The Norman invasion of Wales began shortly after the Norman conquest of England under William the Conqueror, who believed England to be his birthright. Initially (1067–1081), the invasion of Wales was not undertaken with the fervour and purpose of the invasion of England. However, a much stronger Norman invasion began in 1081 and by 1094 most of Wales was under the control of William's son and heir, the later King William II. The Welsh greatly disliked the "gratuitously cruel" Normans, and by 1101, had regained control of the greater part of their country under the long reign of King Gruffudd ap Cynan, who had been imprisoned by the Normans for twelve years before his escape. Gruffudd had some indirect help from King Magnus III of Norway (Magnus Barefoot) who attacked the Normans briefly off the Isle of Anglesey in northwest Wales near Ynys Seiriol, killing Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury.

Under William's fourth son, King Henry I, the Normans, now well established in England, responded by pushing west into Wales. This time, both the Welsh and the Normans were more interested in making peace than fighting bloody battles, and a relatively stable situation developed, although the Normans fared worse in southeast Wales than in the west of the country. The standoff continued from 1135 to 1154 under Stephen, nephew of Henry and a maternal grandson of William, who became locked in a power struggle and civil war with Empress Matilda, Henry's daughter and only surviving legitimate child.

By the 1150s, Matilda's son King Henry II of England had set upon fighting back, leading his first expedition into Wales in 1157. He met defeat, particularly in the Battle of Ewloe at Coleshill / Coed Eulo, where Henry was almost killed in the fighting, but managed to return to friendly lines. He moved against his Adversaries again in 1163, and gained homage from the two most powerful princes of Wales, Rhys ap Gruffydd and Owain Gwynedd, along with the king of Scotland.

Welsh attacks in England
By the mid-11th century, Wales had been united by the Prince of Gwynedd, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. Gruffudd pushed into Saxon England, burning the city of Hereford, overwhelming border patrols, and proving the English defences there entirely inadequate to respond to Welsh invasions. During this time, Harold Godwinson led a campaign of retaliatory raids into Wales. In the wake of this campaign, Gruffudd was turned upon by his own men, who killed him in 1063 and shipped his head off to Edward the Confessor in exchange for the redivision of Wales into its traditional kingdoms.   This left a vacuum of power in Wales in which princes and kings were free to squabble over their lands, without the unifying presence of Gruffudd to ward off Norman attacks.

Early battles

It took some time for the Normans to concentrate any level of might against the Welsh, as they were more concerned, in the aftermath of Hastings, with England and Normandy. In addition, it was not William's goal to conquer Wales; he had come to inherit what he believed to be his birthright, the English throne, which entailed taking on the responsibilities of Edward and the Anglo-Saxon kings, including their relationships with Wales and Scotland. However, Wales had begun to force the matter, supporting English rebellions against the Normans.

William's response
In response to Welsh advances, William established a series of earldoms in the borderlands, specifically at Chester, under Hugh d'Avranches; Shrewsbury, under Roger de Montgomerie; and Hereford, under William FitzOsbern.  He instilled a great deal of power into each earldom, allowing them control of the surrounding towns and land, rather than retaining it within the kingship. The inspiration for such an action seems to have been the overextended nature of the Norman troops, thus preventing William from exercising his own power in the area. It very well may have been implicit in the power granted the earldoms that they were to attack Wales, and, indeed, they did, beginning with south-east Wales, where many of the previous rebellions against England had begun. By the time of FitzOsbern's death in 1071, a castle had been established at a location known at the time as Striguil, near the mouth of the Wye.   This served as a base from which the Normans continued to expand westward into Wales, establishing a castle at Caerleon by 1086 and extinguishing the Welsh Kingdom of Gwent. However, the attacks in south-east Wales "faltered badly when [the earl of Hereford's] son [Roger de Breteuil]... forfeited his estates for treason in 1075 and involved some of his vassals on the Welsh frontier in his downfall". Nonetheless, the Normans pressed on.

Relations with Henry I
These movements continued well into the 12th century, into the reign of Henry I. There was relative peace in the early 12th century, however, with a great deal of English influence over Wales but relatively little conflict. The only real expedition into Wales made by Henry was in 1114, when "he set in motion three separate armies intended to overware the ageing prince of Gwynedd". The prince, Gruffudd ap Cynan, however, saw fit to make peace with the king rather than engage in open warfare or hostility. Throughout the period, Henry exerted a great deal of control over Wales, establishing a series of new castles and placing new Lords into positions of power.

Following Henry's death in 1135, revolts once again broke out in parts of Wales. These revolts caused Norman retreat in many areas, most surprisingly in Deheubarth, where, according to R.R. Davies, "the Normans had made their most striking advances in the previous generation". A notable example was the Battle of Crug Mawr, near Cardigan, in which the Normans suffered a heavy defeat. The period saw a role reversal of sorts, as well, with infighting amongst the Normans, the same sort which had enabled the relative fall of Wales in the previous century.

Henry II and Wales
By the 1150s, Matilda's son King Henry II of England had set upon Wales, leading his first expedition into the country in 1157. He experienced costly ambushes and therefore defeat, particularly in the Battle of Ewloe at Coleshill / Coed Eulo, where Henry was almost killed in the fighting, but managed to return to friendly lines. He moved against his Adversaries again in 1163, and, with Welsh resistance exhausted, gained homage from the two most powerful princes of Wales, Rhys ap Gruffydd and Owain Gwynedd, along with the king of Scotland.

See also
Norman conquest of England
Norman invasion of Ireland
Welsh uprising of 1211
Conquest of Wales by Edward I

References

Bibliography

Wales
Invasions of Wales
11th century in Wales
12th century in Wales
11th-century conflicts
12th-century conflicts
History of Wales by period
11th century in England
12th century in England
England–Wales relations
William II of England
Wars involving Wales

Norman invasion of Wales


Christina Marie Kirkman (born February 25, 1993, in Melrose, Massachusetts, USA) is an American actress and comedian. She was best known for her roles in the final two seasons of All That.

In 2003, she entered R U All That?: Nickelodeon's Search for the Funniest Kid in America competition and won the highly-coveted spot as a regular performer on All That.

As part of her audition, Kirkman was asked to do a skit in which she met Jay Leno. She had never heard of Leno because she had never stayed up late, so she said, "Who the heck is Jay Leno?" and instead pretended to talk to Leno's bodyguard.

When asked if she thought she was going get into the All That cast, Kirkman responded, "I thought I had no chance!" with a laugh.

Kirkman joined the cast of All That in Season 9 after Bryan Hearne left the show. She replaced Jamie Lynn Spears as the youngest cast member of All That. She remained on All That until the show was canceled.

After All That came to an end, Kirkman returned to Massachusetts where she experienced bullying. This caused her to temporarily stop acting to focus on school. She graduated from Bishop Finwick High School. In 2015, she graduated from Emerson College in Boston, Massachusetts where she studied broadcast journalism and also participated in several different on campus productions.

After completing college, Kirkman moved back to Los Angeles to pursue acting and as of 2016, she completed filming the movie "Night Shadow".

Other websites

 Emerson students former stars of Nickelodeon and Disney shows

1993 births
American comedians

Christina Kirkman


Felix Solomon Cohen (July 3, 1907 – October 19, 1953) was an American lawyer and scholar who made a lasting mark on legal philosophy and fundamentally shaped federal Indian law and policy.

Biography
Felix S. Cohen was born in Manhattan, New York in 1907 and grew up in Yonkers. Cohen attended the City College of New York, and received an M.A. and Ph.D. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1927 and 1929, respectively. Cohen entered Columbia Law School in 1928 and graduated in 1931. He was the legislation and book review editor of the Columbia Law Review, serving under Editor-in-Chief Herbert Wechsler.

Cohen became a leading figure in Legal Realism, a legal movement that challenged the Formalist idea that legal principles could be discerned in the abstract, separate from their enforcement, judicial interpretation, or impact on society. Cohen's most famous contribution to this debate was "Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach", which ran in the Columbia Law Review in 1935 and remains among the most-cited law review articles ever written.

Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal administration brought Cohen from academic study to public service. Cohen worked in the Solicitor's Office of the Department of the Interior from 1933 to 1947. In this position, Cohen was the primary legal architect of the Indian New Deal, a federal policy that sought to strengthen tribal governments and reduce federal domination of Indian tribes. Cohen was the drafter of the centerpiece legislation of this era, the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. In his research on Indian law, he was assisted by his wife Lucy Kramer Cohen (1907-2007). She had studied mathematics and anthropology at Barnard College in the 1920s and earned her master's degree in mathematics from Columbia University. With background in anthropology, economics, and statistics, she had worked for anthropology professor Franz Boas.

In 1939 Felix Cohen became Chief of the Indian Law Survey, an effort to compile the federal laws and treaties regarding American Indians. The resulting book, published in 1941 as The Handbook of Federal Indian Law, became much more than a simple survey. The Handbook was the first to show how hundreds of years of diverse treaties, statutes, and decisions formed a comprehensive whole. Today, Cohen is credited with creating the modern field of Federal Indian Law. Although the treatise began as a joint project between the Department of Interior and the Department of Justice, Justice fired Cohen from the project and terminated the survey. The motivations of Justice are not entirely clear. Cohen seemed to believe that antisemitism was at play, but there were also substantial ideological differences between Cohen and his supervisors at Justice. Justice may have been concerned that the book would be too powerful a tool for Indian tribes. Ultimately, the book was published, but under the auspices of Interior alone. For this work, Cohen received the department's Distinguished Service Award in 1948. The University of New Mexico reissued the initial Handbook in 1971, and updated versions of the Handbook were published in 1982 and 2005.

