The USA PATRIOT Act was passed by the United States Congress in 2001 as a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. It has ten titles, each containing numerous sections. Title III: International Money Laundering Abatement and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 is actually an act of Congress in its own right as well as being a title of the USA PATRIOT Act, and is intended to facilitate the prevention, detection and prosecution of international money laundering and the financing of terrorism.  The title's sections primarily amend portions of the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 and the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970.

The provisions of Title III are divided into three subtitles.  The first deals primarily with strengthening banking rules specifically against money laundering, especially on the international stage.  Communication between law enforcement agencies and financial institutions, as well as among institutions, is expanded by the second subtitle, which also increases record keeping and reporting requirements.  The final portion of the title deals with currency smuggling and counterfeiting, including quadrupling the maximum penalty for counterfeiting foreign currency.

Findings, purposes and review

Findings
The United States Congress found that money laundering "provides the financial fuel that permits transnational criminal enterprises to conduct and expand their operations to the detriment of the safety and security of American citizens" and that it is critical to the financing of global terrorism and terrorist attacks. Money laundering is used "as protective covering for the movement of criminal proceeds and the financing of crime and terrorism". Findings (4) and (5) state that:

certain jurisdictions outside of the United States that offer `offshore' banking and related facilities designed to provide anonymity, coupled with weak financial supervisory and enforcement regimes, provide essential tools to disguise ownership and movement of criminal funds, derived from, or used to commit, offenses ranging from narcotics trafficking, terrorism, arms smuggling, and trafficking in human beings, to financial frauds that prey on law-abiding citizens... [T]ransactions involving such offshore jurisdictions make it difficult for law enforcement officials and regulators to follow the trail of money earned by criminals, organized international criminal enterprises, and global terrorist organizations

Congress in particular noted that correspondent accounts are vulnerable to use by money launderers as it is easier to obscure the identities of the owners of such accounts than with other types of bank accounts, and that private banking services can be susceptible to manipulation by money launderers.

Congress also found that:

United States anti-money laundering efforts are impeded by outmoded and inadequate statutory provisions that make investigations, prosecutions, and forfeitures more difficult, particularly in cases in which money laundering involves foreign persons, foreign banks, or foreign countries

and

the ability to mount effective counter-measures to international money launderers requires national, as well as bilateral and multilateral action, using tools specially designed for that effort

Purposes
The purposes of the title are defined in section 302. It states that:

The purposes of this title are—

(1) to increase the strength of United States measures to prevent, detect, and prosecute international money laundering and the financing of terrorism;

(2) to ensure that--

(A) banking transactions and financial relationships and the conduct of such transactions and relationships, do not contravene the purposes of subchapter II of chapter 53 of title 31, United States Code, section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act, or chapter 2 of title I of Public Law 91-508 (84 Stat. 1116), or facilitate the evasion of any such provision; and

(B) the purposes of such provisions of law continue to be fulfilled, and such provisions of law are effectively and efficiently administered;

(3) to strengthen the provisions put into place by the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 (18 U.S.C. 981 note), especially with respect to crimes by non-United States nationals and foreign financial institutions;

(4) to provide a clear national mandate for subjecting to special scrutiny those foreign jurisdictions, financial institutions operating outside of the United States, and classes of international transactions or types of accounts that pose particular, identifiable opportunities for criminal abuse;

(5) to provide the Secretary of the Treasury (in this title referred to as the `Secretary') with broad discretion, subject to the safeguards provided by the Administrative Procedure Act under title 5, United States Code, to take measures tailored to the particular money laundering problems presented by specific foreign jurisdictions, financial institutions operating outside of the United States, and classes of international transactions or types of accounts;

(6) to ensure that the employment of such measures by the Secretary permits appropriate opportunity for comment by affected financial institutions;

(7) to provide guidance to domestic financial institutions on particular foreign jurisdictions, financial institutions operating outside of the United States, and classes of international transactions that are of primary money laundering concern to the United States Government;

(8) to ensure that the forfeiture of any assets in connection with the anti-terrorist efforts of the United States permits for adequate challenge consistent with providing due process rights;

(9) to clarify the terms of the safe harbor from civil liability for filing suspicious activity reports;

(10) to strengthen the authority of the Secretary to issue and administer geographic targeting orders, and to clarify that violations of such orders or any other requirement imposed under the authority contained in chapter 2 of title I of Public Law 91-508 and subchapters II and III of chapter 53 of title 31, United States Code, may result in criminal and civil penalties;

(11) to ensure that all appropriate elements of the financial services industry are subject to appropriate requirements to report potential money laundering transactions to proper authorities, and that jurisdictional disputes do not hinder examination of compliance by financial institutions with relevant reporting requirements;

(12) to strengthen the ability of financial institutions to maintain the integrity of their employee population; and

(13) to strengthen measures to prevent the use of the United States financial system for personal gain by corrupt foreign officials and to facilitate the repatriation of any stolen assets to the citizens of countries to whom such assets belong.
(Source: Wikisource)

Review
The Act has provisions to allow title III to expire after the first day of fiscal year 2005. The title would terminate if Congress enacted a joint resolution with the text after the resolving clause being:

That provisions of the International Money Laundering Abatement and Anti-Terrorist Financing Act of 2001, and the amendments made thereby, shall no longer have the force of law.

However, in 2005 no such joint resolution was made, and the title remains in effect to this day.

Subtitle A—International Counter Money Laundering and Related Measures

Subtitle A (titled "International Counter Money Laundering and Related Measures") is the first part of title III and is designed to put measures into place that counter international money laundering. It does this in several ways: it makes financial institutions undertake several new special measures against money laundering (identification is dealt with particularly); by restricting or prohibiting the use of certain types of bank accounts; through adding further legislation that regulates a financial institution's dealing with foreign concerns; by adding new penalties for corruption and through regulations that are designed to facilitate and encourage reporting and communication between financial institutions and the U.S. government.

Special measures
There are several sections that establish special measures that financial institutions must undertake. Section 311 requires the maintenance of records of the aggregate amount of all transactions that are made outside the U.S. in areas where money-laundering has been identified as a concern; that reasonable steps be undertaken by a financial institution to obtain and retain information on foreigners who gain a benefit of ownership of an account which is opened and maintained in the U.S., and yet who do not own the account itself (also known as beneficial ownership); and that the financial institution identify any foreign customers who are authorised to use or route transactions through a payable-through account in the U.S.. Section 314 adds regulations that attempt to foster cooperative efforts to deter money laundering. This was mainly done by ordering the U.S. Treasury and other agencies to create regulations that set out how information was to be shared, and by allowing financial institutions to share information with other financial institutions when so allowed by the Secretary of Treasury. Section 327 makes it harder for bank holding companies or banks  to merge or consolidate with another bank holding company if they have not got a good track record in combating money laundering activities, and also makes it harder for insured depository institutions to merge with non-insured depository institutions if the insured depository institution has a bad track record in combating money laundering activities. A number of sections (sections 312, 313, 319 and 325) deal with the forfeiture of goods if international terrorism or money laundering is suspected.

To deal with problems of identifying those who undertake money laundering activities, section 326 of the subtitle was designed to make it harder to mask the identity of individuals or groups who perform transactions or open accounts in the United States. Under this section, the Secretary of the Treasury was given the task of prescribing regulations that set forth the minimum standards that financial institutions must undertake to verify the identity of customers who open accounts. These rules became effective on June 9, 2003, although financial institutions had until October 1, 2003 to
come into compliance. The minimum requirements under the section require financial institutions to establish procedures to take reasonable and practicable measures to verify the identity of those applying for an account with the institution; maintain records of the information used to verify a person's identity, including name, address, and other identifying information; and to consult lists of known or suspected terrorists or terrorist organizations, provided to the financial institution by any government agency, to determine whether a person seeking to open an account appears on any such list. When prescribing the regulations, the Secretary was ordered to take into account the types of accounts available to financial institutions, the various methods someone can use to open accounts, and the various types of identifying information
available to the institutions.

Restrictions on accounts and foreign banks
Section 313 prohibits foreign shell banks that are not an affiliate of a bank that has a physical presence in the U.S. or that is not subject to supervision by a banking authority in a non-U.S. country regulating the affiliated depository institution, credit union, or foreign bank. The subtitle has several sections that prohibit or restrict the use of certain accounts held at financial institutions. Under section 312, financial institutions must undertake steps to identify the owners of any non-U.S. bank that is not publicly listed who have a correspondent account with them, along with the interests of each of the owners in the bank. It is expected that additional scrutiny will be applied by the U.S. institution to such banks to make sure they are not engaging in money laundering. They must also identify the nominal and beneficial owners of any private bank account opened and maintained in the U.S. by non-U.S. citizens and must undertake enhanced scrutiny of the account if it is owned by, or is being
maintained on behalf of, any senior political figure where there is reasonable suspicion of corruption. Under section 319 any deposits into foreign banks are also considered to have been deposited into any interbank account the foreign bank may have in the U.S. Thus any restraining order, seizure warrant or arrest warrant may be made against the funds in the interbank account held at a U.S. financial institution, up to the amount deposited in the account at the foreign bank.

Section 325 prohibits financial institutions from allowing clients to specifically direct transactions that move their funds into, out of, or through an internal bank concentration accounts — financial institutions are also prohibited from informing clients about the existence of such accounts and are not allowed to make any disclosure that may give customer a way of identifying such internal accounts. The section requires financial institutions to document and follow methods of identifying where the funds are for each customer in a concentration account that comingles funds belonging to one or more customers. The restrictions on concentration accounts were made because such accounts do not provide an effective audit trail for transactions, and this may be used to facilitate money laundering.

