2014 deaths
Alice Cooper (band) members
Lead guitarists
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
American male songwriters
American people of German descent
Musicians from Saginaw, Michigan
21st-century American memoirists
People with hydrocephalus
People from Oelwein, Iowa
Guitarists from Michigan
20th-century American guitarists
American male non-fiction writers

Dick Wagner


Icyball is a name given to two early refrigerators, one made by Australian Sir Edward Hallstrom in 1923, and the other design patented by David Forbes Keith of Toronto (filed 1927, granted 1929), and manufactured by American Powel Crosley Jr., who bought the rights to the device. Both devices are unusual in design in that they did not require the use of electricity for cooling. They can run for a day on a cup of kerosene, allowing rural users lacking electricity the benefits of refrigeration.

Operation (Crosley Icyball)
The Crosley Icyball is as an example of a gas-absorption refrigerator, as can be found today in recreational vehicles or campervans. Unlike most refrigerators, the Icyball has no moving parts, and instead of operating continuously, is manually cycled. Typically it is charged in the morning for 1.5 hours, and provides cooling throughout the heat of the day.

Absorption refrigerators and the more common mechanical refrigerators both cool by the evaporation of refrigerant. (Evaporation of a liquid causes cooling, as for example, liquid sweat on the skin evaporating cools, and the reverse process releases much heat.) In absorption refrigerators, the buildup of pressure due to evaporation of refrigerant is relieved not by suction at the inlet of a compressor, but by absorption into an absorptive medium (water in the case of the Icy Ball).

The Icyball system moves heat from the refrigerated cabinet to the warmer room by using ammonia as the refrigerant. It consists of two metal balls: a hot ball, which in the fully charged state contains the absorber (water) and a cold ball containing liquid ammonia. These are joined by a pipe in the shape of an inverted U. The pipe allows ammonia gas to move in either direction.

After approximately a day's use (varying depending on load), the Icyball stops cooling, and needs recharging. The Icyball is removed from the refrigerated cabinet, and the cold ball, from which all the ammonia has evaporated during the previous cycle, is submerged in cool water. The hot ball is then heated gently to boil off the ammonia dissolved in the water inside it. (The solubility of ammonia in water drops as temperature rises.) The pressure in the system rises to around , and at this temperature, the ammonia readily passes through the u-tube, and condenses in the colder ball, which is kept cool by the water bath.

When the cold ball is fully charged with liquid ammonia (indicated to the user by a whistle), the device is turned around, placing the hot ball in the cool bath. As the hot ball cools, the pressure in the system falls, eventually dropping to the point where the liquid ammonia in the cold ball begins to evaporate (ammonia has a boiling point of  at standard air pressure), and the cold ball begins to freeze. After several minutes it is cool enough for ice to form on its surface. It is then placed on the stabilizer inside the refrigeration cabinet. The stabilizer is filled with an antifreeze solution which both supports the cold ball and provides a large thermal inertia to moderate the cooling. A small hole in the refrigerated cabinet allows the u-tube to pass outside into the room.

The cold ball has an opening into which an ice-cube tray could be placed, the forerunner of the "freezing compartment" in modern refrigerators.

The actual construction of the Icyball is slightly more complex than described above, to improve the efficiency: The connecting tube runs to the lower part of the warm ball, allowing the ammonia vapor to bubble through the water speeding absorption, and also serving to stir the solution so heat is better transported to the finned walls. This "bubbler" is bypassed by a liquid (no moving parts) check-valve during regeneration, so that only gas, and not liquid solution is transferred to the cold side. The operation of the liquid check valve is somewhat similar to the water seals (J-traps) used in plumbing drains. Mechanical check valves require too much pressure to function properly in this application. To minimize the amount of water transferred to the cold ball during the recharge cycle, trapping structures are placed in the upper part of the connecting tube, allowing only gas to pass, and directing water back to the warm side ball.

In practice, too high of a flame and the water will boil, contaminating the ammonia that, alone, should liquefy in the cold ball, and if the water bath is allowed to warm, the ammonia will not fully condense.

History
The Crosley Radio Corporation began selling the Icyball in 1929.

While the Crosley Icyball refrigerator is no longer sold or manufactured, absorption cycle refrigeration is still in use. In addition to RV applications, ammonia cycle refrigerators are still used in developing countries. These are also batch-cycle devices, but incorporate various condensers, check valves, and integral kerosene burners, so that the disassembly and tub of water required to reactivate an Icyball are no longer needed. Ammonia refrigeration is also used in large industrial applications, where its efficiency more than compensates for the higher initial cost, and associated risk. Though it was once fairly popular for home air conditioning, concerns related to ammonia leakage have caused mechanical refrigeration to dominate that market.

In 2007, Adam Grosser gave a TED talk about an absorption refrigerator for vaccines.

In 2016 William Broadway, a young designer, won the UK James Dyson Award for his design to miniaturize the Icyball technology for use as a vaccine cooler.

See also
 Einstein refrigerator
 Thermoelectric cooling

Citations

References
Crosley Icyball
Refrigeration Research Historic Museum

External links
 Crosley Auto Club Icyball Page
  - explains a modern version (video, 3.5 minutes)

Cooling technology
Food preservation
Thermodynamic cycles
Heat pumps
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Gas technologies
Refrigerators

Icyball


Myra is an ancient town in Lycia. The small town of Kale (Demre) is situated near it today. It is in Antalya Province of Turkey.  It was located  on the river Myros (Demre Çay), in the fertile alluvial plain between Alaca Dağ, the Massikytos range and the Aegean Sea.

Nicholas of Myra (also known as Saint Nicholas) did many things there.

Ancient settlements
Antalya Province

Myra


The Conversion of Saint Paul (or Conversion of Saul), by the Italian painter Caravaggio, is housed in the Odescalchi Balbi Collection of Rome. It is one of at least two paintings by Caravaggio of the same subject, the Conversion of Paul. Another is The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Road to Damascus, in the Cerasi Chapel of Santa Maria del Popolo.

Background
The painting, together with a Crucifixion of Saint Peter, was commissioned by Monsignor (later Cardinal) Tiberio Cerasi, Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII, in September 1600. According to Caravaggio's early biographer Giovanni Baglione, both paintings were rejected by Cerasi, and replaced by the second versions which hang in the chapel today. The dates of completion and rejection are determined from the death of Cerasi in May 1601. Baglione states that the first versions of both paintings were taken by Cardinal Giacomo Sannessio, but another early writer, Giulio  Mancini, says that Sannessio's paintings were copies. Nevertheless, most scholars are satisfied that this is the first version of the Conversion of Paul.

The painting records the moment when Saul of Tarsus, on his way to Damascus to annihilate the Christian community there, is struck blind by a brilliant light and hears the voice of Christ saying, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?...And they that were with me saw indeed the light, and were afraid, but they heard not the voice..." (Acts 22:6-11). Elsewhere Paul claims to have seen Christ during a vision, and it is on this basis that he grounds his claim be recognised as an Apostle: "Have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord?" (I Corinthians 9:1).

Caravaggio biographer Helen Langdon describes the style of Conversion as "an odd blend of Raphael and clumsy rustic realism," but notes how the composition, with its jagged shapes and irrational light which picks out details for their dramatic impact, creates "a sense of crisis and dislocation [in which] Christ disrupts the mundane world."

Several modern commentators (including John Gash and Peter Robb) have questioned whether the rejection of the first versions of Caravaggio's two paintings was quite so straightforward as the record makes it seem, and speculate that Cardinal Sannessio may have seized the opportunity of Cerasi's unexpected death on 3 May 1601 to, in effect, seize the paintings. Certainly there is no obvious reason for the rejection, and the two second versions which replaced them were, if the surviving first version of the Conversion is a guide, (the first Crucifixion of Peter has disappeared), far more unconventional than the first.

See also
List of paintings by Caravaggio

References
  John Gash, Caravaggio (2003),

External links

Paintings by Caravaggio
1601 paintings
Caravaggio

The Conversion of Saint Paul (Caravaggio)


John Collet or Collett (1725 – 6 August 1780) was an English satirical artist.

Life
He was born in London about 1725, and son of a gentleman holding a public office.
He was a pupil of painter George Lambert, and studied at the art school in St Martin's Lane.

He first exhibited at the exhibition of the Free Society of Artists in 1761, to which he sent three landscapes.
In 1762, he exhibited with the same society A Gipsy telling some Country Girls their Fortune.

From this time, though he occasionally exhibited landscapes, portraits, animals, and other subjects, his pictures are mainly of a humorous description, based on the style of William Hogarth, whose 'comedy in art' he strove to imitate, if not to surpass.
There was a large demand for his pictures, and the engravings from them, many by first-class engravers, were published by Carington Bowles, Smith & Sayer, Boydell, and other well-known publishers.

