The First Epistle to the Timothy is the fifty-fourth book in the Christian Bible, and the fifteenth in the New Testament.

This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Timothy. It  is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible that are called the Pastoral Epistles, along with Second Timothy and Titus. These letters are called "pastoral", because the are sent to persons who are pastors of Christian churches.Timothy was a pastor in Ephesus (Chapter 1, verse 3). The letter gives advice on the organization of the Church and how the leaders in it should act. They are also told to be faithful to the truth even though all around them were false ideas.

Background
For many years Paul was a mentor to Timothy. Timothy is first mentioned in chapter 16 of the Book of Acts. His mother Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are mentioned in 2 Timothy Chapter 1, verse 5. All that we know of his father is that he was a Greek, not a Jew.

Paul's second visit to Lystra, a city in Asia Minor is when Timothy first met Paul; (). Paul not only brought Timothy into the faith but he was Timothy's main mentor in Christian leadership (). They preached and started churches together. Timothy would have received his authority to preach in churches directly from Paul who of course was the greater known and accepted of the two and an apostle.

Content of the letter

The most important things in the letter are the use of The Law (), warnings against false teachings, instructions for prayer (), roles of women in the church, qualifications for leaders of the church (), and the treatment of widows, elders, masters, youth, and church members in general. The verse about women teaching, Chapter 2,verse 12 is much talked about in churches that do or do not allow women to be pastors.  There are many different ideas about what this verse means.

Other websites
 I Timothy (NIV)
 I Timothy (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books

First Epistle to Timothy


Ester Dorothea Almqvist (3 November 1869 – 11 June 1934) was a Swedish artist who was a pioneer of Expressionist painting in Sweden.

Family and education
Almqvist was born in Bromma but spent her childhood in Stockholm, where her parents taught in a school for Christian missionaries. She is the female artist who is represented with most artworks in the collections of Malmö Konstmuseum, a total of 2,083 pieces. She had specified in her will that her collection of oil and watercolour paintings, charcoal, pastel and ink drawings, graphic pages and sketchbooks should be donated to that particular museum. Her father, a priest, died when she was nine. Her mother worked as a private tutor and book seller for the sake of providing for her family.  Almqvist was born with a deformed spine that limited her mobility throughout her life but also gave her freedom to study art instead of being confined to housework.

She attended the Technical School in Stockholm, graduating in 1891, and she studied art privately with the painter Gustaf Cederström. She continued her art studies at the Valand Art Academy in Gothenburg (1892–1893) and then at the Konstnärsförbundets skola in Stockholm (1894–1895). Her teachers included Per Hasselberg and Bruno Liljefors. While in school, she supported herself by commercial book illustration work. Later, she was a member of the women's association Nya Idun.

Art career
Almqvist spent most of her working life in Lund, and some of her best-known paintings are of the surrounding areas of Skåne province. She began exhibiting in the late 1890s and participated in the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.

Almqvist's early work is Impressionist in style and conforms to what was then the prevailing  mood of gentle melancholy in Swedish painting. After her mother's death she turned to Expressionism, and her mature paintings from about 1913 onward share a strong kinship with the work of Vincent van Gogh, featuring vigorous brushwork, strong colors, and heavy lines.

Almqvist belonged to a group of Swedish women artists who traveled, worked, exhibited, and sometimes lived together, including Tora Vega Holmström, Agnes Wieslander, and Maja Fjæstad. In her last year of life, when back pain made it impossible to work, a younger generation of women artists, such as Vera Nilsson, Mollie Faustman, and Siri Derket mounted an exhibition of her work in Stockholm honoring her as an early Swedish modernist. Broader recognition came only after her death in 1934, however.  Another exhibit was organized in Lund at the Skånska Konstmuseum a year after she died by a friend Nils Gösta Sandblad.  Four years after she died, a retrospective was held at the Galerie Moderne in Brussels. In Almqvist's will, she insisted her artwork would be donated to the Malmö Art Museum.  Her work is now in the collection of the Swedish National Museum, the Gothenburg Art Museum, the Malmö Art Museum, and other institutions, and she is widely recognized as a pioneer of Expressionism in Sweden.

In 1992, her painting entitled The Meeting (, 1929) was chosen for a Swedish postage stamp honoring Article 20 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which protects freedom of association.

Her papers are held by Lund University.

References

This page is a partial translation from :sv:Ester Almqvist. Sources cited on that page include:
 Boëthius, Gerda: "Ester Almqvist". In Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, 1918. (In Swedish)
 Rausing, Birgit. Ester Almqvist och hennes krets. Lund: Signum, 1998. (In Swedish)

Further reading

External links

1869 births
1934 deaths
20th-century Swedish painters
Swedish women painters
Swedish painters
Expressionist painters
20th-century Swedish women artists
20th-century Swedish artists
Members of Nya Idun

Ester Almqvist


Bryan Gunn plaed for the Scots naitional fitbaw team. He an aa plaed for Aberdeen F.C., Hibernian F.C. an Norwich Ceety F.C.

1963 births
1990 FIFA Warld Cup players
Livin fowk
Aberdeen F.C. players
Association fitbaw goalkeepers
Hibernian F.C. players
Norwich City F.C. managers
Norwich City F.C. players
Sportsfowk frae Thurso
Premier League players
Scotland B internaitional fitbawers
Scotland internaitional fitbawers
Scottish Football League players
Scots fitbaw managers
Scots fitbawers
English Football League players
The Football League managers
Scotland unner-21 internaitional fitbawers
Norwich City F.C. caiptains

Bryan Gunn


Denbighshire () is a coonty in north-east Wales.  It is namit efter the historic coonty o Denbighshire, but haes substantially different borders. Denbighshire haes the destinction o being the auldest inhabitit pairt o Wales. Pontnewydd (Bontnewydd-Llanelwy) Palaeolithic site haes remains o Neanderthals frae 225,000 years ago. There are several castles in the region- Denbigh Castle, Rhuddlan Castle, Ruthin Castle, Castell Dinas Bran an Bodelwyddan Castle.

Formation

The present principal aurie wis formit on 1 Aprile 1996, unner the Local Govrenment (Wales) Act 1994, frae various pairts o the coonty o Clwyd. It includit the destrict o Rhuddlan (which wis formit in 1974 entirely frae Flintshire), the commonties o Trefnant an Cefn Meiriadog frae the destrict o Colwyn (which wis entirely Denbighshire) an maist o the Glyndŵr destrict. The pairt o the Glyndŵr destrict includit the entirety o the umwhile Edeyrnion Rural Destrict, which wis pairt o the admeenistrative coonty o Merionethshire prior tae 1974 – which covered the parishes o Betws Gwerfil Goch, Corwen, Gwyddelwern, Llangar, Llandrillo yn Edeirnion an Llansanffraid.

Ither principal auries containing pairt o historic Denbighshire are Conwy, which pickt up the remainder o the 1974–1996 Colwyn, an the Denbighshire pairts o the 1974–1996 Aberconwy an aw, an Wrexham, which corresponds tae the pre-1974 burgh o Wrexham alang wi maist o the Wrexham Rural Destrict an several parishes frae Glyndŵr an aw.

The post-1996 Powys includes the historic Denbighshire parishes o Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant, Llansilin an Llangedwyn, which haed formit pairt o Glyndŵr destrict.

Geography
See Leet o places in Denbighshire for a leet o touns an veelages.

The aurie is maistly hilly moorland, wi the Clwydian Range in the east, the Hiraethog Moors (Mynydd Hiraethog) in the wast an the Berwyn range adjacent tae the soothren boondary. The broad, fertile Vale o Clwyd runs sooth tae north in the centre, an thare is a narrae coastal plain in the north. Average temperaturs are 2 °C in Januar an 19 °C in Julie.

Population
Denbighshire's total population at the Unitit Kinrick Census 2001 wis 93,065, wi the lairgest touns on the coast at Rhyl (pop. c.25,000) an Prestatyn (pop. c.18,000). The inland touns are hintle smawer, Denbigh haeing a population o 8,500, Ruthin 5,000, an Llangollen 3,300. 28% o the population speaks Welsh, mainly in the upland aurie an the Vale o Clwyd.

Economy
There are nae hivy industrial sites in the county although most of the towns have small industrial parks or estates for light industry, the economy of the area being based on agricultur and tourism. A muckle proportion of the working population is employed in service industries in the service sector. The uplands support the rearing of sheep and beef cattle, while in the Vale of Clwyd dairy farming and the growing of wheat and baurley crops predominates.

On 19 November 2004, Denbighshire wis grantit Fairtrade County status.

Denbighshire is hame tae Wales lairgest Medieval Festival, stagit annually ower the seicont weekend in August at Bodelwyddan Castle.

See an aw
 List of Lord Lieutenants of Denbighshire
 List of High Sheriffs of Denbighshire
 Denbighshire (UK Parliament constituency)
 Leet o places in Denbighshire

Freemit airtins

 Denbighshire landscape

Coonties o Wales
Principal auries o Wales

Denbighshire


Louis-Claude Daquin (or D'Aquino, d'Aquin, d'Acquin; July 4, 1694 – June 15, 1772) was a French composer, writing in the Baroque and Galant styles. He was a virtuoso organist and harpsichordist.

Life
Louis-Claude Daquin was born in Paris to a family originating from Italy, where his great-great-grandfather took the name D'Aquino after converting to Catholicism in the town of Aquino. Louis-Claude's parents were Claude Daquin, a painter, and Anne Tiersant, a grand-niece of Rabelais. One of Louis-Claude's grand-uncles was a professor of Hebrew at the Collège de France, and another was the principal physician of King Louis XIV.

Daquin was a musical child prodigy.  He performed for the court of Louis XIV at the age of six. He was for a while a pupil of Louis Marchand.  At the age of 12, he became organist at the Sainte-Chapelle, and in the following year took a similar post at the Church of Petit Saint Antoine. In 1722 he married Denise-Thérèse Quirot.

Louis-Claude Daquin never lacked for work as an organist.  In 1727 he was appointed organist at the Church of Saint Paul in Paris, ahead of Jean-Philippe Rameau who was also a candidate. Five years later, Daquin succeeded his teacher Marchand as organist at the Church of the Cordeliers.  In 1739 he became organist to King Louis XV at the Chapelle Royale. In 1755 he was made titular organist at Notre-Dame Cathedral, succeeding Guillaume-Antoine Calvière.

By reputation a dazzling performer at the keyboard, Daquin was courted by the aristocracy, and his great expertise at the organ drew large crowds to hear him.  He was known for his "unfaltering precision and evenness" at both the harpsichord and organ.

Compositions
At the age of eight, he conducted his own choral work Beatus Vir.

Daquin's surviving music includes four harpsichord suites, the c.1757 Nouveau livre de noëls for organ and harpsichord (settings of Christmas carols, which include some of his harpsichord improvisations), a cantata, an air à boire, and manuscripts of two Masses, a Te Deum, a Miserere, and Leçons de Ténèbres.  Among the most famous of his works are the Swiss Noël (Noël Suisse, No. XII from his Nouveau livre) and The Cuckoo (Le coucou, from his 1735 harpsichord suite, Pièces de clavecin, Troisième Suite).

