The Battle of Suối Châu Pha (6 August 1967) was fought during the Vietnam War between Australian troops and the Việt Cộng. The battle took place during Operation Ballarat, an Australian search and destroy operation in the eastern Hát Dịch area, north-west of Núi Đất in Phước Tuy province. Following a covert insertion the day before which had caught a number of Việt Cộng sentries by surprise, A Company, 7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (7 RAR) had patrolled forward unaware of the presence of a large Việt Cộng main force unit nearby. Clashing with a reinforced company from the Việt Cộng 3rd Battalion, 274th Regiment, a classic encounter battle ensued between two forces of roughly equal size. Fought at close quarters in dense jungle amid a heavy monsoon rain, both sides suffered heavy casualties as neither was able to gain an advantage. Finally, after a battle lasting several hours, the Australian artillery proved decisive and the Việt Cộng were forced to withdraw, dragging many of their dead from the battlefield after having suffered crippling losses.

Background

Military situation

By the second half of 1967 the Việt Cộng seemed to have melted away in Phước Tuy province, abandoning many of their bunker systems and avoiding the main roads and towns. The Battle of Long Tân and Operation Bribie had weakened the communist forces in the province, while further operations had restricted their movement and logistics. This prompted the commander of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF)—Brigadier Stuart Graham—to speculate that the Việt Cộng may have fled to the border, perhaps leaving the province altogether. Graham reasoned that a succession of operations in the south-east of the province and the completion of the barrier minefield at Đất Đỏ meant that no single, sizable threat remained to the populated areas of Phước Tuy.

The Australians had continued to operate independently within Phước Tuy province, and while the war had become a series of big unit search and destroy operations in a war of attrition for the Americans, they had pursued their own counter-insurgency campaign. Regardless, differences of opinion between Australian and American methods had produced friction, and increasingly impatient with the Australian approach, in early 1967 the Commander US MACV, General William Westmoreland, had complained to the Commander Australian Forces Vietnam, Major General Tim Vincent, demanding a more aggressive approach. However, the Australians were convinced that deliberate patrolling techniques were more effective in separating communist forces from the population in the villages while working towards slowly extending government control, and such urgings went largely unheeded.

The highway to Xuyên Mộc in the east had been reopened by the Australians in March and April, and with the Việt Cộng 275th Regiment believed to have been severely weakened following Long Tân, a series of operations aimed at destroying the Việt Cộng 274th Regiment were subsequently launched by 1 ATF. Australian assessments of the Việt Cộng 275th Regiment were seemingly reinforced by its unsuccessful attempt to ambush a convoy from US 11th Armoured Cavalry Regiment (11 ACR) on 2 December 1966. Meanwhile, after Westmoreland had again pressed Vincent on what he saw as the limited results achieved by Australian tactics, a large joint US-Australian operation was mounted against the Mây Tào mountains in Phước Tuy, moving against the communist bases in the area. The largest search and destroy operation mounted by the Australians to that point, Operation Paddington (9–15 July) was carried out in co-operation with American and South Vietnamese units based in Biên Hòa province, and targeted the Việt Cộng 5th Division.

Mounted on a large scale under American command and involving nearly 15,000 troops, Paddington failed to result in significant contact, in spite of the employment of well co-ordinated search techniques and blocking forces. A large number of Việt Cộng camps, bunkers and storage areas were however uncovered and destroyed, resulting in significant disruption to the communist logistic system. Under the overall command of Major General George G. O'Connor, commander US 9th Infantry Division, allied forces for Operation Paddington included the US 1st Brigade, 9th Infantry Division, the 2nd Battalion, US 47th Infantry Regiment (Mechanised), the US 11th Armoured Cavalry Regiment, Task Force B Marine Corps (RVN) and the 1st Australian Task Force, as well as various supporting arms including two artillery batteries and more than a thousand armoured vehicles and helicopters. Việt Cộng casualties included 92 killed, including 31 by 1 ATF for the loss of one Australian killed and another wounded. Nonetheless, the results were disappointing for the Australians, and the Việt Cộng continued to elude them.

Prelude

Opposing forces
Based at Núi Đất in the III Corps Tactical Zone as part of US II Field Force, Vietnam, 1 ATF now included two infantry battalions plus armour, aviation, engineers and artillery support, with total Australian troop strength in Vietnam reaching 6,300 men. Logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group based at the port of Vũng Tàu. The 5th and 6th Battalions, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR) subsequently returned to Australia in May and June 1967, and were replaced by the 2nd and 7th Battalions, Royal Australian Regiment (7 RAR). Meanwhile, Việt Cộng units operating in the province in early 1967 included Main Forces from the Việt Cộng 5th Division, which consisted of the 274th Regiment and 275th Regiment, each of three infantry battalions under the command of Senior Colonel Nguyen The Truyen. Supporting this force were a number of artillery, engineer, medical and logistic units. Group 89 (Artillery) was equipped with recoilless rifles, medium mortars and heavy machine-guns. Local Forces included D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion, a provincial unit normally operating in the south of the province and in Long Khánh, while guerrilla forces included two companies in the Chau Duc district, one in Long Dat and a platoon in Xuyên Mộc; in total around 4,500 men.

Despite the optimistic Australian assessments of Việt Cộng capability, rather than having left Phước Tuy the communists were more likely reinforcing and consolidating in preparation for future operations, avoiding battle with the Australians in order to preserve their strength. Regardless, D445 Battalion had suffered heavy casualties and posed a diminished threat, while the headquarters of the Việt Cộng 5th Division was located near the northern border, west of the Mây Tào mountains, with its fighting formations widely dispersed. The Việt Cộng 275th Regiment was reported to have moved north to War Zone D for retraining and refitting, and the Việt Cộng 274th Regiment had moved from its scattered locations in the north-west Hát Dịch to replace it in the north-east of the province, and was now operating in unfamiliar terrain. Meanwhile, casualties, illness and poor local recruitment meant they were now largely reliant on reinforcements from North Vietnam. Unsure of the next move, the Việt Cộng 5th Division adopted a cautious posture, with only the 1st Battalion, 275th Regiment remaining in the Mây Tào mountains while the 274th Regiment dispersed east of Route 2 for the remainder of the month.

Planning and preliminary operations
The province now seemed secure and Graham saw the opportunity to continue pacification on a more methodical basis in Phước Tuy. Planning to attack the remaining Việt Cộng where they were most vulnerable, the Australians returned to interdicting communist supply lines and bases, with 2 RAR conducting two search and destroy operations to the east of Đất Đỏ—Operation Cairns in late-July followed by Operation Atherton in mid-August, both of which resulted in only minor contact. Meanwhile, the Hát Dịch area had been quiet since US forces had swept of the area as part of Operation Akron (9–29 June), and Australian intelligence assessed that it was free of Việt Cộng main force combat units. By late-July communist rear services units and other supporting units were believed to have begun moving back into the area, in an attempt to rehabilitate their base areas that had been destroyed in the earlier fighting. Yet in reality the location of communist forces was largely unknown to the Australians. In mid-July, the Việt Cộng 274th Regiment—now believed to be commanded by Ut Thoi—had been forced to move from the Hát Dịch towards its north-eastern base areas due to Operation Paddington and Australian signals intelligence had been able to effectively track the regiment's movement due to the location of its transmitter. However, 1 ATF intelligence officers had then lost track of the unit.

Operation Ballarat was subsequently planned to assess the extent of the Việt Cộng's efforts to re-establish their supply lines and to repair bunkers and camps in the eastern Hát Dịch that had been destroyed by previous operations. The concept of operations envisioned 7 RAR, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Eric Smith, creating a series of company patrol bases, from which platoon fighting patrols would gather intelligence on Việt Cộng activities. An ambush plan would then be developed. The twelve-day battalion search and destroy operation subsequently commenced on 4 August 1967, within AO Lion,  north-west of Núi Đất. In an attempt to achieve surprise the rifle companies moved into their respective areas of operation by foot, rather than by helicopter, carrying five days rations and supplies to reduce the need for resupply and the likelihood of detection by the Việt Cộng. With stealth considered key to the operation it was intended that any bunkers and camps located during the patrol phase of the operation would not be destroyed until after the ambush phase. Regardless, the Australians expected only to encounter rear guard elements.

Fire Support Base Giraffe was subsequently established with the new  M2A2 Howitzers of 106th Field Battery and  mortars from Mortar Platoon, 7 RAR providing indirect fire support, while elements of the Australian Reinforcement Holding Unit provided protection. Further support was provide by  M109 self-propelled medium guns from the US 2/35th Artillery Regiment, while American  and  heavy artillery were also available if required. Meanwhile, elements of 1st Field Squadron, Royal Australian Engineers had been tasked with clearing Route 2 of vegetation and rubber north of Núi Đất and D Company, 2 RAR was attached for the operation, providing security for the engineers and additional protection to the fire support base in conjunction with a troop of M113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment which would support the infantry during the day.

Battle

Insertion and patrolling, 5–6 August
A Company, 7 RAR had already been patrolling in the Hát Dịch since 3 August when the orders for the operation were issued. Utilising an insertion technique perfected by the Special Air Service Regiment they were subsequently re-supplied early on the evening of 5 August, with the supplies successfully unloaded and the helicopters departing within three minutes. The covert infiltration of the infantry companies went undetected, and on the morning of 6 August A Company began to patrol towards the intended site of their initial patrol base. Under the command of Major Ewart O'Donnell, by-mid morning the Australians were approximately  east of Phu My. At 10:40, moving north-west with 2 Platoon leading, the Australians crossed a creek, the Suối Châu Pha, and shortly afterwards located a fresh track which had only recently been used. O'Donnell ordered the lead platoon into ambush positions astride the track, while he moved forward to conduct a reconnaissance. Minutes later two Việt Cộng sentries walked into the ambush with their weapons slung, and they were killed instantly by a short burst from an M60 machine-gun, likely surprised by the silent insertion of the Australians.