Actions on non-U.S. soil
A number of sections deal with actions taken on non-U.S. soil. Section 315 includes specific acts of unlawful activity in the definition of money laundering. These include making a financial transaction in the U.S. in order to commit a crime of violence; the bribery of public officials and fraudulent dealing with public funds; the smuggling or illegal export of controlled munitions; the importation or bringing in of any firearm or ammunition not
authorised by the U.S. Attorney General and the smuggling of any item controlled under the Export Administration Regulations. It also includes any offense where the U.S. would be obligated under a mutual treaty with a foreign nation to extradite a person, or where the U.S. would need to submit a case against a person for prosecution due to the treaty; the importation of falsely classified goods; computer crime; and any felony violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938. Section 320 allows the forfeiture of any property within the jurisdiction of the United States that was gained as the result of an offense against a foreign nation
that involves the manufacture, importation, sale, or distribution of a controlled substance. Section 323 amended the means by which a foreign nation may seek to have a forfeiture or judgement notification enforced by a district court of the United States  by adding a new paragraph that specifies how the U.S. government may apply for a restraining order to preserve the availability of property which is subject to a foreign forfeiture or confiscation judgement. A large emphasis is also placed on the ability of a foreign court to follow due process when considering an application for a forfeiture or confiscation judgement to be registered and enforced in the U.S. Section 328 requires the Secretary of Treasury to take all reasonable steps to encourage foreign governments to
require the inclusion of the name of the originator in wire transfer instructions sent to the United States and other countries, with the information to remain with the transfer from its origination until the point of disbursement. Under section 330 the Secretary is also ordered to encourage international cooperation in investigations of money laundering, financial crimes, and the finances of terrorist groups.

Corruption
Section 329 introduced criminal penalties for corrupt officialdom. An official or employee of the government who acts corruptly — as well as the person who induces the corrupt act — in the carrying out of their official duties will be fined by an amount that is not more than three times the monetary equivalent of the bribe in question. Alternatively they may be imprisoned for not more than 15 years, or they may be fined and imprisoned. Penalties apply to financial institutions who do not comply with an order to terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days of being so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury under Section 319. The financial institution can be fined $US10,000 for each day the account remains open after the 10-day limit has expired.

Subtitle B—Bank Secrecy Act Amendments and Related Improvements

Subtitle B largely modifies the Bank Secrecy Act in an attempt to make it harder for money launderers to operate, and to make it easier for law enforcement and regulatory agencies to police money laundering operations. The BSA was amended to allow the designated officer or agency who receives suspicious activity reports to notify U.S. intelligence agencies. It also addresses issues of record keeping and reporting by making it easier to undertake the reporting of suspicious transactions; by making it a requirement that financial institutions report suspicious transactions; through the creation of anti-money laundering programs and by better defining anti-money laundering strategy; and by making it a requirement that anyone who does business file a report for any coin and foreign currency receipts that are over US$10,000. The subtitle increases civil and criminal penalties for money laundering and introduces penalties for violations of geographic targeting orders and
certain recordkeeping requirements. Subtitle B also legislated for the creation of a secure network, improved protection of  U.S. Federal reserve banks and instructed United States Executive Directors of international financial institutions to support any country that has taken action to support the U.S.'s War on Terrorism.

Record keeping and reporting
A number of measures were taken to improve record keeping and reporting. Section 351 amended the BSA to give financial institutions legal immunity from liability for any disclosures of suspicious transactions or activities to appropriate authorities, or for failing to notify any person identified in such a disclosure, and prohibits this disclosure from being made public. The Federal Deposit Insurance Act was amended by section 355 to allow written employment references to contain suspicions of involvement in illegal activity in response to a request from another financial institution, but makes clear that it does not require the disclosure or shield from liability anyone who makes a disclosure that is found to have been made with malicious intent.

Section 356 made the U.S. Department of Treasury establish regulations that require brokers and dealers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 to submit Suspicious activity reports (SARs) when they see suspicious activity. Section 355 also specified that a report be produced jointly by the Secretary of Treasury, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, and the Securities and Exchange Commission with recommendations for effective regulations to apply the requirements of the BSA with regards to investment companies. After defining what was meant by "investment companies", the final report found that certain types of  investment companies were more susceptible to money laundering than other types of investment companies — in particular it found that mutual funds and hedge funds are most vulnerable,
and that closed-end funds, interval funds, commodity pools, private equity funds, venture capital funds and Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), for various reasons, were not as vulnerable to money laundering or particularly attractive to money launderers. The final conclusion FinCEN came to in the report was that as there were so many types of investment companies they should apply the same definition to all investment companies except commodity pools and those funds that only primarily invest in real estate. Due to the broad scope of such a definition it was further narrowed to those investment companies that permit an investor to redeem part of their investment within two years after the investment was made; exclude investment companies with less than US$1,000,000 in assets by the end of the calendar quarter; and exclude funds that were organised in the U.S., that are organised or sponsored by a U.S. person, or that sells ownership interest to U.S. people.

Section 359 brought Money Services Businesses (MSBs) — those who operate informal value transfer systems outside of the mainstream financial system — under the definition of a financial institution. This makes it easier for authorities to regulate and investigate anti-money laundering operations in this segment of the U.S. economy. A report was also ordered to determine whether additional legislation was required for MSBs, but this found that more legislation was not necessary. However, the report did find that law enforcement and regulatory communities should undertake a comprehensive program to enhance their knowledge concerning the range of mechanisms used in informal value transfer systems in order to better understand them and to determine whether they think that any additional legislation is needed.

Section 365 amends the BSA and makes it a requirement of anyone who does business file to file a report to FinCEN for any coin and foreign currency receipts that are over US$10,000. It also makes it illegal to structure transactions in a manner that evades the BSA's reporting requirements. Section 366 ordered a study into why there were too many Currency Transaction Reports (also known as CTRs). There were so many filed in the 2002 financial year (12.3 million were filed and only 118,678 CTR exemptions were made) that Congress was concerned that it was adversely affecting the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies. The study found that businesses were filing unnecessary reports for several reasons, and made various recommendations that might alleviate the problem. Among them, it recommends that FinCEN should work with the federal bank regulators, as well as banks, to reduce, as appropriate, fear of adverse regulatory consequences from making
incorrect exemption determinations, including issuing an Advisory encouraging the use of the exemption process.

Anti Money Laundering programs and strategy
Two sections in subtitle B deal with the U.S. government's anti-money laundering programs and strategy. The BSA was amended by section 352  to make financial institutions implement anti money laundering programs. Institutions must implement, at a minimum, the development of internal policies, procedures, and controls; the designation of a compliance officer; an ongoing employee training program; and an independent audit function to test programs. The Secretary of the Treasury is given authority to set minimum standards of these programs but may exempt from the application of those standards any financial institution that is not subject to the provisions of the rules contained in part 103 of title 31, of the Code of Federal Regulations. The section
also orders the Secretary of Treasury to produce regulations "commensurate with the size, location, and activities of the financial institutions to which such regulations apply". These regulations were jointly produced by FinCEN and U.S. Treasury as 31 C.F.R. 103.137 on December 5, 2001 and largely focus on requiring insurance companies to form anti-money laundering programs — depository institutions were not targeted because the Bank Secrecy Act already requires them to have anti-money laundering programs.

The BSA specifies that "the President, acting through the Secretary and in consultation with the Attorney General, shall develop a national strategy for combating money laundering and related financial crimes.". In the development of that strategy, the legislation gives a list of areas that address any area the President, acting through the Secretary and in consultation with the Attorney General, considers appropriate. Section 354 added a new area to be addressed in the strategy: "Data concerning money laundering efforts related to the funding of acts of international terrorism, and efforts directed at the prevention, detection, and prosecution of such funding".

Penalties
Section 353 increased civil and criminal penalties for violations of any orders made under the BSA. Civil and criminal penalties were also increased for violations of regulations prescribed under section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act and section 123 of Public Law 91-508. Section 123 of Public Law 91-508 specifies regulations that govern recordkeeping for uninsured banks or institutions, or any other institution defined in , while section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act specifies regulations that govern recordkeeping for insured depository institutions. The section also lengthens the effective period of geographic targeting orders from 60
days to 180 days.

Section 363 gave the Secretary of Treasury the authority to issue money penalties in an amount equal to not less than 2 times the amount of the transaction, but not more than US$500,000, on any financial institution or agency who commits a civil or criminal violation of International counter money laundering measures.

Secure network
Under section 362, the U.S. Secretary of Treasury was charged with establishing a highly secure network to allow financial reports required under the BSA, chapter 2 of Public Law 91-508 or section 21 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act to be filed electronically. The legislation also requires the secure network to send alerts and other information in relation to suspicious activities to financial institutions. The network was required to be finished within 9 months of the enactment of the Patriot Act. According to the testimony of Dennis Lormel, Chief of the Terrorist Financing Operations Section of the FBI's Counterterrorism Division, the USA Patriot Act Communication System was developed by FinCEN from such requirements.

Protection of Federal Reserve facilities
Under section 364 the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System are given authority to authorize personnel to act as law enforcement officers to protect the premises, grounds, property and personnel of any U.S. Federal reserve bank, as well as any operations conducted by or on behalf of the Board. The Board may also delegate this authority to a U.S. Federal reserve bank, so long as the reserve bank makes sure they follow the regulations proscribed by the Board and which are approved by the U.S. Attorney General. Law enforcement personnel are authorised to carry firearms and to make arrests for felonies committed while on the grounds or within the buildings of the Board or a reserve bank. Law enforcement officers must have successfully completed law enforcement training and be authorised to carry firearms and make arrests.

Other Bank Secrecy Act provisions
Several other BSA provisions were reviewed and amended. Section 357 specified that a report be made on the feasibility and necessity of shifting the processing of information that is reported to the Department of the Treasury (under the provisions of the BSA) to facilities other than those managed by the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The report concluded that in light of the expertise, resources and focus of the IRS, the IRS should continue to perform the information processing and examination functions, and that the IRS was in the best position to manage such processing due to their extensive experience and excellent track-record in administering the BSA since the 1970s.