Collett continued to exhibit with the Free Society of Artists up to 1783. His pictures give  insight into manners at the end of the 18th century. In 1775, Richard Brinsley Sheridan brought out his comedy The Duenna and Collett drew pictures based on scenes in this play. One of them, representing the drinking scene in the convent (act iii. scene 5), was figured in Thomas Wright's History of Caricature and Grotesque in Art.

He inherited a fortune from a relation, and resided in Chelsea, London, where he died, in Cheyne Row, on 6 August 1780, and was buried there on 11 August.

Assessment
Collet represented scenes of debauchery, low life, and social weaknesses and absurdities. He did not possess, however, the force and deep moral of Hogarth's work, and his pictures are often mere plagiarisms, appealing only to a vulgar taste. When, however, he cared to be original, he showed great ability, and his pictures are always carefully executed.

Collections
Two water-colour pictures by Collett, entitled The Asylum for the Deaf and Promenaders in St. James's Park, went to the South Kensington Museum. In the print room of the British Museum there is a collection of engravings from his works., most of which are described in the Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum. There is check list of his prints by David Alexander.

John Goldar engraved after him The Sacrifice, The Refusal, The Recruiting Sergeant, exhibited in 1767, The Female Bruisers, exhibited in 1768, and also engraved in mezzotint by Butler Clowes, The Spirit is Willing, but the Flesh is Weak, The Country Choristers, The Unlucky Attempt, The Discovery, The Mutual Embrace, and Modern Love, in four scenes, Courtship, The Elopement, The Honeymoon, Discordant Matrimony, painted in 1765, and published in 1782, after his death.

James Caldwall engraved The Gipsies, The Ladies' Disaster, The Bold Attempt, The Unwelcome Customer, The Guards of the Night defeated, A Macaroni taking his Morning Ride in Hyde Park, The Englishman in Paris, High Life below Stairs, The Cotillion Dancers, exhibited in 1772.

Among numerous others were: Sweets of Liberty and The City Chanters, in mezzotint by Samuel Okey; A Rescue, or the Tars Triumphant, and Grown Gentlemen taught to dance, in mezzotint by Butler Clowes; The Coaxing Wife and An Holland Smock to be run for, by the engraver Thomas Morris; January and May, by Charles Grignion; The Frenchman in London, by C. White; A Taylor riding to Brentford, by T. Stayner; Minerva protecting Innocence, by F. B. Lorieux; and A Snare laid by Love, by Jean-Baptiste Pillement.

References

Attribution:

Sources

1725 births
1780 deaths
18th-century English painters
English male painters
Painters from London
18th-century English male artists

John Collett (artist)


A wizard, magician, sorceror or sorceress is a fictional or mythical person who uses magic. This ability to use magic may be due to innate ability, training, or both. Wizards are often depicted as having a special connection to supernatural beings, such as gods or fairies, or as such supernatural beings themselves.

Merlin from the Arthurian legends is one of the most well-known wizard characters.

Wizards have been portrayed as both evil and good. Dumbledore (from the Harry Potter series) and Gandalf (from Tolkien's Middle Earth) are fictional examples of "good" wizards. Voldemort and Saruman are corresponding examples of "evil" wizards.

Appearance
Wizards are often depicted as old men with long, flowing beards, and wearing a large-brimmed hat, a thick cloak and holding a staff. This may be due to descriptions of Odin the Wanderer, a god from Norse mythology who often disguised himself thus, in order to pass through the lands of men unnoticed.

Wizards, when they are named thus, are almost always portrayed as male, but some fictional or mythical female characters seem to play the same role, sometimes as a foil character to a male wizard or other character. Notable examples include Morgan le Fay from Arthurian legends, and Circe from Greek mythology.

Nowadays, the term "wizard" is also used for someone whose accomplishments are due to unusual skill or creativity. Thomas Edison, the noted American inventor, was nicknamed "the Wizard of Menlo Park."

Related pages
Witch
Witchcraft

Magic (paranormal)

Wizard


Demographics are statistical information about human populations (groups of people).  Sociology, demography, marketing, business, and other studies use the information from people who study demographics.  Some demographics that many demographers study are gender, race, jobs, and location (where people live).

Demographic trends are changes in those areas. For example, if a city was half women and half men in 1940 and was more than half women in 1980, and the number of women kept going up, that would be a demographic trend.

Related pages
 Demography
 Sociology

Demography
Statistics

Demographics


Decision theory is a mathematical theory about how to best reach a decision. This is done using probability theory, statistics and logical reasoning. A decision can be made in different ways. Decision theory usually picks the best decision by looking at the consequences each way to decide might have.

In most cases, decision theory is normative and prescriptive. Most of the time, it assumes the decision maker has perfect knowledge. Decision makers know all the consequences, and case take the best pick.

There are three branches of decision theory:
 Normative decision theory: The decision makers take rational choices. There is also a set of axioms that describe the decision process. This allows to reach a decision through the use of logic. This describes how to reach a decision.
 Prescriptive decision theory: This tries to help people reach better decisions, through the use of models to follow. Humans have only limited capabilities to reach a decision. This is taken into account.
 Descriptive decision theory looks at the way decisions are taken in real life, and tries to improve the process.

Decision theory can also be classified as follows:
 Choice under certainty: The decision maker knows all possible alternatives, and can exactly say at what probability each occurs. The decision maker chooses the action that will result in the most desirable outcome.
 Choice under uncertainty: There are several outcomes for each action, depending on the state of nature. The outcome corresponding to the chosen action are uncertain, but the probabilities associated with each outcome is known.

Decision theory

Decision theory


Morton DaCosta (March 7, 1914 – January 26, 1989) was an American theatre and film director, film producer, writer, and actor.

Career
Born Morton Tecosky in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, DaCosta began his career as an actor in the Broadway production of Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth starring Tallulah Bankhead in 1942 . A decade later he made his stage directing debut with The Grey-Eyed People.

DaCosta had a string of hit Broadway productions in the 1950s: Plain and Fancy, No Time for Sergeants, Auntie Mame and The Music Man.

Additional Broadway directing credits include Sherry!, The Women, Saratoga, and Maggie Flynn. He also wrote the book for the latter two productions.

DaCosta produced and directed the films Auntie Mame (1958), The Music Man (1962), and Island of Love (1963).

Awards
The Broadway production of The Music Man earned DaCosta a Tony Award nomination for Best Director of a Musical. For the film version, he received Best Director nominations from the Directors Guild of America Awards and the Golden Globe Awards. As the producer of the film version, he also received an Oscar nomination for Best Picture.

His feature film directorial debut, the film version of Auntie Mame, was nominated for six Academy Awards including Best Picture. Both with Auntie Mame and four years later with The Music Man, DaCosta was not nominated for Best Director despite both films receiving Best Picture nominations.

DaCosta, who was always known by his nickname Tec, died of heart failure in Redding, Connecticut.

References

External links

 Morton DaCosta papers, 1929–1978, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

American theatre directors
American musical theatre librettists
American male stage actors
American film directors
Film producers from Pennsylvania
Male actors from Philadelphia
1914 births
1989 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American male writers

Morton DaCosta


Ann Matthews Martin (born August 12, 1955) is an American children's writer.

Ann Martin grew up in Princeton, New Jersey with her parents and her younger sister, Jane. She graduated from Smith College. After this, Martin became a teacher and then an editor of children's books. Now, she is a full-time writer.

Martin finds the ideas for her books from many different things. Some are based on what she has done herself. Others are based on childhood memories and feelings. All of the characters that Ann uses in her books, including the members of The Baby-Sitters Club, are fictional. However, many of her characters are based on real people. Sometimes Ann names her characters after people she knows, and other times she simply chooses names that she likes.

In 1990, she started the Ann M. Martin Foundation. This gives money to causes which help children, education/literacy programs, homeless people and animals.