Among technical innovations, his Trois cadences for harpsichord contains a triple trill.

The Noëls
For Daquin's twelve published Noëls, French organist Jean-Claude Duval has sourced the following old texts:
I. Noel, sur les jeux d'Anches sans tremblant: «À la venuë de Noël»
II Noel, en dialogue, Duo, Trio, sur le cornet de récit, les tierces du positif et la pédalle de Flûte: «Or nous dites Marie»
III Noel en Musette, en Dialogue, et en Duo: «Une bergère jolie»
IV Noel en Duo, sur les jeux d'Anches, sans tremblant: «Noël, cette journée»
V Noel en Duo: «Je me suis levé» or «Ô jour glorieux»
VI Noel, sur les jeux d'Anches, sans tremblant, et en Duo: «Qu'Adam fut un pauvre homme»
VII Noel, en Trio et en Dialogue, le cornet de récit de la main droitte, la Tierce du Positif de la main gauche: «Chrétiens qui suivez l'Église»
VIII Noel Étranger, sur les jeux d'anches sans tremblant et en Duo: «?» (foreign carol, perhaps Italian)
IX Noel, sur les Flûtes: «Noël pour l'amour de Marie» and «Chantons, je vous prie»
X Noel, Grand jeu et Duo: «Quand Dieu naquit à Noël» or «Bon Joseph, écoutez-moi»
XI Noel, en Récit en Taille, sur la Tierce du Positif, avec la Pédalle de Flûte, et en Duo: «Une jeune Pucelle»
XII Noel Suisse, Grand jeu, et Duo: «Il est un p'tit l'ange» or «Ô Dieu de clémence»

Media

Discography
 Louis Claude Daquin, l'œuvre intégrale pour orgue / Louis Claude Daquin, Complete organ works. Marina Tchebourkina at the Great Organ of the Royal Chapel of the Palace of Versailles. — Natives, 2004. (EAN 13 : 3760075340049)

References

External links

 Click these links to listen to three Noëls on the organ:
Noël sur les anches (No. VI)
Noël sur les flûtes (No. IX)
Noël en sol (No. X)

1694 births
1772 deaths
Composers from Paris
French male classical composers
French Baroque composers
Composers for pipe organ
French classical organists
French male organists
Cathedral organists
French harpsichordists
Child classical musicians
18th-century keyboardists
18th-century classical composers
18th-century French composers
18th-century French male musicians
Male classical organists

Louis-Claude Daquin


Ahl al-Kisā' ( Orang-orang Berjubah) merujuk kepada Rasul dan Nabi terakhir, Muhammad, anak perempuannya Fatimah az-Zahra, sepupu dan menantunya Ali bin Abi Talib, serta kedua-dua cucu Nabi Muhammad iaitu Hasan and Husayn. Mereka semua juga disebut sebagai Āl al-'Abā () atau Panj-tan-e Āl-e Abā () atau ringkasnya Panj tan (, yang bererti yang lima). Asal usul kepercayaan ini ditemui dalam Hadis Tentang Peristiwa Berjubah (Hadith of the Event of the Cloak) dan Hadis Mubahalah (Mubāhalah), dua hadis yang telah disahkan untuk diterima pakai oleh kedua-dua Mazhab Islam Sunni dan Syiah di mana yang kedua-duanya telah diakui benar hanya mempunyai perbezaan dari aspek tafsiran fiqh sahaja, tetapi masih tetap sama dari segala aspek tafsiran aqidah dan keimanannya kepada Allah dan Rasulullah.

Perkara tersebut adalah merupakan perkara pokok atau perkara asas dalam konsep Islam Syiah Imamah (doktrin Syiah), yang menyatakan bahawa keturunan nasab bapa Nabi Muhammad memiliki kepimpinan rohani khusus di kalangan komuniti Muslim. Ahl al-Kisa, bersama dengan keturunan mereka, para Imam, telah membentuk takrifan Syiah tentang Ahlul Bait (Ahli-ahli Rumah), istilah yang digunakan untuk merujuk kepada ahli keluarga Muhammad.

Ketiga-tiga cabang Islam Syiah berbeza tentang sifat asli golongan Ahl al-Kisa dan para Imam. Dua cabang besar daripadanya, Imamiyah dan Ismailiyah, menganggap mereka berada dalam keadaan Ismah "tidak mungkin melakukan kesilapan", suatu keyakinan yang berasal dari ayat penyucian dalam al-Quran.
Sebaliknya, cabang ketiga, para Zaidi, melihat mereka hanya sebagai tokoh politik dengan tugas untuk memimpin pemberontakan bagi melawan pihak pemerintah/penguasa yang korup.

Hadis Golongan Berjubah
Hadis daripada Golongan Berjubah atau dalam bahasa Inggerisnya (The Hadith of The Cloak) (Arabic:  Hadith-e-Kisa) merujuk kepada Ahl al-Kisa. Hadis adalah kisah dari sebuah kejadian di mana Nabi Islam Nabi Muhammad berkumpul bersama Hassan bin Ali, Hussein bin Ali, Ali bin Abi Talib dan Fatimah di bawah jubahnya(lamparan jubah yang besar).Perkara ini diterangkan dalam banyak Periwayatan Hadis, termasuklah Hadis yang yang diriwayatkan oleh Sahih Muslim, di mana Nabi Muhammad secara istimewanya telah mengatakan frasa Ahl al-Bayt (bermaksud rumah tangga Muhammad atau, harfiahnya, orang-orang rumah) daripada bahagian kedua dari ayat 33:33 daripada Al Quran, ayat disebut "Ayat Al-Tathir" atau "ayat penyucian".

Ini adalah pusat hadith dalam hal perbezaan antara Syiah dan Sunni umat Islam (bersama dengan beberapa hadith dan Ayat dalam Al Quran ) kerana ini adalah asas bagi Syiah menyatakan bahawa umat Islam seharusnya hanya tinggal bersama sistem kerajaan yang mengamalkan nasab keturunan dengan garis langsung Nabi Muhammad melalui Fatimah dan Ali bin Abi Talib, selain juga sebagai asas bagi mereka untuk melanjutkan dakwaan bahawa keturunan tertentu Muhammad adalah sempurna: titik-titik penerangan ini membuatkan masyarakat Sunni Muslim sangat tidak bersetuju. Mereka (Muslim Sunni) mendakwa bahawa istilah tersebut mempunyai makna yang lebih luas dan tidak hanya tertentunya akan kuasanya tersebut hanya dalam keluarga Nabi Muhammad sahaja secara eksklusif. Muslim Sunni juga mendakwa bahawa adalah mungkin (adil) untuk setiap orang yang hidup benar-benar dalam iman Islam turut boleh mencapai kemurnian atau kuasa kerohanian yang jitu.

Pandangan Sunni Muslim
Berkenaan ayat, Sunni mempertiaki bahawa ayat ini berkenaan kepentingan rohani atau kuasa isteri Nabi Muhammad dana keturunannya atau pekerjanya (ahli isi rumahnya - 'Bayt' bererti rumah), for in the verse some un-authentic Sunni hadiths nonetheless relate the legacy of Muhammad to the definition of Ahl al-Bayt. But its not for the physical succession.
 Sahih Muslim Book 031, Number 5955:

'''A'isha reported that Muhammad went out one morning wearing a striped cloak of the black camel's hair that there came Hasan b. 'Ali. He wrapped him under it, then came Husain and he wrapped him under it along with the other one (Hasan). Then came Fatima and he took her under it, then came 'Ali and he also took him under it and then said: Allah only desires to take away any uncleanliness from you, O people of the household, and purify you (thorough purifying)

Pandangan Syiah Muslim
Shi'a writers claim that the narrative shows that Muhammad, Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn are the sole members of "Ahl al-Bayt" (lit. people of the house). Shias view this as an illustration of God's confirmation of the purity and sinlessness of those five, "Ahl al-Bayt". This, and other events, leading to the doctrine of the sinlessness of the Ahl al-Bayt. i.e., that Ahl al-Bayt are given the exclusive guardianship of Islam by Allah, since they alone are sinless.

This is a very important hadith for Shia Muslims, along many more ahadith and verses in the Qur'an, as the foundation for the Shia claim that governorship of the Muslim community should be only in the posterity of Muhammad as the base for claims that some descendants of Muhammad are infallible (ismah).

Ringkasan dari Perbalahan

Konteks
Sunni Scholars hold that the wives of Muhammad were included in the second part of the verse 33:33, since they are addressed in the beginning of verse 33:33. Sunnis reject the notion that the end of this verse would be a stand-alone blessing, meant exclusively for Muhammad, Ali, Fatima, Hasan and Husain, as they have in mind the context of the verse as a whole and the one preceding it.

The Shia counter-argument claims that the verse itself says "only", implying that the blessing of this merit is exclusive to a single group and one other than the wives. i.e., Allah desires to keep away the uncleanness from "only" you, "O people of the House", and not from anyone else, and this is why the six stern commandments of the other verses are given to the wives, because they are not protected and must act accordingly; the "people of the house", on the other hand, need no such instructions. The Shi'a also point out that the rhetoric changes to a masculine tone in the final part of the verse whereas is was feminine before that.

Jantina
Shias also argue that the first part of the verse addresses a person or group in the feminine gender, while the second part addresses in the masculine gender, meaning that at least one person in the group is a male.

Wilfred Madelung makes the following observation on the verse of purification: "Who are the 'people of the house' here? The pronoun referring to them is in the masculine plural, while the preceding part of the verse is in the feminine plural. This change of gender has evidently contributed to the birth of various accounts of a legendary character, attaching the latter part of the verse to the five People of the Mantle (ahl al-kisā'): Muhammad, 'Ali, Fātima, Hasan and Husayn. In spite of the obvious Shí'ite significance, the great majority of the reports quoted by al-Tabari in his commentary on this verse support this interpretation." Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad, p. 14-15.[1]

Insiden Mubahalah
According to the Sunni hadith collections, it is narrated that during the 9th - 10th year after hijra an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to the Muhammad
(Sullah ho Alae hey wa Alaehi Wasalam) to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus (Quran 3:61). Muhammad (Sullah ho Alae hey wa Alaehi Wasalam) offered to do the Arabic tradition known as Mubahala, where each conflicting party should cover themselves, and together all parties ask God sincerely to destroy and inflict with curses on the lying party and their families. Muhammad (Sullah ho Alae hey wa Alaehi Wasalam), to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah (Razi Allah Taellah Anho) and his surviving grandchildren, Hasan and Hussein, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family (Ahl) and covered himself and his family with a cloak.

The Shia claim that this authentic hadith proves whom the Quran is referring to when it mentions the Ahlul-Bayt (Arabic: أهل البيت or Household), which includes only Ali(Karam Allah Wajaho), Fatimah(Razi Allah Taellah Anho), and their descendants. Sunni dispute that this verse was about Muhammad(Sallallahu Alaihi wa Salaam)'s wives and their children and even their servants.

