A clock is a device that tells the time. Some clocks can only show the time. Other clocks can show other things. For example, some clocks can show the date as well as the time, or show other information, like the timer
temperature or the weather, some have stopwatch and some have alarm.

Keeping time
Clocks use different ways to measure time. Clocks need some sort of steady beat or motion to track the change in time. Ancient water clocks worked by the steady movement of water from a container with a hole in the bottom to another container without a hole. Other clocks use pendulums, springs and gears to track the change in time correctly.

Digital clocks work by measuring the vibrations of quartz crystals when charged with electricity. The vibration frequency of the crystal does not change.

Atomic clocks use the electromagnetic waves absorbed and emitted by atoms such as caesium to measure time. They are the most precise clocks in the world.watch image

Clock displays
The two most common types of displays on clocks are "analog" and "digital".

Analog clocks
Analog clocks use angles to tell time. They have hands that rotate around the clock's face (the front of the clock). The position of the hands shows the time. The face of the clock is a flat disk. It will often have the numbers one through twelve on the face to make it easier to read. Analog clocks commonly have two or three hands. If it has two, there is a large hand or minute hand and a smaller hand, the hour hand. Clocks with three hands also have a second hand. This hand is usually about as long as the minute hand, but much thinner.

Each hand shows the time it is named for and moves around the face of the clock one complete rotation for each movement to the next larger hand. For example, the second hand moves around the face of the clock in 60 seconds. It moves once each second. When it moves all the way around the clock, the minute hand moves forward one space. When the minute hand moves all the way around the face of the clock (which takes 60 minutes), the hour hand moves forward one section. The second and minute hands take 60 movements to move all around the face of the clock. The hour hand only needs 12 movements to do the same.

Digital clocks

Digital clocks use numbers to show the time. LCDs and LEDs are common for digital clocks. Unlike analog clocks which are based on 12 hours, digital clocks can use either a 12-hour clock (often with am for morning and pm for afternoon/night) or a 24-hour clock. Digital clocks are usually smaller and easier to both use and read than analog clocks but they can also be made much larger. New digital clocks can even correct themselves using the internet or radio signals.

Sounds
There are also clocks that use sound, usually along with a dial or some other means, to show the time. The sound could be as simple as a bell or so complex that it sounds the same as a person. Many clocks that do this are old and are driven by springs or weights rather than batteries or other forms of electric power. Some special clocks are often used by people who are blind or cannot see well enough to read an analog or digital clock. They can also be used by people with mental problems that cause them to be unable to read other clocks.

Types of clocks
There are many different types of clocks and watches. They are different in what they are used for, what they can do or how they are made. Examples include:

 A wristwatch, also called a watch, is worn on the wrist. It is held in place by two straps connected to the watch, and then wrapped around the wrist and connected to each other.
 A pocket watch is kept in a pocket. It usually has a small chainor a chain like cloth which is connected to the person's clothing. This helps people to not lose the watch.
 A sundial is an old form of a clock which uses the Sun to tell time.
 An alarm clock is a clock that makes a sound (often a buzzing or a bell-like sound) or plays music at a certain time. It is used by people to wake up from sleep at a time they choose.
 A grandfather clock is a tall clock that stands on a floor. It uses a pendulum to tell time.
 A cuckoo clock is a pendulum based clock which makes a sound each hour on the hour. They often also have a small door. When the clock makes the sound, the door opens and a small toy bird or other item usually comes out of the door.
 An hourglass, also called a sandglass or sand timer, uses sand trickling slowly to measure time.

Basic English 850 words

Clock


The Comptroller of Illinois is an elected official of the U.S. state of Illinois.

Duties
He or she is responsible for keeping the State's accounts, and for ordering payments into and out of them. The office was created by the Illinois Constitution of 1970, replacing the office of Auditor of Public Accounts. The current Comptroller is Leslie Munger.

List of Illinois Comptrollers
George W. Lindberg (1973-1977)
Michael J. Bakalis (1977-1979)
Roland W. Burris (1979-1991)
Dawn Clark Netsch (1991-1995)
Loleta A. Didrickson (1995-1999)
Daniel W. Hynes (1999-2011)
Judy Baar Topinka (2011-2014)
Jerry Stermer (2014-2015; acting)
Leslie Munger (2015-2016)
Susana Mendoza (since 2016)

References

Government of Illinois

Illinois Comptroller


An alpha male is the top-ranking male in a mammalian social group.

Origin
Some animals live in a social structure where the most powerful male in the group is decided by either fights or very aggressive battles that sometimes end in death (in the wild). The current alpha male must defend his position from younger members. When he is too old or not strong enough to win, he loses his position in the group. Sometimes, he will die or be forced to leave the group.

The result of this is that the alpha male usually has more opportunity to mate with the available females. This system developed because strong males will produce young which have a better chance for survival.

Examples
Some animal groups which may have alpha males:
 Lions
 Apes: chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans
 Horses
 Deer

Humans
Alpha male can also refer to a high-ranked human in a group. This may be in a business setting or sometimes in other competitive areas, like sports. However, this is an extension by metaphor: humans do not have the same mating system as other social mammals. One reason is that the oestrous cycle in humans is different. This has the result that females may be sexually receptive at almost any time. Also, humans generally pair off, and alpha males do not have exclusive rights over all females in a group, except in rare circumstances.

Ethology

Alpha male


Showmanship, concerning artistic performing such as in Theatre, is the skill of performing in such a manner that will appeal to an audience or aid in conveying the performance's essential theme or message.

For instance, the Canadian stage magician Doug Henning used many classic illusions in his magic show. However, he made the old material seem new by rejecting the old stylistic cliches of the art (such as wearing formal wear), and by presenting them with a childlike exuberance that respected the audience's intelligence.

Profitable showmanship frequently appeals to pathos. Showmen aim to display goods with tact in order to sell an object or a show. Companies producing drama and entertainment claim that displaying fairness  is necessary.

Notes

Theatre

Showmanship (performing)


Louis-James Alfred Lefébure-Wély (13 November 1817 – 31 December 1869) was a French organist and composer. He played a major role in the development of the French symphonic organ style and was closely associated with the organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, inaugurating many new Cavaillé-Coll organs.

His playing was virtuosic, and as a performer, he was rated above eminent contemporaries including César Franck. His compositions, less substantial than those of Franck and others, have not held such a prominent place in the repertory.

Biography
Lefébure-Wély was born in Paris, son of an organist.  He studied with his father, Isaac-François-Antoine Lefebvre (1756–1831), who had changed his name to Antoine Lefébure-Wely after being appointed organist of the fashionable church of Saint-Roch in the 1st arrondissement. The boy was musically precocious. In the manuscript of an unpublished Mass by his father is a note:

Within two years of that occasion, Antoine Lefébure-Wely suffered a stroke, paralysing his left side. For the next five years, his son deputised for him. When  Alfred was fourteen Antoine died, and the son succeeded the father as official organist of Saint-Roch. While holding the post he entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1832, studying with François Benoist. In 1835 he won first prize for organ. Following that he studied composition with Berton and Halévy. In 1838 he began a long association with the organ-builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, performing to a huge audience on the new instrument at Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. A reviewer in La France musical praised Lefébure-Wely's technical skill, but advised him to play music of a more serious style than he had developed. Lefébure-Wely, however, knew what the public wanted, and continued to perform music of a popular operatic type. When a new Cavaillé-Coll organ was installed at Saint-Roch in 1842 Lefébure-Wely incurred critical disapproval for playing a fantasia on themes from Meyerbeer's popular opera Robert le diable. He is an author of the manual for harmonium playing technique. He was the one who introduced the harmonium to Marc Burty.

A French government website about Cavaillé-Coll calls Lefébure-Wely an "exceptionally talented dandy who, better than anyone, had grasped the musical potential of the new tones and combinations to create music that was thrilling, renewing, impressive and at times heartrending".  The site says of the composer, "A protégé of the aristocracy, he frequented the bourgeois salons where he often performed with his wife, a singer … and his two daughters who were pianists. He was the incarnation of the organ of the Second Empire." Even Gioacchino Rossini, not known for the solemnity of most of his own music, once told Lefébure-Wely, "You are admired more for your faults than your virtues."

In 1847 Lefébure-Wely moved to the Église de la Madeleine, exchanging posts with the previous organist, Charles-Alexandre Fessy. In 1849 he was in charge of the music for the funeral of Frédéric Chopin, when he transcribed some of Chopin's piano works for the organ, attracting critical praise.

Lefébure-Wely was awarded the Légion d'honneur in 1850. His contemporary, César Franck became better known as a composer, but was not as highly regarded as an organist. Adolphe Adam commented, "Lefébure-Wely is the most skilful artist I know"; Camille Saint-Saëns,  Lefébure-Wely's successor at the Madeleine, observed, "Lefébure-Wely was a wonderful improviser … but he left only a few unimportant compositions for the organ." He was the dedicatee of the "12 études pour les pieds seulement" (12 Studies for organ pedals alone) by Charles-Valentin Alkan and of the "Final en si bémol" for organ, op. 21, by Franck.

Lefébure-Wely resigned his post at the Madeleine in 1858 to devote himself to composing a three-act opéra comique, Les recruteurs. It was premiered at the Opéra-Comique on December 11, 1861, but was not a great success. From 1863 until his death he was organist at  Saint-Sulpice, where the Cavaillé-Coll instrument was the largest in France. He died in Paris at the age of 52. Many musicians and other leading figures attended his Requiem Mass.  Ambroise Thomas gave the eulogy, in which he said, "Lefébure-Wely has taken his place among the most eminent organists – not only of his time, but of all periods and of all schools!" Lefébure-Wely was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery; his tomb was designed by the architect Victor Baltard.

Compositions

Lefébure-Wely's first published composition was announced in the weekly journal Bibliographie de la France in their issue of 27 August 1831 so: Rondo composé pour le piano-forte par Alfred-Lefebure Wely, âgé de 13 ans, œuv. 1. (It was published by/available from both Lemoine and the composer's family, according to the next line.)

Among 200 compositions Lefébure-Wely wrote works for choir, piano, chamber ensemble, symphony orchestra and an opéra comique, Les recruteurs (1861, libretto by Amédée de Jallais and Alphonse Vulpian, 1795?-1829)). In the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, David Sanger writes, "His organ pieces, many of which have recently become available in modern editions, include pastorales, versets, élevations and communions, which were sentimental, lyrical works, and offertories, marches and sorties, which were louder and more akin to the operetta choruses then in vogue."