Books
 The Baby-sitters Club series
 Baby-Sitters Little Sister series
 The Kids in Ms. Colman's Class series
 California Diaries series
 P.S. Longer Letter Later with Paula Danziger
 Snail Mail No More with Paula Danziger
 Leo The Magnificent
 Rachel Parker, Kindergarten Showoff
 Ten Kids, No Pets
 Eleven Kids, One Summer
 Ma and Pa Dracula
 Yours Turly, Shirley
 Just a Summer Romance
 Missing Since Monday
 With and Without You
 Me and Katie (The Pest)
 Stage Fright
 Inside Out
 Just You and Me
 Bummer Summer
 A Dog's Life: The Autobiography of a Stray
 Everything for a Dog
 The Doll People series
 A Corner of the Universe
 Belle Teal
 Here Today
 Main Street
 Needle and Thread
 'Tis the Season
 Welcome to Camden Falls
 On Christmas Eve
 Ten Rules for Living with My Sister

References

Other websites
 Ann M. Martin page from Scholastic, her publisher

Writers from New Jersey
Living people
1955 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American cartoonists
American children's writers
People from Princeton, New Jersey

Ann M. Martin


A sālik is a follower of Sufism, from the verb salaka which means to travel or follow, related to sulūk "pathway".  Sulūk here  specifically refers to a spiritual path, i.e.  the combination of the two "paths" that can be followed in religion, the exoteric path or shariah, and the esoteric path or haqiqa.
The "path" metaphor is derived from the Qur'an: see sura 16, (An-Nahl, The Bees), ayat 69:
faslukī subula rabbiki dhululan "and follow the ways of your Lord made easy [for you]", which uses the imperative of the verb salaka which means to follow or to travel.

A sālik is also called murid when one becomes a disciple to one particular spiritual teacher (murshid) or a Sufi master.

See also
 Tariqa
 Talibe
 Murid
 Wasil
 Majzoob
 Muqarrab

References
L. Levisohn, 'The Spiritual Journey in Kubrawi Sufism' in: Lawson (ed.), ''Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought,  2006, , [books.google.ch/books?id=Bq9zSbNr8gIC&pg=PA364 364-379].

Sufi philosophy
Islamic terminology

Salik


Silly Putty (originally called nutty putty) is a silicone plastic "clay", sold as a toy for children by Binney & Smith Inc.. It was created as a scientific accident when scientists in the United States were trying to find a substitute for rubber during World War II.

Description
Silly Putty is sold as a 0.47 oz (13 g) piece of plastic clay inside an egg-shaped plastic container. It is an example of an inorganic plastic (polymer). It has many unusual characteristics. When pressed on comics or other newspaper pages, the loose ink transfers to the Silly Putty, which is then able to be stretched out. It bounces, showing its rubber qualities. It breaks when you give it a sharp blow. It can flow like a liquid when it is slowly stretched and will "melt" into a puddle over a long enough period of time, and so shows properties of non-newtonian liquids.

Other websites
 Explanations from the Official Website of Silly Putty
 Full story at MIT's Invention Dimension: Silly Putty page
 Various scientific experiments done with Silicone Putty
 American Chemical Society "What's that stuff?" page about Silly Putty
 Dropping a 50lb beach ball-sized sphere of Silly Putty off a parking garage (pics and video)

Toys

Silly Putty


Girl's Day () is a four-member South Korean girl group formed by Dream Tea Entertainment in 2010. The group members are Sojin, Minah, Yura, and Hyeri. Girl's Day started as a five-member girl group with Sojin, Minah, Jisun,  Ji-In, and Jihae. After Jisun and Ji-In left, Yura and Hyeri became members. They reason why they left the group is that Jisun is going to study music more and Ji-In wants to act. Jihae wanted to concentrate on studying.

2010

As soon as they released their mini-album Girl's Day Party 1 on July 9, they were caught in controversy because they didn't sing well on their first stage on "Music Bank". Later, they were recognized as a good group. After Jisun and Ji-in left, the new members released their first digital single album, Girl's Day Party 2. A song from this album, "Nothing Lasts Up", was popular because they not only showed good singing ability but also danced well.

2011–13

In March 2011, they released the third digital single album, Girl's Day Party 3. "Twinkle Twinkle" (), which is the title song of this album, made Girl's Day popular. Girl's Day won the first prize of the charts for the first time. Also, the dance of this song which is called "Mam Mam Ma dance" became famous. In September 2011, they released Girl's Day party 4 for their fans. In October 2012, Jihea announced that she was leaving the group. Then they released Girl's Day Party 5. The title song of this album is "Don't forget me", which people liked.

In March 2013, they released their first regular album Expectation. "Expectation", which is the title song of this album, got success. Also, they re-released the album with a song named "Female president". The music video of "Female President" got a favorable reputation. The dance of this song become famous.

South Korean girl groups
South Korean musical groups
Musical groups established in 2010
2010 establishments in South Korea

Girl's Day


Data center is a special building or room built to house a lot of running computer servers. It provides fast network connections between servers to communicate and process a lot of data, and some for talking to the outside world. There are cooling machines to deal with heat from each server and control moisture to stop computers from breaking too fast. There is often an emergency electricity supply from an UPS (or diesel generator) to make sure that computers still work even when mains power goes out. And there are usually some kind of fire extinguishers there to keep fire from computers if there happen to be any.

Data centers are normally built and used by companies that need a lot of always-on computer, companies that are hired to do computing for someone else (for example, ones that do web hosting), and most modern telecommunication companies.

Related pages
 Cloud computing
 Supercomputer
 Internet

Computer networking

Data center


Stock footage (also called  archive footage, library pictures, and file footage) is movie or video footage that can be used in other movies. This type of footage is not made by the person who makes the movie. Instead, the footage has already been shot by another person and is being used by the person who is making the movie. People who make movies use stock footage because it's less expensive to use stock footage than it is to shoot new footage. A piece of stock footage is called a "stock shot" or a "library shot". Examples of stock footage that might be used include video of cities and landmarks, animals in their habitats, and historical footage. Many websites such as YouTube allow people to view or download stock footage.

References

Movie terminology

Stock footage


Niels Bohr (7 October 1885  18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who helped discover quantum physics, the structure of the atom, and the atomic bomb. Bohr was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922 for, in short, discovering the quantization of atomic energy levels. He worked also in a project of physicists known as Manhattan Project. He married Margrethe Nørlund in 1912. One of his sons was Aage Bohr, who was also an important physicist. Aage won in 1975 his own Nobel prize. Niels Bohr worked also with Albert Einstein. He is also considered one of the most important physicists of the 20th century.

Biography
Niels Henrik David Bohr, or Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark,1885 as the son of Christian Bohr, who was also professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen. Bohr's mother was Ellen Adler Bohr and was Jewish with a rich family of bankers and politicians. Niels was also the brother of Harald Bohr. Bohr was a mathematician, a physicist, and funnily enough, was a football player of the national team.

In 1903 Bohr began studies of philosophy and mathematics at the Copenhagen University.

In 1905 the Royal Danish Academy of Science organized a competition. Niels Bohr participated with some experiments in surface tension. He used the laboratory of his father in the university, because he knew it since he was a boy.

His work won the prize. For this reason, he decided to stop the studies of philosophy and mathematics and changed to physics.

He received his doctorate in 1911.

Bohr did experiments in the Trinity College in Cambridge under the direction of J.J. Thomson. After it, he went to the University of Manchester under the direction of Ernest Rutherford. On the basis of the theories of Rutherford, he published his theory of electrons. He introduces the theory of electrons traveling in orbits around the nucleus of the atom in 1913 and the chemical properties of the orbit.

He introduced the idea that an electron can drop from a higher energy orbit to a lower one. Then it can emit a photon of discrete energy. This is the basis of quantum theory.

Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Nørlund Bohr had four sons. Their oldest died in a tragic boating accident and another died from childhood meningitis. The others went on to lead successful lives, including Aage Bohr, who became a very successful physicist and, like his father, won a Nobel Prize in physics, in 1975.

British actor Kenneth Branagh played Bohr in the 2023 Christopher Nolan movie Oppenheimer.

1885 births
1962 deaths
Danish Jews
Danish physicists
Jewish scientists
Nuclear physicists
Scientists from Copenhagen
Theoretical physicists
Danish Nobel Prize winners
Academics of the University of Manchester

Niels Bohr


Grant Alden Wistrom (born July 3, 1976) is an American former professional football player who was a defensive end in the National Football League (NFL) for nine seasons.  Wistrom played college football for the Nebraska Cornhuskers and was a two-time All-American.  He was selected in the first round of the 1998 NFL Draft, and played in the NFL for the St. Louis Rams and Seattle Seahawks.

Early years
Wistrom was born in Joplin, Missouri to Ron and Kathy Wistrom. For a short period of time, he went to Forest City Elementary School and Teague Middle School in Altamonte Springs, Florida. He began his football career in Webb City, Missouri, where he played for the Webb City High School football team, the Cardinals, as a defensive end and tight end.  As a defensive end, he compiled 122 tackles, eight sacks, six fumble recoveries, nine forced fumbles and a blocked punt; as a tight end, he caught 30 passes for 527 yards and five touchdowns and rushed 11 times for 115 yards and three touchdowns.  Wistrom led his team to two Class 4A state championships.  He was chosen as a first-team high school All-America selection by Super Prep, Blue Chip and USA Today, and earned Top 100 Honors from Scholastic Coach magazine.  Wistrom also played basketball and competed in track and field.