Pandangan Syiah Muslim
The Shia celebrate this event as Eid-e Mubahala. This hadith provides the background for the "purification verse" or ayah al-tatheer from surah Al-Ahzab in the Quran wherby Allah explicitly identified who are the Ahlul Bayt:

"And abide quietly in your homes, and do not flaunt your charms as they used to flaunt them in the old days of pagan ignorance; and be constant in prayer, and render the purifying dues, and pay heed unto Allah and His Apostle: Allah wishes to remove all filth and impurity from you, O People of the House of the Prophet, and to render you utterly free of all pollution." (33:33)

The tradition about this hadith goes from different sources to Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad. She narrated that once her father visited her home, he had fever and was not feeling well, he asked for a Yemeni cloak which Fatimah brought to him and folded it around him. Later he was joined in that Yemeni cloak by his grandsons Hasan and Hussein, who were followed by their father Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. Finally Fatimah asked the permission to enter that cloak. When all five of them joined together under the cloak, Muhammad narrated the Quranic verse 33:33 to those under the cloak that all five of them are chosen ones, and he further stated that he wants from Allah to keep all impurities out of reach and away from all of us. Muhammad then prayed to Allah to declare all five of them as his Ahlul Bayt and keep away the Najasat (impurities). Allah at that request immediately sent Gabriel to reveal to Muhammad that all the five under the cloak are dearest and closest to Allah and they are Taher (purest of the pure) without any traces of impurities.

Pandangan Sunni Islam
Many Sunni scholars remark that the "purification verse" was revealed concerning five people: Muhammad, Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn. Others maintain that the "purification verse" cannot refer to the inerrancy of the Imams because the context in which it occurs relates to the wives of Muhammad and necessitates that it, too, should refer to them, or that at the very least they cannot be excluded from the category it addresses. If it were to imply inerrancy, then the wives of Muhammad would also have to be inerrant, a belief that Sunni scholars do not hold. Shia scholars, however, do believe in the infallibility of Prophet Muhammad.

Nevertheless, according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari, the term ahl al-bayt refers to 'Ali, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn. In reference to verse 33:33, L. Veccia Vaglieri, in her Encyclopedia of Islam article entitled "Fatima", writes:

"[…] the preceding verses contain instructions to the wives of Muhammed, and there the verbs and pronouns are in the feminine plural; but in this verse, addressed to the People of the House, the pronouns are in the masculine plural. Thus, it has been said, it is no longer a question of Muhammed's wives, or of them alone…. The expression Ahl al-bayt can only mean "Family of the Prophet"."

Aplikasi politik
The hadith of the cloak and the purification verse was utilized at various times by the Ahlul Bayt to assert their claims to political and spiritual leadership of the Muslim community. For example, at the gathering that was convened after the death of Umar in 644 to select a caliph, Ali made the following argument: "Is there any among us apart from myself concerning whom the "purification verse" was revealed?"
When they answered "no" he proceeded:"The People of the House are overflowing with abundant virtue, for the Quran says, "Allah wishes to remove all filth and impurity from you O House of the Prophet, and to render you utterly free of pollution." (33:33) Allah has therefore removed from us all evil, outer and inner, and placed us firmly on the path of truth and righteousness.

Lihat juga
 Ahlul Bait
 Senarai hadis terkenal

Nota

Pautan luar

Syiah
 (Video of entire hadith with English subtitles)
 al-islam.org
 playandlearn.org
 jafariyanews
 Fatima the gracious

Sunni
 ansar.org
 ahlelbayt.com
 Hadith al-Kisa and People of the Cloak

Muhammad
Ahlul Bait
Hadis

Ahl al-Kisa


International economics is a field of macroeconomics. It looks at the effect of trade of goods and services between different countries. Generally, there's trade between contries, if any of the following is true:
Certain goods or services are legal, but not available in a country; Germany does not grow bananas. So bananas need to be imported.
The costs of production are different in different countries: It may be better to produce something in one country, and export it to another country.
A country has a compoarative advantage at producing certain goods.

In the end, countries and economies are better off with specialization and trade.
Macroeconomics

International economics


Wheeler's October 1863 Raid (October 1–9, 1863) was a large cavalry raid in southeastern Tennessee during the American Civil War. Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler's Confederate cavalry scored a great initial success, but subsequently was roughed up by Union cavalry during its withdrawal south of the Tennessee River.

Background

After being defeated in the Battle of Chickamauga, the Union Army of the Cumberland, commanded by Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, withdrew into the city of Chattanooga, Tennessee, and was besieged by Gen. Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee. The Federals held a rail head at Bridgeport, Alabama, but because Bragg's army occupied Lookout Mountain, they had to bring supplies into the beleaguered city by wagon. The routes along the Tennessee River were easily harassed by the Confederates, so Rosecrans had to bring most of his supplies into Chattanooga from Bridgeport along a 60-mile wagon route across Walden's Ridge. Bragg ordered Wheeler to take the bulk of his cavalry corps and disrupt Rosecrans's communications across Walden's Ridge.

Anderson's Cross Roads

Wheeler set out on October 1 with the divisions of Brig. Gen. Frank Crawford Armstrong and Maj. Gen. William T. Martin, plus part of Maj. Gen. John A. Wharton's division. He quickly broke through the screen of Brig. Gen. George Crook's 2nd Cavalry Division near Decatur, Tennessee, and rode toward Walden's Ridge. On October 2 at Anderson's Cross Roads, Wheeler surprised a train of 800 mule-drawn wagons, plus sutler's wagons. The Southern horsemen easily overwhelmed the few guards and began to carry out their orders to "kill the mules and burn the wagons." Soon, whiskey was discovered in the sutler's wagons and Wheeler's men began pillaging the wagons for new clothing and other booty. The officers were either unwilling or unable to stop what became an eight-hour orgy of plundering.

Soon, Col. Edward M. McCook arrived with his brigade of Union cavalry. In a series of skirmishes, McCook lost 70 men while recapturing 800 mules and a few wagons and inflicting 270 losses on the tipsy Southerners. Wharton rode to McMinnville, Tennessee, which was captured with a loss of 388 Federals and 23 Confederates. Meanwhile, Crook could deflect Wheeler's main body away from the supply base at Murfreesboro, Tennessee.

Farmington

By October 7, Brig. Gen. Robert Byington Mitchell concentrated McCook and Crook at Shelbyville, Tennessee. That day, Crook mauled Henry B. Davidson's brigade of Wharton near Farmington, losing 75 Federals while inflicting a loss of 310. The pursuit continued in foul weather as some elements of Union cavalry rode as many as 57 miles. Wheeler escaped across the Tennessee River on October 9 at Rogersville, Alabama, but not before another 95 of his horsemen were overwhelmed near Pulaski, Tennessee.

Aftermath

Wheeler inflicted significant damage to the Army of the Cumberland's supply line. He destroyed 500 wagons by Rosecrans's estimate and claimed killing 1,000 mules. However, during the pursuit, his command was badly roughed up by the Union horsemen, "his once proud command all but wrecked." In the face of the aggressive Northern cavalry, Brig. Gen. Phillip Roddey cut short his follow-up raid. Another planned cavalry raid by Maj. Gen. Stephen D. Lee was canceled after he found out that Wheeler's command was no longer in the field.

References
 Boatner, Mark M. III. The Civil War Dictionary. New York: David McKay, 1959.
 Cozzens, Peter. The Shipwreck of Their Hopes: The Battles for Chattanooga. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1994.
 Curry, W. L. Raid of the Confederate Cavalry Through Central Tennessee, In October 1863, Commanded by General Joseph Wheeler. A Paper Read Before the Ohio Commandery of the Loyal Legion, April 1, 1908. 1908.

Notes

1863 in Tennessee
Chattanooga campaign
Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Cavalry raids of the American Civil War
Inconclusive battles of the American Civil War
Conflicts in 1863
Military operations of the American Civil War in Tennessee
October 1863 events

Wheeler's October 1863 Raid


The San Francisco Symphony (SFS) is a world-famous orchestra based in San Francisco, California. Michael Tilson Thomas has been their main conductor ("musical director") since 1995.

History
When the conductor Henry Hadley started the orchestra in 1911 they only had sixty musicians. They gave pop concerts as well as concerts of classical music. In 1915 Alfred Hertz became their conductor. He improved their playing and made several radio broadcasts in the late 1920s. Hertz retired in 1930 and was followed by Basil Cameron and Issay Dobrowen. During the Great Depression, the orchestra had hardly and money and they did not play during the 1934-35 season. Then the people of San Francisco managed to get funding for the orchestra so that they could carry on.

The famous French conductor Pierre Monteux was asked to come and get the orchestra back to a good standard. He was very successful and the orchestra were soon offered more recordings. In 1949, Monteux invited Arthur Fiedler to lead summer "pops" concerts in the Civic Auditorium. Fiedler worked with the orchestra until the mid 1970s.

When Monteux left the orchestra in 1952, several conductors led the orchestra, including Leopold Stokowski, Georg Solti, Erich Leinsdorf, Karl Münchinger, George Szell, Bruno Walter, Ferenc Fricsay, and William Steinberg.

Two years later the young Spanish conductor Enrique Jordá became their music director. At first things went well. He had a lot of energy, and sometimes his baton flew out of his hand as he conducted. Gradually the orchestra became less happy with Jordá who did not seem to be able to control the orchestra and did not rehearse them properly. Eventually, after George Szell, the conductor of the Cleveland Orchestra, criticized him, the orchestra got rid of him.

In 1963, the Austrian conductor Josef Krips became music director. He was very strict and rehearsed them in great detail. He started a tradition of playing a special concert every New Year's Eve, "A Night in Old Vienna." with music by Johann Strauss and other 19th century Viennese composers. The Japanese Seiji Ozawa was their next conductor. He gave very exciting concerts which were always sold out. They made many recordings together. He sometimes conducted operas and ballets which were partly acted, and he used university choirs for choral works.

Ozawa was followed by Edo de Waart, the young Dutch conductor. He did not show off like Ozawa had done, but he kept the standard of the orchestra very high. He conducted the orchestra's very first performances in the Davies Symphony Hall. The orchestra used the huge new organ in the Hall for works such as Saint-Saëns' Third Symphony. In de Waart's final season, 1984-85, there were four sold-out performances of Mahler's hugh Eighth Symphony with the Symphony Chorus, the Masterworks Chorale, the San Francisco Boys Chorus, and the San Francisco Girls Chorus.

The orchestra started to do world tours under their next conductor Herbert Blomstedt who improved the orchestra's sound. He is still an honorary conductor (Conductor Laureate).

Michael Tilson Thomas became music director in 1995. He had conducted the London Symphony Orchestra and had guest conducted the SFSO in 1974. He made sure the orchestra played more American music as well as plenty of Russian music. The standard of orchestral playing continues to be excellent today.

