The Asura are a group of supernatural creatures in Hinduism and Buddhism.

In today's beliefs and assumptions, the Asuras are demons. But this was not always that way. The idea of the Asuras is very, very old, from long before the time people learned how to read and write. The Asuras only became demons after much time had passed. Buddhism also has Asuras. These are from Hinduism but have also changed a lot in their own way.

Some of the Asuras are very important, and have been worshiped for thousands of years. The most important of these are Varuna and Mitra. Varuna is the god of the ocean, which in olden times was thought to be flowing under the earth. So, Varuna came to be seen as god of the underworld. In ancient times, water was thought to be where wisdom came from. So Varuna is considered very wise, and he gives his wisdom to those who honor him. Varuna's closest companion is Mitra. Mitra mostly means "friend" in Hinduism, but it originally meant "promise". And so Mitra is the god of friendships and promises. He protects people who honor the truth and punishes those who tell lies. The Mi- in "Mitra" means "to tie tightly". Friendship and promises tie people to one another.

In Hinduism
In Hinduism, the Asura (Sanskrit: असुर) are a group of creatures looking for more power, sometimes called demons. They went against the devas. The devas and asuras are the children of Kashyapa.

Hinduism has many stories of Asuras and Devas fighting each other. Mostly they fight about who will get the best prayers from the worshipers.

In Hinduism the Asuras are said to be beings of moral and social things. Like truth and marriage. The Daevas are said to be beings of natural things. Like the sun and the rain. In Hinduism, the Asuras are said to be "older". And the daevas are said to be "younger". There are very many Asuras and Daevas. Two hundred years ago someone counted them and said there were over 2,000 Daevas and Asuras. So naturally not all Asuras are very important. But some names have been forgotten since then, and others have been added. This is why Hinduism is called a "living religion." It is changing all the time.

In Buddhism
The Asuras are partly—but not completely -- demonic in Buddhism. Buddhism takes the basic idea from Hinduism.

Mostly the Asuras of Buddhism represent some mental state of humans that is not nice. For example, anger or pride or violence. There are many different kinds of Asuras. They are always angry with everyone and are always fighting. Their leaders are called the Asurendra, which means "Lord of Asuras".

The Asuras are almost human in their emotions. On the Buddhist scale of supernatural beings, the Asuras are almost at the bottom.

Buddhism is very popular in the far east. So, many of the Asuras also have Japanese, Chinese and Korean names.

In the Vedas
The Vedas are the most holy books of the Indian religions, especially of Hinduism. There are four Vedas, and they are all very, very old. The oldest of the Vedas is called the RigVeda, and it is more than 3,000 years old.

In the RigVeda the Asuras are not yet demons. At that time the Asuras and the Devas were both still groups of gods. In fact, many of the figures of the RigVeda are both asuras and daevas. This is because, at that time, the two words were not yet names of groups. They were just names of characteristics. "Asura" means "life", and so the gods who were called asuras were thought to give life. And the daevas were shining. This is the original meaning of the names. In later books they became different.

In the RigVeda many of the devas are called asuras, and many of the asuras are called devas. Sometimes they are also called both at the same time: Like "daevic asuras" or "asuric devas". The "-ic" makes those words a part of the other word.  There are some beings who are both ahuric daevas and daevic ahuras. This shows that there was no big difference between 'ahura' and 'daeva' in the RigVeda.

The forefathers of the people who wrote the Vedas spoke Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the source of many Indian languages. The stories in the Rig Veda are seen in the books of various North Indian peoples, and also in the books of some Iranian peoples like the Zoroastrians.

One of the books of the Iranian peoples is called the Avesta. It is not really one book, but a collection of many books, but together they are called the Avesta. The Avesta is the holy book of Zoroastrianism. The language of the Avesta is very similar to the language of the RigVeda. The Avesta also has asuras and devas. But in Iran they are written as "ahura" and "daeva".

The old part of the Avesta is almost as old as the RigVeda. In this old part of the Avesta the ahuras and the daevas are almost like they are in the RigVeda. In both books they are groups of supernatural beings. But they are very different in character.

Some time after the RigVeda was written, stories were told about the asuras and devas that made them not friends any more. A similar thing also happened in the Avesta. Only that the two groups had been switched: The Asuras became demons in regions where North Indian languages were spoken, and the Daevas became demons in regions where Iranian languages were spoken.

It is not known for sure why this happened. It was a very, very long time ago.

One possible reason why the Asuras became demons in India is this: Some time after the RigVeda was written Indians started to think that asura means a-sura, which means "not a hero". So, maybe that way the asuras got a bad name.

One possible reason why the Daevas became demons in Iran is this: At about the same time as the Indians were writing the last part of the RigVeda, a very thoughtful man named Zoroaster appeared in Iran. He thought and thought a lot about why there was goodness and badness in the world. Finally, he told everyone what he had been thinking about. And one of those things was that Daevas were not to be trusted because they could not tell the difference between truth and lies. After some time Zoroaster became very popular for his ideas. And so, with time, the Daevas became demons in Iran.

In both cases, the one side did not know what the other side was thinking. So in India only the Asuras became demons. And in Iran only the Daevas became demons.

Many, many centuries before the RigVeda and before Zoroaster, a name that sounds like "Asura" was the proper name of a very mighty god. Some scholars say his name was "Ansu" but this is not sure. So that is why they write the name as *Ansu. That '*' means it is not sure. *Ansu was the god of life from which the name 'asura' and 'ahura' comes. We know that this god existed because far, far away in Northern Europe there was also a god named 'Aesir', who was also a giver of life. It sometimes can happen that a similar name appears in two or three places. But it is very rare that the same name with the same function appears. So, that is why 'Asura' and 'Ahura' and 'Aesir' must be all come from '*Ansu'. And we know that such a god must have been very powerful because he was very popular for so very long.

Although the Asuras and the Ahuras are related, they should not be mixed up. This is not only because their names are slightly different. It is also because they are very different. But the most important thing is that they are from different cultures. Even if they came from the same place, that was very long ago. After such a long much time, people have very different ideas about them.

Hindu gods and goddesses
Buddhist gods and goddesses

Asura


Sima Liang (司馬亮) (before 227- 26 July 291), courtesy name Ziyi (子翼), formally Prince Wencheng of Ru'nan (汝南文成王), was briefly a regent during the reign of Emperor Hui during Jin Dynasty (266–420).  He was the first of the eight princes commonly associated with the War of the Eight Princes.

Life
Sima Liang was the fourth son of Sima Yi, by his concubine, Lady Fu; he was the eldest among Lady Fu's four sons. During the regencies within Cao Wei by his older half-brothers Sima Shi and Sima Zhao, he served as a mid-level official.  After his nephew Sima Yan took the throne as Emperor Wu of Jin, ending Cao Wei and establishing Jin, Sima Liang was created the Prince of Fufeng on 9 February 266 and put in charge of the military commands of Qin (秦州, modern eastern Gansu) and Yong (雍州, modern central and northern Shaanxi) provinces.  In 270, after his subordinate, the general Liu Qi (劉旂) was defeated by the Xianbei rebel Tufa Shujineng, Sima Liang tried to have Liu's life spared by claiming fault; Liu's life was spared, but Sima Liang lost his post as a result.

Despite this, Sima Liang was well respected among the Jin imperial clan for his virtues, including his filial devotion to Princess Dowager Fu.  Because of this, Emperor Wu put him in charge of monitoring the imperial princes' behavior, to correct and rebuke them when necessary.

On 5 October 277, Emperor Wu moved Sima Liang's principality to Ru'nan and put him in charge of the military commands of Yu Province (豫州, modern eastern Henan).  However, soon he recalled Sima Liang back to the capital to serve as a high-level advisor.

As Emperor Wu grew ill in 289, he considered whom to make regent. He considered both Empress Yang Zhi's father Yang Jun and Sima Liang. As a result, Yang Jun became fearful of Sima Liang and had him posted to the key city of Xuchang. Several other imperial princes were also posted to other key cities in the empire. By 290, Emperor Wu resolved to let Yang and Sima Liang both be regents, but after he wrote his will, the will was seized by Yang Jun, who instead had another will promulgated in which Yang alone was named regent. Emperor Wu died soon thereafter and was succeeded by Emperor Hui.  By this point, Sima Liang had not yet gone to Xuchang, but was fearful of Yang Jun, and so did not dare to attend Emperor Wu's wake.  Yang was still suspicious that Sima Liang might have a coup in mind, and so prepared for his troops to attack Sima Liang.  (Indeed, the justice minister He Xu (何勗) suggested to Sima Liang that he overthrow Yang, but Sima Liang refused.)  In order to avoid a military confrontation with Yang, Sima Liang immediately left for Xuchang.

After Empress Jia Nanfeng, Emperor Hui's wife, in conjunction with Emperor Hui's brother Sima Wei the Prince of Chu, overthrew and killed Yang in a coup in spring 291, Sima Liang, as the most respected of the imperial princes, was summoned back to the capital Luoyang to serve as regent, along with Wei Guan.  To appease those who might have been angry and had overthrown Yang Jun, Sima Liang widely promoted those who participated in the plot, and more than a thousand men were created marquesses. He and Wei, however, did try to get the government on track, but Empress Jia continued to interfere with governmental matters. They also became concerned about the violent temper of Sima Wei and therefore tried to strip him of his military command, but Sima Wei persuaded Empress Jia to let him keep his military command. Sima Wei's assistants Qi Sheng (岐盛) and Gongsun Hong (公孫宏) thereafter falsely told Empress Jia that Sima Liang and Wei planned to depose the emperor. Empress Jia, who had already resented Wei for having, during Emperor Wu's reign, suggested that he change his heir selection, also wanted more direct control over the government, and therefore resolved to plot a second coup.

In summer 291, Empress Jia had Emperor Hui personally write an edict to Sima Wei, ordering him to have Sima Liang and Wei Guan removed from their offices. His forces thereby surrounded Sima Liang and Wei Guan's mansions, and while both men's subordinates recommended resistance, each declined and was captured. Against what the edict said, both were killed—Sima Liang with his heir Sima Ju (司馬矩) and Wei Guan with nine of his sons and grandsons.  (Initially, the soldiers respected Sima Liang and did not dare to kill him, and indeed, as he sat in the prisoner's wagon, it appeared clear that he was suffering from the heat, and passersby were allowed to use fans to try to alleviate his suffering.  Only after Sima Wei issued an order that whoever dared to cut off Sima Liang's head would receive a large sum of silk as reward did someone carry out the execution.)  After Empress Jia, concerned about Sima Wei's power, then falsely declared that the edict was forged by Sima Wei and had him executed, Sima Liang was posthumously honored.

Family

References

 Fang, Xuanling. Book of Jin (Jin Shu).