College career
Wistrom attended the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, where he helped anchor the defensive line for the Nebraska Cornhuskers football team from 1994 to 1997.  During his four-year college career, the Huskers compiled a 49-2 record, winning three national championships in that span (1994, 1995, and 1997). A two-time consensus first-team All-American, Wistrom became Nebraska's fourth Lombardi Award winner as the nation's top lineman following the 1997 season.

As a senior captain, the 6-5, 255-pound Wistrom finished with 51 tackles, including 8.5 sacks and 17 tackles for loss, leading the Blackshirts in both categories on his way to earning Big 12 Defensive Player-of-the-Year honors.  A finalist for the Bronko Nagurski Defensive Player-of-the-Year award, Wistrom helped the Huskers rank fifth nationally in total defense and second nationally against the run. He led Nebraska to a perfect 13-0 season record. He was also a consensus All-American.

In 1996, Wistrom was named the Big 12 Defensive Player of the Year, helping NU to top-10 rankings in all four major defensive categories. A first-team All-American and finalist for the Nagurski Award. Wistrom finished third on the team in tackles with 75. while leading the Huskers in both sacks (9.5-48 yards lost) and tackles for loss (20-74).

A third-team All-American as a sophomore. Wistrom recorded 44 stops, including a team-leading 15 tackles for loss, as Nebraska went 12-0 and repeated as national champions. He also had four sacks, earning first-team All-Big Eight honors as NU ranked second nationally against the rush, fourth in points allowed and 13th in total defense. During his freshman campaign, Wistrom made his presence known, earning Big Eight Newcomer-of-the-Year honors in helping the Huskers to their first national title since 1971. He played in all 13 games, recording 36 stops and 4.5 sacks, as one of only two true Husker freshmen to see playing time.

Wistrom holds the school record for tackles for loss with 58.5 for 260 yards and ranks second with 26.5 sacks, had his No. 98 jersey retired during the 1998 season. His career totals include 206 total tackles, 26.5 sacks for 178 yards, one interception, four forced fumbles and one fumble recovery.

Wistrom was a two-time first-team CoSIDA Academic All-American and became the 13th Husker to win the NCAA's highest honor, the NCAA Top Eight Award, in 1997. He also earned the National Football Foundation and College Football Hall of Fame Postgraduate Scholarship following his senior campaign and was the Big 12 Male Athlete of the Year for the 1997-98 season. He graduated with a 3.43 GPA.
Honors include:
College Football Hall of Fame member (2009)
Voted as DE on the All-Time Cornhusker team
Recipient of the Lombardi Award, given to nation's top collegiate lineman (1997)
Recipient of the Bill Willis Trophy, given to nations top defensive lineman (1996)
Consensus All-America 1996, 1997
All-Big 12 Conference First-team  (1996, 1997)
Big 12 Defensive Player of the Year (1996, 1997)
Consensus Academic All-America (1996, 1997)
Academic All-Big 12 honors (1996, 1997)
Earned third-team All-America honors by Associated Press and first-team All-Big Eight Conference honors sophomore season (1995)
Selected as Newcomer of the Year by Big Eight conference freshman season (1994)

Collegiate statistics

Notes - Statistics include bowl game performances.

Professional career

Pre-draft

Wistrom was considered a "high energy player who (was) both durable and versatile and good against the run and pass",  Even after adding 15 pounds to his frame, Wistrom ran a personal best 4.61 40-yard dash at the University of Nebraska NFL pro day. Wistrom measured  and  at his pro day workout.

St. Louis Rams
Wistrom was  selected by the St. Louis Rams in the first round as the sixth overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft. On July 25, 1998, Wistrom signed a six-year, $12.765 million contract that included a $6 million signing bonus.

1998: Played in 13 games on defense and special teams and finished season with 30 tackles, three sacks, one fumble recovery and five special teams tackles and was named Rams Defensive Rookie of the Year by coaches.

1999: Started all 16 regular season and three playoff games at right defensive end and was selected to the 1999 All-Madden team by Fox Sports announcer John Madden while setting career highs in tackles (60), sacks (6.5), interceptions (two), interception returns for touchdown (two), passes defensed (seven), and one fumble recovery. Grant tied for team lead with two interceptions returned for touchdown. Won Super Bowl XXXIV.

2000: Started 16 games at right defensive end and had a career year, registering career-bests in tackles (71), sacks (11), and had 29 quarterback pressures, four passes defensed and one forced fumble, tying for seventh in NFC in sacks.

2001: Had best season of his career to date with recording a new career-highs with 96 tackles (47 solo) and two forced fumbles, and tied career bests with two interceptions and one fumble recovery. He finished second on the team with 9 sacks and had three passes defensed and 19 quarterback pressures and was 10th in NFC in sacks. In post-season action, he finished fifth on team with career-high 19 postseason tackles (11 solo) and second on club with two sacks.

2002: Played in 15 games with 14 starts. Finished season with another career-high 97 tackles (43 solo), including four for loss and also tallied 4.5 sacks, one interception, three passes defensed, one forced fumble, and career-high two fumble recoveries.

2003: Started all 16 regular season games and one postseason game for the Rams. Recorded career-high 108 tackles (57 solo) with 7.5 sacks, a forced fumble and a fumble recovery and four passes defensed.

Seattle Seahawks
After six seasons, including two Super Bowl appearances and one Super Bowl win, with the St. Louis Rams, Wistrom became a free agent. On March 4, 2004, he signed a six-year, $33 million contract that included a $14 million signing bonus with the Seattle Seahawks.

2004: Started all nine games he played. Suffered knee injury at New England (October 17, 2004) and was forced to miss weeks 7-10. Returned to play four games before reinjuring knee and missed the final three games and Wild Card Playoff Game. Finished the season with 38 total tackles (27 solo), 3.5 sacks, four passes defensed, a forced fumble, and a fumble recovery.

2005: Started all 16 regular season games. Finished the season with 52 tackles (41 solo), 4.0 sacks and six passes defensed, the second most he had ever recorded.

2006: Started all 16 regular season games (the fifth time in his nine-year professional career). Finished the season with 37 tackles (30 solo), 4.0 sacks, one forced fumble, one fumble recovery and one pass defensed. However, he played only 56 percent of the downs because of injuries and the arrival of pass-rushing linebacker Julian Peterson in free agency. Peterson replaced Wistrom as the right end in passing situations. As a result, Wistrom had his fewest tackles since his rookie season with the Rams.

Wistrom was released after the 2006 season after the Seahawks asked Wistrom to restructure his contract to reduce the $3.5 million salary he was due in 2007. The other option was being released, and Wistrom decided to go that route and later retired. Wistrom had collected $21 million of his free agent contract in those three seasons.

NFL statistics

Charity work

The Grant Wistrom Foundation, created in July 2002, strives to allow pediatric cancer patients opportunities to just be children. At a Foundation event they are able to connect with other children who understand their world as both a child and a patient, fostering friendships built on these common bonds.
The plight of young oncology patients was brought to Grant's attention during his senior year at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, when he befriended a young Husker fan with leukemia from his home state of Missouri. To help prepare the child for the loss of his hair during treatment, Grant, and Nebraska teammates Jason Peter and Jared Tomich, included Kendall in their pre-game ritual of shaving their heads and presented him with an honorary blackshirt jersey.

The Grant Wistrom Foundation consists of four programs:

Circle of Friends: The Circle of Friends experience begins with a four-day Wisconsin winter trip that brings together 40 pediatric oncology patients from 9 U.S. Cities. They enjoy skiing, tubing, disco bowling and snowmobiling, along with discussing the latest fashion trends and the newest music to hit the charts. For many of the participants these new friendships offer encouragement and support as they navigate through their course of recovery. Every two years the group is reunited on a summer trip where new adventures await them. Fellow Seattle Seahawk Jerry Wunsch, Brian Young of the New Orleans Saints, Rich Coady of the Dallas Cowboys, Jared Tomich of the Kansas City Chiefs and Chris Kelsay of the Buffalo Bills join Grant in hosting these events.

Local Outreach: The Foundation supports a number of events that have included, Kids Only Day at a Family Fun Center, a VIP Game Day party, Mom's Spa Day and a Dad's Mariners game outing.

Section 98: The Foundation donates ten tickets for each home Seahawks game to pediatric oncology patients and their families so that they may enjoy the Seahawks experience. Each guest receives a T-shirt and a pre game meal.

