Ethology is the scientific study of animal behaviour (U.S. behavior), and a sub-topic of zoology. Ethology overlaps, to some extent, with psychology. Psychology is a social science which studies human behaviour, but many psychologists have done experiments on learning in animals. Ethology studies animal behaviour, but many ethologists have been interested in human behaviour.

Historical development
An American specialist on ants, William Morton Wheeler, first used the term 'ethology' in English in 1902.

The study of animal behaviour, which had been going on in an anecdotal way since Aristotle, had its roots in natural history. It became more scientific during the 19th century. The French zoologist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was the founder of ethology in Europe, and his son Isidore produced a three-volume encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle Générale. In the third volume he talked about animal behaviour in almost modern terms. The entomologist J.-H Fabre (1823–1915) was a remarkable observer of natural life. His popular writing on natural history kept ethology alive in Europe.

Douglas Spalding (1841–1877) was a British biologist who was the first to notice the effect called imprinting. Instinct and imprinting were the first scientific concepts in ethology.
He was able to prove that the behaviour of chicks after hatching from the egg happened even when they had no experience, practice or even information from the senses. Therefore, the capacity was inherited.

Studies by Charles Otis Whitman, Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley set the tone in the 20th century. This work was mostly on bird behaviour, especially mating behaviour. The behaviour of birds played a big part in early ethology, but there was a start to studying our nearest relatives. Wolfgang Köhler's Mentality of Apes was a landmark in the study of primates. In 2020, Dr. Tobias Starzak and Professor Albert Newen from the Institute of Philosophy II at the Ruhr University Bochum proposed that animals may have beliefs despite these being more difficult to determine than humans.

Nobel prizewinners
The next generation began during the 1930s with the work of Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, and the Dutch biologist Niko Tinbergen. The three men were joint winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1973.

Lorenz is famous for his 'longitudinal' studies: he lived with the animals he researched, and made observations throughout their lives. Then he wrote about what he had discovered in long, very readable papers. He researched instinctual behaviour, which he called 'fixed action patterns' (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of specific stimuli (called sign stimuli or releasing stimuli). von Frisch worked on communication in honey bees: the famous 'bee dances'. Tinbergen experimented with the stimuli which trigger fixed action patterns. He found out that artificial super-stimuli could often work better than the natural stimuli.

Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines—e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology, evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

Tinbergen's four questions
In the 1960s Nico Tinbergen set out a framework for research on behaviour. It involved four questions and their answers.

Function (adaptation)
 Function—How does the behaviour affect the animal's chances of survival and reproduction? Why does the animal respond that way instead of some other way?
The only scientific explanation for an animal's behaviour is that it is well adapted for survival and reproduction in its environment. A trait is the result of its past contribution to survival. In practice, this is simple. For instance, birds fly south in the winter to find food and warmth, and mammalian mothers nurture their young, thereby having more surviving offspring.

Causation
 Causation—What are the stimuli that trigger the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?

Evolutionary history
 Evolutionary history—How does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have begun through the process of phylogeny?
Phylogeny explains why some adaptation is less than perfect. From where it is, there are always some possibilities which a particular species can never get to. This is because all stages in evolution must be viable, else extinction occurs.

Another reason is that not all traits of a species can be maximised at the same time. Increase in armour, for example, is bound to slow down movement. Teeth which are best for vegetation are much less good for meat. The final result is a set of traits, most of which are sub-optimal.

Earlier phylogenetic stages and (pre-) conditions which persist often determine the form of more modern characteristics. For instance, the vertebrate eye (including the human eye) has a blind spot, whereas octopus eyes do not. Once the vertebrate eye had evolved, the only way it could improve was to minimise the effect of the blind spot. We don't notice it ordinarily, because with binocular vision what one eye misses, the other fills in.

Development (ontogeny)
 Development—How does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be displayed?

All instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions – for example to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients – without realizing that the reason people experience hunger (causation) is because it causes them to acquire nutrients (function).

Sources
 Alcock, John 2013. Animal behavior. 10th ed, Sinauer. ISBN 0-87893-966-0. Any edition of this standard text can be used.
 Alcock, John 2003. The triumph of sociobiology. Oxford University Press.

References

Ethology


A placard is a sign made to inform people about something. Often, they are used to warn about danger. Very often, hazard symbols (special pictograms) are used.

Sometimes, placard is also used to mean a leaflet that shows how a certain machine should be operated.

Human communication

Placard


The Audiolingual Method is a method for teaching foreign languages.  Linguists at the University of Michigan invented this method in the late 1950s. In the Audiolingual method, students first hear a language. Later, they speak the language, and after that, they read and write in it.  This way of language teaching is similar to the Direct Method.  Like the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method does not use the students' native language. For example, if you are in an English class in Turkey, the teacher only speaks English, and no Turkish.  However, unlike the Direct Method, the Audiolingual Method does not teach vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drills grammar.  In the Audiolingual method, grammar is most important for the student.  In other words, the student must repeat grammar patterns after the teacher. The students do not learn lots of vocabulary. This method also uses psychology.  The students get a reward for speaking correctly. They get punishment if they speak incorrectly; because it is based on habit formation, which is establishesd by stimulus, response and reinforcement. It gives priority to speaking the target language, and using the native language is not allowed.

Language education

Audiolingual method


In Hinduism, Jnana Yoga is the yoga or practice of knowledge. Jyâna in Sanskrit means "knowledge".

In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna says that jyâna consists of properly understanding kshetra (the field of activity—that is, the body) and kshetra-jna (the knower of the body—that is, the soul). Krishna emphasizes one must understand the difference between these two. "Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal."

Hinduism

Jnana yoga


Jack "Treetop" Straus (June 16, 1930 – August 17, 1988) was an American professional poker player.

He is best known for winning the 1982 World Series of Poker Main Event, where he was able to come back from being down to one chip earlier in the tournament, which gave meaning to the poker phrase "a chip and a chair".  In addition, Straus is known for successfully pulling off one of the best bluffs in the history of poker.

Poker career
Straus began playing in World Series of Poker events in the early 1970s.  He finished in fourth place in the 1972 Main Event.  He won his first bracelet in 1973 in the $3,000 Deuce to Seven Draw event for $16,500. Straus finished in third place in the Main Event that year. He won the 1982 World Series of Poker Main Event, earning $520,000 and a second WSOP bracelet.  Straus' appearances at the final table of the Main Event in 1972, 1973, and 1982 put him in an elite group of players to have made the final table three or more times. Other players to have accomplished this include Main Event champions such as Johnny Moss, Doyle Brunson, Stu Ungar, Johnny Chan and Dan Harrington.

1982 WSOP Main Event, "A Chip and a Chair"
Famously, Straus's 1982 win was a comeback after being down to a single $500 chip, supposedly the origin of the common tournament poker aphorism: "a chip and a chair."  Although accounts vary, the most common story is that he pushed his chips into the pot, was called and lost the hand. Straus had thought he was eliminated from the tournament, but when he got up, he discovered he had one chip left under a napkin on the table.

Because he did not declare himself all-in, the tournament directors allowed him to continue playing.  Modern lore says that this feat occurred at the final table, but the 2005 book All In, which documents the history of the WSOP, confirms that it occurred early in the second day, and did leave him with a $500 chip before his comeback.

The bluff
Straus is credited with one of the most celebrated bluffs of all time. While playing in a high-stakes no limit Texas Hold'em cash game, Straus had won several large pots in a row and so decided that he would raise the next hand pre-flop with any two cards. When he looked down he found that he had been dealt 7-2 offsuit, the worst starting hand in Texas Hold'em, but, playing a 'rush', he raised anyway. Straus's raise was called by a single opponent and the flop came 7-3-3. This was a good flop for a 7-2, so Straus bet out.  However his tight opponent made a large raise, indicating a likely overpair to the board.

Straus knew he was almost certainly behind, but he decided that he might be able to beat his opponent by representing trip threes, so he called the large raise. The turn was a 2, for a board of 7-3-3-2, which was no help to Straus with a better pair already on the board, but he made a huge bet anyway. This set his opponent thinking deeply. Straus knew that he was desperate to avoid a call, as his chances of drawing out to win on the river were very slim. After a few minutes, Straus offered his opponent a proposition. He told him that for $25, he could choose either one of Straus's hole cards and Straus would show it to him. The opponent considered for a while, then tossed Straus $25 and chose a card. Straus showed him the deuce.

After another long pause, his opponent eventually figured that Straus would only make such an offer if both of his hole-cards were deuces, therefore giving him a full house: deuces over threes. He reluctantly folded, and Jack Straus entered poker folklore as one of the most creative bluffers of all time. The bluff was depicted in the Stu Ungar biopic Stuey; however, Straus is not a character in the film and the bluff is credited to another player.

Outside poker
Straus was nicknamed "Treetop" because he was 6'6"; he attended Texas A&M. While it has been reported that he had played varsity basketball there, his name does not appear on the school's all-time list of basketball letter earners. Aside from his poker-playing, Straus was well known as a marksman, a big-game hunter, and for an erudite wit.

Death
After his championship win, Straus continued to actively play poker until his death.

He died of an aortic aneurysm on August 17, 1988, at the age of 58 while playing in a high-stakes poker game at the Bicycle Casino in Los Angeles. He was posthumously inducted into the Poker Hall of Fame later that year.