Cohen left government service in 1947 after federal policy shifted from one of support for tribal governments to that of terminating tribal sovereign status. He then entered private legal practice and taught legal philosophy at Yale Law School, The City College of New York, and Rutgers Law School. In 1951 Cohen published Readings in Jurisprudence and Legal Philosophy with his father, Professor Morris R. Cohen. While in private practice, Cohen litigated Indian land claims, won the right to vote for American Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, and successfully challenged Arizona's practice of denying social security benefits to Indians. He also continued to write and advocate regarding Federal Indian Law, publishing The Erosion of Indian Rights 1950-1953: A Case Study in Bureaucracy, 62 Yale L. J. 348 (1952–53), shortly before his untimely death in 1953. Cohen had also become increasingly committed to fighting other forms of oppression, in particular to securing the rights of immigrants and ethnic minorities. His major articles are anthologized in The Legal Conscience: Selected Papers of Felix S. Cohen, which was edited and assembled by his widow Lucy Kramer Cohen in 1960.

See also
Native American–Jewish relations

Selected works

References

Further reading
 Dalia Tsuk Mitchell, Architect of Justice: Felix Cohen and the Founding of American Legal Pluralism (2007)
 Nell Newton, et al. eds., Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law (2005)
 Kevin K. Washburn, Felix Cohen, Anti-Semitism and Federal Indian Law, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1338795 (2009)

External links
 Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law (1941 ed.): http://thorpe.ou.edu/cohen.html
 Felix S. Cohen Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
 Cohen's Handbook of Federal Indian Law (2005 ed.): https://web.archive.org/web/20080823175343/http://bookstore.lexis.com/bookstore/product/57318.html
 Legal Theory Lexicon: Realist Deconstruction of Formalist Legal Categories: http://lsolum.typepad.com/legal_theory_lexicon/2006/09/legal_theory_le_2.html

1907 births
1953 deaths
Columbia Law School alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
City College of New York alumni
American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
Townsend Harris High School alumni
Scholars of Native American law
Jewish American attorneys
Lawyers from Manhattan
Solicitors of the United States Department of the Interior
20th-century American Jews

Felix S. Cohen


The Internet is the biggest world-wide communication network of computers. The Internet has a lot of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry many different kinds of information. The short form of internet is the 'Net'. The World Wide Web is one of its biggest services. It is used by countless people all over the world.

The Internet was developed in the United States by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET. The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee.

Today, people can pay money to access the Internet from internet service providers. Some services on the Internet cost nothing to use. Sometimes people who offer these free services use advertising to make money. Censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet can be controversial.

Services

The Internet is used for many things, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and other documents of the World Wide Web.

The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web" or "www"). The web contains websites, including social media, blogs, and wikis like Wikipedia. Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked).

The second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.

Some governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it.  For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea. Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see.

Dangers
The Internet makes communication easy, and communication can be dangerous too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings.

 Some websites may trick people into downloading viruses that can harm a computer, or spyware that spies on its users (looks at what they are doing and tells someone else).
E-mails can have harmful files with them as "attachments".
 In internet chatrooms, people might be preying on others or trying to stalk or abuse them.
 The Internet contains content that many people find offensive , as well as content intended to be offensive.
 Criminals may steal people's personal information or trick people into sending them money.

Related pages
Communications satellite
Media studies
World Wide Web
ARPANET
Happy

Further reading

References

Internet


Margaret Hassan (18 April 1945 – 8 November 2004), also known as "Madam Margaret", was an Irish-born aid worker who had worked in Iraq for many years until she was abducted and murdered by unidentified kidnappers in Iraq in 2004, at the age of 59. Her remains have never been recovered.

Life and career
She was born Margaret Fitzsimons in Dalkey, County Dublin, Ireland, to parents Peter and Mary Fitzsimons. However, soon after the end of World War II her family moved to London, England, where she spent most of her early life and where her younger siblings were born. At the age of twenty seven, she married Tahseen Ali Hassan, a twenty-nine-year-old Iraqi studying engineering in the United Kingdom. She moved to Iraq with him in 1972, when she began work with the British Council of Baghdad, teaching English. Eventually she learned Arabic and became an Iraqi citizen.

She remained a Roman Catholic throughout her life and never converted to Islam as was widely reported after her death. A requiem Mass was held for her, after her death was confirmed, at Westminster Cathedral by Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor.

During the early 1980s, Hassan became the assistant director of studies at the British Council; later in the decade she became director. Meanwhile, Tahseen worked as an economist. She remained in Baghdad during the 1991 Gulf War, although the British Council suspended operations in Iraq, and she was left jobless at the end of it.

CARE International
Hassan joined humanitarian relief organisation CARE International in 1991, the aid group having established itself in Iraq during that year. Sanitation, health, and nutrition became major concerns in the sanctioned Iraq; she became a vocal critic of the United Nations restrictions. She was opposed to the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003, arguing before it that the Iraqis were already "living through a terrible emergency. They do not have the resources to withstand an additional crisis brought about by military action". Margaret was crucially involved in bringing leukaemia medicine to child cancer victims in Iraq in 1998.

By 2004, she was head of Iraqi operations for CARE. Well known in many of Baghdad's slums and other cities, Hassan was especially interested in Iraq's young people, whom she called "the lost generation". Her presence could draw large crowds of locals.

Kidnapping and Execution
Hassan was kidnapped in Baghdad on 19 October 2004, and was killed some weeks later on 8 November. In a video released of her in captivity she pleaded for the withdrawal of British troops. She stated that "these might be [her] last hours", "Please help me. The British people, tell Mr Tony Blair to take the troops out of Iraq and not bring them here to Baghdad", and that she did not "want to die like Mr Bigley", a reference to Kenneth Bigley, who had been executed in Iraq only weeks earlier.

Patients of an Iraqi hospital (where her work had some effect) took to the streets in protest against the hostage takers' actions. On 25 October, between 100 and 200 Iraqis protested outside CARE's offices in Baghdad, demanding her release. Prominent elements of the Iraqi insurgency, such as the Shura Council of Fallujah Mujahideen, along with Iraqi political figures such as the Shia cleric Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani, condemned the kidnapping and called for her release. On 2 November, Al Jazeera reported that the kidnappers threatened to hand her over to the group led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi who were responsible for the execution of Kenneth Bigley. On 6 November, a statement purportedly from al-Zarqawi appeared on an Islamist website calling for the release of Hassan unless the kidnappers had information she was aligned with the invading coalition. However, the statement could not be authenticated. Hassan's whereabouts were unknown in the video.

On 15 November, US Marines in Fallujah uncovered the body of an unidentified blonde- or grey-haired woman with her legs and arms cut off and throat slit. The body could not be immediately identified, but was thought unlikely to be Hassan, who had brown hair. There was one other western woman known missing in Iraq at the time the body was discovered, Teresa Borcz Khalifa, 54, Polish-born and also a long-time Iraqi resident. Khalifa was found alive and rescued from her hostage takers on 20 November.

On 16 November, CNN reported that 'CARE' had issued a statement indicating that the organisation was aware of a videotape showing Hassan's execution. Al-Jazeera reported that it had received a tape showing Hassan's murder but was unable to confirm its authenticity. The video showed Hassan being shot with a handgun by a masked man. It is not known who was responsible for Hassan's abduction and murder.

The group holding her never identified itself in the hostage videos.

Aftermath
CARE International suspended operations in Iraq because of Hassan's kidnapping. The last CARE project Hassan completed was one for children with spinal injuries. The director of the spinal cord clinic she supported in Baghdad, Qayder al-Chalabi, called her loss a huge blow to all Iraqis. "(The killers) made a very big mistake. This was a  wrong person", he said on 17 November. "We need to admire and remember her. We must have a ceremony every year to remember her". He believes that a statue should be erected in her honour.

At least eight other women kidnapped and tortured by insurgents during the conflict were found and rescued from captivity (Simona Pari, Simona Torretta, Florence Aubenas, Giuliana Sgrena, Teresa Borcz Khalifa, Hannelore Krause, Marie Jeanne Ion, and Jill Carroll). It is unclear why Margaret Hassan, who was opposed to the war, lived in Iraq for many years, held Iraqi citizenship, was married to an Arab Muslim and spoke fluent Arabic was killed; the kidnappers did not identify their group nor their aims. In 2010, her family said that they continued to hope that her remains would be found and returned to them for a Christian burial.

Investigation and sentencing
On 1 May 2005, three men were questioned by Iraqi police in connection with the murder. On 5 June 2006, news reports emerged that an Iraqi man by the name of Mustafa Salman al-Jubouri has been sentenced to life imprisonment for "aiding and abetting the kidnappers" but two other men were acquitted. Margaret Hassan's family said the verdict left them "devastated and appalled". It is unclear what role the others who were acquitted played in the kidnapping or the role of the suspect who was found guilty. Al-Jubouri appealed this sentence and was given a shorter imprisonment.