The incident alerted the remainder of the Australians and the company prepared for action. Considering it unlikely that the dead men had been alone, O'Donnell assessed that the remainder of a Việt Cộng squad was located somewhere further along the track and he subsequently requested artillery fire to block any escape, while 2 Platoon was ordered to sweep forward. Under the command of Second Lieutenant Graham Ross, 2 Platoon commenced its advance before coming under automatic fire  along the track by a Việt Cộng squad which then went to ground after the Australians returned fire. Attempting to take the initiative, Ross began to manoeuvre for a quick attack, moving two sections to the high ground on the right flank, while the third section provided fire support. Meanwhile, the Việt Cộng force, which turned out to be larger than first thought by the Australians, also attempted a flanking manoeuvre, moving one squad into a defensive position while two squads moved to their left flank. Deploying to the high ground at about the same time the two assault groups came face to face and a fierce fire-fight followed at close range, with both sides throwing grenades in an attempt to gain the initiative. Two Australians were killed and several more were wounded in the initial clashes.

2 Platoon was in trouble and the Australians were forced to fight hard in order to survive, with numerous acts of heroism on both sides. Repeatedly exposing himself to the fire to throw grenades and to direct his platoon's fire, Ross dragged two of his wounded men to safety during the fighting and despite being wounded in the leg by shrapnel he refused to be treated until the other wounded had received first aid. Meanwhile, Private Dennis Bathersby, although wounded in the right arm, remained behind his M60 throwing two grenades with his left arm and only withdrawing in order to drag another wounded Australian to safety. Finally, after his right arm went numb, Ross ordered Bathersby to hand over his machine-gun and he was evacuated to the rear. Elsewhere, Private Keith Downward, one of the forward scouts, after edging forward to within  then single-handedly charged one of the Việt Cộng machine-guns, killing the operator and capturing the weapon before then dragging a wounded Australian soldier out of danger despite himself being wounded. Amid the chaos, a wasp nest in a nearby tree was disturbed, and a number of Australians were so badly stung that they were incapacitated and also needed to be evacuated.

Move and counter-move, 6 August 1967
O'Donnell attempted to probe the Việt Cộng flank, and after locating it on the high ground he committed 1 Platoon—under Second Lieutenant Rod Smith—to conduct a right flanking attack. Beginning at 11:30 the Australian assault soon ran into another Việt Cộng platoon conducting a similar manoeuvre, and they became involved in an intense battle at close quarters with each side blocking the manoeuvre of the other. A heavy monsoon rain began, drenching the men as they faced each other at a range of just , with seven Việt Cộng machine-guns facing six Australian machine-guns at the height of the battle as the two Việt Cộng platoons clashed with two Australian platoons. The Australians suffered heavily, losing two section commanders killed and a dozen men wounded in the first few minutes. The fighting continued for another two hours as both forces traded shots, with neither the Australians nor the Việt Cộng able to achieve a decisive advantage.

A Company's forward observer, Lieutenant Neville Clark, a Citizens Military Force (CMF) officer, had moved to the forward platoon and proceeded to calmly direct artillery from the guns at Fire Support Base Giraffe on to the Việt Cộng. Meanwhile, the Việt Cộng attempted to use "hugging tactics" to remain in close contact under the artillery barrage, while utilising rockets, grenades, machine-guns and small arms to inflict casualties on the Australians. Finally, with the communists massing for an all-out attack Clark adjusted the artillery to within  of his own position, disregarding his own safety in order to break up the attack. Firing from over  away, the Australian 105 mm howitzers were nearly at their  maximum range, yet they proved to be highly accurate and the rounds caused heavy casualties among the assaulting troops as they stood up to charge the Australian positions, while a few Australians were also slightly wounded after one of the rounds struck a tree. In total, the 106th Field Battery and the supporting American battery of the US 2/35th Artillery Battalion fired 1,026 rounds in support of A Company during the fighting, while American 8-inch and 175 mm heavy artillery fired another 156 rounds. A number of airstrikes had also supported the Australians.

By 14:30 the Việt Cộng commander finally made the decision to withdraw, with the artillery deciding the battle in favour of the Australians. O'Donnell had commanded the battle with cool resolve under constant fire throughout, setting the standard for his men and on one occasion he had run  through heavy fire to drag a wounded medic to safety. Withdrawing through the barrage and a number of airstrikes called in to pursue them, the Việt Cộng proceeded to drag their dead from the battlefield, having suffered crippling casualties. B Company, 7 RAR was subsequently inserted by helicopter into blocking positions to the north, however they made no contact and were unable to prevent the withdrawal. Numerous blood trails were later found as the Australians attempted to follow up the Việt Cộng.

Meanwhile, even as the battle had continued the evacuation of the Australian casualties had begun, with a number of Iroquois helicopters from No. 9 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) under Squadron Leader Jim Cox, flying through heavy ground fire to complete the dust-off. Hindered by artillery fire and the dense foliage the operation proved difficult and Cox's aircraft was hit by heavy machine-gun fire, wounding him and an orderly on board. Safely landing the damaged aircraft he then directed the operation by radio from the ground. Among the worst of the casualties was Sergeant Alexander Sutherland, from 2 Platoon. Losing an eye and suffering heavy blood loss from multiple shrapnel wounds after a Việt Cộng rocket exploded within a metre of him, he was evacuated to 8 Field Ambulance in Vung Tau with no pulse. His left leg later amputated, his wounds were so bad he had to be given a general anaesthetic each time his bandages were changed. Making a miraculous recovery however, he was personally recommended for the US Medal of Honor by Westmoreland for his resolute spirit, although this was later reduced to a lesser Australian award. Many casualties were beyond help however, and the battalion chaplain was inserted by winch from a helicopter to administer last rites.

On the basis of documents captured by the Australians during the battle the Việt Cộng were identified as being from C12 Company, 3rd Battalion, 274th Regiment, probably assisted by the battalion Reconnaissance Platoon and a number of local force guides. It was assessed that at least a second company had helped in the recovery of many of the Việt Cộng dead. Later, during operations the following day, a recently occupied battalion-sized camp was subsequently located about  from the site of the battle, and it was considered likely that the Việt Cộng company had fought the vigorous action in order the delay the Australians and enable the withdrawal of the remainder of the battalion from their base camp. Meanwhile, elements of the Chau Duc District Company were also believed to be located in the area.

Aftermath

Casualties
Australian casualties had been heavy with five killed, one died of wounds and 20 wounded. Meanwhile, the extent of Việt Cộng casualties were difficult to assess, as most had been removed from the battlefield by the communists as they had during previous battles. A sweep of the area by the Australians subsequently resulted in the recovery of a further five dead Việt Cộng, however drag marks and extensive blood trails indicated that they had suffered heavily, with perhaps another 33 killed or wounded in the contact. A further 200 casualties were estimated to have occurred from artillery and mortar fire, as well as a number of airstrikes. Terry Burstall, in his controversial book Vietnam – The Australian Dilemma, lists these casualties as "possibles" only, questioning the efficacy of the Australian reporting. However Burstall's agenda and research methodology have been widely criticised, and official records make it clear that five bodies were indeed counted, while a further five bodies were observed but not recovered. Among the dead were one officer, believed to have been the platoon commander, and two non-commissioned officers. Also recovered were a light machine-gun, a 40 mm recoilless rifle and three AK-47 assault rifles, while other weapons, a quantity of rice and a battalion-sized bunker system were subsequently also captured.

Assessment
A classic encounter battle, the action had been fought between two forces of roughly equal size in the heavy monsoon rain at close quarters. Both companies had deployed to the high ground at around the same time in a bid to outflank the other, with the Australian infantry skilfully using their supporting artillery while the Việt Cộng had attempted to nullify the Australian tactics by remaining in close contact. Ultimately, the artillery had decided the outcome in favour of the Australians however, and the Việt Cộng had been forced to withdraw with heavy casualties. In this way the fighting bore many similarities to the victory twelve months earlier at Long Tân, yet it remained largely unheralded in Australia. Eight Australian soldiers received gallantry awards for their actions, including Military Crosses to O'Donnell, Ross and Clark, while Sutherland was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal. A number of awards were also made to the RAAF pilots and aircrew, including Cox who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. Meanwhile, the bravery evident by the Việt Cộng during the battle had also made an impression on the Australians, who later acknowledged their tight fire discipline and the skilfulness of their battle drills and tactics which they found to be similar to those used by the Australians themselves.

A month after disappearing the Việt Cộng 274th Regiment had emerged without warning and had caught 7 RAR by surprise, with the unexpected presence of a Việt Cộng Main Force regiment in the Hát Dịch forcing the Australians to change their tactics for the remainder of Operation Ballarat. The Australians became more cautious as a result and while 7 RAR continued its search and destroy mission, only two companies patrolled while the other two remained on standby in fire support bases nearby to provide support if required. Additional artillery support was also made available, with 161st Field Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery airlifted into Fire Support Base Giraffe. Meanwhile, Graham placed 2 RAR on standby to fly into the area if needed and US forces were also positioned to the north. In this manner Ballarat continued until 16 August, however there was only minor contact which resulted in two more Việt Cộng killed, two wounded and one captured for no further loss to the Australians.

Subsequent operations
Australian operations in Phước Tuy province continued throughout the remainder of 1967, and although they were largely successful at the tactical level, the Việt Cộng continued to be able to enter most of the villages in the province, and were causing increasingly heavy Allied casualties with mines lifted from the controversial barrier minefield laid by the Australians. Operation Santa Fe, a further large-scale joint US-Australian operation, took place between October and November, but it too ended with only limited success in comparison to the resources committed. Meanwhile, despite allegations of corruption and ballot rigging by the ruling military junta, South Vietnam's presidential elections in September had been unhampered by security concerns and were largely considered successful, with 83 percent of eligible voters turning out nationwide; in Phước Tuy this number was higher still at over 90 percent. Graham believed that the large public turnout in Phước Tuy had been due to the long-term effects of Australian operations in the province which had increased the population's sense of security. As a result, 1 ATF now turned its attention to expanding its area of operations.