Straus's live poker tournament winnings exceeded $750,000.

World Series of Poker bracelets

Notes

1930 births
1988 deaths
American poker players
World Series of Poker bracelet winners
World Series of Poker Main Event winners
Texas A&M University alumni
People from San Antonio
Poker Hall of Fame inductees

Jack Straus


The Ob is a river in Siberia. Together with the Lena and the Yenisei, it is one of the most important rivers of Siberia. Depending upon how its length is measured, it can be between 3.650 km and 6.210 km long. Some important cities on the banks of the river include Novosibirsk (Russia's third largest city), Barnaul, Kolpashevo, Nizhnevartovsk, Surgut, Khanty-Mansiysk, Beryozovo, Labytnangi, and Salekhard. The Irtysh is the Ob river's main tributary. Other tributaries include the Omsk, Parabel, Chaya, Tobol and Ishim.

Rivers of Russia
Siberia

Ob (river)


Powder is very small, dry pieces or grains. When we press some dry solids very hard, or when we cut something up into lots of small pieces, we can sometimes make powder.

For example, people sometimes put face powder on their faces, when they want to look good. Sometimes sports players put powder on their hands, to make them dry. We put curry powder in our food, to make it taste stronger. We put washing powder in the washing machine when we want to have clean clothes. People use gunpowder to make bombs and fireworks.

"Powder" is also a verb - meaning to apply powder.

Materials
Cosmetics

Powder


Kalamata is a Greek city. It is in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula. 54,065 people live there. Kalamata it is built at the foot of Taygetos mountain. It is also a coastal city and it has a big beach, in front of the city.

History
Kalamata became the first city which was liberated in the Greek War of Independence in 1821. Kalamata was liberated on 21 March 1821. Kalamata is also known because of the big earthquake in 1986. At that time, Kalamata had a lot of disasters.

Cities in Greece

Kalamata


Louis Metcalf (February 28, 1905 - October 27, 1981) was an American jazz trumpeter who played for a short time with Duke Ellington.

Early life
Metcalf was born in Webster Groves, Missouri, United States. As a youth he first trained on the drums but switched over to cornet permanently. As a teenager in St. Louis, Missouri he played with Charlie Creath.

Career
Metcalf moved to New York City in 1923 and participated in the fertile jazz scene there, playing with such musicians as Willie "The Lion" Smith, Jelly Roll Morton, Benny Carter and King Oliver. In 1926, Duke Ellington hired Metcalf to play in his seminal orchestra, where his mellow tone contrasted with Bubber Miley's. In the 1930s, Metcalf led his own bands and joined Fletcher Henderson's.

In 1946, Metcalf moved to Montreal, Canada, and formed the International Band, the first to play the nascent bebop style in Canada. Under his leadership the Café Saint-Michel was the hub of the jazz scene in Montreal for a few years, with local musicians such as the young Oscar Peterson and visiting Americans such as Art Pepper, Fats Navarro and Sonny Rollins sitting in with the band.

A drug bust prompted Metcalf to return to New York City in 1951. He released an album entitled I've Got The Peace Brother Blues in 1966, where he demonstrated that his style had indeed evolved since his days with Ellington.

Death
Metcalf was less active after falling ill in 1968 and died in 1981. Metcalf was survived by his wife, Shirley Metcalf, and his children, Louis Metcalf, Charles Metcalf, Jay Metcalf, Patrick Metcalf, and Savannah Metcalf.

References

1905 births
1981 deaths
People from Webster Groves, Missouri
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Duke Ellington Orchestra members
20th-century American musicians
Jazz musicians from Missouri
American male jazz musicians
20th-century American male musicians

Louis Metcalf


Cider (or cyder) is a drink made from fruit juice, most often from apples.

In Europe and Oceania it is an alcoholic drink that is made from apple juice, through a process called fermentation. In the United States and parts of Canada, cider containing alcohol is called hard cider or alcoholic cider, while cider or apple cider means less-sweet, usually unfiltered, apple juice.

In the United States and Canada people drink a special kind of cider around Halloween and Thanksgiving. This cider is usually unfiltered, rather thick, and it is often heated and spiced with cinnamon before drinking it. This is different from the cider in Europe, which usually is not heated.

How cider is made

Usually to make cider, apples with a high concentration of tannins are chosen. The fermentation of the apples takes place at around 4-15° Celsius. The temperature influences the duration of the fermentation. The temperature at which the fermentation occurs also has an effect on the taste of the cider.

Shortly before all the sugar has been fermented away, the cider is put in a new barrel which is made air-tight. The rest of the sugar will then become carbonic acid. This will also add to the life-span of the cider (no pasteurisation is needed).

Cider is also the starting-point for distilling Calvados. This alcoholic drink is famous and very expensive.

Where cider is made
Cider is made almost anywhere where there are cider-apple trees, most notably
 France, with its main cider-producing regions:
 Normandy, especially the AOC Pays d'Auge (since march 1996)
 Calvados, Normandy: Calvados the drink is made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.
 Brittany, especially AOC of Fouesnant and of Cornouaille
 Pays de la Loire
 Nord-Pas-de-Calais
 Champagne (Pays d'Othe)
 Savoie
 Somme
 Thiérache
 Spain :
 Asturias
 the Basque country
 Galicia
 Germany, in particular around Frankfurt am Main
 Belgium, in the 'pays d'Herve; and in the east of the Province of Liège
 United Kingdom
 Channel Islands
 North America

In France, Normandy is the first region as to the production of cider-apples (300 000 tonnes), and the first in cider production (7000 kilolitres).

In France, some ciders can benefit from a protected naming. This is the cidre normand and the cidre breton.

France is the country in the world that produces the biggest quantity of cider.

The United Kingdom  produces the most varieties, and along with Ireland holds the biggest market for cider.

Kinds of cider
Hard cider contains alcohol, which affects the taste of the cider. This can be influenced by choosing the right moment when to stop fermentation:
 With 3° of alcohol and below, the cider will be sweet, similar to apple juice. In France they call this cidre doux, and use it to go with desserts.
 Between 3° and 5° of alcohol, you get a cider that can accompany a meal of fish or meat. The French call this cider cidre demi-sec or cidre brut (classique).
 Traditional cider (hard cider) usually has 5° alcohol or more.
 Calvados is made of cider through a process called double distillation. In the first pass, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. In a second pass, the amount of alcohol is augmented to about 40%.

In France, the most popular are the first, second and fourth categories. In the English-speaking countries, it is possible to find cider with up to 12° of alcohol.

When to drink cider

The French and Spanish cuisines have recipes where cider is needed to make them. The French and Spanish also often drink cider instead of wine made from grapes.

In Europe, many young people drink cider. Cider costs less than wine, and is often served in pubs and other places where young people go.

The effects of cider are the same as those of any alcoholic drink.
Apple products
Alcoholic drinks

Cider


Nutrition provides the cells of an organism with food, in a form they can use. Organisms need food to be able to keep their bodies working properly. They also need food to be able to do certain things. Malnutrition can happen when a person does not eat the right amount of nutrients. They can get better by changing their diet to have the right amount of the various nutrients.

Different organisms have different food requirements, and they eat different things in order to meet those requirements. Animals that do not eat meat, for example, will have to get certain nutrients like protein from other foods.

A nutrition expert is called a dietician. Nutritionists are different because they do not need the government to recognize them as experts. Anyone can call themselves a nutritionist.

The six main types of nutrient are carbohydrates, fats, minerals, protein, vitamins, and water. A macronutrient is a nutrient that needs to be eaten a lot. A micronutrient, such as a vitamin, is needed in smaller amounts, but it is still important. Carbohydrates are not needed by the body but most people eat a lot of them. Complex carbohydrates are more nutritious than simple carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates are found in vegetables while simple carbohydrates are found in processed foods. They take longer to digest because they have more fiber. Because they stay in the stomach for longer they leave the person who has eaten them feeling fuller for longer. Protein is needed for building cells. It is found in milk, meat, fish, beans, eggs and other foods like quinoa. Protein is made of amino acids.

Fat is found naturally in some foods. People often eat it in processed foods such as cakes and chocolate. It is  high in energy. Omega 3 and omega 6 fats are needed by the body. There are saturated fats and unsaturated fats. It is recommended that people avoid the saturated type. It has been linked with heart disease. Trans fats is also a fat people should avoid. A lot of people think that fat is bad in general, but it is still controversial. People are also advised not to eat too much sugar or salt.

Most people eat three meals a day. Eating every few hours keeps blood sugar stable. Some foods are good for us and some foods are bad.

Related pages
 Digestion
 Enzyme
 Diabetes
 Food group
 Malnutrition
 Obesity
 Starvation

Notes

Healthy lifestyle
Physiques

Nutrition


Catherine II (, romanized: Yekaterina II, born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 21 April 1729 — 6 November 1796) most commonly known as Catherine the Great (Russian: Екатерина Великая, romanized: Yekaterina Velikaya) was the Tsarina of Russia from 1762 until her death in 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter III. During her long 34-year-reign, Russia experienced a renaissance of culture and sciences, which led to the founding of many new cities, universities, and theatres, along with large-scale immigration from the rest of Europe and the recognition of Russia as one of the great powers of Europe. She was one of Russia's greatest monarchs.