Charities for Children: The Foundation actively supports various children's organizations through financial and/or merchandise donations in Washington, Missouri, Nebraska and Illinois.

In addition to the work of his own Foundation, Grant continues to support the work of the Seattle Seahawks Community Outreach program

Notes

Grant logged his first sack in the NFL by forcing San Francisco 49ers quarterback Steve Young out of bounds in the first quarter on October 25, 1998.
Grant made his first interception in the NFL and returned it 91 yards for a touchdown against the Atlanta Falcons on October 17, 1999. The interception return was sixth longest in St Louis Rams franchise history and longest ever by Rams' defensive lineman.
Grant registered his career-high 17 tackles, including a career-high 10 solo, against the Baltimore Ravens on November 9, 2003.
Grant is the middle child of three boys. Grant's older brother, Chance, is a Superintendent and his younger brother, Tracey, is employed as a drug representative. Chance played college football at the University of Central Missouri, Tracey joined Grant at The University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Tracey was also drafted into the NFL, one of the last picks of the 2002 NFL Draft, but never played beyond the preseason.
Grant's father, Ron is the property manager for WIP Properties, and his mother, Kathy is co-owner of The Wax Bucket, a combination gift shop and candle manufacture which is located in Grove, Oklahoma.  Additionally, Kathy has authored the book Mrs Wistrom's ABCs: What I Learned Raising Three All-Americans, described as a practical, down-to-earth look at parenting.

References

External links

1976 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
Nebraska Cornhuskers football players
Seattle Seahawks players
St. Louis Rams players
All-American college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
People from Grove, Oklahoma
Sportspeople from Joplin, Missouri
People from Webb City, Missouri
Players of American football from Missouri

Grant Wistrom


Single transferable vote (STV for short) is a type of voting system that gives proportional representation. It is used to elect more than one person (though it becomes Instant Runoff Voting in one-winner elections), and voters rank the candidates when voting.

How to vote in an STV election

Write a number "1" next to your favourite candidate, a number "2" next to your second favourite, a number "3" next to your third favourite and so on.

How votes are counted

Each candidate needs a certain number of votes to be elected. This number depends on how many people are voting and on how many people are to be elected.

Then the number "1" votes for each candidate are counted. But it can happen that one candidate or several candidates have more than the needed number of votes. These candidates are elected. But since they have more votes than they needed, they pass on the votes which they do not need to other candidates. Which candidate or candidates get those "surplus" votes depends on the voters' number of "2" votes given on the ballots papers of the candidates that have already been elected. If those number "2" votes make another candidate win and give them too many votes, this new "surplus" is passed on again, using number "3" votes, and so on.

If not enough candidates have been elected so far, the candidate with the fewest votes is excluded. Votes for this candidate are passed on to the candidate given as the next preference of each of his voters (the next higher number in each listing of candidates). This may help to elect another candidate. If not, the next candidate which now has the fewest votes is excluded.

Passing on the "surplus" votes and excluding the weakest candidates goes on until the needed number of candidates has been elected.

Places that use STV
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Ireland
Malta
New Zealand
Australia
Northern Ireland
Scotland
India

Other websites

STV Action  a website that says STV should be used for all elections
VoteScotland.com a website about elections in Scotland

Voting systems

Single transferable vote


The coat of arms of Estonia is a golden shield which includes three slim, blue leopards (or lions passant guardant) in the middle, with oak branches along the side of the shield.

The coat of arms of Estonia has existed long before they were official recognized after the War of Independence between 1918 and 1920, when the Republic of Estonia was internationally recognized.

The symbol has been in use since the 13th century, where  the big coat of arms was used for the capital city, Tallinn. The origin of the slim blue lions can be traced back to the King of Denmark at the time, Valdemar the Second. As Denmark was the ruling power of Northern Estonia at the time, it imposed the coat of arms upon the state.

Estonia
Lions in heraldry
National symbols of Estonia

Coat of arms of Estonia


Preston City is a village and the original town center of the town of Preston, Connecticut.  The core of the village around the junction of Old Northwest Road and Route 164 is designated as the Preston City Historic District, a historic district that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  The district is located along Old Shetucket and Amos Roads, which, prior to the 1930s, were major thoroughfares.

The historic district was listed on the National Register in 1987.  It includes 24 contributing buildings, one other contributing structure, another contributing site, and three contributing objects.  It includes representation of Greek Revival, Georgian, and Federal architectural styles.

Historically, Preston City was one of three distinct settlements in the town, the others being Poquetanuck and Long Society. The first Congregational church in Preston City was founded in 1698.

Preston City prospered in its early years when the town of Preston was an important supplier of agricultural products to the port of Norwich on the Thames River, from which local farm goods were shipped to other ports on the east coast. The period of greatest prosperity was between the American Revolutionary War and about 1830, and is reflected in the architecture of the homes built by successful local farmers and merchants.

Historical significance
Preston City was established in 1686 as the town center for the newly designated town of Preston. The town of Preston was initially set up as an agricultural community for the port town of Norwich with Preston City as the focus for transporting farm goods to the larger town.

Contributing properties
Contributing properties in the district include a church, a library, a blacksmith shop, a former tavern, and a poorhouse, as well as houses and some barns.  All buildings are of wood-frame construction.

The Preston City Baptist Church was built in 1812.  The building was turned to a different orientation, and its "three-stage steeple and bell tower with a pyramidal roof" were added later, in 1832.

The James Treat House is the largest residence and is located prominently on Amos Road.  The "Mott and Downer House", a five-bay colonial house, are both on Amos Road and were both built before the American Revolutionary War.

The Calvin Barstow House, a Georgian colonial house surrounded by a picket fence, was built during 1786–1800.  It includes a meeting room for the St. James Masonic Temple.

The Aron B. Gates House, built c. 1830, on Northwest Corner Road, is a Greek Revival building.  It has a barn built c.1900.

The Thomas Meech House, built in 1795, on Northwest Corner Road, is Federal/Colonial.  It includes a facade overhang that is unique within the district.

The Rev. Augustus Collins House, built c. 1830, on Shetucket Road, is Greek Revival.

The "Old Town Pound" on Amos Road is a stone wall enclosure.  It served as a pound, a common feature of British medieval villages (where stray livestock might be held).

One house, the Ephraim Jones House, used to be the poorhouse of Preston and was originally built in 1733.

Other contributing elements include the Civil War Monument and Mott Memorial, erected in 1898.

Non-contributing elements include a Revolutionary War Monument dating from 1967 and the Downer-Doane Memorial Park, which, as of 1986, is maintained by the Preston Historical Society.

As of 1986, the district's area included only three modern intrusions.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut

References

External links

Preston, Connecticut
Villages in Connecticut
Villages in New London County, Connecticut
Historic districts in New London County, Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut
1686 establishments in Connecticut
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut

Preston City, Connecticut


Syncytium is a living tissue where there are no  complete cell walls (plants) or cell membranes (animals). Syncytia have cytoplasm and many nuclei, but are not divided into separate cells.

Examples
Fungal hyphae are often syncytia.
Lichen tissue may be syncytia with enclosed algal or bacterial cells.
Many insect eggs develop by nuclear division without cell membranes.
Skeletal muscles in vertebrates are syncytia: it allows rapid coordinated contraction of muscles along their entire length.
The placenta of mammals is a syncytium.

References

Cell biology

Syncytium


Arie de Geus (born 1930, died 2019) was a Dutch business executive, business theorist and scenario planner, who was the head of Royal Dutch Shell's Strategic Planning Group and was a public speaker.

Life and work
De Geus was born in Rotterdam in 1930. He joined Royal Dutch/Shell in 1951 and remained there until his retirement in 1989. During his tenure as head of Shell's Strategic Planning Group, the department made important advancements to the ideas of portfolio analysis (i.e. Directional Policy Matrix) and scenario planning.  Other key members of the team were Kees van der Heijden, Peter Schwartz, and Pierre Wack.

After he retired, Mr. de Geus was a visiting fellow of London Business School and has worked with MIT's Center for Organizational Learning.

A popular quote of his: "The ability to learn faster than your competitors may be the only sustainable competitive advantage."