However, with the war approaching a stalemate strategically, the Australians were substantially reinforced following the trend of further American troop increases, with a third infantry battalion arriving in December, while a squadron of Centurion tanks and additional Iroquois helicopters were added in early 1968. Total Australian strength in Vietnam grew to over 8,000 men, its highest level during the war, effectively doubling the combat power available to the task force commander. Likewise, American military strength in Vietnam had risen to 486,000 men while South Vietnamese forces had expanded to 643,000 by the end of the year. In spite of this build up North Vietnamese strength in South Vietnam also increased growing to 278,000 men, and although communist strategy remained fundamentally one of protracted war, preparations for a strategic offensive had reached an advanced stage. Culminating in the Tết Offensive in early 1968, the offensive would aim to provoke a popular general uprising among the South Vietnamese people against the government and its American supporters and would take the form of a massive simultaneous surprise attack on population centres throughout South Vietnam. 1 ATF would be heavily involved in the fighting during Tet, deploying astride communist lines of communication in support of American and South Vietnamese forces defending the Long Bình-Biên Hòa complex north-east of Saigon during Operation Coburg, while also repelling repeated Việt Cộng attacks against Bà Rịa and Long Điền in Phước Tuy province.

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

Further reading

Conflicts in 1967
1967 in Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War
Battles of the Vietnam War involving Australia
Battles of the Vietnam War involving the United States
Battles of the Vietnam War involving New Zealand
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1967
August 1967 events in Asia
History of Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu Province

Battle of Suoi Chau Pha


The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is a treaty made by the United Nations to ensure that the
economic, social and cultural rights are affirmed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It is one of the most important treaties on the international human rights law. This Covenant was adopted in 1966 together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and entered into force in 1976.

Main contents
Article 2. Right to enjoy all human rights in this Covenant without any discrimination
Article 5~7. Right to work with decent conditions and to equal payment for equal work.
Article 8. Right to join a trade union and to strike action for decent conditions, including fair payment and holiday leave.
Article 9. Right to Social Security.
Article 10. Right to marriage and to form a family with especial protection for mothers.
Article 11. Right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing and the housing.
Article 12. Right to the best possible standard of health.
Article 13. Right to education; free primary education for all and equal access to secondary and higher education, which should also be as free as possible. Education should aim to allow everyone to develop their personality as much as possible, and respect for human rights, tolerance and peace.
Article 15. Right to enjoy culture and science.

Related pages
Economic, social and cultural rights
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.

Overview
Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system, to the definitions of classes, to the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource.

Inscriptions at the temple of Horus at Edfu outline a soil classification used by Tanen to determine what kind of temple to build at which site. Ancient Greek scholars produced a number of classification based on several different qualities of the soil.

Engineering
Geotechnical engineers classify soils according to their engineering properties as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. Modern engineering classification systems are designed to allow an easy transition from field observations to basic predictions of soil engineering properties and behaviors.

The most common engineering classification system for soils in North America is the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The USCS has three major classification groups: (1) coarse-grained soils (e.g. sands and gravels); (2) fine-grained soils (e.g. silts and clays); and (3) highly organic soils (referred to as "peat"). The USCS further subdivides the three major soil classes for clarification. It distinguishes sands from gravels by grain size, classifying some as "well-graded" and the rest as "poorly-graded". Silts and clays are distinguished by the soils' Atterberg limits, and thus the soils are separated into "high-plasticity" and "low-plasticity" soils. Moderately organic soils are considered subdivisions of silts and clays and are distinguished from inorganic soils by changes in their plasticity properties (and Atterberg limits) on drying. The European soil classification system (ISO 14688) is very similar, differing primarily in coding and in adding an "intermediate-plasticity" classification for silts and clays, and in minor details.

Other engineering soil classification systems in the United States include the AASHTO Soil Classification System, which classifies soils and aggregates relative to their suitability for pavement construction, and the Modified Burmister system, which works similarly to the USCS but includes more coding for various soil properties.

A full geotechnical engineering soil description will also include other properties of the soil including color, in-situ moisture content, in-situ strength, and somewhat more detail about the material properties of the soil than is provided by the USCS code. The USCS and additional engineering description is standardized in ASTM D 2487.

Soil science

For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis, and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics.

Natural system approaches to soil classification, such as the French Soil Reference System (Référentiel pédologique français) are based on presumed soil genesis. Systems have developed, such as USDA soil taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, which use taxonomic criteria involving soil morphology and laboratory tests to inform and refine hierarchical classes. Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where soil individuals are grouped by multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural groupings without requiring any inference about soil genesis.

In soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil classification usually means criteria based on soil morphology in addition to characteristics developed during soil formation. Criteria are designed to guide choices in land use and soil management. As indicated, this is a hierarchical system that is a hybrid of both natural and objective criteria. USDA soil taxonomy provides the core criteria for differentiating soil map units. This is a substantial revision of the 1938 USDA soil taxonomy which was a strictly natural system. The USDA classification was originally developed by Guy Donald Smith, director of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's soil survey investigations. Soil taxonomy based soil map units are additionally sorted into classes based on technical classification systems. Land Capability Classes, hydric soil, and prime farmland are some examples.

The European Union uses the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), currently the fourth edition is valid. According to the first edition of the WRB (1998), the booklet "Soils of the European Union" was published by the former Institute of Environment and Sustainability (now: Land Resources Unit, European Soil Data Centre/ESDAC).

In addition to scientific soil classification systems, there are also vernacular soil classification systems. Folk taxonomies have been used for millennia, while scientifically based systems are relatively recent developments. Knowledge on the spatial distribution of soils has increased dramatically. SoilGrids is a system for automated soil mapping based on models fitted using soil profiles and environmental covariate data. On a global scale, it provides maps at 1.00–0.25 km spatial resolution. Whether sustainability might be the ultimate goal for managing the global soil resources, these new developments require studied soils to be classified and given its own name.

OSHA
The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires the classification of soils to protect workers from injury when working in excavations and trenches. OSHA uses three soil classifications plus one for rock, based primarily on strength but also other factors which affect the stability of cut slopes:

 : natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides and remain intact while exposed.
  - cohesive, plastic soils with unconfined compressive strength greater than 1.5 ton per square foot (tsf)(144 kPa), and meeting several other requirements (which induces a lateral earth pressure of 25 psf per ft of depth)
  - cohesive soils with unconfined compressive strength between 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) and 1.5 tsf (144 kPa), or unstable dry rock, or soils which would otherwise be Type A (lateral earth pressure of 45 psf per ft of depth)
  - granular soils or cohesive soils with unconfined compressive strength less than 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) or any submerged or freely seeping soil or adversely bedded soils (lateral earth pressure of 80 psf per ft of depth)
  - A subtype of Type C soil, though is not officially recognized by OSHA as a separate type, induces a lateral earth pressure of 60 psf per ft of depth

Each of the soil classifications has implications for the way the excavation must be made or the protections (sloping, shoring, shielding, etc.) that must be provided to protect workers from collapse of the excavated bank.

See also
 AASHTO Soil Classification System
 Australian Soil Classification
 Canadian system of soil classification
 French soil classification
 FAO soil classification (1974-1998)
 International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH)
 Unified Soil Classification System
 USDA soil taxonomy
 World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) (1998-)

References

Further reading

Current international system
 Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel, P.A. (2003). Soil Genesis and Classification, 5th Edition. Iowa State Press - Blackwell, Ames, IA.
 Driessen, P., Deckers, J., Spaargaren, O., & Nachtergaele, F. (Eds.). (2001). Lecture notes on the major soils of the world. Rome: FAO.
 W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022.
 IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022.  ().

Current national systems
 Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey. (1987). The Canadian system of soil classification (2nd ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre.
 Avery, B. W. (1980). Soil classification for England and Wales: higher categories. Cranfield, England: Cranfield University, Soil Survey & Land Research Centre/National Soil Resources Institute.
 Baize, D., & Girard, M. C. (Eds.). (1995). Référentiel pédologique 1995. Paris: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique.
 Baize, D., & Girard, M. C. (Eds.). (1998). A sound reference base for soils: The "Référentiel Pédologique" (English translation by Hodgson J.M., Eskenazi N.R., & Baize D. ed.). Paris: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique.
 Baize, D., & Girard, M. C. (Eds.). (2008). Référentiel pédologique, troisième édition. Association française pour l'étude du sol (Afes). Versailles, France.
 Hewitt, A. E. (1992). Soil classification in New Zealand: legacy and lessons. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 30, 843-854.
 Hewitt, A. E. (2010). New Zealand soil classification, third edition. Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research. Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand.
 Isbell, R. F. and the National Committee on Soil and Terrain. (2016). The Australian soil classification, second edition. CSIRO. Clayton South, Victoria, Australia.
 Soil Classification Working Group. (2018). Soil classification: a natural and anthropogenic system for South Africa, third edition. Agricultural Research Council; Institute for Soil, Climate and Water. Pretoria, RSA.
 Soil Survey Staff. (1999). Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service.

Current technical systems
Technical soil classification systems focus on representing some specific facet or quality of the soil, rather than a direct pedogenetic classification. Such technical classifications are developed with specific applications in mind, such as soil-water relationships, land quality assessment or geotechnical engineering.

 Boorman, D. B., Hollis, J. M., & Lilly, A. (1995). Hydrology of soil types: a hydrologically-based classification of the soils of the United Kingdom (No. 126): UK Institute of Hydrology.
 Klingebiel, A. A., & Montgomery, P. H. (1961). Land capability classification. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
 Sanchez, P. A., Palm, C. A., & Buol, S. W. (2003). Fertility capability soil classification: a tool to help assess soil quality in the tropics. Geoderma, 114(3-4), 157-185.
 American Society for Testing and Materials, 1985, D 2487-83, Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes: Annual Book of ASTM Standards. Vol. 04.08, pp 395–408.

Earlier systems of historical interest
 Baldwin, M., Kellogg, C. E., & Thorp, J. (1938). Soil classification. In Soils and men: Yearbook of agriculture (pp. 979–1001). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
 Simonson, R. W. (1989). Historical aspects of soil survey and soil classification with emphasis on the United States, 1899-1970. Wageningen, NL: International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC).