Year of birth unknown
291 deaths
Jin dynasty (266–420) imperial princes
Jin dynasty (266–420) regents
Executed Jin dynasty (266–420) people
People executed by the Jin dynasty (266–420) by decapitation
3rd-century executions
3rd-century regents

Sima Liang


Christopher Britton is a Canadian film, stage, television and voice actor who is probably best known for his work in X-Men: The Animated Series, in which he was the voice of Mister Sinister. More recently, he has voiced the character of Soichiro Yagami in the English dub of the anime series Death Note and its live action counterpart. He also was the narrator on the Dino Crisis II video game created by Capcom in 2000. He has a regular role as Richard Norton in Da Vinci's Inquest/City Hall, and has acted in several different movies from The Day After Tomorrow to Godsend. He has worked on many different plays and theater productions, including two seasons with the Stratford and Shaw Festivals, and has acted throughout Ontario, Vancouver, and the United States.

Background
Born and raised in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Chris Britton first studied acting as a teenager. For a brief period, an interest in dance led him to become a member of the Judy Jarvis Dance Company, one of the first modern dance companies in Toronto. He graduated from York University with a BFA in theatre. While an undergraduate he was an Associate Fellow of Stong College teaching a course in the life and work of Edward Gordon Craig. Upon graduating he spent two seasons at both the Stratford and Shaw Festivals and worked at regional theaters across Canada. In 1980 Chris started the first Artists Action Network within Amnesty International that worked for the release of imprisoned artists. During the early eighties he studied acting with Uta Hagen in New York City and acted in The Misanthrope directed by Mark Lamos at The Hartford Stage and The Taming of the Shrew at the Astor Place Theater in New York. He returned to Canada to be a member of the Grand Theater Company with Robin Phillips. In the late 80's he landed the role of 'Einstein' in the one actor play and toured Canada, Boston and Louisville, Kentucky. in over 200 performances. In film and television his talents as a character actor can be seen in roles such as the evil Rombout Kemp in Peter Greenaway's Nightwatching, the KKK leader opposite Forest Whitaker in Deacons For Defense, the mad film critic in John Carpenter's Cigarette Burns and in The Final Cut opposite Robin Williams. He has had recurring roles in DaVinci's Inquest, DaVinci's City Hall, Intelligence and Painkiller Jane. His first screenplay, Capital Murder, based on the true story of the lawyer who defended the last two men to be executed in Canada, was awarded a Fellowship in the Praxis Screenwriting Competition. A second screenplay, The Good Men, an action thriller, was also awarded a Fellowship at Praxis.

Chris Britton lives and works in Vancouver and Los Angeles with his wife, actress Gwynyth Walsh and frequently returns to Toronto to work and spend time with his daughter Paget.

Filmography

Film

Television

Video games

References

External links

Living people
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male stage actors
Canadian male television actors
Canadian male video game actors
Canadian male voice actors
Male actors from Toronto
20th-century Canadian male actors
21st-century Canadian male actors
1960 births

Christopher Britton (actor)


is a Japanese mathematician and politician and served as the mayor of the city of Hiroshima, Japan from 1999 to 2011.

Early life
He studied mathematics at the University of Tokyo, receiving a B.S. in 1966 and an M.S. in 1968. He continued his studies under John Milnor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earning his PhD in mathematics in 1970. He took teaching jobs at a series of universities: State University of New York at Stony Brook (1970), Tufts University (1972–1986), and Hiroshima Shudo University (1986–1997). His research was on topology, with an interest in homotopy groups.

While at Tufts, Akiba established the Hibakusha Travel Grant program, which brought several American print and broadcast journalists annually to Hiroshima in August, to craft stories about the city (and typically about the experiences of those exposed to the atomic bomb in 1945).

Political career
As a member of the Social Democratic Party, he was elected to the House of Representatives, and served from 1990 to 1999. He assumed office as mayor of Hiroshima in February, 1999, and was reelected to this position in 2003 and in April 2007.

Peace activities

As mayor, he has been a visible peace activist. He is active in the Mayors for Peace organization, serving as the president of their World Conference. The 2020 Vision Campaign launched in 2003, which aims to eliminate nuclear weapons, has earned Mayors for Peace the "World Citizenship Award" from the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation in 2004, the "Sean McBride" Award from the International Peace Bureau in 2006, and the Nuclear-Free Future Award from the Franz-Moll Foundation in 2007. He has also been an advocate of the abolition of nuclear weapons, and a vocal critic of George W. Bush. Since May 2007 he is also Councillor at the World Future Council.

In 2007 he received the Nuclear-Free Future Award in the solutions category.

He was longlisted for the 2008 World Mayor award, but failed to win, as the award went to Mayor Helen Zille of Cape Town, Republic of South Africa.

On January 21, 2010, he attended the 78th winter meeting of the U.S. Conference of Mayors as a special guest speaker, and in that capacity attended the reception held at the White House and met US President Barack Obama. He is so far the only serving Mayor of Hiroshima who has officially met a serving US president.

In August 2010, he received the Ramon Magsaysay Award for his advocacy for nuclear disarmament, and in April 2013 he was awarded the Otto Hahn Peace Medal from the United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN) and the Governing Mayor of Berlin.

Akiba is on the Board of Advisors of the Global Security Institute.

Hiroshima is one place outside the United States where Martin Luther King Jr. Day is observed with equal importance as in the United States. Tadatoshi Akiba holds a special banquet at the mayor's office as an act of unifying his city's call for peace with King's message of human rights.

In August 2022, he was awarded the Ahmadiyya Muslim Prize for the Advancement of Peace.

Stepping down as mayor
In the new year address on January 4, 2011, Akiba announced he would not run for reelection during the mayoral election scheduled for April 10, 2011. No reasons were given. In early April it was reported that Hiroshima University has appointed Akiba as special professor, effective from his retirement as mayor. On April 10, Kazumi Matsui was elected the new Mayor. On August 3, 2012, he was appointed chairman of the Middle Powers Initiative (MPI), an international network of non-governmental organizations working for nuclear disarmament.

Works

Translation
 Linear algebra / Ichiro Satake; translated by Sebastian Koh, Tadatoshi Akiba, Shin-ichiro Ihara

See also
List of peace activists

References

External links

 CityMayors.com feature
 Interview with Mayor Akiba
 Tadatoshi Akiba awarded Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Berlin
  Tadatoshi Akiba received German Peace Award in Berlin

1942 births
People from Arakawa, Tokyo
Living people
Mayors of Hiroshima
Japanese educators
20th-century Japanese mathematicians
21st-century Japanese mathematicians
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Politicians from Tokyo
Tufts University faculty
University of Tokyo alumni
Japanese anti–nuclear weapons activists
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
Japan Socialist Party politicians
Social Democratic Party (Japan) politicians
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Academic staff of Hiroshima University
Recipients of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Peace Prize

Tadatoshi Akiba


The Battle of Chantilly happened on September 1, 1862, in Fairfax County, Virginia. It was the last battle of the Northern Virginia Campaign during the American Civil War. The battle had two names: the Union side called it the "Battle of Chantilly" and the Confederates called it the "Battle of Ox Hill".

Background
Confederate General Robert E. Lee had just won the Second Battle of Bull Run on August 29. The Union Army, commanded by John Pope, started retreating north towards Washington, D.C. Lee wanted to destroy Pope's army. He sent Thomas J. Jackson's corps to march around Pope's army in order to capture the road to Washington. If the Confederates captured the road, Pope would have been surrounded and be forced to surrender.

On September 1, Pope found out where Jackson was. He sent Jesse L. Reno with two divisions to attack Jackson. Jackson had stopped on Ox Hill, which was near the Chantilly Plantation. He decided to stop there because he found Pope's army was farther north than he expected.

The battle
The first Union commander to arrive at Ox Hill was Isaac Stevens. He decided to attack Jackson's men about 5 p.m. At the same time, a thunderstorm broke out and made some of the solders's ammunition too wet to fire. Many men had to fight with bayonets. Stevens's division made part of the Confederate army retreat. But the Confederates counterattacked and forced Steven's division retreat. During the attack, Stevens was killed.

After Stevens' s attack failed, Philip Kearny's division arrived. Kearny tried to attack the Confederates but he was killed too. After sunset, the Union soldiers retreated from the battlefield.

Aftermath
The Union army lost about 1,000 casaulties in the battle. The Confederates lost about 500 to 600 casualties. Pope continued retreating to Washington on September 2.

Sources
 Hennessy, John J. Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. .
 Taylor, Paul. He Hath Loosed the Fateful Lightening: The Battle of Ox Hill (Chantilly) September 1, 1862. Shippensburg, Pennsylvania: White Mane Books, 2003. .

Chantilly
September 1862 events
1862 in Virginia

Battle of Chantilly


NTFS is a file system developed by Microsoft. NTFS stands for New Technology File System. A file system is a way of storing computer files. Microsoft introduced it with the Windows NT operating system.

It was made to replace the old file-system used by earlier versions of Windows, like Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 98SE. That file system was also used by MS-DOS and is called FAT.

A newer version of NTFS (v3.1) was used in Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, and the most recent version of operating system, Windows 10. NTFS can be accessed from non-Windows operating systems such as Linux using the NTFS-3G driver.

Software
Microsoft

NTFS


The Wii MotionPlus is an expansion device for the Nintendo Wii. It allows the Wii Remote to better capture motion. It was first announced on July 14, 2008 in a press release by Nintendo. The next day, it was shown at that year's E3. It was released in 2008

Wii Remote Plus

On September 29, 2010, Nintendo announced the Wii Remote Plus controller. It is a Wii Remote with MotionPlus built in. This allows players to use special controllers such as the Wii Zapper without removing the MotionPlus device. It was released in Europe on November 5, 2010, in North America on November 7, 2010, and in Japan on November 11, 2010.

Wii hardware

Wii MotionPlus


Tropical cyclones are ranked according to their maximum winds using several scales. These scales are provided by several bodies, including the World Meteorological Organization, the National Hurricane Center, and the Bureau of Meteorology. The National Hurricane Center uses the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale for hurricanes in the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins. Australia uses a difference set of tropical cyclone categories for their region. Many basins have different names for storms of hurricane/typhoon/cyclone strength. The use of different definitions for maximum sustained wind creates additional confusion into the definitions of cyclone categories worldwide.

Tropical cyclones

Tropical cyclone scales


Pakistanis are a blend of their Harappan, Vedic, Iranic, Dardic and other heritage. Waves of invaders and migrants settled down in Pakistan throughout the centuries, influencing the locals and being absorbed among them.The founder of Pakistan is Quaid-e-Azam.

Timeline

During the period 6000 BC and 2000 BC, late Neolithic culture and the start of the Bronze Age was taking shape in the Indus Valley.
 50,000 BC Stone Age civilisation of Soan river Valley near Rawalpindi

The Neolithic era

About 7000 years before, by 5100 BC, early Neolithic culture had developed in ancient Pakistan. People had learned farming. They tended goats, lived in houses build of mud, and had learned to make baskets. Potteries were also made.