Publications
 "The Living Company" Nicholas Brealey, London (1997)

Articles, a selection:
 "The Living Company," Harvard Business Review, 1997; winner of the McKinsey Award
 "Companies: What Are They?" Lecture Royal Society of Arts, 1995
 "Planning as Learning" Harvard Business Review (1988)

References

External links

Arie de Geus at ariedegeus.com
Dialog on leadership

1930 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Rotterdam
Dutch business theorists

Arie de Geus


Global apartheid is a term used to mean the worldwide control of resources, the economy, and government by an ethnic minority. The term comes from apartheid, a governmental system that ruled South Africa in which the Afrikaners, or "whites", controlled most of the resources and where non-whites were denied access to these resources. Apartheid or 'separate development' was introduced by the National Party after the 1948 election to protect European interests and identity by enforcing separation between the 'races'. The term is often used to describe the gap between whites and nonwhites, and global socioeconomic inequality, the existence of which has been proven by statistics. As in South Africa, there is a hierarchy of group rights in the world:

 citizens of the USA, UK and France, with veto powers in the Security Council, NATO and IMF, World Bank and global economic regimes;
 OECD and Western Alliance, who have the vote, access to courts and Western solidarity;
 other independent states represented on a regional basis and party to human rights conventions
 independent states which do not adhere to human rights conventions;
 occupied territories and peoples without states;
 refugees, asylum-seekers and stateless person.

Although not explicitly classified by race, this hierarchy is banded by colour. Nationality laws of most countries, and the European Union, explicitly enshrine this 'classification'.

European countries control most of the world's technology and weapons, and 20% of the global population, the richest percentage, take in 71.3% of income. Although most people of the world are not white, thereby making whites a minority, this minority often holds power in society. Most Western countries have laws against racial discrimination and active anti-racist movements, however much Western thought, law and action are exclusive, operating through institutional and indirect discrimination rather than overt racism. Their system of exclusion are more sophisticated, this prevents the West from exercising unconditional power in international affairs.

The term apartheid was famously used by Thabo Mbeki, the then-President of South Africa, in a 2002 speech, drawing comparisons the modern-day status of the world's people, economy, and access to natural resources to the apartheid era. Mbeki got the term from the book Unravelling Global Apartheid (1996) by Titus Alexander, initiator of Charter 99, a campaign for global democracy, who was present at the UN Millennium Summit.

References

International politics

Global apartheid


This page lists ways of testing English as a foreign language (EFL). It is for teachers of English who teach people whose first language is not English. It lists tests with brief descriptions.

Types of exam

Cambridge exams
The Cambridge exams are very popular in Europe. The University of Cambridge ESOL makes these exams. There are five exams for general English. Students take these exams in many schools. Students can take the exams in England or in schools in many other countries.

The Cambridge exams test:
Reading
Grammar
Speaking and listening.

The easiest exam is the KET. KET means Key English Test. The KET is the start of the Cambridge exams. The KET tests basic English.

The PET is more difficult. PET means Preliminary English Test. People with a PET know some English. They can survive social situations in English. They can also survive work situations in English. But they often find English difficult. They also make many mistakes.

The FCE is the most popular of the Cambridge English exam. FCE means First Certificate in English. The FCE is good for many businesses. People with a FCE can use English. They sometimes find English difficult. Normally they have no problems with English. But they make mistakes.

The CAE is a difficult exam. CAE means Certificate in Advanced English. The CAE is good for many universities. The CAE is also good for many businesses. People with a CAE have no problems working in England or United States of America.

The CPE is the most difficult exam. CPE stands for Certificate of Proficiency in English. People who have a CPE are very good at English. Their English is nearly as good as people who are from England or America. The CPE is good for universities. The CPE is also good for business. Many universities who teach courses in English want a CPE or CAE from foreign-language students.

There are two English exams systems for business. The Business English Certificate (BEC) is available at three levels comparable to PET, FCE and CAE above BEC means . The BULATS Business Language Testing Service is a single examination which can offer organisations or individuals the opportunity of assessing their current language level.

IELTS
The IELTS is the International English Language Testing System. This system is from the University of Cambridge, the British Council and IDP Education in Australia. It has one exam for academics or professionals, and one for people who want to live in an English-speaking country. Universities in Britain, Ireland, Australia, South Africa, Canada and New Zealand  often want an IELTS exam. IELTS is also becoming popular in North America. The IELTS tests: speaking, listening, writing and reading.

TOEFL
The TOEFL is a very popular English exam. It is very useful for student who wish to study in the United States of America. TOEFL means Test of English as a Foreign Language. The TOEFL is an academic exam. Many universities in America want a TOEFL exam.

In 2005 a new TOEFL was made. The new TOEFL uses Internet. Its name is Internet-Based TOEFL (iBT). The old TOEFLs did not stop. They are called Computer-Based TOEFL (CBT) and Paper-Based TOEFL, but are not now available in all countries.

TOEIC
The TOEIC is a general English exam. TOEIC means Test of English for International Communication. The exam has 200 questions. Every question is a multiple choice question. A multiple-choice question is a question where you choose which answer (e.g. a, b, c or d) is correct.

The result of the TOEIC is a number. This number is between 10 and 990. 990 is the best number. The TOEIC number is often used for jobs. Many jobs need a number higher than 600. Managers often need a number higher than 800.

LCCIEB
LCCIEB means London Chamber of Commerce and Industry Examinations Board. The LCCIEB makes many English exams. Many businesses like LCCIEB exams.

The EFB means English for Business. The EFB is a business English exam. It tests basic general English. It also tests more difficult business English.

The EFC means English for Commerce. The EFC is a business English exam. It tests business writing. It also tests business skills. Business skills are ideas how to manage a business. The EFC is more difficult than the EFB.

The PBE means Practical Business English. The PBE is a business English exam. It tests business speaking. It also tests business listening. The PBE is for basic English. People with a PBE can have a basic business conversation.

The SEFIC means Spoken English for Industry and Commerce. The SEFIC is a business English exam. It tests business speaking. It is more difficult than the PBE. It tests difficult business speaking. It also tests difficult business listening.

The WEFT means Written English for Tourism. The WEFT is an English business exam. It tests business speaking. It tests speaking at hotels. It also tests speaking in other parts of tourism. The WEFT also tests listening.

BULATS
The BULATS means Business Language Testing Service. The BULATS is a special exams for big companies. The BULATS are made for a company. The BULATS for another company is different.

Pitman
Pitman exams are made by the City and Guilds Group. There are two important English exams by Pitman.

The ESOL means English for Speakers of Other Languages. The ESOL tests English at many levels. The ESOL is good for going to many colleges. The Spoken ESOL is like the ESOL. But the Spoken ESOL only tests speaking and listening.

The EBC means English for Business Communications. The EBS is a business English exam. There are three levels.

CELS (ARELS/Oxford)
The CELS exams are English exams for people who want to study in England. CELS means "Certificates in Communicative Skills in English". The CELS exam comes from the old ARELS and Oxford exams; now they are Cambridge ESOL exams. The ARELS exam tests speaking and listening. The Oxford exam tests writing and reading. The new name of Arels and Oxford together is CELS.

There are three levels in the CELS exam. Preliminary is the easiest exam. Vantage is more difficult. Higher is the most difficult exam. People who have the CELS are very good at speaking English. These exams are good for universities.

This exam is different from some other exams because learners get one certificate (paper saying how good they are) for each part of the exam. A learner can have a high mark on the speaking certificate but a low one in writing, for example.

Compare exams
It is very difficult to compare English exams. Every exam is a little different.

In Europe, the ALTE says how different exams compare. The ALTE is the Association of Language Testers in Europe. It has 28 exam makers in it, and compares their exams in 24 languages. The ALTE says what learners can do at every step of learning. Because of this, they say the ALTE list is a "can-do" list. The ALTE list is a simple way to talk about the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEF). The CEF is from the Council of Europe.

This table shows what learners "can do" in normal English (not for work or studying) at the ALTE steps:

This table compares exams in ALTE:

Professional organizations
There are many groups of teachers, professors, and other experts that do research on English language testing. Some of these may be have good information to help teachers understand testing better.
The Japan Association for Language Teaching Testing & Evaluation Special Interest Group

Related pages
 English as a foreign language

Other websites
Official TOEIC English Proficiency Test Website  English
Toeic Language Test in France
Toeic Language Test in Spain
Toeic Language Test in Poland
Toeic Language Test in Germany
Toeic Language Test in GB
Toeic Languages Test in Italy
Official ETS EUROPE TOEFL website
valodas  - Free language learning software.
 English the international language

Language education
English language

Testing English as a foreign language


Traboules (from Latin transambulare via vulgar Latin trabulare meaning "to cross") are a type of secret covered passageways primarily associated with the city of Lyon, France, but also located in the French cities of Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Saint-Étienne, along with a few in Chambéry).  In Lyon, they were originally used by silk manufacturers and other merchants to transport their products.