Music directors
 1911–1915 Henry Hadley
 1915–1930 Alfred Hertz
 1930–1934 Basil Cameron and Issay Dobrowen
 1935–1952 Pierre Monteux
 1954–1963 Enrique Jordá
 1963–1970 Josef Krips
 1970–1977 Seiji Ozawa
 1977–1985 Edo de Waart
 1985–1995 Herbert Blomstedt
 1995– Michael Tilson Thomas

Other websites
 San Francisco Symphony Official website

American orchestras
Music in San Francisco
1911 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in California

San Francisco Symphony Orchestra


Víctor Jara (September 28, 1932- September 15, 1973) was a singer from Chile, South America.

He was born into a family of very poor peasants but through a lot of hard work and effort was able to enter the University of Chile - something very unusual in a poor country like Chile. In this manner he was able to escape the poverty of his parents.

At University he studied dramatic arts or acting; he taught and directed theatre productions. During this time he met and married  Joan Turner, a British ballet dancer and choreographer who worked in Chile.

Later Víctor Jara started to write and sing songs. He began to sing songs about the life of humble and poor people in his country: peasants, factory workers, miners, abandoned children, poor women. He also dedicated music albums to people who live in the shanty towns.

Víctor Jara tried to use his music to bring awareness about the inequality between the richest and the poorest people in society. How poor folk have a hard time acquiring the most basic things, such as food, health care, education, and housing. He also supported politicians who called for a fairer distribution of wealth to end poverty.

In 1973 Víctor Jara was killed by a military dictatorship led by General Augusto Pinochet for singing songs about social problems and social injustice. The U.S. government of Richard Nixon supported the military regime.

Popular Songs

 El Derecho de Vivir en Paz  (The right to live in peace)
 Plegaria a un Labrador (Prayer to a laborer)
 Duerme, duerme negrito  (Sleep little black child)
 Vientos del Pueblo  (Winds of the people)
 El Amor es un camino que derrepente aparece  (Love is a road that suddenly appears)
 Cuando voy al trabajo (On my way to work)
 Te Recuerdo Amanda (I remember you Amanda)

Chilean singers
1932 births
1973 deaths
Former Roman Catholics

Víctor Jara


The Flag Tower of Hanoi () is a tower in Hanoi, Vietnam, which is one of the symbols of the city and once a part of the Hanoi Citadel, a World Heritage Site. Its height is 33.4 m (41 m with the flag).

History
The tower was built in 1812 during the Nguyen dynasty as an observation post to the Hanoi Citadel. Unlike many other structures in Hanoi, it was not destroyed during the French invasion (1896-1897), and was continuously used as a military post. It is now located in the Vietnam Military History Museum.

Architecture

Cột cờ is composed of three tiers and a pyramid-shaped tower with a spiral staircase leading to the top inside it. The first tier is 42.5 m wide and 3.1 m high; the second - 25 m wide and 3.7 m high and the third - 12.8 m wide and 5.1 m high. The second tier has four doors. The words "Nghênh Húc" (English: "To welcome dawn's sunlight") are inscribed on the eastern door; the words "Hồi Quang" ("To reflect light") - on the western door and "Hướng Minh" ("Directed to the sunlight") - on the southern door. The tower is lighted by 36 flower-shaped and 6 fan-shaped windows. The National Flag of Vietnam is on top of the tower.

See also
Tower of Hanoi

External links

A description of the tower
A photo of the tower
Satellite photo at Google Maps

Towers completed in 1812
Flag Tower
Buildings and structures in Hanoi
Historical sites in Hanoi

Flag Tower of Hanoi


Sooth Govrenorate (; transliterated: al-Janub) is ane o the govrenorates o Lebanon. Sooth Lebanon haes a population o 360,000 indwallers an an aurie o 2,000 km². The caipital is Sidon. The lawest elevation is sea-level; the heichest is 1,000 meters. The indwallers are a mixture o Shiites, Sunnis, Orthodox, Catholics, Armenians, an Protestants. Temperatures can drop tae 4 °C durin winter wi a lot o rain an snaw on the heicher grund. In the humid simmer, temperatures can rise tae 30 °C in the coastal auries. The govrenorate haes several rivers: the Litani, Zahrani, Naqura, Awali, Qasmiye, an Hasbani. The aurie is famous for its citrus an bananae farms.

Local Attractions an Events

The aurie affers a great nummer o attractions, includin pristine white sandy beaches sooth o Tyre, an the opportunity tae snorkel or dive amang submerged Phoenician an Roman ruins near the auncient ceeties o Sidon an Tyre. Cultur-lovers will enjoy the bustlin Ottoman-era Pazars, an ane can relax efter a lang day at a seafuid restaurant owerleukin the Mediterranean. Soothren Lebanon an aa hosts the Tyre festival, which attracts thoosans o tourists each year.

Releegion in the Sooth Govrenorate

Shia maks the majority wi 60.08%;
Christians maks the seicont maist wi 23.88%;
Sunni maks the third wi 15.89%;
Druze are the last wi 0.15%.

Destricts
 Sidon Destrict
 Jezzine Destrict
 Tyre Destrict

Ceeties
 Jezzine
 Sidon or Saida
 Tyre
 El-Kfeir (Kufayr az Zayt)
 Sarafand
 Kfarmelki

See an aa
 Soothren Lebanon

Govrenorates o Lebanon

Sooth Govrenorate


Twins are a Hong Kong Cantopop duo that was created in the summer of 2001 by Emperor Entertainment Group (EEG). Twins are made up of two girls, Charlene Choi (蔡卓妍) and Gillian Chung (鍾欣潼). They are a popular group in Hong Kong and a top band in mainland China. Their fanbase have included Taiwan, Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Canada, Australia, United States, Vietnam and Philippines. Their music was generally targeted at young teens, but in 2004 they began to attract a wider audience by venturing into different styles of music. In February 2008 the duo temporarily separated after the Edison Chen photo scandal involving Gillian Chung. The group reunited two years later in 2010.

Since 2001, the group has released twelve Cantonese studio albums, four Mandarin studio albums, three extended plays, five compilation albums and four live albums. Most of their singles reached the top of many musical charts.

History

2001–2003: Debut and first albums
Gillian Chung had also worked as a part-time model during one of her summer vacations in Hong Kong. Similar to her erstwhile partner, Charlene Choi was also a part-time model who had appeared in several advertisements. She became famous after her participation in the Radio Television Hong Kong (RTHK) television program Y2K. Both caught the attention of EEG manager Mani Fok (霍汶希). They subsequently auditioned for and later formed the duo known as "Twins".

Twins signed to Emperor Entertainment Group and were formed on 18 May 2001. According to Mani Fok, EEG's plan for Twins was to emulate the success of the Japanese duo KinKi Kids. In August 2001, they released their debut extended play Twins (AVEP) with hit single "Open Love, Secret Love, Tutoring Institute". This EP contained 3 music videos and 6 songs. As part of album promotions, Twins collaborated with MSN to make personal pages and web games. In addition, EEG bundled gifts and coupons with the EP, so that teenage album owners got more value from their purchase by receiving things like hair care products and vouchers for dance courses. It went platinum in its first week of selling. In November, Twins released their second EP Twins' Love, which contained 8 songs and 1 music video for the lead single, "Slam Drunking Love".

In January 2002, Twins released their third EP Twins. The EP contained one CD with five new songs, and a VCD, with 2 music videos. Since it was near Chinese New Year, the single "Ma Bao 668" was a greeting song for Chinese New Year. In May 2002, Twins finally released their debut album Our Souvenir with two discs. Disc one, CD contained 10 tracks with single "Er Ren Shi Jie Bei". Disc two was a VCD, with two music videos. Their debut album (just like a debut EP) was a great success. In August 2002, Twins released second album Amazing Album, consisted of two discs, CD with 11 songs, and a DVD with three videos. In 2002, Twins had their first concert ever, and three more in 2003 (which were held in Guangzhou).

Between 2001 and 2003, the duo received a total of 72 total awards. By 2003, they have received a large number of awards from the four major Hong Kong media organizations of RTHK, Commercial Radio Hong Kong, Metro Radio and TVB. In April 2003, they released third album, Touch of Love. It contained two discs, CD and DVD. Two months later, in June 2003, the second version of the album was released with a new single and its music video "Bian Bian Bian". The song was theme for their movie The Twins Effect and sung by Twins and Jackie Chan. With the brand new look, Twins released 1 disc 10 track fourth album named Evolution in September 2003.

2004–2005: Continued success with Cantonese releases, Singing in the Twins Wonderland albums and Mandarin debut
 In 2004, Twins had released four volumes of their children albums Singing in the Twins Wonderland, which were released for little children and it contained English nursery rhymes and stories. In January 2004, Twins released fifth studio album Magic, consisted of eleven songs. It was called Magic to emphasise their new musical style and the theme of the album. The Twins' Girl Power was the Olympic-themed album released in June 2004. It came in a special edition package. Included are:
Six mini posters measuring 15" x 20"
Twins Effect 2 beverage coaster
Lucky draw scratch-and-win card for the music VCD. Similar to their previous albums, this album was larger than usual, using a large cardboard book-like package to carry the AVCD and posters. There were six different colored fabric bands wrapped around the package. Included is the theme song for Twins Effect II, (Love Is Invincible, seventh track).

In early 2005, Twins released their debut Mandarin album Trainee Cupid. In June 2005, one year after the last Cantopop album, Twins released their sixth studio album Samba with the singles "Samba Queen" and "Pink Guitar". Their seventh studio album The Missing Piece, was released in December 2005, after their album 36 Stratagems. They made a popular concert with the same name where they hugged each other and released a live/video album "Twins: The Missing Piece Concert".

In December 2005, a rumour mentioned the splitting of the two singers. However, they attended the May 2006 MTV Asia Awards in Thailand together. They were nominated for and won the Hong Kong Favorite Artist Award.

2006–2009: Final albums, touring and disbandment
In June 2006, they released their second mandarin album Around the World with 80 Dollars which was a great success. Tracks "One Time Not Twice" and "I Really Want to Love Him" were nominated, and album Around the World with 80 Dollars won Top 10 Gold Songs at the Hong Kong TVB8 Awards, presented by television station TVB8, in 2006. The eighth album Ho Hoo Tan was released in September 2006. It consisted of a CD and a DVD with music videos. At the 2006 Hong Kong Entertainment Awards ceremony Choi tearfully acknowledged that there have been criticisms of the Twins' singing abilities and that she hoped that they could better improve in the coming year.

In February 2007, they celebrated their sixth year together in the Hong Kong music industry. They released a special Sixth Anniversary New + Best Selection CD/DVD. In September of the same year, Twins embarked on a multi-city North American concert tour, with special guests Sun Boy'Z. International stops included San Francisco, Toronto, and Atlantic City. It was their first time performing on a major tour across several North American cities. In 2007, Twins released their ninth studio album Twins Party. The album was a success. It was released in three versions: Twins version, Gillian solo version and Charlene solo version.

In early January 2008, Twins won two major awards at the 2007 Jade Solid Gold Top 10. They earned the most popular group award as well as the most popular Asia Pacific region female artist award. That year, Twins released their third Mandarin and final album before their hiatus, titled Twins Language. The group was dragged into the fray when Gillian was involved in the Edison Chen photo scandal. Her private images were among those which found their way onto the internet at the end of February 2008. With Gillian deciding to duck out of the public eye, Twins announced its "temporary dissolution" in July 2008. Charlene said she was highly optimistic that they would reunite some day in the future.