Principles
 Eswaran, H., Rice, T., Ahrens, R., & Stewart, B. A. (Eds.). (2002). Soil classification : a global desk reference. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
 Butler, B. E. (1980). Soil classification for soil survey. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications. Science, 96,
 Cline, M. G. (1949). Basic principles of soil classification. Soil Science, 67(2), 81-91.
 Cline, M. G. (1963). Logic of the new system of soil classification. Soil 17-22.
 Webster, R. (1968). Fundamental objections to the 7th approximation. Journal of Soil Science, 19, 354-366.
 Terzaghi Karl (1924). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Wiley-Interscience; 3 Sub-edition (January 1996, )
 kevin Hart (1923) . founded it

Numerical classification
 McBratney, A. B., & de Gruijter, J. J. (1992). A continuum approach to soil classification by modified fuzzy k-means with extragrades. Journal of Soil Science, 43(1), 159-175.

External links

  A Compendium of On-Line Soil Survey Information - Soil Classification for Soil Survey by D. G. Rossiter
  OSHA Soil Classification

Types of soil
Pedology

Soil classification


Kaliningrad Oblast (, Kaliningradskaya oblast) is an exclave of Russia bordered by Poland, Lithuania and Baltic Sea. The capital of Kaliningrad Oblast is Kaliningrad, formerly Königsberg.

It is quite unusual, first because it is not attached to Russia. It is an exclave on the Baltic coast, with no land connection to the rest of Russia. It has a population of 941,873 (2010 Census). It has a continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

Its territory was part of historical East Prussia (German: Nord-Ostpreussen), which was an exclave of Germany from 1919 until 1945. That year, it was occupied by the Soviet Union as a result of the World War II. The region was later annexed to the Soviet Union under border changes of the Potsdam Agreement, when it was attached to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Most of its German population were fled west to West Germany during the last months of the war. The rest were expelled between 1944 and 1950. Russian settlers were moved in and the population is now mainly Russian. As of the 2010 census, only a small number of ethnic Germans remain; most of the several thousand who live in the oblast are recent immigrants from other parts of the former Soviet Union.

References

Other websites

Kaliningrad Oblast


Jaime Álvarez Mendoza (born September 29, 1948) is a Mexican professional wrestler, or luchador, who is best known for working under the ring name Jaque Mate (Spanish for "Checkmate") in Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). Àlvarez worked under the ring name El Enfermero, Jr. (the Nurse, Junior) for 13 years and has also worked as Skorvikan. As Jaque Mate, Álvarez is most known for being a founding member of the wrestling trio Los Intocables (the untouchables) along with Pierroth, Jr. and Masakre. Los Intocables held the CMLL World Trios Championship once, winning the title from and losing the title to Los Infernales (MS-1, El Satánico and Pirata Morgan. He also held the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship for almost 20 months from March 25, 1993, until December 4, 1994. Álvarez wrestling style as Jaque Mate earned him the nickname El Hombre de la jugada mortal (Spanish for "The man with the deadly move").

Professional wrestling career
Jaime Álvarez began training for a professional wrestling career under Diablo Velazco in 1969 but did not make his debut until September 15, 1971, training for nearly three years under Velazco and El Enfermero. Álvarez adopted an enmascarado, masked, persona called Eskovirkan, a name created by combining the Zodiac signs of Scorpio, Virgo and Cancer (In Spanish: Escorpión, Virgo and Cáncer"). In 1974 Álvarez' long time friend and trainer El Enfermero gave him permission to use his name and Álvarez began working as El Enfermero, Jr., wearing a mask and outfit very similar to the original El Enfermero. Álvarez worked under a mask until June 24, 1983, until he lost it to Solar II in a Luchas de Apuestas. Originally Álvarez was scheduled for a title match on the night and Solar II was booked in an Apuesta match against another wrestler, when Solar II's opponent did not show Álvarez was asked to lose the match to Solar II. After losing the mask Álvarez lifted his mask to show his face, but in a break with Lucha Libre tradition did not remove the mask in front of the audience. Álvarez kept working as Enfermero, Jr. until 1988 where he adopted the ring persona he is most known as Jaque Mate

The Jaque Mate persona was inspired by the 1920s and 1930s Chicago Gangster scene, complete with black suit and fedora hat, in addition to a black mask with white chess pieces on it. In 1990 Jaque Mate teamed up with Pierroth, Jr. and Masakre to form Los Intocables (Spanish for "The Untouchables"), with both Pierroth, Jr. and Masakre adopting the same type of "Gangster" ring wear Jaque Mate used. The team worked a heated storyline feud with Los Infernales (MS-1, Pirata Morgan and Satánico), a group Masakre left to form Los Intocables, the feud saw Los Incotables win the CMLL World Trios Championship from Los Infernales on March 22, 1992. The team held the belts for approximately six months before Los Infernales regained them. In March 1993 Jaque Mate and Masakre entered a tournament for the vacant CMLL World Tag Team Championship. They defeated Kahoz and Gran Markus, Jr. in the first round but lost to Vampiro and Pierroth, Jr. in the second round. On March 25, 1993, Jaque Mate defeated Apolo Dantés to win the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship. Over the next 20 months Jaque Mate would defend the title ten times, against opponents such as Pirata Morgan, El Dandy, Ringo Mendoza, Silver King and Blue Demon, Jr. before losing the title to El Dandy on December 4, 1994.

When Sangre Chicana left CMLL to join CMLL's rival promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA), Álvarez decided to join him, continuing an ongoing feud between the two. His feud with Sangre Chicana was put on hold as Jaque Mate began working with Octagón. The two were on opposite sides in a tag team Steel cage match where the last man in the cage would either be unmasked or shaved. In the end neither Octagón nor Jaque Mate were involved in the finish, having both fallen off the cage to safety while fighting each other, in the end Heavy Metal defeated Kick Boxer, forcing him to unmask Three months later Jaque Mate and Octagón squared off in a Luchas de Apuestas match, which was the main event of the 1999 Guerra de Titanes. Jaque Mate lost to Octagón and was forced to unmask for the third time in his career. According to Álvarez he was paid "a substantial sum of money" to lose his mask to Octagón that night. After losing his mask to Octagón Jaque Mate resumed his feud with Sangre Chicana, losing a Luchas de Apuesta match that saw him shaved bald. Álvarez does not wrestle full-time, working a lighter schedule after 38 years in the business. He mainly works local shows for smaller promotions.

Wrestled aged 70 on April 21, 2019, in a 6-tag match with Roco Vann and Tsunami as they were defeated by Huracan Ramirez, Mascara Magica Jr. and Pegasus Kid Jr.

Championships and accomplishments
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Trios Championship (1 time) – with Pierroth, Jr. and Masakre
NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F.
Distrito Federal Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Mexico State Welterweight Championship (1 time)
Miscellaneous Championships
Arena Azteca Middleweight Championship (1 time)
Apatlaco Tag Team Championship (1 time)
Pan-American Trios Championship (1 time)
Xochimilco Tag Team Championship (1 time)

Luchas de Apuestas record

Notes

References

1948 births
Living people
Mexican male professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Jalisco
Sportspeople from Guadalajara, Jalisco
20th-century professional wrestlers
21st-century professional wrestlers
CMLL World Trios Champions
NWA World Light Heavyweight Champions

Jaque Mate (wrestler)


The Yellow jersey (French: Maillot jaune [majo ʒoːn]) is the jersey worn by the leader of many multi-day (or stage) bicycle races, originally and most notably the Tour de France. It allows the rider who was in the overall lead at the end of the previous day to be easily identified.

Because the Tour de France was the first to use a coloured jersey to identify the leader many newer races have chosen the same colour, for example the Tour of Germany. Other tours and races use other colours, sometimes because of the sponsor.

The Giro d'Italia, Tour of Italy, have a pink jersey (maglia rosa). The race's original sponsor was the sports newspaper (La Gazzetta dello Sport) which printed on pink paper, like many European sports newspapers.

The leader in the Vuelta a España (Tour of Spain) wears a red jersey (called "La Roja"). From 1998 to 2010 the Vuelta leader's jersey was gold in color.

Sometimes a rider will get three yellow jerseys.
 In front of the press and spectators They are presented a special one that zips up at the back to make the presentation easier.
 An ordinary jersey to wear during the race the next day.
 An unused jersey to keep as a memento.
They will sometimes also autograph many copies of the jersey that are given out to VIPs with the race and their team.
Cycle races

Yellow jersey


Humfrid was the count of Barcelona, Girona, Empúries, Roussillon, and Narbonne from 858 to 864. He also bore the title margrave of Gothia (Gothiæ marchio), as he held several frontier counties.

He was a Hunfriding by birth, with no connection to Gothia. He was probably Hunfrid III, the second son of Hunfrid II, dux super Redicam (duke over Rhaetia). He rebelled against Louis the German, the king of East Francia, and was forced to flee to Charles the Bald, the king of West Francia, to whom he was one of the few to remain loyal during the vicissitudes of the 850s. He was appointed count and margrave of several counties in the Marca Hispanica by Charles, possibly as early as 854 and no later than 858.

In 858, Humfrid negotiated a treaty of peace with Abd al-Rahman, the Moorish governor of Zaragoza, and marched into Gaul to the assistance of Charles. He arrived at Beaune in February and he did homage to the king on 21 March. He then joined Charles in making war on the Norsemen. Louis took this as an opportunity to invade the country and Humfrid assisted Charles in fending him off. In September, Humfrid regrouped with his forces at Beaune before joining in the defeat of Louis at Saint-Quentin on 15 January 859.

During the campaigning of 858, Humfrid had been enfeoffed with the County of Autun and Margraviate of Burgundy.

In 856, the Moors captured the castle of Terrassa near Barcelona. In 861, they besieged Barcelona itself, but Humfrid bought them off and renewed the treaty with the consent of Charles. It was to last for three decades.

