Dugan or Duggan () is an Irish surname derived from Ó Dubhagáinn.

History
A family of the name Dugan had its territory near the modern town of Fermoy in north Cork, and were originally the ruling family of the Fir Maighe tribal group which gave its name to the town.  They also claimed descent from Mug Ruith, the legendary magician of the Fir Bolg.  They ceded pre-eminence to the O'Keeffe family in the eleventh century, but remained powerful in the area.  Along with the other Fir Maighe families they lost their power when the Normans conquered the territory in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.  By the 12th century, family names or surnames had become well established in Ireland in the lands of the Sogain where an illustrious Dugan family held prestige and power due to their descent from the druid Mog Rutih.  Some historians believe that with the change over to Christianity, the druids carried on with their profession of "filí" or seers. These "filí" were socially very important and held in the same esteem as the king. They enjoyed many privileges and were exempt from military duties. They were the custodians of the oral tradition, which embraced genealogy and history.  In Ireland, a man enjoyed his status, rights and privileges in virtue of his descent so that genealogical material was of high political consequence.  Dynasties ruled kingdoms by virtue of descent from ancient royal lineages and their genealogy was proof of their legitimacy to rule.  Strangely enough, there is no genealogical record available for the Dugans themselves, and Roderick O'Flaherty, the famous 17th century Galway scholar says in his "Ogygia" that no line of pedigree can be found in any of the authenticated Irish annals which is very strange as this family were professors of poetry and history.

The Dugans had their homelands in Fohenagh, east Galway. There are a number of townland names in the area which bear testimony to this i.e. Ballydoogan (Dugan's town), Carterdoogan (Dugan's quarter) and Dundoogan (Dugan's Fort).  Some twentieth-century historians and genealogists mistakenly give Ballydugan near Loughrea as the seat of the Dugans but this place has no connection whatsoever with the Dugan clan.  This townland was originally known as Ballygardugan or O'Hrdaganstown, and with the passage of time the "gar" was dropped, leaving it Ballydugan.

The most celebrated and best known member of the family is Seán Mór Ó Dubhagáin who was author of: Tiallim timpeall na Fodla, a poem which is generally regarded as a description of pre-Norman Ireland, some two centuries earlier; Ata sund seanchus Ereand, a poem of 564 verses on the kings of Ireland down to the high king Roderick O'Connor; Rioghraidh Laigheamn clannchathaoir, a poem of 224 verses on the kings of Leinster; Teamhair na riogh raith Cormacc, a poem of 332 verses which gives an account of the battles and actions of Cormac Mac Airt; Bliadhain so salus a dath, a poem on the festivals of the year, and Faras Focaill luaidhtear libh, a poem of 292 verses, being a vocabulary of obsolete words.  He is credited with the introduction of a didactic nature into this generic literature which is also evident in the Books of Uí Máine, Lecan and Ballymore. As Seán Mór held the distinction of ollamh or professor, it is logical to conclude that those later scribes were his students.  He retired to the monastery of St.John the Baptist at Rinadoon in Roscommon in 1365 and died there in 1372.

The O'Kellys of Uí Máine acquired much of their power and wealth in the 14th century and to their credit, many aspect of Gaelic learning such as genealogy, grammar, poetry, sagas, history and folklore thrived under their patronage.  To Murtoogh O'Kelly, bishop of Clonfert and later archbishop of Tuam must go the credit of having produced the great genealogical study known as the Book of Uí Máine.  This work was due to his patronage rather than his scholarship, as he employed a staff of six scribes in its production.  We do not know the names of these scribes, but it is almost certain that they were members of the Dugan family, as Roderick O'Flaherty refers to the Book of Uí Máine as "Leabhar Ó Dubhagáin" or "Dugan's book".  So also John Lynch, another noted Galway 17th century scholar who wrote in both Gaelic and Latin, refers to it in his book "Cambronais Eversus" as "Liber Odubhegan and quotes from it on at least six occasions. The Sligo-born Dubhaltach Mac Firbhisigh, a contemporary of O'Flaherty and Lynch, used "Leabhar Ó Dubhagáin" as a source of material for his "Seancahs Síl Ir".  This is fortunate, since four of the fourteen folios of the original text are now lost and the lacuna can be supplied only from Mac Firbhisigh's transcript.

"The Annals of the Four Masters" record the death of Richard Ó Dubhagáin in 1379, John and Cormac in 1440. Donal Ó Dubhagáin is also recorded as having died in 1487. These people must have been of some considerable importance for the annalist deemed it necessary to record their deaths.  The O'Dugans continued to engage in their profession of "filí" and in 1750, Teigh O'Dugan compiled a pedigree of John O'Donnellan of Ballydonnellan. John O'Donovan in his book The Tribes and Customs of Hy Many refers to the old manuscripts of Teige O'Dugan, "an eminent historian of about 90 years ago".  This would coincide with the aforementioned Teig.  It is most likely that Teige was the last if the filí of the old order.

Murchadh Riabhach O'Cuindlis, the scribe who compiled the massive text of the Leabhar breac (1408–11) and who was a native of Ballydacker near Athleague was more than likely of the same stock as the O'Dugans.

Early modern
The Book of Survey and Distribution for the year 1641 records the transfer of land at Ballydoogane in the parish of Fohenagh, barony of Kilconnell, from Teigh O'Doogane to Dennis O'Doogan.  This shows that the O'Duggans still held on to land in their hereditary "tuagh" or country into the seventeenth century. According to Simmington's "Transplantations to Connacht", they lost their lands during the Cromwellian confiscations but in 1658, the commissioners in Loughrea regranted 75 acres to Teigh O'Doogane in the parish of Ahascragh.  Griffith's Valuation shows John O'Doogan in possession of 74 acres 1 rood and 15 perches in the townland of Killasolan, parish of Ahascragh.  Michael Duggan is the present owner of this land.

Later modern O'Duggan
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the greatest concentration of the name Duggan is to be found in Claregalway and in the environs of Galway city.  In the census of 1841, there were 43 families of Duggan listed for the townland of Móinteach (Claregalway) alone.  Even after the devastation of the Great famine (1845–46), Griffith's Valuation of 1855 shows that there were still 29 Duggan households in Móinteach.  There is no reliable record of how they came there but they certainly brought the tradition of the scribe and filí with them.

A notable member of this Duggan clan was the Most. Rev. Patrick Duggan (1813–96), Bishop of Clonfert.  Dr. Duggan was born in Cummer, Corofin, Tuam, on 10 November 1813.  He was ordained to the priesthood in 1841 and appointed curate to the parish of Kilmoylan and Cummer. On the death of the parish priest Canon Cannavan, he became parish priest in charge of the parish until he was elevated to the Bishopric on 14 January 1872.  The period of his priesthood in Cummer coincided with the Famine years and he was conspicuous among the clergy for his exertions in helping the sick and poor. He was a zealous supporter of the Tenant Right Movement and Home Rule. In a by-election which was called for the county in 1872, Dr. Duggan, now Bishop of Clonfert, organised support for Captain J.P. Nolan who was favourably disposed towards tenants rights.  Nolan was elected but lost his seat on the grounds of undue clerical influence and Dr. Duggan was brought to trial with others before the Court of Common Pleas, but the case collapsed and he was acquitted. He died on 15 August 1896 and was buried in the Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin, favoured by the republican nationalists.

In modern day, the name is found throughout Ireland. In the north, Dugan, Dougan, and Doogan are common, a large portion descended from families originally in County Fermanagh. Doogan is common in County Donegal. Duggan is most prevalent in Dublin, Munster, and the majority of County Cork, County Tipperary, County Wexford, and County Waterford.

Use of the surname in other countries
Dugan and Dougan are also common Scottish names.  Throughout other English speaking countries, Dugan and its many variants, including Duggan, Dougan, Doughan, Doogan, and Duggin are widespread. Dugan ranked 1,705 in surname listings in the 1990 United States Census. In Great Britain, Duggan ranked 1,950 in surname listings from the 1881 Census, then surged to 1,025 in surname listings from the 1996 Electoral roll.

Notable people
Dugan
 Alan Dugan (1923–2003), American poet whose work won the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
 Brendan Dugan (born 1952), New Zealand country musician
 Dennis Dugan (born 1946), American actor and film director
 Eileen C. Dugan (1945–1996), New York politician
 Fred Dugan (1933–2018), American football player with the San Francisco 49ers, Dallas Cowboys, and Washington Redskins
 Ianthe Jeanne Dugan, American journalist
 James Dugan, various individuals
 Jeff Dugan (born 1981), American football player with the Minnesota Vikings
 Joanne Bechta Dugan (born 1958), American computer engineer
 Joe Dugan (1897–1982), American baseball player from 1917–1931
 Len Dugan (1910–1967), American football player
 Michael Dugan, several people
 Raymond Smith Dugan (1878–1940), American Astronomer, textbook author and professor at Princeton University
 Regina E. Dugan (born 1963), American inventor
 Robert Dugan (born 1959), Australian cricketer
 Timothy Dugan (born 1953), American judge
 Tom Dugan (actor, born 1889) (1889–1955), Irish film actor
 Tom Dugan (actor, born 1961) (born 1961), American theater, film and television actor
 Winston Dugan, 1st Baron Dugan of Victoria (1877–1951), British administrator who served as governor of South Australia

Duggan
 Alfred Duggan (1903–1964), author and historian
 Elena Duggan (born 1983), Masterchef Australia winner
 Hubert Duggan (1904–1943), soldier and Member of Parliament
 Jeremiah Duggan (1980–2003), British student who died in disputed circumstances linked to the LaRouche movement
 Jim Duggan (born 1954), American professional wrestler known as "Hacksaw" Jim Duggan
 Laurence Duggan (1905-1948), American economist and government official; Soviet spy
 Madeline Duggan (born 1994), British actress
 Mark Duggan (1981–2011), British man shot and killed by police in Tottenham, London, England
 Mark Duggan (born 1970), American economist
 Max Duggan (born 2001), American football player
 Mike Duggan (born 1958), American mayor of Detroit, Michigan
 Meghan Duggan (born 1987), American women's ice hockey player
 Marion Duggan (1884–1943), an Irish suffragist and activist.
 Patrick Duggan (bishop) (1813–1896), Irish Roman Catholic clergyman
 Patrick J. Duggan (1933-2020), American judge
 Robert Duggan (attorney) (1926–1974), Allegheny County District Attorney
 Robert W. Duggan (born 1944), American billionaire entrepreneur and investor
 Seánie Duggan (1922–2013), Irish hurler
 Toni Duggan (born 1991), English association footballer

Doogan
 Bailey Doogan (1941–2022), American artist
 Dave Doogan (born 1973), Scottish politician
 Mike Doogan (born 1948), American writer, journalist and politician

Dougan
 Bobby Dougan (1926–2010), Scottish footballer
 Derek Dougan (1938–2007), Northern Ireland footballer
 Rob Dougan (born 1969), Australian music composer

Ó Dubhagáin
 Seán Mór Ó Dubhagáin (died 1372), Irish Gaelic poet

Fictional characters
 Duggan, a police detective Inspector as played by Tom Chadbon in the 1979 Doctor Who story City of Death, written by David Agnew – a pseudonym for the combined efforts of Douglas Adams and Graham Williams rewriting an original script by David Fisher
 Dum Dum Dugan, an officer of S.H.I.E.L.D. and is one of the most experienced members of Nick Fury's team, known for his marksmanship with rifles and for his impressive physique.
 Pat Dugan, a superhero from DC Comics, wears an armoured suit called S.T.R.I.P.E. Former member of the Seven Soldiers of Victory and once the sidekick to the Star-Spangled Kid. Stepfather to Courtney Whitmore.

See also
 Fermoy

References

Further reading
 Burke, Henry Patrick. The Burke-Duggan Family From Oppression to Freedom. [S.l.]: H.P. Burke, 1981.
 Duggan, Edward Vincent. Duggan, Walton, Martin Descendants of Bartholomew and Mary Cummings Duggan Including Family Biographical and Historical Data, John and Henrietta Shirley Wathen Including Ancestral Data, Joseph and Elizabeth Martin Walton (Wathen), Daniel and Elizabeth Livers Martin Including Ancestral and Historical Data. Baltimore, MD: Gateway Press, 2002.
 Murphy, Hilary. Families of Co. Wexford. Dublin: Geography Publications, 1986.
 Nichols, Robert E. From the Cottage at Duggan's Cross A Duggan Family History: the Immigrant Generation with an Account of the Allied Heffernan Family. Hammond, Ind: R.E. Nichols, 1996.
 Ó Murchadha, Diarmuid. Family Names of County Cork. Dun Laoghaire, Co. Dublin, Ireland: Glendale Press, 1985.

External links

 Dugan/Duggan/Dougan/Doogan Genealogy Homepage and Archive
 Site providing a history of the Dugan/Duggan/Dougan/Doogan surname

Surnames of Irish origin
English-language surnames

Dugan


Theory of mind is the ability to understand that other people have their own minds with their personal state of knowledge, their personal beliefs, wishes and intentions, and that these may differ from one's own mind. Autistic people typically show an impaired ability to recognize other people's minds. Therefore, they experience difficulties with explaining and predicting other people's behaviour. This leads to problems in social communication and interaction. Children on the autistic spectrum usually develop the theory of mind more slowly than other children. They have difficulties with it throughout their lives. However, autistic people's performance on theory of mind tasks varies.

For testing whether someone lacks the theory of mind, the Sally-Anne test is performed. The child sees the following story: Sally and Anne are playing. Sally puts her ball into a basket and leaves the room. While Sally is gone, Anne moves the ball from the basket to the box. Now Sally returns. The question is: where will Sally look for her ball? The test is passed, if the child correctly assumes that Sally will look in the basket. The test is failed if the child thinks that Sally will look in the box. Children below the age of four as well as older autistic children typically fail this test.

References

Related pages
 Philosophy of mind
Psychology

Theory of mind


Gerard Mark Johnson (born 1963) is a British keyboard player. He is best known for his work with Saint Etienne, The Syn and Yes.

Early years
Johnson was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, Wales.  He was educated at Presentation College, Reading, Berkshire, England. He was a member of the Progress Theatre Student Group (1976–1981) and studied as a Tonmeister at the University of Surrey, Guildford.

Career
Johnson originally trained and worked as a recording engineer at London's Music Works studio (1985–87) and then as Chief Engineer at Orinoco Studios (now called Miloco Studios) (1987–91). During this time he recorded and mixed records by Enya, Ian McCulloch (of Echo & the Bunnymen), The Sugarcubes and the Pet Shop Boys.

In 1991, he became a freelance engineer/producer, working with Timo Blunk (of Palais Schaumburg), Freaky Realistic, TV Smith (of The Adverts) and Denim. Through Denim he met Bob Stanley, Pete Wiggs and Sarah Cracknell of Saint Etienne. Since Saint Etienne re-united in the mid 1990s, Johnson has worked with the band at various times as engineer, arranger, producer and live keyboard player.

In the 1990s, Johnson also worked with guitarist Peter Banks, with Johnson appearing on Banks' albums and Banks guesting on Johnson's project with Mark Bown, Funky Monkey. In 2004, Johnson joined Banks in The Syn, appearing on recordings later released on Original Syn. Johnson stayed with the band after Banks left and original bass player Chris Squire of Yes rejoined. He co-produced the band's 2005 album, Syndestructible, with Lemon Trees guitarist Paul Stacey. He has also toured with The Syn in a line-up including guitarist Shane Theriot and drummer Alan White (of Yes), but left the band in 2006.

He then worked on two projects with Chris Squire: Chris Squire's Swiss Choir, an album of Christmas music on which he was producer and choral arranger, and as co-writer of songs for a planned Squire solo album. This project was not completed, but material from it went on to form part of the album A Life Within A Day album by Squire and former Genesis guitarist, Steve Hackett, working as Squackett. One song from these sessions, "The Man You Always Wanted Me to Be", was used on Yes's 2011 album Fly from Here, co-written and performed by Johnson. Another idea from the sessions was used in "The Game" on Yes's next album, 2014's Heaven & Earth.

Johnson returned to Saint Etienne as orchestral arranger and conductor of their June 2007 live film soundtrack performance This is Tomorrow, part of the celebrations which marked the re-opening of London's Royal Festival Hall after its closure for extensive refurbishment. He toured extensively with Saint Etienne during 2009 and continues to work with the band.

He has since formed The Electric Opera with long-term collaborator Mark Bown, and composed for and directed numerous shows at the South London Theatre.

References

1963 births
Living people
British rock keyboardists
British pop musicians
British audio engineers
British record producers
British musical theatre composers
Musicians from Newport, Wales
The Syn members

Gerard Johnson (musician)


J. D. "Sandy" McClatchy (1945 -) je američki pjesnik i književni kritičar. Radi kao urednik Yale Review i predsjednik Američke akademije umjetnosti i književnosti. Poznat je kao autor libreta za osam opera čiji su autori Elliot Goldenthal, Daron Hagen, Lowell Liebermann, Lorin Maazel, Tobias Picker, Ned Rorem, Bruce Saylor i William Schuman.

Bibliografija

Poezija

 Seven Mozart Librettos: A Verse Translation (W.W. Norton 2010)
 Mercury Dressing: Poems (Knopf, 2009)
 Division of Spoils: Selected Poems (Arc, 2003)
 Hazmat, Alfred A. Knopf: Random House, 96 pages, April 2004
 Ten Commandments, Random House, Inc., 120 pages, December 1999
 The Rest of the Way (Knopf, 1992).
 Stars Principal (Macmillan,1986).
 Scenes from Another Life (Braziller,1981).

Kritika

 American Writers at Home, Photographs by Erica Lennard, Library of America, 240 pages, October 2004
 Twenty Questions, Columbia University Press, 200 pages February 1998
 White Paper (Columbia UP, 1989).

kao uirednik
 The Vintage Book of Contemporary World Poetry, Random House, Inc, 654 pages, May 1996
 Christmas Poems, Edited by John Hollander and J. D. McClatchy, Random House, Inc, cloth, 256 pages, October 1999
 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Poems and Other Writings (Library of America), Library of America, 854 pages, August 2000
 Bright Pages: Yale Writers, 1701–2001, Yale University Press, 540 pages, April 2001
 Love Speaks Its Name: Gay and Lesbian Love Poems, Random House, Inc, 256 pages,May 2001
 Poems of the Sea, Random House, Inc, 256 pages, November 2001
 Collected Poems by James Merrill, Edited by Stephen Yenser and J. D. McClatchy, Alfred A. Knopf: Random House, 912 pages, November 2002
 The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Poetry, Second Edition,Vintage Books: Random House, 736 pages, April 2003
 Allen Ginsberg: The Voice of the Poet, Random House, Inc, March 2004
 Frank O'Hara: The Voice of the Poet, Random House, Inc., March 2004
 W.H. Auden: The Voice of the Poet, Random House, Inc., March 2004
 Horace, the Odes: New Translations by Contemporary Poets by Horace, Edited by J. D. McClatchy and Nicholas Jenkins, Princeton University Press, 320 pages, April 2005
 Poets of the Civil War, Library of America, 250 pages, April 2005
 The Changing Light at Sandover: A Poem by James Merrill, Edited by J. D. McClatchy and Stephen Yenser, Alfred A. Knopf: Random House, 608 pages February 2006

Eksterni linkovi
 Official website
 Profile at Yale University

Američki pjesnici
Američki književni kritičari
Gej pisci

J. D. McClatchy


In Norse mythology, Árvakr (Old Norse: , "early awake") and Alsviðr (, "very quick") are the horses which pull the sun, or Sól's chariot, across the sky each day. It is said that the gods fixed bellows underneath the two horses' shoulders to help cool them off as they rode.

Both horses are only mentioned in Gylfaginning and Grímnismál and their names are frequently associated with descriptions of the Sun. In Nordic mythology, gods govern the passage of days, nights, and seasons, and shape the Sun from a spark of the flame Muspelheim, but the Sun stands still without a driver. Sól is kidnapped by the gods to drive the Sun in a chariot pulled by two horses. Two large bellows (Isarnkoll; cold iron) were placed under the shoulders of the two horses to protect them from the immense heat of the Sun. Sól is unable to stop driving the chariot or else Sköll will catch the Sun and devour it; the Sun is expected to be caught and devoured on the day of Ragnarök.

The antiquity of the myth that the Sun is pulled by horses is not definitely from the Nordic religion. Many other mythologies and religions contain a solar deity or carriage of the Sun pulled by horses. In Persian and Phrygian mythology, Mithras and Attis perform this task. In Greek mythology, Apollo performs this task, although it was previously performed by Helios. The myth of Árvakr and Alsviðr is thought to have inspired English dramatist and poet James Shirley's play The Triumph of Peace (1663).

See also
Alcis (gods)
Ashvins
Horses in Germanic paganism
List of horses in mythology and folklore
Trundholm sun chariot

References

Bibliography

 Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. D.S. Brewer.

Horses in Norse mythology
Solar chariot

Árvakr and Alsviðr


The 1894 Tennessee Volunteers football team unofficially represented the University of Tennessee as an independent during the 1894 season. In October 1894, the Athletic Association had resolved to drop varsity football and look forward to baseball in the spring of 1895.  After the humiliating 1893 season with two wins and four imposing defeats, only two athletes willing to admit they had played on the 1893 team returned to campus in 1894. To complicate matters further, the practice field, located just west of the main entrance to the Hill, was being graded and improved.

Soon after the Athletic Association's decision, W. B. Stokely, a Tennessee senior who transferred from Wake Forest University, persuaded a group of students to form a team in the fall of 1894. Stokely, who was elected captain, gave encouragement and direction to the other players. Even though the institution chose not to be represented officially on the gridiron in 1894, Stokely and his unofficial team kept football interest alive during this period when almost certainly it otherwise would have been allowed to lapse completely.

These unofficial games, referred to as "The Lost Years", are not included in NCAA statistics or in official Tennessee win–loss records.

Schedule

References

Tennessee
Tennessee Volunteers football seasons
College football undefeated seasons
Tennessee Volunteers football

1894 Tennessee Volunteers football team


Cher (; born Cherilyn Sarkisian; Mey 20, 1946) is an American sangster an actress. Commonly refert tae as the Goddess o Pop, she is describit as emboukin female autonomy in a male-dominatit industry. She is kent fur her distinctive contralto sangin vyce an fur haein wirkit in numerous auries o entertainment, as weel as adoptin a variety o styles an appearances in her sax-decade-long career.