An Iraqi man named Ali Lutfi Jassar al-Rawi, also known as Abu Rasha, an architect from Baghdad, was arrested by Iraqi and US forces in 2008 after contacting the British Embassy in Baghdad and attempting to extort 1 million dollars in return for disclosing the location of Hassan's body. He reportedly had knowledge of an intimate detail about Hassan, known only to her closest relatives and friends, which he used to validate his knowledge of her whereabouts. Though Jassar signed statements confessing to the charges, he pleaded not guilty, stating he was forced to sign them after receiving beatings and electrical shocks during questioning. "I have nothing to do with Hassan's abduction and I did not see or talk to her," Jassar said.

On 2 June 2009, the Press Association reported that Jassar was given a life sentence by Baghdad's Central Criminal Court for being involved in Hassan's abduction and murder, and for attempting to blackmail the British Embassy. Hassan's family welcomed the court's decision but pleaded with Jassar to tell them where her body is so they can return her to Britain for burial.

Escape
On 14 July 2010, a day before Jassar was due to appear in court for retrial, it was reported that he could not be located in the prison facility where he was being held. He had been missing for a month. He had not appeared at any of the previous retrial dates, which led to concerns that he had been released. Jassar recently transferred to a Baghdad jail after being held in northern Iraq. Jassar was not found after checking with both facilities. The director of Iraq's prisoner transfer system told an appeals judge that the killer's whereabouts were unknown. Hassan's family and lawyer believe the prisoner has escaped.

On 22 August 2010 Iraq's deputy justice minister, Busho Ibrahim, said Jassar had been helped to escape from Baghdad central prison, formerly Abu Ghraib, during riots in September 2009 stating that "This guy [Jassar], he escaped from prison. People facilitated his escape, he is gone," and that "He seized the opportunity of the riots in the prison in September 2009 and he escaped. He was the only one who escaped". The minister also added that he discovered Jassar's escape about "20 or 30 days ago."

See also

 List of people who disappeared
 Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.
 Eugene Armstrong
 Jack Hensley
 Kim Sun-il
 Kenneth Bigley
 Shosei Koda
 Nick Berg
 Marla Ruzicka
 Piotr Stańczak
 Daniel Pearl
 Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present

References

External links
 "Sister in plea over Hassan body"– BBC News 6 June 2006
 "UK tactics 'led to Hassan death"– BBC News 6 June 2006
 "Weeping Hassan pleads for life" – BBC News, 22 October 2004
 "CARE worker pleads for her life" – CNN, 22 October 2004
 "Plea for Iraq Kidnap Clues" – The Guardian, 24 October 2004
 "Captors threaten Hassan handover" – BBC News 2 November 2004
 "'Zarqawi' call to release Hassan" – BBC News 6 November 2004
 "UK Official: Iraq aid worker believed killed" – CNN, 16 November 2004
 "Who Killed Margaret Hassan?" by Robert Fisk, syndicated from The Independent by The Star (South Africa), 17 November 2004
 "Mystery remains over who killed Margaret Hassan" – The Guardian, 18 November 2004
 Press release from CARE
 "Body found in Iraq wasn't Hassan" – Reuters, 1 December 2004.
 "Three quizzed over Hassan killing" – BBC News, 1 May 2005
 Margaret Hassan on WorldCat Identities

1945 births
2004 deaths
2004 murders in Iraq
20th-century Irish economists
21st-century Irish people
Assassinated activists
Deaths by firearm in Iraq
Foreign hostages in Iraq
Irish humanitarians
Murder victims from County Dublin
Irish people murdered abroad
Irish people taken hostage
Irish women economists
Missing person cases in Iraq
People from Dalkey
People murdered in Iraq
Women in the Iraq War
History of women in Iraq

Margaret Hassan


The Pakistan National Field Hockey Team also known as the Green Shirts represent the Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) in international field hockey competitions. Field Hockey is the National sport of Pakistan. Pakistan has been one of the most successful teams in international competitions, having won a world record four Hockey World Cup titles.

Provincial Teams of Pakistan
 Baloch Lions
 Capital Dynamos (Islamabad)
 Frontier Falcons
 Northern Cavaliers (Gilgit Baltistan)
 Shan-e-Punjab
 Sindh Qalanders

National sports teams of Pakistan
Field hockey

Pakistan national field hockey team


Edward Asahel Birge (September 7, 1851 – June 9, 1950) was an American professor and administrator at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He was one of the pioneers of the study of limnology, and served as acting president of the university from 1900 to 1903 and as president from 1918 to 1925.

Birge was born in Troy, New York. He received a bachelor's degree from Williams College in 1873. He moved on to Harvard University, where he studied under Louis Agassiz and was awarded a Ph.D. in zoology in 1878. While still completing his Ph.D., Birge was appointed an instructor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in natural history in 1875. He was later appointed as dean in 1891.

Birge became known as a scientist and administrator. He served as dean, director of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, and under President Charles Kendall Adams, unofficial deputy to the president.

In 1900, an ailing Adams left the university. Birge was named acting president in Adams' absence. He hoped to be named permanently to the post, but was passed over in favor of Charles R. Van Hise in 1903 after a boardroom battle between university regents William F. Vilas, who favored Birge, and Governor Robert M. La Follette, who favored Van Hise. Birge remained dean of the College of Arts and Sciences.

Van Hise died unexpectedly in 1918, and Birge was once again asked to serve as president of the university. This time he was formally named to the post, and served as president until 1925. He was regarded as an efficient administrator but was criticized then and later for refusing to make substantial changes to the university to adapt to the increase in students in the wake of World War I.

From 1921 through 1922, Birge engaged in a running debate with William Jennings Bryan, who considered evolution a heresy and labeled Birge an atheist in several speeches. Birge, a lifelong Congregationalist who had taught Bible classes for most of his professional life, wrote a pamphlet defending evolution as supported by the Bible.

Birge was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1923.

Birge and his close collaborator Chancey Juday were pioneers of North American limnology (the study of inland waters, such as rivers and lakes). Together they founded an influential school of limnology on Lake Mendota, as a component of the University of Wisconsin. He was assisted by undergraduate student Wilhelmine Key. Birge retired from the administration in 1925 but continued his limnological research until the early 1940s, primarily in partnership with Juday. In 1950 he shared the Einar Naumann Medal of the International Association of Limnology with Juday.

He died in 1950.

Birge Hall on the University of Wisconsin–Madison campus is named for him.

References

 Birge, E.A. Papers, 1897–1954.  Wisconsin State Historical Society Archives.
 Frey, D.G. (ed.), 1963. Limnology in North America. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison
 Sellery, G.C. E.A. Birge: A Memoir.  Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin–Madison Press, 1956.

Further reading

External links

 Images of Edward A. Birge
 Biography of Edward A. Birge at Wisconsin Electronic Reader
 Biographies of the chancellors and presidents of the University of Wisconsin–Madison

1851 births
1950 deaths
American Congregationalists
American zoologists
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
American limnologists
Leaders of the University of Wisconsin-Madison
Scientists at University of Notre Dame Environmental Research Center
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Edward Asahel Birge


M*A*S*H was an American media franchise that had several novels and a movie. Several television series have also been based on it. These include M*A*S*H (1970 movie), M*A*S*H (TV series) (1972),  AfterMASH and Trapper John, M.D..

Novel
M*A*S*H started as a novel written by Richard Hooker. It was released in 1968, and was about a group of rebellious doctors at a MASH (Mobile Army Surgical Hospital) during the Korean War in the early 1950s. Several sequels were also written after the first book was successful. A movie and television series were based on the story.

Movie

M*A*S*H was made into a movie in 1970 that was liked by critics and audiences. It was directed by Robert Altman, and starred a large cast of talented actors that included Donald Sutherland, Elliott Gould, Tom Skerritt, Sally Kellerman, and Robert Duvall.

The movie won the Golden Palm award that year, which is the highest award at the Cannes Film Festival in Cannes, France. The movie was also a big hit with young people for its anti-establishment, wild feel. This was especially true because it was really seen to be about criticizing the Vietnam War that was going on at the time. That theme was only hidden somewhat by the setting of the movie during the earlier and less controversial Korean War.

It is also the #56 movie on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list and #7 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list.

Television

The success of the books and movie inspired the very popular comedy television series, M*A*S*H. The series ran from 1972 to 1983 on CBS and is one of the most popular American television shows ever. Reruns are still shown on cable and broadcast channels, and most of the show's seasons are sold on DVDs. Though it is not as popular as it was, it is still popular today.
The cast included Alan Alda, Wayne Rogers, Mike Farrell, McLean Stevenson, Harry Morgan, Loretta Swit, Larry Linville, David Ogden Stiers, Jamie Farr, Allan Arbus, William Christopher, and Gary Burghoff.

Burghoff played the naive, innocent, teenage, but gifted company clerk, "Radar" O'Reilly. His role was small but memorable in the M*A*S*H movie, and he was the only actor from that movie to also play his character on the television series.

The show's final episode which aired on February 28, 1983 was one of the most watched shows in TV history. It was viewed by 125 million people. There have been several spin-off series of M*A*S*H. The first was AfterMASH, which was about a Veteran's Hospital soon after the war was over. It was about Colonel Potter (Harry Morgan), who got a job there, Maxwell Klinger (Jamie Farr), who became his assistant, and Father Mulcahy (William Christopher), who came there as a patient who abused alcohol after he lost his hearing in the TV series. All three of them were major characters on the original series. The second spin-off was W*A*L*T*E*R*, which was about Walter "Radar" O'Reilly (Gary Burghoff). It was an unsold pilot that was shown as a special television program. The most successful M*A*S*H spin-off was Trapper John, M.D., a spin-off of the movie. It starred Trapper John McIntyre (Pernell Roberts), but never talks about anything from the movie. It lasted 151 episodes across seven seasons.