The French government website says of Lefébure-Wely's music,  "His admirers called on him many times to adopt the 'religious style' …. However, he had his habits and his preferences, and, above all his 'clientele'. Also, even though his contemporaries were unanimous in their admiration for his improvisations, he often seems to have taken the easier alternative, the immediately accessible option, music that doesn't ask any questions."

Lefébure-Wely's compositions include:
Boléro de concert, op. 166. Régnier-Canaux, s.d. (1865)
Meditaciones religiosas op. 122. À sa majesté la reine Doña Isabel II. (1858)
Les Cloches du Monastère, op. 54. Hofmeister's Monatsbericht (1853 or earlier)
L'Office catholique. 120 Morceaux divisés en dix suites composés pour l'harmonium ou l'orgue à tuyaux, op. 148. Hommage à Monseigneur de la Bouillerie, Évêque de Carcassonne. Régnier-Canaux, s.d. (1861)
L'organiste moderne. Collection de morceaux d'orgue dans tous les genres. En 12 livraisons. Hommage à Mr. l'Abbé Hamon, Curé de St. Sulpice. Ces Morceaux ont été écrits sur les Motifs improvisés aux Offices de St. Sulpice. (1867–69)
Six offertoires op. 34. (ca. 1857)
Six grands offertoires op. 35. (ca. 1857)
Six morceaux pour l'orgue, contenant 3 marches et 3 élévations op. 36. Graff (1863)
Six grands offertoires, composé pour son fils
Vade-mecum de l'Organiste, op. 187. Entrées et Sorties de Chœur, Versets, Préludes pour Amen, Élévations et Communions, Offertoires, Marches brillantes pour Processions composés pour l'harmonium ou l'orgue à tuyaux (1869)

Selected recordings
 Vincent Genvrin, La Lyre Séraphique: Cantique et Pièces d'orgue, Motet à la Sainte Vierge (Éditions Hortus, HORT004).

Notes

References

External links
Sortie in E flat major (mp3)
Bolero de Concert in g minor (mp3)
 Louis J. A. Lefébure-Wely. Andante: choeur de voix humaines (1858). Andrew Pink (2022) Exordia ad missam.

Free Scores

e-Partitions Many newly edited and typeset organ scores.

1817 births
1869 deaths
19th-century classical composers
19th-century French composers
19th-century French male musicians
Composers for pipe organ
French Romantic composers
French male classical composers
French classical organists
French male organists
Musicians from Paris
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Male classical organists
19th-century organists

Alfred Lefébure-Wély


Binny Golf Club is a golf course located in Broxburn, West Lothian, Scotland.

History
Binny Golf Club was formed in April 2002 two years after the opening by Bernard Gallacher, of Oatridge Golf Course, which lies in the grounds of Binny Estate adjacent to East Binny House.

The name Binnie is thought to come from a local man named Willian Binnock, who was granted an estate by Robert The Bruce, for his brave effort in re-capturing the Castle of Linlithgow from the English in 1313. East Binny House and lands are the remains of that estate.

The present house was built circa 1800 by a naval captain, Mr Stewart who lived there with his wife Janet until they died circa 1880. They are buried in the mausoleum which is located close to the house.

The house eventually was left to the Sue Ryder foundation by the last owner/resident Mrs Annie Lang. Sue Ryder opened up a care centre in Binny House in 1987 and since then many parts of the estate have been sold to the Oatridge Agricultural College, including the site of the golf course. In February 2002 the Sue Ryder care centre was closed and is now owned by the Huntercombe Hospital.

The name Binny is also famous for the stone extracted from the six quarries in the area. The Binny Stone Quarries operated from 1790 until 1914 and was widely used in the construction of Edinburgh's New Town.

In 1997 a temporary quarry was opened at Binny to extract 75 cubic metres of stone for the repair of the Scott Monument. After the work was completed the quarry was refilled and returned to farm land.

References

External links

Golf clubs and courses in West Lothian
West Lothian
2002 establishments in Scotland
Sports venues completed in 2002

Binny Golf Club


In biology, a type specimen is a particular specimen to which a scientific name is formally attached. For this purpose a specimen is something that can be kept, unchanging, for a long time (for centuries). A specimen may be an organism, a part of an organism, or many small organisms together.

Preferably a type specimen should be kept where researchers may have a chance to study it. Often, type specimens are kept in museums and the like. A type specimen need not be typical, that is, it need not be representative.

A type specimen can be assigned when a name is first published, or it can be assigned later. Besides type specimens there are other form of types.

One particular type specimen may have any number of scientific names attached to it. For example the names Fabaceae (family), Faboideae (subfamily), and Faba (genus) all have the same specimen as the type. For any one circumscription, position, and rank of a taxon only one name can be correct (for a genus that includes the type specimens of the names Vicia and Faba, both, the correct name will be Vicia).

A type specimen is only one of several possible kinds of type. For example, the type of the name of a genus of animals is a type species. But the type specimen is the most famous kind of type.

Taxonomy

Type specimen


Ty Allen Wigginton (born October 11, 1977) is an American former professional baseball infielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Mets, Pittsburgh Pirates, Tampa Bay Devil Rays, Houston Astros, Baltimore Orioles, Colorado Rockies, Philadelphia Phillies, and St. Louis Cardinals. He mainly played as a first and third baseman, but also platooned as an infielder and an outfielder during his career. He batted and threw right-handed. Wigginton resides in Chula Vista, California.

High school years
Wigginton attended Chula Vista High School in Chula Vista, California, and was a letter-man in football and baseball. Wigginton graduated from Chula Vista High School in 1995.

Baseball career
Wigginton attended UNC-Asheville and played for three years from  to . Wigginton still holds the school's records for most home runs in a game, most runs in a season, and most doubles in a season.

New York Mets
The  200-pound Wigginton was selected by the New York Mets in the 1998 Major League Baseball Draft.

Wigginton was called up to the Mets major league roster for the first time in  as a third baseman and had a promising partial rookie season with the Mets, batting .302 with a .354 on-base percentage (OBP) and .526 slugging percentage (SLG) in 116 at-bats. He slumped somewhat in his first full season in  with a batting line of .255/.318/.396 in 573 at-bats but started the  season hot. In his first 312 at-bats, Wigginton hit .285/.334/.487, hitting 12 home runs and 23 doubles with 42 runs batted in.

Pittsburgh Pirates
On July 30, 2004, the Mets traded Wigginton to the Pittsburgh Pirates in a six-player deal for pitcher Kris Benson. Wigginton slumped badly after he was traded before recovering somewhat in September. In 2004, for the second straight year, he had the lowest zone rating of any NL third baseman (.731).

He started at third base for the Pirates in  but again struggled and was demoted to the minor leagues on June 4, putting his future with Pittsburgh in doubt. After winning the International League Batter of the Week for the week of August 15–21, "Wiggy" was called up to the Pirates on August 22, 2005. The utility infielder caught fire, hitting .365 over his last 22 games for Pittsburgh. Despite this, the Pirates released him after the season.

Tampa Bay Devil Rays
Wigginton signed a one-year contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays on January 10, . He split his time between first base and second base in 2006 with a few starts at third base and in the outfield. He signed a three-year deal with the Tampa Bay Rays after the 2006 season.

Houston Astros
On July 28, , Wigginton was traded to the Houston Astros for pitcher Dan Wheeler. After his acquisition, Morgan Ensberg was designated for assignment, and Wigginton was announced as the Astros' starting third baseman. When Astros outfielder Carlos Lee had his finger broken by a pitch on August 9, 2008, Wigginton made the majority of the starts in left field in Lee's place. Wigginton ended up having a strong month of August, hitting .379 and posting a staggering 1.200 OPS. He was named the National League's co-Player of the Week along with Johan Santana for the period of August 11 to August 17; he had a .571 batting average with four home runs in that span. On December 12, 2008, the Astros failed to tender Wigginton a contract and he became a free agent, a controversial move that upset many Astros fans.

Baltimore Orioles
On February 10, , Wigginton signed a two-year contract with the Baltimore Orioles.

He hit very well during the early stages of the 2010 season, batting .272 through his first 60 games and ranking eighth in the American League with 13 home runs.

Wigginton was elected to his 1st All-Star Game in 2010, being the lone Oriole representative. Wigginton had started the season without a starting position in Baltimore.

He split games between third base and first base following the trade of Miguel Tejada.

Colorado Rockies
On December 7, 2010, Wigginton signed a two-year deal with the Colorado Rockies with an option for a third year.

On April 20, 2011, Wigginton collected his 1000th career hit, a home run off of Matt Cain of the San Francisco Giants. The home run was his first as a member of the Rockies.

On June 28, 2011, Wigginton and Troy Tulowitzki helped the Rockies win 3–2 in 13 innings. Ty Wigginton was up at bat against Chicago White Sox reliever Will Ohman. Tulowitzki, at first, was off with the pitch. Wigginton flared a ball into center that dropped for a base hit. Brent Lillibridge picked it up as Tulowitzki tried to score the walk-off run. The throw to A. J. Pierzynski was off the line. Tulowitzki slid into the plate just ahead of Pierzynski's tag to score the walk-off.

Philadelphia Phillies

On November 20, 2011, the Rockies traded Wigginton to the Philadelphia Phillies for a player to be named later or cash. On October 29, 2012, the Phillies declined his 2013 club option worth $4 million; he was paid a $500,000 buyout and became a free agent. In his lone season with the Phillies, he hit .235/.314/.375 in 125 games with 11 home runs.

St. Louis Cardinals
On December 14, 2012, the St. Louis Cardinals signed Wigginton to a two-year contract. According to Ken Rosenthal of FoxSports.com, the deal was worth $5 million over the two seasons. He was signed to serve as a utility infielder and outfielder. He performed poorly off the bench, hitting .158 in 47 games and 57 at-bats. On July 9, 2013, he was given his unconditional release.

Miami Marlins
Wigginton signed a minor league deal with the Miami Marlins on January 24, 2014. He was released on March 25.

Scouting report
Wigginton showed slightly below-average power for a major league third baseman in his early career but displayed increased power as his career went on, ultimately averaging 20 home runs per 162 games played. He cut down on his strikeouts in 2004 and increased his number of walks, but his plate discipline was still no better than average. He hit fastballs well but struggled a little bit with good breaking balls. Wigginton had about average speed; he stole 12 bases in 2003 but never duplicated that (even in the minor leagues). On the field, he was slightly below average at third base. He also played second base, primarily in the earlier part of his career, but was similarly limited defensively at that position. He also played first and the outfield corners and was decent at first but has struggled in very limited playing time in the outfield.

Through the end of his major league career in July 2013, Wigginton had played in 1,362 major league games and hit .261 (1,170-for-4,479) with a .323 OBP, .435 SLG, 169 home runs, 245 doubles, 594 RBI, and 42 stolen bases.