Several amendments to the BSA were made under section 358. An amendment was made to allow a designated officer or agency who receives suspicious transaction reports to notify U.S. intelligence agencies. The stated purposes of the BSA, Section 123(a) of Public Law 91-508 and Section 21(a) of the Federal Deposit Insurance Act were amended to allow reports or records to be provided to agencies who conduct intelligence or counterintelligence activities, including analysis, in order to protect against international terrorism. It was also amended to direct the Secretary of Treasury to make available reports to agencies, U.S. intelligence, or self-regulatory organisations that are registered with the Securities and Exchange
Commission or the  Commodity Futures Trading Commission upon the request of the head of that agency or organisation. Exemptions for disclosure are made for circumstances covered under the Privacy Act of 1974.

Several similar amendments were also made to other Acts. An amendment was made to the Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978 to allow financial records obtained under the Act to be transferred to another agency if they are relevant to intelligence or counter-intelligence activities related to international terrorism. None of the special procedures spelt out in the Financial Privacy Act under section 1114 apply to U.S. government authorities who conduct investigations or intelligence or counter-intelligence activities in relation to domestic or international terrorism. Financial records that are obtained under a subpoena from a Federal grand jury can now also be used for the purposes of counter-terrorism The Fair Credit Reporting Act was amended to require consumer reporting agencies provide customer reports of a customer and all other
information in a customer's file available to a government agency that is authorised to conduct counter-terrorism activities when presented with a written certificate by the agency. The consumer agency may not disclose to anyone that they have provided such information to the agency who requested the information. The consumer reporting agency, and any employee of the agency, is given safe harbor for providing such information, if it can be proven that it was done in good faith.

Financial crimes enforcement network
FinCEN was made a bureau of the United States Department of Treasury. It spells out the duties of the director of the bureau and makes it the responsibility of the Secretary of the Treasury to establish and maintain operating procedures with respect to the government-wide data access service and the financial crimes communications center maintained by FinCEN.

Voice and vote
Under section 360, the United States President is given authority to instruct any United States Executive Directors of the international financial institutions (for example, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) to use their authority (termed "voice and vote") to support any loan or other utilization of the funds of respective institutions for countries that have shown to "take actions that contribute to efforts of the United States to respond to, deter, or prevent acts of international terrorism". The Secretary of Treasury is also given the authority to instruct the Executive Directors to aggressively use the voice and vote of the Executive Director to require an auditing of disbursements made from their institutions to ensure that no funds are paid to persons who commit, threaten to commit, or support terrorism.

Subtitle C—Currency Crimes and Protection
Subtitle C deals with a number of crimes relating to currency. It attempts to prevent bulk cash smuggling and allows for forfeiture in currency reporting cases. It also introduces a number of measures to deal with counterfeiting. the BSA was amended to clarify extraterritorial jurisdiction matters.

Bulk cash smuggling into or out of the United States
Under section 371 of the Patriot Act, Congress found that currency reporting under the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) was significant in forcing money launders to avoid traditional financial institutions to launder money and had forced them to use cash-based businesses to avoid traditional financial institutions. Due to this avoidance, large amounts of currency in bulk form (bank notes, etc.) is now moved out of the U.S. by money launderers and into foreign financial institutions or sold on the black market. In fact, bulk currency was found to have become the most popular form of money laundering for moving large amounts of cash in an evasive manner. Due to this finding, a new effort was made to stop the laundering of money through bulk currency movements, mainly focusing on the confiscation of criminal proceeds and the increase in penalties for money laundering. Congress found that a criminal offense of merely evading the reporting of money transfers was insufficient and decided that it
would be better if the smuggling of the bulk currency itself was the offense.

Therefore, a new section was appended to the BSA that made it a criminal offense to evade currency reporting by concealing more than US$10,000 on any person or through any luggage, merchandise or other container that moves into or out of the U.S.. The penalty for such an offense is up to 5 years imprisonment and the forfeiture of any property up to the amount that was being smuggled. The procedures that cover the seizure and forfeiture of such property are specified under section 413 of the Controlled Substances Act. If the defendant has insufficient assets to allow the court to seize enough substitute property to cover the amount being smuggled, then the court is authorized to make a personal money judgement up to the amount to be forfeited.

Forfeiture in currency reporting cases
The BSA was amended by section 372 of the Patriot Act to make the civil and criminal penalty violations of currency reporting cases be the forfeiture of all a defendant's property that was involved in the offense, and any property traceable to the defendant.

Illegal money transmitting businesses
Section 1960 of title 18 of the United States Code, was amended by section 373 of the Patriot Act. Previously it prohibited and penalized illegal money transmitting businesses, but it now prohibits and gives similar penalties for unlicensed money transmitting businesses. This section was used to prosecute Yehuda Abraham for helping to arrange money transfers for British arms dealer Hermant Lakhani, who was arrested in August 2003 after being caught in a government sting. Lakhani had tried to sell a missile to an FBI agent posing as a Somali militant.

Counterfeiting domestic and foreign currency and obligations
Due to section 374 of the Patriot Act, the definition of domestic counterfeiting now encompasses analog, digital, or electronic image reproductions and the penalties are set out in various parts of the U.S. Code. Penalties for domestic counterfeiting were increased to 20 years imprisonment for the counterfeiting of obligations or securities, and also for passing off counterfeited currency. It also makes it an offense to own an analog, digital, or electronic image of any obligation or other security of the United States, to make an impression of tools that are used to make such an obligation or possess or sell impressions of tools used for obligations or securities. The penalties for such violations of the law are severe: offenders will be imprisoned for up to 25 years. The law also considers
connecting parts of different notes to be a counterfeiting offense, and the Patriot Act increased the penalty from 5 years imprisonment to 10 years. The Act also increases the penalty from 5 years imprisonment to 10 years for counterfeiting bonds and obligations of certain domestic lending agencies.

Similar changes were made under section 375 to foreign obligations and currency. Previously, penalties for counterfeiting the bonds, certificates, obligations, or other securities of a foreign nation were a maximum five years of imprisonment. This was changed to 20 years in jail. Penalties for uttering counterfeit foreign obligations or securities were also extended from 5 years imprisonment to 20 years. A penalty was added to  for those who manufacture or own plates, stones, or analog, digital, or electronic images for counterfeiting foreign obligations or securities, and the penalties for violating the section was extended from five years to 20 years imprisonment. Anyone caught manufacturing or uttering foreign bank notes will  be penalised with 20 years imprisonment.

Laundering the proceeds of terrorism
Section 376 modified , which makes unlawful the laundering of monetary instruments, to include the provision of material support or resources to designated foreign terrorist organizations in its definition of "unlawful activity".

Extraterritorial jurisdiction
The U.S. Code was amended by section 377. This now states that anybody who undertakes a fraudulent action, and anyone who conspires with that person, outside the jurisdiction of the United States which would be an offense in the U.S. will be prosecuted under , which deals with fraud and related activity in connection with access devices. This only applies if
 the offense involves an access device issued, owned, managed, or controlled by a financial institution, account issuer, credit card system member, or other entity within the jurisdiction of the United States;
 and the person transports, delivers, conveys, transfers to or through, or otherwise stores, secrets, or holds within the jurisdiction of the United States, any article used to assist in the commission of the offense or the proceeds of such offense or property derived therefrom.

Further reading

 Bruce G. Leto, Bibb L. Strench and Thomas R. Phillips (of Stradley Ronon Stevens & Young, LLP) "Anti-Money Laundering Initiatives Under the USA Patriot Act". Findlaw.com
 Raymond Banoun, Derrick Cephas, Lawrence D. Fruchtman (of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft) "USA Patriot Act and Other Recent Money Laundering Developments Have Broad Impact on Financial Institutions". Social Science Research Network.
 Joseph B. Tompkins Jr. (of Sidley Austin Brown & Wood LLP). "The impact of the USA PATRIOT Act on non-U.S. banks". International Monetary Fund.

Notes

Title III
Money laundering
Terrorism laws in the United States

Title III of the Patriot Act


The Hvar rebellion () (1510–1514) was a popular uprising of the people and citizens of the Dalmatian island of Hvar on the Adriatic Sea against the island's nobility and their Venetian masters. It began on the island's largest city, also called Hvar, but spread to the entire island.

Background

The Venetian Republic ruled Dalmatia and its majority Croatian population since 1420 and appointed a Venetian noble (called Count) to head the city communes, thus removing the most important autonomous right of the local population. The local noble councils of the cities, however, still held authority in governing most local matters.

As early as the 15th century, the citizens of the city of Hvar formed the so-called citizen's councils and demanded some government offices as well as authority in the government. The blunt refusal of these repeated demands was the first cause that sparked the rebellion. The second was the appalling behavior of noblemen towards the citizen's women, which included rape. Their husbands and fathers were unable to prevent or punish the offenders. Another cause was the rise of wealthy citizens' families that desired greater influence.

In order to secure their power, local nobles instituted a law which prohibited the election into the ruling council of anyone whose father or grandfather was not its member. This legalized oligarchy proclaimed itself a god's institution, and passed criminal laws that greatly discriminated the ordinary citizens. The nobility went by the Medieval principle of intimidation, by which ordinary people were more likely to commit crimes, and that evil people, who were going to commit them anyway, could only be intimidated into obedience. This made it seem as though all ordinary citizens were potentially evil, and should be treated with that in mind. The legal discrimination was another deciding factor in the Rebellion.

Rebellion
The immediate cause for the uprising was the inhumane behavior of several of the nobles, which included rape of the citizens' women. An all-out revolt quickly gripped the island, led by Matija Ivanić, a prominent citizen of Hvar. With a contingent of armed citizens, Ivanić broke into the city and attacked the nobles. He executed some and burnt their houses, while incarcerating others. He demanded of the Hvar Prince equality in taxation and criminal law.