Theater
Tim Kelly made a play about the novel, movie, and TV series in 1973.

Other websites

1972 American television series debuts
1983 disestablishments in the United States
1970s American workplace television series
1970s workplace comedy television series
1980s American workplace television series
1980s workplace comedy television series
1980s workplace drama television series
American black comedy movies
American comedy-drama movies
American comedy-drama television series
20th-century American novels
American war movies
American workplace comedy television series
American workplace drama television series
Black comedy television series
1970s English-language movies
Korean War
Movies set in the 1950s

M*A*S*H


Basalt  is a common grey to black rock. It is pushed out (extruded) by volcanos. The lava is rich in magnesium and iron. It has olivine and pyroxene minerals which make it dark in colour. Basalt is usually fine-grained because the lava cools rapidly on the Earth's surface. Flood basalts are commonplace, formed by lava pouring out and solidifying.

On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by the hot molten mantle. Basalt is a type of intrusive rock meaning it forms inside of the volcano. Basalt has also formed on Earth's Moon, Mars, Venus, and even on the asteroid Vesta.

The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are made mostly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below mid-ocean ridges.

Unweathered basalt is black or grey. Basalt blocks are often used for roads and pavements (sidewalks), and for houses and other buildings. It is hard-wearing and heat resistant.

Basalt can be made into fibre. Basalt fibre is often used as a safe replacement for asbestos. Intense heat and pressure can change basalt into its metamorphic rock equivalent. The rocks known as greenstone are basalt which has been metamorphised. See metamorphic rock for more details.

Minerals
Igneous rocks

Basalt


A movie screen is a surface on which a movie projector plays a movie.  They are sometimes a wall, sometimes a cloth, and sometimes paper.  Theaters have movie screens, and some people have them at home.  Movable movie screens are made to be used where there is not a movie screen already.  Screens are white or grey so that the movie shows up nicely on the screen. This lets the people watching the movie see it easily.
Modern day movie screens are made from PVC sheets that are joined together by welding in such a way that the screen appears to be in a single piece.

Movie industry

Movie screen


Freemasonry is an organization of people who believe in brotherhood and helping others. Its members are known as "Freemasons" (in full: "Ancient Free and Accepted Masons", or simply "Masons"). Freemasons also help one another in times of hardship. Freemasonry can be found all over the world in various forms. About 6 million people are Freemasons.

The local groups in various countries are known as "lodges". At the State or National level are "Grand Lodges". These are independent of each other. "Regular" Freemasonry is only for men, but there are also co-ed Masonic lodges (and lodges for only women) that are not recognized as legitimate by the "regular" groups. All of these lodges believe in "brotherly love, relief and truth". They do work for charities such as running schools for orphaned children. There is a Royal Masonic Hospital which is a home for old members and their families.

The word mason means a construction worker who works with stone. He is also called a "stonemason". Freemasonry grew from the groups (guilds) of stonemasons in the Middle Ages. These men were building cathedrals and other big buildings. They were called freemasons because they were free, they were not servants who belonged to a rich lord, like many workers were in those days. They often changed jobs and moved from one town to another. In this way they were different from other craftsmen who often worked in one place and had guilds in one town. The stonemasons tried to keep their skills secret so only they knew how to do their job. This is probably why the Freemasons have handshakes and passwords that they swear to keep secret.

About 1650, Masons' guilds started to let people who were not masons into their guilds. In 1717, the first Grand Lodge (the Grand Lodge of England) was formed. It developed into the governing body of Freemasonry in England. In 1813, it merged with a rival and is now called the United Grand Lodge of England.

Freemasonry is controversial and has been opposed. The Anti-Masonic Party (1827-34) was important in early American politics. The Catholic Church opposes Freemasonry, although Freemasonry itself does not block Catholics. Political authorities also sometimes oppose it. Nazi Germany and Eastern Bloc nations outlawed freemasonry.

References

Freemasonry


London County Council (LCC) was the principal local government body for the County of London, during its whole existence (1889-1965), and the first London-wide general municipal authority that was directly elected. It covered the area today known as Inner London and was replaced by the Greater London Council. The LCC was the largest, most significant and ambitious municipal authority of its day.

History

The creation of the LCC in 1889, as part of the Local Government Act 1888, was forced by a succession of scandals involving the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW), its predecessor, which had not been directly elected. While the Conservative government of the day would have preferred not to create a single body covering the whole of London, their election promise to the Liberal Unionists led them to this policy. A later Government created the 28 metropolitan boroughs as lower tier authorities to replace the various local authorities in 1899; they assumed some powers of the LCC and shared others.

The LCC inherited the powers of its predecessor the MBW, but also had wider authority over matters such as education, city planning and council housing.  It took over the functions of the London School Board in 1903, and Dr C W Kimmins was appointed chief inspector of the education department in 1904.

References

Local government in London
1889 establishments in England
1965 disestablishments in England

London County Council


Counterfeit is the sale or manufacture of items that have not been made by real companies or have been made illegally. Nearly anything can be counterfeit, but most counterfeiting is of clothing and other small items such as bags, medicines, money, watches, or jewellery. Most things can be sold without people realizing that they are counterfeit and that they could possibly be breaking the law by buying the counterfeit goods.

Money can also be counterfeited. Sometimes people make fake cash, and this is considered to be counterfeit. The United States Secret Service investigates people who do this.

References

Organized crime

Counterfeit


South Hampton Roads is a region of the U.S. state of Virginia. It in the most southeastern part of the state. The area is part of the Virginia Beach-Norfolk-Newport News, VA-NC MSA (Metropolitan Statistical Area). About 1.7 million people live there.

Hampton Roads is the common name for the metropolitan area around the body of water of the same name. The land area of Hampton Roads is divided into two regions. These are South Hampton Roads on the south side and the Virginia Peninsula on the north side. People who live there commonly call South Hampton Roads "the Southside".

As of the 2010 Census, the Hampton Roads MSA is the fifth largest metropolitan area by size in the southeastern United States. It is the second-largest between Washington, D.C. and Atlanta, Georgia.

The decision to call the region "Hampton Roads" was a political one. The area was called "Tidewater" for many years by the people who lived there. The local baseball team was called the Tidewater Tides for years. It is now called the Norfolk Tides. When they first came to Tidewater, they used the popular name to draw more fans.

U.S. military installations

South Hampton Roads is home to many United States military bases.

City of Portsmouth
Norfolk Naval Shipyard and Naval Medical Center, Portsmouth are in Portsmouth. They are two very important and historic bases. The shipyard was created as the Gosport Shipyard on November 1, 1767. It had the county's first dry dock. The name was changed after the American Civil War. Although it is in Portsmouth, the name Norfolk was chosen because there was another U.S. Navy shipyard at Portsmouth, New Hampshire.  There are also many smaller bases in Portsmouth.

City of Norfolk
Norfolk is the home of Naval Station Norfolk. It is the main base for United States Navy's Atlantic Fleet. The base was created in 1917. It is the largest naval facility in the world.

City of Virginia Beach
Virginia Beach is home to the Navy's Naval Air Station Oceana (NAS Oceana) and Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek (NAB Little Creek). NAS Oceana is the largest employer in Virginia Beach. Both bases there, like the Norfolk Navy Base, are said to be the largest of their kinds in the world. Also in Virginia Beach is NAVSEA Dam Neck and the home of Joint Expeditionary Base East

City of Chesapeake
St. Julien's Creek Annex is a  U.S. Navy base in Chesapeake. It is on the Elizabeth River. It began in 1849.  It is currently part of the Norfolk Navy Base. Chesapeake is also home to U.S. Naval Auxiliary Landing Field Fentress. It is used to help support training for NAS Oceana.

Local government
From Colonial times through the first 150 years of the United States, South Hampton Roads was almost always changing. Local governments changed mainly because of growth in population. Counties were divided and towns were created as the population grew. Some towns grew to become cities. in 1871, changes were made to the state constitution. One of these changes made all cities in Virginia independent cities of the counties they had been a part of.

In the second half of the 20th century, many city-county-town local government joined together in South Hampton Roads and on the Virginia Peninsula. Many small towns and cities joined together to create a small number of larger cities. Nowhere else in Virginia have rural areas and more dense cities been combined in this way. The changes caused the area to have Virginia's cities with the largest land areas and the most farming.

Current cities, counties and towns
The South Hampton Roads region has five independent cities, two counties, and five incorporated towns.

Independent cities
Chesapeake (formerly Norfolk County)
Norfolk
Portsmouth
Suffolk
Virginia Beach (formerly Princess Anne County)

Counties
Surry County
Isle of Wight County

Incorporated towns
Surry County
Town of Claremont
Town of Dendron
Town of Surry (also county seat)

Isle of Wight County
Town of Smithfield
Town of Windsor

Former subdivisions
Other settlements in South Hampton Roads no longer exist. No less than 2 shires, 6 counties, 1 town, and 2 entire cities no longer exist in the South Hampton Roads area.