On 16 January 2009, during a TVB interview on My 2008 (我的2008), Choi talked about how she handled the media. During the 31st RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards hosted in January 2009, Choi said Twins would return.

2010–present: Reunion, 3650, 2 Be Free and #LOL

Two years after the split, many wondered whether Twins had become a myth. In February 2010, Charlene Choi talked to the media about her experience in going solo. She summed up the experience by describing the name of her song "Two without one" (二缺一). She said that Twins was a symbol for their generation, and that they would never break up.

On the night of 27 February 2010 the "EEG 10th anniversary concert" was held at The Venetian Macao luxury hotel.  A number of singers were present including EEG and non-EEG representatives. Some notables include Joey Yung, Nicholas Tse, Leo Ku, Vincy Chan, William Chan, Yumiko Cheng, Anthony Wong and many more. Gillian Chung and Charlene Choi appeared on stage together for the first time in two years to do a small performance for the anniversary concert.  They sang (風箏與風), (下一站天后), (女校男生), (飲歌), (戀愛大過天) and (人人彈起).

A few days later on 3 March, Twins appeared in public at the Harbour plaza after parading around in a purple Porsche. A public announcement was made that Twins would reunite to perform in a three-day "Nokia Twins 2010 concert" from 16 to 18 April at the Hong Kong Coliseum in Hung Hom. The last time they performed at the same stage was four years previously.

In 2011, Twins released their comeback Mandarin album 3650. They released it as a celebration of 10th anniversary of their first project. The album had many covers, which were their photos (like "Our Souvenir" album cover) that were re-taken in 2011. In March 2012, Twins released their new, twelfth studio album titled 2 Be Free. Album contained one disc with ten new songs and a DVD with 3 new music videos.

After their album 2 Be Free was released, Chung and Choi focused on their solo careers again. Chung released two studio albums Vernicia Flower (2013) and Wholly Love (2014). Choi also released albums Montage (2012) and Blooming (2013). However, they reunited at 2015 Emperor Group Annual Celebration & Emperor Entertainment Group 15th Anniversary Ceremony on 1 February 2015 in Beijing, China. Twins performed in the Hong Kong Coliseum on the last day of 2015, as well as the first day of 2016 until 4 January. Their last performance was said to be filmed for their upcoming concert DVD and it lasted for 3.5 hours where their last encore was a full hour.

Advertisements
Apart from their singing careers, Twins have also been involved in a number of advertisements. Companies covering all types of products have advertised with the pop duo with the first advertisement with Whisper (護舒寶) in 2000.  Between 2001 and 2005 they advertised more than 10 products each year.  Big name companies include Nokia, Epson, Biore, Coca-Cola, LG and many more.

Twins have also been selected to promote several social campaigns in Hong Kong, such as summer activities for the "Hong Kong Home Affairs Bureau" in July 2003.

Discography

Cantonese studio albums
 Our Souvenir (2002)
 Amazing Album (2002)
 Touch of Love (2003)
 Evolution (2003)
 Magic (2004)
 Girl Power (2004)
 Samba (2005)
 36 Stratagems (2005)
 The Missing Piece (2005)
 Ho Hoo Tan (2006)
 Twins Party (2007)
 2 Be Free (2012)
 LOL Ep1/Ep2 (2015)
Mandarin studio albums
 Trainee Cupid (2005)
 Around the World with 80 Dollars (2006)
 Twins Language (2008)
 3650 (2011)

Filmography
Featuring both Charlene and Gillian:

Concerts

 13–15 September 2002 Ichiban Amazing Show (Twins Ichiban 興奮演唱會)
 18–19 January 2003 Matsunichi Twins Guangzhou Amazing Show (松日Twins廣州興奮演唱會)
 25 June 2003 Tou Hao Ren Wu Chang Hao Music Concert (頭號人物唱好音樂會)
 2 August 2003 Netvigator NETCash Pop-up Concert ( 網上行叱吒樂壇Pop-Up音樂會)
 31 December 2003 – 4 January 2004 Matsunichi Twins 04 Concert (Twins 04 好玩演唱會)
 3 June 2005 Starlight Amusement Park Concert (Australia)
 4–7 January 2006 Twins Star Mobile Incomparable Concert (Twins 星Mobile 一時無兩演唱會)
 18–19 August 2006 Twins Concert in Genting Malaysia
 15 September 2007 Twins in Concert Cow Palace, San Francisco/Daly city
 18 September 2007 Twins Concert in Toronto at Casino Rama (我們相愛6年)
 22–23 September 2007 Twins Sixth Anniversary World Tour 2007 [Atlantic City] (Twins 我們相愛6年 環遊世界[大西洋城]演唱會)
 16–18 April 2010 Nokia Twins Everyone Bounce Concert (Nokia 舞樂作動 Twins 人人彈起演唱會)
 13 November 2010 Twins Everyone Bounce Concert Live in Macau (Twins 人人彈起 Concert Live in Macau)
 31 December 2015 – 4 January 2016 Twins #LOL #LiveinHK concert

Photo albums
 August 2001 Twins Love the Colorful Travel 112 pages
 November 2001 Twins 1+1 Photo Album 96 pages
 August 2003 Twins Love Hong Kong 112 pages
 December 2004 Twins Hold Hands Hong Kong 112 pages

See also

 Gillian Chung
 Charlene Choi
 Cantopop
 Mandopop

References

External links
 Twins EEG HK Official Site

Hong Kong girl groups
Cantonese-language singers
Hong Kong Mandopop singers
Cantopop musical groups
Musical groups established in 2001
Pop music duos
Hong Kong idols
Teen pop groups
Female musical duos
Hong Kong female dancers
Hong Kong dancers

Twins (group)


Kazimierz Fajans (Kasimir Fajans in many American publications; 27 May 1887 – 18 May 1975) was a Polish American physical chemist of Polish-Jewish origin, a pioneer in the science of radioactivity and the co-discoverer of chemical element protactinium.

Education and career
He was born May 27, 1887, in Warsaw, Congress Poland, to a family of Jewish background. After he had completed secondary school in Warsaw (1904), he started studying chemistry in Germany, at first at the University in Leipzig, and then in Heidelberg and Zürich. In 1909 he was awarded a PhD degree for his research into the stereoselective synthesis of chiral compounds.

In 1910 Fajans took a job at the laboratory of Ernest Rutherford in Manchester, where the nucleus was discovered.  He then returned to Germany, where he took the position of an assistant and later became the assistant professor at the Technical University of Karlsruhe. He researched into radioactivity. In 1917 he took over the Faculty of Physical Chemistry at Munich University, and in 1932 became the Head of the Institute of Physical Chemistry established by the Rockefeller Foundation. In 1935 he left Germany due to the escalation of Nazi persecution. He stayed for a while in Cambridge and next moved to Ann Arbor, Michigan, in the United States, where he joined the Faculty of the University of Michigan where he continued to work until the end of his life. In 1959, he became an honorary member of the Polish Chemical Society.

He retired at age of seventy but never stopped working. He died May 18, 1975, in Ann Arbor.

Scientific work

When Fajans worked at the laboratory of Ernest Rutherford (with Henry G. Moseley) he was researching properties of the radioactive rows. He identified the half-lives of the uranium-actinium row and thorium nuclides.
He discovered the phenomenon of the electrochemical branching of the radioactive rows. Afterwards Fajans was working on the electrochemical properties of elements as a result of the radioactive changes, and he formulated the law of the radioactive shifts which was later named the radioactive displacement law of Fajans and Soddy (Frederick Soddy received the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1921 for his isotopic research). In 1913, together with Oswald Helmuth Göhring, he discovered the first radionuclide of a new element, which was later called protactinium. Fajans and Otto Hahn were the discoverers of the formula that defined the conditions of the precipitation and absorption of radioactive substances. It is very significant in the context of radiochemical methods of separating and cleaning radioactive substances found in the smallest number.

In 1919, Fajans started researching the structure of particle and crystal by the thermochemical and refractometrical methods.
The co-relation of Born, Fajans and Haber is one of the basic thermochemical rule. On the basis of his research data Fajans formulated the essential conclusions concerning chemical bonding strength and deformation of ions and particles, such as heat of ion hydration, refraction measurements and the heat of sublimation. In 1923 he formulated Fajans' rules of inorganic chemistry, which are used to predict whether a chemical bond will be covalent or ionic.

In the United States he researched nuclear reactions using a cyclotron and discovered a radioactive lead isotope with Voigt, and a new rhenium isotope with Sullivan. He developed the quanticule theory which explained the rule of chemical bondings through electrostatic impacts between quanticules and nuclear cores. He was a member of the Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America and of many societies and academies.

Bibliography
1913 - Radioactive Transformations and the Periodic System of the Elements
1941 - Artificial radioactive isotopes of Thallium, Lead and Bismuth
1947 - Application of the resonance theory to the structure of the water molecule
1948 - Electronic structure of molecules

See also
 Radioactivity
 Timeline of Polish science and technology

References

Further reading

External links
Annotated Bibliography for Kazimierz Fajans from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues

1887 births
1975 deaths
20th-century Polish physicists
Discoverers of chemical elements
University of Michigan faculty
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
19th-century Polish Jews
Jewish American scientists
Jewish physicists
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Emigrants from Congress Poland to Germany
Immigrants to the United States

Kazimierz Fajans


Imperial China is a period of Chinese history. It lasted over 2,000 years. It began with Qin Shi Huang's uniting of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. It ended with the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911. Throughout this period, many features of Chinese civilization spread throughout all of China. These included Confucianism, standardized testing, standardized weights and counting systems, trade routes, and Chinese characters. China became known worldwide for all these features.

Throughout this period, China had been ruled by many different dynasties, or ruling family lines. They included the Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan/Mongol, Ming, and Qing/Manchu dynasties. There were also several periods where China had been ruled by several different kingdoms.

Throughout most of Imperial China, China had been ruled by emperors and empresses who were Han Chinese. However, there were some dynasties where the ruling class was made of Chinese minority groups, such as the Yuan and Qing dynasties. They were ruled by the Mongols and Manchus in that same order.

History of China

Imperial China


According to Hindu mythology, Agastya was the name of a famous sage (rishi). The Hindu tradition states that he brought the Vedic culture to the southern part of India. He also helped in development of Tamil language. According to traditional belief, he still lives in a mountain names Agasyta Malai in Tamil Nadu, India. Scholars believe that Agastya wrote many hymns of Rigveda. He also find mention many times in the Vedic mythology.

There are many stories about Agastya.  In the famous epic, the Ramayana, Rama (an avatar of god Vishnu) meets Agastya. Agastya gives Rama many advices and his support. There are two older stories about Agastya. One story tells that he forced the Vindhya mountains to bow down. The Vindhya Mountain is in middle of India, and divided the North India and the South India. In the second story, he drank all the waters of the ocean. This happened before the Churning of the Ocean.