Having gathered 2,000 armed men and 30 galleys for patrolling the coast and preventing the escape of the nobles to Venice, he took control of the island. In the second year he issued a demand to the Venetian Republic, asking for permission to hold a council of all classes in Hvar to create a more just government. The letter held 20 seals and signatures with 60 more prominent citizens voicing their support. At the same time, the citizens accused the nobles of injustices and demanded their punishment.

At the beginning of the conflict, the Venetians kept an appearance of neutrality, probably due to their war against the League of Cambrai. They invited both sides to Venice; failing that, and due to the rebellion's significant impact on the whole of Dalmatia, the Venetians decided to energetically pursue its conclusion. Giovanni Navagero (Zuane Navaiero in Venetian) was consequently sent to Hvar, where he succeeded in pacifying the uprising in 1511 by unknown means, while the rebels still held control over the island and did not allow the nobles to return.

However, by the end of the same year, there was unrest again against the Venetians in the whole of Dalmatia, which threatened to spread. Therefore, Venice sent Sebastiano Giustiniani, from the Giustiniani family, to Hvar in 1512, and he tried to quell the uprising by brute force. He terrorized the citizens under his control, sentenced 69 to exile, and offered a bounty of 400 ducats on Matija Ivanić's head. He was thwarted, though, by a decisive defeat of his troops at the hands of Ivanić's forces near Jelsa, another town on the island. Sebastiano Giustiniani (Sebastian Justiniano in Venetian) was recalled, but the Venetians dispatched 15 war galleys under the command of Vincenzo Capello to end the rebellion.

Upon his arrival, Capello managed to destroy all armed galleys of the rebels by October 1514, overcoming their land forces only after a prolonged struggle. Subsequently, he hanged 19 leaders of the rebellion on his flagship, and cut off one hand and eye of 10 others.

The Hvar Rebellion was destroyed, while Matija Ivanić managed to escape the island and leave Venetian lands. He tried to return to Hvar several times without success, and later moved to Italy to the town of Vieste, where he is mentioned in sources for the last time around 1519. The struggle for the citizens' equality was continued by non-violent means by his son, Ivan Ivanić, and his offspring.

See also
Croatian-Slovenian peasant revolt
History of Dalmatia
Padaj silo i nepravdo

References

Further reading

External links
 Hvar rebellion led by Matija Ivanić was brutally put down by the Venetian Republic

Rebellions in Croatia
16th century military history of Croatia
1510s conflicts
Hvar
Venetian Dalmatia
16th-century rebellions
1510s in Europe
1510 in Europe
Rebellions against the Republic of Venice
16th century in the Republic of Venice
Rebellion

Hvar rebellion


High We Exalt Thee, Realm of the Free je himna Sijera Leonea.

Himnu je napisao Clifford Nelson Fyle, a skladao John Akar. Prihvaćena je kao nacionalna himna 1961. godine, kada je zemlja postala neovisna i zamijenila je dosadašnju britansku himnu God Save the Queen. Ustav Sijera Leonea iz 1991., traži odgovornost svakoga građanina Sijera Leonea u vezi "poštivanja ideala i institucija", uključujući i nacionalnu himnu.

Tekst himne na engleskom jeziku
High we exalt thee, realm of the free;
Great is the love we have for thee;
Firmly united ever we stand,
Singing thy praise, O native land.
We raise up our hearts and our voices on high,
The hills and the valleys re-echo our cry;
Blessing and peace be ever thine own,
Land that we love, our Sierra Leone.

One with a faith that wisdom inspires,
One with a zeal that never tires;
Ever we seek to honour thy name,
Ours is the labour, thine the fame.
We pray that no harm on thy children may fall,
That blessing and peace may descend on us all;
So may we serve thee ever alone,
Land that we love, our Sierra Leone.

Knowledge and truth our forefathers spread,
Mighty the nations whom they led;
Mighty they made thee, so too may we
Show forth the good that is ever in thee.
We pledge our devotion, our strength and our might,
Thy cause to defend and to stand for thy right;
All that we have be ever thine own,
Land that we love, our Sierra Leone.

Državni simboli Sijera Leonea
Državne himne

High We Exalt Thee, Realm of the Free


Mamie Smith (born Mamie Robinson; May 26, 1883 – September 16, 1946) was an American vaudeville singer, dancer and pianist. She appeared in several movies. She performed many musical genres, including blues and jazz. She became the first African American singer to make vocal blues recordings in the early 1920s. Her movies included Jailhouse Blues in 1929 and Paradise in Harlem ten years after that.

Smith was born in Cincinnati, Ohio. She died at age sixty-three in 1946.

American movie actors
Singers from Cincinnati
Actors from Cincinnati
1883 births
1946 deaths

Mamie Smith


Robert Strange McNamara (June 9, 1916 - July 6, 2009) was an American business executive and former United States Secretary of Defense. After being an executive at Ford Motor Company, McNamara served as Defense Secretary from 1961 to 1968, during the Vietnam War under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson. After holding that position he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 until 1981. He was of Irish ancestry on his father's side.

Early life
McNamara was born in San Francisco into an Irish family. He graduated from high school in 1933. McNamara was an Eagle Scout. He went to the University of California, Berkeley where he got a degree in economics. He went to Harvard University for his MBA. After a short time working as an accountant he taught at Harvard. He married his high school sweetheart, Margaret Craig, in 1940. In 1943 he joined the Air Force. During the war, he looked at how effficent bombers were working and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel. For his service in World War II, he was given the Legion of Merit.

Business Career at Ford
In 1946 McNamara got together with Charles "Tex" Thornton and eight other people who, like Thornton, he knew from the military and went into business. The group was hired by Ford Motor Company, which was going through a difficult time. This group was known as the "Whiz Kids". The Whiz Kids made changes to the company that led to it becoming more profitable and its cars getting better reviews and better sales. He rose through the company fast. In 1960 he became the President of Ford. He helped launch several successful models, like the Lincoln Continental and the Ford Falcon and put in some of the first modern safety features to be seen in cars.

Secretary of Defense
In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president. After he asked Robert A. Lovett to be his Defense Secretary, Lovett said no but recommended McNamara. McNamara was considered for both the Defense and Treasury Secretaries even though he was (and was for his entire life) a member of the Republican Party (Kennedy was a Democrat). He wasn't interested in being Treasury Secretary but eventually decided to be Kennedy's Secretary of Defense.

McNamara was known for using statistics to make decisions about the military and to make it more efficient. He tried to cut down on wasteful spending, often by merging programs into more efficient single ones. He also worked to end discrimination based on race and sex in the US Military. While in Kennedy's cabinet, he became good friends with Robert F. Kennedy, the Attorney General at the time (and brother of the president). McNamara was a big supporter of the space program and was one of the first people in government to suggest going to the moon. He wrote a recommendation to Kennedy in 1961 in support of a moon mission. Kennedy made the moon mission a priority for NASA, and the US went to the moon for the first time in 1969.

McNamara ended the "Massive Retaliation" policy that came from the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower. Instead, McNamara put in place "flexible response" which allowed more options for defending the US. President Kennedy very much wanted to fight communist revolutions and wars to stop Soviet power from spreading, and McNamara supported this. He also played a big role in peacefully ending the Cuban Missile Crisis. He advised Kennedy to blockade Cuba and stop the Soviet Union from putting more missiles there. Kennedy agreed and their strategy worked.

John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. His successor, Lyndon Johnson, kept McNamara as Defense Secretary. He became a major leader of the Vietnam war, and he and General William Westmoreland were the two biggest leaders in the American military during the war. In order to stop the communists from taking over Vietnam, McNamara sent more troops to the country. Over a number of years this stopped the North Vietnamese Army from winning the war, but as large amounts of American soldiers were killed the war became very unpopular with the people. He and the president strongly disagreed on troop levels - McNamara wanted to stop the increase in troops but Johnson wanted to send more over. McNamara resigned from the Defense Department in 1968. Johnson did not run for reelection that year and the election was won by Richard Nixon, who ran on a promise to end the war. Nixon signed a peace treaty in 1973, but the North Vietnamese would eventually win the war after the US pulled out.

Responsibility for the way the US fought the war
McNamara shifted control of the war from commanders in the field to management experts in Washington. He did this by collecting data of different kinds, but also by appointing General Westmoreland as commander of the forces in Vietnam.
"The stakes in Vietnam were high... at risk was the intensely sensitive calculation of US troop-strength requirements in Vietnam".
For McNamara's "manager" in Vietnam, General Westmoreland, the key numbers were the "cross-over point"... when NVA/VC losses in South Vietnam... would be greater than the NVA's ability to replace those losses''.

As we now know, the US forces were gradually getting on top, when a mixup in intelligence failed to warn them of a big NVA offensive. The famous surprise Tet Offensive of the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) was reported by the press in the US as a serious defeat for the US, when in fact it was a considerable success: the NVA had suffered huge casualties.
"The Tet Offensive was the decisive battle of the Vietnam War... General Giap [NVA] won the battle where it counted most--not in South Vietnam but in the hearts and minds of the American people".

"A disillusioned Robert McNamara resigned, unable to come to terms with the failure of his methods and his own responsibilty for the war".

Later career
After leaving the Defense Department, McNamara received the Medal of Freedom, published a book, and was hired as President of the World Bank. In 1972 he was in the news when a man saw him on a ferry boat in Massachusetts and tried to throw him in the ocean. McNamara told police not to press charges. While at the World Bank he focused on reducing world poverty. He was the first World Bank leader to make this the organization's top priority and he was often praised for this. McNamara also helped the World Bank fight disease. He retired from the World Bank in 1981.