Personal life
On December 20, 2006, Wigginton was forced to handle the delivery of his son Cannon at home when his wife Angela went into labor unexpectedly. Following the instructions of an operator on 9-1-1, he delivered the baby in a bedroom closet of their North Carolina home and tied off the umbilical cord with one of his shoelaces.

In an August 2015 Mooresville Weekly article,  Wigginton was named the new head baseball coach for Lake Norman High School in Mooresville, North Carolina, replacing Trey Ramsey.

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
New York Mets players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Houston Astros players
Baltimore Orioles players
Colorado Rockies players
Philadelphia Phillies players
St. Louis Cardinals players
UNC Asheville Bulldogs baseball players
Pittsfield Mets players
St. Lucie Mets players
Binghamton Mets players
Norfolk Tides players
Indianapolis Indians players
Durham Bulls players
Round Rock Express players
Colorado Springs Sky Sox players
American League All-Stars
Major League Baseball third basemen
Baseball players from San Diego
Baseball players from Chula Vista, California

Ty Wigginton


Founded in 1895, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA) was an unincorporated, voluntary organization of sugarcane plantation owners in the Hawaiian Islands. Its objective was to promote the mutual benefits of its members and the development of the sugar industry in the islands. It conducted scientific studies and gathered accurate records about the sugar industry. The HSPA practiced paternalistic management. Plantation owners introduced welfare programs, sometimes out of concern for the workers, but often designed to suit their economic ends. Threats, coercion, and "divide and rule" tactics were employed, particularly to keep the plantation workers ethnically segregated.

The HSPA also actively campaigned to bring workers to Hawaii. For instance, they opened offices in Manila and Vigan, Ilocos Sur, to recruit Filipino workers and provide them free passage to Hawaii. Similarly, the HSPA became a powerful organization with tentacles reaching as far as Washington, D.C., where it successfully lobbied for legislation and labor and immigration policies beneficial to the sugar industry of Hawaii.  On March 24, 1934, the  U.S. Congress passed the Tydings–McDuffie Act (Philippine Independence Act), which reclassified all Filipinos living in the United States as aliens and restricted entry of laborers from the Philippines to 50 per year.

HSPA now operates under the name Hawaii Agriculture Research Center (HARC). HSPA's and HARC's archives are kept at HARC's office.

A significant project undertaken by HSPA was to archive Hawaii's sugar company records. Between 1983 and 1994, archivists hired by HSPA received and processed records from dozens of sugar companies and related entities. The archival collection, now called the HSPA Plantation Archives, was donated to the University of Hawaii at Mānoa Library.

See also
Hawaiian sugar strike of 1946

References

Further reading
Nakamura, Kelli Y. "Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association," Densho Encyclopedia (26 February 2014).

Agriculture in Hawaii
Sugar organizations
Organizations based in Hawaii
Pre-statehood history of Hawaii
Organizations established in 1895
1895 establishments in Hawaii
American sugar industry
Agricultural organizations based in the United States

Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association


The theory of relativity was developed by Albert Einstein in the early 1900s. There are two theories of relativity. The first is special relativity and the second is general relativity.

The theory aims to solve problems which could not be solved by classical physics, or by 19th century physics. Certain observations, like the orbit of Mercury or the way light from distant sources bends as it passes a star, cannot be explained by the physics of 1900. Einstein set out to revise the basic ideas of physics. His work was done in two stages, and each stage has a separate page on this wiki.

Special relativity
General relativity

References
 Hawking, Stephen. The Universe in a nutshell. Bantam Books, 2001.

Other websites

 Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity In Words of Four Letters or Less
  New times and new technologies survey the experiments of Sobral and Príncipe.
  Relativity Calculator – Learn Special Relativity Mathematics The mathematics of special relativity presented in as simple and comprehensive manner possible within philosophical and historical contexts.

Relativity
Albert Einstein

Theory of relativity


Dame Jane Morris Goodall  (; born Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall on 3 April 1934), formerly Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall, is an English zoologist, primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist. She is also the UN Messenger of Peace. She is the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees. Goodall is best known for her 45-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania. She is the founder of the Jane Goodall Institute and has worked extensively on conservation and animal welfare issues.

Life
Born in London, she has been interested in animals since childhood. As a child she was given a lifelike chimpanzee toy named Jubilee by her father; her fondness for the toy started her early love of animals. The reason the chimpanzee's name is Jubilee is because in 1935 there had been a chimpanzee named Jubilee also that was born in London and all of the zoo's chimps had been born in Africa.

Leakey's influence
She went to Kenya and met Dr. Louis Leakey there.
In 1958, Leakey sent Goodall to London to study primate behavior with two experts.

Leakey raised funds, and in 1960 Goodall went to Gombe Stream National Park, becoming the first of "Leakey's Angels". She was accompanied by her mother whose presence was necessary to satisfy the requirements of David Anstey, chief warden. He was concerned for their safety; Tanzania was "Tanganyika" at that time and a British protectorate.

Leakey arranged funding and in 1962 sent Goodall, who had no degree, to Cambridge University where she obtained a PhD degree in Ethology. She became only the eighth person to be allowed to study for a PhD without first obtaining a BA or BSc. Her thesis was completed in 1965, titled Behavior of the free-ranging Chimpanzee. It told of her first five years of study at the Gombe Reserve.

Marriages
Goodall has been married twice. On 28 March 1964 she married a Dutch nobleman, wildlife photographer Baron Hugo van Lawick. The couple had a son, Hugo Eric Louis, affectionately known as "Grub," who was born in 1967. They divorced in 1974.

In 1975 she married Derek Bryceson. He was a member of Tanzania's parliament and director of national parks; he died of cancer in October 1980. With his position in the Tanzanian government as head of the country's national park system, Bryceson was able to protect Goodall's research project. He put an embargo on tourism at Gombe while he was alive.

Honours
In addition to the DBE, Jane received many honours from other countries:
United Nations Messenger of Peace
Légion d'honneur (France)
Medal of Tanzania
Kyoto Prize (Japan)
Benjamin Franklin Medal
Gandhi-King Award for Nonviolence
Prince of Asturias Award (Spain)
Genesis Award

Work
Goodall is best known for her study of chimpanzee social and family life. She began studying the Kasakela chimpanzee community in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania in 1960.

Instead of numbering the chimpanzees she observed, she gave them names such as Fifi and David Greybeard, and observed them to have unique and individual personalities, an unconventional idea at the time. She found that, "It isn't only human beings who have personality, who are capable of rational though emotions like joy and sorrow".

She also observed behaviours such as hugs, kisses, pats on the back, and even tickling, what we consider 'human' actions. Goodall insists that these gestures are evidence of "the close, supportive, affectionate bonds that develop between family members and other individuals within a community, which can persist throughout a life span of more than 50 years". These findings suggest similarities between humans and chimpanzees can be seen in emotion, intelligence, and family and social relationships.

Goodall's research at Gombe Stream challenged two long-standing beliefs of the day: that only humans could build and use tools, and that chimpanzees were vegetarians. While observing one chimpanzee feeding at a termite mound, she watched him repeatedly place stalks of grass into termite holes, then remove them from the hole covered with clinging termites, effectively "fishing" for termites. The chimps would also take twigs from trees and strip off the leaves to make the twig more effective, a form of object modification which is the rudimentary beginnings of toolmaking.

"Man the Toolmaker" is a famous phrase in anthropology. In response to Jane's research, Louis Leakey wrote, "We must now redefine man, redefine tool, or accept chimpanzees as human!" Over the course of her study, Goodall found evidence of mental traits in chimpanzees such as reasoned thought, abstraction, generalization, symbolic representation, and even the concept of self. All these were thought to be uniquely human abilities.

Chimps eating habits
In contrast to the peaceful and affectionate behaviours she observed, Goodall also found a mean side of chimpanzee nature at Gombe Stream. She discovered that chimps will systematically hunt and eat smaller primates such as Colobus monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus high in a tree, block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus. The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours. The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as one-third of the colobus population in the park each year. This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behavior.
"Goodall's Gombe data have also led researchers to take a closer look at the role that hunting plays in chimp feeding habits. One recent Gombe study, for instance, concluded that the 45 members of one troop ate a ton of monkey meat per year. During one hunting binge, chimps killed 71 colobus monkeys in 68 days; one chimp alone killed 42 monkeys over five years. All told, chimps may kill and eat a third of the Gombe's colobus population each year. Researchers have also found that lower-ranking males often trade the meat for mating privileges; such trades may help prevent inbreeding by keeping a single group of males from fathering the majority of a troop's children".

Aggression within the troop
Also startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence within chimpanzee troops. Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going as far as cannibalism. Goodall saw highly intelligent, emotional creatures living in complex social groups, when other researchers saw non communicating apes.

She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe Stream chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings, then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature". These findings revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour. They were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.

Related pages
Dian Fossey, a gorilla researcher

References

1934 births
Living people
English biologists
British zoologists
British naturalists
Tanzania
Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
English science writers

Jane Goodall


The Royal Flora Ratchaphruek was an international horticultural exposition held 1 November, 2006 to 31 January, 2007 in the Thai city Chiang Mai of Chiang Mai Province that drew 3,781,624 visitors. Recognised by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE), it was one of the grand celebrations hosted by the Royal Thai Government in honor of King Bhumibol, the world's longest reigning monarch.

Preparation
The ratchaphruek (Cassia fistula), or golden shower tree, is the de facto national flower of Thailand. Its yellow blossoms correspond to Monday, the birthday of Bhumibol. It is also named "Khun" or "Rajapruek".

The event was located on 80 hectares of land at the Royal Agricultural Research Center in the Mae Hia sub-district, Mueang district, Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand. The 92 days of the expo featured 30 international gardens reflecting nations such as Japan, South Korea, Belgium, Netherlands, South Africa, and Canada. More than 2.5 million trees of 2,200 species of tropical plants and flowers were on display in this exhibition. The Association of International Horticultural Producers (AIPH), gave this expo A1 status, its highest level. Such exhibitions occur only once a year throughout the world. In addition, a host country can only hold one such exhibition once a decade.

The festival
The festival included many highlights to attract tourists:

Gardens for the king There were two features in this zone: one was international gardens, which were presented by 30 participating nations and covered 21,000 square meters; the other  was corporate gardens, which covered 27,475 square meters, and were presented by both Thai state enterprises, and domestic and international major corporations.
Ho Kham Royal Pavilion This building featured Lanna architecture, the architectural style of northern Thailand; inside, visitors saw pictures of King Bhumibol's works and his dedication.
Thai Tropical Garden The enormous 100,000-square-meter garden showcased the diversity of tropical horticulture: fruit varieties, plants, flowers, herbs, and rare plants.
Expo Plaza This was the focus of the exposition's  fun-filled activities, amenities, and services. Visitors were able to purchase products from royal projects and authentic local products from Chiang Mai such as handicrafts, paper umbrellas, and souvenirs.
Cultural shows A total of 45 cultural shows from various regions of Thailand were performed, including traditional music and dance. In addition, cultural performances from other nations were presented.