Lyon
The first examples of traboules are thought to have been built in Lyon in the 4th century. Lacking water, the inhabitants moved to the banks of the Saône (in the 'lower town', at the foot of the Fourvière hill). The traboules thus allowed them to get from their homes to the river quickly and allowed the canuts on the La Croix-Rousse hill to get quickly from their workshops to the textile merchants at the foot of the hill. Thus the traboules of Lyon are located primarily in the 'old city' (5th arrondissement) and the Croix Rousse (1st and 4th arrondissements) and are often credited with helping prevent the occupying Germans from taking complete control of these areas during World War II. The "Traboule de la cour des Voraces" ("Traboule of the Voracious Court") is the most famous, located in the Croix-Rousse quarter. It is one of the landmarks of the Canut Revolts (canut is a local term for silk workers) and it is also the oldest reinforced concrete stairwell in Lyon.

The layout of Vieux Lyon is such that there are very few connecting streets running perpendicular to the river. The traboules allowed workmen and craftsmen to transport clothes and other textiles through the city while remaining sheltered from inclement weather. For many inhabitants, being a "true Lyonnais" requires being knowledgeable about the city's traboules. Nowadays, traboules are tourist attractions, and over forty are free and open to the public. Most traboules are on private property, serving as entrances to local apartments. Many, if not most, of the underground passages have been blocked off and are currently used as storage areas. Other former traboules remain accessible to the public but can now only be reached through one of the two original entrances, due to the other entrance now being closed. These are sometimes referred to as miraboules (from mirer, "to stare"), as sightseers may still admire the internal courtyard spaces, despite no longer being able to use them as thoroughfares.

See also
 History of Lyon
 Vieux Lyon

External links

 Website with photographs and five self-guided walking tours of Lyon's traboules

19th century in Lyon
20th century in Lyon
Roman Lyon
Medieval Lyon
Buildings and structures in Lyon
Types of secret places

Traboule


MESUR, the Mars Environmental SURvey was a NASA program designed to explore the planet Mars in preparation for human follow-up missions of the Space Exploration Initiative. The only mission of the program that was completed was MESUR Pathfinder.

History
MESUR was a planned set of 16 surface missions on Mars that would also set up a planetary network across Mars and work in conjunction with Mars Observer. The original plan was proposed by NASA Ames, but it would eventually include ideas from the competing JPL proposal. It was envisioned as a low-cost method of surveying Mars, with risk tolerance, since a loss of a spacecraft was not fatal to the program, because of multiple relatively cheap space probes.

MESUR Pathfinder would be the "pathfinder" mission for the MESUR program. MESUR regular missions would start landing in 1999. The multi-year MESUR would have 16 more landers, landing in the projected period of 1999-2003, and lasting 10 years. Launches would start in 1996. Several of the landers would carry Sojourner-class rovers. The entire program was projected at a cost of $1 billion US, with per annum spending restricted to $150 million US, starting in FY1994. They were planned to be low-cost missions to Mars, instead of multibillion-dollar missions.

The rovers and landers would have instruments and cameras to examine surface rocks, search for water, perform seismography, and observe meteorology. The seismology experiments would help determine the internal structure of Mars.

After Pathfinder, in 1999, four landers would be launched in a single rocket. At the next launch window in 2001, four more landers would again launch in on a single rocket. Finally in 2003, the last eight landers would launch on two rockets.

On 26 June 1992, NASA unveiled the prototype for Mars Sojourner, Rocky IV, on the 25th anniversary of the first US lunar lander.

After the loss of Mars Observer, the MESUR program was shelved, and Pathfinder became part of the NASA Discovery Program.

Missions

MESUR Pathfinder

The MESUR Pathfinder was launched on December 4, 1996 by NASA aboard a Delta II. After a 7-month voyage it landed on Ares Vallis, in a region called Chryse Planitia on Mars, on 4 July 1997. During its voyage the spacecraft had to accomplish four flight adjustments on 10 January, 3 February, 6 May and 25 June. The lander opened, exposing the rover called Sojourner that would go on to execute many experiments on the Martian surface.

Although the mission was programmed to last a week to a month, it eventually lasted for almost three months. The final contact with the Pathfinder was at 10:23 UTC on September 27, 1997. Although the mission planners tried to restore contact during the following five months, the successful mission was terminated on March 10, 1998. After the landing, the Mars Pathfinder was renamed the Sagan Memorial Station in honor of the famous astronomer and planetologist Carl Sagan. The mission had exceeded its goals in the first month.

References

Mars Pathfinder
Missions to Mars
NASA programs

MESUR


Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov (or Tschuprov) (Russian: Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Чупро́в) (Mosal'sk, February 18, 1874 - Geneva, April 19, 1926) Russian Empire statistician who worked on mathematical statistics, sample survey theory and demography.

Chuprov was born in Mosal'sk but grew up and was educated in Moscow where his father, Alexander Ivanovich (1842–1908), a distinguished economist and statistician, was a professor. Alexander Alexandrovich graduated from the physico-mathematical faculty of Moscow University in 1896 with a dissertation on "The theory of probability as the foundation of theoretical statistics." He spent the years 1897-1901 studying political economy in Germany, in Berlin and Strasbourg. His doctoral dissertation, supervised by Georg Friedrich Knapp (1842–1926)  Die Feldgemeinschaft, eine morphologische Untersuchung was published in 1902. The most important result of his stay in Germany was his friendship with the statistician Ladislaus Bortkiewicz. On his return to Russia and, in order to get a teaching position, Chuprov completed master's examinations at the University of Moscow, concentrating on theoretical economics and the application of mathematical methods. He started teaching at the St. Petersburg Polytechnical Institute and was in charge of the teaching of statistics until 1917.

Chuprov used to go abroad regularly to work in foreign libraries. In June 1917, he went to Stockholm to the Statistical Bureau. He was away from Russia when the Bolshevik Revolution occurred. He intended to return but first illness and then money problems prevented him. In January 1919, he became director of the statistical bureau of the Central Union in Stockholm and in charge of its publication Bulletin of World Economy. In the middle of 1920, he moved to Dresden where in complete seclusion he wrote furiously. In 1925, he took up an appointment with the Russian College in Prague. The following year he died.

Work and influence
Chuprov was influential both as a teacher and as a writer. The curriculum he designed for the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute was modern and his book on the theory of statistics was influential. He had some good students, the best known was Oskar Anderson. Chuprov's research was influenced by Bortkiewicz on the theoretical side and his father, A. I. Chuprov, on the empirical. Bortkiewicz was the leading exponent of the dispersion theory of Lexis and Chuprov contributed to this research. (There is a brief account of the history of this theory in Heyde & Seneta (1977.)) A. I. Chuprov was the leader of a movement to get statistical information on social conditions in Russia. By 1910, his son A. A. Chuprov was writing about the use of random sampling in such investigations. His work paralleled that of Bowley in England. Chuprov's first work on sampling was not mathematical but in the 1920s he developed the formula for optimal allocation in stratified sampling (to be rediscovered by Neyman in 1934 and usually associated with him). Chuprov also did demographic research.

Chuprov tried to bring together the approaches of Bortkiewicz and Lexis, of the Russian mathematicians and of the English biometricians. He watched developments in Britain and was sympathetic to the work of Karl Pearson, much more so than A. A. Markov with whom he corresponded on statistical matters. Both Chuprov and his student Oskar Anderson published in Pearson's journal Biometrika. Chuprov was not above telling the English off, "English scientific tradition rejects the concept of 'mathematical probability' ... and the method of mathematical expectation has naturally shared the fate of the concept ... on which it rests." For a brief period Chuprov was known in Britain. In John Maynard Keynes' Treatise on Probability (1921) he is put with Markov and Chebyshev as the three great Russian names in the theory of statistics. However, with the rise of Fisherian statistics, Chuprov was forgotten. In Scandinavia he had a more lasting influence, principally through the papers he published in the Skandinavisk Aktuarietidskrift.

Publications
Until recently (see Sheynin link below) only a few of Chuprov's many works were available in English
 Al. A. Tchouproff (1918) On the Mathematical Expectation of the Moments of Frequency Distributions, Biometrika, 12, No. 1/2, pp. 140–169.
 A. A. Chuprov (1924) On the Mathematical Expectation of the Moments of Frequency Distributions in the Case of Correlated Observations, Metron, 2, 461–493, 646–683.
 A. A. Tschuprow Principles of the Mathematical Theory of Correlation; translated by M. Kantorowitsch. W. Hodge & Co. 1939
 The Correspondence between A.A. Markov and A.A. Chuprov on the Theory of Probability and Mathematical Statistics, ed. Kh.O. Ondar (1981, Springer)

Obituaries
 L. I. (Leon Isserlis) (1926) Alexander Alexandrovitch Tschuprow, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 89, No. 3 (May, 1926), pp. 619–622.
 J. M. K. (John Maynard Keynes) (1926) Obituary: Professor A. A. Tschuprow, Economic Journal, Vol. 36, No. 143 (Sep., 1926), pp. 517–518.