The following is a listing of these 11 extinct shire, counties, towns, and cities, with the approximate dates they existed:
Elizabeth River Shire (1634–1636)
Warrosquyoake Shire (1634–1637)
New Norfolk County (1636–1637)
Upper Norfolk County (1637–1646)
Lower Norfolk County (1637–1691)
Nansemond County (1646-1972)
Norfolk County (1691–1963)
Princess Anne County (1691–1963)
Town of Berkley (unknown-1906)
South Norfolk (1919–1963)
City of Nansemond (1972–1974)

Geography of Virginia

South Hampton Roads


Ludo is a strategy board game for 2-4 people players. In it, players race their four tokens from start to finish according to the rolls of a single die. Like other cross games and circle games, Ludo is taken from the Indian game Pachisi. The game and its different versions are popular in many countries and under different names.

Ludo is active since its invention date, 1896. Its genres are board game, race game and dice game. The maximum time the game can be played is 90 minutes. It is still not known who created the current version of Ludo, but Alfred Collier is often credited.

History

The Mahabharata
Pachisi was created in India in the sixth century CE. The latest evidence of this game's evolution in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ellora. The original version is also described in the Indian epic Mahabharata in which Shakuni uses cursed dice to beat the Pandavas, and at last after losing everything, Yudhisthira puts his wife Draupadi on stake and loses her, too. The Pandavas get all their belongings back, though, after Draupadi vows to curse the whole Kuru family, but stops at the intervention of Gandhari, and seeing an opportunity to still Draupadi's anger, Kuru king Dhritarashtra promises to give back to the Pandavas all that they had lost in the game.

It was also known as Chaupar in ancient times. The contemporary version was played by the Mughal emperors of India; A notable example is Akbar.

Pachisi was changed to use a cubic die with a die cup and patented as "Ludo" in England in 1896. The Royal Navy took Ludo and converted it into the board game Uckers.

Ludo Board

Special areas of the Ludo board are normally coloured bright yellow, bright green, bright red, and bright blue. Each player is given a colour to play and gets four tokens in the colour the player is given. The board is normally a square with a cross-shaped playspace, with each arm of the cross having three columns of squares, usually six per column. The middle columns usually have five squares coloured; these represent a player's home column. A sixth coloured square not on the home column is a player's starting square. At the centre of the board is a large finishing square, often composed of coloured triangles on top of the players' home columns (thus depicting "arrows" pointing to the finish).

Rules

Summary

Two, three, or four can play, without partnerships. At the beginning of the game, each player's four tokens are out of play and staged in the player's yard (one of the large corner areas of the board in the player's colour). When able to, the players enter their tokens one per turn on their respective starting squares and move forward to race them clockwise around the board along the game track (the path of squares not part of any player's home column). When reaching the square below their home column, a player continues by moving tokens up the column to the finishing square. The rolls of a single die control the speed of the tokens, and entry to the finishing square needs a  exact roll from the player. The first to bring all their tokens to the finish wins the game. The others often continue to play to decide second-, third-, and fourth-place finishers.

Gameplay
Each player rolls a die; the highest roller begins the game. Players alternate turns in a clockwise direction. To enter a token into play from its yard to its starting square, a player must roll a six. Players can draw a token from home every time they get a six unless home is empty or move a piece six times. The start box has two own tokens (is doubled). If the player has no tokens yet in play and rolls other than a six, the turn passes to the next player.

Players must always move a token according to the die value rolled. Once players have one or more tokens in play, they select a token and move it forwards along the track the number of squares pointed to by the die. If you roll a certain number and that forces your token to land on a spot occupied by another person's token then you capture that token and force the person to return that token back to their home point. This forces them to roll another 6 to take it out of their home and move it again. While doing your turn, if 2 of your tokens land on the same spot then they create something that is called a block. A block means that if an opposing token lands on the same spot as the block, the player is forced to return the token back to their home base.

If the player cannot draw a token from home, rolling a six earns the player an added or "bonus" roll in that turn. If the bonus roll results in a six again, the player earns again an added bonus roll. If the third roll is also a six, the player may not move and the turn immediately passes to the next player.

If the advance of a token ends on a square occupied by an opponent's token, the opponent token is returned to its owner's yard. The returned token can be re-entered into play only when the owner rolls a six. If a piece lands on the same space as another piece of the same colour, the pieces are doubled and form a "block". If the advance of a block ends on an opponent's block, the latter is captured and returned to its owner's yard, all together.

A player's home column squares are always safe, since no opponent may enter them. In the home column, a player cannot jump over; after one rotation is completed, the player must enter the home and roll the exact number needed to get each token onto the home triangle.

Once you have gotten all your tokens into the home triangle, if you are the first person to do so, you have won the game and in house rules you can wait for the others to finish and get 2nd, 3rd or 4th.

Versions

List of international versions of Ludo

Ludo exists under different names and brands, and in different game derivations:
 Uckers, British
 Pachisi, Indian
 Fia, Swedish
 Eile mit Weile (Haste makes Pace), Swiss
 Cờ cá ngựa, Vietnamese
 Parchís, Spanish
 Parqués, Colombian
Vuelta obligada (mandatory restart)
Cielo robado (stolen heaven)
De piedra en piedra (from stone to stone)
Con Policía (With Policeman)

Mensch ärgere dich nicht
Mensch ärgere dich nicht (Man, Don't Get Angry), is a German game from 1914 and has equal names in Albanian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Greek, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, and Turkish.
 Mens Erger Je Niet (Dutch)
 Non t'arrabbiare (Italian)
 Človek, ne jezi se (Slovenian)
 Člověče, nezlob se (Czech)
 Čovječe, ne ljuti se (Croatian)
 Човече не љути се (Serbian)
 Kızma Birader (Turkish)
 Człowieku, nie irytuj się (Polish)

German specific
 Verliere nicht den Kopf (Do not lose your head)
 Coppit
 Brändi Dog

French
 Jeu des petits chevaux

Hasbro

Hasbro has multiple brand names for ludo-like games from its purchases including:
 Aggravation
 Headache
 Game of Headache, British
 Based on Pachisi
 Parcheesi, North American
 Sorry!; North American and British
 Trouble, North American
 Kimble, Finnish version of Trouble
 Frustration, British and Irish version of Trouble

Chinese
 Aeroplane chess: A Chinese cross-and-circle board game taken from Ludo, it uses aeroplanes as tokens, with more features such as coloured cells, jumps, and shortcuts.

Canadian
 Tock: Players race their four tokens (or marbles) around the game board from start to finish, with the goal being to be the first to take all of one's tokens "home". Like Sorry!, it is played with playing cards rather than dice.

Latvian
The Latvian version of the game is called "Riču-Raču". The board is larger than the original board with seven home spaces instead of four (but the player must always reach the four furthest home spaces anyway, if the player overrolls, then they must move the extra spaces back and wait for their next turn). Captures are allowed and two tokens cannot occupy the same space. If a player rolls a one or a six, they can either get a second roll or move a token to the starting position.

Differences

 Ludo played in the Indian subcontinent features a safe square in each one-fourth of an area, normally the fourth square from the top in the rightmost column. These squares are usually marked with a star. In India Ludo is often played with two dice, and rolling 1 on a die also allows a token to enter active play. This way if a player rolls a 1 and a 6, they may get a token out and move it six steps.
In Pakistan, a different version that uses two dice allows backwards movement. The dice are rolled and the die values can be used independently or in combination to move two pieces or a single piece forwards or backwards or both. (E.g., if the roll gives 1 and 4, the player can move a single piece 4 steps forwards and then 1 step backwards, or 1 step forwards and 4 steps backwards, or 1 then 4 steps forwards or backwards. Or the player can move a piece 1 step forwards or backwards, and another piece 4 steps forwards or backwards.)
 To get a game started faster, some house rules allow a player with no pieces on the board to bring their first piece into play on any roll, on a 1 or a 6, or allow multiple tries to roll a 6 (with three rolls being the most popular).
 If a piece lands on the same space as another piece of the same colour, the moved piece must take the previous space.
 Some different versions permit doubled blocks to be passed by rolling a 6 or 1.
 A block of two or more pieces can be taken by an opponent's single piece.
 Doubled pieces may move half the number if an even number is thrown (e.g. move two spaces if a 4 is thrown).
 A doubled piece may capture another doubled piece (like in Coppit). Three pieces together are weak and can be cut by a single piece.
 A board may have only four spaces in each home column. All four of a player's pieces must finish in these spaces for the player to have finished the game. (See .)
 A player must move all the numbers rolled (e.g. if a player rolls multiple 6s, they have to use all the numbers to move).
 A player cannot capture or enter finish if they have numbers remaining. (E.g., if a player rolls a 6 and a 2 and they have the option to capture or enter finish with one of their pieces using the 2, they can only do so if they have another piece that can use the 6.)
 To speed the game up, extra turns or bonus moves can be awarded for capturing a piece or getting a piece home; these may grant passage past a block.
 In Denmark and some other countries the board has eight spaces marked with a globe and eight with a star. The globes are safe spaces where a piece cannot be captured. The exception is that a player who has not yet entered all pieces, can always enter a piece on a roll of 6. If the entry space is occupied by another player's piece, that piece is captured. Otherwise the entry spaces work like the other globe spaces. A piece which would have landed on a star instead moves to the next star.
 In Vietnam, it is called "Cờ cá ngựa", where the game is modeled after a horse race with the tokens modeled as horse heads. In this variation, a 1 is given equal status to a 6 (meaning that the player can enter a token into play and can roll again). Furthermore, once a player's token reaches their home column, it can only go up each square with an exact roll. This means that a person outside the column must roll a 1 to enter the first square, a 2 after that to enter the second, and so forth.