He wrote a memoir in 1995. McNamara enjoyed food and cooking, and started an orchard business in his retirement. A movie was released made of interviews and clips about McNamara in 2003 called the Fog of War. He was a trustee of the California Institute of Technology and the Brookings Institution. There is a scholarship of the World Bank in his honor.

In his later list McNamara said that he and the Kennedy and Johnson administrations "were wrong" about Vietnam. He said if he had known in the 1960s what he knows now he would've made a different decision.

McNamara died in Washington DC in 2009. He was 93 when he died. He is buried at the Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

References

Republican Party (United States) politicians
Businesspeople from San Francisco
Politicians from San Francisco
United States Secretaries of Defense
World Bank
1916 births
2009 deaths
Presidents of the World Bank Group

Robert McNamara


Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity is a rule based on observation of atomic spectra, which is used to predict the ground state of an atom or molecule with one or more open electronic shells. The rule states that for a given electron configuration, the lowest energy term is the one with the greatest value of spin multiplicity. This implies that if two or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will occupy them singly before filling them in pairs. The rule, discovered by Friedrich Hund in 1925, is of important use in atomic chemistry, spectroscopy, and quantum chemistry, and is often abbreviated to Hund's rule, ignoring Hund's other two rules.

Atoms
The multiplicity of a state is defined as 2S + 1, where S is the total electronic spin. A high multiplicity state is therefore the same as a high-spin state. The lowest-energy state with maximum multiplicity usually has unpaired electrons all with parallel spin. Since the spin of each electron is 1/2, the total spin is one-half the number of unpaired electrons, and the multiplicity is the number of unpaired electrons + 1. For example, the nitrogen atom ground state has three unpaired electrons of parallel spin, so that the total spin is 3/2 and the multiplicity is 4.

The lower energy and increased stability of the atom arise because the high-spin state has  unpaired electrons of parallel spin, which must reside in different spatial orbitals according to the Pauli exclusion principle. An early but incorrect explanation of the lower energy of high multiplicity states was that the different occupied spatial orbitals create a larger average distance between electrons, reducing electron-electron repulsion energy. However, quantum-mechanical calculations with accurate wave functions since the 1970s have shown that the actual physical reason for the increased stability is a decrease in the screening of electron-nuclear attractions, so that the unpaired electrons can approach the nucleus more closely and the electron-nuclear attraction is increased.

As a result of Hund's rule, constraints are placed on the way atomic orbitals are filled in the ground state using the Aufbau principle. Before any two electrons occupy an orbital in a subshell, other orbitals in the same subshell must first each contain one electron. Also, the electrons filling a subshell will have parallel spin before the shell starts filling up with the opposite spin electrons (after the first orbital gains a second electron). As a result, when filling up atomic orbitals, the maximum number of unpaired electrons (and hence maximum total spin state) is assured.

For example, in the oxygen atom, the 2p4 subshell arranges its electrons as [↑↓] [↑] [↑] rather than [↑↓] [↑] [↓] or [↑↓] [↑↓][ ]. The manganese (Mn) atom has a 3d5 electron configuration with five unpaired electrons all of parallel spin, corresponding to a 6S ground state. The superscript 6 is the value of the multiplicity,  corresponding to five unpaired electrons with parallel spin in accordance with Hund's rule.

An atom can have a ground state with two incompletely filled subshells which are close in energy. The lightest example is the chromium (Cr) atom with a 3d54s electron configuration. Here there are six unpaired electrons all of parallel spin for a 7S ground state.

Molecules
Although most stable molecules have closed electron shells, a few have unpaired electrons for which Hund's rule is applicable. The most important example is the dioxygen molecule, O2, which has two degenerate pi antibonding molecular orbitals (π*) occupied by only two electrons. In accordance with Hund's rule, the ground state is triplet oxygen with two unpaired electrons in singly occupied orbitals. The singlet oxygen state with one doubly occupied and one empty π* is an excited state with different chemical properties and greater reactivity than the ground state.

Exception
 In 2004, researchers reported the synthesis of 5-dehydro-m-xylylene (DMX), the first organic molecule known to violate Hund's rule.

See also
 Hund's rules (includes this plus 2 other rules)
 High spin metal complexes

References

External links
A glossary entry hosted on the web site of the Chemistry Department of Purdue University

Quantum chemistry
Rules

Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity


Tamesna is a new ceety creatit atween Rabat, Temara, Skhirat an Ain Aouda, in Morocco. The idea became offeecial on Julie 22, 2004.

The goal is tae relieve Rabat o its growin urbanization. The new ceety will hae access tae the Casablanca-Rabat expressway, as well as opportunity for better plannin o infrastructur.

It is being planned jointly atween the Keeng o Morocco an mony private developers frae several kintras. Mony Moroccan ceeties are owercroudit an Tamesna will provide hoosin for the new middle classes o the aurie, wi modren accommodation an muckle needit licht industry an commercial auries. Tamesna  will hae mony pairks an green auries. Ane o the developments being planned is Les Collines, which is a JV atween Mandarine Holdings an the Moroccan govrenment, an will provide 1, 2 an 3 bedroom apairtments in 12 blocks close the pairk an commercial an shoppin auries.

References

Populatit places in Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer
New touns
New Urbanism commonties
Rabat

Tamesna


Aziyadé (1879; also known as Constantinople) is a novel by French author Pierre Loti. Originally published anonymously, it was his first book, and along with Le Mariage de Loti (1880, also published anonymously), would introduce the author to the French public and quickly propel him to fame; because of this, his anonymous persona did not last long.

Aziyadé is semi-autobiographical, based on a diary Loti kept during a three-month period as a French Naval officer in Greece and Constantinople (now Istanbul) in the fall and winter of 1876. It tells the story of the 27-year-old Loti's illicit love affair with an 18-year-old "Circassian" harem girl named Aziyadé. Although Aziyadé was one of many conquests in the exotic romantic's life, she was his greatest love, and he would wear a gold ring with her name on it for the rest of his life. Forming a love triangle, the book also describes Loti's "friendship" with a Spanish man servant named Samuel, for which most critics believe, based on Loti's diary entries, that some sort of homosexual affair occurred (indeed some believe Aziyadé never existed and the entire work is a cover for a homosexual love story, however others say the evidence for Aziyadé's existence seems overwhelming, (See Blanch)). It also describes Loti's love affair with Turkish culture which became a central part of his "exotica" persona.

The only known English translation is by Marjorie Laurie which can be found in many editions, no longer in copyright; however, some of the parts have been sanitized regarding harem life, prostitution and homosexuality. The original French first edition is very rare and has become a highly prized collectors item.

Resources
Lesley Blanch (1983). Pierre Loti: the legendary romantic. Chapters 6 to 8. (Republished as Pierre Loti: Travels with the Legendary Romantic. Tauris, 2004. .)
Richard M. Berrong. "Portraying male same-sex desire in nineteenth-century French literature: Pierre Loti's Aziyadé", College Literature, Fall 1998.

1879 French novels
French autobiographical novels
Novels by Pierre Loti
Fiction set in 1876
Novels set in Greece
Novels set in Istanbul
Works published anonymously

Aziyadé


Winx Club is an Italian/American animated TV show made by Rainbow SpA and Nickelodeon. It is about six fictional fairies named Bloom, Stella, Flora, Musa, Tecna, and Aisha. In the episodes of the series, the girls have to fight lots of different enemies, such as witches and fairy hunters. Together with their school's principal, Miss Faragonda, they learn to use their magical powers and defeat their enemies.

Plot
In the beginning of the season, Bloom, a normal girl from Earth, lives a normal life with her parents and her pet bunny, Kiko. But one day, she walks in on a fight between an ogre and a fairy. After she helps the fairy defeat the ogre, the fairy tells Bloom that her name is Stella. Bloom goes with Stella to the Alfea college for fairies in the enchanted realm of Magix. There, she meets three other fairies, Flora, Musa, and Tecna. The five girls form the Winx Club. Early in the season, they also meet four guys from another school, Redfountain. These guys, called Specialists, are named Sky, Brandon, Riven, and Timmy. They also meet their enemies of the season, Icy, Darcy, and Stormy, three witches who call themselves the Trix. The Trix go to a school for witches called Cloudtower. Late in the season, the Trix steal Bloom's power, the Dragon's Flame, and use it to summon the Army of Darkness. By the end of the season, Bloom gets her powers back and the Winx girls defeat the Trix, saving Magix. Bloom wears a teal sleeveless cropped sweatshirt with dark blue trim, a pale yellow short-sleeve shirt underneath, blue slightly flared jeans that have stars on the bottom of the legs, and yellow wedge-sandals over the instep.

Season two
In this season, the Winx Club fairies go back to Alfea college for their second year. A new fairy named Aisha joins the team after escaping from Lord Darkar, the enemy of the season. Lord Darkar wants to find the four pieces of something called the Codex. The Codex can open the realm of Realix, where a large amount of power can be found. The Trix, now expelled from Cloudtower and stuck in the Fortress of Light, team up with Darkar. During the season, the Winx girls and Specialists try and fail to protect the four pieces of the Codex. Late in the season, Bloom gets turned evil by Darkar and exposes Alfea's piece of the Codex. During the season, the Winx also earn something called the Charmix, small pins and bags that increase a fairy's power greatly. In the final episode, the Winx and Specialists defeat Darkar and save Magix once again. New to the season are pixies, very small creatures that often bond with fairies. Helia also joins the Specialists and becomes Flora's boyfriend. By the end of the season, Bloom is Sky's girlfriend, Stella is Brandon's, and Tecna is Timmy's. Musa and Riven have also gotten closer.

Season three
The Winx return to Alfea for their third year of school, where they find out they must earn their Enchantix this year. The Trix are sent to the Omega Dimension for teaming up with Lord Darkar, but they escape with the help of Valtor. Valtor is a sorcerer who destroyed Bloom's planet, Domino, and got sent to the Omega Dimension for his crimes. Through the season, the Winx girls earn their Enchantix one by one, and Valtor grows more powerful as he steals spells from planets. Late in the season, Valtor releases the Spell of the Elements and almost destroys Magix and the three schools. Bloom manages to defeat Valtor from within, saving the universe.Icy do seem to have a crush on Valtor but she remains to keep that secret.

Season four
After they graduate, the Winx return to Alfea as teachers of a class called "Winxology." However, four men, Ogron, Anagan, Gantlos, and Duman, called the Wizards of the Black Circle show up and try to kidnap Bloom, thinking she is the last Earth fairy. They fail because, since Bloom is really from Domino, there is one last fairy on Earth. The Winx decide to go to Earth to find and protect the last fairy. Soon after they get to Earth, they open a fairy pet shop called Love&Pet, where they sell small magical pets with wings. Flora made the pets from stuffed animals. The Winx find the last fairy, Roxy, then earn their Believix after Roxy believed in fairies. Through the first half of the season, the Winx and Roxy battle against the Wizards. In episode 12, Roxy transforms into her fairy form after Gantlos insults her dog, Artu. In episode 13, so many humans begin believing in magic that the Winx become much more powerful and the Wizards are greatly weakened. In the second half of the season, the Winx go to an island called Tir Nan Og and release the Earth fairies trapped there. Once free, the Earth fairies turn on the humans and Wizards, wanting revenge. Through the second half of the season, the Winx have to face several major Earth fairies. Late in the season, they earn their Sophix and Lovix, two power-ups to Believix. In the final episode, the Winx, Roxy, and the Earth fairies join forces to defeat the Wizards, freezing them in a block of ice in the Omega Dimension. Near the end of the season, Roxy learns that Morgana, Queeen of the Earth fairies, is her mother.

Season five

Season six

Season seven

Season eight

Characters
Bloom is the leader of the Winx Club. She is the Fairy of the Dragon Flame, with red hair and powers that come from fire. She comes from a planet called Domino, but she grew up on Earth. She is the most powerful member of the team. Her boyfriend is Sky, a blond-haired fighter. Most of Bloom's outfits are blue.

Stella is the oldest fairy in the Winx Club. She is the Fairy of the Shining Sun and has blonde hair. She comes from a planet called Solaria. Her boyfriend is Brandon, Sky's bodyguard. Stella is a designer and likes to make clothes for the Winx. Most of Stella's outfits are orange.

Flora is the shy Fairy of Nature. She has light brown hair and powers that come from plants. She comes from a planet called Lynphea. Her boyfriend is Helia, a black-haired artist. Flora is very kind and has a quiet voice. Most of Flora's outfits are pink.

Musa is the Fairy of Music. She has black hair and loves to sing. She comes from a planet called Melody. Her boyfriend is Riven, who is sometimes rude to Musa. Musa and Riven have broken up a few times. Most of Mesa's outfits are red.

Tecna is the Fairy of Technology. She has pink hair and likes to work with machines. She comes from a planet called Zenith. Her boyfriend is Timmy, a very smart boy with glasses. Most of Tecna's outfits are purple.

Aisha is a fairy who joins the Winx Club in Season 2. She is the Fairy of Waves, with dark brown hair and powers that come from water. She comes from a planet called Andros. Her boyfriend was Nabu, a wizard from Andros, until he died in Season 4. Aisha later gets a new boyfriend named Nex. She is an athlete who likes to play sports. Most of Aisha's outfits are colors of the ocean: teal, purple, or green.

The Trix are a group of three witches from a college called Cloud Tower. They are named Icy, Darcy, and Stormy. Icy has powers that come from ice, Darcy has powers that come from darkness, and Stormy has powers that come from the weather.

Roxy is the youngest and weakest fairy. She first appears in Season 4. Roxy is the Fairy of Animals and has straight purple hair. She is a stubborn tomboy who likes helping all animals in her city, even bugs. She comes from Earth and does not have a boyfriend.

Daphne is Bloom's older sister. She is a nymph from Domino. Her husband is Thoren. Until Season 5, Daphne was a spirit without a real body, since she had been under a curse.

Sources

2000s American animated television series
Italian animated television series
2004 American television series debuts
Nicktoons
Nickelodeon television series

Winx Club


Mars 7 (), also known as 3MP No.51P was a Soviet spacecraft launched in 1973 to explore Mars. A 3MP bus spacecraft which comprised the final mission of the Mars programme, it consisted of a lander and a coast stage with instruments to study Mars as it flew past. Due to a malfunction, the lander failed to perform a maneuver necessary to enter the Martian atmosphere, missing the planet and remaining in heliocentric orbit along with the coast stage.

Spacecraft
Mars 7 spacecraft carried an array of instruments to study Mars. The lander was equipped with a thermometer and barometer to determine the surface conditions, an accelerometer and radio altimeter for descent, and instruments to analyse the surface material including a mass spectrometer. The coast stage, or bus, carried a magnetometer, plasma traps, cosmic ray and micrometeoroid detectors, stereo antennae, and an instrument to study proton and electron fluxes from the Sun.

Built by Lavochkin, Mars 7 was the second of two 3MP spacecraft launched to Mars in 1973, having been preceded by Mars 6. Two orbiters, Mars 4 and Mars 5, were launched earlier in the 1973 Mars launch window and were expected to relay data for the two landers. However, Mars 4 failed to enter orbit, and Mars 5 failed after a few days in orbit.

Launch
Mars 7 was launched by a Proton-K carrier rocket with a Blok D upper stage, flying from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 81/24. The launch occurred at 17:00:17 UTC on 9 August 1973, with the first three stages placing the spacecraft and upper stage into a low Earth parking orbit before the Blok D fired to propel Mars 7 into heliocentric orbit bound for Mars. The spacecraft performed a course correction on 16 August 1973.

Mars 7's lander separated from the flyby bus on 9 March 1974. Initially, it failed to separate. However, it was eventually released to begin its descent. Due to a retrorocket failure, the probe missed the atmosphere of Mars, and, instead of landing, flew past along with the coast stage, with a closest approach of . Known faults with the spacecraft's transistors were blamed for the failure, along with that of Mars 4.

See also
 List of missions to Mars
 Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes

References

Spacecraft launched in 1973
1973 in spaceflight
1973 in the Soviet Union
Mars program
Derelict satellites in heliocentric orbit
4MV

Mars 7


Air travel is the process of going from place to place by any flying object, such as airplanes, helicopters, balloons, or anything that can fly.

Air travel has been a very long dream of human beings from the ancient age. People seeing birds flying tried to take flight in many ways. At the end of the 18th century they made balloons, and at the beginning of the 20th they made machines that could fly. Air travel has made travel much faster. Today we can think of going around the world in 24 hours, which was never possible with any other type of transport.

Today air travel is a normal way to travel, for pleasure, personal need or business.

Air travel can be broadly put into two groups; domestic flights, and international flights. Air travel within a country are called domestic flights. Most countries have domestic airlines to provide this service. Air travel across the borders of countries are called international flights. Long distance air travel is mostly international.

Related pages
 Airline
 Airport

Air travel


Phlegon of Tralles ( Flegon o Trallianos) was a Greek writer and freedman of the emperor Hadrian, who lived in the 2nd century AD.

Works
His chief work was the Olympiads, an historical compendium in sixteen books, from the 1st down to the 229th Olympiad (776 BC to AD 137), of which several chapters are preserved in Eusebius' Chronicle, Photius, and George Syncellus.

Two short works by him are extant. On Marvels consists of "anecdotes culled from sources as diverse as the Greek poet Hesiod and the Roman natural historian Pliny the Elder. Each... recounts a fantastical or paranormal event." On Long-Lived Persons contains a list of Italians who had passed the age of 100, taken from the censuses of the Roman Empire.

Other works ascribed to Phlegon in the Suda are a description of Sicily, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a topography of Rome:

"Phlegon of Tralles, freedman of Augustus Caesar, but some say of Hadrian: historian. He wrote Olympiads in 16 books. Up to the 229th Olympiad they contain what was done everywhere. And these in 8 books: Description of Sicily; On long-lived and marvelous persons, On the feasts of the Romans 3 books, On the places in Rome and by what names they are called, Epitome of Olympic victors in 2 books, and other things.

"Of this Phlegon, as Philostorgius says, to relate fully in detail what befell with the Jews, while Phlegon and Dio mentioned [these events] briefly and made them an appendix to their own narrative. Since this man does not exhibit at all prudently those who would lead to piety and other virtues, as those others do not either. Josephus, on the contrary, is like one who fears and takes care not to offend the [sc.pagan] Greeks."

Reference to Jesus
Origen of Alexandria (182-254 AD), in Against Celsus (Book II, Chap. XIV), wrote that Phlegon, in his Chronicles, mentions Jesus: "Now Phlegon, in the thirteenth or fourteenth book, of his Chronicles, not only ascribed to Jesus a knowledge of future events (although falling into confusion about some things which refer to Peter, as if they referred to Jesus), but also testified that the result corresponded to His predictions." He referred to a description by Phlegon of an eclipse accompanied by earthquakes during the reign of Tiberius: that there was "the greatest eclipse of the sun" and that "it became night in the sixth hour of the day [i. e., noon] so that stars even appeared in the heavens. There was a great earthquake in Bithynia, and many things were overturned in Nicaea."

However, Eusebius, in book 2 of Chronicle (Chronicon, quoted by Jerome), actually partially quotes Phlegon, leaving out any mention of Jesus or a three-hour darkness.

"In the 4th year of the 202nd Olympiad, there was a great eclipse of the Sun, greater than had ever been known before, for at the sixth hour the day was changed into night, and the stars were seen in the heavens. An earthquake occurred in Bythinia and overthrew a great part of the city of Nicæa."

References

Bibliography
Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Müller, Frag. hist. graec., iii
Otto Keller, Rerum naturalium scriptores, i. (1877)
H Diels, "Phlegons Androgynenorakel" in Sibyllinische Bücher (1890).
Phlegon of Tralles' Book of Marvels. Translated with an introduction and commentary by William Hansen. University of Exeter Press (1996) pp.xvi + 215. Review.

External links
Photius, "Bibliotheca" codex 97 - the entry on Phlegon's Chronicles and List of Olympic Victors.
The Suda entry for Phlegon - Greek, English and commentary.
Fragments of Phlegon on the passion phenomena  - Greek/Latin and English.
 William Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" (1870) v. 3, page 336 - bitmap and scanned text with list of works

Ancient Greek writers
2nd-century Greek people
2nd-century Romans
2nd-century writers
Historians from Roman Anatolia
Emperor's slaves and freedmen
Ancient Olympic Games
People from Tralles

Phlegon of Tralles


Psamtik II (Ancient Egyptian: , pronounced ), known by the Graeco-Romans as Psammetichus or Psammeticus, was a king of the Saite-based Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt (595 BC – 589 BC). His prenomen, Nefer-Ib-Re, means "Beautiful [is the] Heart [of] Re." He was the son of Necho II.

Campaigns and battles
Psamtik II led a foray into Nubia in 592 BC, marching as far south as the Third or even the Fourth Cataract of the Nile, according to a contemporary stela from Thebes (Karnak), which dates to Year 3 of this king's name and refers to a heavy defeat that was inflicted upon the kingdom of Kush. A well-known graffito inscribed in Greek on the left leg of the colossal seated statue of Ramesses II, on the south side of the entrance to the temple of Abu Simbel, records that:

 Kerkis was located near the Fifth Cataract of the Nile "which stood well within the Cushite Kingdom."

This was the first confrontation between Egypt and Nubia since the reign of Tantamani. A Kushite king named Anlamani had revived the power of the kingdom of Napata. Psamtik II's campaign was likely initiated to destroy any future aspirations the Kushites may have had to reconquer Egypt. The Egyptian army advanced to Pnubs (Kerma) and the capital city of Napata in a series of fierce battles, where they looted its temples and destroyed the royal Kushite statues.  The Kushite capital was sacked under the reign of the native Kushite king Aspelta who was the younger brother of Anlamani and the son of Senkamanisken. The Year 3 Karnak stela is dated to II Shemu day 10 of Psamtik II's reign and states that:

As a result of Psamtik's devastating campaign, Kush's power was crushed, and its kings from Aspelta onwards lost any opportunity of ever regaining control of Egypt. Instead, the Nubian rulers decided to shift their capital further south from Napata to the relative safety of Meroë. Curiously, however, Psamtik II does not appear to have capitalized on his victory. His troops retreated back to the First Cataract, and Elephantine continued to be the southern border of Egypt.

An outcome of this campaign was the deliberate destruction of monuments belonging to the 25th Dynasty Kushite kings in Egypt "by hacking out their names and the emblems of royalty from their statues and reliefs." Later, in 591 BC, during the fourth year of his reign, Psamtik II launched an expedition into Palestine "to foment a general Levantine revolt against the Babylonians" that involved, among others, Zedekiah of the Kingdom of Judah. Or according to Dan'el Kahn, "592 B.C. seems to be the date of the military reconquest of the Levant by Psammetichus II."

Monuments
Psamtik II was both a dynamic warrior pharaoh as well as a prolific builder in his brief 6-year reign. A significant Saite temple was likely built by Psamtik II and his son Apries at the village of El-Mahalla El-Kubra which lies equidistant from Sebennytos and Behbeit El-Hagar in the Lower Nile Delta. Officials from the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt observed "an extraordinary number of pharaonic building elements of granite and turquoise reused in modern buildings" at this site; this discovery was subsequently confirmed by Nestor L'Hôte in 1828 who counted more than 120 granite columns built into this village's mosque alone. A 1.8 metre long fragment of red granite with the name of Psamtik II and a door lintel of Apries was also seen at El-Mahalla El-Kubra.

Under Psamtik II's reign, a pair of obelisks more than 21.79 metres high were erected in the temple of Heliopolis; the first Emperor of Rome, Augustus, later had one of the obelisks, today known as the Obelisk of Montecitorio, which had probably been thrown down by the Persian invaders in 525 BC, brought to Rome in 10 BC.
Psamtik II also constructed a kiosk on Philae island. This kiosk today "represents the oldest known monument known on the island" and consisted "of a double row of four columns, which were connected by screen walls."

Psamtik II was also responsible for founding the Temple-house at Hibis in El-Kharga Oasis for the triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu with significant installations for the cult of Osiris. This 19.5 x 26 metre temple was originally situated on the bank of an ancient lake which has now disappeared and its temple decorations were only completed under the Persian kings Darius I and possibly Darius II. The Hibis temple consisted of a hypostyle hall with two-by-two papyrus capital columns, a hall of offerings, three sanctuaries in the rear section of the temple and a chapel at the side of the sanctuaries for the cult of Psamtik II. The front of the temple house of Hibis featured:
 "a pronaos with four papyrus bundle columns and screen walls. During the construction of the pronaos, the side walls were extended for the addition of a court[yard]. This extension, was, however, only carried out in the 30th Dynasty [by Nectanebo I and Nectanebo II.] The eight papyrus columns of the pronaos still show the New Kingdom type of open, bell-shaped capitals."
A massive sandstone gateway through an outer enclosure wall still stands almost 5 metres tall and was constructed during the Ptolemaic or Roman periods. Many inscriptions and decrees were carved on the gateway on a wide variety of topics such as taxation, inheritance, the court system and the rights of women, with the earliest text dating to 49 AD.

The Temple of Psamtik II at Hibis was completely preserved until 1832 when its roof and portions of the temple were removed for the construction of an aluminium factory. Only excavation work by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910-1911 and restorations performed by the Egyptian Antiquities Service arrested its decline. Today, the Hibis temple remains—together with the Oracle or Ammoneion of Siwa—as "the best preserved and best-documented temple of the early Egyptian Late Period and is therefore a primary monument to the history of [Egyptian temple] building."

Successor

When Psamtik II died in 589 BC, he was succeeded by Apries who was his son by Queen Takhut, a Princess of Athribis. Psamtik and Queen Takhut were also the parents of Menekhubaste, a Priestess of Atum at Heliopolis, and Ankhnesneferibre, a God's Wife of Amun who served in this powerful office in Upper Egypt to the end of the Saite period in 525 BC, when Egypt was conquered by the Persians. The date of Psamtik II's death is mentioned in the Adoption stela of Ankhnesneferibre: Year 7, I Akhet day 23.

References

589 BC deaths
6th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Year of birth unknown

Psamtik II


Bubble could mean:

Traditional bubbles
 Liquid bubble, a globule of one substance encased in another, usually air in a liquid
 Soap bubble, a bubble formed by soapy water
 Antibubble, a droplet of liquid surrounded by a thin film of gas

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 Bubbles (painting), a painting by Sir John Everett Millais
 Bubbles Yablonsky, the protagonist in a series of mystery novels
 Dome, an architectural element representing the upper half of a sphere
 Speech bubble, a graphic convention used primarily in comics and cartoons
 Bubbles, a monkey in the Dragon Ball series

Economics
 Bubble (economics), a situation where market prices are unsustainably high
 Dot-com bubble
 Real estate bubble
 Stock market bubble
 "South Sea Bubble"

Film
 The Bubble (1966 film), a science fiction film
 Bubble Boy, a 2001 comedy film directed by Blair Hayes
 Bubble (film), a 2006 improvised thriller directed by Stephen Soderbergh
 The Bubble (2006 film), an Israeli drama about a gay romance

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 Bubble and squeak, a traditional English vegetable dish
 Bubble tea, a Taiwanese beverage
 A colloquial term for sparkling wine, particularly champagne
 Bubble gum, a candy often used to chew and blow bubbles.

Television
 Bubble, a character in the TV series Absolutely Fabulous
 Bubbles, a character in the animated TV series Jabberjaw
 Bubbles (The Powerpuff Girls)
 Bubbles (Trailer Park Boys character)
 Bubbles (The Wire)
 Bubbles the Clown, a doll used in a BBC test card
 Bubbles DeVere, a character in the TV series Little Britain
 Bubbles (The Adventures of Little Carp),an anthropomorphic fish from The Adventures of Little Carp.

Video games
 Bubble Bobble
 Bubbles (video game)
 The main character in the video game Clu Clu Land
 An enemy in the Legend of Zelda video game series

People and animals
 Bubble Eye, a variety of goldfish
 Bubbles (chimpanzee), a chimpanzee who lived with Michael Jackson
 Pamela Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere, an English socialite and actress
 William Milbourne James, the child model for the painting and soap advertisement Bubbles
 Beverly Sills, opera singer

Other meanings
 Bubble (automobile), a special sedan also called a Hi-Riser
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 Bubbles (band), a Swedish girl group
 Bubble Act, an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain requiring all joint-stock companies to have a Royal Charter
 Bubble chamber, a particle detector in physics
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 Westminster Bubble, a term used to describe isolation among United Kingdom government employees
 A symbol used in logic gate diagrams
 A term used in poker tournaments for the last finishing position before entering the payout structure (See Glossary of poker terms)
 Refers to a college basketball team that has a significant, but not assured, chance to be awarded an at-large bid to the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship or NCAA Women's Division I Basketball Championship

Bubble


Mamayev Kurgan () is a dominant height overlooking the city of Volgograd (formerly Stalingrad) in Southern Russia. The name in Russian means "tumulus of Mamai".
The formation is dominated by a memorial complex commemorating the Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942 to February 1943). The battle, a hard-fought Soviet victory over Axis forces on the Eastern Front of World War II, turned into one of the bloodiest battles in human history. At the time of its installation in 1967 the statue, named The Motherland Calls, formed the largest free-standing sculpture in the world; today it is the tallest sculpture of a woman in the world.