 7000 BC Agricultural and farming started in Baluchistan, N.W.F.P. and Punjab areas
 2600 BC Indus river Valley Civilisation started in Kot Diji, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa areas. The Indus Valley Civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. It marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries, which is in present-day Pakistan. It is thought that a gradual deforestation caused by geological disturbances and climate change caused the fall of the civilization. The civilization is famous for its cities that were built of brick, had a road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses
 1700 BC Indus river Valley Civilisation ended as Aryans the rough cattle breeders invaded their cities. Aryans followed strict caste system which later became known as Hinduism in the 1830s. They wrote the first Hindu scripture as "Rig Veda" Book.
 600 BC People get frustrated by Hinduism's caste system, as Buddha son of a Kashatriya king started to preach equality among the humans which was accepted by people of Northern sub-continent. Gandhara became major power in the region, with its city "Pushkalavati" (present Charsadda) and "Taxilla" center of civilisation and culture.

Persian and Greek invasion

Around the 5th century BC, north-western parts of India faced invasion by the Achaemenid Empire and the Greeks of Alexander's army. Persian way of thinking, administration and lifestyle came to India. This influence became bigger during the Mauryan dynasty.

Achaemenid Empire

From around 520 BC, Achaemenid Empire's Darius I ruled large part of northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Then Alexander conquered these areas. Herodotus, a historian of that time has written that these areas were the richest areas of Alexander's Empire. Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years. In modern times, there are still traces of this Greek heritage to be found in parts of northwestern India.

Greco-Buddhist period

Greco-Buddhism (also spelt as Græco-Buddhism) is a combination of culture of Greece and Buddhism. This mixture of cultures continued to develop for 800 long years, from 4th century BC until the 5th century AD. The area where it happened is modern day's Afghanistan and Pakistan. This mixture of cultures influenced Mahayana Buddhism and spread of Buddhism to China, Korea, Japan and Tibet.

 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded sub-continent through Khyber Pass.
 323 BC Alexander the Great died in Iraq.
 321 BC Chandragubta Maurya member of royal family of Magadha captured Punjab and formed Mauryan Empire.
 297 BC Chandragubta Maurya succeeded in adding Deccan to Mauryan Empire with the help of his son Bindusara. After Bindusara, his son Ashoka ruled Mauryan Empire with great compassionately, and he spread Buddhism throughout sub-continent by building Buddhist monasteries and stupas.
 195 BC Demetrius the great king of Bactria conquered Kabul river Valley. He rebuild Taxila and Pushkalavati (present Charsada) as capitals of Gandhara
 75 BC Scythians the Persian nomads from central Asia followed Demetrius to capture sub-continent.
 53 BC Parthians defeated Greeks and ruled northern Pakistan, They promoted art and religion and Gandhara school of art developed.
 64 AD The kushana king, Kujula rular of nomad tribes from central Asia overthrew Parthians and took over Gandhara. The Kushans further extended their rule from Bay of Bengal to Bahawalpur, and up to Kashgar the Chinese frontier. They made Purushapura city of flowers (Peshawar) the capital.
 128 AD Kanishka greatest of Kushans rules. Jewelry, perfumes, spices, textiles, medicine trade with Romans flourished during his rule. Thousands of stupas and monasteries were build, and Gandhara school of art produced the best sculpture.
 151 AD Kanishka rule ended as he was killed during sleep.
 300 AD Kushan Empire was eroded by Sassanian from North, and Gupta Empire from South. Then Kushan Empire was reduced to a new dynasty of Kidar (Little) Kushans with Purushapura as capital and center.
 400 AD The White Hunes (horse-riding nomads from China) came from Central Asia, and invaded Gandhara. The sun and fire worshiping Hunes took the glory of school of art and Buddhism gradually disappeared from Northern Pakistan.
 565 AD Sassanians and Turksdefeated Hunes, and the area was mostly left for small Hindu kingdoms with the Turki Shahi rulars controlling the area. Buddhism declined as more people were converted into Brahman Hindus.
 870 AD Overthrowing Turki Shahis the central Asian Hindu Shahis established their rule. Their capital was Hund on Indus, and Kingdom extended from Jalalabad to Multan, and up to Northern Kashmir.
 1008 AD Hindu Shahis rule ended.

Arrival of Islam
16th July 622 Hijri calendar is considered to be started as Muhammad migrated to Madina.
 712 AD Muhammad Bin Qasim arrived in Sindh through Daibal.
 1097 AD Shaikh Ab-al-NajibSuhrawardi founder of Suhrawardi Order born
 1162 AD Shaikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi died
 1182 AD Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya of Multan who introduced Suhrawardi order into Muslim controlled areas is born.
 1191-92 AD Muhammad Ghauri defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan at the battles of Taraori.
 1194 AD After the second battle Muhammad Ghauri returned to Ghazni.
 1238 AD Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya who was appointed Khalifa by Baba Farid of Chishtiya order born
 1206 AD Qutbuddin Aibak took controlof  the Sub-Continent after the death of Muizuddin Muhammad Ghauri, and laid the foundations of Sultanate of Delhi, first Islamic Empire of sub-continent. The Ilbari (or slaves from Turkish origin.) were the first ruling dynasty of Sultanate of Delhi.
 1217 AD Shamsuddin Iltumish was real founder of Sultanate as he defeated his rivals, and saved his kingdom from Mongol invasions in 1217 AD.
 1265 AD Ghiasuddin Balban of Turkish nobles seized the throne after invasions from Mongols in Northern Punjab in 1230.
 1267-68 AD Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya died
 1286 AD Ilbari dynasty ended as Ghiasuddin Balban died, who dealt severely with Turkish nobility and gave a centralized system of administration.
 1290 AD Khaljis were the second dynasty of Sultanate of Delhi, also of Turkish origin, took control.
 1320 AD  The third dynasty of Sultanate of Delhi, Tughluqs also Turkish, came.
 1325 AD Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya died
 1414 AD Saiyads, fourth dynasty of Sultanate of Delhi came.
 1451 AD The Lodihs of Afghan origin ruled sub-continent as fifth dynasty of Sultanate of Delhi.
 1526 AD The Lodhis were defeated by Zahiruddin Babur at the battle of Panipat in April 1526, this was the beginning of Mughal Empire.
16 March 1527 Kanwaha battle took place between forces of Babur and Rana Songa of Mewar, a Rajput prince. Babur forces defeated Rajput in this decisive battle.
 1528 AD Babur captures Chanderi from Rajput chief Medini Rao.
 1529 AD Babur forces continued by defeating Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodhi at the battle of Ghagra in Bihar state.
 26 December 1530 Zaheeruddin Babur died at Agra.
 1530 AD Humayun eldest son of Babur took control of Mughal Empire.
 1540 AD Sher Shah Suri defeated Mughals in the battles of Chausa and Kanauj, and for nearly 15 years, Mughal king Humayun had to stay in exile. This was a setback to the great Mughal Empire by Sher Shah Suri.
 1545 AD Sher Shah Suri died. Hasan Shah Sur his son continued the Suri dynasty after his death.
 1555 AD Humayun regain the power.
 1556 AD The real foundations of great Mughal Empire were laid by Akbar after the death of Humayun this year. Akbar was only 13 years old at that time but thanks to his guardian Bairam Khan who helped him to established great Mughal Empire through series of conquests, and area of Mughal Empire increased.
26 June 1564 Sheikh Ahmad was born who joined Naqshbandya Silsilah under the decipline of Khawaja Baqi Billah. He gave the philosophy of Wahdat-ul Wujud and Wahdat-ush Shuhud in his dedication to Islam.
 1572 AD Akbar conquired Gujrat and renamed it Fatehpur. He build Jamia Masjid with impressive gateway of red stone known as Buland Darwaza in this new capital.
 1581 AD Akbar introduced Din-i-Ilahi, which gave a great threat to Islam at that time.
 1583 AD British arrived in Sub-continent for the first time as traders which Queen Elizabeth sent in ship Tygar to exploit opportunities of trade with sub-continent.
 1605 AD Jehangir's reign began after Akbar. Jehangir was Akbar's son and his original name was Salim. During his reign, Mughal Rule reached its climax through transition between two grand phases of architecture, phase of Akbar and the phase of his son Shah Jehan. The major feature of this period of Mughal architecture was that of substitution of red stone with white marble and great gardens including Shalimar Garden in Lahore and numerous other gardens around sub-continent. Mughal painting also reached its peak during Jehangir's reign which lost much of its glamour after his death.
 1614 AD British East India Company opened its first office in Bombay.
 1628 AD After Jehangir's death, his son Khurram took the name of Shah Jehan and further extended his Empire to Kandahar and conquered much of southern India, it was during Shah Jehan's reign when Mughal Empire was in its golden period. The Mughal architecture moved farther in this period and major feature was white marble, this include Dewan-e-Aam in Agra, Moti Masjid, Shish Mahal and Dewan-e-Khas in Lahore Fort.
 1631 AD The exquisite concept of mausoleum of Shah Jehan's wife Arjumand Banu Begum, Taj Mahal was started.
 1653 AD One of the wonders of World, Taj Mahal was completed showing all the glory of Mughal architecture.
 1658 AD Auranzeb Alamgir's reign started after death of Shah Jehan. The largest mosque in the world of its time, Badshahi Mosque was a great achievement during Aurangzeb's reign. Despite this Aurangzeb gave many grants to Hindus by appointing them in commanding positions in government and allowing them to restore temples. Mughal Empire start declining after this period.
21 February 1703 Shah Wali Ullah son of Shah Abdul Rehman born
 1707 AD Aurangzeb's death, and Mughal Empire started declining. Although Bahadur Shah Zafar son of Auranzeb took control, Marahattas power increased and they became invincible ruler of Deccan. In Punjab, Sikh power under Guru Gowind Singh also became a force. These power centers continually increased until 1857. Shah Wali Ullah reform movement also started at that time, which lasted until 1762 AD.
 1738-39 AD The weakening of Mughal Empire invited Nadir Shah a Persian king. Afghans of Rohilkhand and Jats became other threats to Mughal Empire.
 1757 AD East India Company became deeply enmeshed with politics of the Indian subcontinent, and after the battle of Plassey this year British begane the systematic conquest of sub-continent.
 1830 AD Haji Shariatullah started Faraizi Movement in East Bengal.
 1835 AD English was declared as official language of sub-continent by British.
 1840 AD Haji Shariatullah of Faraizi Movement died. His son Muhammad Mohsin known as Dadhu Mian made this movement stronger after his death.
 1845 AD British Empire grown from Bengal to Sindh, excluding Punjab which was ruled by Sikhs.
 1848 AD After the second Sikh War, British took control of Punjab and Indus Valley.
 1857, November 1st AD Pakistan becomes part of the foreign coloinal imperialistic romanic empire of British India or the British Raj.
 1860 AD Muhammad Mohsin (Dadhu Mian) died.