The Thai government had expected an average of 20,000 visitors per day, with over 100,000 visitors on a crowded day, and 3 million visitors in total to attend the Royal Flora Ratchaphruek 2006. At the exposition's conclusion, organizers claimed that the exposition had injected 27 billion baht into the regional economy.

The Thai government has proposed transforming the site of the exposition into a permanent training center. Despite some complaints of corruption and substandard facilities, organizers believed the exposition achieved its goals of promoting tourism and developing Thai horticultural industries.

The park was open to the public in 2008 with many of the past highlights still very much in evidence, including the international exhibits. It is thought that it will remain to stay open as a valued addition to things to do in Chiang Mai. The park receives around 500 visitors a day at the moment, mainly Thai.

Gallery

References

External links

 Official website of the BIE

2006 festivals
2007 festivals
International horticultural exhibitions
World's fairs in Asia
World's fairs in Thailand
2006 in Thailand
2007 in Thailand
Festivals in Thailand
Flower festivals in Thailand
Garden festivals in Thailand
Chiang Mai province

Royal Flora Ratchaphruek 2006


The Book of Malachi, is the last of the books of the Old Testament. The book is made up of four chapters and a total of fifty-five verses. The word Malachi means my messenger. It is unknown if this is a name or if it describes the work of the writer. There are very few historical details in the Book of Malachi. The best clue as to its dating may be the Persian term for governor (pehâ) is used in Chapter 1 verse 8. This could mean that it was written after the time when the Jews were in Persia.   in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BC. The author of Ecclesiasticus early in the 2nd century BC used some of the themes in the book of Malachi, so most scholars assign it to a position after Haggai and Zechariah, close to the time of Ezra and when Nehemiah came to Jerusalem in 445 BC. Since the book talks about things that are common in religion, it could have been given at most any time. This leaves some doubt about the date.

The Book Of Malachi uses a method of "question and answer".  God says something and the people ask how that can be true. Then God gives the reason for what He has said.  Then the next statement, question and answer follow.  The questions include:
"Does God love us"? and "Why is God angry with us"? God gives a list of wrong things they have done.  They have made offerings of second rate things in the temple. Priests have not done their work properly. Men have married women who were not followers of God.  They have not been faithful to the wives they have married. They have questioned God's justice and they have not given the tithe to the temple.

The book ends by telling everyone to obey the laws given by Moses and by saying that Elijah will return before the end of time.

Quotes from the Book of Malachi:

Chapter 3, verses 1-3 form part of the text of Handel's Messiah, a famous musical work.

Chapter 3, verse 1 is quoted by Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew Chapter 11, verse 10, and said to be about John the Baptist.

Chapter 4, verse 6 is included in a promise given to the father of John the Baptist in the Gospel of Luke Chapter 1 verse 17

Chapter 3, verse 8 has been quoted by many famous preachers to tell people that they should have given money to God and to help other people.

References

Other websites
Book of Malachi (KJV)
Book of Malachi (NIV)
Theology

Old Testament books
Books of the Hebrew Bible
5th-century BC books

Book of Malachi


Imbolc is a festival belonging to Brigid, the Celtic goddess who, in later times, became famous as a Christian saint. At first, her festival on February 1 was known as "Imbolc" or "Oimelc", two Gaelic names which refer to the lactation of the ewes. Lactation is the flow of milk that happens when the baby lambs are born in the spring, and Gaelic languages are those spoken in countries like Ireland and Scotland.

Imbolc was, and still is, a time to celebrate that winter would soon be over. Sometimes in Ireland, the first flowers are coming up at the time of this festival, even when there is still snow on the ground.

Later, the Roman Catholic Church replaced this festival with Candlemas Day on February 2, a day that now belongs to the Virgin Mary. On this day, people may have ceremonies or processions  by candlelight - walking together in the dark, with the only light coming from candles they carry. The may also sing songs to Brigid, or say poems or prayers to her.

In both Pagan and Christian celebrations, Brigid is celebrated as a powerful female figure, who brings light, inspiration, and healing to the world.

Scotland
Festivals in the United Kingdom
Festivals in Ireland
Religious festivals

Imbolc


This is a list of cities, towns and villages in the ceremonial county of Staffordshire, England.

A
Abbey Green,
Abbey Hulton,
Abbots Bromley,
Above Church,
Acres Nook,
Acton Trussell,
Adbaston,
Admaston,
Aldershawe,
Alrewas,
Alstonefield,
Alsagers Bank,
Alton,
Amington,
Anglesey,
Anslow, Apeton, Armitage,
Ashley,
Audley.

B
Baggots Bromley,
Bagnall,
Baldwin's Gate, Balterley,
Barlaston,
Barton-under-Needwood,
Basford,
Baswich,
Beasley,
Bentilee,
Berkswich,
Betley,
Biddulph,
Bignall End,
Bilbrook,
Birches Head,
Blithbury,
Blithfield,
Blymhill, Blythe Bridge,
Bobbington,
Boney Hay,
Boundary, Bradley,
Bradwell,
Bramshall,
Branston,
Brewood,
Brindley Heath,
Brizlincote,
Broad Meadow,
Brockhurst,
Brocton,
Brown Edge,
Bucknall,
Burslem,
Burston,
Burton upon Trent,
Butterton.

C
Cannock,
Cannock Wood,
Cauldon,
Caverswall,
Chasetown,
Cheadle,
Cheddleton,
Chell,
Cheslyn Hay,
Chesterton,
Church Eaton,
Church Leigh,
Clayton,
Clifton Campville,
Clough Hall,
Chorley,
Codsall,
Colton,
Comberford,
Consall,
Coton,
Coton Clanford,
Coton Hill,
Coven,
Crakemarsh,
Crackley,
Cross Heath,
Croxden,
Curborough.

D
Dales Green,
Denstone,
Derrington,
Dimsdale,
Dods Leigh,
Dosthill,
Doxey,
Draycott in the Clay,
Drayton Bassett,
Dresden.

E
Eccleshall,
Ecton,
Edial,
Edingale,
Elford,
Ellastone,
Elmhurst,
Endon,
Enville,
Essington,
Etchinghill,
Etruria.

F
Farewell,
Fazeley,
Featherstone,
Field,
Fisherwick,
Flash,
Fole,
Forsbrook,
Four Ashes,
Fradley,
Freeford,
Froghall.

G
Gentleshaw,
Gnosall,
Godstone,
Gratwich,
Great Bridgeford,
Great Chatwell,
Great Haywood,
Great Wyrley,
Grindley.

H
Hademore,
Hales,
Halmer End,
Hammerwich,
Hamstall Ridware,
Hanchurch,
Handsacre,
Hanley,
Harlaston,
Harriseahead,
Hartshill,
Haselour,
Haughton,
Haunton,
Hazelslade,
Heath Hayes,
Hednesford,
High Offley,
Hilderstone,
Hill Ridware,
Hilton,
Hints,
Hixon,
Hollington,
Hollins,
Hopwas,
Horninglow,
Horton,
Huddlesford,
Hulme End,
Huntington,
Hyde Lea.

I
Ilam,
Ingestre,
Ipstones.

K
Keele,
Kettlebrook,
Kidsgrove,
Kings Bromley,
Kingstone,
Kinver,
Knightley,
Knighton (Newcastle-under-Lyme),
Knighton (Stafford),
Knutton, Knypersley.

L
Landywood,
Leek,
Leycett,
Lichfield,
Little Aston,
Little Haywood,
Little Wyrley,
Loggerheads,
Longdon,
Longnor,
Longport,
Longton,
Lower Leigh,
Lower Penn,
Lower Tean,
Loynton.

M
Madeley,
Maer,
Marchington,
Marchington Woodlands,
Marston, near Stafford
Marston, near Brewood
Mavesyn Ridware,
May Bank,
Meaford,
Meir,
Meretown,
Middleport,
Middleton Green,
Miles Green,
Milford,
Mill Meece,
Milton,
Milwich,
Moreton,
Morrilow Heath,
Mount Pleasant,
Mow Cop,
Mucklestone.

N
Newborough,
Newcastle-under-Lyme,
Newchapel,
Newton,
Newtown,
No Man's Heath,
Norbury,
Norton Bridge,

O
Oakamoor,
Offley Hay,
Olive Green,
Onecote,
Onneley,
Orgreave,
Oulton (Norbury),
Oulton (Stone Rural),
Outlands.

P
Pattingham,
Penkhull,
Penkridge, Penn,
Perton,
Pipe Ridware,
Pitts Hill,
Porthill,
Prospect Village,
Pye Green, Pipe Gate

Q
Quarnford.

R
Ramsor/Ramshorn,
Ranton,
Rawnsley,
Rocester,
Rodbaston,
Rolleston on Dove,
Rookery,
Rudyard,
Rugeley,
Rushton Spencer.

S
Salt,
Sandon,
Scot Hay,
Seabridge,
Seisdon,
Shallowford,
Shenstone,
Sideway,
Silverdale,
Smallthorne,
Sneyd Green,
Spath,
Stafford,
Stanton,
Statfold,
Stoke-on-Trent,
Stone,
Stonnall,
Stonydelph,
Stowe-by-Chartley,
Stramshall,
Streethay,
Stretton (Brewood),
Stretton (Burton upon Trent),
Swinfen,
Syerscote,

T
Talke,
Talke Pits,
Tamworth,
Tatenhill,
Thorpe Constantine,
Tittensor,
Tixall,
Trentham, Trysull,
Tunstall,
Tunstall (near Eccleshall),
Tutbury,
Two Gates.

U
Upper Hulme,
Upper Leigh,
Upper Longdon,
Upper Tean,
Uttoxeter.

W
Wall, Walton-on-the-Hill,
Waterfall,
Waterhouses,
Weeford,
Werrington,
Westbury Park,
Westlands,
Weston,
Weston-under-Lizard,
Wheaton Aston,
Whitehill,
Whitgreave,
Whitmore,
Whittington,
Wigginton,
Willoughbridge,
Willslock,
Wilnecote,
Wimblebury,
Winshill,
Withington,
Wolstanton,
Wombourne,
Woodseaves,
Wootton,
Wordsley,
Wrinehill.

Y
Yarnfield,
Yarlet,
Yoxall.