In 862, Charles named his son Charles the Child as king of Aquitaine. This was opposed by the nobles, who, with the exception of Humfrid, did not support the young Charles in his subsequent rebellion. The elder Charles accused Humfrid of disloyalty. On 19 August, Humfrid was deposed. He was not to give up, though. He took Toulouse and killed Count Raymond I in the fighting. Charles responded by confiscating Humfrid's Burgundian lands. Even the pretender Pepin II of Aquitaine led a band of Norsemen in an attack on Toulouse, but was repulsed. Humfrid then fled to Italy, and from there to Swabia, where, in 872, he was a count in Zürich. He was alive as late as 876.

Notes

Sources
Lewis, Archibald R. The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050. University of Texas Press: Austin, 1965.
Calmette, J. "Onfroy, Marquis de Gothie." Etudes Médiévales.
Chaume, M. "Onfroi, Marquis de Gothie, ses origines et ses attaches familiales." Annales du Midi, LII (1940).

Alemannic monarchs
Alemannic warriors
9th-century births
9th-century deaths
Counts of Barcelona
Counts of Empúries
Counts of Girona
9th-century people from the County of Barcelona
9th-century people from West Francia

Humfrid


The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, was the throwing off of Charles X of France from power. His cousin Louis-Philippe, the Duc d'Orléans, became king. However, after 18 hard years on the throne, he would also be removed from the position of king. It showed the change from one kind of monarchy to another. This change was from the Bourbon Restoration to the July Monarchy. This also marked the change of power from the House of Bourbon to the House of Orléans. People who supported Bourbon would be called Legitimists, whereas supporters of Louis-Phillipe were called Orléanists. Louis-Philippe was king of the French (not King of France) until the French Revolution of 1848.

Background

On September 16, 1824, Charles X came to the throne of France. He was the younger brother of Louis XVIII. When Napoléon Bonaparte was defeated, he had become King of France. Both Louis and Charles ruled because of their birth, not because a great number of people wanted them to. This was the first of two things that began Les Trois Glorieuses, the "Three Glorious [Days]" of the July Revolution.

When Napoleon abdicated in 1814, Europe, and mostly France, was in great confusion. The Congress of Vienna met to draw the continent's political map again. Many European countries came to the congress. However, the four most important powers on the continent controlled the decisions. These powers were the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, represented by King Frederick William III. Another very important person at the Congress was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand. He was a French diplomat under Napoleon. After the turmoil of the past two decades, France was considered an enemy state.

Talleyrand suggested that Europe go back to its first, "legitimate" government. He meant the government before Napoleon. This plan was largely accepted by members of the Congress. France went back to its 1789 borders and the House of Bourbon came back to the throne. In the eyes of the Congress, the political situation in France and Europe was now back to normal. However, the new king, Louis XVIII, felt that ideas of nationalism and democracy were still in his country. Because of this, they made and signed the Charte constitutionnelle française, the French Constitution. It is also known as La Charte. This was the second thing that began the July Revolution.

The Three Glorious Days

Monday, 26 July, 1830

People quickly learned about the Saint-Cloud "ordonnances" from the Le Moniteur. Angrily, workers were fired, and business closed down. Unemployment, which had been growing through early summer, increased. "Large numbers of... workers therefore had nothing to do but protest."

Newspapers such as the Journal des débats, Le Moniteur Universel (Le Moniteur), and Le Constitutionnel had already stopped being put in print. This was because of the new law. Almost 50 journalists from 12 city newspapers met in the offices of the liberal Le National. There they signed a protest, and promised their newspapers would continue to run.

That evening, police came to a news press and took away newspapers that were against the law. An angry, unemployed mob shouted hotly, "A bas les Bourbons!"  "Vive la Charte!!" Armand Carrel, a Republican journalist, wrote in the Le National:

"France... falls back into revolution by the act of the government itself... the legal regime is now interrupted, that of force has begun... in the situation in which we are now placed obedience has ceased to be a duty... It is for France to judge how far its own resistance ought to extend."

As if living in a dream world, the Paris Préfet de Police wrote on the evening, " ...the most perfect tranquility (peace) continues to reign (rule) in all parts of the capital. No event ... of attention is recorded in the reports that have come through to me."

References

Further reading

 Guy Antonetti, Louis-Philippe, Librairie Arthème Fayard, Paris, 2002

Revolutions
19th century in France
1830

July Revolution


Society is the term to describe Human beings together (collective, the sum of their social networks and social interactions). The term comes from the Latin idea of societas, or the connection between friends or allies (friend or ally being socius).  It can also mean a specific group of people who interact, as well as a wider society of which they are members.  People form societies in order to gain greater benefits as a group than would be possible separately.  Many animals beside humans also do this, such as wolves or eusocial insects.  Sociology is the name for the study of society.

A society is often considered in terms of citizenship, rights, and ethics.  The strength and unity of any society's members' willingness to help each other is to be measured can be called social capital.

A social contract sets out the rules and roles for this kind of cooperation.  One kind of social contract is a constitution – which outlines to some extent what society in a given state is intended to look like.

Related pages
 Civilization
 Culture
 Interpersonal relationship

References

Society


The coat of arms of Denmark consists of three crowned blue lions with nine red hearts, all in a golden shield.

The seal of King Canute VI of Denmark is the oldest known example of the coat of arms of Denmark. It is from around 1190.

Until around 1960 Denmark also had a large coat of arms. Both were used by the government. In 1959, the large coat of arms changed status and became the royal coat of arms - that is a coat of arms for the king and the royal family. The large coat of arms is inspired by one which was designed in 1819 and adopted by king Frederik VI.

The large coat of arms comprise symbols representing all parts of the Danish kingdom - or to be precise: only territories that are still part of the Kingdom of Denmark. In the coat of arms shown to the left the upper left part of the shield (the three lions) represents Denmark. In the lower part the three crowns (only two are visible) represents Sweden, this is for historic reasons. The polar bear represents Greenland and the ram represents the Faroe Islands. The two lions in the upper right side represents the principality of Slesvig. Until 1972, it also included other symbols representing principalities in Germany and parts of present-day Sweden that used to be ruled by the Danish king.

In 1972 when King Frederik IX died and Margrethe II became queen the coat of arms of the royal family was redesigned, and today it only comprises symbols representing the current parts of the Danish Kingdom.
Denmark
National symbols of Denmark

Coat of arms of Denmark


A Passion play is a religious drama of medieval origin dealing with the suffering, death, and Resurrection of Christ. Early Passion plays (in Latin) consisted of readings from the Gospel with interpolated poetical sections on the events of Christ's Passion and related subjects, such as Mary Magdalene's life and repentance, the raising of Lazarus, the Last Supper, and the lament of the Virgin Mary. Use of the vernacular in these interpolations led to the development of independent vernacular plays, the earliest surviving examples being in German. Such plays were at first only preludes to dramatic presentations of the Resurrection. The introduction of Satan (which became typical of German and Czech plays), and thus of introductory representations of the fall of Lucifer and the Fall of man (as in the early 14th-century Vienna Passion), and of scenes from the Old Testament and of the Last Judgment, led to development of cyclic plays similar to the Corpus Christi cycles. The great Celtic Passion cycles of Cornwall and Brittany, and the St. Gall Passion play (which begins with the entry of St. Augustine, who introduces the Old Testament prophets and patriarchs, and also includes the marriage at Cana), exemplify this type of Passion play.

The Tirol plays early formed a separate group, representing only scenes from the Passion and Resurrection. The Bohemian plays, such as the St. Eger Passion, developed from a simpler version of the Vienna Passion, were also distinct in style and incident.

The earliest Passion plays of France and Flanders are thought to have their source in a nondramatic narrative poem of the 13th century, the Passion des jongleurs. These plays became highly elaborated in the course of their development, culminating in performances (Mons, 1501; Valenciennes, 1547) lasting more than a week. Confraternities were founded for performance of Passion plays, the most famous being the Confrérie de la Passion (1402). Passion plays were also performed in Spain, Italy, and elsewhere, with local variations.

By the 16th century, many of the Passion plays, debased by secular influences, had degenerated into mere popular entertainments, full of crude slapstick and buffoonery. Many were forbidden by ecclesiastical authorities, and many more were suppressed after the Reformation.

The most famous of the Passion plays to survive into the 20th century is that performed at Oberammergau, in the Bavarian Alps. According to tradition, the play has been presented every 10 years since 1634, in fulfillment of a vow made after the village was spared an epidemic of plague (shifting to decennial years in 1700), except in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War and World War II, when religious plays were banned. It remains an entirely local production, with villagers taking all the parts and singing in the chorus. Since 1930 roofed seats have protected the audience from the weather. The production runs from May through September. Some villagers and some Jewish organizations have protested anti-Semitic overtones in the 1860 text. Traditional Passion plays have also been revived in villages in the Austrian Tirol. In northern Spain, during Lent and Holy Week, a Catalan Passion play is performed by villagers; and in Tegelen, in the Netherlands, a modern play by the Dutch poet Jacques Scheurs is given every five years.

Christian genres
Theatrical forms

Passion play


Classified information is sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people. A formal security clearance is required to handle classified documents or access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. There are typically several levels of sensitivity, with differing clearance requirements. This sort of hierarchical system of sharing information among a group of people is almost used by every national government. The operation of assigning the level of sensitivity to data is called data classification.

The purpose of classification is to protect information from being used to damage or cause danger to national security. Classification formalizes what constitutes a "state secret" and deals with different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause if it reached the wrong hands.

Certain non-government organizations and corporations also have their own secret information, normally referred to as trade secrets.

Classification levels
Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest):
 Top Secret (TS)  The highest level of classification of material on a national level. Such material would cause "exceptionally grave damage" to national security if publicly available.
 Secret Such material would cause "serious damage" to national security if publicly available.
 Confidential Such material would cause "damage" or be "prejudicial" to national security if publicly available.
 Restricted Such material would cause "undesirable effects" if publicly available. Some countries do not have such a classification.
 Unclassified Technically not a classification level, but is used for government documents that do not have a classification listed above. Such documents can sometimes be viewed by those without security clearance.