European colonization

Further reading

Qadir, Khuram. "The Turks and the Impact of Persian Civilization in Pakistan 1200-1300AD." Pakistan-Iran Relations in Historical Perspective (2004): 73.

Other websites
History of Ancient Pakistan

National Fund for Cultural Heritage  (Pakistan)
History Pak
Ancient Pakistan Facebook educational page

History of Pakistan


1800 (MDCCC) was an exceptional common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday in the Julian calendar.  As of the start of 1800, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

As of March 1 (O.S. February 18), when the Julian calendar acknowledged a leap day and the Gregorian calendar did not, the Julian calendar fell one day further behind, bringing the difference to 12 days until February 28 (O.S. February 16), 1900.

Events
 World population hits 1 billion.
 March 14 – Cardinal Barnaba Chiaramonti is elected pope as Pius VII.
 March 21 – Pius VII is ordained.
 April 24 – U.S. Library of Congress founded.
 May 5 – Great Britain passes the Act of Union to join Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to take effect on 1 January 1801. The act is signed by King George III in August.
 May 15 – Napoleon Bonaparte crosses the Alps and invades Italy.
 June 14 – Battle of Marengo, Napoleon defeats the Austrian troops near Marengo, Italy.
 June 2 – First smallpox vaccination in North America, at Trinity, Newfoundland.
 June 27 – Pascha Jussuf Karamanli of Tripoli declares war on Sweden by having the flagpole on the consulate chopped down.
 September 5 – The island of Malta, that was occupied by the French, is conquered by British troops.
 November 1 – U.S. President John Adams becomes the first President of the United States to live in the Executive Mansion (later renamed the White House).
 November 17 – The U.S. Congress holds its first Washington, DC session.
 December 3 – Battle of Hohenlinden, the French army defeats the Austrian troops.
 December 24 – An assault on Napoleon Bonaparte fails in Paris.
 December 24 – Pierre Coudrin and Henriette Aymer de la Chevalerie found the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary in Paris.
 Invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta: the first chemical battery
 The infrared radiation is discovered by Wilhelm Herschel.
 The Althing of Iceland, the world's oldest parliament, is abolished.

1800


Billy Taylor (July 24, 1921 – December 28, 2010) was an American jazz pianist, composer, broadcaster and educator. He was the Robert L. Jones Distinguished Professor of Music at East Carolina University in Greenville, and from 1994 was the artistic director for jazz at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C.

A jazz activist, Taylor sat on the Honorary Founders Board of The Jazz Foundation of America, an organisation he founded in 1989, with Ann Ruckert, Herb Storfer and Phoebe Jacobs, to save the homes and the lives of America's elderly jazz and blues musicians, later including musicians who survived Hurricane Katrina.

Taylor was a jazz educator, who lectured in colleges, served on panels and travelled worldwide as a jazz ambassador. Critic Leonard Feather once said, "It is almost indisputable that Dr. Billy Taylor is the world's foremost spokesman for jazz."

Biography

Early life and career
Taylor was born in Greenville, North Carolina, United States, but moved to Washington, D.C., when he was five years old. He grew up in a musical family and learned to play different instruments as a child, including guitar, drums and saxophone. He was most successful at the piano, and had classical piano lessons with Henry Grant, who had educated Duke Ellington a generation earlier. Taylor made his first professional appearance playing keyboard at the age of 13 and was paid one dollar.

Taylor attended Dunbar High School, the U.S.'s first high school for African American students. He attended Virginia State College and majored in sociology. During his time, he joined Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. Pianist Undine Smith Moore noticed young Taylor's talent in piano and he changed his major to music, graduating with a degree in music in 1942.

Taylor moved to New York City after graduation and started playing piano professionally from 1944, first with Ben Webster's Quartet on New York's 52nd Street. The same night he joined Webster's Quartet, he met Art Tatum, who became his mentor. Among the other musicians Taylor worked with was Machito and his mambo band, from whom he developed a love for Latin music. After an eight-month tour with the Don Redman Orchestra in Europe, Taylor stayed there with his wife, Theodora, and in Paris and the Netherlands.

Taylor returned to New York later that year and cooperated with Bob Wyatt and Sylvia Syms at the Royal Roost jazz club and Billie Holiday in a successful show called Holiday on Broadway. A year later, he became the house pianist at Birdland and performed with Charlie Parker, J.J. Johnson, Stan Getz, Dizzy Gillespie and Miles Davis. Taylor played at Birdland longer than any other pianist in the club's history. In 1949, Taylor published his first book, a textbook about bebop piano styles.

Mid-career
In 1952, Taylor composed one of  his best known tunes, "I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free", which achieved more popularity with the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Nina Simone recorded the song on her 1967 album Silk & Soul. The tune is known in the UK as a piano instrumental version, used for BBC Television's long-running Film... programme. He made dozens of recordings in the 1950s and 1960s, including  Billy Taylor Trio with Candido with Cuban percussionist Candido Camero,  My Fair Lady Loves Jazz, Cross Section and Taylor Made Jazz.

In 1958, he became music director of NBC's The Subject Is Jazz, the first television series focusing on jazz. The 13-part series was produced by the new National Educational Television Network with guests such as Duke Ellington, Aaron Copland, Bill Evans, Cannonball Adderley, Jimmy Rushing, and Langston Hughes. Taylor also worked as a DJ and programme director on radio station WLIB in New York in the 1960s. During the 1960s, the Billy Taylor Trio was a regular feature of the Hickory House on West 55th Street in Manhattan. From 1969 to 1972, he served as music director for The David Frost Show and was the first African American to lead a talk-show band. Louis Armstrong, Count Basie, Benny Goodman, and Buddy Rich were just a few of the musicians who played on the show.

In 1964, he established Jazzmobile in New York City as a way to promote jazz through educational programmes. In 1981, Jazzmobile produced a jazz special for National Public Radio, for which the programme received the Peabody Award for Excellence in Broadcasting Programs. Jazzmobile's 1990 Tribute Concert to Taylor at Avery Fisher Hall, part of the JVC Jazz Festival, featured Nancy Wilson, Ahmad Jamal Trio, and Terence Blanchard Quintet.

Taylor hosted two long-running jazz programmes on National Public Radio.  Jazz Alive! ran from 1977 to 1983, and Billy Taylor's Jazz at the Kennedy Center ran from 1995 to 2001. The former program won the Peabody Award.

Later career

In 1981, after being profiled by CBS News Sunday Morning, Taylor was hired as an on-air correspondent and then conducted more than 250 interviews with musicians. He received an Emmy Award for his segment on the multi-talented Quincy Jones.

In 1989, Taylor formed his own "Taylor Made" record label to document his own music. You Tempt Me (1996), by his 1985 trio (with Victor Gaskin and drummer Curtis Boyd), includes a rendition of Ellington's "Take the "A" Train". White Nights (1991) has Taylor, Gaskin, and drummer Bobby Thomas performing live from Leningrad in the Soviet Union. Then came Solo (1992), and Jazzmobile Allstars (1992). In 1997, he received the New York State Governor's Art Award.

Taylor suffered from a 2002 stroke, which affected his right hand, but he continued to perform almost until his death. He died after a heart attack on December 28, 2010, in Manhattan at the age of 89.

His legacy was honored in a Harlem memorial service on January 11, 2011, featuring performances by Taylor's final working trio – bassist Chip Jackson and drummer Winard Harper – along with long-time Taylor associates Jimmy Owens, Frank Wess, Geri Allen, Christian Sands and vocalist Cassandra Wilson. Taylor was survived by his wife of 65 years, Theodora Castion Taylor; a daughter, Kim Taylor-Thompson; and a granddaughter. His son, artist Duane Taylor, died in 1988.

Legacy
Taylor appeared on hundreds of albums and composed more than 300 songs during his career, which spanned over six decades. His 1963 song "I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free" dealt with civil rights issues and became the unofficial anthem of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. It was selected as "one of the greatest songs of the sixties" by The New York Times and was the theme music of the 1996 film Ghosts of Mississippi.

Engaging and educating more audience and young people was a central part of Taylor's career. He was the Wilbur D. Barrett Chair of Music at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a Duke Ellington Fellow at Yale. Besides publishing instructional books on jazz, he taught jazz courses at Howard University, Long Island University, the Manhattan School of Music, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he had studied under Roland Wiggins and earned his Master's degree and EdD degree in Music Education in 1975.

His extensive appearance in television series and jazz educational programs brought the music he loved to the masses at the grassroots level as well as more formal arenas. He was sometimes better known as a television personality than a pianist. He was quoted in a 2007 article in the Post Magazine: "there's no question that being an advocate eclipsed my reputation as a musician. It was my doing. I wanted to prove to people that jazz has an audience. I had to do that for me."

Awards and honors
Taylor had more than 20 honorary doctoral degrees and was the recipient of two Peabody Awards for Jazzmobile, NEA Jazz Masters Award (1998), an Emmy Award (1983) for carrying out over 250 interviews for CBS News Sunday Morning, a Grammy Award (2004)  Down Beat magazine's Lifetime Achievement award (1984), National Medal of Arts (1992), and the Tiffany Award (1991). In 1981, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from the Berklee College of Music.

He was honored in 2001 with the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) Jazz Living Legend Award, and election to the Hall of Fame for the International Association for Jazz Education. He served as artistic director for jazz at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, where he developed many critically acclaimed concert series, including the Louis Armstrong Legacy series, and the annual Mary Lou Williams Women in Jazz Festival. In addition, he performed at the White House seven times and was one of only three jazz musicians to be appointed to the National Council of the Arts.

Taylor was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2010.