Battle

When forces of the German Sixth Army launched their attack against the city centre of Stalingrad on 13 September 1942, Mamayev Kurgan (appearing in military maps as "Height 102.0") saw particularly fierce fighting between the German attackers and the defending soldiers of the Soviet 62nd Army. Control of the hill became vitally important, as it offered control over the city. To defend it, the Soviets had built strong defensive lines on the slopes of the hill, composed of trenches, barbed-wire and minefields. The Germans pushed forward against the hill, taking heavy casualties. When they finally captured the hill, they started firing on the city centre, as well as on the city's main railway station under the hill. They captured the Volgograd railway station on 14 September 1942.

On the same day, the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division commanded by Alexander Rodimtsev arrived in the city from the east side of the river Volga under heavy German artillery fire. The division's 10,000 men immediately rushed into the battle. On 16 September they recaptured Mamayev Kurgan and kept fighting for the railway station, taking heavy losses. By the following day, almost all of them had died. The Soviets kept reinforcing their units in the city as fast as they could. The Germans assaulted up to twelve times a day, and the Soviets would respond with fierce counter-attacks.

The hill changed hands several times. By September 27, the Germans again captured half of Mamayev Kurgan. The Soviets held their own positions on the slopes of the hill, as the 284th Rifle Division defended the key stronghold. The defenders held out until January 26 1943, when the counterattacking Soviet forces relieved them. The battle of the city ended one week later with an utter German defeat.

When the battle ended, the soil on the hill had been so thoroughly churned by shellfire and mixed with metal fragments that it contained between 500 and 1,250 splinters of metal per square meter. The earth on the hill had remained black in the winter, as the snow kept melting in the many fires and explosions. In the following spring the hill would still remain black, as no grass grew on its scorched soil. The hill's formerly steep slopes had become flattened in months of intense shelling and bombardment. Even today, it is possible to find fragments of bone and metal still buried deep throughout the hill.

Memorial complex

After the war, the Soviet authorities commissioned the enormous Mamayev Kurgan memorial complex. Vasily Chuikov, who led Soviet forces at Stalingrad, lies buried at Mamayev Kurgan, the only Marshal of the Soviet Union to be buried outside Moscow. Among the 34,505 soldiers who were defenders of Stalingrad buried there, sniper Vasily Zaytsev was also reburied there in 2006.

The monumental memorial was constructed between 1959 and 1967, and is crowned by a huge allegorical statue of the Motherland on the top of the hill. The monument, designed by Yevgeny Vuchetich, has the full name The Motherland Calls! ( Rodina Mat Zovyot!). It consists of a concrete sculpture, 52 meters tall, and 85 meters from the feet to the tip of the 27-meters sword, dominating the skyline of the city of Stalingrad (later renamed Volgograd).

The construction uses concrete, except for the stainless-steel blade of the sword, and is held on its plinth solely by its own weight. The statue is evocative of classical Greek representations of Nike, in particular the flowing drapery, similar to that of the Nike of Samothrace.

See also
Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Kyiv
Mound of Glory

References

External links

 Mamayev Hill museum in Volgograd, official homepage (in Russian, English, German).
 Gigapixel panoramas, created on 9 May 2005 for Google Earth, 60 years after the end of the war in Russia
 Iconicarchive photo gallery
 Satellite photo at Google Maps

Battle of Stalingrad
Cemeteries in Russia
Commemorative mounds
Hills of Russia
Kurgans
Soviet military memorials and cemeteries
World War II memorials in Russia
Buildings and structures in Volgograd
Tourist attractions in Volgograd Oblast
Landforms of Volgograd Oblast
Monuments and memorials in Volgograd
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Volgograd Oblast

Mamayev Kurgan


The Battle of the Panaro (or Modena or Castelfranco) was a victory for King Joachim Murat's Neapolitan forces over a smaller Austrian force under Frederick Bianchi on 3 April 1815 early in the Neapolitan War. This defeat on the banks on the Panaro River, just south of Modena forced the Austrians to retreat behind the Po River.

Background
When Naples declared war on Austria, Austrian troops were still gathering in Lombardy. Only a small force of about 6,600 men commanded by General Bianchi, who was stationed in the Duchy of Modena, were in position to check the Neapolitan advance. Murat with his main army of around 40,000 men had already established a main headquarters in Ancona and were marching north. Following a minor skirmish on 30 March near Cesena, the Austrians under Bianchi fell back to a new defensive line behind the Panaro River. This allowed the Neapolitans to capture Bologna on 2 April, from where they prepared another assault on the Austrians.

Battle
On 3 April, one day after capturing Bologna, a Neapolitan division under the command of Michele Carrascosa attempted to cross the Panaro. After being driven back from two other bridges, the Neapolitans finally crossed the Panaro at Castelfranco Emilia and made a sweeping charge on Bianchi's position. As heavy fighting continued in the center of the Austrian position, Murat ordered a column under General Colletta to sweep left and push on the Austrian fight flank. Outnumbered, the Austrian right flank was turned and Bianchi was compelled to sound the retreat. With more Neapolitan troops arriving from Bologna, the Austrian retreated back to their lands behind the Po River. Following the battle, Carascosa and his troops immediately occupied the major towns of the Duchy of Modena: Modena, Reggio Emilia and Carpi.

References
Capt. Robert Batty, An Historical Sketch of the Campaign of 1815, London (1820)
Details of battle at Clash of Steel

External links

Conflicts in 1815
Battles of the Neapolitan War
Battles involving Austria
Battles involving the Kingdom of Naples
Battles in Emilia-Romagna
1815 in Italy
1815 in the Austrian Empire
April 1815 events
Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
Joachim Murat

Battle of the Panaro


Ebisu (恵比須, 恵比寿, 夷, 戎), also known as Yebisu or Hiruko (蛭子) or Kotoshiro-nushi-no-kami (事代主神), is the Japanese god of fishermen, good luck and working men, and also the guardian of the health of children. He is one of the Seven Lucky Gods.

Origins as Hiruko
Ebisu was first named Hiruko, meaning "leech child". He was the first child of Izanagi and Izanami, born without bones (or, in some stories, without arms and legs) because of his mother's mistake in her marriage.  Hiruko tried hard to survive but he was thrown to the sea in a boat made out of reeds. He was eventually washed ashore and was cared for by the Ainu people Ebisu Saburo (戎三郎).

Life Story
The weak child overcame many problems, grew legs, and became the god Ebisu. He remains slightly crippled and deaf, but is still joyful (which is why he has the title, "The Laughing God"). He is often shown wearing a tall hat — the Kazaori Eboshi (風折烏帽子) — holding a fishing rod and a large sea bass.

In Popular Culture
The brand name Evisu is named after Ebisu.

References

Gods and goddesses of Japan
Luck

Ebisu


is a Japanese retired professional wrestler. He is known for his background in karate and the innovation of the Rolling German suplex. He also has been a staple of Big Japan Pro Wrestling, IWA Japan and W*ING as well as Japanese independent promotions such as the Social Progressive Wrestling Federation (SPWF).

Career
Motegi made his debut in 1991 and within two years he defeated Ray Gonzalez for the W*ING Junior Heavyweight Championship on January 7, 1993. During early August 1993, Motegi toured the United States with W*ING Tag Team Champions The Headhunters defending his (WWC version) W*ING Junior Heavyweight title in Eastern Championship Wrestling defeating Don E. Allen at the ECW Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on August 7, 1993. The following night, he fought J.T. Smith to a time limit draw.

He would win the title three more times from Hiroshi Itakura, El Texano and Shinichi Nakano respectively and remained champion until the promotions close on March 13, 1994.

The following year, Motegi entered the 1995 Super J-Cup, losing to Gedo in the opening rounds.

In June 1996, during a match against Héctor Garza in Tokyo, Japan, Motegi won the UWA World Middleweight Championship after knocking out Garza however he immediately vacated the title soon after. The following month, he participated in the first J-Crown Tournament held by New Japan Pro-Wrestling to unify the eight existing World Junior Heavyweight Championship titles defended in Japan. Representing Wrestle Dream Factory, he defended his NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship and lost to IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion The Great Sasuke in the opening rounds at Sumo Hall in Tokyo on August 2.

Two years later, he defeated Abdullah Kobayashi in a 7-man round robin championship tournament to win the BJW World Junior Heavyweight Championship in Numazu, Japan on June 30, 1999. Eventually losing the title to Fantastik in Hakodate, Japan on November 6, he regained the title from Fantastik the following month as Chabinger, before losing the title to Men's Teoh in Fukushima, Japan on June 21, 2000.

He later defeated Toshiyuki Moriya for the IWA (Kakuto Shijuku) World Middleweight Championship in Kanazawa, Japan on December 2, 2001. Although the title was vacated the following day, Motegi regained the title a week later after winning a one-day 4-man championship tournament defeating Koji Isinriki in the finals on December 16. The following year in Sapporo, Japan, he defeated The Great Takeru and Yukihide Ueno in a 3-way match to become the first IWA (Japan) World Junior Heavyweight Champion on August 3, 2002.

Motegi retired on August 7, 2018.

Championships and accomplishments
Big Japan Pro Wrestling
BJW World Junior Heavyweight Championship (2 times)

IWA Japan
IWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

IWA Kakutou Shijuku
IWA World Middleweight Championship (2 times)

National Wrestling Alliance
NWA World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Universal Wrestling Association
UWA World Middleweight Championship (1 time)

Wrestling International New Generations
W*ING/WWC Junior Heavyweight Championship (4 times)

References

1962 births
Living people
Japanese male professional wrestlers
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
UWA World Middleweight Champions
BJW Junior Heavyweight Champions (original version)

Masayoshi Motegi