African
In some parts of Africa including Nigeria, Botswana, Lesotho and South Africa, the following rules are, according to reports, played:
 A doubled block also blocks trailing pieces of the player who created the block, or blocks them unless they roll the exact number to land on the block; also, the doubled block cannot move forwards until the block that landed upon it moves off again. This reduces the strategical advantage of a block and makes the game more interesting.
 If the two players sitting opposite are partners, the players can exchange numbers.
 There are four safety squares on the board, like castle squares in Pachisi, as well as the safe home squares, where a piece may able to move forwards or backwards and start their turn before previous player finishes.
 A piece landing on a square with an opponent's piece not only sends the opponent piece back to the starting area but also sends the landing piece to its home square.
 A player cannot move their first piece into the home column unless they have captured at least one piece of any of the opponents.
 If a player captures the piece of another player, they are awarded a bonus roll. If in the bonus roll, another player's piece is captured, another bonus roll is awarded and so on.

References

Board games

Ludo


William McGonagall (born Edinburgh, March 1825 – died Edinburgh, 29 September 1902) was a Scottish poet.  He thought he was good at writing poetry, but his poetry was often considered to be the worst poetry in the English language.  He became famous because he was such a bad poet.

Life and poetry
William McGonagall was born in Edinburgh, Scotland.  His family were originally Irish.  McGonagall worked as a weaver in Dundee.

In 1877, when he was probably 52 years old, he suddenly found that he liked writing poetry.  He wrote a poem about a local vicar and sent it to the Dundee Weekly News.  The editor thought it was a joke, and he published it as a jokey poem.

McGonagall continued to write poetry.  He read his poems in public and lots of people came to hear him.  However, his audience had really come to laugh at him and throw rotten vegetables at him.

Mc Gonagall's poems have stupid rhymes, the words he uses are often silly and he mixes his imagery in clumsy ways.  One of his most famous poems is about the Tay Bridge Disaster.  It tells of a real event in 1879 when the bridge over the river Tay in Scotland collapsed and a train that was going over the bridge crashed, killing many people.  Part of McGonagall's poem goes:

 Beautiful Railway Bridge of the Silv'ry Tay!
 Alas! I am very sorry to say
 That ninety lives have been taken away
 On the last Sabbath day of 1879,
 Which will be remember'd for a very long time.

McGonagall did not seem to realise that people thought his poems were bad.  He became disappointed that the town of Dundee did not recognize him as a great poet, so he went to Perth and then to Edinburgh.  He continued to write poetry.  He travelled to London because he had been given an invitation to meet the famous actor Sir Henry Irvine.  However, someone had been playing a trick on him: the invitation was not a real one, and he was not let into the theatre.

McGonagall wrote some poetry about London while he was there.  He wrote:

As I stood upon London Bridge and viewed the mighty throngOf thousands of people in cabs and busses rapidly whirling along,
All furiously driving to and fro,Up one street and down another as quick as they could go....

McGonagall was teetotal and often spoke against drinking alcohol.  He thought that his audiences did not like his poetry because they had been drinking too much.

When he died in 1902 he was a very poor man.

McGonagall in popular culture
People still remember McGonagall's poems today and continue to make fun of them.  The comedian Spike Milligan had a character called McGoonagall in The Goon Show.  One episode of The Muppet Show had a character called Angus McGonagle.  In the Harry Potter books, author J.K. Rowling chose the surname of the Professor of Transfiguration, Minerva McGonagall, because she had heard of McGonagall and loved the name.

There is a McGonagall Appreciation Society in McGonagall's home town of Dundee.

McGonagall, William
McGonagall, William
McGonagall, William Topaz
Writers from Edinburgh

William McGonagall


Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories is a book of short stories published in 1991 by San Antonio-based Mexican-American writer Sandra Cisneros. The collection reflects Cisneros's experience of being surrounded by American influences while still being familially bound to her Mexican heritage as she grew up north of the Mexico-US border.

These tales focus on the social role of women, and their relationships with the men and other women in their lives.  The majority of the characters are stereotypes: men embody machismo while women are naïve and generally weak. Cisneros focuses on three feminine clichés: the passive virgin, sinful seductress, and traitorous mother.  Not properly belonging to either Mexico or the United States, the Chicana protagonists earnestly search for their identity, only to discover abuse and shattered dreams.  Apart from focusing on these issues of struggling women, Cisneros simultaneously develops the readers' sensitivity towards the lives of immigrants.

The vignettes are quite short on average; the longest is 29 pages, while the shortest is fewer than five paragraphs.  Despite such limited space, Cisneros experiments with daring poetic prose in her storytelling; for example, each story presents a new character with a distinct literary voice and style. Such writing has earned her the title of an accomplished Chicana poet, with the added credentials of her published books of poetry My Wicked Wicked Ways (1987) and Loose Woman (1994).

Background

From early on, a bond ran throughout Cisneros's family as a result of being separated from their homeland and having to live as Mexican-Americans in Chicago.  Cisneros was born into a family of seven children and was often singled out as she was the only daughter.  Despite the abundance of sibling playmates, Cisneros always felt lonely as a child, thus prompting her to begin creating stories to vary her daily routine.

After many years of writing, Cisneros used Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories to explore the failed relationships of the female characters via their reactions to the men in their lives. This feminine focus in the stories may reflect Cisneros's own views on relationships, as she does not appear to have a strong connection to any male figures in her life: "For her, men seem to be a utility that a woman turns on and off as required."  As the writing is from a Mexican-American immigrant's point of view, this feminism contends not only with the stereotype of gender, but of class and race as well.  Cisneros "creates stories, not explanations or analyses or arguments", which describe her feminist views with "more provisional, personal, emotional, and intuitive forms of narrative".

An example of her feminine focus is found in the title story "Woman Hollering Creek", which concentrates on a woman who is physically abused by her husband and feels drawn towards the nearby creek.  She becomes depressed and sits beside the water with her new baby, contemplating how a woman could be driven crazy.  Cisneros develops this tale, which has also been found slightly modified in Aztec, Greek, and Spanish cultures, from the legend of La Llorona (Spanish for "weeping woman"), a ghost story found in Mexico and Texas. In the myth, "a beautiful young woman named Maria falls in love and marries a handsome, rich boy, and their union is blessed with two sons and a daughter". Soon after, the man loses his affection for his wife. Maria, knowing that her husband no longer loves her, drowns their three children in the river and then herself. Upon reaching heaven, Maria is told that she cannot enter until she has found her children. She is sent back to Earth, where she wails sorrowfully for her children. According to legend, any child that happens upon her ghost is pulled into the river and drowned.  The real Woman Hollering Creek, a body of water just off Interstate 10 in Texas, is the river which Cisneros mentions in her story.  The protagonist in "Woman Hollering Creek" is rescued from her abusive husband by two strangers before she goes mad.

Plot summaries

Cisneros's collection of stories is divided into three sections.  The first section, which focuses on the innocence of the characters during childhood, is called "My Lucy Friend Who Smells Like Corn".  The following section, called "One Holy Night", includes two short stories highlighting the troublesome adolescent years of its characters. The final section, called "There Was a Man, There Was a Woman", concentrates on characters during their tumultuous adulthood.  Most of the stories in the collection are between one and fifteen pages in length;  "Eyes of Zapata", the longest story, is 29 pages long, while "Salvador Late or Early" and "There Was a Man, There Was a Woman" each occupies a single page.

The first and second plot of the story in this book shares the title, "My Lucy Friend Who Smells Like Corn", with its corresponding section and is a short narrative about an unnamed narrator and her best friend Lucy Anguiano, the "Texas girl who smells like corn".  This vignette offers a snapshot into life just north of the United States-Mexico border for two girls who are presumably of Mexican descent. Lucy's home is portrayed as a low-income, Mexican-American family.  Her mother is overworked and busy with many children while her father is rarely around.  However, the story focuses on the freedom that the girls have when no one of authority is watching; for example, waving at strangers, jumping on mattresses, scratching mosquito bites, picking scabs, and somersaulting in dresses.

The book's second segment, "One Holy Night", contains two short narratives focusing on adolescent females and the way their self-worth is affected by the tension of remaining loyal to Mexico while integrating into the American lifestyle.  The title story "One Holy Night" introduces the reader to a young teenage girl, Ixchel, who, in her quest for true love, meets a 37-year-old man named Chato. He lies to her about belonging to ancient Mayan royalty, seduces her, and then abandons her, only to return in an attempt to kill her. In her youth and naivety, Ixchel desires to be romanced by someone with alleged Mexican roots, only to be disappointed by the reality of having fallen in love with a Mexican-American serial killer.

The final section, entitled "There Was A Man, There Was A Woman", includes the title story "Women Hollering Creek", "Eyes of Zapata", and "Never Marry A Mexican", these being three out of the thirteen stories contained in this portion of the book.  The title story, "Woman Hollering Creek", is about a Mexican woman, named Cleófilas, who marries Juan Pedro Martínez Sánchez.  After moving across the border to Seguín, Texas, her hopes of having a happy marriage, like the characters she watches in the telenovelas, are dashed.  Throughout their marriage, Juan Pedro is unfaithful, abusive and often leaves her in isolation.  As her depression increases, so does her interest in the legendary figure, la llorona, and the creek named after her that runs behind her house.  However, unlike this "weeping woman", who chooses death as a means to escape her unloving husband, Cleófilas, in a sense, chooses life.  With the aid of two independent women, Felice and Graciela, she is able to leave her life of abuse and escape back to Mexico.

Clemencia is the Chicana protagonist of the story "Never Marry a Mexican", who experiences rejection by her white lover.  She takes revenge on this man by luring his naive son into a lover's role, and makes it known that in due time, this young man will inevitably pay for his father's transgressions.

"Eyes of Zapata" is a story that looks into the life of female protagonist, Inés, who offers a reflection on her life in the context of her illegitimate relationship with Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata.  She struggles with being constantly abandoned by her lover, who is off "revolutionizing the country", and she describes her efforts to raise a family on her own despite hardships such as famine, disease, and poverty.   In the end, she speaks about Zapata's assassination, revealing his failure to the revolution and Inés makes it evident that essentially, Zapata, her unfaithful lover, has failed her and this protagonist is left clinging to dreams that can no longer exist.

Characters

As this book is a collection of short stories and contains many different protagonists, the following is a selection of the book's main characters who most exemplify the qualities of the three sections of the book (youth, adolescence, and adulthood), or who have the most impact on Cisneros's use of female archetypes:

Lucy Anguiano, the childhood friend of the narrator in "My Lucy Friend Who Smells Like Corn", is a dark skinned, Texas girl with eyes like knife slits.  She is from a family with nine children, an exhausted mother and an absent father.  She influences the narrator's desire to share in the unadulterated and simple pleasures that childhood can bring.

Ixchel, the self-named protagonist of "One Holy Night", is a thirteen-year-old girl who lives in Chicago with her uncle and grandmother who immigrated from Mexico.  Employed by her uncle, every Saturday, this young teen sells produce from his pushcart.  Ixchel being a foolish girl, ignorantly gives herself to one of her customers, a captivating, yet dangerous 37-year-old man. Over time, she realises that she has been seduced by a mass murderer but remains unable to reconcile herself with the fact that she is still in love with him.

Chaq Uxmal Paloquín is another self-named character in the story "One Holy Night", nicknamed Boy Baby, but whose real name is Chato, which means fat-face.  He was born on the streets, along with numerous brothers and sisters, in a Mexican town called Miseria.  In this story he has grown up and is now a 37-year-old serial killer who seduces and then abandons the young, naïve protagonist by romanticizing her with a lie about being from an ancient line of Mayan kings.

Inés, the protagonist in "Eyes of Zapata", whose mother was raped and murdered for living an illegitimate lifestyle, is the mistress of Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata.  Inés struggles with being defined by the different roles she must play in her relationship with her lover.  She is frustrated with the power of the male patriarchy that pushes her to be not only Zapata's lover, but also the mother to two of his children and his "political sister" in their shared fight for freedom.

Cleófilas is the protagonist of the title story "Woman Hollering Creek", who recreates the image of la llorona.  She is a traditional Mexican woman who naïvely allows her father to give her in marriage to a man who would become her abusive, unfaithful husband.  However, through the hardships of her marriage, she is empowered, to fight for her rights. This is solidified when she meets Felice and Graciela, two independent, wage-earning women who act as new role models for Cleófilas.  In the end, they help her escape this abusive lifestyle.

Clemencia is the Chicana protagonist of "Never Marry a Mexican", whose life choices can be related to those of the historical figure La Malinche, an indigenous woman who befriended the Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century.  Both La Malinche and Clemencia were mistresses to men of a different ethnicity than their own, "doomed to exist within a racial and class-cultural wasteland, unanchored by a sense of ever belonging either to [their] ethnic or [their] natal homeland".  Clemencia's final revenge in this vignette is not only a triumph in the memory of La Malinche, but also for the women who feel that their value depreciates if they do not have a husband.

Rosario (Chayo) De Leon is a character who writes the last prayer note in "Little Miracles, Kept Promises"; a collection of letters in Cisneros's book, from Mexican-Americans to the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico who symbolizes female virginity.  Chayo's letter provides a contrast between the Virgin of Guadalupe and La Malinche.  She illustrates the difficulties of living as a modern Chicana with her beliefs on religion, race, and gender being constantly challenged.  In attempts to free herself from being caught in between her modern day Chicana lifestyle and her Mexican heritage she begins to redefine who she is as a woman.  In order to do this Chayo must accept that she is not quite malinche or virgin and she does this by acknowledging "the Virgin's pacifism and Malinche's sexuality through knowledge of her own Indian heritage".

Themes
There are many themes found in this book; some that are recurring are roles in society, religion, relationships, and also hybrid nature of American and Mexican ethnicities. Within these short stories Cisneros concentrates on the identities which women appropriate as a result of relationships, and how these are connected with their roles in society.  Critic Mary Reichart observes that in Cisneros's previous work as well as "in Woman Hollering Creek (1991), the female characters break out of the molds assigned to them by the culture in search of new roles and new kinds of relationships. Cisneros portrays women who challenge stereotypes and break taboos, sometimes simply for the sake of shocking the establishment, but most often because the confining stereotypes prevent them from achieving their own identity." An example of this is Cleófilas, who had hoped for a better life after leaving her home in Mexico to live in the United States.  The soap operas she had seen had led her to believe that her life was going to be a fairy tale.  Instead, with a failing marriage and another child on the way she sees that her life resembles only the saddest aspects of a soap opera.  Another example of this is found in the final section of this book, entitled "There Was A Man, There Was A Woman", where Cisneros illustrates how women can use their bodies as political instruments in their attempts to fight against male domination.  The two female protagonists in "Never Marry a Mexican" and "Eyes of Zapata" use their bodies in attempts to gain recognition and acceptance from husband and lover.  However, in doing so, they face the problems of objectification and oppression; two issues which end up adversely shaping the characters' identities.  In the end, the illegitimate societal roles of these women influence their quest for female identity. For example, Inés, in "Eyes of Zapata", talks about the role she plays as lover, not a wife: "You married her, that woman from Villa de Ayala, true. But see, you came back to me. You always come back. In between and beyond the others. That's my magic. You come back to me."

The protagonists are examined not only as individuals, but also by how they connect to people in their lives, such as in the conflicting love and failed relationships between man and woman; mother and daughter.  For example, critic Elizabeth Brown-Guillory notes of the story "Never Marry a Mexican": "Cisneros portrays the mother as a destructive emotional force, alienating and condemning her daughter to repeating her own mother's destructive powers." This unsuccessful relationship between daughter and mother also affects the ways in which the women relate to men, as the mother is left at fault for any problematic situations with the daughter's male companions. For example, the daughter Clemencia remembers: "Never marry a Mexican, my ma said once and always. She said this because of my father. ... I'll [Clemencia] never marry. Not any man."

Cisneros also incorporates religion as she "pays tribute to the faith of simple people who express their petitions and gratitude." This is especially apparent in her story "Little Miracles, Kept Promises", where people make petitions to the Virgen Mary, such as: "Madrecita de Dios, Thank you. Our child is born healthy! Rene y Janie Garza, Hondo, TX."

From the experience of growing up within two cultures Cisneros was able to combine both ethnicities, and in her stories she develops a major theme of hybridity between the American and Mexican cultures.  She draws upon her life experience as she "depicts the situation of the Mexican-American woman: typically caught between two cultures, she resides in a cultural borderland. The topics of the stories range from the confusions of a bicultural and bilingual childhood to the struggles of a dark-skinned woman to recognize her own beauty in the land of Barbie dolls and blond beauty queens." Because these issues are complex, Cisneros does not try to resolve all of them. Instead, she attempts to find neutral ground where the characters can try to meld their Mexican heritage with an American lifestyle, without feeling homesick for a country which, in some cases, the women have not even experienced.

Although the book has recurring themes such as, (Chicana) feminism, Cisneros uses her power of observation so her stories and narrative are not overwhelmed by these themes. This feminism is portrayed as "women who establish identities for themselves, but also develop an independent, confident, even exultant sexuality". Not only this, but they learn to "love...[men] as they wish, and to establish sisterhood, mutually supportive relationships with other women."

Cisneros displays an abundance of poetic prose which uses frankness to captivate an audience.  Reviewer Susan Wood suggests the reader sees that "Cisneros is a writer of power and eloquence and great lyrical beauty". Critic Deborah L. Madsen has said that "the narrative techniques of her fiction demonstrate daring technical innovations, especially in her bold experimentation with literary voice and her development of a hybrid form that weaves poetry into prose to create a dense and evocative linguistic texture of symbolism and imagery that is both technically and aesthetically accomplished". Madsen emphasizes Cisneros's creative ability to combine both prose and poetry.

She also changes her narrative mode according to the demands of the story. For example, her narrative point of view almost continually changes, sometimes using first person, as we see in the story "Little Miracles, Kept Promises", and sometimes third person, as in "La Fabulosa: a Texas Operetta".  Additionally, "Never Marry a Mexican" is characterized by the consistent use of interior monologue. Cisneros used this style in her previous novel The House on Mango Street where she mastered writing from the point of view of Esperanza; however, "moving on meant experimenting with many voices".  She accomplished this in Woman Hollering Creek where she uses "a complex variety of voices and points of view."  Moore Campbell states that "[it] is this deluge of voices that Ms. Cisneros so faithfully taps in her work."

Cisneros intertwines the American and Mexican cultures linguistically, as "[her] stories are full of Spanish words and phrases. She clearly loves her life in two worlds, and as a writer is grateful to have 'twice as many words to pick from ... two ways of looking at the world.' A sometime poet, Cisneros uses those words so precisely that many of her images stick in a reader's mind. Of two people kissing, for instance, she writes: 'It looked as if their bodies were ironing each other's clothes.' "

Reception

Cisneros has been honored with several awards as a result of Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories, including the PEN Center West Award for best fiction, the Lannan Foundation Literary Award, the Quality Paperback Book Club New Voices Award, and, in 1993, the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award.  K. Prescott states that once the book was published, Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories was well-received because women of many cultures could relate to the stories: "Cisneros surveys woman's condition—a condition that is both precisely Latina and general to women everywhere. Her characters include preadolescent girls, disappointed brides, religious women, consoling partners and deeply cynical women who enjoy devouring men. They are without exception strong girls, strong women."  Marcia Tager comments again on the characters, saying that Cisneros "writes with humour and love about people she knows intimately".  For critic Ilan Stavans, the stories are not just words, but "a mosaic of voices of Mexican-Americans who joke, love, hate and comment on fame and sexuality... They are verbal photographs, memorabilia, reminiscences of growing up in a Hispanic milieu."  The American Library Journal and The New York Times honoured Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories as a noteworthy book of the year.  The New York Times reviewer Bebe Moore Campbell wrote in 1991 that "[these] stories about women struggling to take control of their lives traverse geographical, historical and emotional borders and invite us into the souls of characters as unforgettable as the first kiss". Apart from much praise, one criticism is that Cisneros stereotypes Hispanic men and women in her stories. Stavans argues that the males "are always abusive, alcoholic and egotistical", while the women are "naïve [and] doll-like".

Susan Wood comments on the publication of Woman Hollering Creek by Random House: "Despite the growing number and influence of Latinos in the USA, the only identifiably Latin's names–with a few exceptions like Oscar Hijuelos–on books published by major houses are those translations of Latin American novels."

Notes

References

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1991 short story collections
Books by Sandra Cisneros
Hispanic and Latino American short story collections
American short story collections

Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories


Union Mills Homestead Historic District is a national historic district at Westminster, Carroll County, Maryland, United States.

Description

The homestead comprises a dwelling house, a brick grist mill, a surviving bark shed from the 19th century tannery complex, a reconstructed tannery barn, and a Bollman-design bridge.

History

The Shriver Homestead was built in 1797 by Andrew and David Shriver and has been continually occupied by the family. The mill, also built 1797, is a large brick structure, built of locally manufactured brick laid in both Flemish bond and common bond. On June 30, 1863, General J.E.B. Stuart of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia camped at Union Mills and was hosted by part of the Shriver family. On the following day, General James Barnes of the 5th Corps of the Army of the Potomac arrived on the site and welcomed and entertained by other members of the family.

Union Mills was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.

The Union Mills Homestead was home to the Shriver family for 6 generations.  It is currently a historic landmark located near Westminster, Maryland, about 17 miles south of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The Homestead is now a museum of American culture, operated by the Union Mills Homestead Foundation, a non-profit foundation with all proceeds dedicated to the preservation and restoration of the Union Mills Homestead Complex.

The building of the Shriver homestead
The following passage is excerpted from "Union Mills: The Shriver Homestead Since 1797" by Frederic Shriver Klein:
 The Shriver brothers bought a large tract of land along Big Pipe Creek, about seven miles north of Westminster and along early roads leading into Littlestown and Pennsylvania's roads toward the west. The junction of Pipe Creek and Deep Run furnished a strong flow of water for a mill in the wide valley, and gentle slopes on either side provided land for grazing, farming or settlement. Heavy stands of black oak would furnish tanbark for a tannery, and the Shrivers knew a good bit about tanning leather. At this time, Andrew Shriver was operating a store and tavern in Littlestown, Pennsylvania, and David was practicing as a civil engineer in Maryland.  The original mill contract shows that on January 25, 1797, the two brothers completed arrangements with John Mong, a Frederick County millwright to construct "a set of mills," a grist mill and a saw mill. On March 13, Jacob Keefer and John Eckert contracted "to mould and burn a kiln of brick" for the mill,   "providing 100,000 brick or more, to be paid for at the rate of one French crown for every thousand brick." The brick kiln was constructed near the creek, known in previous years as Pipeclay Creek.  The house had its origin on January 26 of the same year, when a contract was made with Henry Kohlstock of York County, Pennsylvania, for building a small double house as a residence for the two brothers. Kohlstock, a joiner, agreed "to finish two small houses 14 by 17 feet each, to be connected by a porch and passage about 10 feet wide." Each house had one upper and one lower room, with a connecting center hallway and a small porch in front, twelve by eight feet. The carpenter's bill for labor gives an interesting idea of costs in 1797:
 Lower floors for small house 5 dols.
 Upper floor, rough 3 dols.
 Windows, casing, frames and sash 2 dols. each
 Doors, casings, etc.  2 dols.each
 Weatherboarding, stairs, porch, cornice seats, washboards  3 dols.
 Painting  6 dols.
The total labor costs for the house came to eighty-six dollars!"

References

External links
, including photo from 2002, at Maryland Historical Trust
Boundary Map of the Union Mills Homestead Historic District, Carroll County, at Maryland Historical Trust
Union Mills Homestead

Historic districts in Carroll County, Maryland
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Houses in Carroll County, Maryland
Shriver family
Museums in Carroll County, Maryland
Historic house museums in Maryland
Mill museums in Maryland
Historic American Engineering Record in Maryland
Westminster, Maryland
Union Mills, Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Carroll County, Maryland
Grinding mills on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland

Union Mills Homestead Historic District


Belaying is a way to hold and control a rope for a person who is rock climbing. A climber has to be attached to a rope so they do not fall very far. A person on the ground who is belaying is called a belayer.

The belayer usually puts the rope through a belay device, which lets the rope move through the device in one direction (as the climber being belayed goes up). If the climber falls, the device lets the belayer also hold the rope still, so the climber hangs in the air but does not hit the ground.

A belayer can hold the weight of the climber with the rope and help prevent an injury caused by a fall.

Reference

Rock climbing
Ropework

Belaying


Allen Klein (December 18, 1931 - July 4, 2009) was an American businessman. He studied to become an accountant, and made his living as the business manager of many celebrities, musicians in particular.

Early life
Klein was born in Newark, New Jersey and was of Hungarian Jewish descent. He married a woman named Betty, after he graduated from college. He first became well known when he helped a singer, Bobby Darin, to recover money owed to him by his record label. Darin received a $100,000 check for unpaid royalties, and split it with Klein. Klein was called the "Robin Hood" of popular music, liked by artists but hated by the companies they worked for.

Career
Klein bought a struggling record label, Cameo-Parkway, and tried to make it more profitable. When he got into legal trouble for "talking up" the value of shares in the company, he changed his plans. He merged Cameo-Parkway with his own accounting firm, creating a company called ABKCO (for Allen and Betty Klein and Company).

Among Klein's clients were pop singers Connie Francis, Steve Lawrence and Eydie Gormé, R&B singer Sam Cooke, folk musician Donovan, record producer Phil Spector, and rock bands Herman's Hermits, The Animals, The Rolling Stones and The Beatles. While he helped his clients with money matters, and to make new contracts that paid them better, not all his business choices were the best for his clients. Klein ended up owning much of the music of the Rolling Stones, the Animals and other artists, which cut into their long-term earnings. The artists also sometimes lost the goodwill of the businesses they dealt with, because of Klein's work for them.

Klein played a role in the breakup of the Beatles. He impressed John Lennon enough to sign up with him overnight, and Lennon persuaded George Harrison and Ringo Starr to go along. Paul McCartney, though, decided to let his wife Linda's father Lee Eastman become his manager. Eastman and Klein did not get along, and Eastman treated Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono poorly. Disagreements on what the Beatles should be doing with their company Apple Corps, and their own business interests, helped to tear the band apart.

After the Beatles broke up, Lennon, Harrison and Starr liked the things Klein did for them less and less, and eventually split with him, giving Klein a final payment of about £3.5 million for his services. Later, Klein got into tax trouble, and served a two-month jail sentence for income tax evasion.

Klein continued his career, and ABKCO continued to issue records from the old Cameo-Parkway label, and the artists Klein had managed. Nearly all the records were taken off the market for many years, making classic songs like "96 Tears" (by ? and the Mysterians), "So Much In Love" by the Tymes, and "Bristol Stomp" by the Dovells impossible to buy.

Klein's son Jody became the controller of ABKCO, when Klein's health became poor. In 2005, ABKCO finally began to issue digitally remastered compact discs of the music owned by the company. Klein died in Manhattan of complications from Alzheimer's disease in July 2009.

Sources

1931 births
2009 deaths
American fraudsters
American Jews
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Disease-related deaths in New York City
Jewish businesspeople
Businesspeople from Newark, New Jersey
The Beatles

Allen Klein