References
 Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola

Tamil culture

Agastya


Car navigation allows an automobile driver to see where he or she is on a map at any given time. Automobile navigation can rely on GPS (Global Positioning System), or it can be DVD- or data-based. GPS-bsed navigation uses radio signals from special satellites that send their position and the time of transmission. The GPS receiver catches the signal and calculates the time. The GPS can then calculate the distance from the satellite with the well-known radio signal speed.

Satellites
When driving a car with such a GPS receiver, the driver may receive information from a satellite which is above for instance Dover in the south and another one which is above Perth in the north. Then the GPS receiver knows precisely how far it is from Dover and how far it is from Perth. With that two possible positions of the car at the flat land are precisely determined.

To know which one of those positions is the right place, the GPS receiver needs a third satellite, for instance above Land's End in the west. With that information, the GPS receiver can also determine elevation. With three satellites in fact there is still a third possible point, but that is twice as high as the satellites above the earth's surface and does not need to be reckoned with in car travel.

But the GPS receiver still needs a fourth satellite, because the GPS receiver needs to know the time very precisely. In between it knows your car position, so that it can calculate the distance from that satellite. Then it knows the time of reception, because that is the time of transmission plus the travel time of the signal.

The GPS receiver

At any moment the GPS receiver searches for the strongest satellites, calculates the position and the driving direction and then shows it all on a small screen as a three-dimensional map. With that it also shows the vehicle's driving speed and how far it is to the next junction.

The driver may add the address where he or she wants to go. The GPS receiver then directs the driver to their destination step-by-step, often using voice prompts. The driver can even be shown where there are traffic jams, speed cameras and traffic lights, and the route can be calculated in such a way that these can be avoided, reducing the time needed for the driver to reach his or her destination.

If the driver deviates from the indicated route, the GPS receiver can provide new directions to the same destination, by repeating the same calculations.

Maps
To show where the car is with the calculated position, the GPS receiver contains digital maps. Many GPS receivers allow users to add more maps or newer maps to allow for better navigation.

Mobile phones
Mobile phones are often equipped with GPS receivers, but most require a mobile Internet connection to function. Nokia's HERE Maps are able to store maps for offline use, and because of this, phones that have this app installed can be used as GPS navigation systems as mentioned above.

Other websites

Navigation
Road transport

Automotive navigation system


Little India MRT Station (NE7/DT12) is an underground Mass Rapid Transit interchange station on the North East Line and the Downtown Line located at the boundary of the planning areas of Kallang and Rochor, Singapore. The station derives its name from the ethnic district of Little India. This station and Rochor is the nearest of any station on the Downtown Line as it takes only 20-25 seconds to reach.

This station was built in the heart of Little India, with Tekka Centre within walking distance of the station.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Little India MRT station


Belmont is a suburb of Perth, the capital city of Western Australia, and is located  east of Perth's central business district (CBD) on the southern bank of the Swan River. Its local government area is the City of Belmont.

The suburb, part of a land grant assigned to Captain Francis Henry Byrne in 1831, was believed to have been named Belmont after Byrne's estate in England. The land was purchased by Shepherd Smith of Sydney in 1882, who subdivided it in 1897–1898.

The local government body based in Belmont was originally known as the Belmont Park Road Board.

The suburb was known as "Belmont Park" until being renamed in 1968.

Today, the suburb is mixed-use in character. The western part of the suburb is primarily industrial and commercial, while the east and north are more residential, with various motels and other accommodation along Great Eastern Highway, which forms the suburb's north-western boundary. It contains two public schools—Belmont Primary School, and Belmont City College (formerly Belmont Senior High School)—as well as Centenary Park, Signal Hill Bushland, the Belgravia Residential Estate and a  section on the south bank of the Swan River.

Belmont possesses a sister city partnership with Adachi, Tokyo in Japan, which has been in place since October 1984.

References

Suburbs of Perth, Western Australia
Suburbs in the City of Belmont

Belmont, Western Australia


Patrick Vaughn Stump (born Patrick Martin Stump on April 27th, 1984) is an American musician, best known as the lead singer, guitarist and composer of the American rock band Fall Out Boy. With the band he achieved widespread popularity and success. On January 2010 he announced he was working on a solo album after his band took a break in late 2009. He released his first solo song "Spotlight (song)" in two versions, "Spotlight (Oh Nostalgia)" and "Spotlight (New Regrets)" on November 29, 2010. On February 22, 2011, he released his first EP, Truant Wave. He released his debut album called Soul Punk on October 18, 2011, of which he wrote every song, played every note, self-produced, and funded by himself.

On May 6, 2011 he leaked a track off his album Soul Punk called "Explode", uploading it to his YouTube channel. On July 26, 2011 he released the first single "This City" featuring Lupe Fiasco on iTunes.

Fall Out Boy
Fall Out Boy formed in 2001. They released their mini-album Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend in 2003 and Take This to Your Grave in the same year.
In 2003, Stump and his band mates went on to sign with Island Records, and released the acoustic-based EP My Heart Will Always Be the B-Side to My Tongue CD and DVD in 2004. This was followed with their third studio album, From Under the Cork Tree, which went double-platinum in 2005 and reached the top ten of the US chart, going on to sell over three million copies around the world. Their fourth studio album, Infinity on High, was released in 2007 to continued commercial success. It started at number one on the US music album chart and in the top five around the world. Fall Out Boy's most recent album, Folie à Deux, was released on December 23 and 16, 2008 in the United States/worldwide, respectively.

On February 6, 2010, E! Online reported that bassist Pete Wentz had told them "We're just on a break," and that he is more focused on being a father right now than he is on Fall Out Boy. Pete lastly added, "...I think I'll be OK. It's too soon to say that we'll be back. We just got burned out."

Discography

Studio albums
 Soul Punk (2011)

Extended plays
 Truant Wave (2011)

Singles
 "This City" (2011)

1984 births
Living people
American guitarists
American punk musicians
American funk singers
American rock musicians
American R&B singers
American R&B musicians
American funk musicians
Musicians from Evanston, Illinois
Singers from Evanston, Illinois
Multi-instrumentalists

Patrick Stump


Lee Nelken Robins (August 29, 1922 – September 25, 2009) was an American professor of social science in psychiatry and a leader in psychiatric epidemiology research.  She was affiliated with the Washington University in St. Louis for more than 50 years from 1954 until 2007.

Early years

Robins was born in New Orleans, Louisiana.  In 1942 and 1943, she received bachelor's and master's degrees from Radcliffe College, and in 1951 she received a doctoral degree in sociology from Harvard University. After completing her doctoral program, Robins worked as a research assistant in the Department of Psychiatry at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Academic career and research
In 1954, Robins became a member of the faculty at Washington University School of Medicine as a research assistant.  She continued to work at Washington University for the next 50 years, being promoted to assistant professor in 1959, associate professor in 1962 and full professor (in sociology in psychiatry) in 1966. She founded and served as the director of the school's Master's Program in Psychiatric Epidemiology.

During her career at Washington University, Robins was recognized as a leader in research into psychiatric epidemiology, the study of the root causes of mental disorders in a population-wide sense.  She was also "a leader in the development of diagnostic criteria for psychiatric diagnosis."  The Los Angeles Times reported that Robins "pioneered the field of psychiatric epidemiology" and "played a key role in determining the prevalence of mental problems in the United States and the world."

Robins' research in the 1960s showed that abnormal behavior in childhood was an important predictor of psychiatric problems in adulthood. As an indicator of adult problems including alcoholism, divorce and incarceration, childhood antisocial behavior was found in the data to be a more accurate indicator than factors such as social class, family background, and childhood fears. Her research in the field led to new thinking in the mental health field on issues including teen suicide and drug abuse.

Her major study on the subject was published in 1966 under the title, "Deviant Children Grown Up: A Sociological and Psychiatric Study of Sociopathic Personality." This work would shape the later diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder, and Robins would sit on the American Psychiatric Association's DSM committee which decided upon it.

Robins also conducted studies on psychiatric epidemiology among Vietnam veterans, disaster survivors and other groups.  In the 1970s, the federal government funded her research into Vietnam veterans who were addicted to heroin or opium.  Her research showed that many drug-addicted veterans recovered spontaneously when they returned to the United States—a finding that challenged the idea that such addiction was irreversible.

Kathleen Bucholz, a professor of psychiatry at Washington University, stated that Robins' "particular genius" was in "developing carefully honed questions for surveys that gathered information about the origins and incidence of mental illness."  She wrote the diagnostic interview schedule and was one of the principal investigators for the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study that involved interviews of more than 20,000 Americans to determine the prevalence of psychiatric illness in the general population.  Robins later prepared a multicultural version of her diagnostic interview schedule for international use by the World Health Organization.

Robins published more than 250 papers on topics including suicide, substance abuse among adolescents and Vietnam War veterans, alcoholism, and antisocial disorders and behavior in children.

In 2001, Robins retired as an active professor, but continued as a professor emerita and researcher at Washington University until 2007.

Honors and awards
Robins received numerous honors and awards in her career, including being named as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Society for the Study of Addiction to Alcohol and Other Drugs.  She was also a recipient of the Paul Hoch Award from the American Psychopathological Association, the Nathan B. Eddy Award from the College on Problems of Drug Dependence and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drugs section of the American Public Health Association. She was also named an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Psychiatrists and of the American Society of Psychiatrists.

Robins also served on the editorial boards of numerous journals, including Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, Development and Psychopathology, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Psychological Medicine, and Social and Community Psychiatry.

Personal life
Robins was married to Eli Robins, an influential biological psychiatrist (e.g. Feighner Criteria and DSM-III), and they had four sons.  Her husband died in 1994.  In 1998, she married Hugh Chaplin, Jr., an emeritus professor in the Washington University School of Medicine Departments of Medicine and Pathology.

In September 2009, she died of cancer at her home in St. Louis.

Selected list of publications
"The epidemiology of aggression," in E. Hollander and D.J. Stein, Impulsivity and Aggression, John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
"Childhood conduct problems, adult psychopathology, and crime," in S. Hodgins, Mental Disorder and Crime, Sage, 1993.
"Antisocial Personality" (with J. Tipp and T. Przybeck), in L.N. Robins & D. Regier, Psychiatric Disorders in America, The Free Press, 1991.
"Intentional and Unintentional Injury in Black Americans", (with Carlson V, Bucholz K, Sussman L.), Report to Panel on Health Status and Demography of Black Americans, NRC Committee on the Status of Black Americans, 1988.
"Family factors in the development of violent behavior", in D. Clark, Children and Violence, February 18–21, 1994: Congressional Program, The Aspen Institute, 1994.
"Risk factors in the continuation of childhood antisocial behaviors into adulthood," (with K.S. Ratcliff), International Journal of Mental Health, Vol. 9, 1979.
"Arrests and delinquency in two generations: a study of black urban families and their children," (with P.A. West & B. Herjanic), Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 16, 1975.
"The role of prevention experiments in discovering the causes of children's antisocial behavior", in J. McCord, RE Tremblay, Preventing Antisocial Behavior, Guilford Press, 1992.
"Early family predictors of child and adolescent antisocial behavior: Who are the mothers of delinquents?" (with B. Henry, T. Moffitt, F. Earls & P. Silva), Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, Vol. 3, 1993.
"Sociocultural trends affecting the prevalence of adolescent problems", in M. Rutter, Psychosocial Disturbances in Young People: Challenges for Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 369–384.

References

1922 births
2009 deaths
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
American sociologists
American women sociologists
Radcliffe College alumni
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Lee Robins


ਸਕੂਲ ਫ਼ਾਰ ਸਕੈਂਡਲ  ਰਿਚਰਡ ਬ੍ਰਿਨਸਲੇ ਦਾ ਲਿਖਿਆ ਨਾਟਕ ਹੈ। ਇਹ ਪਹਿਲੀ ਵਾਰ 8 ਮਈ 1777 ਨੂੰ ਦਰੂਰੀ  ਲੇਨ ਥੀਏਟਰ ਲੰਡਨ ਵਿੱਚ ਖੇਡਿਆ ਗਿਆ ਸੀ.

ਪਲਾਟ

ਐਕਟ ਪਹਿਲਾ
Scene I: Charles goes on to sell all of the family portraits to "Premium", using the rolled-up family tree as an auction-hammer. However, he refuses to sell the last portrait, which is of Sir Oliver, out of respect for his benefactor; Charles will not sell it even when "Premium" offers as much for it as for all the rest. Moved, Sir Oliver inwardly forgives Charles. Sir Oliver and Moses leave, and Charles sends a hundred pounds of the proceeds for the relief of "Mr. Stanley", despite Rowley's objection.

Scene II: At Sir Peter's house, Lady Sneerwell, Mrs. Candour, Sir Benjamin, and Crabtree exchange confused rumours about the Teazle affair. Sir Benjamin says Sir Peter was wounded in a swordfight with Joseph Surface, while Crabtree insists it was a pistol duel with Charles. When Sir Oliver enters, they take him for a doctor and demand news of the wounded man. At that moment Sir Peter arrives to prove the report wrong, and orders the scandalmongers out of his house. Sir Oliver says he has met both of his nephews and agrees with Sir Peter's (former) estimate of Joseph's high character, but then acknowledges with laughter that he knows the story of what happened at Joseph's with the closet and screen. When he leaves, Rowley tells Sir Peter that Lady Teazle is in tears in the next room, and Sir Peter goes to reconcile with her.

References

ਸਕੂਲ ਫ਼ਾਰ ਸਕੈਂਡਲ


Alcoholic proof is a measure of how much ethanol there is in an alcoholic drink. It is commonly used the world over, on the basis that 100 degrees proof is the equivalent of    50 % alcohol by volume (ABV or Alc/Vol). In the United States, it is double the percentage of ABV.  A hydrometer can be used to measure the precise proof of a spirit. This test has gone through many formal changes.

A "proven" solution was defined as 100 degrees proof (100°). People have found out that this takes 57.15% ethanol. This value is still used as the British definition. A simpler ratio to remember is seven to four: 70° proof is 40% alcohol by volume.

The "proof" system was introduced in the 18th century. The British claim that this term has a nautical background. Every evening, sailors would line up for their daily quota of grog/rum. This had to first be proved to be as strong as promised and not watered down. The spirit was tested with gunpowder: a mixture of water and alcohol proved itself when it could be poured on a small amount of gunpowder and the wet powder could still be lit. If the powder did not ignite, the mixture had too much water in it and the  grog was considered below proof.

It might have happened  earlier, as the Americans claim that this definition came about in the 17th century when European traders began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to American Indians. The very same process led to the nickname firewater, this time given by Native Americans. There is no record of the finite strength of the distilled spirits in the context of its sale to or consumption by Native Americans.

Laws

EU
The European Union member nations have broadly adopted the recommendation of the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) which measures percentage of alcohol by volume at 20 °C.

British proof spirits
In Britain, this replaced the Sikes hydrometer system (based on proof spirit) which was used since 1816, although officially the Customs and Excise Act of 1952 defined "spirits of proof strength" (or proof spirits):

"Spirits shall be deemed to be at proof if the volume of the ethyl alcohol contained therein made up to the volume of the spirits with distilled water has a weight equal to that of twelve-thirteenths of a volume of distilled water equal to the volume of the spirits, the volume of each liquid being computed as at fifty-one degrees Fahrenheit."

Previously, Clarke's hydrometer had been used since the 1740s when Customs and Excise and London brewers and distillers began to use Clarke's hydrometer.

United States
In the definition of the United States, the proof number is twice the percentage of the alcohol content measured by volume at a temperature of 60°F (15.5°C). Therefore, "80 proof" is 40% alcohol by volume (most of the other 60% is water). If a 150 proof beverage is mixed half-and-half with water, the drink is approximately 75 proof (actual proof in this example would be 76.28 due to the nature of ethanol/water solutions).

US Federal regulation (CFR 27 5.37 Alcohol Content) requires that liquor labels state the percentage alcohol by volume (sometimes abbreviated ABV). The regulations permit (but do not require) a statement of the degrees proof as long as it is right next to the percentage alcohol by volume.

Alcohol during production
Alcohol is produced by yeast during the process of fermentation. The other product of fermentation is carbon dioxide, which is the gas that can make beer bottles explode or blow their tops off. The amount of alcohol in the finished liquid depends on how much sugar there was at the beginning for the yeast to convert into alcohol. In beer, the alcohol is generally 3% to 12% (6 to 24 proof) and usually about 4% to 6% (8 to 12 proof). Depending on the strain of yeast, wines top out at about 14% to 16% (28 to 32 proof), because that is the point in the fermentation process where the alcohol concentration denatures the yeast. Since the 1990s, a few alcohol-tolerant 'superyeast' strains have become commercially available, which can ferment up to 20%.

Very few microorganisms can live in alcoholic solutions. The main three are yeast, Brettanomyces, and Acetobacter. In what is essentially disinfection, yeast keeps multiplying as long as there is sugar to "eat", gradually increasing the alcoholic content of the solution and killing off all other microorganisms, and eventually themselves. There are "fortified" wines with a higher alcohol concentration than that because stronger alcohol has been mixed with them.

Stronger liquors are distilled after fermentation is complete to separate the alcoholic liquid from the remains of the grain, fruit, or whatever it was made from. The idea of distillation is that a mixture of liquids is heated, the one with the lowest boiling point will evaporate (or "boil off") first, and then the one with the next lowest boiling point, and so on. The catch is that water and alcohol form a mixture (called an azeotrope) that has a lower boiling point than either one of them, so what distills off first is that mixture of 95% alcohol and 5% water.  Thus a distilled liquor cannot be stronger than 95% (190 proof); there are other techniques for separating liquids that can produce 100% ethanol (or "absolute alcohol"), but they are used only for scientific or industrial purposes. 100% ethanol does not stay 100% for very long, because it is hygroscopic and absorbs water out of the atmosphere.

References

Other websites
History of the Sikes Hydrometer

Alcoholic drinks

Alcoholic proof


Benvenuto Cellini (; 3 November 1500 – 13 February 1571) was an Italian goldsmith, sculptor, draftsman, soldier and musician, who also wrote a famous autobiography. He was one of the most important artists of Mannerism.

He was born in Florence, and died there.

References

1500 births
1571 deaths
Italian artists
People from Florence

Benvenuto Cellini


The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past, known in Japan as  is an action-adventure video game made by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo game console. It's the third game of The Legend of Zelda series, though it is a prequel to The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link. It's about a young boy named Link who has to save Princess Zelda and six other maidens from Ganon using the Master Sword to save them. It got great reviews and it's one of the best-selling Super Nintendo games of all time.

Plot

Setting
A Link to the Past is in Hyrule, the main area of The Legend of Zelda series. The Light World has many areas from other The Legend of Zelda games, like Hyrule Castle, Death Mountain, the Lost Woods, Lake Hylia, and Kakariko Village. Most of Hyrule is grass-land, with deserts, forests, and villages. The Dark World, a dark version of Hyrule, has very little grass-land and has a large pyramid in the middle. When people enter the Dark World, they get turned into what's in their hearts (for example, Link turns into a pink bunny).

Characters
Link - The star of the game. Link and his Uncle are both is messaged telepathically by Princess Zelda to come save her at Hyrule Castle.
Princess Zelda - Princess Zelda is held prisoner by Agahnim, an evil wizard who killed the king.
Ganon - The enemy of the game. He's a large pig monster known as the King of Evil, but used to be a man called Ganondorf and was called the King of Thieves. He turned Golden Land evil, and it became the Dark World, and used Agahnim to try to take over the Light World too.
Agahnim - Ganon's top minion. He was made in charge of taking over the Light World by Ganon, and has to seal away the seven maidens, which includes Princess Zelda.
The Seven Maidens - There are seven maidens - one of them being Princess Zelda - who were put into crystals and held prisoner in the Dark World by Agahnim. Agahnim left them in the hands of seven of Ganon's minions.
Sahasrahla - An old man who helps Link throughout the game.
Link's Uncle - Link's Uncle goes to save Princess Zelda but is killed by soldiers at Hyrule Castle. But just before his death, he gives his sword and shield to Link to go save her.

Summary
The story starts with Link in bed when a voice calls out to him. The voice is Princess Zelda's, and she asks for help escaping from Hyrule Castle before the evil wizard Agahnim can seal her away like the other maidens before her. Link's Uncle hears it too, and goes to save her. When Link follows him into the sewer, he finds his Uncle half-alive, and his Uncle gives Link his sword and shield before he dies. Link breaks Zelda out of her cell and takes her through a secret path to a sanctuary where she stays and hides. Link is told by an old man called Sahasrahla that he has to find the pendants of power, wisdom, and courage in three dungeons so he can break the seal on the ancient weapon, the Master Sword. Link finds the pendants in the Eastern Palace, the Desert Palace, and the Tower of Hera, and brings them to the Lost Woods, where he pulls the Master Sword out of its pedestal. Zelda gets kidnapped before he can get to her, and Link fights Agahnim. He and Agahnim go to the Dark World, and Link appears on top of a large pyramid. He has to find the seven crystals that have seven maidens in them, including Zelda, so he can get to Ganon's Tower. After he gets them all, he goes to the top of the tower and battles Agahnim again. He kills him, and Ganon in a bat form flies out of the corpse and into the Pyramid of Power. Link battles Ganon using the Master Sword and Silver Arrows, and eventually kills him. He finds the Triforce that Ganon used to corrupt the Golden Land, and uses it to wish everything back to normal, and Link puts the Master Sword back in the pedestal.

Gameplay
A Link to the Past plays like The Legend of Zelda for the NES with a bird's eye view view instead of Zelda II: The Adventure of Link's sidescrolling view, and stars a boy named Link. He has a sword and shield, and many other items from older games including a bow, a boomerang, and bombs. He always has a sword and shield out when he has them, and can have one other item equipped. Link uses them to explore Hyrule, battle enemies, and solve puzzles. It adds onto the gameplay of The Legend of Zelda, with better controls and new items, like the hookshot and Pegasus Boots which have appeared in many The Legend of Zelda games after it. It also adds a feature used in many games after it, which is going back and forth between two worlds. This was first used again after A Link to the Past in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, where Link travels back and forth in time. Link also has a magic meter like in Zelda II, which he needs to use items like the Lantern and Ice Rod. Throughout Hyrule, there are many items to find and Heart Pieces too that add to Link's health.