Depending on the level of classification there are different rules controlling the level of clearance needed to view such information, and how it must be stored, transmitted, and destroyed. Additionally, access is restricted on a "need to know" basis. Simply possessing a clearance does not automatically authorize the individual to view all material classified at that level or below that level. The individual must present a legitimate "need to know" in addition to the proper level of clearance.

Other websites and references
 US "NISPOM" manual, explaining rules on classified information among other things - full title is "National Industrial Security Program Operating Manual".
 Marking Classified National Security Information ISOO booklet PDF
 Trusted operating systems
 Defense Business Services National Security Vetting (DBS NSV). Carries out national security checks in the UK.
 Los Alamos table of equivalent US and UK classifications
The National Security Archive - a collection of declassified documents acquired through the FOIA
 Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism : essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006.  Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
Peter Galison, Removing Knowledge in Critical Inquiry n°31 (Autumn 2004)
 RADNA GRUPA ZA IZRADU ZAKONA O TAJNIM INFORMACIJAMA, proposition of Serbian non government working group for Classification of secrets law, .DOC Serbian

National security
Secrecy

Classified information


Judith Rich Harris (February 10, 1938 – December 29, 2018) researched psychology.  She was an independent researcher, and not a university professor.  Her most famous book is The Nurture Assumption.  The book asks "Why [do] children turn out the way they do"?  Its answer is that "Parents matter less than you think and peers matter more".

Education
Harris graduated from Tucson High School and attended the University of Arizona and Brandeis University, from where she graduated magna cum laude in 1959. In 1961 she received a master's degree in psychology from Harvard University.

The Nurture Assumption
Harris's most famous work is The Nurture Assumption.  It was published in 1998.  A revised version was published in 2009.  Children often act like their parents act.  Some psychologists thought this was because of the way that parents raised their children.  Harris argues that (some or all of) this similarity is due to genetics.  Otherwise, parents are not the most important factor in child development.  This book argues that peers are more important.   Harris argues that children are socialized by peers.

No Two Alike
Harris also wrote No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality.  It was published in February 2006. Harris attempts to explain why people are so different in personality, even identical twins who grow up in the same home.

Opinions of her work
George A. Miller was chair of the Department of Psychology which formally dismissed Harris from the PhD program at Harvard, 1960, on the grounds that her 'originality and independence' did not live up to Harvard's standards.

Later, in 1994, she developed a theory of child development, which focussed on the peer group rather than the family. This formed the basis for a 1995 article in the Psychological Review for which she received the American Psychological Association's George A. Miller Award for an Outstanding Recent Article in General Psychology.<ref>Harris J.R. 2006. No two alike: human nature and human individuality. W.W. Norton. </ref>

Death
Harris suffered from a chronic autoimmune disorder, diagnosed as a combination of lupus and multiple sclerosis. She died on December 30, 2018 at the age of 80.

Books and articles
Harris, J. R., & Liebert, R. M. (1984,). The child: development from birth through adolescence.  Prentice Hall,
Harris, J. R., Shaw, M. L., & Altom, M. J. (1985). Serial position curves for reaction time and accuracy in visual search: Tests of a model of overlapping processing. Perception & Psychophysics, 38, 178-187.
Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102, 458-489.
Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: why children turn out the way they do.  Free Press, .
Harris, J. R. (2000). Socialization, personality development, and the child's environments. Developmental Psychology, 36, 699-710.
Harris, J. R. (2000). Context-specific learning, personality, and birth order. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 174-177.
Harris, J. R. (2002). Why do people believe that birth order has important effects on personality? The Nurture Assumption Web Site. Retrieved 2007-08-27
Harris, J. R. (2006). Parental selection: a third selection process in the evolution of human hairlessness and skin color. Medical Hypotheses, 66, 1053-1059.
Harris, J. R. (2006). No two alike: human nature and human individuality.  W.W. Norton,

Personal life
She married Charles S. Harris in 1961; they have two daughters (one adopted) and four grandchildren. Harris suffered from an autoimmune disease; she died December 29, 2018.

Related pages

Nature versus nurture

References

Other websites
Judith Rich Harris's Web Site
Blame your peers, not your parents, author says, APA Monitor 29(10), October 1998, p. 9
The Parent Trap, Newsweek September 7, 1998, pp. 52–59.
Peer Pressure, New York Times Book Review'' September 13, 1998, pp. 14–15

1938 births
2018 deaths
Deaths from multiple sclerosis
Harvard University alumni
American psychologists
Scientists from Tucson, Arizona

Judith Rich Harris


Sex education is telling people about sexual intercourse. Usually, parents tell their children when they reach puberty. This usually includes things like how to make babies, how to protect against unwanted pregnancies, and how not to get any of the sexually transmitted diseases there are. In many cultures speaking about sex or sexual education is a taboo.

Some level of sex education is also done in school; in many places, the government passed laws that say that sex education must be done in school. Some parts of sex education vary by culture, e.g. the moral and ethic aspects.

Other websites
 SIECUS Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States

Human sexuality

Sex education


Ancient Greek boxing is a very old sport. It has been practiced at least since the eighth century BC. Homer wrote about it in his poem Iliad. At that time, Greece was made of many city-states that were independent. Each city state seems to have had its own version of the sport.

Today, most of the sources that talk about Greek boxing are either legends, or they are fragmentary. When a source is fragmentary, this means that part of the text has been lost, or is missing. This makes it difficult to find the rules, or where and how the activity was done. Several details are missing, but it seems boxing with gloves was an important part of the Greek athletic culture of the time.

Where it came from

The activity was called pyx or pygme in Ancient Greek. Archeologists have found evidence that this activity was probably done by the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Many legends tell about the origins of boxing in Greece.  One legend says that the heroic ruler Theseus invented a type of boxing where two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed. Later, the boxers began to fight while standing. They also started to wear gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows. In Ancient Greece, most sports were done naked, boxing too.

According to Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing in their competitions. They did this to honor those who had died. It is possible that Homer told about what the Greeks did, at a later time. Boxing was one of the contests held in memory of Achilles' friend Patroclus, who was killed toward the end of the Trojan War.  To commemorate Patroclus the Greeks later introduced boxing (pygme / pygmachia) to the Olympic Games in 688 BC. People taking part trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands, wrists, and sometimes chest, to protect themselves from injury. The straps also left the fingers free.

Philostratus was a scholar and an historian. According to him, boxing was originally developed in Sparta, in order to harden warriors' faces for battle.  The early Spartans believed helmets were unnecessary and boxing prepared them for when they were hit on the head in battle. However, Spartans never took part in the competitive version of boxing. They thought it was dishonorable to be defeated that way.

Equipment

Until around 500 BC himantes were used as protection for the knuckles and hand.  They were thongs of ox hide between 3 and 3.7 meters long. The himantes were wrapped around the hands and knuckles many times.

Around 400 BC sphairai were introduced.  The sphairai were very similar to himantes.  The biggest difference was that the inside was padded when they were wrapped around the hands. The outside of the thong was more rigid too.

Soon after the saphirai had been introduced, they were replaced by oxys used for boxing. Oxys were made of several thick leather bands that were wrapped around the hand, wrist, and forearm.  A band of fleece was placed on the forearm to wipe away sweat.  Leather braces extended up the forearm to give greater support when punching. The knuckles were reinforced with leather as well.

Korykos were the equivalent to modern punching bags.  They were used for practice in the Palaestra and were filled with sand, flour, or millet.

Rules

The rules currently used for the sport are based on the old rules. As pointed out above, there are only incomplete sources for the rules. The rules needed to be deduced from old texts and images:
No holds or wrestling
Any type of blow with the hand was allowed but no gouging with the fingers
No ring was used
There were no rounds or time limits
The winner was decided when one fighter gave up or could not move
No weight-classes, opponents were selected by chance
Judges enforced the rules by beating offenders with a switch
Fighters could opt to exchange blows undefended if the fight lasted too long

References

Boxing

Ancient sports

Ancient Greek boxing


Santa Ana  is the coonty seat an seicont maist populous ceety in Orange Coonty, Californie. Wi a population o 324,528, as o the 2010 census, Santa Ana is the 57t maist-populous ceety in the Unitit States.

Foondit in 1869, Santa Ana is locatit in Soothren Californie adjacent tae the Santa Ana River,  awa frae the Californie coast. The ceety is pairt o the Greater Los Angeles Aurie which, accordin tae the U.S. Census Bureau, is the seicont lairgest metropolitan aurie in the U.S., wi amaist aichteen million fowk. Accordin tae the 2000 U.S. Census, o U.S. ceeties wi mair nor 300,000 fowk, Santa Ana is the 4t-maist densely populatit ahint anerlie New York Ceety, San Francisco, an Chicago, an slichtly denser than Boston.

Santa Ana lends its name tae the Santa Ana Freeway (), which runs throu the ceety. It shares its name wi the nearbi Santa Ana Mountains, an the Santa Ana winds, which hae historically fueled saisonal wildfires throuoot Soothren Californie. The current Office of Management and Budget (OMB) metropolitan designation for the Orange Coonty Aurie is "Santa Ana-Anaheim-Irvine, California".

History
Members o the Tongva an Juaneño/Luiseño naitions lang inhabitit the aurie. The Tongva Indians cried the Santa Ana aurie "Hotuuk."

Efter the 1769 expedeetion o Gaspar de Portolá oot o Mexico Ceety, then caipital o New Spain, Friar Junípero Serra namit the aurie Vallejo de Santa Ana (Valley o Saunt Anne, or Santa Ana Valley). On 1 November 1776, Mission San Juan Capistrano wis establisht athin this valley. This Santa Ana Valley comprised mist o wha is nou cried Orange Coonty.

In 1810, year o the commencement o the war o Mexican Unthirldom (1810–1821), Jose Antonio Yorba, a sergeant o the Spainyie airmy, wis grantit laund that he cried Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana. Yorba's rancho includit the launds whaur the ceeties o Olive, Orange, Irvine, Yorba Linda, Villa Park, Santa Ana, Tustin, Costa Mesa an unincorporatit El Modena, an Santa Ana Heights, are the day. This rancho wis the anerlie laund grant in Orange Coonty grantit unner Spainyie Rule. Surroondin laund grants in Orange Coonty wur grantit efter Mexican Unthirldom bi the new govrenment.