Discussion
 E. Seneta (2001) Aleksander Aleksandrovich Chuprov, Statisticians of the Centuries (ed. C. C. Heyde and E. Seneta) pp. 303–307. New York: Springer.
 E. Seneta "Chuprov, Alexander Alexandrovich," pp. 185–7 in Leading Personalities in Statistical Sciences from the Seventeenth Century to the Present,  (ed. N. L. Johnson and S. Kotz) 1997. New York: Wiley. Originally published in Encyclopedia of Statistical Science.
 O Sheynin, Aleksandr A Chuprov : life, work, correspondence. The making of mathematical statistics (Göttingen, 1996).
 E. Seneta (1985) A Sketch of the History of Survey Sampling in Russia, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 148, 118–125.
 C. C. Heyde & E. Seneta (1977) I. J. Bienaymé: Statistical Theory Anticipated, New York: Springer.

External links

The richest source of information about Chuprov is Oscar Sheynin's article:
Alexandr Chuprov Statistical Papers and Memorial Publications
(The same website now [2007] also offers a downloadable version, in Russian, of the recently discovered Bortkiewicz-Chuprov correspondence 1895–1926.)

The MacTutor site does not have an entry for Chuprov but it has entries for Chuprov's 'masters', Bortkiewicz and Lexis, and his student, Oskar Anderson.
Wilhelm Lexis
Ladislaus Josephowitsch Bortkiewicz
Oskar Anderson

There is a photograph of Chuprov at
Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov on the Portraits of Statisticians page.

The photograph also appears on the Russian Academy of Sciences website, as does one of his father A. I. Chuprov.
 Aleksandr Ivanovich Chuprov

1874 births
1926 deaths
People from Mosalsky District
People from Mosalsky Uyezd
Statisticians from the Russian Empire
Imperial Moscow University alumni
Academic staff of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to Sweden
Swedish emigrants to Germany
German emigrants to Czechoslovakia

Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov


威廉·傑克·鮑莫爾(,),美國經濟學家,紐約大學經濟學系教授,同時也是普林斯頓大學教授。他做了大量有關勞動市場和其他影響經濟之要素的研究,此外也還做了對經濟思想史方面重要的貢獻。鮑莫爾較廣為人知的研究有可競爭市場、交易性貨幣需求的鮑莫爾-托賓模型、鮑莫爾成本病、庇古稅等。

生平
2006年,美國經濟學會的年度會議中,特別地以鮑莫爾的名字為名召開,會中更介紹了鮑莫爾教授12篇有關企業家精神的論文,推崇尊敬他多年來在這方面的研究貢獻。

著作

"Community Indifference", 1946, RES
"A Community Indifference Map: A construction", 1949, RES.
"A Formalization of Mr. Harrod's Model", 1949, EJ.
"The Analogy between Producer and Consumer Equilibrium Analysis", with Helen Makower, 1950, Economica.
Economic Dynamics, with R. Turvey, 1951.
"The Transaction Demand for Cash: An inventory-theoretic approach", 1952, QJE.
"The Classical Monetary Theory: The outcome of the discussion", with G.S. Becker, 1952, Economica.
Welfare Economics and the Theory of the State, 1952.
"Firms with Limited Money Capital", 1953, Kyklos.
Economic Processes and Policies, with L.V. Chandler, 1954.
"More on the Multiplier Effect of a Balanced Budget", with M.H. Peston, 1955, AER.
"Acceleration without Magnification", 1956, AER.
"Variety in Retailing", with E.A. Ide, 1956 Management Science.
"Speculation, Profitability and Stability", 1957, REStat.
"Activity Analysis in One Lesson", 1958, AER.
"On the Theory of Oligopoly", 1958, Economica.
"Topology of Second Order Linear Difference Equations with Constant Coefficients", 1958, Econometrica.
"The Cardinal Utility which is Ordinal", 1958, EJ.
Business Behavior, Value and Growth, 1959.
"Integer Programming and Pricing", with R.E. Gomory, 1960, Econometrica.
Economic Theory and Operations Analysis, 1961.
"What Can Economic Theory Contribute to Managerial Economics?", 1961, AER.
"Pitfalls in Contracyclical Policies: Some tools and results", 1961, REStat.
"The Theory of Expansion of the Firm", 1962, AER.
"Stocks, Flows and Monetary Theory", 1962, QJE.
"An Expected Gain-Confidence Limit Criterion for Portfolio Selection", 1963, Management Science.
"Rules of Thumb and Optimally Imperfect Decisions", with R. E. Quandt, 1964, American Economic Review, 54, p. 23-46
"Decomposition, Pricing for Decentralization and External Economics", with T.Fabian, 1964, Management Science.
"On the Performing Arts: the anatomy of their economic problems", with W.G. Bowen, 1965, AER.
"Investment and Discount Rates Under Capital Rationing", with R.E.Quandt, 1965, EJ.
"Informed Judgement, Rigorous Theory and Public Policy", 1965, Southern EJ.
The Stock Market and Economic Efficiency, 1965.
Performing Arts: the economic dilemma, 1966.
"The Ricardo Effect in Point-Input, Point-Output Case", 1966, Essays in Mathematical Economics in Honor of Oskar Morgenstern.
"Macroeconomics of Unbalanced Growth: The anatomy of urban crisis", 1967, AER.
"Calculation of Optimal Product and Retailer Characteristics", 1967, JPE.
"The Firm's Optimal Debt-Equity Combination and the Cost of Capital", with B.G. Malkiel, 1967, QJE.
"Error Produced by Linearization in Mathematical Programming", with R. Bushnell, 1967, Econometrica.
"The Dual of Nonlinear Programming and its Economic Interpretation", with M.L.Balinski, 1968, RES.
"Entrepreneurship in Economic Theory", 1968, May, American Economic Review
"On the Social Rate of Discount", 1968, AER.
"On the Discount Rate for Public Projects", 1969, Analysis and Evaluation of Public Expenditures.
"Input Choices and Rate-of-Return Regulation: An overview of the discussion", with A.K.Klevorick, 1970, Bell JE.
"Optimal Departures from Marginal Cost Pricing", with D.F. Bradford, 1970, AER.
"The Economics of Athenian Drama", 1971, QJE.
Environmental protection, International Spillovers and Trade, 1971.
"On the Economics of the Theatre in Renaissance London" with Mary Oates, 1972, Swedish JE.
"The Dynamics of Urban Problems and its Policy Implications", 1972, in Preston and Corry, editors, Essays in Honor of Lord Robbins.
"Taxation and the Control of Externalities", 1972, AER.
"Detrimental Externalities and Non-Convexity of the Production Set", with D.F. Bradford, 1972, Economica.
"The Transformation of Values: What Marx 'Really' Meant", 1974, JEL.
The Theory of Environmental Policy, with W.E.Oates, 1975.
Economics, Environmental Policy and Quality of Life, with W.E.Oates and S.A. Batey Blackman 1979.
Contestable Markets and the Theory of Industry Structure, with J.C. Panzar and R.D. Wilig, 1982
"Contestable Markets: An Uprising in the Theory of Industry Structure", 1982, "AER".
Microtheory: Applications and origins, 1986
Superfairness: Application and theory, with D. Fischer, 1986
"The Optimal Cash Balance Proposition: Maurice Allais' Priority", with J. Tobin, 1989, JEL
Productivity and American Leadership: The long view, with S.A. Batey Blackman and E.N. Wolff, 1989.
Entrepreneurship: Productive, Unproductive and Destructive, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 98(3), pp. 893–921, 1990
Perfect Markets and Easy Virtue: Business ethics and the invisible hand, with S.A. Batey Blackman, 1992
Entrepreneurship, Management and the Structure of Profit, 1993.
The Free Market Innovation Machine: Analyzing the Growth Miracle of Capitalism, 2002.
Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity, co-authored with Robert Litan and Carl J. Schramm, 2007
The Cost Disease: Why Computers get Cheaper and Healtcare Doesn't, 2012

参考文献

外部連結
 Baumol home page
 IDEAS/RePEc

美国经济学家
紐約大學教師
普林斯顿大学教授
紐約市立學院校友
倫敦政治經濟學院校友
环境经济学家
创新经济学家
美國經濟學會會長

威廉·鮑莫爾