Early life
Catherine was born in Stettin, which was a part of the Kingdom of Prussia at the time. She was the  daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst and Princess Johanna Elizabeth of Holstein-Gottorp. She had five brothers and sisters. She married her cousin Peter III (who, like Catherine, was German) at age fifteen, and became empress of Russia at age 32. She was educated in three languages (Russian, German and French). She grew up as a Lutheran (Protestant). When she married Peter, she changed to the Russian Orthodox church.

Marriage
Catherine's marriage was said to be unfaithful and distraught. Peter and Catherine were each said to have several lovers. After they had been married nine years, Catherine bore a son, Paul. Paul was born on . Both parents accepted him as legitimate, even though there had been rumors about Catherine having been unfaithful. Catherine also had a daughter Anna, born in 1757. Anna died in 1759. Catherine and Peter had a very difficult relationship. When Peter died, Catherine was left to rule Russia on her own. Catherine had many lovers, probably because of the difficult marriage; over twenty lovers are known. A few of these seem to be more important:
 Count Serge Saltykov was her first lover, and was probably the father of Paul
 Count Stanisław August Poniatowski was made king of Poland, because of Catherine's help
 Count Grigory Orlov was one of the leading figures of the coup against Peter III, together with his brother Alexey Grigoryevich Orlov. They also gave Catherine the Orlov diamond as a gift. This diamond was later put into the Russian sceptre.
 Prince Grigory Potyomkin was very successful in the military forces. He started the Black Sea Fleet, founded cities such as Sevastopol or Kherson. He is said to have been Catherine's true love. The two are said to even have married in secret.
 Count Platon Zubov was her last love. When she died, aged 67, he was not even 40 years old.

Reign
Six months after Peter took the throne, Catherine led a palace coup to overthrow him. The question of who killed him and why is still much discussed. Catherine was greatly admired by the public. She was much involved in foreign affairs, including successful Russo-Turkish wars which conquered new territories for Russia.

Death
Catherine suffered a stroke on 1. Due to the stroke, she lost consciousness. She died in her bed at 9:20 the following evening, while she was still unconscious. Catherine was buried at the Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg.

Russian Orthodox saints
Emperors and Empresses of Russia
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
18th century in Russia
People from Szczecin
1729 births
1796 deaths

Catherine II of Russia


Interpol is an alternative rock band from New York City. Popular songs include Evil, PDA and NYC. The band's current members are Paul Banks, Daniel Kessler, and Sam Fogarino. Bassist Carlos Dengler departed the band in 2010.

Members
Paul Banks is the artist name used by the lead vocalist and one of the guitarists in the band Interpol. He is American but was born in Clacton-on-Sea, Essex, England.  The family moved back to the USA, where his parents were from, when he was five. The family lived in Chicago, Illinois and Virginia Beach, Virginia. They also spent time in Europe and Tampico, Tamaulipas, Mexico before he attended college.

He uses an alias in Interpol and in his solo work to separate life from work. In addition to Interpol, he has released one album, Julian Plenti Is... Skyscraper  in 2009 and one EP, Julian Plenti Lives... in 2012, using the name "Julian Plenti". He also released one album, Banks, in 2012, as "Paul Banks". A mixtape entitled Everybody on My Dick Like They Supposed to Be was made available to download on Datpiff in 2012. The tape has contributions from El-P, High Prizm, Talib Kweli and Mike G.

Daniel Kessler - lead guitar.

Sam Fogarino - drums.

History

Interpol formed in the 1997 at NYU and signed to Matador Records in 2002. Their first album, Turn On The Bright Lights was released on August 20, 2002, through Matador Records.  Well known singles and music videos from this album this include "Obstacle 1", "PDA" and "NYC".

The band's second album, Antics  was released September 28, 2004, also through Matador Records. Well known singles and music videos from this album include "Slow Hands", "Evil" and "C'mere". The "Evil" music video, directed by Charlie White is perhaps Interpol's best known. It shows a lifelike puppet surviving a car wreck. The meaning behind the song is much discussed, though Interpol have denied that it is about serial killers.

The band's third album, Our Love To Admire was released July 10, 2007 through Capitol Records. Well known singles and videos from this album include "The Heinrich Maneuver", "No I Threesome" and "Rest My Chemistry".

In July 2010, Interpol announced the departure of bassist Carlos Dengler. The fourth album, Interpol, was released on September 7, 2010. Well known singles and videos from this album include "Barricade" and "Lights". The video for "Lights" was again directed by Charlie White.

The fifth album and most recent album, El Pintor, was released on September 8, 2014. Well known singles and videos from this album include "All The Rage Back Home", "My Desire" and "Everything Is Wrong".

Discography
 Precipitate EP
 Interpol EP (2002)
 Turn On The Bright Lights (2002)
 The Black EP (2003)
 Antics (2004)
 ''Our Love To Admire'' (2007)
 Interpol (2010)
 El Pintor (2014)
Marauder (2018)

References

Other websites

 Band website
 Interpol at Allmusic

1997 establishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American rock bands
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups from New York City

Interpol (band)


The Parian Chronicle or Parian Marble (,  Mar. Par.) is a Greek chronology, covering the years from 1582 BC to 299 BC, inscribed on a stele. Found on the island of Paros in two sections, and sold in Smyrna in the early 17th century to an agent for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, this inscription was deciphered by John Selden and published among the Arundel Marbles, Marmora Arundelliana (London 1628–9) nos. 1–14, 59–119. The first of the sections published by Selden has subsequently disappeared. A further third fragment of this inscription, comprising the base of the stele and containing the end of the text, was found on Paros in 1897. It has entries from 336/35 to 299/98 BC.

The two known upper fragments, brought to London in 1627 and presented to Oxford University in 1667, include entries for the years 1582/81–355/54 BC. The surviving upper chronicle fragment currently resides in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It combines dates for events which modern readers would consider mythic, such as the Flood of Deucalion (equivalent to 1529/28 BC) with dates we would categorize as historic. For the Greeks, the events of their distant past, such as the Trojan War (dated from 1217 to 1208 BC in the Parian inscription) and the Voyage of the Argonauts were historic: their myths were understood as legends to the Greeks. In fact the Parian inscriptions spend more detail on the Heroic Age than on certifiably historic events closer to the date the stele was inscribed and erected, apparently during 264/263 BC. "The Parian Marble uses chronological specificity as a guarantee of truth," Peter Green observed in the introduction to his annotated translation of the Argonautica of Apollonios Rhodios: "the mythic past was rooted in historical time, its legends treated as fact, its heroic protagonists seen as links between the 'age of origins' and the mortal, everyday world that succeeded it."

The shorter fragment base of the stele, found in 1897, is in the Archaeological Museum of Paros. It contains chronicle entries for the years 336/35–299/98 BC.

Sources of the Parian Chronicle
The major analysis of the Parian Chronicle is that of Felix Jacoby, written in the early 20th century. This appeared in two works: his book Das Marmor Parium published in 1904, and as a part of the Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, first published in 1929. There has been no major study devoted to the entire stele since that time, although a few authors have dealt with specific time periods covered in the tablet. Furthermore, there apparently have been no critical studies of the original text on the stele itself since the work of Jacoby, as evidenced by the fact that the display of the Greek text on the Ashmolean Web site is a photocopy of the text that Jacoby published in his Fragmente.

The legibility of the Oxford fragment was impaired in the late 1980s when it was apparently mechanically cleaned by a crew hired to pressure clean all the classical sculptures in that hall of the Ashmolean. Until then, some of the most badly abraded letters could still be read because they preserved a yellow patina acquired many centuries ago. After the cleaning however the stone was restored to a brilliant white color and the old patina was lost. The controversy in Oxford was such that the Ashmolean issued a statement denying responsibility for the seemingly new appearance of the stone.

In attempting to discern the source or sources of the Chronicle, Jacoby followed the rather subjective method that was popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, whereby a change in the subject matter or style of writing was taken to imply a different source. The style of the Chronicle, however, is quite uniform. Events are listed with little embellishment, and the primary purpose seems to be to give for each event the name of the king or archon ruling in Athens at the time, along with the number of years prior to the base date of the tablet (264/63 BC). The only exceptions are that in nine out of the 107 extant entries, the name of the archon or king is no longer readable, and in 14 entries the number of elapsed years is similarly effaced. The lack of embellishment is shown, for example, in the entry for Cecrops, which attributes nothing remarkable to him or to his reign, even though in later Greek mythology he was a semi-human creature. The Chronicle's entries for Deucalion, who became the center of many flood-myths, are more consistent with the earliest Greek legends that merely state that he fled from a flooding river in his native Lycoreia near the Gulf of Corinth, arriving at Athens where his son later became king.

In contrast to Jacoby's ideas, a 2012 study maintains that the style of the  Chronicle's entries suggests that the ultimate source of the information in the Parian Chronicle was the archives of the city of Athens. Authors Rodger Young and Andrew Steinmann base their views on three key inferences from the available evidence. 1) The naming of the reigning king or archon in Athens for each entry is consistent with an Athenian provenance of the material. 2) The source behind each entry must have provided a year-number from which the author of the Parian Chronicle was able to calculate the years to his own time, thus suggesting that the archives from which the information was taken were keeping track of the years since the founding of the kingship in Athens under Cecrops. Such framing chronicles are known to have been kept in Rome: the Anno Urbis Conditae, from which events were reckoned. 3) The annalistic style of the Chronicle is in keeping with the genre of annalistic records such as the Assyrian Eponym Canon, in which the purpose was not so much to describe events as to give an accurate record of when the events occurred, as related to the years since the founding of the kingship and also tying the event to the king or archon who was currently reigning.