Efter the Mexican-American War endit in 1848, Alta California became pairt o the Unitit States an American settlers arrivit in this aurie.

Claimit in 1869 bi Kentuckian William H. Spurgeon on laund obtained frae the stryndants o Jose Antonio Yorba, Santa Ana wis incorporatit as a ceety in 1886 wi a population o 2000 an in 1889 became the seat o the newly formit Orange Coonty.

Bi 1906 the Pacific Electric Railway frae Los Angeles wis extendit tae Santa Ana, runnin alang Fowert Street dountoun. The "red caurs" made traivel tae Los Angeles easier an helpit continue Santa Ana's population boom. Due tae declinin ridership, the route wis abandoned bi the 1950s an the tracks wur remuivit alang wi hintle o the rest o the Pacific Electric seestem. The closin coincidit wi the openin o the Santa Ana Freeway in 1953, increasin the ease o traivel bi automobile.

Santa Ana wis the hame o the oreeginal Glenn L. Martin aviation company, foondit in 1912 afore mergin wi the Wright Company in 1916. Later, Glenn Luther Martin creatit a seicont company o the same name in Cleveland, Ohio which eventually mergit wi the Lockheed Corporation tae form the lairgest defence contractor in the warld, Lockheed Martin.

Durin Warld War II, the Santa Ana Army Air Base wis biggit as a trainin centre for the United States Army Air Forces. The base wis responsible for continued population growthe in Santa Ana an the rest o Orange Coonty as mony veterans muivit tae the aurie tae raise faimilies efter the end o the war.

In 1958, Fashion Square Mall wis biggit, adjoinin the existin Bullock's Department Store biggin that wis biggit in 1954. It opened north o dountoun an became a major retail centre for the aurie. In 1987, the maw wis completely renovatit an became MainPlace Mall (nou Westfield MainPlace).

Haein been a Chairter Ceety syne 11 November 1952, the ceetizens o Santa Ana amendit the Chairter November 1988 tae provide for the direct election o the Mayor who till that pynt haed been an appointee o the Cooncil. The current mayor o Santa Ana is Miguel A. Pulido, the first mayor o Latino strynd in the ceety's history an in fact, the first Mayor directly electit bi the voters.

Syne the 1980s, Santa Ana haes been characterisit bi an effort tae revitalize the dountoun aurie which haed declined in influence. The Santa Ana Artist's Village wis creatit aroond Cal State Fullerton's Grand Central Art Center tae attract airtists an young profeesionals tae live-wirk lofts an new businesses. The process haes continued intae 2009 wi the reopenin o the historic Yost Theater.

Geografie
Accordin tae the Unitit States Census Bureau, the ceety haes a tot aurie o .  o it is laund an  of it (0.90%) is watter. It is the 4t maist densely populatit place in the Unitit States wi a population o 300,000 or mair wi 12,471.5 fowk per sq. mile.

Santa Ana is nestit on flat, law-lyin plains wi little laund elevation chynge. Runnin throu the wast end o the ceety is the maistly channelisit Santa Ana River, which is lairgely saisonal due tae the construction o the Prado Dam an Seven Oaks Dam. The river haes caused several severe floods in the 20t century, an is a continued threat despite the existence o the dams.

Ceetyscape
Nou fully developit, Santa Ana haes several distinct destricts. The core o the ceety is the dountoun aurie, which contains baith retail an hoosin, as well as the Santa Ana Civic Center which is a dence campus o admeenistrative biggins for baith the ceety an the coonty o Orange. The civic centre is hame tae the Ronald Reagan Federal Building and Courthouse an aw. Several historic hames datin frae the late 1800s can be foond as well, an thair preservation is a key issue as development o the dountoun aurie continues.

North o dountoun is the "Midtown" destrict alang Main St., hame tae entertainment destinations sic as the Bowers Museum, MainPlace Mall, an the Discovery Science Center.

Near the intersection o the Santa Ana Freeway an the Costa Mesa Freeway is the newly-designatit "Metro East" aurie, which the ceety cooncil haes enveesioned as a seicontar mixed-uise development destrict. Currently the aurie is occupeed bi several office touers, but little retail or hoosin. An aw on the east side o the ceety is the Santa Ana Zoo, notable for its collection o monkeys an species frae Sooth an Central Americae.

The sooth end o the ceety is pairt o the Sooth Coast Metro aurie, which is shared wi the ceety o Costa Mesa. South Coast Plaza, a major shoppin centre, is the primar destination o this aurie, which contains several heich-rise office an apairtment biggins.

Climate
Santa Ana experiences a Mediterranean climate, wi wairm, dry simmers an mild, wet winters.  The simmer months o Juin - September averages a daytime heich o 82 (F) degrees an a nichttime law o 62 (F) degrees. The winter months o Dizember - Mairch averages a daytime heich o 70 (F) degrees an a nichttime law o 48 (F) degrees. Rainfaw averages aboot 14 inches (356 mm) per year, maist o which faws frae November throu Aprile. Thare are an average o 34 days wi measurable precipitation annually.

The record heich temperatur for Santa Ana wis  on 14 Juin 1917.  The record law temperatur wis  on 31 Dizember 1918, an 1 Januar 1919.  Thare are an average o 24.5 days wi heichs o  or heicher an a average of 6.4 days wi laws o  or lawer.

The wettest year in Santa Ana wis 1941 wi  an the driest year wis 1961 wi .  The maist rainfaw in ane month wis  in Februar 1998.  The maist rainfaw in 24 oors wis  on 16 Februar 1927.

Demografics

Economy
Santa Ana is the corporate heidquairters o several companies includin Behr Paint, CoreLogic, Corinthian Colleges, First American Corporation, Greenwood & Hall, Ingram Micro, The Orange County Register, Powerwave Technologies, SchoolsFirst Federal Credit Union, STEC, TTM Technologies, an Wahoo's Fish Taco. It hooses major regional heidquairters for the Xerox corporation an aw, Ultimate Software Ultimate Software, an T-Mobile.

Ane o Santa Ana's maist notable businesses is the Rickenbacker muisical instrument company, whose electric guitars an bass guitars earned fame in the haunds o mony rock an roll legends.

Then Glenn L. Martin Company, a precursor tae Lockheed Martin, wis foondit in Santa Ana in 1912 afore mergin wi the Wright Company in 1916.

In recent years, the nearbi ceety o Irvine haes ootpacit Santa Ana in commercial growthe, wi the Irvine Business District locatit near John Wayne Airport. Tae compete wi this, Santa Ana haes appruivit commercial projects in the South Coast Metro aurie, as well as the "Metro East" development, locatit at the confluence o the Santa Ana Freeway an the Costa Mesa Freeway.

The Historic South Main Business District contains mony aulder retail shops an ither sma businesses. It extends frae dountoun Santa Ana soothwairds on Main Street tae the Sooth Coast Metro aurie.

Top employers
Accordin tae the Ceety's 2010 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the tap employers in the ceety are:

Airts an Cultur

Recreation an attractions
Santa Ana haes a nummer o pairks that provide an impruivit quality o life for the residents.  Disneyland and Knotts Berry Farm  amusement pairks are locatit northeast o Santa Ana, several kilometres awa.  Beaches are locatit aroond 20 minutes tae the sooth, accessible bi the 55 freewey.  Huntington Beach an Newport Beach as well as ither coastal commonties affer warld-cless shoppin, dinin, boatin, soummin an surfin opportunities.

Steids o interest
Artist Village and Civic Center (See Downtown Santa Ana Historic Districts).
Bowers Museum - History museum stairtit in the 1930s wi a lairge collection o Central American airtifacts.
Heritage Museum of Orange County  (umwhile Centennial Heritage Museum) - hame o the Kellogg House an ither 1890s biggins
CSUF Grand Central Art Center - At the hert o the Artist Village in Santa Ana.
- Orange County Center for Contemporary Art
Delhi Park and El Salvador Park (Artesia Pilar Neighborhood)
Discovery Science Center.
Downtown National Register District.
Downtown Santa Ana Historic Districts.
Dr. Willella Howe-Waffle House and Medical Museum.
El Centro Cultural de México.
Galaxy Theatre .
Historic Floral Park.
Historic French Park .
Main Place Mall opened in 1987.
OC Pavilion  performin airts centre an 5-starn restaurant Ambrosia.
Old Orange County Courthouse.
Santa Ana Civic Center.
Santa Ana College, pairt of the Rancho Santiago Community College District.
Santa Ana Fire Department's Firefighter's Museum .
Santa Ana Historical Preservation Society.
Santa Ana Zoo, biggit in 1960.
Santiago Art District .
St. Joseph Catholic Church, established in 1887, renovatit in the late 1980s.
Sol Art Gallery Cafe .

Greenville, a umwhile landwart section o Santa Ana, haes biggins ower a century auld, but industrial complexes hae replacit the agricultural fields that ance surroondit the toun.

Santa Ana haes several waw paintins an murals depictin local history, commonty events an cultural diversity in Orange Coonty.

Notable locations

Govrenment

Santa Ana utilizes a mayor-cooncil form o govrenment.  The cooncil consists o sax memmers who are electit bi the populace o the ceety.  Each memmer serves for fower years an can serve a tot o three terms. A mayor pro tem is electit bi the cooncil memmers frae athin the cooncil.

Politics
Santa Ana is ane o a few ceeties in Orange Coonty whaur Democratic Pairty registration outnummers that o the Republican Pairty. In the 2008 Presidential Election, Barack Obama defeatit John McCain in the ceety bi a margin o 20,357 votes, 65% tae 32%. This ws despite Obama luisin tae fellae Democrat Hillary Clinton in the ceety durin the Democratic Primar.  Despite the ceety's heich percentage o Democrats, housomeivver, the ceety tends tae vote conservatively on social issues, hintle lik the rest o northren Orange Coonty.  It votit Yes on California Proposition 8 bi 61.9%, abuin the coonty's average o 57.7%.  On California Proposition 4, which wad hae amendit the Californie Constitution tae require minors tae notifee thair parents afore haein an abortion, Santa Ana votit in favor of the meisur by 62.0%, much higher than the county as a whole, which voted in favor o the meisur by anly 54.3%.