Discography

As leader
1945: Billy Taylor Piano (Savoy)
1951: Piano Panorama (Atlantic and 1957 as most of The Billy Taylor Touch)
1952: Jazz At Storyville (Roost 1952)
1953: Billy Taylor Trio (Prestige)
1953–54: Cross Section (Prestige) – released 1956 (includes all tracks from Billy Taylor Plays for DJs)
1954: The Billy Taylor Trio with Candido (Prestige)
1954: Billy Taylor Trio at Town Hall (Prestige) (Status 1965)
1955: A Touch of Taylor (Prestige)
1956: Evergreens (ABC-Paramount)
1956: Billy Taylor at the London House (ABC-Paramount)
1957: Introduces Ira Sullivan (ABC-Paramount)
1957: My Fair Lady Loves Jazz (ABC-Paramount; Impulse! 1965, ABC Impulse! 1968)
1957: The Billy Taylor Touch (Atlantic) - featuring tracks recorded in 1951 and 1957
1957: The New Billy Taylor Trio (ABC-Paramount)
1959: One for Fun (Atlantic)
1959: Billy Taylor with Four Flutes (Riverside; with Frank Wess, Herbie Mann and Jerome Richardson)
1959: Taylor Made Jazz (Argo)
1960: Uptown (Riverside)
1960: Warming Up! (Riverside) - also released as Custom Taylored (SeSac) and Easy Like (Surrey)
1961: Interlude (Prestige Moodsville)
1961: Kwamina (Mercury)
1962: Impromptu (Mercury)
1963: Right Here, Right Now! (Capitol)
1965: Midnight Piano (Capitol)
1968: I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free (Tower)
1969: Sleeping Bee (MPS) - also released as Billy Taylor Today (Prestige)
1970: Ok Billy (Bell)
1977: Jazz Live (Monmouth Evergreen)
1977: Live at Storyville (1977 recording for West 54 Records)
1981: With Joe Kennedy Where've You Been (Concord Jazz)
1985: You Tempt Me (Taylor-Made, 1989)
1988: White Nights And Jazz in Leningrad (Taylor-Made)
1988: Solo (Taylor-Made)
1989: Billy Taylor and the Jazzmobile All Stars (Taylor-Made)
1991: White Nights and Jazz in Leningrad (Taylor-Made)
1992: Dr. T with Gerry Mulligan (GRP Records)
1993: Live at MCG with Gerry Mulligan, Carl Allen, Chip Jackson
1993: It's a Matter of Pride (GRP)
1995: Homage (GRP)
1997: The Music Keeps Us Young (Arkadia Jazz)
1999: Ten Fingers – One Voice (Arkadia Jazz)
1999: Taylor Made at the Kennedy Center with Dee Dee Bridgewater (Kennedy Center Jazz)
2001: Urban Griot (Soundspot)
2002: Live at AJE New York (Soundspot)

As sideman
With Arkadia Jazz All Stars
Thank You, Duke!
With Johnny Hartman
Once in Every Life (Bee Hive, 1980)
With Coleman Hawkins
Timeless Jazz (Jazztone, 1954)
With Mundell Lowe
A Grand Night for Swinging (Riverside, 1957)
With the Metronome All-Stars
Metronome All-Stars 1956 (Clef, 1956)
With Sal Salvador
Juicy Lucy (Bee Hive, 1978)
With Sonny Stitt
The Matadors Meet the Bull (Roulette, 1965)
What's New!!! (Roulette, 1966)
With Lucky Thompson
Accent on Tenor Sax (Urania 1954)
With Various Artists
Charlie Parker 10th Memorial Concert (Limelight Records, 1965)
"Jazz Tones" with Coleman Hawkins,1954, reissued 1984 Xanadu Records

References

External links

Billy Taylor Jazz
Official Website that includes extensive video
Billy Taylor's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project
Billy Taylor Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2009)

1921 births
2010 deaths
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
Atlantic Records artists
Bebop pianists
GRP Records artists
Hard bop pianists
Mainstream jazz pianists
Mercury Records artists
People from Greenville, North Carolina
Prestige Records artists
Radio personalities from New York (state)
Riverside Records artists
Savoy Records artists
Soul-jazz pianists
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
University of Massachusetts Amherst College of Education alumni
Virginia State University alumni
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
Musicians from Washington, D.C.
American jazz educators
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American composers
Jazz musicians from Virginia
Jazz musicians from North Carolina
20th-century American male musicians
Dunbar High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni
20th-century jazz composers

Billy Taylor


In classical mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system, usually the Cartesian coordinate system. As vectors are frequently used, it is also known as vector geometry. In most cases, tools from algebra (especially linear algebra) are used to solve problems.

Fields of geometry

Analytic geometry


Peterhof (or Petergof), meaning "Peter's Court" is a town in Saint Petersburg on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland. It has a population of about 65,000. It hosts one of two campuses of Saint Petersburg State University. A series of palaces and gardens, laid out on the orders of Peter the Great, and sometimes called the "Russian Versailles", is also there. The palace-ensemble along with the city center is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In the time of Peter the Great, the sea floor just north of the Petergof site and to the east toward St. Petersburg was too shallow for commercial ships or warships. But to the west of Petergof, the sea floor dropped off to be deep enough for sea vessels. Accordingly, when Peter the Great decided to build St. Petersburg at the eastern end of the Gulf of Finland, he built the commercial harbor for St. Petersburg and the Kronstadt fort across the 20 kilometers (12 miles) of shallow sea to supply and defend his Navy.

Saint Petersburg

Peterhof


When HARLIE Was One is a 1972 science fiction novel by American writer David Gerrold. It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1972 and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1973. The novel, a "fix-up" of previously published short stories, was published as an original paperback by Ballantine Books in 1972, with an accompanying Science Fiction Book Club release. A revised version, subtitled "Release 2.0", was published in 1988 by Bantam Books.

Plot introduction
Central to the story is an artificial intelligence named H.A.R.L.I.E., also referred to by the proper name "HARLIE"—an acronym for Human Analog Replication, Lethetic Intelligence Engine (originally Human Analog Robot Life Input Equivalents).

HARLIE's story revolves around his relationship with David Auberson, the psychologist who is responsible for guiding HARLIE from childhood into adulthood.  It is also the story of HARLIE's fight against being turned off, and the philosophical question of whether or not HARLIE is human; for that matter, what it means to be human.

When HARLIE Was One contains one of the first fictional representations of a computer virus (preceded by Gregory Benford in 1970), and one of the first uses of the term "virus" to describe a program that infects another computer.

Reception
Theodore Sturgeon reported that the novel "carries a good freight of social and psychological insight".

In other works
The HARLIE intelligence engine appears in a number of Gerrold's other works:
In the Star Wolf series, HARLIE is routinely installed as the administrating AI of Terran warships.
 The Dingilliad series, Jumping Off the Planet, Bouncing Off the Moon, and Leaping to the Stars.
 A Nest for Nightmares, the fifth book of The War Against the Chtorr.
HARLIE is a major character in Hella .

References

External links

1972 science fiction novels
1972 American novels
1988 American novels
American science fiction novels
Doubleday (publisher) books
Fictional computers
Novels by David Gerrold
Novels about artificial intelligence

When HARLIE Was One


In general use, an enclave can be any special area of a bigger area of land, such as a part of a city that has different taxes than the rest of the city.

In political geography, an enclave is a piece of land which has a different country totally around it. If another country has sovereignty over it, it is also called an exclave of that other country.  It is usually landlocked, meaning it is completely encased by the surrounding country

Exclaves can also exist within a country. This is when some administrative regions have holes (of other such regions) in them.

The word enclave is a relatively new word in the language of diplomacy: Diplomats are used to speaking French. The word comes from late Latin inclavatus, which can be translated as shut in, locked up (with a key, from Latin clavis, key). The word got in the English language in the year 1868. exclave (with a similar meaning) followed 3 decades later.

Enclaves may be created for a variety of historical, political or geographical reasons. Some areas have been left as enclaves simply because a river changed its course.

Since living in an enclave can be very inconvenient and many agreements have to be found by both countries over mail addresses, power supply or passage rights, enclaves tend to be eliminated and many cases that existed before have now been removed. Sometimes it is the case, that enclaves are traded for one another.

In English Church history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also Royal Peculiar).

Enclaved countries

Some enclaves are countries that are not part of any other country, and therefore not exclaves. Three such countries exist:
 The republic of San Marino, enclaved within Italy
 Vatican City, within the city of Rome, in Italy
 The Kingdom of Lesotho, inside South Africa

Enclave


Wrought iron is a type of iron. It has very little carbon in it. Most steels have much more carbon. It also has some slag in it. This gives it a fibrous look similar to how wood looks. It is tough, malleable, ductile, and can be welded easily. It was most common in the old days when cast iron was the only other type of iron. Now mild steel is used instead. If it contains too much sulfur, it becomes very brittle when heated. Wrought iron has a rough surface that can hold paint and zinc for galvanization much more easily.

Wrought iron was one of the most common types of iron in the medieval times. Its popularity has declined. It is needed to make historical items look historical.

Related pages
Mild steel

Iron

Wrought iron


Robert Sidney Smith (February 13, 1877 – October 20, 1935), known as Sidney Smith, was the creator of the influential comic strip The Gumps, based on an idea by Captain Joseph M. Patterson, editor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune.

Biography
He was born in Bloomington, Illinois. The son of a dentist, Smith never finished high school and began drawing cartoons for his hometown newspaper when he was 18. He also delivered chalk talks and worked in newspaper art departments in Indiana, Pennsylvania and Ohio.

In 1908, he signed on as a sports cartoonist at the Chicago Examiner where he created a talking goat in a feature, Buck Nix, which involved continuity: "What will tomorrow bring?" In 1911, Smith moved to the Chicago Tribune, where he introduced a new goat character when Old Doc Yak began as a daily on February 5, 1912, with the Sunday page starting a month later on March 10. In either 1912 or early 1913 he began creating "Old Doc Yak" animated films. Some sources show the first cartoon as appearing in 1912 whereas the Library of Congress lists 3 films in 1913, 13 in 1914 and 2 in 1915. This is the first animated series with a recurring character. It was distributed through Selig films, a major Chicago-based studio. No films seem to have survived, but a single printed background was in the files of Smith's final assistant Andy Hettinger.

At the Chicago Tribune on October 28, 1914, he started a panel, "Light Occupations", which ran alongside an untitled local sports-oriented feature. Expanding from sports into a variety of recurring strips, it initially appeared in various odd sizes, continuing until Saturday, January 20, 1917.

From goats to Gumps

The last Old Doc Yak ended February 10, 1917 with the well-dressed Yak and his family leaving their house, wondering who might next move into it. The last panel showed only the empty house. On February 12, 1917, in the space formerly occupied by Old Doc Yak, newspapers displayed the initial episodes of The Gumps, showing them moving into the same house.

The Gumps had a 42-year run in newspapers, continuing until October 17, 1959. The strip, its merchandising (toys, games, a popular song, playing cards, food products) and media adaptations made Smith a wealthy man. In addition to his townhouse, he had a large estate near Chicago and a  farm. He believed in physical fitness, keeping in shape with amateur boxing and long-distance running. Smith's studio was in a large 12-room lakefront house at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. Wearing a coonskin cap, Smith threw large parties at his estate, which also had a log cabin, a caretaker's home, a four-car garage and a statue of Andy Gump on the front lawn. The circular drive that led to the house surrounded a large illuminated fountain.

Sam Carr Polk wrote:
The Gumps episode with inventor "Tom Carr" and his lady love "Mary Gold" was inspired by Smith's friendship with my uncle, inventor E.G. "Ted" Carr and his beautiful red-head secretary, Mary Bridgeman. Uncle Ted manufactured road machinery of his own invention at 939 West North Avenue in Chicago, and Smith fell in love with his secretary—for a while. When they broke up, poor Mary Gold had an untimely death, which inspired the flood of letters he's lying among in the publicity photo.

Smith's strip was adapted into a live-action/animated film series in 1920–21 by Wallace Carlson, starring Joe Murphy (Andy) and Fay Tincher. During production, Carlson formed a partnership with Gumps writer Sol Hess, and together they launched The Nebbs, a Gumps-like family comic strip which began May 1923 and continued until 1946. Mary Gold's death in 1929—one of the earliest cartoon deaths—was a media sensation, attracting intense interest across the country.

In 1922, Smith signed a million-dollar contract ($100,000 per year for ten years). Two years later, he published the 183-page Andy Gump, His Life Story (1924). On October 20, 1935, he signed a new contract, giving him $150,000 a year. On his way home from signing that contract, he died in a head-on collision. He was 58 years old. It is often reported that Smith crashed a brand new Rolls-Royce that was given to him by The Chicago Tribune at this time.  This is only a legend. Smith was given a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost, chassis number 14MG, in 1922, not in 1935. The car in which Smith died was a "small sedan."

Influence
The Gumps inspired Amos 'n' Andy and thus had a huge influence on the introduction of radio serial continuity and radio-television situation comedies, as detailed by broadcast historian Elizabeth McLeod in the "Andy Gump to Andy Brown" section of her popular culture essay, "Amos 'n' Andy—In Person," and her book, The Original Amos 'n' Andy: Freeman Gosden, Charles Correll, and the 1928–43 Radio Serial. Mainly due to the research of McLeod, Sidney Smith is now regarded as a seminal figure in 20th-century popular culture.

Books
 Herb Galewitz compiled daily strips for his book, Sidney Smith's The Gumps, published in 1974 by Charles Scribner's Sons.
 LOAC Essentials 2: The Gumps (2013)

References

External links

Barnacle Press: Old Doc Yak
Barnacle Press: Buck Nix
Barnacle Press: The Gumps
Roberts, Garyn G. Dick Tracy and American Culture: Morality and Mythology, Text and Context. McFarland, 2003.

1877 births
1935 deaths
American comic strip cartoonists
American comics writers
Bloomington High School (Bloomington, Illinois) alumni
Chicago Tribune people
Road incident deaths in Illinois
20th-century American writers
20th-century American male writers

Sidney Smith (cartoonist)


Pneumothorax (sometimes called "collapsed lung") is a health problem where air or gas is in the pleural space (the space between the lung and the pleura). The pleura is a slim membrane that covers the lungs. The two parts of the pleura usually touch. A hole might grow in the surface of the lung. Air then enters between the pleura and the lung. The lung will collapse. If enough air gets into the pleural space, it can also push against other organs or parts in the chest, like the heart or the aorta. Pneumothorax is a medical emergency.

There are two main types of pneumothorax. These are a Closed Pneumothorax, and an Open Pneumothorax. These are also known as Simple Pneumothorax and Complex Pneumothorax.

Symptoms
The most common symptoms of Pneumothorax are chest pains. The chest pains can be sharp, dull, or stabbing. Some other symptoms of Pneumothorax are shortness of breath, rapid breathing, and coughing.

Causes
A Pneumothorax can occur for no obvious reason (spontaneous). It is typically  men who are tall (or perhaps have long torsos), between the ages of 20 and 40 who present a spontaneous pneumothorax.

Small air blisters (blebs) can develop on the top of the surface of the lungs. These blebs sometimes burst — allowing air to leak into the pleural space that surrounds the lungs, causing the lung to collapse.

Otherwise, it can be caused by blunt or penetrating injuries or lung diseases that result in the lung leaking air into the pleural cavity.

Consuming cannabis via smoking is also related to victims of a pneumothorax.

Treatment
Simple Pneumothorax will heal by itself. Complex pneumothorax will need medical attention. One should treat respiratory problems as soon as they occur.

Closed pneumothorax

Closed pneumothorax is when air or gas gets in the pleural space without any outside wound. This sometimes happens when the lung is already injured somehow, like from diseases such as cancer or cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis is a disease in the lungs. Glands in the body make large amounts of thick mucus. The mucus blocks ducts and passageways.

The most common cause of closed pneumothorax is called spontaneous pneumothorax. The cause of spontaneous pneumothorax is not known.

Open pneumothorax

Open pneumothorax is when air gets into the pleural space from an injury to the chest. This can happen with stab wounds, like from a knife. It can also happen after a gunshot injury. The injury is most dangerous if the wound lets air in when the injured person (or animal) breathes, but does not let it back out. Sometimes this is called a "sucking chest wound."

References

Respiratory system

Pneumothorax


Vexillology is the study of flags.  The word comes from both the Latin word vexilla "little sail" for flag plus the Greek suffix-ology that means "study of".  The vexillum was a particular kind of flag used by the Roman legions.  Vexillology is a kind of study of symbols related to heraldry.  A person who studies flags is a vexillologist, and a person who designs flags is a vexillographer.

Because they are flown outside, where they move with the wind, flags are usually designed with bold images and bright, basic colors.  Flag design also follows a historical process, where later flag designs are based on earlier flag designs.  This means that many flags in an area may look similar because they are all based on one historical flag.  Examples include the Pan-African colors, Pan-Arab colors, and the Nordic Cross.

Flag Identification System (FIS)

The Flag Identification System was created by Whitney Smith and adopted by Fédération internationale des associations vexillologiques (FIAV).

The first row is for use on land and the second row is for use on water, each divided into private (civil), government (state), and military (war) use.

There are 63 symbols that can describe the flag, including:

Other symbols are used to describe other uses of the flag, such as official status and which side of the flag is shown. The symbols in common use are:

 Normal or de jure version of flag, or obverse (front) side
 Design proposed but not officially adopted
 Design is a reconstruction
 Reverse (back) side of flag
 Design is a variant (a different form of the same flag)
 Alternative (different) version of flag
 De facto (unofficial but in actual use) version of flag
 Flag has different designs on its front and back
 Obverse (front) side meant to be hoisted (raised) with pole on the right
 Design approved by the government to represent a nation
 Design used in the past, but now abandoned (This symbol was not part of Smith's original set.)
 Reverse side is mirror image of obverse side
 Reverse side is the obverse side flipped
 Information about the reverse side is not known
 Flag can be hung vertically by hoisting on a normal pole and then turning the pole 90°
 Flag can be hung vertically by rotating the design first
 Vertical hoist method is unknown
 Design has no element that can be rotated
 Flag can only be hoisted vertically

Heraldry

Vexillology


Haim "Kidoni" Bar-Lev (, 16 November 1924 – 7 May 1994) was a military officer during Israel's pre-state and early statehood eras and later a government minister.

Biography
Born Haim Brotzlewsky in Vienna and raised in Zagreb, Bar-Lev made aliyah to Mandate Palestine in 1939. From 1942 through 1948, Bar-Lev served in various Jewish military units, such as the Palmach. He became both a pilot and a parachutist, which would later serve him in developing both of these military branches in the young Israel Defense Forces.

In 1946 Bar-Lev blew up the Allenby Bridge near Jericho to prevent Arab militiamen in Trans-Jordan from entering Jewish towns west of the Jordan River. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Bar-Lev was the commander of the Eighth Battalion (Mechanized) in the Negev Brigade, which fought in the southern part of the country and the Sinai.

During the 1956 Suez Crisis he commanded the 27th Armored Brigade, which captured the Gaza Strip before turning southwest and reaching the Suez Canal. By 1964 he became of Director of Operations within the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).

During the June 1967 Six-Day War he served as the Deputy Chief of Staff in the IDF. In late 1968 he accepted Maj. Gen. Adan's proposal that a high sand-dune wall be built along the east bank of the Suez Canal to prevent the Egyptian military from observing Israeli defenses along the Suez Canal. Behind the sand dune a line of fixed fortifications was constructed. This became known as the Bar Lev Line.

Between 1968 and 1971, Bar-Lev served as IDF's Chief of General Staff, which made him the highest-ranking military officer.

During the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, although retired from the IDF and serving as the Minister of Trade and Industry, he was recalled by Prime Minister Golda Meir back into military service to replace Shmuel "Gorodish" Gonen as chief of the Southern Command, which defended the Sinai Peninsula. Bar-Lev played a pivotal role in the war. Before his appointment the Southern front was in disarray to the point of near total collapse and Gonen was proving unable to effectively control the situation. Bar-Lev immediately took charge and worked towards stabilizing the front. His political and negotiating skills also proved instrumental in controlling his field generals who were feuding amongst themselves since each had their own notions, sometimes competing ones, regarding how the war in the South should be carried out. The effect that Bar-Lev's arrival had on the chaotic Southern command headquarters was described by Gonen's deputy, Uri Ben-Ari, in testimony to the Israeli military's historical department:

Bar-Lev brought calmness on all of us. Finally there was a feeling that we had a real commander in charge. This feeling spread between us and later also in the battlefield radios like fire. Bar-Lev also managed to calm Gorodish down. Prior to his arrival, general staff meetings were one loud shout out of Gorodish's mouth. Bar Lev instituted orderly working routines. No one challenged his authority. The country owes much to him. "Dvelah" went back to being a real war-room, a compartmentalized one. No one [who did not belong there] was allowed entry. Serenity descended on the war room. The general staff officers switched to carrying out their tasks in well organized shifts. Even Arik [Ariel Sharon]'s tone of voice changed when Bar Lev arrived.

Political career
Bar-Lev remained Minister of Trade and Industry until the Alignment government was defeated and replaced by the Likud under the leadership of Menachem Begin following the 1977 elections, in which Bar-Lev was elected to the Knesset for the first time. Between 1977 and 1984 he served as General Secretary of the Labor Party, the largest faction in the Alignment. When the Alignment joined the national unity governments that held office between 1984 and 1990, Bar-Lev served as Minister of Police and as a member of the "inner cabinet". He retired from the Knesset at the time of the 1992 elections, and was appointed ambassador to Russia, serving until 1994.

He died in Tel Aviv on 7 May 1994.

His son Omer Bar-Lev is an Israeli politician member of the Labor Party.

See also
 List of Israel's Chiefs of the General Staff

References

External links

  by Leon Charney on The Leon Charney Report

1924 births
1994 deaths
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to Mandatory Palestine
Palmach members
People of the Suez Crisis
Ambassadors of Israel to Russia
20th-century Israeli Jews
Deaths from cancer in Israel
Israeli Labor Party politicians
Alignment (Israel) politicians
Ministers of Development of Israel
Ministers of Public Security of Israel
Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981)
Members of the 10th Knesset (1981–1984)
Members of the 11th Knesset (1984–1988)
Members of the 12th Knesset (1988–1992)
Columbia University alumni

Haim Bar-Lev


The Panagia Portaitissa (; ) also known as the Iviron Theotokos or Iverskaya in Russian, is an Eastern Orthodox icon of the Virgin Mary in the Georgian Iviron monastery on Mount Athos in Greece, where it is believed to have been since the year 999.  According to the sacred tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church it was painted by Luke the Evangelist. The icon is referred to as "Wonderworking" meaning that numerous miracles have been attributed to the intercession of the Theotokos (Mother of God) by persons praying before it.  The synaxis (feast day) for this icon is on February 12, as well as on Bright Tuesday, and also on October 13 for the translation to Moscow of the Iveron icon.

The icon belongs to a family of images of the Theotokos known as Hodegetria (Greek: Όδηγήτρια, "she who leads the way") after the prototype from Constantinople.  In these icons, the Christ Child sits on his mother's left arm and she is depicted pointing to Christ with her right hand. Another famous icon based upon Hodegetria is Our Lady of Częstochowa.

A unique characteristic of this icon is what appears to be a scar on the Virgin Mary's right cheek or her chin.  A number of different traditions exist to explain this, but the one most commonly held by Orthodox Christians is that the icon was stabbed by a soldier in Nicaea during the period of Byzantine iconoclasm under the Emperor Theophilus (829–842). According to tradition, when the icon was stabbed, blood miraculously flowed out of the wound.

The original in Iveron is encased in a chased riza of silver and gold covering almost all the figures except the faces, as is common with the most venerated icons.

Traditional history

According to the Orthodox Church's sacred tradition, the icon was at one time in the possession of a widow in Nicaea. Not wanting the icon to be seized and destroyed by the iconoclasts, she spent all night in prayer and then cast the icon into the Mediterranean Sea. The widow's son later went to Mount Athos, where he became a monk and recounted the miracle of the bleeding wound, and how the icon had been placed in the sea. Much later (c. 1004) the icon was recovered from the sea by a Georgian monk named Gabriel the Iberian (later canonized a saint in the Orthodox Church), who was laboring at the Iveron Monastery on Mount Athos. This occurred on Tuesday of Bright Week (Easter Week), and is commemorated annually on that day (as well as the fixed date of March 31).  The icon was taken to the katholikon (main church) of the monastery from which the icon gets its name.

The tradition goes on to say that the following day, when the monks entered the church they could not find the icon. After searching they discovered the icon hanging on the gates of the monastery. This occurrence was repeated several times, until St. Gabriel reported that he had seen a vision of the Theotokos, wherein she revealed that she did not want her icon to be guarded by the monks, but rather she intended to be their Protectress. After this, the icon was permanently installed above the monastery gates, where it remains to this day. Because of this, the icon came to be called Portaitissa or "Gate-Keeper". This title was not new for the Virgin Mary, but comes from a verse of the Akathist to the Mother of God: "Rejoice, O Blessed Gate-Keeper who opens the gates of Paradise to the righteous." Orthodox monks and nuns throughout the world will often place an icon of the Theotokos Iverskaya on the monastery gates. It is also common in Orthodox temples (church buildings) to place an icon of the Theotokos Portaitissa on the inside of the iconostasis, above the Holy Doors, looking towards the Holy Table (altar table).

Moscow version

In 1648, Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, while he was still Archimandrite of Novospassky Monastery, commissioned an exact copy of the Iviron icon to be made and sent to Russia. Almost immediately upon its arrival on October 13, the icon was "glorified" with numerous miracles attributed to it by the faithful. The Iverskaya Chapel was built in 1669 to enshrine the icon next to the Kremlin walls in Moscow. The chapel was the main entrance to Red Square and traditionally everyone, from the Tsar down to the lowest peasant would stop there to venerate the icon before entering the square.  After the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the chapel was destroyed by the Communists and the fate of the icon is unknown to this day.

Montreal version
As is common in the Orthodox Church, the icon is a prototype which has been copied numerous times. Several of the copies themselves have been known to be wonderworking, one of the most famous of which is the myrrh-streaming icon from Montreal in Canada. For fifteen years (1982–1997), as myrrh continued to flow from the Icon, Brother José Muñoz Cortés devoted himself to its care, accompanying it on numerous trips to parishes all over the United States and Canada, to South America, Australia, and Europe. The icon was stolen on one such trip, in October 1997, when Brother Muñoz Cortés was tortured and murdered in a hotel room in Athens, Greece; the icon has not been seen since. He had planned to return to Montreal the following day to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of the appearance of the miraculous myrrh on the icon. A new copy of the Montreal Myrrh-Streaming Iveron Icon began streaming Myrrh at the Russian Orthodox Church in Hawaii in 2007. Several feast days during the liturgical year celebrate a few of these miracles (see External links, below).

Veneration
Nehemias is venerated in Orthodox Church:

 12 February – translation to Valday Iversky Monastery (1656),
 31 March – Appearance of the Iverion Icon of the Mother of God (999),
 23 April – returning the icon from the museum to Dormition Cathedral, Moscow in 2012
 13 October – translation to Iberian Gate in 1648
 On Bright Tuesday

References

External links

Feast days
 Icon of the Mother of God "Iveron" (February 12) Orthodox icon and synaxarion

 Appearance of the Iveron Icon of the Mother of God (March 31)
 Translation of the Iveron Icon of the Mother of God to Moscow (October 13)

 Arrival of the Iveron Icon of the Mother of God in Georgia (September 26)

Other sites
 The Hawaiian Myrrh-Streaming Iveron Icon of the Theotokos
 Chapel where the icon is kept
 Icons of the Mother of God

Eastern Orthodox icons of the Virgin Mary
Mount Athos

Panagia Portaitissa


Richard III is a history play written by William Shakespeare. It is one of Shakespeare's most famous and popular plays. Shakespeare probably wrote Richard III around the year 1593. The play was first printed in a book in 1597.

Like other history plays written by Shakespeare, Richard III is about people and events from earlier in English history. The real Richard III was king of England from 1483 to 1485. Shakespeare used the history books of his own time to create his play, though many modern experts do not think those early histories, or Shakespeare's play, are accurate and free of bias.

Richard III is different from many plays, because its leading character is a villain, not a hero. In his play, Shakespeare shows the king as a cruel tyrant who does many evil acts, before he is defeated in battle and killed by Henry Tudor. Tudor then becomes Henry VII of England, the next English king and the first of the Tudor dynasty. The play contains black comedy, especially because Richard III keeps telling people he is a good man despite behaving like a villain.

Shakespeare lived and wrote before modern ideas of freedom of speech and freedom of the press had become accepted. The English government of Shakespeare's day practiced censorship of books and plays. Elizabeth I of England, who was queen from 1558 to 1603, was the granddaughter of Henry VII and the last Tudor ruler. Her government saw Richard III as a villain and the man who replaced him, Henry VII, as a hero, and censored any other point of view. If Shakespeare had wanted to write a play with Richard III as a hero, he would not have been allowed to do so.

A famous movie version of Richard III was made in 1955. Laurence Olivier directed the movie and played the leading role. Other movie and television versions, and many modern stage productions, have also been done.

Plays by William Shakespeare
Plays based on English history
1590s plays

Richard III (play)


Super Bowl XXXIX was the thirty-ninth Super Bowl. The teams in the game were the Philadelphia Eagles from the NFC and the New England Patriots from the AFC. New England won the game 24-21. Paul McCartney performed in the halftime show.

039
New England Patriots
2005 in sports
2005 in Florida

Super Bowl XXXIX


Harmukh is a branch of great Himalayan range which is between the valleys of Jhelum and Neelum in the north eastern part of Kashmir Valley to the north of Srinagar. Excepting the mornings and evening, the mountain is always covered by clouds. Name of the 16980 feet high peak is also Harmukh. The peak is square shaped and can be viewed from all the sides therefore the name "Harmukh". Sarbalnag spring is on the top of Harmukh mountain.

Mountain ranges of Pakistan

Harmukh Mountain


In typesetting, the page margins (with header and footer) are the borders of the page outside of the regular text to be shown.

There are 4 main margins:
 top margin (or: header) - the top (upper) border of the page
 bottom margin (or: footer) - the lower border of the page
 left margin - the lefthand-side border of the page
 right margin - the righthand-side border of the page
Other special margins can be used, beyond the typical 4, to provide additional margin settings on a page.

In computer CSS styles
For webpages (such as on the Internet), the margins can be set by using CSS style sheet directives, such as:
 style="margins: 0.6em 0.7em 0.4em 0.7em" for margins: top, right, bottom & left.
 style="margin-top: 0.6em" to set just the top margin.
 style="margin-left: 0.7em" to set the left margin.
 style="margin-right: 0.7em" to set the right margin.
 style="margin-bottom: 0.4em" for the bottom margin.
Each page, and each image or formatted table on a page, can have the 4 margins set, separately.

Typesetting
Writing

Margins


Harsha or Harshavardhana () or "Harsha vardhan" (590–647) was an Indian Buddhist emperor. He ruled north-central and east India for fifty seven years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a king of Thanesar. At the height of his power he ruled the Gujarat, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Gangetic plain North of the Narmada River. After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the sixth century C.E., North India reverted back to small republics and small monarchical states.

590 births
647 deaths
Indian monarchs

Harsha


Robert Dunne (5 September 1830 – 13 January 1917) was the second Roman Catholic bishop of Brisbane and later he became its first archbishop.

Dunne was born in Ardfinnan, County Tipperary, Ireland and was educated at Lismore Grammar School and the Irish College at Rome. After a brilliant collegiate course, Dunne was ordained priest in 1855, then appointed a master at St Laurence O'Toole Seminary, Dublin, of which the Rev. James Quinn was president. When Quinn was made the first bishop of Brisbane he brought Dunne with him. They arrived at Brisbane in May 1861 and Dunne began to carry out the work of diocesan secretary in addition to his duties as a parish priest. Dunne soon became a prominent figure in the young city, and there was much regret when he was removed to Toowoomba in 1868. On Quinn's death, Dunne became the second Roman Catholic bishop of Brisbane, and was consecrated on 18 June 1882. On 10 May 1887 Dunne was appointed the first Roman Catholic archbishop of Brisbane, holding the office for nearly 30 years. In 1890 Dunne visited Rome and during his absence the opportunity was taken of building a new episcopal residence for him.

Dunne did not take a prominent part in public affairs, but his church work was unrelenting. And though he was glad to see new churches springing up everywhere, and was especially interested in the spread of new schools, he insisted strongly that the real foundation of the church was religion in the home. Dunne's health began to fail in 1910 and in 1912 James Duhig became coadjutor archbishop. Dunne died in Brisbane on 13 January 1917.

References

1830 births
1917 deaths
Christian clergy from County Tipperary
Roman Catholic archbishops of Brisbane
Australian people of Irish descent
Irish expatriate Roman Catholic archbishops
Roman Catholic bishops of Brisbane

Robert Dunne


August Ferdinand Möbius (17 November 1790 - 26 September 1868) was a German astronomer and mathematician, who taught at the University of Leipzig. He wrote several articles on geometry and astronomy. He introduced concepts such as homogeneous coordinates, or that of Duality in Projective Geometry. He is also seen as one of the fathers of topology, in which his most famous creation is the Möbius strip.

1790 births
1868 deaths
German geometers
Topologists

August Ferdinand Möbius


Jean-Allarmet de Brogny (1342 – 16 February 1426) was a French Cardinal.

Biography
He was born in the hamlet of Brogny, now part of Annecy-le-Vieux in Savoy.

Biographers are not agreed as to his parentage and real name. According to some, he belonged to a peasant family of Brogny, called Allarmet; others say he was descended from the d'Alouzier, a noble house in Comtat Venaissin. It is certain, however, that the future cardinal was a swineherd, when two monks, struck by his open disposition and thoughtful answers, took him with them to Geneva, and procured for him an education which was completed at the University of Avignon. Despite the friendship and the inducement of Marcossay, Bishop of Geneva, young Allarmet retired to the Chartreuse of Dijon, where his merits soon became widely known. When Robert of Geneva was elected pope by the faction hostile to Pope Urban VI, Allarmet joined him at Avignon, either having been sent by the Duke of Burgundy or called by Robert himself.

At Avignon favors were bestowed upon him in quick succession by the Avignon Pope Clement VII; the Bishopric of Viviers, in 1380, the dignity of Cardinal, in 1385, and shortly after, the exalted office of Chancellor of the Holy See. Robert's successor, Peter of Luna, who called himself Benedict XIII, sanctioned all these preferments and even promoted Allarmet from Viviers to Bishop of Ostia-Velletri, one of the suburbicarian dioceses. There is no doubt that at that time Cardinal de Brogny, like Peter of Luxemburg and Vincent Ferrer, considered the French obedience as legitimate. However, as early as 1398, he had left Avignon. The elusive tactics of Gregory XII and Benedict XIII were met by him with more than a silent protest. He inaugurated the neutral party and brought about the Council of Pisa which resulted in the election of Pope Alexander V (1409).

The new pope confirmed de Brogny in his double dignity of Bishop of Ostia and Chancellor of the Church. In the latter capacity he presided over Alexander's funeral and also over the conclave which elected Antipope John XXIII (1410). John held de Brogny in the highest esteem.

The Metropolitan See of Arles having become vacant, he disregarded the candidate elected by the Arlesian chapter and appointed Cardinal de Brogny perpetual administrator of that see. This appointment was intended as a means of recovering the rights of the Church of Arles usurped by the Counts of Provence during the confusion consequent on the schism. The new metropolitan did not disappoint his patron. With the might of right he fought the usurpers till the last claim of the venerable see was secured. Cardinal de Brogny then left his diocese in care of the two Fabri and proceeded on a still more delicate mission. Owing to the obstinacy of the contestants, the Council of Pisa had really left the Church with three popes instead of one. Moreover, John Hus was adding the issue of heresy. The Council of Constance was convened to meet this double difficulty, and after the withdrawal of John XXIII, de Brogny, in virtue of his title of Chancellor, presided over the sessions of the Council.

For unity, he voted for the deposition of the three popes, two of whom had been his personal friends. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he could have secured the election for himself, had he so desired; but he threw the weight of his influence in favor of Colonna, who took the name of Pope Martin V.

He died at Rome  in 1426. In his old age de Brogny asked to be translated from Ostia to Geneva, but only his remains reached the beloved place of his youth; they were laid to rest in the chapel of the Machabees which had been added to the old cathedral by the cardinal himself.

De Brogny is variously known in history as Cardinal of Viviers, Cardinal of Ostia, sometimes Cardinal of Arles, and Cardinal de Saluces. He founded the Dominican convents of Tivoli and Annecy; the maladrerie or lepers' hospital, of Brogny; part of the Celestines' monastery of Avignon; and the College of St. Nicholas, affiliated to the University of Avignon, and endowed with twenty scholarships for destitute students. Soulavie, president of St. Nicholas College, published (1774) a Histoire de Jean d'Alouzier de Brogny of which only fifty copies were printed.

References

Sources

Acknowledgment

1342 births
1426 deaths
14th-century people from Savoy
15th-century French cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Ostia
Deans of the College of Cardinals
14th-century French cardinals
Archbishops of Arles
Bishops of Viviers
15th-century people from Savoy

Jean-Allarmet de Brogny


The Denver Mint is a branch of the United States Mint that struck its first coins on February 1, 1906. The mint is still operating and producing coins for circulation, as well as mint sets and commemorative coins. Coins produced at the Denver Mint bear a D mint mark (as did the Dahlonega Mint, which closed before the Denver branch opened). The Denver Mint is the single largest producer of coins in the world.

History

Clark, Gruber & Co.

The predecessors of the Denver Mint were the men of Clark, Gruber and Company. During the Pikes Peak Gold Rush, they coined gold dust brought from the gold fields by the miners. In 1858, Austin M. Clark, Milton E. Clark and Emanuel Henry Gruber founded a brokerage firm in Leavenworth, Kansas, and then established  an office in Denver at the beginning of the Colorado Gold Rush.  Desiring to save on shipping and insurance costs associated with shipping gold back east, the firm opened a private mint.  On 25 July 1860, the mint opened in a two-story brick building on the corner of Market and 16th Streets, minting $10 gold pieces at the rate of "fifteen or twenty coins a minute".  "On the face is a representation of the peak, its base surrounded by a forest of timber and 'Pikes Peak Gold' encircling the summit.  Immediately under its base is the word 'Denver', and beneath it 'Ten D.'.  On the reverse is the American Eagle encircled by the name of the firm 'Clark, Gruber & Co.', and beneath the date, '1860'."

A $20 gold coin was added, "the weight will be greater, but the value the same as the United States coin of like denomination".  A $5 and a $2.5 gold coin were added, with production reaching $18,000 per week.  On the front was the "head of the Goddess of Liberty surrounded by thirteen stars, with "Clark & Company" in the tiara.  "Pikes's Peak Gold, Denver" was on the other side, with "5D." or "2 1/2 D."

In the almost three years of operation, they minted $594,305 worth of Pike's Peak gold in the form of gold coins.  Additionally, they purchased 77,000 troy ounces of raw gold, and shipped "large amounts of dust" to the Philadelphia Mint.  The building, assaying and minting equipment was formally bought by the US Treasury in April 1863.  Clark, Gruber & Co. remained a bank until bought by the First National Bank of Denver in 1865.

Act of Congress 1862

Established by an Act of Congress on April 21, 1862, the United States Mint at Denver opened for business in late 1863 as a United States Assay Office. Operations began in the facilities of Clark, Gruber and Company, located at 16th and Market Streets and acquired by the government for $25,000, which it was simply able to print off at the location.

Unlike Clark, Gruber and Company, though, the Denver plant performed no coinage of gold as first intended. One reason given by the Director of the Mint for the lack of coinage at Denver was, "…the hostility of the Indian tribes along the routes, doubtless instigated by rebel emissaries (there being a Civil War) and bad white men."

Gold and nuggets brought there by miners from the surrounding area were accepted by the Assay Office for melting, assaying, and stamping of cast gold bars. The bars were then returned to the depositors as imparted bars stamped with the weight and fineness of the gold. Most of the gold came from the rich beds of placer gold found in the streams and first discovered in 1858, the same year Denver was founded.

When the supply of gold was exhausted from the streams, the emphasis turned to lode mining, uncovering veins of ore with a high percentage of gold and silver. By 1859, the yearly value of the gold and silver deposited at the Assay Office was over $5.6 million. During its early years as an Assay Office, the Denver plant was the city's most substantial structure.

Continuing history
The United States Treasury did not expand its smelting and refining operations at the same rate as the discovery and production of gold. In 1872 a group of businessmen led by Judge Hiram Bond (formerly one of the largest brokers on the New York Gold Exchange), Joseph Miner and Denver Mayor Joseph E. Bates set up a firm Denver Smelting and Refining Works which built an independent complementary plant which processed ore into ingots which were then assayed, weighed and stamped by the Denver Mint.

There was new hope for branch mint status when Congress provided for the establishment of a mint at Denver for gold and silver coin production. The site for the new mint at West Colfax and Delaware streets was purchased on April 22, 1896, for approximately $60,000. Construction began in 1897.

Appropriations to complete and equip the plant were insufficient, and the transfer of assay operations to the new building were delayed until September 1, 1904. Coinage operations finally began on February 1, 1906, advancing the status of the Denver facility to Branch Mint. In addition, before the new machinery to be used at the Mint was installed for use, it was first sent to the St. Louis Exposition of 1904 for display. Silver coins were minted in Denver for the first time in 1906. During the first year, 167 million coins were produced, including $20 gold (double eagle) coins, $10 gold (eagle) coins, $5 gold (half eagle) coins, and assorted denominations of silver coins.

The mint was individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.  It was further included as a contributing building in the listing of Civic Center Historic District in 1974.

Today, the Denver Mint produces commemorative coins, coin dies and uncirculated coin sets. It has a production capacity of more than 50 million coins a day and roughly 350 employees.

The mint in popular culture
 The Denver Mint is featured in the 1993 Sylvester Stallone film Cliffhanger, as the production point of the money stolen in the film, and the departure point for the plane.
 The Denver Mint appears anachronistically in the 1870s in the 1967 The Wild Wild West episode "The Night of the Circus of Death".
 Similarly to above, The Mint is also anachronistically set in the 1870s in the 1960 Shotgun Slade episode "The Missing Train".
 The Denver Mint is referenced in the title of a Jimmy Eat World track from the album Clarity called Lucky Denver Mint.
 In the 1969 Burt Reynolds film Sam Whiskey, the Denver Mint is the scene of a reverse-heist; gold previously stolen from it had to be covertly returned to protect the reputation of the late thief's widow.
 In the 1959 Maverick episode "Full House", Bret Maverick, played by James Garner, was mistaken by several high profile outlaws for the outlaw leader they were there to meet. Bret came up with a plan to rob the Denver Mint, but his real plan was to have them arrested during the robbery so he could collect the bounties on the others.

See also

 Gold mining in Colorado
 List of Mints
 Historical United States mints
 Silver mining in Colorado

References

External links

 The U.S. Mint
 Visitors' information at the Denver Mint

1862 establishments in Colorado Territory
Buildings and structures in Denver
Colorado State Register of Historic Properties
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
Manufacturing plants in the United States
Mints of the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Denver
Tourist attractions in Denver
United States Mint
Civic Center Historic District (Denver, Colorado)
Historic district contributing properties in Colorado

Denver Mint