Young and Steinmann acknowledge several factors that make it less plausible the source behind the Parian Chronicle was the state archives of Athens. The first is that there are no known examples of writing from Athens that date as early as 1582/81 BC, the date of the Chronicle's first entry. The earliest extant writing in Greek from any area is found in the syllabic Linear B script, for which the earliest instances date to about a century and a half after the reputed beginning of the kingship under Cecrops. Another argument against the Athenian provenance of the information in the Parian Chronicle is the reconstruction given by Jacoby of the first two lines of the tablet, which were largely effaced when Selden made his copy (this top part has since been lost), but of which enough remained that Selden could determine that it was intended as a statement of the source of the tablet's histories. Jacoby's restoration of Selden's Greek text is followed on the Ashmolean Web site, which translates it into English as follows, with square brackets and italics indicating the portion of the text that is conjectural:

[From] al[l the records and general accounts] I have recorded [the previous times], beginning from Cecrops becoming first king of Athens, until []uanax was archon in Paros, and Diognetus in Athens.

The critical word here is "general," which represents a Greek original for which Selden could read only the last three letters, νῶν; these are the ending of the genitive plural. Jacoby hypothesized the word was an adjective and restored it to κοινῶν, meaning "common, general, ordinary". This is consistent with Jacoby's theory for the source of the Chronicle's documents, namely that the author used a variety of selections from diverse materials available in the third century BC. The Ashmolean Web site then translated this into English as shown above. Young and Steinmann, however, maintain that "The writer of an annalistic history that professes to give exact dates for events would not assure readers of his credibility by saying that his information was derived from the "common" folklore ... For the Parian Marble, such reassurance would be given if the original word, for which the genitive plural ending - νῶν has survived, was not κοινῶν, but Ἀθηνῶν," i.e. "of Athens," taking the word as a noun (Athens was a plural noun in classical Greek). This restoration would give the reader the assurance that the writer of the tablet had an authoritative source for his information, as follows:

[From] al[l the public records and histories of Ath]ens I have recorded [the previous times], beginning from Cecrops becoming first king of Athens, until []uanax was archon in Paros, and Diognetus in Athens.

One other conjecture for the source of the Parian Chronicle's information is of historical interest. In 1788, Joseph Robertson went to considerable length in arguing that the tablets were of relatively recent date and entirely fraudulent. His book is accessible under the External links below. The finding of the bottom portion of the tablet on Páros in 1897 has made Robertson's theory untenable.

RTI scanning
In 2013, Ben Altshuler of the Institute for Digital Archaeology oversaw reflectance transformation imaging (RTI) of the Parian Marble, revealing significant, previously illegible text. RTI scans are also available as part of the Digital Marmor Parium project.

Notes

References
Michael Kerrigan, 2009. The Ancients in Their Own Words, The Parian Marble, p. 144-45, photo of Ashmolean piece and translation excerpts, Michael Kerrigan, Fall River Press, Amber Books Ltd, c 2009. (hardcover. )

External links

 Ashmolean exhibit including images and English translation
The Parian chronicle, or The chronicle of the Arundelian marbles; with a dissertation concerning its authenticity by Joseph Robertson 1788, from the Internet Archive
  M. Berti (ed.), Digital Marmor Parium (Universität Leipzig)

Chronicles in Koine Greek
3rd-century BC history books
Collection of the Ashmolean Museum
3rd-century BC steles
Historiography of Greece
Greek inscriptions
Paros
Hellenistic Greece
Archaeological discoveries in Greece

Parian Chronicle


Abalessa is a municipality in Tamanrasset Province, in soothren Algerie, coextensive wi the destrict o the same name. It haes 6,500 indwallers (1998). Abalessa is locatit alang the auncient Trans-Saharan trade route, 80 km wast o the ceety o Tamanrasset, the caipital o the wilaya. The postcode o the toun is 11,120.

The umwhile caipital o the Ahaggar, Abalessa is famous for the Tomb o Tin Hinan, the queen an meethical ancestor o the Tuareg fowk. Tin Hinan supposedly arrived in the Ahaggar Muntains aurie an lived thare in the fowert or fift century AD. On 18 October 1927 Byron Khun de Prorok, discovered a vault near Abalessa containin a skelet, belangin tae a wumman, an her furnitur. In his beuk Mysterious Sahara: The Land of Gold, of saund, and of Ruin Khun de Prorok attributit the skelet tae Tin Hinan. The day, the skelet is on display at the Bardo Museum in Algiers, while the monument whaur it wis discovered continues tae be a popular tourist attraction in Abalessa amang visitors tae the Tamanrasset.

Populatit places in Tamanrasset Province
Communes o Algerie

Abalessa


Heinrich Böll (December 21, 1917 in Cologne – July 16, 1985 in Langenbroich the Eifel, south of Bonn) was a German writer. He was the winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972.

Life
Böll was born in Cologne. His family were strong Catholics and pacifists.
He went to school from 1922 to 1937. After his abitur, he started a training to become a bookseller. He did not go to the Hitler Youth, but he had to join the German army in the World War II. In 1939, he started to study German literature in Cologne, but he had to break for his army service.

In 1945 he became prisoner of war by the Americans. The Americans wanted to educate the German people to became a democracy. So they encouraged prisoners with talent to write. Böll and some other young writers founded the group 47.

Böll wrote a lot of social critical literature. His main themes were the repression in the way of life by conservative catholic forces and the unsolved problem of old Nazis in the society.

In the 1970s, he criticized the losing of civil laws by the fight against terrorism (of the RAF, Red Army Faction, a left-winged political terror group in the 1970s in West Germany). For that reason, the Bild-Zeitung, an very conservative yellow press newspaper, started a campaign against him.

In the late 1970s, he started to look for Human Rights in the Eastern Block, where some friends of his lived, too. He helped the Soviet dissidents Alexander Solshenizyn and Lev Kopelev.

In the 1980s, he worked for the peace movement. He protested against the nuclear armament in West Germany.

He went back to the Roman Catholic Church, which he left 1976 by protests, before he died.

Heinrich Böll Foundation
The Green Party of Germany gave its foundation the name of Böll, Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. The goals of the foundation are for countries to work together, civil laws and democratic and ecological thinking.

Selected bibliography
 Der Zug war pünktlich (The Train Was on Time), 1949
 Das Vermächtnis (A Soldier's Legacy), written 1948-1949; publ. 1981
 Wanderer, kommst du nach Spa (Stranger, Bear Word to the Spartans), 1950
 Die schwarzen Schafe (Black Sheep), 1951
 Nicht nur zur Weihnachtszeit (Christmas Not Just Once a Year), 1951
 Wo warst du, Adam? (And Where Were You, Adam?), 1951
 Der Engel schwieg (The Silent Angel), written 1949-1951; publ. 1992
 Und sagte kein einziges Wort (And Never Said a Word), 1953
 Haus ohne Hüter (House without Guardians), 1954
 Das Brot der frühen Jahre (The Bread of Those Early Years), 1955
 Irisches Tagebuch (Irish Journal), 1957
 Die Spurlosen (Missing Persons), 1957
 Doktor Murkes gesammeltes Schweigen (Dr. Murke's Collected Silence), 1958
 Billard um halb zehn (Billiards at Half-Past Nine), 1959
 Ein Schluck Erde, 1962
 Ansichten eines Clowns (The Clown), 1963
 Entfernung von der Truppe (Absent Without Leave), 1964
 Ende einer Dienstfahrt (End of a Mission), 1966
 Gruppenbild mit Dame (Group Portrait with Lady), 1971
 Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum (The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum), 1974
 Fürsorgliche Belagerung (The Safety Net), 1979
 Was soll aus dem Jungen bloss werden? (What's to Become of the Boy?), 1981
 Vermintes Gelände, 1982
 Die Verwundung (The Casualty), early tales, publ. 1983
 Frauen vor Flusslandschaft (Women in a River Landscape), 1985 (publ. posthumously)

Translations
More than seventy translations of Annemarie and Heinrich Böll are listed in the bibliography published in 1995 by Werner Bellmann: poetical works of Brendan Behan, Eilis Dillon, O. Henry, Paul Horgan, Bernard Malamud, J. D. Salinger, George Bernard Shaw et al.

Secondary literature
 Bernd Balzer: Das literarische Werk Heinrich Bölls. Kommentare und Interpretationen. dtv, München 1997.
 Werner Bellmann (Ed.): Das Werk Heinrich Bölls. Bibliographie mit Studien zum Frühwerk. Westdeutscher Verlag, Opladen 1995.
 Werner Bellmann (Ed.): Heinrich Böll, Romane und Erzählungen. Interpretationen. Reclam, Stuttgart 2000.
 Michael Butler (Ed.): The Narrative Fiction of Heinrich Böll. Social conscience and literary achievement. Cambridge 1994.
 J.H. Reid: Heinrich Böll. A German for His Time. Berg Publishers Ltd., Oxford 1988.
 Klaus Schröter: Heinrich Böll. Rowohlt-Verlag, Reinbek 1987.
 Jochen Vogt: Heinrich Böll. 2. Aufl. Beck, München 1987.
 Heinrich Vormweg: Der andere Deutsche. Heinrich Böll. Eine Biographie. Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2002.

Other websites
 Heinrich-Böll-Foundation
 Cologne Library Heinrich Böll Archive
 The Heinrich Böll Page
 Nobel Archive: Böll, 1972
 http://www.heinrich-boell.de/ - German homepage

1917 births
1985 deaths
German military personnel of World War II
German Roman Catholics
Writers from Cologne
German Nobel Prize winners

Heinrich Böll


Brightwater is a toun 20 km sooth-west o Nelson in the Sooth Isle o New Zealand. It haes aboot 2,000 fowk, the 2006 census fund 1794 fowk. The toun is alang the bank o the Wairoa River. The steid wis fund aboot 1843, but wis named by a local towe mill awner, Alfred Saunders, in 1855. Faur-kent nuclear pheesicist Sir Ernest Rutherford wis barn here.

Touns in New Zealand

Brightwater


The Canadian Women's Army Corps was a non-combatant branch of the Canadian Army for women, established during the Second World War, with the purpose of releasing men from those non-combatant roles in the Canadian armed forces as part of expanding Canada's war effort. Most women served in Canada but some served overseas, most in roles such as secretaries, mechanics, cooks and so on. The CWAC was finally abolished as a separate corps in 1964 when women were fully integrated into the Canadian armed forces.  The headquarters of the CWAC was based in Goodwin House in Ottawa.

History

The Canadian Women's Army Corps (CWAC) was authorized on 13 August 1941, in response to a shortage of personnel caused by the increase in the size of Canada's navy, army and air force. The founding driving force to the unit's creation was Mrs. Joan Kennedy, of Victoria, British Columbia. She initially faced a great deal of opposition from conventional (male) military authorities. One senior army officer sneered at the very idea of what he called a "petticoat army."
At first the organization was named the Canadian Women's Auxiliary Corps and was not an official part of the armed forces. On 13 March 1942, female volunteers were inducted into the Canadian Army and became the Canadian Women's Army Corps. They wore a cap badge of three maple leaves, and collar badges of the goddess Athena.

A February 1943 CWAC advertisement in the Edmonton Journal noted that prospective recruits had to be in excellent health, at least  tall and  (or within  above or below the standard of weight laid down in medical tables for different heights), with no dependents, a minimum of Grade 8 education, aged 18 to 45, and a British subject, as Canadians were at that time. Since women were not allowed to enter in combat of any kind the CWACs worked as secretaries, clerks, canteen workers, vehicle drivers and many other non-combat military jobs. They were only paid two-thirds of what the men were paid in the same occupation (this figure later became four-fifths).

CWACs served overseas, first in 1942 in Washington, DC, and then with the Canadian Army in the United Kingdom. In 1944 CWACs served in Italy and in 1945 in northwest Europe, usually as clerks in headquarters establishments. After VE Day, more served with Canadian occupation forces in Germany. Approximately 3000 served Canada overseas. While no members of the CWAC were killed in action, four were wounded in a German V-2 missile attack on Antwerp in 1945. "The CWAC was the largest force with 22,000 members, followed by the Air Force Women's Division with 17,000 and the WRCNS with just under 7,000." In August 1946 the CWACs were disbanded. The Canadian Women's Army Corps was re-designated The Canadian Women's Army Corps on 22 March 1948. The Canadian Women's Army Corps reverted to the Canadian Women's Army Corps on 18 Apr 1955. The CWACS were disbanded for good in 1964.

Uniforms

The CWAC had many jobs with different uniforms. A canteen worker could wear overalls, a radioman could wear the battledress trousers and the battledress jacket (most common). Uniforms came in many different forms. Home front women usually wore dress skirts (or trousers) and round hats. If it was a job that meant getting your hands dirty, such as working on an engine of an airplane or vehicle, they would wear normal hardy clothing.

Official regulations regarding uniforms were that the women must wear a: "Khaki greatcoat, barathea skirt and hip-length jacket, peak cap with high crown, and a cap badge with three maple leaves on a stem on which was inscribed 'Canadian Women's Army Corps'. Helmeted head of Athene appears on buttons and badges."

Postwar
After the Second World War, the CWAC and other military organizations were disbanded as women were finally incorporated into the Canadian Forces (CF). "The perceived unsuitability of women for military service, because of their alleged physical weakness and emotional instability in the face of danger, [was] an assumption which [had] been misused to justify the exclusion of women from active military duty."

With the changing tide of Canadian culture towards equality of the sexes, women were finally able to achieve full access to combative roles. No longer believed to be too weak or fragile to be engaged in conflict and confined solely to their homes and families, women were finally given their chance to participate fully in the Canadian military.

Today, Canadian women still represent only a small fraction of the total population of the Canadian Forces. However, the CF is committed to following the principles laid out in the Canadian Constitution, guaranteeing "that every citizen has equal rights and responsibilities", which has led the "Canadian Forces to expand employment opportunities for women. The ultimate responsibility of the CF, however, remains the maintenance of national security."

Effect on equality within Canada

The CWAC and other military organizations were aimed at attracting young women into the Canadian forces during the Second World War, and paved the way for women's future involvement in combat. With tens of thousands of women involved in these organizations, it provided Canadian women with the opportunity to do their part in a global conflict. Although their involvement was critical to the Allied victory, it did not change the power dynamics within Canada regarding military involvement. Sexism returned following the war, forcing women in Canada, and across the world, back into their homes and kitchens. "Women's admittance to the army in World War II had not brought about a change in the distribution of power between the sexes in Canada." The freedom they had experienced during the war was over—it was time to return to their "normal" and "proper" domestic duties. Other scholars argue that the Second World War provided women with the first large-scale opportunity to leave their parents' homes, husbands, and children to engage in paid labour. Never before had this happened at such a high rate for women.  This mass exodus of women from Canadian households allowed the women to forge new identities as military service women and munitions workers because of their newfound ability to earn a paycheque doing work in the public sphere. This brief period of freedom provided women across the world with the ability to enter into the public sphere and would eventually drive some to become part of the women's liberation movement—a key aspect of second-wave feminism.

Related organizations
This corps was allied with the Women's Royal Army Corps.

Memorials
Canadian Women's Army Corps (2000) by André Gauthier is a -high bronze statue in front of the Kitchener Armoury in Kitchener, Ontario.

Erected by local ex-servicewomen, a memorial in Salmon Arm, BC, was dedicated on 14 August 2000 to all Canadian women who served in the First and Second World Wars and the Korean War.

See also

 Mary Greyeyes, who became the first First Nations woman to enlist in the Canadian Armed Forces upon joining the Canadian Women's Army Corps in 1942.
 Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division
 Women's Royal Canadian Naval Service
 Canadian Women's Army Corps Band

References

Bibliography
 Auger, Geneviève and Raymonde Lamothe. De la poêle à frire à la ligne de feu: La vie quotidienne des Québécoises pendant la guerre '39 - '45. Montréal: Boréal Express, 1981.
 Bowley, Patricia, and Kris Wright. "Canadian Enlisted Women: Gender Issues in the Canadian Armed Forces before and after 1945." Minerva: Women & War 15, no. 1 (March 1997): 9-25.
 Bruce, Jean. Back the Attack! Canadian Women During the Second World War - At Home and Abroad. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1985.
 Conrod, W. Hugh. Athene, Goddess of War: The Canadian Women's Army Corps - Their Story. Dartmouth: Writing and Editorial Services, 1984.
 Gossage, Carolyn. Greatcoats and Glamour Boots: Canadian Women at War (1939–1945). Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991.

 Parr, Joy. A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945-1980. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995.

 Roe Kathleen Robson. War Letters from the C.W.A.C. Toronto: Kakabeka Publishing Co., 1975.

External links

 The Juno Beach centre. Canadian Women's Army Corps Accessed 1 May 2007
 Canadian Women's Army Corps Pipe Band Accessed 13 Nov 2009
 Proudest Girl in the World, 1944 musical recruiting film for the Canadian Women's Army Corps, at the National Film Board of Canada

Military of Canada
1941 establishments in Canada
Corps of the Canadian Army
Women in the Canadian armed services
Canadian women in World War II
All-female military units and formations
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations disestablished in 1964
Military history of Canada
1964 disestablishments in Canada

Canadian Women's Army Corps


A chairlift, also called an elevated passenger ropeway, is a type of public transport. It is like a chair that runs on cables. The cable is placed over the chair to lift it from the ground and they run between two (or more) stations. The cable is moved around by motors and lifted from the ground by towers. There are many chairs on the cable so that many people can be transported.

Chairlifts are found in skiing resorts, where they help skiers go up the mountain. They are sometimes better than gondola lifts because the skier does not need to remove the skis. He/she can sit down on the chair and then leave it at the top of the mountain very quickly. Old chairlifts are small and slow. Newer ones can carry up to 8 people. They are also faster overall, but they slow down at the station, making it easier to get on and off. Sometimes they even have a glass bubble that can be closed to keep people warm inside.

Related pages
Gondola lift
Cable car

Ski lifts

Chairlift


A peanut is a plant in the legume family, Fabaceae. It is native to South America, Central America and Mexico.  Peanuts are annual herbaceous plants growing 30 to 50 cm (1 to 1.5 ft) tall.

Overview
The peanut plant flowers above ground, then develops its pods underground. Because of this, peanuts are often called groundnuts. Other names include goobers, pinders, arachides (French/Italian), and maní (Spanish). This strange legume yields shell-covered pods (fruits) that contain one or more seeds. A nut is a hard shelled fruit that comes from a plant whose fruit does not open to release its seed. A nut is a composite of the fruit and seed, some examples of true nuts are: acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts and hazelnuts.
So despite the name, the plant is not a nut in the biological sense, but a legume.
Peanuts grow by starting out as an above ground flower that, due to its heavy weight, bends towards the ground. The flower eventually burrows underground, which is where the peanut actually matures.

The veined brown shell or pod of the peanut contains two or three peanut kernels. Each oval-shaped kernel or seed is contains two off-white lobes that are covered by a brownish-red skin. Peanuts have a strong, buttery and "nutty" taste.

Peanuts go by different names throughout the world with "goober" or "goober pea" being one of the most popular. Goober is taken from "nguba," the name for peanut in the Bantu language spoken in parts of Africa. Peanuts are known scientifically as Arachis hypogaea.

In food
Peanuts are a favorite food, whether eaten alone as a snack food or mixed into candy, cookies, pies, and other bakery products. Peanut butter, made by grinding the roasted seeds, accounts for about one half the peanuts grown in the United States. Worldwide however, peanuts are grown chiefly to provide peanut oil. Farmers in Africa and Asia grow about 90 percent of the world's peanuts.

Peanuts have been cultivated in South America for a very long time. Today most peanuts are eaten roasted and salted. Peanut butter peanut brittle and candy bars are also often eaten. There are two kinds of peanut butter - chunky and creamy. Most American children prefer the chunky kind.

The U.S. introduced the peanut to the tropical South America, and India, China, West Africa, and itself to become the largest commercial producers of peanuts. The peanut was grown mainly for its edible oil, except in the U.S., where it was produced for grinding into peanut butter, for roasted, salted nuts; and for use in candy and bakery products. A small percentage of the U.S. crop is crushed for oil. In the southern U.S. the peanut is used extensively as feed for livestock.

Nutrition
Peanuts are a very good source of monounsaturated fats, the type of fat that is important in the heart-healthy Mediterranean diet. Studies of diets with a special emphasis on peanuts have shown that this little legume is a big ally for a healthy heart.

In addition to their monounsaturated fat content, peanuts feature an array of other nutrients that, in numerous studies, have been shown to promote heart health. Peanuts are good sources of vitamin E, niacin, folate, protein and manganese. In addition, peanuts provide resveratrol, the phenolic antioxidant also found in red grapes and red wine that is thought to be responsible for the French paradox: the fact that in France, people consume a diet that is not low in fat, but have a lower risk of cardiovascular disease compared to the U.S. Numerous research studies, including the Nurses' Health Study that involved over 86,000 women, have found that frequent nut consumption is related to reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.

Types of Peanuts
Four types of peanuts are the most popular: Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. There are also Tennessee Red and Tennessee White types. Certain types are preferred for particular uses because of differences in flavor, oil content, size, and shape. For many uses the different types are interchangeable. Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter. Most Runners are used to make peanut butter.
The various types are distinguished by branching habit and branch length. There are numerous varieties of each type of peanut.

Each year new varieties of peanuts are introduced somewhere in the peanut belt of the U.S. or in other countries. Introducing a new variety may mean change in the planting rate, adjusting the planter, harvester, dryer, cleaner, sheller, and method of marketing. There are two main growth forms: bunch and runner. Bunch types grow upright, while runner types grow near the ground.

Spanish Types
The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa, and in the southwestern and southeastern U.S. Prior to 1940, 90 percent of the peanuts grown in Georgia were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger seeded, higher yielding, more disease resistant varieties.

Varieties of the Spanish type include Dixie Spanish, Improved Spanish 2B, GFA Spanish, Argentine, Spantex, Spanette, Shaffers Spanish, Natal Common (Spanish), White Kernel Varieties, Starr, Comet, Florispan, Spanhoma, Spancross, and Wilco I.

Runner Types
Since 1940, there has been a shift to production of Runner type peanuts in the southeastern U.S. This is due to higher yields and wider use in peanut butter and salting, as compared to Spanish types.

Varieties of Runners include Southeastern Runner 56-15, Dixie Runner, Early Runner, Virginia Bunch 67, Bradford Runner, Egyptian Giant (also known as Virginia Bunch and Giant), Rhodesian Spanish Bunch (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), North Carolina Runner 56-15, Florunner, and Shulamit.

Virginia Types
The large seeded Virginia types are grown in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in the shells.

Virginia type peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of 18 to 22 inches, and a spread of 28 to 30 inches, with 33 to 36 inch rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within a few inches of the base of the plant.

Varieties of Virginia type peanuts include Virginia Bunch Large, Virginia Bunch 46-2, Virginia Bunch Small, Virginia Bunch 67, Virginia Bunch G2, Virginia Runner G26, NC 4X, NC 2, NC 5, Georgia Hybrid 119-20, Holland Jumbo, Holland Station Runner, Adkins Runner, Virginia Runner 26, Virginia Runner G (Holland Virginia Runner), Virginia 56 R, Virginia 61 R, Florigiant, Georgia Hybrid 119-18, Virginia B22-15, Virginia A17-12, Virginia A23-7, and Florida 416.

Valencia Types
Valencia types are coarse, and they have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. They are comparatively tall, having a height of 50 inches and a spread of 30 inches. Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most of the pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three seeded and smooth, with no constriction between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. There are two strains, one with flesh and the other with red seeds. The seed count is 65 to each ounce.

Tennessee Red and Tennessee White Types
These are alike, except for the color of the seed. The plants are similar to Valencia types, except that the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.

Related pages
Peanut butter
Nuts

References

Vegetables

Peanut


Pope John XV (??? − March 996) was pope of the Roman Catholic Church from August 985 to his death in 996.

He was born in Rome, Papal States and died in March 996 in Rome, Papal States, Holy Roman Empire.

During his time as pope, there was a dispute that arose over the deposition in 991 of Arnulf, Archbishop of Reims. Arnulf was made archbishop of Reims in 988 by Hugh Capet of France. Arnulf was the nephew of the King's bitter rival, Charles of Lorraine and considered Arnulf a turncoat. He demanded his deposition by John XV. Hugh Capet captured both Charles and Archbishop Arnulf and convoked a synod at Reims in June 991. He deposed Arnulf and chose as his successor Abbot Gerbert of Aurillac who would later be known as Pope Silvester II.

At the synod, Arnulf, Bishop of Orléans accused John XV:
"Are any bold enough to maintain that the priests of the Lord all over the world are to take their law from monsters of guilt like these—men branded with ignominy, illiterate men, and ignorant alike of things human and divine? If, holy fathers, we are bound to weigh in the balance the lives, the morals, and the attainments of the humblest candidate for the priestly office, how much more ought we to look to the fitness of him who aspires to be the Lord and Master of all priests! Yet how would it fare with us, if it should happen that the man the most deficient in all these virtues, unworthy of the lowest place in the priesthood, should be chosen to fill the highest place of all? What would you say of such a one, when you see him sitting upon the throne glittering in purple and gold? Must he not be the "Antichrist, sitting in the temple of God and showing himself as God"?

References

996 deaths
John 15
Year of birth unknown
People from Rome

Pope John XV


The Barracudas are an English surf rock band formed in late 1978. The band's original line-up consisted of Jeremy Gluck (vocals), Robin Wills (guitar and vocals), Starkie Phillips (bass and vocals) and Adam Phillips (drums). Before the band recorded its first single, Starkie and Adam Phillips left the band.

The band is notable for their 1980 hit single "Summer Fun", which started with an excerpt from a 1960s spoof advertisement for the Plymouth Barracuda campaign. The song included dialogue where announcers had difficulty pronouncing the word barracuda. The single reached number 37 on the UK Singles Chart.

The band officially lasted until 1981 with a final performance in Madrid. There have been few occasional performances since.

Early history
The beginnings of the band can be traced back to the year of 1978 when Canadian-born Gluck met Wills at a Dead Fingers Talk concert. Here the pair bonded over a shared passion for "60's garage and psychedelic music ". They started off calling themselves the "R.A.F.", but eventually settled on the name of The Barracudas. The name was inspired by a song they both liked by The Standells.

Recent activity
Initially perceived as a novelty surf act due to their first album, subsequent recordings showed them to be a fierce garage rock and roll band in the mould of the 13th Floor Elevators and The Seeds. The band split in 1984, but reformed in 1989 to record "Wait For Everything," and then again in 2003. In 2005 they recorded the self-titled album on NDN. Throughout their career, their live performances have been energetic and frenetic.

After the first attempt at their second album, the group lost drummer Nick Turner to the group Lords of the New Church. Afterwards, Jeremy Gluck and guitarist Robin Wills assembled a new The Barracudas group, that went on to record their second album Mean Time.

The Barracudas disbanded in 1984, after making their third and final album Endeavour to Persevere. However, in 2005, there became a growing interest regarding the reissue of their back catalogue. This resulted in Gluck and Wills reconnecting, and the two of them began composing again.

In 2014, the band reissued their Meantime album as a limited edition picture disc, under the reborn "Closer French" label.

Discography

7" Singles
 "I Want My Woody Back" / "Subway Surfin" Cells CELLOUT 1 (February 1979)
 "Summer Fun" / "Chevy Baby" Zonophone Z5 (July 1980)
 "His Last Summer" / "Barracuda Waver" / "Surfers Are Back" Zonophone Z8 (September 1980)
 "(I Wish It Could Be) 1965 Again" / "Rendezvous" Zonophone Z11 (November 1980)
 "I Can't Pretend" / "K.G.B. (Made a Man Out of Me)" Zonophone Z17 (January 1981)
 "Inside Mind" / "Hour Of Degradation" Flicknife FLS027 (February 1982)
 "I Can't Pretend EP" Voxx/Bomp EP3303 (June 1982)
 "The Way We've Changed" / "Laughin At You" Closer CL0006 (March 1984)
 "Stolen Heart" / "See Her Eyes Again" Closer CL7-15 (September 1984)
 "Live EP" Record Runner RRR-002 (1984)
 "Very Last Day" / "There's A World Out There" Bucketfull of Brains #7 (June 1985) Free with magazine
 "Hear Me" / "She Knows" Dog Meat Records Dog022 (1989)
 "Next Time Around" / "Takes What He Wants" Sympathy for The Record Industry SFTRI49 (July 1990)
 "I Thought You Sounded That Way Yesterday" Shake SAL202 (January 1991)
 "Don't Ever Say It Can't Be So" / "Not That Kind" Munster 7183 (2003)
 "What You Want is What You Get" / "Somebody '05" NDN NDN040 (2005)
 "Two Headed Dog" / "Teenage Head" Pop The Balloon Bang26 (2010)
 "God Bless The 45" / "Festival Pop" / "East European Girls" Purepop PP 1965 (2013)

12" singles and EPs
 "House Of Kicks" Flicknife FLEP103 (May 1983)
 "Live In Madrid" El Piso K9EP13 (July 1984)
 "Stolen Heart" Closer CL12-15 (September 1984)
 "Grammar Of Misery" Shakin' Street YEAHUP015 (October 1990)

Albums
 Drop Out with The Barracudas LP Zonophone ZONO103 (February 1981)/ Voxx 200.009 (1982)
 Drop Out with The Barracudas CD EMI Gold 8757582 (May 2005) remaster with bonus tracks/ Voxx VCD2009 (June 1994) different bonus tracks
 Mean Time LP Closer CL001 (February 1983)French/CD Mau Mau (June1995) inc bonus tracks/CD Airmail (November 2006) remaster with more bonus tracks
 Live '83 LP Coyote COR021 (October 1983)
 Endeavour To Persevere LP Closer CL009 (April 1984)/CD Mau Mau (June 1995) inc bonus tracks/CD Airmail (November 2006) remaster with more bonus tracks
 The Big Gap LP Coyote COR022 (July 1984)
 Los Angeles and Vicinity Vol 1 (Live in Le Havre 1982/09/18) LP 66 Records MP1002 (1985) Bootleg
 (I Wish It Could Be) 1965 Again LP GMG 75003 (January 1985)
 The World's A Burn LP Trust Minitrust1 (April 1985)
 Live In Madrid LP Impossible A4-25 (July 1985)
 Surf and Destroy LP/CD GMG 270 (June 1987)
 The Garbage Dump Tapes LP/CD Shakin' Street YEAH HUP 006 (January 1990)
 The Complete EMI Recordings CD EMI C2-95 185 (January 1991)
 Wait For Everything LP/CD Shake 203 (February 1992)
 Two Sides of a Coin 1979-84 CD Flicknife/Anagram CDM M GRAM 62 (March 1993)
 Through The Mysts Of Time: Rarities 1979-81 CD Voxx VCD2072 (October 1999)
 This Ain't My Time: Anthology '79-'90 CD Castle (2001)
 The Barracudas LP/CD NDN NDN41 (October 2005)
 "Nothing Ever Happens In The Suburbs, Baby!" 10" Mini-LP NDN45 (2006)
 Mean Time LP Closer CL001  Limited Edition PIC-DISC (2014)

References

External links
 The Barracudas at TrouserPress.com

English new wave musical groups
English rock music groups
English pop music groups
Musical groups established in 1979
Musical groups from London
British surf music groups
English garage punk groups
Jangle pop groups
English garage rock groups

The Barracudas


Boris Christoff (18 May 1914 – 28 June 1993) was a Bulgarian singer. He sang in the bass range. Critics thought him to be one of the great acting singers of the 20th century. He sang some 40 roles. His most famous role was Boris Godunov. He also received kudos for his Philip II in Verdi's Don Carlo, and for his Mephistopheles in Gounod's Faust. He sang several Wagnerian roles. These included Hagen in Gotterdammerung and King Mark in Tristan und Isolde.

Christoff was born in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. He sang in the Gusla Choir. King Boris of Bulgaria gave him a private stipend to study in Rome. He studied with Riccardo Stracciari. He also studied in Salzburg, Austria. After World War II, Christoff lived in Rome. In 1950, he was hired to sing the title role in Boris Godunov at Covent Garden. This became the role he was known for. He sang in the United States. He never sang at the Metropolitan Opera. Problems with his visa made this impossible.

References

European opera singers
1914 births
1993 deaths
Bulgarian singers

Boris Christoff


The 61st Infantry Division () was a combat division of the German Army during the Second World War. Towards the end of the war, it became the 61st Volksgrenadier Division.

Combat history

Poland
The 61st Infantry division was created just before the outbreak of conflict and took part in the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 as part of von Küchler's 3rd Army under Army Group North. It engaged in heavy fighting at the Battle of Mława, afterwards crossing the Narew River near Pułtusk. Fighting its way across the Bug River, it approached the Polish capital at Warsaw on 18 September and remained in the vicinity until the end of the campaign.

France 1940
In December 1939 the division was shifted to the west and subsequently took part in the attack on Belgium on 10 May 1940 as a unit of 4th Army Corps.
During the advance into Belgium the 61st divisions 151st Infantry Regiment linked up with German airborne troops assaulting Fort Eben-Emael on 11 May, the Belgian defenders surrendered the fortifications on the same day. The division also participated in the Dunkirk during the invasion of France. Loses in the western campaign were 348 killed, 1052 wounded, 106 missing The division served occupation duty in Brittany afterward.

The attack on the Soviet Union
In early 1941 it was transferred to East Prussia, and in June it joined in the invasion of the Soviet Union as part of 18th Army (again commanded by von Küchler and once again under Army Group North). The division participated in the occupation of Tallinn and the Moonsund Archipelago.

Attack on the Moonsund Archipelago

After the fall of Tallinn the Germans had to clear the Baltic Islands to get full and unhindered use of the sea lanes.
Units of the 61st division were transported by the Navy to Saaremaa, the southern Island, see Operation Beowulf.
The island was defended by 3rd Independent Brigade of the 8th Army of the Leningrad front, plus coastal artillery, and naval units. there were also a small number of fighter planes on the airport.

Most of the 60-mile-long island was cleared by 21 September
by the 176th & 151st Infantry Regiments, except for the Sorve Peninsula. Here The Russian forces dug in and resisted stubbornly until 5 October.
With the southern Island finally cleared the attack was extended to Hiiumaa, the northern Island on 12 October. Within 2 weeks the island was cleared and the Germans
claimed 16.000 prisoners and to have captured 100 artillery pieces.

The way was open now for the Soviet Naval forces in the north to be bottled up in the Gulf of Finland, and the 61st Infantry was now available for redeployment.

It took part in the Siege of Leningrad and remained in the area until January 1944, after which the Soviet Krasnoye Selo–Ropsha and Kingisepp–Gdov offensives forced it back into Estonia where it fought in the Battle of Narva, particularly in the Narva Offensive (18–24 March 1944). Held in reserve, it was one of only two divisions considered "fully combat effective" by the Army Group North in July of that year.

The division was redesignated as 61st Volksgrenadier Division in October 1944, and continued fighting in the East under Army Groups North and Center. Evacuated to East Prussia, the division fought in the so-called Heiligenbeil pocket, caught between the advancing Soviets and the Frisches Haff. Once the "cauldron" collapsed in March 1945 the division was written off as a loss and its remaining assets were taken over by the 21st Infantry Division while the division staff was withdrawn to Königsberg, all falling into Soviet hands at the end of the war.

Organization
Established in August 1939 as part of the second wave. It was mobilised in Wehrkreis 1, East Prussia, with its headquarters at Insterburg
The division had a standard early war infantry establishment. It had three infantry regiments of three infantry battalions, a gun company and an antitank company each. It had an artillery regiment of four battalions, containing in total nine batteries of 105mm light Field Howitzers and 3 batteries of 150mm heavy Field Howitzers. It also had a full reconnaissance battalion, which included 3 armoured cars. Its equipment was German, with a personnel establishment of 15,500 men. For mobility it had over 500 trucks, as well as other motor vehicles and motorcycles. It also had nearly 5,000 horses, and its soldiers marched into battle on foot.
In February 1940 the division gave up an infantry battalion and some artillery for the creation of the 291st Infantry division of the 8th wave, these units were recreated.

The 61st Infantry Division consisted of the following units in May 1940:

 151st Infantry Regiment
 162nd Infantry Regiment
 176th Infantry Regiment
 161st Artillery Regiment
 161st Engineer Battalion
 161st Reconnaissance Battalion
 161st Anti-Tank Battalion
 161st Signals Battalion
 161st Supply Troops

In November 1940 the division gave up an Infantry battalion from each Infantry Regiment for the formation of the 336th Infantry Division of the 14th wave. The battalions were replaced. The division suffered very heavy casualties in the Russian campaign, especially in infantry, so by the summer of 1942 three of its infantry battalions were officially disbanded, each Infantry Regiment now only having two battalions. Also the anti-tank battalion and the reconnaissance were merged to produce a schnelle (fast) battalion.

By 1943 the division's composition had been somewhat altered to the following:

 151st Grenadier Regiment
 162nd Grenadier Regiment
 176th Grenadier Regiment
 161st Artillery Regiment
 161st Engineer Battalion
 161st Anti-Tank Battalion
 161st Intelligence Battalion
 161st Supply Troop Command

Once officially designated a Volksgrenadier Division in 1944, the unit was composed of the following:

 151st Grenadier Regiment
 162nd Grenadier Regiment
 176th Grenadier Regiment
 61st Fusilier Battalion
 161st Artillery Regiment

Commanders
The following officers commanded the 61st Infantry Division:
 August 1939 – March 1942: General of Infantry Siegfried Haenicke
 March 1942 – April 1942: Major General Franz Scheidies
 April 1942 – February 1943: Lieutenant General Werner Hühner
 February 1943 – April 1943: Lieutenant General Günther Krappe
 April 1943 – May 1943: Lieutenant General Gottfried Weber
 May 1943 – December 1943: Lieutenant General Günther Krappe (2nd time)
 December 1943 – February 1944: Major General Joachim Albrecht von Blücher
 from February 1944: Lieutenant General Günther Krappe (3rd time)

Personnel
Thirty-seven of the division's personnel were Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross recipients, including commanders Siegfried Haenicke, Werner Hühner, Gottfried Weber (when commander of the 1st battalion of the 162nd Infantry Regiment), and Günther Krappe.

References

 Wendel, Marcus (2004). 61. Infanterie-Division. Retrieved 10 May 2005.
 61. Infanterie-Division. German language article at www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de. Retrieved 10 May 2005.
 61. Volks-Grenadier-Division. German language article at www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de. Retrieved 10 May 2005.
 61.Infanterie-Division at Feldgrau.com Retrieved 23 May 2006.
 Mitcham, Samuel W. Jr. Crumbling Empire: The German Defeat in the East, 1944. Westport: Praeger, 2001. pp: 119, 125, 130

0*061
Military units and formations established in 1939
1939 establishments in Germany
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945

61st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)


Alan John Carpenter (born 4 January 1957) is a former Australian politician who served as the 28th Premier of Western Australia, from 2006 to 2008. From Albany, Carpenter graduated from the University of Western Australia, and worked as a journalist before entering politics. A member of the Labor Party, he was first elected to the Legislative Assembly at the 1996 state election, representing the seat of Willagee. In the Gallop ministry, which took office following the 2001 election, Carpenter was Minister for Education (later Education and Training), as well as holding several other portfolios. He replaced Geoff Gallop as premier in January 2006, following Gallop's resignation, but Labor lost office following a hung parliament at the 2008 election, with Colin Barnett becoming premier as the leader of a minority Liberal Party government. Carpenter resigned from parliament in 2009, and until 2018 held a senior management position with Wesfarmers.

Education
Carpenter was born in Albany, Western Australia, was educated at Mount Lockyer Primary School then Albany Senior High School.  After graduating in 1974, he travelled Australia, working a variety of different jobs before returning in 1977 to study political science at the University of Western Australia and graduated in 1980.

Media career
Carpenter began working for the Albany Advertiser as a journalist.  In 1982 he travelled overseas, spending 11 months in Asia and then moving to Europe, where he worked in various jobs for three years.  He returned to Australia in 1986, and began working for the Perth television station TVW-7 as a reporter on politics within the state.  In 1990 Carpenter moved to the ABC, continuing his role as state political reporter in his new job.  He moved up through the ranks in the ABC, becoming the Western Australian presenter of The 7.30 Report in 1992 (succeeding Liam Bartlett in the role), and moving on to become the first presenter of Stateline in 1996.

Politics
He resigned from the ABC in 1996 to begin a career in politics, and was preselected by the ALP to run for the new seat of Willagee, which he won.  During his time in parliament he was shadow minister for disability services, sport & recreation, family & children's services, education, drugs, and as a member of the government, minister for education, sport & recreation, indigenous affairs, education and training, state development, and energy in the Gallop ministry.

When Geoff Gallop resigned due to illness in January 2006, Carpenter quickly emerged as the leading candidate to succeed him as premier, and gained crucial support from the Metal Workers Union. With the decisions of potential rivals Jim McGinty and Michelle Roberts to withdraw from the race, he was elected unopposed by the Labor caucus on 24 January.

After November 2006, Carpenter removed three cabinet ministers in four months for impropriety involving former WA Premier Brian Burke, exposed by the Corruption and Crime Commission. Nevertheless, Carpenter's "no-nonsense" approach in dealing with this issue attracted a 60% public approval rating in opinion polls in late March 2007 (making him one of Australia's most popular state leaders, along with South Australian Premier Mike Rann).

Late 2007 saw dissatisfaction with Carpenter rising and satisfaction falling. Two party preferred polling of 49 percent for Labor was a swing against them. In what proved to be a harbinger for Carpenter, Western Australia was the only state that recorded a swing to the Coalition at the 2007 federal election.  The federal election came at a bad time for the Carpenter government; despite Labor's resounding victory nationwide, it actually lost two of its seats in Western Australia to the Liberals.  However, Liberal Party leader Paul Omodei was experiencing rising levels of dissatisfaction and a stagnant and low satisfaction rating. On the preferred premier measure, Carpenter out-polled Omodei 63–13.

Carpenter called a state election the day after opposition leader Troy Buswell stood aside for former Opposition Leader Colin Barnett, following a number of scandals involving Buswell. In a break with longstanding tradition, the election was set for 6 September 2008, five months earlier than it was due.

During the election campaign, Carpenter promised a ban on uranium mining in Western Australia if elected, reversing previous ALP policy, the ALP having rejected a Greens-initiated bill to ban uranium mining in April 2008.

The election saw a substantial swing in most seats away from Labor, towards the Liberal and Greens parties, resulting in a hung parliament.  While Labor remained the largest  party, it was two seats short of a majority.  Under pressure to resign as Parliamentary Labor leader, Carpenter began negotiations with the National Party with a view to forming a minority government.  However, the Nationals ultimately decided to support the Liberals in forming a minority government. As a result, Alan Carpenter was succeeded by Colin Barnett as Western Australian Premier, and stepped down as Labor leader in favour of his deputy, Eric Ripper.

On 25 September 2009, Carpenter announced his retirement from politics, effective 2 October 2009.

His political legacy came to the fore in 2022 with the low prices for gas which he negotiated for Western Australians being compared to soaring prices in the Eastern States.

Post-political career
Carpenter joined Australia's largest private sector employer Wesfarmers as executive general manager for corporate affairs in late 2009. He retired in 2018.

Personal life
Carpenter is married and has four daughters. Carpenter is an atheist.

See also
 Carpenter Ministry

References

External links

 Wesfarmers's corporate profile

University of Western Australia alumni
1957 births
ABC News (Australia) presenters
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Assembly
Premiers of Western Australia
Living people
Journalists from Western Australia
People from Albany, Western Australia
Australian republicans
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Western Australia
Wesfarmers people
ABC News and Current Affairs
Energy Ministers of Western Australia
21st-century Australian politicians
Australian atheists
Australian political scientists

Alan Carpenter


Leszek Kołakowski - (October 23 1927 — July 17 2009) was a Polish philosopher, who worked mainly in the history of philosophy, history of political ideas and philosophy of religion, essayist, journalist and novelist. He was born in Radom, south of Warsaw in 1927 and died in Oxford, England in 2009. Kolakowski published more than 30 books during his 50-year writing career. He was awarded the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's highest honor, and the MacArthur Foundation fellowship.

Works
In 2003 he became the first recipient of the United States Library of Congress's $1 million John W. Kluge Prize for Lifetime Achievement in the Humanities and Social Sciences, given in fields where there are no Nobel Prizes. In announcing the prize, James H. Billington, the librarian of Congress, noted not only Mr. Kolakowski's scholarship but also his "demonstrable importance to major political events in his own time," adding that "his voice was fundamental for the fate of Poland, and influential in Europe as a whole."  His work inspired the Solidarity movement in Poland.

In his younger days he was a communist. But he could see the problems with the Soviet type of speech control. In 72 definitions of What Socialism is not he said "Socialism is not: a society in which one man is in trouble for saying what he thinks, while another is well-off because he does not say what he has on his mind; a society in which a man lives better if he doesn't have any thoughts of his own at all; a state which has more spies than nurses and more people in prison than in hospital; a state in which the philosophers and writers always say the same as the generals and ministers – but always after they've said it…".

Selected works
Main currents of Marxism. (1978) 2005. 3 vols, New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32943-8
Modernity on endless trial. 1990.  University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45046-9;  ISBN 978-0-226-45045-2
Freedom, fame, lying, and betrayal: essays on everyday life. 1999. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-140-28044-9

References

1927 births
2009 deaths
20th-century Polish philosophers
21st-century Polish philosophers

Leszek Kołakowski