In the state legislatur Santa Ana is locatit in the 34t Senate District representit bi Democrat Lou Correa, an in the 69t Assembly District, representit bi Democrat Jose Solorio. Federally, Santa Ana is locatit in Californie's 47t Congressional Destrict an is representit bi Democrat Loretta Sanchez.

The Consulate-General o Mexico in Santa Ana is locatit on 828 North Broadway Street. The Consulate-General o El Salvador in Santa Ana is locatit in Suite 103 at 840 North Grand Avenue.

Education

Santa Ana Unified School District includes thirty-seven K–5 elementar schuils, nine 6–8 intermediate schuils, aicht 9–12 heich schuils, five special schuils, an ane chairter schuil. The schuil destrict provides an online accoontability report caird.

Santa Ana Unified School District's public heich schuils include Valley High School (Santa Ana), Middle College High School, Santa Ana High School, Saddleback High School, Century High School, newly opened Segerstrom Fundamental High School an Godinez Fundamental High School, an ither public schuils in the aurie, alang wi the Orange County High School of the Arts in the midtoun destrict.

The Roman Catholic Diocese operates Mater Dei High School.  The Diocese operates several K–8 schuils in Santa Ana an aw includin: School of Our Lady, Saint Anne, Saint Barbara, an Saint Joseph. (Immaculate Hert Of Mary And Our Lady Of the Pillar schuils wur closed in 2005 an mergit intae the School of Our Lady which is locatit at Immaculate Hert of Mary Parish.

The ceety is hame tae Santa Ana College, a twa year public commonty college, as well as California Coast University, an the Orange Coonty branch o the Art Institute of California. Taft Law School a correspondence law schuil is based in Santa Ana an aw. Detective Training Institute is a correspondence/distance learnin institution that affers private investigator diplomas an is appruivit tae operate bi the Bureau for Private Postsecondary Eddication.

Infrastructur

Transportation
A few freeweys run throu Santa Ana, connectin the ceety tae ither auries in Orange Coonty, the Greater Los Angeles Aurie, an ayont. The Santa Ana Freeway (Interstate 5) heids north tae Los Angeles, an sooth towards Soothren Orange Coonty an San Diego. The Garden Grove Freeway (State Route 22) runs alang near Santa Ana's northren border, connectin Long Beach tae the wast an the Ceety o Orange tae the east. The Costa Mesa Freeway (State Route 55) travels sooth tae Costa Mesa; an then north tae the Riverside Freeway (State Route 91), providin a connection tae Riverside.

Amtrak, the naitional passenger rail seestem, provides service tae Santa Ana several times on weekdays wi less frequent service on weekends. It operates its Pacific Surfliner atween San Diego tae the sooth an aither Los Angeles or Paso Robles tae the north (see Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center). Greyhound USA is the lairgest bus transportation service in Santa Ana. Greyhound serves the continental Unitit States an Canadae. The bus lines Crucero, Intercalifornias, an ithers serve aw pynts intae Mexico.

Santa Ana is servit bi Metrolink's Orange County Line (Oceanside tae Union Station) an aw, an Inland Empire-Orange County Line (San Bernardino tae San Juan Capistrano).

Santa Ana is in the preliminar stages o implementin a street caur seestem that will connect the Santa Ana Train station tae Dountoun Santa Ana.

Public transit bus service is available via the Orange County Transportation Authority (OCTA).

John Wayne Airport is locatit at 18601 Airport Way Santa Ana, CA 92707. The IATA code for the airport is SNA.

Utilities
Electricity for the ceety if providit bi Southern California Edison. The Southern California Gas Company provides naitural gas service.  Phone an cable televeesion is providit bi AT&T.

Emergency service
Law enforcement is providit bi the Santa Ana Police Department frae three stations throuoot the ceety.  The department includes five canine units, an 11 officer equestrian unit an a 37-member SWAT team.  The ceety shares a helicopter wi the ceeties o Costa Mesa an Newport Beach via the Airborne Law Enforcement (ABLE) program.

In Mairch 2012, the ceety disbandit its municipal fire depairtment which haed providit fire pertection for 128 years an contractit wi the Orange County Fire Authority.

References

Freemit airtins

City of Santa Ana Wabsteid

Incorporatit ceeties an touns in Californie
Ceeties in Orange Coonty, Californie
Ceeties in Soothren Californie
Coonty seats in Californie
Populatit places in Californie wi Hispanic majority populations
Populatit places on the Santa Ana River
Populatit places established in 1869

Santa Ana, Californie


Phase shift keying is a way of transmitting information. This is done by modulating the phase of a carrier wave. In such a system, the amplitude of the wave does not carry any information; all information is present in the phase of the signal. In many cases, this allows to better use the bandwidth available.

If we think of a wave as a wiggly line, (like a sine wave), wiggling a specific number of times a second, and we can change at which part of the wiggle it is in. Say if it is at the top of its wiggle, and we immediately change it to the bottom of its wiggle, this is called a phase shift. We can use that change to carry information.

By either changing or not changing the wave every time it gets to the top of its wiggle, we can send either ones or zeros. This is called Binary Phase Shift Keying. If we change the phase of the wave as it reaches the top, we can have this represent a 1. If we don't change it at the top, we can have this represent a 0. We can use a computer and a radio to turn text into a wave like this and then send it. A radio and a computer listening to this wave changing or not changing can figure out the original message being sent and turn it back into text.

Binary Phase Shift Keying can be used to send computer data across radio waves quite efficiently. Certain Wireless LAN standards use Phase-shift keying, which they sometimes couple with Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, to get higher data rates.

Radio technology

Phase-shift keying


Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran  (; 19 February 1845 – 22 September 1914)  also spelt Kerala Varma Valiya Koilthampuran and known as Kerala Varma, was a Malayalam - language poet and translator who had an equal facility in writing in English and Sanskrit from the Indian state of Kerala. He was part of the royal family of erstwhile Parappanad, Malappuram district. Kerala Varma is also known as the Kalidasa of Kerala.

Kerala Varma has been called "a colossal Renaissance figure in 19th century Kerala" and "perhaps the first of the major [Malayalam language] writers who consciously and deliberately began to absorb and celebrate the Western influence" on his native literature. He advocated resuscitation of Malayalam literature by absorbing selected Western influences combined with native Sanskritic elements in poetry, drama and prose.

Life
He was born in Changanacherry at the Lakshmipuram Palace on 19 February 1845 (6 Kumbham 1020) in Pooyam star. His mother was Pooram Nal Devi Amba Thampuratti while his father was Cheriyoor Mullapally Narayanan Namboothiri, Perinchelloor Gramam (Taliparamba) in  Kannur District. His family had fled Malabar and sought refuge in Travancore during the invasion of Tipu Sultan towards the end of the 18th century. After peace was restored, however, the Parappanad Royal family agreed to accept a pension from the British government as also from the Travancore government and stayed back in the latter state.

Although the Koil Thampuran was born at Changanacherry, his family subsequently moved to Haripad and settled at the Ananthapuram Palace. In 1859 he was married to Her Highness Bharani Thirunal Lakshmi Bayi, the adopted niece of Uthram Thirunal, then Maharajah of Travancore. His marriage to the Senior Rani thus brought him into close association with the Travancore Royal Family. Later, however, through palace intrigues and personal disaffection with the Maharajah Ayilyam Thirunal he was confined at Haripad forcefully in 1875, only to be released and reunited with his wife in 1880 by Maharajah Visakham Thirunal. He wrote an apology letter to Ayilyam Tihirunal on 26 January 1877 admitting all charges including being in league with Visakham Thirunal and writing a letter  to the diwan and later lying that he never wrote such a letter. He also admitted of being attracted to Christianity and addicted to Bhang. He was awarded with the Companion of the Order of the Star of India in 1885 by the British Government. After the death of his consort Rani Lakshmi Bayi in 1901 he was appointed the guardian of her two grandnieces, the Senior and Junior Ranis of Travancore, including Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bayi. He died in a car accident in September 1914. At that time, cars were rare in India, and only rich people like him had cars. According to the sources, Kerala Varma was going to Vaikom Mahadeva Temple with his nephew and disciple A. R. Rajaraja Varma, another great scholar, called as 'Kerala Panini'. On the way of return, he stayed at Ananthapuram Palace, Haripad. The next day, while going to Thiruvananthapuram, his car got crashed, and he succumbed to his injuries two days later.

People from various spheres mourned his death. He was cremated with full state honours at his home in Changanassery.

Literary works

Kerala Varma was in close touch with literary movements in both northern and southern parts of Kerala, including Bhashaposhini Sabha and magazines such as Vidya Vinodini and Malayala Manorama.

His work Abhijnana Sakunthalam(1898), a translation of  Kalidasa's Sakunthalam, is one of the most acclaimed works of poetry in Malayalam from that period. It influenced a number of other translations of Sanskrit classics into Malayalam and was a success on the stage. The subsequent spate of translations from English and Sanskrit into Malayalam was an important feature of Malayalam literature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

He has also written Mayoorasandesham (also spelt Mayura Sandesam; 1894) on the line of Kalidasa's MeghaDooth(aka Meghaduta). In this poetry he has used the peacocks of Haripad temple to send his messages to his wife, the Maharani, in Trivandrum. His celebrated work Visakhavijaya was written after his release by Visakham Thirunal.

See also

Muloor S. Padmanabha Panicker

References

 Travancore State Manual by Velu Pillai
 Visakhavijaya- A Study by Poovattoor Ramakrishna Pillai

Indian male poets
Malayalam poets
Malayalam-language writers
Indian Sanskrit scholars
Translators of Kalidasa
1845 births
1914 deaths
Companions of the Order of the Star of India
Travancore royal family
Road incident deaths in India
19th-century Indian poets
20th-century Indian poets
People from Changanassery
Poets from Kerala
19th-century Indian translators
20th-century Indian translators

Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran