The Uncertainty principle is also called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Werner Heisenberg stumbled on a secret of the universe: Nothing has a definite position, a definite trajectory, or a definite momentum. Trying to pin a thing down to one definite position will make its momentum less well pinned down, and vice-versa. In everyday life we can successfully measure the position of an automobile at a definite time and then measure its direction and speed (assuming it is coasting along at a steady rate) in the next few moments. That is because the uncertainties in position and velocity are so small that we could not detect them. We assume, quite correctly, that the trajectory of the automobile will not be noticeably changed when we drop a marker on the ground and click a stopwatch at the same time to note the car's position in time and space.

We may bring that experience to the world of atomic-sized phenomena and incorrectly assume that if we measure the position of something like an electron as it moves along its trajectory it will continue to move along that same trajectory, which we imagine we can then accurately detect in the next few moments. We need to learn that the electron did not have a definite position before we located it, and that it also did not have a definite momentum before we measured the trajectory. Moreover, we may justifiably assume that a photon produced by a laser aimed at a detection screen will hit very near to its target on that screen, and confirm this prediction by any number of experiments. Next we will discover that the more closely we try to measure some location of the electron on its way toward the detection screen, the more it and all others like it will be likely to miss that target. So the mere act of measuring the location of an electron makes the trajectory more indefinite, indeterminate, or uncertain. If the trajectory were made more clear and then we were to try to locate that electron along an extension of the trajectory we just staked out, then we would find that the more precise we made our knowledge of the trajectory, the less likely we would be to find the electron where ordinary expectations would lead us to believe it to be. If pitchers threw electrons instead of baseballs, and an overhead camera and side-facing camera were placed somewhere between the pitcher's mound and home plate so that the exact position of the electron could be determined in mid flight, then without the cameras being turned on, the pitcher would throw straight balls, and with the cameras turned on his pitches would start out straight but gyrate wildly after their pictures were taken. The more clearly we know where the ball was halfway toward home place, the more trouble the batter will have in getting ready to hit it with his bat.

Unexpected consequences of the uncertainty feature of nature support our understanding of such things as nuclear fission, the control of which gave humans a new and very powerful source of energy, and quantum tunneling, which is an operating principle of the semiconductors that are so important to modern computer and other technologies.

In technical discussions one almost always talks about position and momentum. Momentum is the product of velocity and mass, and in physics the idea of velocity is the speed that something is going in a certain direction. So sometimes one can also talk about the velocity of the thing in question and ignore its mass, and sometimes it is easier to understand things if we talk about the trajectory or path that something follows. That idea also includes the ideas of speed and direction. In the following diagrams we will show the main features of uncertainty in concrete terms, in the world of real things. Later we will use a little math to be able to give a clear idea of how much wiggle room there is between position and momentum.

Diagrams

How did humans learn about uncertainty?
Very shortly after Werner Heisenberg created the new quantum physics something unexpected came right out of his mathematics, the expression:

The range of error in position (x) times the range of error in momentum (p) is about equal to or greater than the Planck constant divided by 4π.
These symbols put into math form what you have already seen in the pictures above. The symbols say, in a clear way, that you cannot be perfectly certain about where something is and where it is going. If you get clearer on where it is at any time then you have less of an idea on where it is going and how fast. If you get clearer on where it is going and how fast at any time, then you have less of an idea of where it is right now.

Scientists had already learned why certain substances give off characteristic colors of light when they are heated or otherwise excited. Heisenberg was trying to explain why these colors each have a characteristic brightness. It would not have been good enough if he and the other scientists had just said, "Well, that's just the way it is." They were sure that there had to be a good reason for these differences, and for the fact that the ratios among the bright line strengths were always the same for each sample of an element.

He had no idea that he was going to stumble over a hidden secret of nature when he set off to discover the explanation for the intensities of the colored lines characteristic of each of the elements. The study of quantum mechanics had already shown why hydrogen has four bright lines in the part of the spectrum that humans can see. It must have seemed that the next thing to learn would simply be how to calculate their brightness. Hydrogen seemed to be the obvious place to start since hydrogen has only one electron to deal with, and only four lines in the visible part of the spectrum. Surely there must be a good reason for their not being equally bright. The explanation for the brightness of the different-colored lines of neon and the other elements could wait.

Heisenberg started working on quantum physics by adapting the classical equations for electricity, which are very complicated to begin with, so the math behind his 1925 paper was very hard to follow.

He was trying to find the right way to calculate the intensity of bright lines in the hydrogen lamp spectrum. He had to find a related quantity called "amplitude" and multiply amplitude by amplitude (or in other words he had to square the amplitude) to get the intensity he wanted. He had to figure out how to express amplitude in a way that took account of the fact that hydrogen lamps do not radiate at all frequencies, and do not radiate across a continuous range of frequencies in the part of the spectrum that people can see. Heisenberg found a remarkable new way of calculating amplitude.

The strange equation that Heisenberg discovered and used to do the multiplication of one quantum quantity (e.g., position) by another (e.g., momentum) was published in what has been called "Heisenberg's 'magical' paper of July 1925."

The math above looks very hard, but the math leading up to it is very much harder and is extremely hard to understand. It is given here just to show what it looked like. Heisenberg's paper is a historical landmark. Many of the physicists who read his paper said that they could not disagree with his conclusions, but that they could not follow his explanation of how he got to those conclusions. The beginning equations that Heisenberg used involved Fourier series, and involved many factors. We will come back to the equation above because it is a kind of recipe for writing out and multiplying matrices.

The new equations had to be so strange and unusual because Heisenberg was describing a strange world in which some things, such as the orbits of electrons, do not slowly get larger or smaller. The new kinds of changes involve jumps and large gaps between jumps. Electrons can only jump between certain orbits, and the energy gained or lost in changing between orbits is produced when a photon of the right energy is absorbed or a new photon of the right energy is produced. If electrons in hydrogen atoms most frequently jump down (fall) between two particular orbits, then more photons will be emitted at that energy level, and so the light produced at that level will be the most intense.

It was difficult to make equations built for continuous spectra (what you see when you put the sun's light through a prism) fit spectra that just have a few peak frequencies between which there is nothing. Almost everything that had already been learned about light and energy had been done with large things like burning candles or suns, and those large objects all produce continuous spectra. Even though these ordinary-sized things were easy to do experiments with, it had still taken a long time to figure out the law (physics)laws that govern them. Now physicists were dealing with things too small to see, things that did not produce continuous spectra, and were trying to find a way to at least get clues from what they already knew that would help them find the laws of these small and gapped-out light sources.

The original equations dealt with a kind of vibrating body that would produce a wave, a little like the way a reed in an organ would produce a sound wave of a characteristic frequency. So there was motion back and forward (like the vibrating of a reed) and there was an emitted wave that could be graphed as a sine wave. Much of what had earlier been figured out about physics on the atomic level had to do with electrons moving around nuclei. When a mass moves in an orbit, when it rotates around some kind of a hub, it has what is called "angular momentum." Angular momentum is the way that something like a merry-go-round will continue to rotate after people have stopped pushing it. The math used for phase calculations and angular momentum is complicated. On top of that, Heisenberg did not show all of his calculations in his 1925 paper, so even good mathematicians might have trouble filling out what he did not say.

Even though many physicists said they could not figure out the various math steps in Heisenberg's breakthrough paper, one recent article that tries to explain how Heisenberg got his result uses twenty math-filled pages. Even that article is not easy to understand. The math started with some really hard stuff and would eventually produce something relatively simple that is shown at the top of this article. Getting the simpler result was not easy, and we are not going to try to show the process of getting from an outdated picture of the universe to the new quantum physics. We need just enough detail to show that almost as soon as Heisenberg made his breakthrough a part of how the universe works that nobody had ever seen before came into view.

Heisenberg must have been very excited but also very tired when, late at night, he finally made his breakthrough and started proving to himself that it would work. Almost right away he noticed something strange, something that he thought was an annoying little problem that he could make go away somehow. But it turned out that this little nuisance was a big discovery.

Heisenberg had been working toward multiplying amplitudes by amplitudes, and now he had a good way to express amplitude using his new equation. Naturally he was thinking about multiplication, and about how he would multiply things that were given in terms of complicated equations.

Heisenberg realized that besides squaring amplitude he would eventually want to multiply position by momentum, or multiply energy by time, and it looked like it would make a difference if he turned the order around in these new cases. Heisenberg did not think it should matter if one multiplied position by momentum or if one multiplied momentum by position. If they had been just simple numbers there would have been no problem. But they were both complicated equations, and how you got the numbers to plug into the equations turned out to be different depending on which way you got started. In nature you had to measure position and then measure momentum, or else you had to measure momentum and then measure position, and in math the same general situation prevailed. (See the English Wikipedia article Heisenberg's entryway to matrix mechanics if you want to learn the fussy details!) The tiny but pesky differences between results were going to remain, not matter how much Heisenberg wished they would go away.

At the time Heisenberg could not get rid of that one little problem, but he was exhausted, so he handed his work in to his immediate supervisor, Max Born, and went on vacation.

Max Born was a remarkable mathematician who soon saw that the equation that Heisenberg had given him was a sort of recipe for writing a matrix. Dr. Born was one of the few people at that time who was interested in this odd kind of math that most people figured was not good for very much. He knew that matrices could be multiplied, so doing all the calculations for accounting for one physics problem could be handled by multiplying one matrix by another. Just being able to put a complicated procedure into a standard and acceptable form would make it easier to work with. It might also make it easier for other people to accept.

Born was such a good mathematician that he almost immediately realized that switching the order of multiplying the two matrices would produce a different result, and the results would differ by a small amount. That amount would be h/2πi. In everyday life, that difference would be so small that we could not even see it.

On to a formal theory of uncertainty

It took a couple of years, but Heisenberg was able to prove the Uncertainty Principle, which says that Δx × Δp = h/2, which is the number that comes out of the original equations but leaves out the π and the i that have to do with phase changes. Heisenberg explained that he derived his uncertainty principle from this earlier result when he wrote a paper in 1927 introducing this theory.

The constant written h, called the Planck constant, is a mysterious number that often occurs, so we need to understand what this tiny number is. Numerically, it is usually given as 6.62607×10^-34 J s (joule seconds). So it is a quantity that involves energy and time.

It was discovered when Planck realized that the energy of a perfect radiator (called a black-body radiator) is emitted in units of definite size called "quanta" (the singular of this word is "quantum"). Radiated energy is emitted as photons, and the frequency of a photon is proportional to the "punch" it delivers. We experience different frequencies of visible light as different colors. At the violet end of the spectrum, each photon has a relatively large amount of energy; at the red end of the spectrum each photon has a relatively small amount of energy. The way to calculate the amount of energy of a photon is given by the equation E = hν (energy equals the Planck constant times "nu" or frequency).

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle Δx × Δp ≥ h tells us that whenever we try to measure certain pairs of numbers we cannot get both values with high accuracy. More accuracy of x means less accuracy of p. In other words, the less Δx, the greater Δp.

Another pair of physical quantities goes according to the uncertainty relationship: ΔE × Δt ≥ h, and that pair indicates, among other things, that if we look in interstellar space, some place where we would not expect to find anything at all, and we reduce Δt closer and closer to 0, then to keep the balance shown in the equation ΔE has to get larger and larger—and suddenly something with momentum can pop into existence just for that brief period of time.

How is this indeterminacy (lack of certainty) to be explained? What is going on in the Universe? It is often said that a new theory that is successful can provide new information about the phenomena under investigation. Heisenberg created a math model that predicted the correct intensities for the bright-line spectrum of hydrogen, but without intending to do so he discovered that certain pairs of physical quantities disclose an unexpected uncertainty. Up until that moment nobody had any idea that measurements could not be forever made more and more precise and accurate. The fact that they could not be made more certain, more definite, was a stunning new discovery. Many people were not willing to accept it.

Bohr and his colleagues argued that photons, electrons, etc. do not have either position or momentum until they are measured. This theoretical position grew out of the discovery of uncertainty, and was not just some personal preference on what to believe. Bohr said that we know nothing about something like a photon or electron until we observe it. In order to observe such a small thing we need to interact with it somehow. In everyday life it is possible to do something like walking alongside an automobile while marking down the times it crosses points on a grid drawn on the pavement. Perhaps the weight of the automobile itself will depress little levers in the pavement that turn off clocks attached to each of them and record the automobile's weight. In the end we would have a clear record of where the car was at various times, and also could compute its direction of progress and weight. We could then know, at any time on the clock, both its position and its momentum (its velocity multiplied by its mass). We would not even imagine that the force required to move the little levers would have any influence on the progress of the car. We would also not imagine that the automobile had no location or trajectory between the points on the pavement where there are levers, or that the car exists in a kind of three-dimensional blur during those times and only settles down while it is depressing a lever. The world that we are familiar with does not reveal these strange kinds of interactions.

To locate a ship on the sea during the darkest night we could use a searchlight, and that light would not disturb the position or direction of travel of the ship, but locating an electron with light would require hitting it with one or more photons each having enough momentum to disturb the position and trajectory of the electron. Locating the electron with other means would involve holding it in some kind of physical restraint that would also terminate its forward movement.

To locate a photon, the best that can be done without terminating its forward movement is to make it go through a circular hole in a barrier. If one knows the time at which the photon was emitted (by a laser, for instance) and the time that the photon arrives at a detection screen such as a digital camera, then it is possible to compute the time required to travel that distance and the time at which the photon was passing through the hole. However, to permit the photon to pass through it, the circular hole must have a diameter greater than the size of the photon. The smaller the circular hole is made, the closer we come to knowing the exact position of the photon as it goes through it. However, we can never know whether the photon is off-center at that time. If the hole is exactly the same size as the photon it won't pass through. As the diameter of the hole is decreased, the momentum or the direction of the photon as it leaves the hole is more and more greatly changed.

Niels Bohr and his colleagues argued that we get into big trouble if we assume to be true of the things that are too small to be seen even with a microscope anything that we have proof for only on the scale of everyday life. In everyday life, things have a definite position at all times. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, things have a definite time at which they occur. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, if one observes a factory from the night shift of day one to the day shift of day two and one sees a finished automobile rolled out to the shipping dock it would make no sense to say that it is impossible to tell whether it was delivered during the night shift or during the day shift. But on the atomic scale, we can show instances when we have to count a single photon as having been produced at two times. (If that is not bad enough, we can also show instances where a single photon is produced from two adjacent lasers.)

Part of the difficulty with finding out what is happening on the atomic scale is that we would like to know both where something is and what its trajectory is, and to know both things for the same time, but we cannot measure both position and trajectory at the same time. We either measure the momentum of a photon or electron at one time and then without any more delay than necessary measure its position, or we switch things around and measure position first and momentum second. The problem is that in making the first one take on a pretty definite form (by squeezing down on it in some way) we increase the uncertainty involved in the next measurement. If our initial measurements were so crude that lots of error was introduced in each, then we could improve things by using a lighter touch to do each of them, but we could never get beyond a certain limit of accuracy.

We know from everyday life that trying to weigh something on a bathroom scale placed on a washing machine in spin cycle will produce inaccurate results because the needle on the scale will jiggle badly. We can turn off the washing machine. But for very accurate measurements we find that trucks going by in the neighborhood make the needle jiggle, so we can put the scale on a something to insulate it from the outside disturbances. We believe that we can eliminate vibrations enough to give us results just as accurate as we want. We never consider that the thing on the scale is itself vibrating or that it possesses an indefinite momentum.

Arguing backwards from the Uncertainty Principle, it looks as though there is in fact no definite position and no definite momentum for any atomic scale thing, and that experimenters can only force things into definiteness within the limit stated by the Uncertainty Principle. Bohr and his colleagues only argued that we could not know anything without making measurements, and when measurements were made we can push things in the direction of more definite position or more definite momentum, but that we can't get the absolute definiteness or certainty that we would like. But others took the possibility seriously, and argued that if the math is right then there cannot be definiteness or certainty in the world of the ultra small. The nature of science is that the math is only a model of reality, and there is no guarantee that it is a correct model.

The math and the practical consequences of the things that the math predicts are so reliable that they are very hard to disagree with, but what the math says about the real world has produced several different ideas. Among the scientists who worked with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form. Rather, it is a collection of probabilities or potentials.

Counter to the story woven around the math by the Copenhagen group, there are other stories such as the "multiple universes interpretation" that says that every time there are multiple possible outcomes according to quantum theory, each outcomes occurs in its own new universe. Einstein argued that there are no multiple possible outcomes, so there is only one universe and it is determinate, or, as he put it, "God does not play dice."

Objections against the uncertainty principle

Albert Einstein saw that the new quantum mechanics implied a lack of position and momentum in the time prior to measurements being made, and he objected strongly. He firmly believed that things had definite positions and definite momentums before they were measured, and that the fact that measuring one of a pair of things and disturbing the possibility of accurately measuring the other does not argue for there being a lack of either of them beforehand. He and two of his colleagues wrote what has come to be known as the "EPR paper." That paper argues that there must be characteristics that do determine position and momentum, and that if we could see them, or if we can get information about them, then we can mathematically know and predict position and momentum. For a long time people thought that there was no way to prove or disprove what was for Einstein an article of faith. The argument was very productive because it led to all the modern developments in entanglement.

Mathematically, Einstein has been proven wrong. In 1964 John Stewart Bell developed a math method to distinguish between the behavior of two particles that have determinate states that are merely unknown to the two individuals that investigate them, and two particles that have entangled states that are indeterminate or uncertain until they are measured. His method shows that the probabilities for getting certain results are different under the two different assumptions. His work is called Bell's theorem or Bell's Inequality. Experiments have shown that nature behaves as Bell describes it.

Another route to uncertainty

The initial discussions of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle depended on a model that did not consider that particles of matter such as electrons, protons, etc. have a wavelength. In 1926 Louis de Broglie showed that all things, not just photons, have their own frequency. Things have a wave nature and a particle nature, just as photons do. If we try to make the wave of a thing like a proton narrower and taller, that would make its position clearer, but then the momentum would get less well defined. If we try to make the momentum part of a wave description clearer, i.e., make it stay within a narrower range of values, then the wave peak spreads out and its position becomes less definite.

The wave that is part of the description of a photon is, in quantum mechanics, not the same kind of thing as a wave on the surface of the ocean or the regions of compressed air and rarefied air that make up sound waves. Instead, these wave have peaks or high amplitude regions that have to do with probability of finding something at that point in space and time. More precisely, it is the square of the amplitude that gives the probability of some phenomenon showing up.

The wave that applies to a photon might be a pure sine wave. In that case, the square of the value of every peak would give the probability of observing the photon at that point. Since the amplitudes of the sine waves are everywhere the same, the probability for finding the photon at each of them would be the same. So, practically speaking, knowing the wave for one of these photons would not give a clue about where to look for it. On the other hand, the momentum of a photon is mathematically related to the amplitude of its wave. Since in this case we have a pure sine wave, the amplitude of every cycle of the wave is the same and therefore there is only one momentum value associated with this wave. We would not know where the photon would hit, but we would know exactly how hard it would hit.

In beams of light that focus on some point on a detection screen, the waves associated with the photons are not pure sine waves. Instead, they are waves with high amplitude at one point and much lower amplitudes on either side of that highest peak. Mathematically it is possible to analyze such a wave into a number of different sine waves of different wavelengths. It is a little easier to visualize the reverse of this process by looking at an initial sine wave of one frequency to which is added a second sine wave of a different wavelength, then a third, then a fourth, and so on. The result will be a complex wave showing one high peak and containing a large number of waves of different wavelengths and therefore of different momentums. In that case, the probability that the photon will appear at a certain point is extremely high, but the momentum it delivers can turn out to be related to the wavelength of any one of the component waves. In other words, the value of p = ħ/λ is no longer a single value because all the lengths of the assembled "waves of different wavelength" have to be taken into account.

The simulation shows how to mathematically model the sharpening up of the location of a particle: Superimpose many different wave forms over the original sine wave. The center will form a higher and higher peak, and the rest of the peaks will be increased in number but decreased in height because they will interfere with each other. So in the end there are many different waves in the superposition, each with a different wavelength and (by p = ħ/λ) a different momentum, but only one very high peak, one that grows higher and narrower and gives us something closer and closer to a determinate position.

To make momentum more and more definite, we would have to take away more and more of the superimposed sine waves until we had only a simple sine wave left. In so doing we would progressively diminish the height of the central peak and progressively increase the heights of the competing places where one might find the particle.

So when we start with a wave picture of subatomic particles we typically will always deal with cases with relatively tall central peaks and relatively many component wavelengths. There never will be an exact position or an exact momentum predicted under these circumstances. If the mathematical model is an accurate representation of the real world, then no photon or other subatomic particle has either an exact position or a definite momentum. When we measure such a particle we can choose a method that further squeezes the peak and makes it narrower, or we can choose a method that lowers the peak and evens out the component wavelengths. Depending on what we measure and how we measure it, we can make our location come out more definite or we can make our momentum range narrower. We can take care in designing the experiment to avoid various ways of jiggling the apparatus, but we cannot get rid of the fact that there was nothing completely definite to begin with.

Cultural influences

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle has greatly influenced arguments about free will. Under the theories of classical physics it is possible to argue that the laws of cause and effect are inexorable and that once the universe began in a certain way the interactions of all matter and energy to occur in the future could be calculated from that initial state. Since everything is absolutely the result of what came before it, they argued, every decision a human being makes and every situation into which that human being enters was predetermined since the beginning of time. We then have no choice in what we do.

People who believe in free will argue that the laws of quantum mechanics do not predict what will happen but only what is more and what is less likely to occur. Therefore, every action is the result of a series of random "coin tosses" and no decision could be traced back to a set of necessary preconditions.

The expressions "quantum leap" and "quantum jump" have become ordinary ways of talking about things. Usually people intend to describe something as involving a huge change that occurs over a short period of time. The term actually applies to the way an electron behaves in an atom either when it absorbs a photon coming in from the outside and so jumps from one orbit around the atom's nucleus to a higher orbit, or when it emits a photon and so falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. The idea of Niels Bohr and his colleagues was that the electron does not move between orbits but instead it disappears from one orbit and instantaneously appears in another orbit. So a quantum jump is really not some earth shattering change, but a sudden tiny change.

When humans measure some process on the subatomic scale and the uncertainty principle manifests itself, then human action can be said to have influenced the thing that was being measured. Making a measurement intended to get a definite indication of a particle's location will inevitably influence its momentum and whatever is done to measure that momentum as soon as possible after measuring its position, the probabilities of what momentum will be discovered cannot fail to have been changed. So the uncertainty principle can explain some kinds of interference produced by investigators that influence the results of an experiment or an observation. However, not all observer effects are due to quantum effects or the uncertainty principle. The remainder are "observer effects" but not quantum uncertainty effects.

Observer effects include all kinds of things that operate at our ordinary human scale of events. If an anthropologist tries to get a clear idea of life in a primitive society but his or her presence upsets the community he or she is visiting, then the observations made may be very misleading. However, none of the relevant interactions occur at the level described by quantum mechanics or the uncertainty principle.

Sometimes the word "quantum" will be used for advertising purposes to indicate something new and powerful. For instance, the manufacturer of small gasoline motors, Briggs and Stratton, has one line of four-cylinder low horsepower motors for gasoline mowers and similar garden tools that it calls "Quantum."

References

Bibliography
 The Revolution in Physics,
Louis de Broglie, Noonday, 1958
 Quantum-theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations,
Werner Heisenberg
Originally published in German, Zs. Phys. 33 (1925) 879-893. English translation:Sources of Quantum Mechanics, pp. 261–276. B. L. Van Der Waerden, Dover.
 Understanding Heisenberg's 'magical' paper of July 1925: a new look at the calculational details,
Ian J. R. Aitchison, David A. MacManus, Thomas M. Snyder. https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0404009
 Heisenberg's paper, unpublished during his lifetime, concerning the arguments of Albert Einsten et al. against the idea that particles can exist without having definite or certain characteristics such as position and momentum can be found at:
http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/8590/1/Heis1935_EPR_Final_translation.pdf
In translation, its title is: "Is a deterministic completion of quantum mechanics possible?" and the translators are Elise Crull and Guido Bacciagaluppi. The translation is dated 02 May 2011.

 More reading
 Introducing Quantum Theory'', p. 115 and p. 158
J.P. McEvoy and Oscar Zarate

Quantum mechanics

Uncertainty principle


is a Japanese character designer and manga artist.  Fujiwara's father was a soldier in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. He excelled in mathematics and computer science when in grade school. He graduated from the Kuwasawa Design School. Fujiwara won an honorable mention in 1979 for his debut manga titled Itsu mo no Asa ni in the 18th Tezuka Award   along with Toshio Nobe (also an honorable mention) and Tsukasa Hojo, who won the top prize awarded. He was heavily influenced by Katsuhiro Otomo, and a defining feature of his work is the fine attention to detail. His pen name "Kamui" has its origins in the name of the Ainu god of creation, Kamuy, and he has used it since high school. He has had stories published in the manga anthology series Petit Apple Pie.

Works

Manga
 Buyo Buyo
 "Chameko" (published in Manga Burikko)
 Chocolate Panic
 Clip
 Color Mail
 Deja Vu
 Dragon Quest: Warriors of Eden
 Dragon Quest Retsuden: Roto no Monshō
 Dragon Quest Retsuden: Emblem of Roto Returns
 Dragon Quest Retsuden: Emblem of Roto: Monshō o Tsugumono-tachi e
 Drop
 Fukugami Chōkidan
 H2O (published in Manga Burikko)
 Hot Ai-Q
 Hyōi
 Kanata e
 Kenrō Densetsu: Kerberos Panzer Cops (written by Mamoru Oshii)
 Oine (published in Manga Burikko, originally created by Kentarō Takekuma)
 Old Testament: Genesis Books I & II (initially published by Core, republished by Tokuma Shoten)
 Raika (created by Yū Terashima)
 Saiyūki
 Shifuku Sennen
 Sōseiki
 St. Michaela Gakuen Hyōryūki (created by Ei Takatori)
 Teito Monogatari
 Ultra Q
 Unlucky Young Men
 Yūtopia

Video games
 Bōken Shōnen Kurabu ga Hou (character designer)
 Grandia Xtreme (character designer)
 World Neverland (character designer)
 Gēmu Nihonshi Tenkabito: Odanobunaga (character designer)
 Gēmu Nihonshi Tenkabito: Hidekichi to Ieyasu (character designer)
 Terranigma (art director)
 46 Okunen Monogatari: Harukanaru Eden E (Japanese version cover art)

References

External links
  Kamui's Note (official site)

1959 births
Japanese illustrators
Japanese video game designers
Living people
People from Arakawa, Tokyo
Manga artists from Tokyo
Video game artists

Kamui Fujiwara


Anal sex is a sex act performed on the anus. Anal sex can involve a penis inserted in the anus, oral stimulation of the anus, using fingers for penetration and using different objects for stimulation.

Overview
The anus is a part of the body that is tight and cannot lubricate itself. Because of this, a person should be careful not to damage the walls of this organ if inserting something. Lubrication is often used which can be oil or water-based and is sold commercially.

For a man, pleasure can come from the stimulation of the prostate that is found near the anus. For women, it can come from indirect stimulation of the clitoral legs/G-Spot or the cervix. Both men and women can get pleasure from anal sex because the anus has many nerve endings.

References

Sexual acts

Anal sex


In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay where a beta particle (an electron or a positron) is made and sent away, or emitted. When it is an electron, it is called beta minus, and changes a neutron into a proton. When it is a positron, it is beta plus and changes a proton into a neutron. The weak force makes Beta decay possible.

Nuclear physics

Beta decay


The London dock strike was an industrial dispute involving dock workers in the Port of London. It broke out on 14 August 1889, and resulted in victory for the 100,000 strikers and established strong trade unions amongst London dockers, one of which became the nationally important Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Labourers' Union. The strike is widely considered a milestone in the development of the British labour movement, symbolising the growth of the New Unions of casual, unskilled and poorly paid workers, in contrast to the craft unions already in existence. The strike helped to draw attention to the problem of poverty in Victorian Britain and the dockers' cause attracted considerable public sympathy.

Background
Colonel G. R. Birt, the general manager at the Millwall Docks, gave evidence to a Parliamentary committee, on the physical condition of the workers:
The poor fellows are miserably clad, scarcely with a boot on their foot, in a most miserable state ... These are men who come to work in our docks who come on without having a bit of food in their stomachs, perhaps since the previous day; they have worked for an hour and have earned 5d.; their hunger will not allow them to continue: they take the 5d. in order that they may get food, perhaps the first food they have had for twenty-four hours.

Prior to the strike, few dockers were organised, but once it began, the Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Labourers' Union recruited a substantial section of the London docks workforce. The principal demand of the agitation was for the dockers' tanner, meaning a rate of sixpence an hour. The strike was noted for large, peaceful processions which impressed middle class opinion and won sympathy for the strikers' cause from figures such as Cardinal Manning, who acted as meditator between the striking workers and the dock owners. He was seen as fair and impartial by both sides. Upon the resolution of the strike, the dock workers collected £160 for Manning in appreciation of his work, and Manning donated the money to a local hospital to provide a bed.

Notable organisers who came to prominence during the strike include Ben Tillett, John Burns, Tom Mann, Ben Cooper, Will Thorne and the seamen's leader Joseph Havelock Wilson. The most notable politician to come to the fore during the strike was the Progressive Party London County Councillor John Benn. As an increasingly prominent local politician, he was invited to stand for Parliament as the Liberal Party candidate for St George Division of Tower Hamlets. He was subsequently elected in the 1892 general election, becoming the first of four generations of the Benn family to serve as MPs.

The London Dock Strike was preceded by several other developments which marked the emergence of a new mood amongst the unskilled. The strike of match-girls at the Bryant and May match strike, and the successful organisation of London gasworkers by Will Thorne were amongst these omens. The dockers' strike was more dramatic than these disputes however, because of the sheer number of workers involved, the poor reputation that dockers previously enjoyed, and various other aspects of the dispute.

Dispute
The dock strike began over a dispute about 'plus' money during the unloading of the Lady Armstrong in the West India Docks. 'Plus' money was a bonus paid for completing work quickly. The East and West India Docks Company's (E&WIDC), general manager Lieutenant Colonel John Lowther du Plat Taylor (of 49th Middlesex Rifle Volunteers) had cut their 'plus' rates to attract ships into their own docks rather than others.

Evaluations
From the Catholic Church's point of view, Cardinal Manning's involvement in the strike, as a mediator trusted by both sides, could be seen as foreshadowing the encyclical Rerum novarum ('Of New Things') issued by Pope Leo XIII two years later, on 15 May 1891. Addressing "the condition of the working classes", the Church's policy set out in that encyclical explicitly supported the right of labour to form unions, but rejected socialism and affirmed private property rights. ("Each needs the other: capital cannot do without labour, nor labour without capital. Mutual agreement results in the beauty of good order, while perpetual conflict necessarily produces confusion and savage barbarity".)

Robert Speaight, a biographer of Hilaire Belloc, noted that Cardinal Manning's involvement in the Dock Strike made a major impression on Belloc, 19 years old at the time, who was to become a major speaker for the Catholic Church during the early 20th century. As retrospectively told by Belloc himself in The Cruise of the Nona (1925), the example of Cardinal Manning influenced him to become a trenchant critic both of unbridled capitalism and of many aspects of socialism.

See also

Stepney Historical Trust

References

Sources
 Duffy, A. E. P. "New Unionism in Britain, 1889-1890: A Reappraisal," Economic History Review (1961) 14#2 pp 306–319.
 Lovell, John. Stevedores and dockers: a study of trade unionism in the Port of London, 1870-1914 (1969)
 Oram, R. B. "The Great Strike of 1889." History Today (Aug 1964_ 14#8 pp 532–541.
Ben Tillett Memories and Reflections (London, 1931)

External links

 The Great Dock Strike at the PortCities project
 Top of the docks How social hierarchy determined the outcome of the 1889 London dock strike
 Trade Union Ancestors

1889 labor disputes and strikes
1889 in England
History of Catholicism in England
Labour disputes in England
Labour disputes in the United Kingdom
Poverty in England
Water transport in England
1889 in London
Social history of London
Economic history of London
Port of London
Maritime strikes
August 1889 events

London dock strike, 1889


Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (German: Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche) is a very well-known piece of music for orchestra by Richard Strauss.  It is a tone poem (a piece of music which tells some kind of story).  In this work, Richard Strauss describes the adventures of Till Eulenspiegel who was the character in a series of stories written in Germany many years ago.  Till Eulenspiegel was a kind of folk hero.  He was a naughty boy who got up to all kinds of tricks.  The music is very humorous and describes his adventures.

The music is played by a large orchestra.  There is a small clarinet (normally an E flat clarinet, although in Strauss's day he used a D clarinet) that describes the character of Till.  Till is also represented by a French horn.

The music
The music starts with the main theme, which is like saying: 'Once upon a time'.  The horn plays one of Till's themes and this is taken up by the orchestra.  The small clarinet is then heard, sounding like Till laughing.  He rides his horse through the market and knocks lots of things off the stalls, then flirts with the girls (the first violin plays a theme which suggests love).

Till gets on his horse again.  Then suddenly there is a funeral march.  Till has been caught and he is sentenced to death.  Till pleads to be let free and tries to joke his way out of his troubles, but the executioner takes no notice.  Till is taken to the gallows (small clarinet), the flutes rattle as he reaches the top.  The small clarinet describes his death scream, and then he is executed (strings playing pizzicato.  There is a short silence, then the music returns to the opening 'Once upon a Time' theme, but the music finishes with a little joke, as if saying that someone like Till can never be destroyed.

Compositions by Richard Strauss
Orchestral works

Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks


Performing music from memory means knowing a piece of music well enough to be able to play or sing it without the written music.

Although some people can learn music by ear, most people who are taught to play musical instruments learn new pieces by reading the printed music which is in front of them on a music stand.  When someone has learned to play a piece of music well enough to perform it, it is good if they can learn to play it without the printed music.  This is called "playing from memory" or "playing by heart".  When a musician is practising a piece of music so that it can be played from memory this is called memorizing the music.

Most Classical musicians will agree that it is good to play from memory when performing as a soloist.  It means that the player understands the music really well, and he is able to concentrate completely on the way he plays the music (the interpretation).  In some music competitions the competitors are expected to play from memory.  A pianist playing a recital will usually play everything from memory.  It is particularly important for singers who are performing songs (Lieder) to sing without music because they can then communicate directly with the audience using the expression on their faces.  Some conductors conduct from memory.  If they do, they ought to know every single note for every single instrument from memory. There are some conductors who have such amazing memories that they can do this.

Some people find it easier to memorize music than others.  There are different ways of practising to help memorize music: by memorizing a few bars at a time, by studying the printed music away from the instrument, or by "thinking" through the piece away from the instrument.

Some people have a "photographic memory" and can see in their mind the music as printed on the paper.  Some people rely on aural memory (hearing it in one's imagination).  There is also muscular memory (the fingers "knowing" what to do).  Probably most people use some combination of all these methods.

When people perform from memory they are often worried that they might have a memory lapse (forget how the music goes).  It can happen, of course, even to the greatest musicians.  The famous violinist Bronislaw Huberman and the pianist  Eugen d'Albert were once performing Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata.  Both were playing from memory.  One of them kept going wrong in the same place, playing something that had happened earlier, so that they played the middle bit three times before eventually managing to finish the piece.  However, this is quite common, and can happen to anyone.

People who learn musical instruments should try to memorize some of their pieces. Many famous musicians have a large repertoire (a collection) of pieces that they can play from memory.

Sources
"Pianoforte Diplomas" by Geoffrey Tankard (Sevenoaks 1973)

Musical performance techniques

Performing music from memory


Sir Robert Groves Sandeman, KCSI (1835–1892) was a British Indian Army officer and colonial administrator. He was known for his activities in Balochistan, where he introduced a system of "tribal pacification" that endured until the partition of India in 1947.

Early life
Sandeman was born on 25 February 1835, the son of General Robert Turnbull Sandeman. He was educated at Perth and University of St Andrews, and joined the 33rd Bengal Infantry in 1856. When that regiment was disarmed at Phillour by General John Nicholson during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he took part in the final capture of Lucknow as adjutant of the 11th Bengal Lancers. After the suppression of the Mutiny he was appointed to the Punjab Commission by Sir John Lawrence.

Career
In 1866 he was appointed district officer of Dera Ghazi Khan, and there first showed his capacity in dealing with the Baluch tribes. He was the first to break through the close-border system of Lord Lawrence by extending British influence to the independent tribes beyond the border. In his hands this policy worked admirably, owing to his tact in managing the tribesmen and his genius for control.

In February 1871, he was given political control over the warring Marri, Bugti and Mazari tribes of the Sulaiman Hills at the Mithankot conference between the then governments of Punjab and Sindh provinces.

Sandemanization

In 1876, with the help of Nawab Sir Imam Baksh Khan Mazari of Rojhan, he negotiated the Treaty of Kalat with the Khan of Kalat, which subsequently governed relations between Kalat and the government. He became agent to the governor-general of Balochistan in 1877, an office which he held until his death.

Sandeman introduced an innovative system of tribal pacification in Balochistan, informally termed 'Sandemanization', that was in effect from 1877 to 1947. He gave financial allowances to tribal chiefs who enforced control, and used British military force only when necessary. However, the Government of India generally opposed his Forward Policy methods and refused to allow it to operate in India's North West Frontier. Historians have long debated its scope and effectiveness in his mostly peaceful spread of Imperial influence.

Second Afghan War and aftermath
During the Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1878 his influence over the tribesmen was of the utmost importance, since it enabled him to keep intact the line of communications with Kandahar, and to control the tribes after the British disaster at Maiwand. For these services he was made K.C.S.I. in 1879. In 1889 he occupied the Zhob valley, a strategic advantage which opened the Gomal Pass through the Waziri country to caravan traffic. Sandeman's system was not so well suited to the Pashtun as to his Baluch neighbours. But in Balochistan he was a pioneer, a pacificator and a successful administrator, who converted the region from a state of complete anarchy into a province as orderly as any in British India.

Legacy and evaluation
Sandeman died at Bela, the capital of Las Bela state, on 29 January 1892. His nephew by his sister Julia was Walter Massy-Greene, who became a cabinet minister in Australia.

Recent scholarship in postcolonial studies and on colonial Balochistan has disputed this overtly laudatory account of Sandeman's life and career as explicated in books such as Tucker's "Sir Robert G. Sandeman: Peaceful Conqueror of Balochistan" and Bruce's "The Forward Policy and its Results". At a conceptual level, the idea of colonial rulers bringing order to the colonized territory has been questioned by authors such as Edward Said and Nicholas Dirks who argue that this myth resulted from a misunderstanding of (mostly unwritten) local social and cultural norms. It was the product of an effort to make alien peoples and territories governable through the invention of categories of savage and civilized. In respect of colonial Balochistan, Simanti Dutta points out that Sandeman skillfully exploited an existing rift between the Baloch ruler, the Khan of Kalat, and his subordinate tribal chiefs to leverage his influence and project British power into a region which was strategically significant in the context of Anglo-Russian rivalry in Afghanistan. A careful examination of historical records suggests that there were a number of armed uprisings against British rule in Balochistan during and after Sandeman's tenure which had to be put down through the use of lethal force and imposition of crippling financial penalties on the defaulting tribes.

Notes

References
 Tripodi, Christian. "'Good for one but not the other': The 'Sandeman System' of Pacification as Applied to Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier, 1877–1947." Journal of Military History 73#3 (2009): 767–802. online
Tucker AP (1921) Sir Robert G. Sandeman, K.C.S.I., peaceful conqueror of Baluchistan.
Thornton, Thomas Henry (1895) Colonel Sir Robert Sandeman: His Life and Work on Our Indian Frontier
Bruce, Richard Isaac (1900) The Forward Policy and its Results
Said, Edward (1978) Orientalism.
Said, Edward (1993) Culture and Imperialism.
Dirks, Nicholas (1992) Colonialism and Culture.
Dutta, Simanti (2002) Imperial Mappings in Savage Spaces: Baluchistan and British India.

1835 births
1892 deaths
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
British East India Company Army officers
British military personnel of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
British people of the Second Anglo-Afghan War
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Military personnel from Perth, Scotland

Robert Groves Sandeman


Darkness is when there is absence of  light. In practice, out in the open air, there is always almost some light, however slight. The darkness of the night sky is estimated by a nine-point scale known as the Bortle scale.

Darkness is made by blocking light from the sun or some other source of light, which makes shadow. At night the Earth blocks the sun, and casts a shadow over one entire side of the world. There is heat radiation even in the dark.

In mythology, darkness is often connected with evil. Many people are uncomfortable or afraid when in the dark, especially children.

In religion, darkness is considered as beginning of the world, before the light appeared.  At the same time, the darkness was "the second to last plague" (Exodus 10:21).

Darkness in art
Many artists used and still use darkness to fill the void spaces on the canvas. Also it used for chiaroscuro. To create darkness, all colored paints are mixed. Every color absorbs light frequencies.

Light

Darkness


Hande Yener (born 12 Januar 1973 in Istanbul, Turkey) is a Turkis pop sangster. She is ane o the maist famous sangsters in Turkey. Ower the past decade, she haes introducit different styles tae the iver expandin Turkis pop muisic scene. Ilka ane o her albums haes generatit a lot o interest as well as anticipation due tae the different styles, genres an rhythms that she incorporates intae her muisic.

Life an career

1973-99: Early life an career beginnins
Makbule Hande Özyener wis born on 12 Januar 1973, in Kadıköy, Istanbul. She wantit tae study conservatory efter graduatit frae the seicontar schuil but her parents didna let her an then she began tae Erenköy Girls Heich Schuil. She droppit oot o heich schuil an marriet wi Uğur Kulaçoğlu at the age o 17. In 1991, Yener gave birth tae her son, Çağın Kulaçoğlu. She began tae tak singin lessons frae Erdem Siyavuşgil an tree'd tae contact Sezen Aksu.

In 1992, Hande Yener met Hülya Avşar, who wis shoppin at the depairtment store she wirkit at. Avşar wad arrange for a meetin wi her tae meet Sezen Aksu, who wad eventually invite her tae audeetion in order tae wirk wi her on her upcomin album. Hande went on tae be hired an quickly become Sezen Aksu's assistant an back vocalist for her album, "Deli Kızın Türküsü" (Fowk Soangs o a Crazy Girl). This gave her the first steppin stane intae the muisic industrie, as wirkin wi Aksu alloued her no anerlie tae gain some experience as an airtist, but play contributions tae producin some o Sezen's famous albums durin the 1990s an aw.

2000-01: Senden İbaret an Extra
Hande wad go on tae wirk wi Sezen as a backin vocalist for twa years. Efterwards she managit tae establish hersel no anerlie some experience, but a recognizable name as those that wirk as vocalist for Sezen tend tae attract some attention for bein chosen as wirthy airtists an aw. It teuk some time for Hande tae feenally release her first album in 1999 which is cried, "Senden İbaret" (All About You).

The first single released aff frae the album wis cried, "Yalanın Batsın" (Damn Your Lies). It wis a dance track that spelled instant success. This wis considerin that it managit tae skyrocket richt tae the top o maist Turkis chairts, allouin it tae become an instant club hit. The seicont single that follaeed frae this album wis, "Yoksa Mani" (If There Isn't An Obstacle). It managit tae attract a lot attention an aw, as it wis a pop track that accompanee'd some eastren-soondin elements tae it.

The success ahint "Senden İbaret" wis so successful, that it promptit a single release cried, "Extra" in 2001. This CD single featured different remixes tae sangs that appeared on her first album, alang wi a couple o new tracks as well. It managit tae dae surprisingly well for a single, as Hande's popularity haed just begun tae pick up steam.

2002-03: Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma...
Later in 2001, Yener's seicont album came oot an juist when she mey hae thocht that she's seen it aw, her success managit tae further skyrocket wi "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma..." (Go Your Way...I Will Go Mine...). The album incorporatit a lot o ethnic an tradeetional muisic wi those o modren pop. Wi singles like, "Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma..." an "Küs"; Hande's popularity seemit tae show nae end. Her success can be witnessed as she performit at sauld-oot concerts no anerly in Turkey but abroad an aw. That, plus she haes been recognisit as bein ane o maist likely airtist tae continue on a successful muisical career for years tae come. Indeed, this wad pruive tae be the case in the release o the albums tae follae.

2004-05: Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor
Later on, Yener wad return back intae the muisic industrie wi the release o, "Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor" (Love Doesn't Understand a Women's Soul) in 2004. Her third album, which haed sax hits aw ower Turkey includit, "Acele Etme" (Don't Rush), "Kırmızı" (Red), "Acı Veriyor" (The Pain it Gives), "Armağan" (Gift), "Hoşgeldiniz" (Welcome) an "Bu Yüzden" (Because of That). Ither tracks that became radio hits athort Turkey includit, "Savaş Sonrası" (After the War) an "Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor". "Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor" brocht success tae Yener in some kintras ootside o Turkey as well. Yener's 3rd album is arguable ane o her best as it featured rangin genres stretchin frae "Acı Veriyor"'s rock ballad tae "Acele Etme"'s Oriental dance beats. Nanetheless, this album's popularity presistit for ower 2 years.

2006: Apayrı an Hande Maxi
Awtho her previous album wis a huge success, Yener decidit tae impruive an refine her muisic style ance mair. She wad leave the Türk pop, pavin the wey tae incorporate a mair dance-friendly Europop soond, alang wi chyngin her appearance as well. She cut an dyed her black frae blonde. The result wis "Apayrı" (Totally Different), which came oot in early 2006. Some o the hit singles that came oot frae "Apayrı"" includit, "Kelepçe" (Handcuffs), "Aşkın Ateşi" (The Fire of Love) an "Kim Bilebilir Aşkı" (Who Can Guess What Love Is). Each o these singles featured different genres that simply woued Turkey. "Kelepçe" haed a groovy disco soond tae it. "Aşkın Ateşi" wis a sweet pop track an "Kim Bilebilir Aşkı" featured a Far-Eastren soond that haed hints o techno felt throuoot the sang. The album sauld 200.000 copies.

Later on, as the popularity o "Apayrı" spread aw aroond Turkey, Yener decidit tae release a maxi-single containin sangs componit wi her new muisical style (which would be her first maxi-single released an aw). The result wis "Hande Maxi", which gained popularity an aw. "Hande Maxi" contained three new sangs as well three remixes. The three new sangs haed a mair electronic an trance soond in thaim, hintin anither chynge in her muisical style. Ane o the new sangs, "Biraz Özgürlük" (A Little Freedom), haes gained popularity.

2007-09: Nasıl Delirdim?, Hipnoz an Hayrola?

Efter Hande Maxi, wi its electronic an trance soond, Yener continued wi that soond releasing "Nasıl Delirdim?" (How Did I Go Mad?) on 15 Mey 2007. The album includit numerous tracks written an componit bi Sezen Aksu. The first single featured wis cried, "Kibir" (Arrogance). The album wis released wi 72,000 copies an fower different covers which includit 3-dimensional airtwirks. The copies released later fashioned anerlie ane o these fower covers. The themes on the album wur maistly aboot a wumman's worries aboot relationships dealin wi aboot paranoia, lettin go, bein sad or mad an selfishness. The seicont single wis amaist obvious when the first single came out. It was called, "Romeo"; a sang co-written bi Yener hersel, dedicatit tae her boyfriend. "Yalan Olmasın" (Without a Lie) wis released in January 2008 as a third, an feenal, single wi accompanyin muisic video. It did no achieve hintle success, housomeivver, for it did no chairt at aw in Turkey.

In Aprile 2008, it wis annooncit that Yener haes feenished wirkin on her new studio album. The album, "Hipnoz" (Hypnosis), wis released in Julie 2008, an is, like Nasıl Delirdim?, frae beginnin tae end full o electronic soonds. The album didna sell as well as her previous albums, haein sauld 40.000+ copies. The title track servit as the lead sang, as well as bein the anerlie single comin frae that album. Like the album, Hipnoz didna dae well, reachin the #10 position in the Turkis chairt, accordin tae Nielsen Music Control.

Housomeivver, no tired o electropop yet, Yener released Hayrola? (What's Going On?), bein released on 6 Aprile 2009. The album contains, yet again, 10 tracks, aw in the style o electropop. It wis her first, an as it turned oot anerly, album on the "Avrupa" label. For "Hayrola?", which is recordit in the UK, Yener haes wirkit wi electronic composer Erol Temizel, an 9 o the sangs hae leerics written bi Yener hersel (wi "Siz" bein the exception, for that sang is written bi Aylin Aslım). The main themes o the album are weemen breakin doun taboos an tradeetional values, the inability tae embrace different lifestyles an the complex mechanisms o attraction. The album amaist equaled the sales o Hipnoz, haein sauld 37,000+ copies. The lead single, as well as the anerlie single released frae this album, title track Hayrola? did better nor her twa previous singles, reachin #3 on the Turkis muisic chairt.

2010: Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? an Hande'yle Yaz Bitmez
On the first o Aprile 2010, bein blonde again an haein left Avrupa Müzik, nou bein pairt o the music label o Poll Production, Yener released yet anither album, cried Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? (What's Going On With Hande?). Afore she released this album, she haes been citit that she wad likely return tae a mair pop-orientit soond, meanin lettin go o the prevailin electronic soond o her last three albums an her EP Hande Maxi. Awtho no a collection o pur electronic songs, the album didna throw the electronic soond completely owerbuird — it actually contains nae live instrumentation — favourin a mair dance-pop orientit album, reminiscin o some songs o her Apayrı-era, ower the mair Türk pop albums in the early days o her career.

The album contains 11 sangs an 3 remixes, makkin a total o 14 sangs, aw o which are written completely bi Sinan Akçıl, a Turkis componer, sangwriter an muisic producer aiblins best kent for Hadise's ESC 2009 sang Düm Tek Tek. The album haes sauld mair nor 50.000 copies in the first week o its release, an went on sellin 60,000+ in its third an fowert week.

Hande'yle Yaz Bitmez is the third maxi single bi Turkis pop airtist Hande Yener, released bi Poll Production The CD consists o ane new sang, "Uzaylı" (Alien), bein her new single, twa remixes o that same sang, an aicht remixes o sangs frae her previous album "Hande'ye Neler Oluyor?", aw written bi Sinan Akçıl.

2011-present: Teşekkürler an Kraliçe

Her latest album is cried Teşekkürler (Thanks) an wis co-producit bi Sinan Akçıl. Comprisin 12 sangs, the album haes so far spawned three single releases: "Bana Anlat" ("Tell Me"), "Unutulmuyor" ("Not Forgotten") an "Teşekkürler" ("Thank You").

Discografie

 Senden İbaret (2000)
 Sen Yoluna... Ben Yoluma... (2002)
 Aşk Kadın Ruhundan Anlamıyor (2004)
 Apayrı (2006)
 Nasıl Delirdim? (2007)
 Hipnoz (2008)
 Hayrola? (2009)
 Hande'ye Neler Oluyor? (2010)
 Teşekkürler (2011)
 Kraliçe (2012)

References

Freemit airtins
 Offeecial wabsteid
 Offeecial Fan Steid

1973 births
Livin fowk
Sangsters frae Istanbul
Turkis female sangsters
Turkis pop sangsters

Hande Yener


गणित-इतिहास:
आयुर्विज्ञान-इतिहास:
भौतिकी-इतिहास:
जीवविज्ञान-इतिहास:

बाह्यसम्पर्कतन्तुः
 The official website of the International Academy of the History of Science
 The official website of the Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science
 A History of Science, Vols 1–4 , online text
 Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics ("CWP")
 History of Science Society ("HSS")
 The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center in Paris (France). This center develop different websites about history of science & tech. : Ampère and history of electricity, Lamarck : works and heritage, Buffon Online, etc. and, recently, the netvibes portal History Of Science In France
 The official site of the Nobel Foundation. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates
 The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy
 The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date
 The Vega Science Trust Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.
 Toward the Scientific Revolution From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including Isaac Newton.
 Orotava Foundation for the History of Science, Canary Islands, Spain The History of Science in Spain. Free contents (books, lectures and expositions) on History of Science and digital library.
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives
 British Society for the History of Science Travel Guide.  This site is for anyone interested in visiting places with ties to the history of science, technology and medicine, anywhere in the world.

विज्ञानम्
बाह्यानुबन्धः योजनीयः
चित्रं योजनीयम्
सारमञ्जूषा योजनीया
विज्ञानसम्बद्धाः स्टब्स्
सर्वे अपूर्णलेखाः

विज्ञानेतिहासः


Krompachy (German: Krompach, Hungarian: Korompa) is a town in Slovakia, located on the valley of the Hornád River. Until the end of the 20th century it was a centre of mining and metallurgy, particularly iron and copper. It is now an alpine resort, close to the Plejsy ski center.

Cities in Slovakia

Krompachy


Webkinz are stuffed animals. They were first sold by the Ganz company in 2005. The toys are similar to other small plush toys. Each toy comes with a special code that lets the person who owns it use the "Webkinz World" website. On the website, users can "adopt" an online version of the pet to play with.

The toys have been advertised in a way that is similar to Ty Beanie Babies. After some time, certain types of the toy are "retired" or no longer sold. This makes the toys more valuable after they are retired and people can sell them for more money. Usually,  retired Webkinz are sold at the $20 - $100 range. (USD) Webkinz have been very popular. Ganz says more than 2 million toys have been sold to retailers. They also say there are 1 million users of the Webkinz website. More than $1 million (USD) in toys were sold in the United States in 2006.

When a person buys a Webkinz at a store, they get a code that allows them to use the website for one year. After that time, the person can still use the account, but there are some things that they can't do on there anymore. To be able to do everything, they must buy another Webkinz toy. Online, users can play with their pets in many ways. For example they can feed them, exercise them, or play games. When they play games, they earn "KinzCash", the money that is used on the site to buy things for their pets.
 Now, Ganz has made the Ganz E-store, where you can buy Webkinz codes and items with just a credit card and a click. They also made tinier versions called Lil' Kinz plush toys.

Other websites
 Webkinz official website
 Teddy Bear, Version 2.0 - Washington Post article

toys
websites

Webkinz


In political parties, the Central Committee (also called Steering Committee or National Committee) is a group of party members that make all decisions for the party.

The Committee is usually led by a Chairman. The Committee usually elects its Chairman to represent it, and also elects other important members of the party.

In one-party dictatorships, the Central Committee is all-powerful and leads the country. In the Soviet Union, for example, Joseph Stalin, used his power as General Secretary to have complete control over the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee and was able to become more powerful than the Committee itself.

Forms of government

Central Committee


Thomas Cadwallader Zimmerman (January 23, 1838 – November 13, 1914) was a Pennsylvania German writer and translator, notable for his translations of English language classics into the Pennsylvania German dialect. He was also the editor of the Reading Times newspaper in Reading, Berks County, Pennsylvania.

Life and career
Zimmerman was born in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania in the United States in 1838.  There he attended public school until he was thirteen years old, and was apprenticed as a printer with the Lebanon Courier.  Upon completion of his apprenticeship, he went to Philadelphia to work at The Philadelphia Inquirer.  In 1856, he became a journeyman printer with the Berks and Schuylkill Journal.  He relocated to Columbia, South Carolina in 1859, and returned to the Reading area at the outset of the American Civil War, where in 1863 he enlisted in Company C of the 42nd Regiment of Pennsylvania Volunteers.  Although he is sometimes referred to as "Colonel," he saw no active service during the war.  On June 11, 1867 he married Tamsie T. Kauffman of Reading.  By 1897, he was the president of the Reading Times Publishing Company and editor of the Reading Times newspaper.  In 1903, a volume titled Olla Podrida was published of his translations.  In 1904, he was awarded a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Muhlenberg College in Allentown, Pennsylvania.  Zimmerman retired from his newspaper career in October, 1908.

Zimmerman was quite active in public life.  He was trustee of the Board of the State Asylum at Wernersville, director of the Reading Free Public Library, president of the Pennsylvania Association of Superintendents and Trustees of Insane Asylums and vice-president of the Pennsylvania Chautauqua Association.  He was one of the founders of the Pennsylvania German Society, and of the Historical Society of Berks County.

Zimmerman died in Reading, Pennsylvania in 1914.

Translations
Zimmerman specialized in the translation of German poetry into English and of English language classics into the Pennsylvania German dialect, which, during his lifetime, was spoken by a significant percentage of the population in the area where he lived and worked.  Because of his association with the Reading Times, in which his translations were regularly published, he was able to reach a large number of readers in the Berks County region.

His most notable translations included Clement C. Moores' "Twas the Night Before Christmas", Martin Luther's "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A Mighty Fortress Is Our God)" and Friedrich Schiller's "Die Glocke" ("Song of the Bell").

Publications
Olla Podrida (1903)

References

Notes

1838 births
1914 deaths
American poets in Pennsylvania Dutch
American writers in Pennsylvania Dutch
People from Lebanon County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania culture
American male journalists
Pennsylvania Dutch people
People from Berks County, Pennsylvania
Print editors
Pennsylvania Dutch culture
Pennsylvania Dutch language
English–German translators
American people of German descent
19th-century translators
19th-century American male writers
Journalists from Pennsylvania

Thomas Zimmerman


An aria is a long song accompanying a solo voice. An aria is usually in an opera. It is an Italian word of the 18th century meaning "air" (i.e. a tune).
A small amount of text is used in an aria. Characteristics include the use of melismas, repetition and sequences. Typically there would be full accompaniment to the solo voice in the aria although this is not the case in Purcell's Dido and Aeneas where the majority of its arias are only accompanied by the continuo part.

In operas of the Baroque period most of the music was either "recitative" or "aria". Recitative (from a word meaning: "to recite" i.e. "to tell") was sung quickly, almost as if it were being spoken. The singer was accompanied just by a few supporting chords, usually on a harpsichord. The story was being told in the recitative.
Once the situation in the story had changed there would be an aria. The singer would sing a song which expressed his or her feelings. The aria had more musical interest than the recitative. Arias were usually in what we call "ABA" form or "Da Capo" form. There was a main section, then a middle part, then the main section was repeated ("Da Capo" means: "back to the beginning"). In the Da Capo section the singer usually improvised, adding many embellishments and ornaments. The aria gave performers the opportunity to show off their virtuosity.

The word "aria" is not just used in opera. Arias can be found in cantatas or just by themselves. Sometimes pieces for instruments are called "aria". These are often a tune with variations, such as Handel's famous "Air with Variations" for harpsichord, also known as The Harmonious Blacksmith.

In the 19th century the difference between recitative and aria in opera started to disappear. Composers like Richard Wagner made the music much more continuous. He did not want audiences clapping in the middle of his operas. He wanted the music to develop dramatically and continuously.

References

Musical forms

Aria


PFR is a Christian rock group from Minneapolis, Minnesota. Although the group initially disbanded in 1997, they  periodically reunited from 2001 to 2013 and recorded two albums in that time. They reunited again in 2022. Their name was originally "Pray for Rain", but was changed to "PFR" to avoid a conflict with another musical group.

History
PFR was founded in 1989 as the Joel Hanson Band by Joel Hanson, who was a camp counselor at Camp Shamineau, a Christian youth camp in Minnesota. In 1991, the band, then known as Inside Out, was signed to Brown Bannister's newly founded Vireo Records. After signing, Patrick Andrew suggested the band change the name to "Pray for Rain" after a line from a poem. In 1992, the band released Pray for Rain, and gained some attention with the song "Do You Want to Know Love". Shortly after releasing the first album, an existing band (an instrumental group who did soundtrack work) known as Pray for Rain threatened a lawsuit, leading the band to settle on the name PFR. The first album was reissued with a slightly modified cover to reflect the change.

In 1993, PFR released their second album, Goldie's Last Day, whose title track was inspired by the passing of Patrick Andrew's pet golden retriever. Also that year, the band recorded a cover of "We Can Work It Out" by The Beatles with guitar legend Phil Keaggy for the various artists tribute CD Come Together: America Salutes The Beatles.

PFR released their third album, Great Lengths in 1994. The album had the band's biggest hit, "The Love I Know", inspired by I Corinthians 13. The Great Lengths tour introduced a new band, Jars of Clay, who would become one of the most popular Christian groups to date, also enjoying great mainstream success.

Having changed musical direction with each album, PFR moved into an edgier, heavy sound for 1996's Them. While the album was well-received, the band shortly afterward announced that they were splitting up. In 1997, The Late Great PFR was released, a greatest hits album containing three new songs, with one ("Forever") becoming a Christian radio hit.

Over the next 5 years, the band reunited for an occasional benefit concert. In 2000, when Mark Nash was working as the A & R director of Squint Records, the band returned to the studio to contribute to Steve Taylor's Roaring Lambs project, inspired by the book by Bob Briner. Working on the project inspired the band to sign to Taylor's Squint Records, and record 2001's Disappear. The album did not gain much exposure, however, due to Squint Records selling to another company, which also displaced artists such as Chevelle and Sixpence None the Richer. Another casualty of the Squint shakeup was the PFR cover of Paul McCartney's "Wonderful Christmastime" recorded for a 2001 Squint Christmas compilation that was never released.  However, the recording has been released digitally through the band's MySpace page. In 2002, PFR recorded a cover of "Livin' Thing", originally by Electric Light Orchestra.

In 2004 PFR released The Bookhouse Recordings, an album chiefly consisting of PFR classics rearranged, plus three new songs. The Bookhouse Recordings was recorded in one week at the end of August 2004 in Nashville, TN at Mark Nash's studio. This was the first album produced by the band alone, and features the song "Prayer For Beslan," a song mourning the terrorist attacks on a Russian school the same week the band was recording.The Bookhouse Recordings was released exclusively through Family Christian Stores, and was on the FUSEIC label started by Rick Altizer. Altizer now fronts the band Dum Dog Run with Jade Hanson, Joel Hanson's older brother.

Joel Hanson released three solo albums, Broken (2001), Captured (2002) and "What If It Is" (2009). Patrick Andrew formed Eager following the 1997 break-up of PFR, and was signed to Quaestar Mission Records, releasing a self-titled album in 1998, before Eager also disbanded. In 2004, Patrick Andrew released his first solo album, There and Then It's Gone.

In 2012, PFR reunited for the "PFR Twelve in 2012" tour.  Their first show was at Joel's home church, The Church of the Open Door, in Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota on January 27, 2012. In December 2012, PFR released a 13-track, live album entitled "Minneapolis". This album was made available exclusively as a digital download.

In 2013, PFR played the main stage at the Sonshine Festival in Willmar, Minnesota. A Kickstarter project was announced later in the year on October 2, set to release on October 16. Technical problems kept the project from being released on time and, instead, another surprise was released on their Facebook page. Joel Hanson announced on October 16, 2013 that the band had once again disbanded. He cited "personal things" with one of the band's members, and stated that these issues "need attention far more than our band does." No further details were given and the Kickstarter project was cancelled.

PFR reunited in late 2022 and as of 2023 is currently active.

Members
Joel Hanson – guitar, vocals
Patrick Andrew – bass guitar, vocals
Mark Nash – drums

Discography

Studio albums

 Pray for Rain (1992, Vireo)
 Goldie's Last Day (1993, Vireo)
 Great Lengths (1994, Vireo)
 Them (1996, Vireo)
 The Late Great PFR (1998, Vireo) compilation with three new songs
 Disappear (2001, Squint)
 The Bookhouse Recordings (2004, Fuseic) rearranged songs with three new songs
 Minneapolis (2012) digital download only; live recording

Compilation appearances

 Come Together: America Salutes The Beatles (1995, Capitol)
 Roaring Lambs (2000, Squint)
 Lynne Me Your Ears: A Tribute to Jeff Lynne (2002, Not Lame)
 Very Best of PFR (2006, Sparrow) compilation

References

External links
PFR at Jesus Freak Hideout
PFR on Facebook

American Christian musical groups
Musical groups from Nashville, Tennessee
Musical groups established in 1991
1991 establishments in Tennessee

PFR (band)


Uthai Thani (Thai อุทัยธานี) is ane o the provinces (changwat) o Thailand. Neighborin provinces are (frae north clockwise) Nakhon Sawan, Chai Nat, Suphan Buri, Kanchanaburi an Tak.

Geography
The province stretches frae the upper plains o the Chao Phraya river valley, tae muntains covered wi forests in the wast. The Sakae Krang River, a tributary o the Chao Phraya River is the main river o Uthai Thani province.

The Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary at the wastren bundary tae the province Tak an wis declared Warld Heritage Site in 1991. It covers 2,574 km², an hooses amaist aw o the forest ainimals o Sootheast Asie, includin tigers an elephants.

History
Oreeginally Mon an Lawa settled in the aurie. A first Thai dounset in the aurie wis Muang U Thai durin the Sukhothai period, but wis later abandoned whan the river chynged course. Patabeut, a member o the Karen ethnicity, revived the dounset at its currect place durin the Ayutthaya period. It served as a fort protectin the bundary o the kinrick then.

Uthai Thani is maist famous as bein the hametoun o the faither o King Rama I. Rama I an aa renamed the ceety frae its auld name Uthai tae Uthai Thani.

In 1892 King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) addit the aurie o Uthai Thani tae the Monthon Nakhon Sawan, an in 1898 formed the province.

Seembols
The provincial seal depicts the pavilion at Wat Khao Sakaekrang. It hooses the statue o Thongdee, the faither o King Rama I. The muntain in the backgrund seembolizes the location o the pavilion on tap o a hill.

Provincial flouer is the Yellow Cotton Tree (Cochlospermum regium), provincial tree is Neem (Azadirachta indica v. siamensis).

The banner o Uthai Thani depicts the provincial seal o Uthai Thani in the middle. The yellae colour in the tap o the banner is the seembol colour o the Chakri Dynasty, as Gowd as a precious metal is a seembol for the Thai monarchy. The green colour in bottom is the seembol colour o King Rama I as he wis born on a Wadensday, which is associatit wi green in the Thai calendar. The text belaw the seal says Uthai Thani province.

Admeenistrative diveesions

The province is subdividit in 8 destricts (amphoe). Thir are further subdividit intae 70 subdestricts (tambon) an 642 veelages (muban).

Provinces o Thailand

Uthai Thani Province


Noodle soup is a kind of soup. It contains the normal soup stock, together with noodles, and sometimes other ingredients. This kind of soup is very popular in Asia, where it originally came from.  There are also many instant soups of this kind.

Some of the varieties are:

Beef noodle soup - popular in China; noodles in a beef soup
Ban mian - popular in China, Malaysia and Singapore; a noodle soup with flat noodles, egg, and usually vegetables.
Soba - popular in Japan; noodles are made of buckwheat
Udon - popular in Japan; noodles are made of wheat, toppings can be added, broth is usually dashi
Mie ayam - popular in Indonesia; a chicken noodle soup.
Ramen

Soups
Noodles

Noodle soup


Edward Hitchcock Jr. (May 23, 1828 – February 16, 1911) was an American physical educator.

Biography
Born to Edward Hitchcock Sr., the geologist and President of Amherst College, and wife Orra White, Hitchcock attended Williston Seminary as a boy and continued his education while following in his father's footsteps by entering Amherst College in the fall of 1845. Hitchcock Jr. graduated from Amherst college in 1849. From 1850 to 1861, with the exception of a single year (1852–53), he was teacher of elocution and natural science at Williston Seminary. In 1853, he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine from the Harvard Medical School. The same year, after receiving his doctorate, he married Mary Judson. They had ten children; three of whom died in infancy. Hitchcock Jr. returned to Amherst College in 1861 as professor of Hygiene and Physical Education. Hitchcock Jr. was the first ever physical educator.

History
Colleges had hired physical educators since the early 1820s, but Edward Hitchcock Jr. is generally credited with being the first formal physical educator at the collegiate level. He believed in the importance of sound physical health for college students, so that the mind could accomplish its best work and students could look forward to "the promised labor of a long life." To achieve that goal, he developed systems of physical training intended to appeal to the students both mentally and physically. His program at Amherst became a model for college and secondary school programs nationally and internationally. The development of this first college program was Hitchcock's major contribution to the field of physical education.

Contributions
Edward Hitchcock Jr. contributed to Amherst College not only with his enlightened ideas concerning physical education, but also with his genuine personality. Hitchcock Jr. was noted as a kind, broad-minded, vigorous, optimistic, honest, faithfully religious man with shrewd common sense and an intense loyalty to the college. Students were known for being rather fond of Hitchcock Jr. as well, and he was often affectionately referred to as "Old Doc".

Old Doc is a noted "crusader for fitness" he created schedules for physical exercises to be completed at the college. While Edward Hitchcock Jr. actively practiced and taught physical education at Amherst, he also conducted research and intently studied the scientific functions that applied to his phys ed ideas. Hitchcock Jr. even worked with his aforementioned father Edward Hitchcock Sr to compile a textbook titled, Elementary Anatomy and Physiology For Colleges, Academies and Other Schools. He named one of the earliest dinosaurs discovered in America, Megadactylus polyzelus.  Later it was reclassified as the type specimen of Anchisaurus polyzelus (ACM 41109), a prosauropod.

Honors and awards
 Honorary Fellow in Memoriam, National Academy of Kinesiology

References

External links
Hitchcock, Edward. Elementary anatomy and physiology for colleges, academies and other schools. N.p.: Ivison, Phinney &Co., 1860. 1-441. Web. 14 Mar. 2011.
McArdle, W. D. et al. Exercise Physiology. 4th edition. Williams & Wilkins Publishers. Baltimore, 1996.
Edward and Mary Judson Hitchcock Family Papers, 1840-1962 (Bulk: 1850-1911) in the Archives & Special Collections at Amherst College
Five Colleges

1828 births
1911 deaths
Amherst College faculty
Amherst College alumni
Harvard Medical School alumni
People associated with physical culture
People from Amherst, Massachusetts

Edward Hitchcock Jr.


Taiwan (minus the Pescadores) is an island of eastern Asia. Its first people were Austronesians with small numbers of Chinese. After the arrival of the Dutch in the 1600s, many Chinese moved to Taiwan to work. Few European people moved to Taiwan, and the native people married with Chinese or moved away from the west side of the island. When the Qing dynasty began in China, a supporter of the old Ming dynasty hid in Taiwan. Eventually the Qing came to Taiwan, defeated him, and added Taiwan to China.

Taiwan remained Chinese territory through most of the Qing dynasty until it was taken by Japan in 1895. Taiwan became a colony of Japan for fifty years until the end of World War Two. For a brief time it was under the control of China through the Guomindang government, but that government lost a civil war and moved to Taiwan. The rule of the Guomindang is considered controversial today. Some criticize its treatment of the people of Taiwan, but others focus on positive political and economic change that it made.

In the 1980s, the government became more democratic. This has also been controversial because it allows different political parties to compete. The Democratic Progressive Party gained influence. During this time, Taiwan has officially been called the Republic of China but has acted independently of China. The People's Republic of China demands that Taiwan must become a part of China, while most Taiwanese debate the appropriate political status for today. These perspectives make complications in the politics of Taiwan.

Prehistoric Taiwan

The original people to move to Taiwan can be called the Aboriginal people. They have many similarities with others societies called Austronesian. Chinese historians have mentioned Taiwan several times since its Three Kingdoms period, although it was considered a land of barbarians.

About 50000 years ago was called the "Old Stone Age" in Taiwan. At that time, people hit rocks against each other to make tools. The most famous culture of Taiwanese old Stone Age is Changping Culture. The Changping culture's monument is the Eight Gods' Hole Monument in Taitung Conty.

About 5000 years ago was the "New Stone Age". People in New Stone Age sharpened stones to make tools. We can take New Stone Age into three parts. The most famous cultures are the Tapenken culture, the Beinan culture, and the Yuanshan culture. The Tapenken culture monument is the Tapenken Monument (also known as T.P.K.) in Taipei, the Beinan culture's monument is the Puyuma Relics in Taitung Conty, and the Yuanshan culture's monument is the Yuanshan Monument in Taipei City.

About 2000 years ago was the "Metal Age". In the Metal Age, people used metal to make tools, and started trading. The most famous culture in Metal Age is the Thirteen Hangs Cultures. Its monument is the Thirteen Hangs Monument in Taipei County.

Dutch Taiwan

In the 17th century, the Dutch took control of Taiwan. During this time, it was a Dutch colony and it encouraged Chinese people to move there. Few Chinese had lived on Taiwan until this time. As more Chinese moved to Taiwan there was conflict with the Aboriginal people. The Aboriginal people either married with Chinese or moved away from the west of Taiwan. During the time of Dutch control, Spain also briefly held northern Taiwan but the Dutch removed them in 1642.

Qing Dynasty

In 1644, the Qing Dynasty began ruling China, and Ming Dynasty's courtier, Koxinga landed Taiwan, removed the Dutch, and ruled Taiwan. He turned it into a place to resist the Qing Dynasty. This period is called "the period of Ming Zheng", or the Kingdom of Tungning, the Kingdom of Yanping. One year later, the Qing Dynasty ended the Kindom of Tungning. The Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan for 212 years until 1895.

Japanese Rule

Japan first showed interest in Taiwan in the 1870s. It tested the strength of the Qing Dynasty's control in 1871. Some ship-wrecked Okinawan fishermen were killed by Aboriginal people in southern Taiwan and Japan demanded compensation. Okinawa had secretly paid tribute to both China and Japan. In this situation Japan claimed Okinawa was part of Japan and it must protect its own people. There was no war but China stated it could not control barbarian people. Japan used this excuse to demand Taiwan after it defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War. Taiwanese people rebelled without the support of China and created the Republic of Formosa that lasted for about one year. Japan crushed Taiwanese resistance, but it was the beginning of Taiwanese nationalism.

Guomindang Rule

In 1945, the Republic of China won the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Allied Powers agreed to divide the territory of the Japanese Empire, and Taiwan would be returned to Chinese control. The Chinese civil war occurred at this time, and in 1949 the Guomindang lost and escaped to Taiwan. Taiwan was ruled by this one party until democratic reforms began in the 1980s.

Other websites
 Taiwan History  China Taiwan Information Center (PRC perspective)
 Taiwan's 400 years of history, from "Taiwan, Ilha Formosa" (a pro-independence organization)
 Reed Institute's Formosa Digital Library
 History of Taiwan  from FAPA (a pro-independence organization)
 Timeline of Taiwanese history
 Museum Fort San Domingo  Exhibition in Tamsui about the Dutch history of Taiwan

History of Taiwan


The CRM 114 Discriminator is a fictional piece of radio equipment in Stanley Kubrick's film Dr. Strangelove (1964), the destruction of which prevents the crew of a B-52 from receiving the recall code that would stop them from dropping their hydrogen bombs on the Soviet Union. The device is one of several that malfunction in the film, along with Mandrake's telephone call attempts, the bomb doors failing to open and the Doomsday Weapon's misuse, a common theme in Kubrick's work of the failure of human planning.

The code became a running joke, in Kubrick's work and outside. Kubrick used a near homophone of "CRM 114", "Serum 114", for the name of a drug injected into Alex to help his reformation in A Clockwork Orange (1971). In the movie Eyes Wide Shut (1999), the morgue Bill visits is stationed in the hospital's corridor C, Room 114 (CRM 114).

Real-life parallels
In Peter George's novel, Red Alert (1958), which was the basis for the film, the device is called the CRM 114. George was well-informed; under the U.S. military Joint Electronics Type Designation System (The "AN" System), CRM is the designator for an air-transportable cargo (C) radio (R) maintenance or test assembly (M) and 114 is a feasible series number. If the CRM 114 were an actual U.S. military item, its official number would be designated as AN/CRM-114.

To ensure the enemy cannot plant false transmissions and fake orders, the CRM 114 is to be switched into the receiver circuit prior to receiving attack or attack cancellation orders. The three code letters of the period are to be set on the alphabet dials of the CRM 114, which will then block any transmissions other than those preceded by the set letters from being fed into the receiver.

Kubrick corresponded with George in 1963, while preparing the film, to make sure that the failure of the CRM 114 device could credibly interfere with the recall of an aircraft. George, who talked with a contact in the military, wrote, "Based on his and another expert's opinions, I am of the opinion that there is in fact no practical way of demonstrating inability to recall the bombers other than by the introduction of a device such as the CRM 114."

Prior to the introduction of addressed digital communications, some real-world analog communications systems performed a function very similar to the fictional CRM 114. Some aircraft radios used SELCAL (selective calling), which muted the receiver unless an assigned tone was received. Ground mobile radios used a similar system called CTCSS (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System); this continues to be used in non-professional systems such as Family Radio Service (FRS) and PMR446.

Other uses
Other non-Kubrick works contain references to "CRM 114", in apparent homage to Kubrick:
 An amplifier in Dr. Emmett Brown's laboratory in Back to the Future (1985) is labeled "CRM-114."
 In the 1996 film Executive Decision, fighter pilots receive their orders to shoot down a hijacked Boeing 747-200 over the "CRM-115" device.
 In the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Business as Usual" (1997), "CRM-114" is a power hand weapon produced by the Breen, one that is "effective against moving vehicles and surface emplacements" and featuring a "quick recharge time."
 The 2005 remake of Fun with Dick and Jane includes a financial transaction form number "CRM-114".
 In the film Severance (2006), a black comedy involving a weapons manufacturer team-building trip to Eastern Europe, a reference is made to their CRM-114 anti-personnel land mine that is apparently doing quite well.
 In the game HorrorClix (2006), the unit called "Carnage Bot" is also known by the code "CRM114", confirmed by game designer Seth Johnson to be a Kubrick reference.
 On the TV show Heroes, "CRM 114" is the catalog code assigned to the Kensei sword that Hiro is searching for in the episode "Parasite" (2007).  (In the Heroes 360 experience during the episode, it was confirmed that the reference was intentional.) Malcolm McDowell, the star of A Clockwork Orange, also guest starred in this episode, as the current owner of the sword.
 "CRM114" is also the name of a 2005 computer program which uses a statistical approach for classifying data and is especially utilized for filtering email spam.
 In Men In Black 3 (2012), *CRM-114 is the ID for the bunker on the beach as well as a lunar prison block earlier in the movie.
 CRM-114 and CRM-115 are the names of medicinal drugs in Jon S. Baird's 2013 film Filth, based on Irvine Welsh's novel. In the director's commentary, Baird states this is a tribute to Kubrick as his favorite director, who always used CRM-114.
 CRM-114 is also the name of the Archipelago Homeowners Association law quoted in "No Robots Allowed", the 46th episode of the first series of the Sonic Boom TV series.
 In the 2018 film Welcome to Marwen a pair of miniature Purple Heart medals for sale are catalogued as "CRM-114".

See also
 THX 1138
 A113
 List of filmmaker's signatures

References

Fictional elements introduced in 1964
Fictional objects
Radio technology
Stanley Kubrick

CRM 114 (fictional device)


The Kashmir stag (Cervus canadensis hanglu), also called hangul, is a subspecies of elk native to India. It is found in dense riverine forests in the high valleys and mountains of the Kashmir Valley and northern Chamba District in Himachal Pradesh. In Kashmir, it's found in the Dachigam National Park where it receives protection but elsewhere it is more at risk.

Mammals of Asia
Deer

Kashmir stag