See also
List of places in England

Staffordshire
Places

List of places in Staffordshire


The People That Time Forgot is a  fantasy novel by American writer  Edgar Rice Burroughs, the second of his Caspak trilogy. The sequence was first published in Blue Book Magazine as a three-part serial in the issues for August (vol. 27 #4), October (vol. 27 #6), and December (vol. 28 #2) 1918, with The People That Time Forgot forming the second installment. The complete trilogy was later combined for publication in book form under the title of The Land That Time Forgot (properly speaking the title of the first part) by A. C. McClurg in June 1924. Beginning with the Ace Books editions of the 1960s, the three segments have usually been issued as separate short novels.

Plot introduction
The People That Time Forgot is a direct sequel to The Land That Time Forgot and continues the lost world saga begun in the earlier story. Burroughs continues the revelation of his lost world's unique biological system, only hinted at in the previous installment, in which the slow progress of evolution in the world outside is recapitulated as a matter of individual metamorphosis. This system forms a thematic element serving to unite the three otherwise rather loosely linked Caspak stories.

Plot summary
The novel begins with the organization of an expedition to rescue Bowen J. Tyler, Lys La Rue, and the other castaways marooned on the large Antarctic island of Caprona, whose tropical interior, known to its inhabitants as Caspak, is home to prehistoric fauna of all eras. Tyler's recovered manuscript detailing their ordeal is delivered to his family, and the relief effort is put together by Tom Billings, secretary of the Tyler shipbuilding business. The expedition's ship, the Toreador, locates Caprona, and while the bulk of the crew attempts to scale the encircling cliffs Billings flies over them in an aircraft.

Billings' plane is attacked by flying reptiles and forced down in the interior of Caspak. He saves a native girl named Ajor from a large cat and a group of ape-men, and undertakes to accompany her back to her people, the fully human Galus, while she educates him in the language and mysteries of the island. They travel north, encountering various creatures of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, as well as additional primitive subhuman races. They pass through the lands of the Neanderthal Bo-lu (club men) and the more advanced Sto-lu (hatchet men), who are easily cowed by gunfire. But in the country of the Band-lu (spear men) he is taken captive, and despairs until rescued in turn by Ajor. They resume their journey, re-encountering and befriending Tomar, a Band-lu newly become Kro-lu (bow man). Tomar and his mate So-al are the first examples Billings has actually seen of Caspakian evolutionary metamorphosis in action.

After an interlude in which Ajor's back story is related the new friends separate. Billings and Ajor enter Kro-lu territory and save Chal-az, a Kro-lu warrior, from a group of Band-lu. Visiting the Kro-lu village as his guest, they are parted again when Billings is attacked through the machinations of the chief Du-seen, who has designs on Ajor. They escape individually, making for the Galu country. Du-seen goes after Ajor with some of his warriors.

Billings catches and tames an ancestral horse, with the aid of which he rescues Ajor from Du-seen. Pursued, they resign themselves to death, but are relieved by a force consisting of Bowen Tyler, Galu warriors, and the rescue crew from the Toreador, which had successfully scaled the cliffs and entered Caspak after Billings' ill-fated airplane flight. All are reunited in the Galu village, where Tyler and Lys La Rue have been formally married by the captain of the Toreador. Billings and Ajor also desire to wed, but Ajor may not leave Caspak due to her status as cos-ata-lo – she was born a fully evolved Galu rather than attaining that form through metamorphosis, and hence is treasured by her people. Billings elects to remain in Caspak to be with her.

Characters
 Tom Billings — The main hero of this story, he mounted a rescue party to find his lost friend Bowen
 Ajor — A beautiful Galu of the north of Caprona, she becomes Billings's love interest
 Du-seen — The main antagonist, an evil Galu who wants both Ajor and her father's throne for himself
 Tomar — A Band-lu Chieftain who becomes a Kro-lu along with his "she" So-al.
 So-al — Female Band-lu who is Tomar's she
 Chal-az — A Kro-lu who befriends Tom and Ajor
 Ace — A Merychippus which Billings domesticates

Copyright
The copyright for this story has expired in the United States and, thus, now resides in the public domain there. The text is available via Project Gutenberg.

Film, TV or theatrical adaptations
The novel was adapted to film in 1977 under the direction of Kevin Connor by Britain's Amicus Productions. The movie was the third and last of Amicus' Burroughs adaptations, the others being The Land That Time Forgot (1975), based on the first segment of the Caspak sequence, and At the Earth's Core (1976). All three films were distributed in the United States by American International Pictures.

References

External links
Text of the novel at Project Gutenberg
Edgar Rice Burroughs Summary Project page for The People That Time Forgot

1924 American novels
1924 fantasy novels
American science fiction novels
Caspak trilogy
Novels about dinosaurs
Works originally published in Blue Book (magazine)
Novels first published in serial form
American fantasy novels adapted into films
Ace Books books
Fiction about neanderthals

The People That Time Forgot (novel)


The pectoralis major is a thick, fan-shaped muscle, on the chest (front) of the human body.

It makes up most of the chest muscles, and is under the breast. In sports as well as bodybuilding, the pectoral muscles may be referred to as "pecs", "pectoral muscle" or "chest muscle" because it is the larger surface muscle in the chest area.

Muscles

Pectoralis major muscle


Most countries have a Customs Service. The customs service works mostly at ports, airports and the countries borders to make sure that people do not bring things into the country which are banned, or that the right amount of tax has been paid on goods that can be imported (brought into the country).

Some customs officers work at a post office. They do not meet the public, they examine letters and parcels which have been sent from outside the country, to make sure nothing illegal is being brought into the country.

In the United Kingdom the customs service was called "Customs and Excise". This is because it was once two separate bodies. The Customs service collected tax (called customs duty) on goods being brought into the country, for example brandy from France or tea from India. The Excise service collected tax (called excise duty) on goods made in the country, for example Scotch whisky or Irish whiskey. Today all cars and lorries must pay a tax to be allowed to drive on the road. Although most people call this "road tax" or "car tax", it is officially called "vehicle excise duty".

Taxation

Customs


The Roushie Mennonites are a group o Mennonites descendit fraae Dutch an mainly Germanic Prussien Anabaptists who establisht colonies in Sooth Roushie (present-day Ukraine) beginnin in 1789. Syne the late 19t century, mony o thaim hae come tae kintras throuoot the Wastren Hemisphere. The rest wur forcibly relocatit, so that few o their descendants nou live at the location o the oreeginal colonies. Roushie Mennonites are traditionally multilingual wi Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low German) as their lingua franca.

Christianity in Roushie
Mennonitism
Roushie an Soviet German fowk
Ukrainian fowk o German strynd

Roushie Mennonite


Louise de Coligny (Châtillon-sur-Loing, 23 September 1555 – Fontainebleau, 13 November 1620) was the fourth wife of Prince William the Silent. She was the daughter of an important French Protestant leader, Gaspard de Coligny.

Marriage
She married Charles de Téligny when she was 16 years old in 1571. He was a Protestant diplomat who was also friendly with the French king Charles IX. Both her father and her husband were killed during the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572.

In 1583 she (27) married William the Silent in Antwerp. She became the Princess of Orange. Their son Frederik Hendrik was born on 29 January 1584. On the 10th of July that year, William was shot by catholic Balthasar Gerards and died.

Later years
She stayed in the Netherlands with her 6 stepdaughters. In 1619, she asked her stepson Maurits to stop the execution of high-placed Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, but he did not listen. She then left Holland and went to France where she (65) died in 1620. On 24 May 1621, she was buried in the crypt of the House of Orange-Nassau in the New Church in Delft.

House of Orange-Nassau
Princesses of Orange
1555 births
1620 deaths

Louise de Coligny


Summerhill School is an independent British boarding school which was founded in 1921 by A.S. Neill (Alexander Sutherland Neill). He believed the school should fit the child, not than the other way around.

Summerhill is run as a democratic community. Decisions are made in school meetings, which anyone, staff or pupil, may attend, and at which everyone has an equal vote. These meetings serve as both a legislative and judicial body. Summerhill is the oldest "children's democracy" in the world. It is probably the most famous alternative or 'free' school.

Members of the community are free to do as they please, so long as their actions do not cause any harm to others, according to Neill's principle "Freedom, not Licence". This extends to the freedom for pupils to choose which lessons, if any, they attend.

The school is not large. It varies 6080 boys and girls with ages ranging from 5 to 17. The school is now owned by Zoë Readhead, the daughter of A.S. Neill.

Does it work?
Apparently it does. The most recent OFSTED inspection of the school reported:
"Evaluation of the school:
Summerhill School provides a good quality of education. It meets all the regulatory requirements for independent schools, which is an improvement from the last inspection. All the points for development outlined in the previous report have been addressed. The school meets its aims very successfully. Strengths of the school include outstanding pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and outstanding promotion of pupils' welfare health and safety, including effective safeguarding procedures. Pupils' behaviour is outstanding and they make good progress. The curriculum and teaching and assessment are good. The national minimum standards for boarding schools are met and overall effectiveness for the boarding experience is outstanding". OFSTED: Summerhill School, 2011.