Link has to go around Hyrule and battle enemies, find items, and find the dungeons that he has to go to. There are many kinds of items, some of them being too strong for a sword. There are a lot of puzzles that require Link to use his many items to complete in the dungeons. In every dungeon, there is almost always these items - a Compass, a Dungeon Map, several Keys, a Big Key, a special dungeon item usually used to beat the dungeon, and a magical item after the boss. The boss at the end of the dungeon is always different, and are much more powerful than regular enemies in the game.

Music
Kōji Kondō, a famous Nintendo musician, was in charge of the soundtrack for this game. Several songs in this game were remixed in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, including the Dark Woods theme.

Development

Reception
The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past is considered to be one of the best Super Nintendo game ever made and one of the best video games ever made too. It was praised for how good the controls were, and how entertaining it was to explore the world and dungeons.

Re-releases
This game has been re-released several times, including a Satellaview remake, Game Boy Advance remake, and a port to the Wii's Virtual Console.

BS The Legend of Zelda: Kodai no Sekiban
A Link to the Past was remade for the Satellaview, a Super Nintendo Entertainment System add-on, and was called BS The Legend of Zelda: Kodai no Sekiban. It has a different plot and a slightly changed world. It had voice acting, and it lasted for four weeks. Each week, you have to do something, and when the next week comes, there's a new quest to do.

The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past & The Four Swords
A Link to the Past was re-released on the Game Boy Advance as The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past & The Four Swords. It came with a modified port of A Link to the Past along with the multiplayer-only game Four Swords. The port added a new dungeon to the game called The Palace of the Four Sword. Four Swords's graphical style is similar to The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker.

On September 28, 2011, an updated version of Four Swords called The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Anniversary Edition was released. It is available on Nintendo's DSiWare service. It includes a single player mode and more areas.

References

1991 video games
Flagship games
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Nintendo Research & Development 2 games
Link to the Past
Virtual Console games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Single-player video games

The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past


Silke Spiegelburg (born 17 March 1986 in Georgsmarienhütte, Lower Saxony) is a German pole vaulter. She is the younger sister of Richard Spiegelburg. She represented Germany at the Summer Olympics in 2004, 2008 and 2012, as well as having competed at the World Championships in Athletics. She is a European silver medallist in the event both indoors and outdoors.

Spiegelburg showed her talent for the event from a young age, winning the World Youth title in 2001 before becoming the European Junior champion two years later. She competed at the 2004 Athens Olympics at the age of eighteen and set a world junior record for the pole vault in 2005. She is a two-time national champion in the event and holds the German indoor record with her mark of 4.76 metres.

Career
She won the pole vault at the 2001 World Youth Championships with a height of 4.00 metres. She reached the final of the event at the 2002 World Junior Championships in Athletics the following year, but managed only eighth place. Success came at the 2003 European Athletics Junior Championships, however, as she took the gold medal with a clearance of 4.15 m. She made her Olympic debut the following year at the 2004 Athens Games and qualified for the final with a vault of 4.40 m, but she did not reach that height in the final round and ended the competition in thirteenth place. She set a world junior record mark in the pole vault in August 2005, clearing 4.48 m in Münster.

Spiegelburg reached the final at the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships and went on to finish sixth in the pole vault final at the 2006 European Athletics Championships in Gothenburg. She twice achieved marks of 4.56 m on the European circuit that season and came sixth at the end of year 2006 IAAF World Athletics Final. In 2007, she improved her indoor best to 4.50 m and came fifth at the 2007 European Athletics Indoor Championships. She also made her debut at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics, but did not get past the qualifying stage. She ended the year with a personal best of 4.60 m at the 2007 IAAF World Athletics Final.

Her 2008 was somewhat of a breakthrough as she reached 4.70 m for the first time in July 2008 at the Golden Gala. This ranked her joint second among German pole vaulters, behind Annika Becker, and tied with Yvonne Buschbaum. She came seventh at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and equalled her outdoor best at the 2008 IAAF World Athletics Final to take the gold medal.

She claimed her first medal at continental level at the 2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships – she was runner-up on countback to Yuliya Golubchikova but took the silver medal with a German indoor record mark of 4.75 m. She won the bronze medal at the 2009 European Team Championships in June and went on to claim the national pole vault title at the 2009 German Athletics Championships the following month. This gained her a berth at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics, where she cleared 4.65 m – the second highest performance – but ended up in fourth place by merit of countback. She equalled her outdoor best of 4.70 m at the Memorial van Damme, taking third place, but managed only sixth at the 2009 IAAF World Athletics Final.

In the 2010 outdoor season Spiegelburg started with a win at the Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix – the first stop on the inaugural 2010 IAAF Diamond League. She was narrowly defeated by Svetlana Feofanova at the 2010 European Team Championships, but then beat Lisa Ryzih to claim another national title at the German Championships. She was behind Feofanova at the 2010 European Athletics Championships, but was also ahead of Ryzih, and she left the competition with a European silver medal. She also improved her outdoor best to 4.71 m that season.

She started her 2011 season well with a new national indoor record of 4.76 m at the BW-Bank Meeting in Karlsruhe.
At the 2011 European Team Championship she improved her outdoor personal best to 4.75 metres.

At the Diamond League Meeting in Monaco (20 July 2012) she jumped 4,82 metres breaking the German Record.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London (XXX Olympic Games) she finished in 4th position with 4.65 metres (6 August 2012).

See also
 Germany all-time top lists - Pole vault

References

External links

 Leverkusen who's who

1986 births
Living people
People from Georgsmarienhütte
Athletes from Lower Saxony
German female pole vaulters
German national athletics champions
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Germany
European Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Championships athletes for Germany
Diamond League winners

Silke Spiegelburg


Black Ladinos (Spanish: negros ladinos) were Hispanicized black Ladinos, exiled to Spanish America after having spent time in Spain.

They were referred to as negros ladinos ("cultivated" or "latinized Blacks"), as opposed to negros bozales ("uneducated Blacks"), i.e. those captured in Africa. The Ladinos' skills granted them a higher price than those of bozales.

Black Ladinos born in the Americas were negros criollos ("Creole Blacks", cf. Creoles of color).

History
Prior to the arrival of Columbus to the Americas, there were Black people who either lived as free men, were brought through the Arab slave trade, or the Castilian or Portuguese colonization of Africa.
After some time in Spanish society, those Africans became Christianized and learned Spanish.
There were 50,000 Black Ladinos in Spain in the 15th century. Although Black ladinos came from many parts of the African continent, most had their origins in the Upper Guinea region, including modern day Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, and Guinea.

After the initial stages of the Spanish colonization of the Americas showed that Amerindians were not suitable for the labour that the conquerors required (mainly due to the Eurasian illnesses unknown in the Americas), Nicolás de Ovando decided to bring slaves from Spain.
Between 1502 and 1518, Castile exiled hundreds of black slaves, primarily to work as miners. Opponents of their enslavement cited their Christian faith and their repeated attempts of escape to the mountains or to join the Native Americans in revolt. Proponents declared that the rapid diminution of the Native American population required a consistent supply of reliable low-cost workers. Free Spaniards were reluctant to do manual labor or to remain settled (especially after the discovery of gold on the mainland), and only slave labor assured the economic viability of the colonies.

Examples
 Estevanico (c. 1500–1539), a Berber captured by the Portuguese and sold to a Spanish Conquistador.
 The slaves in the schooner La Amistad were Mendes captured in Africa but were described as Ladinos by their Cuban buyers to avoid the ban on international slave trade.

See also
 Afro-Spaniard: Current inhabitants of Spain of African descent.
 Emancipados: Black Spanish Guineans who enjoyed a special status by their Roman Catholic and Spanish education.
 Seasoning (colonialism)

References

External links
 La procedencia de los esclavos negros en Sevilla, "The provenience of black slaves in Seville".
  Léxico Hispanoamericano del siglo 16, page 515, Peter Boyd-Bowman, Tamesis, 1971. Examples of the usage of ladino in 16th-century Spanish.
 Hermandad Los Negritos, a Roman Catholic brotherhood in Seville, claiming to date from the 14th century, originally for Black Christians.

Spanish language
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Former peoples of the African diaspora
Spanish slaves
Latin American caste system

Black ladino


The Knysna–Amatole montane forests ecoregion, of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, is in South Africa. It covers an Afromontane area of  in the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces.

Setting
The ecoregion, which is South Africa's smallest in area, covers two separate enclaves.
 The Knysna forest extends along the coast between 22°E and 25°E, generally along 34°S in a region called the Garden Route. The KwaZulu-Cape coastal forest mosaic lies along the coast to the north-east.
 The Amatole forests lie in the Amatole mountains, which lie inland and 400 km ENE of the Knysna forest.

The ecoregion has a subtropical/warm-temperate climate  (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification). Rainfall occurs year-round, and ranges from 525 mm to 1,220 mm per year in the Knysna forest, and from 750 mm to 1,500 mm in the Amatole forests.

Flora
The trees are of tropical and afromontane origin, and include Ironwood (Olea capensis), Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata), Outeniqua Yellowwood (Afrocarpus falcatus), Real Yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), Cape Holly (Ilex mitis), White Pear (Apodytes dimidiata), Cape beech (Rapanea melanophloeos), Bastard Saffron (Cassine peragua), Cape Plane (Ochna arborea), assegai tree (Curtisia dentata), Kamassi (Gonioma kamassi), White Alder (Platylophus trifoliatus), and Red Alder (Cunonia capensis).

Fauna
The forests are home to the African elephant - in the last count (2017-2019) there was just one single adult female, age 45 years, surviving, - African leopard, bushbuck, blue duiker, bushpig and other mammals. The area has a rich assortment of birds including the near-endemic Knysna lourie (Tauraco corythaix), Knysna warbler (Bradypterus sylvaticus), Knysna woodpecker (Campethera notata), chorister robin-chat (Cossypha dichroa) and forest canary (Serinus scotops), while birds of prey found here include the crowned eagle (Stephanoaetus coronatus) and the African wood owl (Strix woodfordii). Reptiles include the endemic Knysna dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion damaranum).

Human use and conservation
Thomas Henry Duthie was the first appointed Supervisor of Crown Forests and Lands.  Despite the small size of the ecoregion, the Knysna and Amatole forests are South Africa's largest individual forests. The Knysna forest has been exploited for valuable timber since the 18th century, and the Amatole forests since the 20th century. Since 1939 the forests have mostly been within protected areas and are recovering well, although managed timber harvesting is allowed.

References

External links

Afromontane ecoregions
Afromontane forests
Afrotropical ecoregions
Rainforests of Africa
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Ecoregions of South Africa

Forests of South Africa
Geography of the Eastern Cape
Geography of the Western Cape

Knysna–Amatole montane forests