The school did have trouble with OFSTED in the past:
"In March 2000, after a damning report from an OfSTED (Office for Standards in Education) inspection in March 1999, which demanded changes to the Summerhill philosophy, the school won an historic legal battle against the DfEE (Department for Education and Employment) when it defended the rights and voices of its children at an Independent Schools Tribunal". (School website)

Fees
Annual fees are significantly less than most independent schools:
Day pupils £3,735–£8,931
Boarders £8,568–£14,889

Books about Summerhill

Books by A.S. Neill
A Dominie's Log. Herbert Jenkins, 1916; Hart, 1975
A Dominie in Doubt. Herbert Jenkins, 1921; Hart, 1975
A Dominie Abroad. Herbert Jenkins, 1923
The Problem Child. Herbert Jenkins, 1926; McBride, 1928
The Problem Parent. Herbert Jenkins, 1932
That Dreadful School. Herbert Jenkins, 1937
Hearts not Heads in the School. Herbert Jenkins, 1945
The Problem Family. Herbert Jenkins, 1949; Hermitage Press, 1949
The Free Child. Herbert Jenkins, 1953
Summerhill. Gollancz, 1962; Penguin, 1968; Hart 1960
Freedon not License! Hart 1966
Talking of Summerhill. Gollancz, 1967
Neill! Neill! Orange Peel! A personal view of ninety years. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973; Quartet, 1977. New York: Hart. ISBN 978-0-671-81300-0

Other authors
Summerhill, a loving World. Photographs by Herb Snitzer, Macmillan, 1964
Neill & Summerhill, a man and his work. A pictorial study by John Walmsley, Penguin Education, 1969
Inside Summerhill. Photographs by Joshua Popenoe, Hart, 1969
Summerhill: For and Against: assessments of A.S. Neill. Harold Hart (ed). Hart, 1970; Angus & Robertson, 1973 (includes essays by Bruno Bettleheim, John Holt, Sylvia Ashton- Warner, Paul Goodman, Fred Hechinger, Erich Fromm).
Summerhill Diary. Bjarne Segefjord, Gollancz, 1971
Fifty Years of Freedom: A.S. Neill and the evolution of the Summerhill idea. Ray Hemmings, Allen & Unwin 1972
Record of a Friendship: the correspondence of Wilhelm Reich and A.S. Neill. Beverley R. Placzek (ed) Gollancz, 1981.
All the best, Neill, letters from Summerhill. Jonathan Croall (ed) Andre Deutsch 1983.
Neill of Summerhill, the permanent rebel. Jonathan Croall, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983.
The new Summerhill. Albert Lamb (ed) Penguin Education, 1992.
Real Education, Varieties of Freedom. David Gribble, Lib Ed, 1998.
Summerhill and A.S.Neill. Mark Vaughan (ed) Open University Press 2006. Contributions from Zoë Readhead and Ian Stronach. Introduction by Tim Brighouse.
After Summerhill: what happened to the pupils of Britain's most radical school? Hussein Lucas 2011  Herbert Adler

Schools in England
1921 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in England

Summerhill School


, sometimes mistakenly referred to as Nebu Tatsuguchi (August 31, 1911 – May 30, 1943), was a Japanese soldier and surgeon who served in the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) during World War II. He was killed during the Battle of Attu on Attu Island, Alaska, United States, on May 30, 1943.

A devout Seventh-day Adventist, Tatsuguchi studied medicine and was licensed as a physician in the United States (US). He returned to his native Japan to practice medicine at the Tokyo Adventist Sanitarium, where he received further medical training. In 1941, he was ordered to cease his medical practice and conscripted into the IJA as an acting medical officer, although he was given an enlisted rather than officer rank because of his American connections. In late 1942, Tatsuguchi was sent to Attu, which had been occupied by Japanese forces in June 1942. On May 11, 1943, The United States Army landed on the island, intending to retake American soil from the Japanese.

Throughout the ensuing battle, Tatsuguchi kept a diary in which he recorded its events and his struggle to care for the wounded in his field hospital. He was killed on the battle's final day after the remaining Japanese conducted one last, suicidal charge against the American forces.

Tatsuguchi's diary was recovered by American forces and translated into English. Copies of the translation were widely disseminated and publicized in the U.S. after the battle. The American public was intrigued by a Christian, American-trained doctor serving with Japanese forces on the island and by his apparent participation in assisting with the deaths of wounded Japanese soldiers in his field hospital during the battle's final days. Translated excerpts from his diary have been widely quoted in Western historical accounts of the battle, especially his final entry in which he recorded a farewell message to his family.

Early life
Tatsuguchi's father, Shuichi Tatsuguchi, was born and raised in Hiroshima, Japan, before leaving for the US in 1895 to "explore the new world". He attended Healdsburg College, later renamed Pacific Union College, in Angwin, California. While attending the college, he was baptized into the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In 1907, after completing a course of study in dentistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in San Francisco, Shuichi Tatsuguchi returned to Hiroshima with plans to serve as a medical missionary.

In Hiroshima, Tatsuguchi established a prosperous dental practice and promoted the establishment of the Hiroshima Adventist church. He married Sadako Shibata who was also familiar with the US and spoke fluent English. Shuichi and Sadako had three sons and three daughters. All three sons would eventually attend school in the US. The middle son, born on August 31, 1911, was given the Christian name of Paul and the Japanese name of Nobuo, although he was called "Joseph" at home.

Schooling and marriage
Paul Nobuo Tatsuguchi graduated from middle school in Hiroshima on March 16, 1919. On March 2, 1923, he graduated from Travier English Academy. Paul traveled to California and entered Pacific Union College in 1926 and graduated in May 1932. When his parents both died unexpectedly in 1932, Paul returned to Japan to help settle the family affairs. He returned to California in 1933 and entered the College of Medical Evangelists at Loma Linda University, completing the course of study in June 1937. Paul Tatsuguchi then accepted a year's internship at White Memorial Hospital in Los Angeles. While studying in America, Tatsuguchi was regarded by his classmates, who called him "Tatsy" or Paul, as a serious student, friendly but not gregarious. Classmate J. Mudry, a year behind Tatsuguchi at Loma Linda University, later said, "I know him well. I always thought Tatsuguchi—we called him Paul—was quite an American."

On September 8, 1938, Tatsuguchi graduated as a Doctor of Medicine and was awarded a California medical license. That same year, he accepted a position at the Tokyo Adventist Sanitarium, an institution founded in part by his father in 1928. As he would be working with tuberculosis patients in Tokyo, Tatsuguchi spent several more months undergoing postgraduate medical studies in California. Also in 1938, Tatsuguchi married a childhood friend, Taeko Miyake, who he proposed to during a trip to Yosemite National Park. Taeko's parents were serving as Adventist missionaries in Honolulu, Hawaii, while Taeko pursued studies at La Sierra Academy in Riverside, California. After a quick sightseeing trip by bus around the US, Paul and Taeko departed the U.S. for Japan in 1939.

Early military service
In Tokyo, Tatsuguchi was aware of the rising tensions between Japan and the United States. Although he was strongly loyal to his native country, he also shared with Taeko a love of the US, to which they hoped to return to live someday. Tatsuguchi concentrated on his work at the sanitorium, and, with Taeko, supported activities for the Adventist church, of which they were devout members. In September 1940 their first daughter, Joy Misako, was born.

Early the next year, the IJA—the conscription authority in Japan—ordered Tatsuguchi to leave his medical practice and report to the First Imperial Guard Regiment (FIGR) in Tokyo, where he was inducted with the rank of private on January 10, 1941. As he was stationed in Tokyo, Tatsuguchi was occasionally able to visit Taeko and Misako when his duties allowed. Misako said of this time that, "I only have one memory of my father, and that was playing hide and seek with him."

In September 1941, Tatsuguchi entered the IJA's medical school. He graduated in October and was promoted to sergeant major, rejoining the FIGR in January 1942. In the meantime, on December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the neutral United States at Pearl Harbor. The next day, Japan declared war on the US and its allies. Suspicious of Tatsuguchi's American background, the IJA never gave him officer status, instead designating him as a non-commissioned acting medical officer.

Over the next several months, Tatsuguchi was deployed to the South Pacific in support of IJA units in the Dutch East Indies. During his service, Tatsuguchi kept a diary, recording his first-hand observations of military service as well as his thoughts and feelings about the events in which he was involved. In September 1942, after learning that he would be reassigned to a combat area in Rabaul, New Britain, he noted in his diary, "I feel very happy and I am determined to do my best", adding that he was "determined to destroy the enemy force to the very last soldier".

Tatsuguchi reached Rabaul on October 4, 1942. His stay there was probably short, for his wife recorded that he joined her in Tokyo that same month prior to being redeployed. Tatsuguchi was unable to tell his wife, now pregnant with their second child, where he would be assigned, but she noticed that he studied maps of the North Pacific area. At one point, he remarked to Taeko that he was going to an area where he might meet some of his former classmates from California.

A few weeks after Tatsuguchi left for his new assignment, the IJA delivered a lock of his hair to Taeko. The IJA did this whenever soldiers were sent to a high-risk combat area in case the soldier was killed and it proved impossible to repatriate the remains for proper funeral rites.

Attu

Arrival

Japanese forces had first occupied Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska on June 7, 1942, during the Battle of Midway. They abandoned Attu in September 1942, but then decided to reoccupy it. A regiment of IJA soldiers from the , a detachment of Imperial Japanese Navy Special Naval Landing Force troops, and support personnel began arriving on Attu in October 1942. The total number of Japanese on the island would eventually be between 2,500 and 2,900 men. Tatsuguchi arrived on Attu on March 10, 1943, on the last full convoy to reach the island. While most of the North Sea Defense Field Hospital located on Kiska, Tatsuguchi was part of a 24-man team who set up a small hospital on Attu.

With an American naval blockade in place, mail between Attu and Japan was infrequent and unscheduled. Tatsuguchi received several small packages from Taeko containing cookies and ointment for his skin, which was chafed by Attu's severe winter winds. Four letters and several postcards from Tatsuguchi reached Taeko. As he was forbidden from discussing his unit's exact location or mission, Tatsuguchi wrote about the weather, the beauty of the snowy and mountainous landscape around him, and his success in catching fish. He was cheered by the news from Taeko that their second daughter, Laura Mutsuko, was born in February. Tatsuguchi reminded Taeko in his letters to play classical music for their daughters.

Battle of Attu
On May 11, 1943, the American Seventh Infantry Division began landing on Attu to retake the island from the Japanese. The Japanese commander on Attu, Yasuyo Yamasaki, positioned his troops—who were outnumbered five to one—in the mountains from where they temporarily delayed the Americans' advance inland. Tatsuguchi's diary entry on May 12 records the Japanese move into the mountains after the American landings, stating simply "evacuated to the summit. Air raids carried out frequently. Heard loud noise, it is naval gunfire. Prepared battle equipment."

On May 14, American artillery fired phosphorus smoke shells to mark Japanese positions in the mountains. Many Japanese and Americans believed these were poison gas shells. Tatsuguchi noted in his diary that, "In the enemy the U.S. Forces used gas but no damage was done on account of strong wind."

Tatsuguchi recorded in his diary that he was forced to move his field hospital into a cave to escape American naval and aerial bombardment. He relocated the hospital and patients several times as the Japanese forces were pushed back by the Americans. His May 17 entry describes one of the moves:

Tatsuguchi refers again and again in his diary to the constant, intense attacks by American aircraft and artillery on his comrades' positions. On May 21, he noted that he "was strafed when amputating a patient's arm" and on May 23 that "by naval gun fire a hit was scored on the pillar pole of tents for patients and the tents gave in and killed two instantly. No food for two days." On May 26, Tatsuguchi recorded that "there was a ceremony of granting of the Imperial Edict. The last line of Umanose [Japanese defensive position] was broken through. No hope for reinforcements. We will die for cause of Imperial Edict."

Final attack and death
By May 28 about a thousand Japanese remained, compressed into a small pocket. Yamasaki, apparently realizing that help from Japan was not forthcoming, decided on one last, desperate measure to try to save his command from destruction. On May 29, Yamasaki organized a surprise attack on American positions. Yamasaki hoped to break through the enemy's front lines and seize the American artillery batteries, which would then be turned on the rest of the American forces and their ships offshore. Tatsuguchi's last diary entry records Yamasaki's order, the disposition of the wounded in his hospital, and a farewell message to his family:

Yamasaki launched his attack early in the morning on May 30. Although the attack succeeded in penetrating the enemy lines, American rear-area personnel rallied and killed Yamasaki and the majority of his attacking troops. Most of the remaining Japanese then committed suicide; only 27 were taken prisoner.

Two versions exist of how Tatsuguchi died. One version is that he did not participate in the attack. Later in the day on May 30, two American soldiers, Charles W. Laird and John Hirn, who were searching for remaining Japanese forces following the defeat of Yamasaki's attack, approached the cave containing Tatsuguchi's field hospital. Tatsuguchi emerged from the cave, waving his Bible in the direction of the Americans and yelling in English, "Don't shoot! I am a Christian!" Laird heard and understood what Tatsuguchi was saying and withheld fire. Hirn, however, shot and killed Tatsuguchi. Hirn later stated that he could not hear what Tatsuguchi was saying over the wind and noise of battle and that he thought that the Bible Tatsuguchi was holding was a weapon.

The other version was told to Taeko and Laura by Charles Laird in 1984. Laird, a former US Army sergeant who served on Attu, stated that he was sleeping in a tent the morning of May 30 when Yamasaki's troops broke through the American front lines. A man ran into Laird's tent and Laird shot and killed him, only to discover that the man was American. Then he saw eight Japanese soldiers approaching through the fog, so he shot and killed them too. One of them was Tatsuguchi. Laird said that he found Tatsuguchi's diary and an address book in which he was shocked to see American names and addresses.

J. Mudry and another of Tatsuguchi's Loma Linda classmates, J. L. Whitaker, were medical officers with the US Seventh Division on Attu during the battle. Whitaker was in the path of Yamasaki's final attack, but survived without injury. Whitaker and Mudry were stunned to later learn that their former classmate was on the island with Japanese forces and was killed nearby.

Diary
After Tatsuguchi's death his Japanese diary, as well as his Bible, a copy of Gray's Anatomy and an address book, were forwarded to the division intelligence section. There, an American Nisei serviceman named Yasuo Sam Umetani drafted the first translation of the diary.

Word of the diary's contents spread quickly through divisional headquarters to the other American troops on Attu. Americans were intrigued by the news that an American-trained doctor had been with the Japanese forces on the island and that Tatsuguchi had described the battle from a Japanese perspective. Unauthorized copies of both Umetani's version and subsequent translations, some of which contained variations, were passed around among the American troops on Attu and to military installations on other Aleutian islands. Civilian crews of transport ships in the area who obtained copies of the diary translation took their copies with them across the United States, where it drew the attention of the press and gained wide public exposure.

Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr., the US commander of the Alaska Defense Command (ADC), on learning that the diary claimed that the Americans had used poison gas in the Attu battle, ordered that all copies of the translations be confiscated. In transit to Buckner's headquarters, the diary original itself vanished without trace, and its whereabouts are unknown to this day. Japanese versions are translated from the English translation. In early September 1943, the ADC's intelligence section reported that efforts to control the distribution of translated copies of the diary had failed.

Several American newspapers published excerpts from the diary, and most highlighted the possibility that Tatsuguchi, a professed Christian, might have been involved in the killing of wounded patients. The Chicago Tribune on September 9, 1943, published an article headlined "Japs Slew Own Patients on Attu, Diary Discloses". In contrast, the Loma Linda School of Medicine Alumni Journal defended Tatsuguchi as a gentle and caring doctor who was trapped in a situation beyond his control, where his actions violated neither his religious beliefs nor his oaths as a doctor. Most Western historical accounts of the Battle of Attu mention Tatsuguchi and quote from his diary, especially the final entry.

Family legacy

The Japanese government notified Taeko of her husband's death in August 1943. Taeko and her two daughters survived the remainder of the war on a small widow's pension and with help from relatives. Taeko hoped that her husband was still alive and would return. Just after the war ended, B. P. Hoffman, one of Tatsuguchi's former college instructors and a friend of Taeko's, visited her in Osaka where she was living. Hoffman told her that a Federal Bureau of Investigation agent had visited him during the war because Hoffman's name was in Tatsuguchi's address book found on Attu. The agent told the story of Tatsuguchi's death to Hoffman, who related it to Taeko. Taeko accepted that her husband would not be coming back.

After the war, Taeko worked for the American occupation forces as a secretary and teacher. In 1954, she and her two daughters, Joy and Laura, left Japan and joined Taeko's parents in Hawaii. All three became naturalized citizens of the US. Joy and Laura both attended Pacific Union College and became nurses. Joy later married a Japanese man and returned to Japan to live. Laura married an American and moved to the Los Angeles area, where Taeko later joined her. In 2005, Taeko told Kyodo News of her husband, "He was a faithful Christian doctor and a gentleman who devoted himself to God and communities."

In May 1993, Laura traveled to Attu and spoke at a 50th Anniversary commemorative event of the Battle of Attu. In her speech at the event, Laura stated "How ironic that my father was killed in combat against his beloved America while in loyal service to his Japanese homeland ... Like my father, I too have a great love for Japan and America."

Notes

References

Books

Web

External links

 Diary of a Japanese doctor who fought on Attu

1911 births
1943 deaths
Aleutian Islands campaign
Japanese expatriates in the United States
Japanese military personnel killed in World War II
Japanese military doctors
Japanese Seventh-day Adventists
Loma Linda University alumni
Pacific Union College alumni
People from Hiroshima
Physicians from California
Military personnel from Hiroshima Prefecture
Seventh-day Adventists in health science
Imperial Japanese Army personnel of World War II
Imperial Japanese Army soldiers

Paul Nobuo Tatsuguchi


Ape Escape 2 is a Playstation 2 game, that consists of catching troublesome Monkeys and defeating Specter.

It was published and developed to the PS2 by Sony, but in North America, it was published by Ubisoft. It was first released in Japan on 18 July 2002 and later released in Europe on 14 March 2003, and in North America on 30 June 2003. It is the second game in the Ape Escape series.

Story and Plot

The Professor leaves one simple task for Jimmy, (Hikaru), to do, but as you would have guessed, it does not go well. He was supposed to send Monkey Pants to a Monkey Park, but he sent Peak Point helmets too. Specter got hold of one and decided to try and take over the world again. Natalie is furious with Jimmy, as he destroyed the laboratory, and to make up for it, he decides to go and catch all of the monkeys and defeat Specter.

Characters

Specter a troublesome monkey, trying to take over the world.

Hikaru the main character who captures monkeys and saves the world.

Kekaru another character who does the same as Hikaru, after you complete the game Hikaru.

Pipotchi Hikaru's best friend who journeys with Hikaru (only) to help him.

Freaky Monkey Five bosses in the game.

Natalie your helper who stays in the Lab.

The Professor sometimes appears every now and then.

Mini Games

Other features are Mini Games, that you pay for in the vending machine in the Lab. There are Monkey Football (Soccer), Dance Monkey Dance, and Monkey Climbing.

Other websites

2003 video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 4 games
Ubisoft games
Video game sequels

Ape Escape 2


Aureus (plural: aurei) was a type of gold coin in ancient Rome. It had the same value as 25 denarii silver coins. An aureus was the same size as a denarius, but it weighed more because gold is more dense.

The aureus coin was first used in 1st century BC. It stopped being used in the 4th century AD. It was replaced by the solidus.

Roman coins

Aureus


The computer art scene, or simply artscene, is the community interested and active in the creation of computer-based artwork.

Early computer art
The history of computer art predates the computer art scene for several decades, with the first experiments having taken place in the early 1950s. Devices like plotters and teletypewriters were commonly used instead of video display screens. The earliest precursors to ASCII art can be found in RTTY art, that is, pictures created by amateur radio enthusiasts with teleprinters using the Baudot code.

In the early days of microcomputers, what could be shown on a typical video display screen was limited to plain and simple text, such as that found in the ASCII code set.  In the early 1980s, users of IBM PC compatible computers began to experiment with ways of forming simple pictures and designs using only the 255 characters within the Extended ASCII character set, specifically known as code page 437, created by IBM.  Modems and networking technology allowed computer users to communicate with each other over bulletin board systems (BBSes); the operators of these BBSes used ASCII art to enhance the aesthetic appearance of their systems.   The common user interface or video mode shared by all systems was plain text.  As a result, a "scene" of artists arose to fill the need for original art to distinguish one BBS from another.

Evolving technology

At home

At a time when IBM PC compatibles were limited to monochrome graphics or the four preset colors of the Color Graphics Adapter, the Atari 8-bit family had a palette of 128 colors and could display 4-8 of those at once—or many more with custom programming. The Commodore 64 could display 16 fixed colors.

In 1985, the  Amiga arrived with the ability to display 640x480 4096-color graphics that could be exported via the NTSC standard. This capability was used by Disney animators in movies such as The Little Mermaid and by TV producers in shows such as SeaQuest and Babylon 5.

Online
As computer technology developed, the American National Standards Institute X3 committee invented a standard method of terminal control using escape sequences called "ANSI X3.64-1979".  This protocol allowed for text and cursor positioning as well as defining foreground and background color attributes for the text.

Eventually, text artists began incorporating this new level of flexibility to the existing medium of ASCII art by adding color to their text-based art, or animating their art by manipulating the cursor control codes.  This is what is commonly referred to today as "ANSI art" that is used in many scene nfos.

A decade later, the popularity of ANSI art had increased significantly (largely due to the similarly increasing interest in the BBS) and ANSI artists began to form into "groups", not unlike graffiti "crews."  The first ANSI group was called Aces of ANSI Art (AAA).  Though no official founding date can be established for this group, its earliest surviving tribute packs are dated December 1991 and includes art dated back to 1989.

Other groups like ACiD (ANSI Creators in Demand) and iCE (Insane Creators Enterprises) quickly began to spring up.  Beginning in June 1992, these groups would release their work in monthly "ARTPACKS," which were collections of ASCII art submitted by the group's various members, as well as news and membership lists.  These artpacks were then spread far and wide by BBS users.  Some of the same groups from the 1990s still exist today; their art is now primarily distributed using the internet.

A later method of transmitting graphics over a BBS was developed called Remote Imaging Protocol or RIP, which required special software on both the BBS and the terminal end.  RIP was still basically text, but the text referred to the positions of lines, curves, fills, and other steps in drawing graphics on an EGA display of 640x350x16 colors.  While RIP never caught on in the BBS world, the art scene embraced it as a form of expression, if not a viable method of displaying art on a BBS.

VGA to present day

In 1987 IBM introduced the VGA card.  Early VGA graphics were "high resolution" images, generally using an 8-bit depth (256 colors) and a resolution of 320x200x256, 360x480x256 (hacked Mode X), or 640x480x16 colors.  VGA was not intended to be displayed via a BBS and the vast majority of the early works in the IBM PC artscene were distributed as coded executables called "loaders" or "intros" rather than raw bitmap images.  In fact, it was considered to be "lame" to release an uncoded VGA work of art from the early- to mid-1990s, a sure indication that your group was not skilled enough to retain a worthy programmer.

The advent of custom image viewers developed by groups within the artscene, such as ACiD View and iCEView, began to shift the perception of how VGA art should be distributed and what the accepted practice should be.  A coded VGA which did not take any of the advantages of being an executable, like special effects or music, became viewed as an impractical use of disk space—all of this in turn spawned a number of competing image viewers, and even "Viewer Wars" between rival art groups.  Talented underground artists such as CatBones continued to help pioneer and define what is now referred to as the "hirez artscene", further championing the move away from coded VGA to stand-alone imagery with his impressive artwork.  Hirez today implies higher resolutions than before, such as a 1024x768 pixel canvas or larger, greater depth of color, and is created with much more sophisticated and modern software.

Underground status
Despite the fact that contributors to the artscene can be found worldwide, the scene remains detached from mainstream bbs and internet culture. This can be seen as a result of the artscene's early affiliations with hacker and software piracy (warez) organizations. As early demoscene groups were organized by cracktros coders, artscene members were often found designing the .nfo files detailing warez releases. In addition much of the ansi art provided for warez BBSes was drawn by future members of the artscene. Prior to the popularity of the internet in the 1990s, the most efficient way to distribute software and files across BBSes was via a courier system. Both the warez scene and the artscene utilized this system, and in many cases warez couriers could be found distributing monthly artpacks.

In addition to  connection that the various underground groups had, a common attitude and relationship between scene members developed. The general belief that "newbies are lame" and "veterans are elite", as well as the use of leetspeek, created an environment that was sometimes difficult for new members to enter. In particular, many artsceners' distrust and bitterness towards new America Online users in the 1990s may have eroded the possibility for a wider membership base and audience for the artscene.

See also

 ANSI art
 ASCII art
 Pixel art
 Netart
 Digital art
 Software art
 Demoscene
 DeviantArt
 List of artscene groups
 Minor artscene groups

References

Bibliography
 Danet, Brenda.  "Cyberpl@y: Communicating Online".  Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers, 2001.  .
 "Dark Domain: the artpacks.acid.org collection" (DVD-ROM).  San Jose, CA, USA: ACiD Productions, LLC, 2004.  .
 Scott, Jason.  "BBS: The Documentary" (DVD).  Boston, MA, USA: Bovine Ignition Systems, 2005.
 Zetter, Kim.  "How Humble BBS Begat Wired World".  Wired News.  June 8, 2005.  Retrieved October 27, 2005.
 Wands, Bruce (2006). Art of the Digital Age, London: Thames & Hudson. .

External links

Examples of ANSI Artwork
 artscene.textfiles.com, The artscene branch of the textfiles.com library.
 darkdomain.org, Dark Domain (2004).  An archive on DVD which hosts a complete collection of underground artscene works between 1987-2003.  Published by ACiD Productions.  .
 Cleaner Alternative Museum Cleaner's ASCii/ANSi galleries.
 Roy/SAC Text Artist- Superior Art Creations, Information about ASCII Art Styles, SAC Art Packs Download
Sixteen Colors ANSI Art and ASCII Art Archive - A web viewable archive of current and past ANSI and ASCII packs released by the computer art scene

More on the History of the Art Scene
 BBS: The Documentary Episode 5 documents the rise of the Art Scene

Organizations still in Operation
 Defacto2 Scene Portal Scene Art Groups and Sites Listing
 DepthCore international digital art & design group
 BreedArt, an international art group in operation since 2001, one of the innovators of the scene
 Downmix Current computer art scene news and releases
 Evoke: An international design group primarily for young and developing artists.
 The Luminarium international artgroup.
 SlashTHREE: A not-for-profit international art collective representing artists in over 40 countries world wide.

Utilities
 Ansilove/PHP A set of tools for converting ANSi/BiN/ADF/iDF/TUNDRA/XBiN files into PNG images

Computer art
Computing culture

Computer art scene


The Appomattox Campaign was a military campaign during the American Civil War. It happened in 1865 in Virginia. At the start of the campaign from March 30–April 1, 1865, Union general U.S. Grant captured Petersburg, Virginia. Confederate general Robert E. Lee tried to get the Army of Northern Virginia moved to North Carolina, so he could fight along with other Confederate soldiers. But Grant surrounded Lee's army at Appomattox Courthouse and forced Lee to surrender. After Lee's surrender, other Confederate armies started to surrender too.

American Civil War battles
1865 in the United States
1860s in Virginia

Appomattox Campaign


GCA Games Convention Asia is a major video game exhibition in the Asia-Pacific region. It consists of a public exhibition and a conference where the various players in the video game industry network and interact with each other, while showcasing their latest products and services to the public. Games Convention Asia serves as an entryway for companies trying to enter the Asian interactive entertainment market.

The concept behind the convention consists of four pillars: exhibition, business centre, matchmaking area, and GC Asia Conference. The GC Asia Conference allows developers and industry experts to exchange knowledge and know-how in panels and lectures and grow their international networks of business connections.

The event takes place over four days at the Suntec Singapore International Convention and Exhibition Centre in Singapore (September 17–20, 2009) and is organized by LMI Asia Pte Ltd., a subsidiary of Games Convention organizer, Leipziger Messe. In April 2008, LMI Asia Pte Ltd was founded in Singapore as an affiliate of LMI GmbH.

It was announced in March 2010 that the convention will no longer be held beginning from 2010 due to a low demand.

Overview

Games Convention Asia consists of the Students' Day, the public exhibition and the Games Convention Asia Conference (GCAC).

Students` Day & Career Fair:
The computer games industry offers a range of job opportunities complementing the current large demand for new talent. The Students' Day & Career Fair allow students to meet industry icons and attend talks and workshops on various aspects of game design. Access to the Students' Day is free of charge though registration is required.

The Public Exhibition:
Used for local and international companies introduce the latest games and products to the market over three days. The first day is dedicated to business visitors and media only. After debuting in 2007 with an attendance of 70,000 visitors, 92,000 visitors were welcomed at GCA 2008. Going beyond gaming, the GCA also features entertainment, media education and other events. The last day of the show focuses on families with the GCA Family Day.
GCA's public exhibition also includes a cosplay  competition. In 2008, the grand prize was a trip to BlizzCon 2008 in California. The cosplay competition for GCA 2009 is a qualifier to the Asia-Pacific Cosplay Competition in the G03 convention at Perth, Australia.

Games Convention Asia Conference (GCAC):
Held alongside the GCA. The conference is a set event with internationally known speakers and sponsors. In 2008, GCAC featured 75 speakers, many for the first time, including keynote speakers Michael De Plater of Ubisoft, Joonmo Kwon of Nexon, Peter Molyneux of Lionhead Studios and Cevat Yerli of Crytek.

The entire conference covers all aspects of the gaming industry and is divided into three main tracks: Art/Design, Business and Development and Production. Topics discussed include micro-transactions, outsourcing, pitching, cross-platform development and online mobile games.

It also contains the GCA Business Centre where industry participants present their companies and products. Here exhibitors, service providers, developers and journalists talk about trends, new products and business contacts. The Business Matchmaking tool is available for all participants of the GCA Business Centre and GCA Conference. It aims to support all attendees in initiating new business opportunities and closing deals. For this reason, professional attendees  can create a profile visible to other Matchmaking participants.

Meetings are held during the event within a designated business area in an informal environment.

 The 2009 GCAC will be hosting and Asia-Pacific centric D-I-C-E Summit as part of the convention's partnership with the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences.

Background
Founded in 2007, the GCA Games Convention Asia is a business platform for developers, publishers, distributors, manufacturers and service providers of the games industry in Singapore and the Asia-Pacific region. It focuses on interactive entertainment, infotainment, edutainment, hardware and the latest server technologies. Besides showcasing the latest in computer games and hardware, it also features information on the world of entertainment, media education and various stage events (e.g. Cosplay – Singapore Finals 2009).

The theme for the Games Convention Asia is 'Inspire Yourself'.

In 2008 the GCA attracted more than 92,000 visitors and 118 exhibitors on a total gross area of 7,500 sqm, in addition 630 delegates and 75 speakers took part at the GC Asia Conference.

2008 convention speakers

Peter Molyneux (Lionhead Studios, UK)
Cevat Yerli (Crytek, Germany)
Mario Wynands (Sidhe, New Zealand)
Tom Crago (Tantalus, Australia)
Allan Simonsen (Boomzap Entertainment/IGDA, Singapore)
Don Daglow (Independent, USA)
Joonmo Kwon (Nexon Corp/Nexon Mobile, South Korea)
James Gray (EA Mobile, UK)
Tom Felices (Nordic Game Program, Sweden)
Melissa Lee (Massive Black, USA)
Sean Kauppinen (International Digital Entertainment Agency, USA)
Alexander Fernandez (Streamline Studios, Netherlands)
Peter Paul Gadi (Anino Mobile, Philippines)
Bob Wallace (Strategic Alternatives, USA)
Feargus Carroll (Lucasfilm, Singapore)
Keith Liu (Nokia, Singapore)
Jason Della Rocca (IGDA, Canada)
Henry Jenkins III (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA)
Gary Mi (Radience, China)
Ragnar Tornquist (Funcom, Norway)
Arne Peters (cdv Entertainment, Germany)
Michel Kripalani (Autodesk, USA)
Garett Wiley (798 Group, China)
Chris Natsumme (Boomzap Entertainment, Singapore)
Maxime Villandre (Codemasters, Malaysia)
Kok Khwang Ng (Asiasoft, Singapore)

Full list of GCAC 2008 Speakers is available at the GCA website.

GCA 2010 cancelled
In March 2010, Leipziger Messe announced that due to the overall economic climate, it would not hold the convention in 2010. The company did not rule out returning to Asia with the convention, stating in a press release that they "will continue to keep an eye on the Asian games market".

References

External links
Official Games Convention Asia website
Official Leipziger Messe website
 Yahoo Games Coverage of Conference
GC Asia site
GCA 2009 Blog

Defunct gaming conventions
Video game trade shows
Recurring events established in 2007

GCA Games Convention Asia