Cher gained popularity in 1965 as ane-hauf o the fowk rock guidman-an-guidwife duo Sonny & Cher efter their song "I Got You Babe" reakit nummer ane on the American an Breetish chairts. Bi the end o 1967, thay haed sauld 40 million records warldwide an haed acome, accordin tae Time magazine, rock's "it" couple. She begoud her solo career simultaneously, releasin in 1966 her first million-seller sang, "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)". She becam a telly personality in the 1970s wi her shaws The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, watcht bi ower 30 million viewers weekly in its three-year run, an Cher. She emerged as a fashion trendsetter bi weirin elaborate ootfits on her telly shaws.

While wirkin on telly, Cher estaiblisht hersel as a solo airtist wi the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart-tappin singles "Gypsys, Tramps & Thieves", "Half-Breed", an "Dark Lady". Efter her divorce frae Sonny Bono in 1975, she launcht a comeback in 1979 wi the disco album Take Me Home an earnt $300,000 a week for her 1980–1982 concert residency in Las Vegas.

In 1982, Cher made her Broadway debut in the play Come Back to the Five and Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean an starned in its film adaptation. She subsequently received creetical acclaim fur her performances in films like Silkwood (1983), Mask (1985), The Witches of Eastwick (1987) an Moonstruck (1987), wi the latter haein earned her the Academy Awaird for Best Actress. She then revived her muisical career bi recordin the rock-inflectit albums Cher (1987), Heart of Stone (1989) an Love Hurts (1991), aw o that yieldit successfu singles sic as "I Found Someone", "If I Could Turn Back Time" an "Love and Understanding".

Cher reakit a new commercial peak in 1998 wi the dance-pop album Believe, that's teetle track becam the biggest-sellin single o aw time bi a female airtist in the UK. It featurs the pioneerin uise o Auto-Tune, kent as the "Cher effect" forby. Her 2002–2005 Living Proof: The Farewell Tour becam ane o the heichest-grossin concert tours o aw time, earnin $250 million. In 2008, she signed a $180 million deal tae heidline the Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas fur three year. In 2018, Cher returned tae film fur her first on-screen role syne 2010's Burlesque, starnin in the muisical romantic comedy film Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again. Inspired bi the film, the album Dancing Queen (2018) debuted at nummer three on the Billboard 200, tyin wi 2013's Closer to the Truth for Cher's heichest-chairtin solo album in the U.S.

Cher haes wan a Grammy Awaird, an Emmy Awaird, an Academy Awaird, three Gowden Globe Awairds, a Cannes Film Festival Awaird, an an awaird frae the Kennedy Center Honors an the Council of Fashion Designers of America, amang several ither honours. She haes sauld 100 million records warldwide tae date, becomin ane o the best-sellin muisic airtists in history. She is the anerly airtist tae date tae hae a nummer-ane single on a Billboard chairt in sax consecutive decades, frae the 1960s tae the 2010s. Ootwi her muisic an actin, she is notit fur her poleetical views, philanthropic activities, an social activism, includin LGBT richts an HIV/AIDS prevention.

Albums
 All I Really Want to Do (1965)
 The Sonny Side of Chér (1966)
 Chér (1966)
 With Love, Chér (1967)
 Backstage (1968)
 3614 Jackson Highway (1969)
 Chér / Gypsys, Tramps & Thieves (1971)
 Foxy Lady (1972)
 Bittersweet White Light (1973)
 Half-Breed (1973)
 Dark Lady (1974)
 Stars (1975)
 I'd Rather Believe in You (1976)
 Cherished (1977)
 Take Me Home (1979)
 Prisoner (1979)
 I Paralyze (1982)
 Cher (1987)
 Heart of Stone (1989)
 Love Hurts (1991)
 It's a Man's World (1995)
 Believe (1998)
 Not.com.mercial (2000)
 Living Proof (2001)
 Closer to the Truth (2013)
 Dancing Queen (2018)

References

Cher

Best Actress Academy Awaird winners
Best Muisical or Comedy Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
Best Muisical or Comedy Actress Gowden Globe (televeesion) winners
Best Supportin Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
Grammy Awaird winners
Primetime Emmy Awaird winners

American contraltos
American dance muisickers
American disco muisickers
American female pop sangsters
American female rock sangsters
American female sangster-sangwriters
American hoose muisickers
American pop rock sangsters
American record producers
Atco Records airtists
Atlantic Records airtists
Columbia Records airtists
Geffen Records airtists
Imperial Records airtists
MCA Records airtists
Warner Bros. Records airtists

American film actresses
American televeesion actresses

20t-century American actresses
20t-century American sangsters
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American sangsters
1946 births
Activists frae Californie
Actresses frae Los Angeles
American adoptees
American muisickers o Armenie strynd
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o French strynd
American fowk o German strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
Californie Democrats
Echo (muisic awaird) winners
Kapp Records airtists
LGBT richts activists frae the Unitit States
Livin fowk
Fowk diagnosed wi dyslexia
Fowk frae El Centro, Californie
Sangsters frae Los Angeles
Sonny & Cher
Torch sangsters
Academy Awaird winners
American actresses
Ethnic Armenie actresses

Cher


A cooperative (also spelled co-operative, or co-op) is when several people come together in cooperation to reach a common goal through mutural aid. It is a type of organization used to make the lives of its members easier; it is usually not focused on making profit, instead focusing on serving member needs.

Characteristics
Cooperative ownership can have different details about what ownership means and how cooperation works. A basic cooperative-ownership structure has the following characteristics:

 Ownership is based on voluntary participation
 Members of the cooperative are also users (also known as patrons)
 Decisions are made on a basis of one member = one vote

Co-operatives are democratic organizations owned by the people who use them. Cooperative organizations help people adapt to capitalism.

History and examples
The first cooperative was a store in Rochdale, England started in 1844.  The people who started it wanted food that was cheaper and better quality.  Since then, people have found many ways to cooperate.

Examples of cooperatives:

 Farmers provide their own transport and marketing to get better prices for their crops
 Poor people protect themselves from money-lenders, and workers save for their retirement (as in a credit union)
 Fishers package their fish to get a better price
 Villagers provide themselves with electricity or water
 Residents own their apartment building

The International Cooperative Alliance was started in 1885.  It reports that there are 800 million cooperative members in the world.

Other websites

 Rochdale - Birthplace of Cooperation
 International Cooperative Alliance

Business organizations

Cooperative


Суруди миллии Мексика (испаниёли Himno Nacional Mexicano) расман соли 1943 қабул шудааст. Матни суруд аз ғалабаҳои Мексика дар мубориза аз тарафи шоир Франсиско Гонзалес Боканегра соли 1853 навишта шудааст, баъд аз маҳкам кардани вай ба хона. In

1854, Jaime Nunó arranged the music which now accompanies González's poem. The anthem, consisting of ten stanzas and a chorus, entered into use on September 16, 1854. From 1854 until its official adoption, the lyrics underwent several modifications due to political changes in Mexico. Unofficially, the anthem is sometimes called "Mexicanos, al grito de guerra" (испаниёли for "Mexicans, at the cry of war") and is also the first line of the chorus.

Навиштаҷот

Навиштани матн

On November 12, 1853, President Antonio López de Santa Anna announced a competition to write a national anthem for Mexico.  The competition offered a prize for the best poetic composition representing patriotic ideals. Francisco González Bocanegra, a talented poet, was not interested in participating in the competition. He argued that writing love poems involved very different skills from the ones required to write a national anthem. His fiancée, Guadalupe González del Pino (or Pili), had undaunted faith in her fiancé's poetic skills and was displeased with his constant refusal to participate in spite of her constant prodding and requests from their friends.  Finally she decided to take matters into her own hands.  Under false pretenses, she lured him to a secluded bedroom in her parents' house, locked him into the room, and refused to let him out until he produced an entry for the competition. Inside the room in which he was temporarily imprisoned were pictures depicting various events in Mexican history which helped to inspire his work. After four hours of fluent (albeit forced) inspiration, Francisco regained his freedom by slipping all ten verses of his creation under the door.  After Francisco received approval from his fiancée and her father, he submitted the poem and won the competition by unanimous vote. González was announced the winner in the publication Official Journal of the Federation (DOF) on February 3, 1854.

Music competition

At the same time the lyrics were chosen, a set of music was chosen. The winner was Juan Bottesini, but his entry was disliked due to aesthetics. This rejection caused a second national contest to find music for the lyrics. At the end of the second contest, the music that was chosen for González's lyrics was composed by Jaime Nunó, a Spanish-born band leader. At the time of the second anthem competition, Nunó was the leader of several Mexican military bands. He had been invited to direct these bands by President Santa Anna, whom he had met in Cuba. About the time that Nunó first came to Mexico to start performing with the bands, Santa Anna was making his announcement about creating a national anthem for Mexico. Out of the few musical compositions submitted, Nunó's music, titled "God and Freedom" (Dios y libertad), was chosen as the winner on August 12, 1854. The anthem was officially adopted on Independence Day, September 16 of that same year. The inaugural interpretation was directed by Juan Bottesini, sung by soprano Claudia Florenti and tenor Lorenzo Salvi at the Santa Anna Theatre (now known as the National Theatre of Mexico).

Lyrics
Officially since 1943, the full national anthem consists of the chorus, 1st stanza, 5th stanza, 6th stanza and 10th stanza. The modification of the lyrics was ordered by President Manuel Avila Camacho in a decree printed in the Diario Oficial de la Federación. When Mexican anthem is played at sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, the only parts of the anthem that are played are the chorus, 1st stanza and the chorus. When opening and closing television and or radio programming, stations have sometimes played a modified national anthem consisting of the chorus, 1st stanza, chorus, 10th stanza and chorus.

Notes: The official lyrics are in Spanish, but as of December 9, 2005, the Mexican Government has allowed for various native peoples of Mexico to translate the lyrics into their native languages. The translation will be performed by the National Institute of Indigenous Languages (Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas). The word "Patria" in the Spanish language is the feminine form of the English term for the homeland (Motherland/Fatherland).

National Anthem of Mexico

Copyright status
An urban legend about the copyright status of the Mexican anthem states that years after the first performance of the anthem, Nunó's family sold the anthem's musical rights to a German music publishing company named Wagner House. Originally, Nunó was supposed to have turned the music rights over to the state in exchange for a prize from the Mexican government.  However, according to the myth, the copyright changed hands again, this time to Nunó himself and two Americans, Harry Henneman and Phil Hill.

In reality, however, this is not entirely correct. It is true that Nuno, Henneman and Hill did register the music with the company BMI (BMI Work #568879), with the Edward B. Marks Music Company as the listed publisher of the anthem. This might be the version that some have suggested is copyrighted in the United States. However, United States Copyright Law declares the Mexican anthem to be in the public domain inside the United States, since both the lyrics and music were published before 1909.  Furthermore, under Mexican copyright law, Article 155 states that the government holds moral rights, but not property rights, of the national symbols, including the anthem, coat of arms and the national flag.

National regulations
In the second chapter of the Law regarding the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem (Ley sobre el Escudo, la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales), Mexico's national anthem is described in very brief terms. While Articles 2 and 3 discuss in detail the coat of arms and the flag, respectively, Article 4 mentions only that the national anthem will be designated by law. Article 4 also mentions that a copy of the lyrics and the musical notation will be kept at two locations, the General National Archive and at the National Library, located in the National Museum of History (Biblioteca Nacional en el Museo Nacional de Historia).

Chapter 5 of the Law goes into more detail about how to honor, respect and properly perform the national anthem:

Article 38 states that the singing, playing, reproduction and circulation of the national anthem are regulated by law and that any interpretation of the anthem must be performed in a "respectful way and in a scope that allows [one] to observe the due solemnity" of the anthem.

Article 39 prohibits the anthem from being altered in any fashion, prohibits it from being sung for commercial or promotional purposes, and also disallows the singing or playing of national anthems from other nations, unless you have permission from the Secretary of the Interior (Secretaría de Gobernación) and the diplomatic official from the nation in question.

The Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Public Education (Secretaría de Educación Publica), in Article 40, must grant permission for all reproductions of the national anthem to be produced, unless the anthem is being played during official ceremonies carried on the radio or television.

Article 41 states that the national anthem is required to be played at the beginning or end of radio and television programing. The extra requirement for television programing is that photos of the Mexican flag must be displayed at the same time the anthem is playing.

Article 42 states that the anthem may only be used during the following occasions: solemn acts of official, civic, cultural, scholastic or sport character. The anthem can also be played to render honors to the Mexican flag and to the President of Mexico. If the national anthem is being used to honor the national flag or the President, the short version of the anthem is played.

Article 43 says that special musical honors may be paid to the President and the flag, but no more than once during the same ceremony.

Article 44 says that during solemn occasions, if a choir is singing the anthem, the military bands will keep silent.

Article 45 says that those who are watching the national anthem performance must stand at attention (firmes) and remove any headgear.

Article 46 states that the national anthem must be taught to children who are attending primary or secondary school; this article was amended in 2005 to add pre-school to the list. The article also states that each school in the National Education System (Sistema Educativo Nacional) will be asked to sing the national anthem each year.

Article 47 states that during an official welcoming ceremony for a head of state, the guest's anthem will be played first, then the Mexican anthem.

Article 48 states that at embassies and consulates of Mexico, the national anthem is played at ceremonies of a solemn nature that involves the Mexican people. If the anthem is played outside of Mexico, Article 48 requires that the Secretary of External Relations (Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores), through proper channels, must grant permission for the national anthem to be played and will also ensure that the anthem is not sung for commercial purposes.

Cultural significance
Upon the writing of the anthem, Mexico was still facing the effects of a defeat in a war with the United States. The country felt demoralized and also divided, due to the loss of more than half of the territory to the United States. According to historian Javier Garciadiego, who spoke at a ceremony commemorating the 150th anniversary of the anthem's adoption, said that the anthem disregards divisions and strife and encourages national unity. Also, during the celebration in 2004, Mexico City and other parts of the country stopped what they were doing and performed a nationwide singing of the anthem. Individuals from other nations participated, mostly at diplomatic offices or at locations where a high concentration of Mexican expatriates are found. The anthem has also been described as one of the symbols of the "Mexican identity."

In the rare occasions when someone performs the anthem incorrectly, the federal government has been known to impose penalties to maintain the "dignity" of the national symbols. One example is when a performer forgot some of the lyrics at a soccer match in Guadalajara, she was fined 40 USD by the Interior Ministry and released an apology letter to the country through the Interior Ministry. In addition, the anthem is sometimes used as a tool against people who might not be "true Mexicans". In one case, minority groups, such as the Black Mexicans, have been stopped by police and forced to sing the anthem to prove their nationality. In a separate incident in Japan, police officers asked four men to sing the Mexican anthem after they were arrested in Tokyo on charges of breaking and entering. However, when the men could not sing the anthem, it was discovered that they were Colombian nationals holding forged Mexican passports. They were later charged with more counts on theft of merchandise and money.

Забонҳои дигар
While the official language of Mexico is Spanish, there are still people who only speak traditional languages.  On December 8 of 2005, Article 39 of the national symbols law was adopted to allow for the translation of the lyrics into the native languages. The official translation is performed by the National Institute of Indigenous Languages (Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas)..

Officially, the national anthem has been translated into the following native languages: Chinanteco, Hña Hñu, Mixteco, Maya, Nahuatl and Tenek. Other native groups have translated the anthem into their respective language, but it has not been sanctioned by the Government.

Сабтҳо

Варақаҳои мусиқӣ

Адабиёт

Пайвандҳо

 SECGOB page about the 150th anniversary of the anthem
 MP3 recordings of the anthem

Сурудҳои миллӣ
Маданияти Мексика

Суруди миллии Мексика


Jaime Paz Zamora (born 15 April 1939) is a former Bolivian politician who served as the 60th president of Bolivia from 1989 to 1993. He also served as the 32nd vice president of Bolivia from October 1982 to December 1984 during the presidency of Hernán Siles Zuazo.

Foundation of the MIR and alliance with Siles Zuazo

Jaime Paz Zamora studied in Belgium and became an ardent supporter of left-wing/progressive causes in the turbulent 1960s. Exiled by dictator Hugo Banzer in 1971, he co-founded in Chile the Revolutionary Left Movement (Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria, MIR), originally a member of the Socialist International.

Soon, the MIR attracted the support of a large portion of the Marxist intelligentsia, especially university students. Upon returning to Bolivia in 1978, Paz's MIR cemented an alliance with the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario de Izquierda of former President Hernán Siles. The result was the formation of the Unidad Democrática y Popular (UDP).

It was a mutually beneficial pact, since Siles offered everything the MIR lacked (experience and legitimacy with the working class stemming from the 1952 Revolution) while Paz, in turn, provided Siles what he did not have: the support of the university students and younger intellectuals.

The inconclusive 1978 and 1979 elections
The UDP participated in the June 1978 elections, with Siles at the head of the ticket and, by all accounts won a plurality. The vote was annulled, however, due to the discovery of massive fraud on behalf of the government endorsed candidate, General Juan Pereda. New elections were conducted in 1979. They, too, turned out to be a fiasco, as the UDP's Hernán Siles, with Paz as his vice-presidential running mate, finished first at the ballot box, but without attaining the 50% majority necessary for direct election. Thus, it was left to Congress to determine the next Chief Executive, as stipulated in the Bolivian Constitution. Surprisingly (or perhaps not, given the lack of democratic practice in Bolivia at that time) Congress could not agree on any candidate, no matter how many votes were taken. Eventually, Congress proclaimed as temporary President the head of the Senate, Dr. Wálter Guevara, pending the calling of yet a new round of elections in 1980.

The 1980 elections
Ominously, the ultra-right wing of the Bolivian military began to intimate that it would never stand for the installation in the Palacio Quemado of the "extremist" Siles and Paz, but the 1980 campaign continued unabated. In April, the small rented plane in which Paz and a delegation of UDP politicians were traveling crashed in the Altiplano near La Paz, with the resulting death of all on board except the Vice-Presidential candidate. The plane had belonged to a company owned by Colonel Luis Arce, who would surface as Minister of Interior in the upcoming (and quite ruthless) military dictatorship of Luis Garcia Meza. No one doubts that it was an assassination attempt. In any case, Paz recovered from his burns and resumed campaigning, buoyed by the increasing support received in the aftermath of the "accident." The winner of this third vote in three years was, yet again, the Siles Zuazo-Paz Zamora formula. The two would have been sworn in, were it not for the July 17, 1980, coup of General Luis García Meza, which brutally interrupted the democratic process.

The UDP in power and Paz as Vice-President (1982–1985)
Paz fled to exile, but returned in 1982, when the military's experiment had run its course and the Bolivian economy was on the verge of collapse. With the reputation of the armed forces badly damaged by the excesses of the 1980–82 dictatorship, the only way out was a hasty retreat. In October 1982 the results of the 1980 elections were upheld to save the country the expense of yet another vote, and Siles was sworn in, with the MIR's Jaime Paz as his vice-president. The economic situation was dire indeed, and soon a galloping hyperinflationary process developed. Siles had great difficulty in controlling the situation. In all fairness, he received scant support from the political parties or members of congress, most of whom were eager to flex their newly acquired political muscles after so many years of authoritarianism. The unions, led by the old firebrand Juan Lechín paralyzed the government with constant strikes. At this point, the MIR (led by Paz) disassociated itself from the regime (1984), deserting the sinking ship when Siles' popularity sank to an all-time low. The 1982-85 hyperinflation would end up being the fourth largest ever recorded in the world.

Ideological revision (1985–1989)
By 1985, the government's impotence prompted Congress to call early elections, citing the fact that Siles had been originally elected five years before. Having broken with Siles, the MIR this time ran on its own, led by the ubiquitous Paz as its presidential candidate. Paz finished a respectable third, and the MNR's Víctor Paz Estenssoro was elected president (1985–89). During the 1985–1989 period, the MIR underwent major ideological transformations, with Paz and Oscar Eid advocating a break with Marxist notions and with any call for class-based struggle. These were the days of Perestroika, and the handwriting seemed to be on the wall (so to speak) for the Eastern European totalitarianisms. The MIR's programmatic shift entailed some major defections (most notable of which was that of Antonio Araníbar), but at least the party emerged more united and cohesive than it had been. It also had increased its electoral appeal considerably.

The 1989 election and the "Patriotic Accord"
Paz once more ran for president in May 1989. He finished third, although not far behind the top two vote-getters, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada and former dictator Hugo Banzer. As usual, no candidate received the 50% necessary for direct election, so Congress began deliberations to choose the next Head of State. Paz had vowed to never cooperate with Banzer, who had exiled and persecuted the MIR in the 1970s. But Banzer had broken acrimoniously with the MNR of the first-place finisher Sánchez de Lozada; when the opportunity for an alliance with Banzer materialized, Paz took it. It was a move that would cost him, and the MIR, everything in the years to come. On August 5, 1989, he was elected president by Congress—thanks to the political support received from General Banzer. This seemingly unlikely MIR-ADN (Banzer) entente was officially referred to as  the "Patriotic Accord," with both leaders announcing the forgiveness of past enmities for the betterment of Bolivia and the consolidation of the as yet fragile democratic process. Many citizens were admired, others revolted.

The Paz Zamora Presidency (1989–1993)
The administration of Jaime Paz was rather successful. Limited by his alliance with Banzer (and perhaps by his own new convictions), the President "refrained" from attempting major transformations. He opposed the complete eradication of the coca leaf, as proposed by the U.S. administration of George H. W. Bush while cooperating with the main thrust of the so-called War on Drugs. He advocated the potential medicinal and industrial use of coca, but achieved very little in the way of concrete results. His repeated pre-electoral statements about "rolling back" the neoliberal policies of his predecessor, Dr. Paz Estenssoro, came to nothing too, as the bulk of the privatization and de-statization reforms remained in place. All in all, Paz "muddled through,"  Perhaps the high point of the Paz Zamora years on the domestic front had a lot to do with the president itself; it "centered" on the  final qualification of Bolivia for the Soccer World Cup in 1993. The education, medical and general services were improved. On the other hand, corruption allegations disrupted his term; these would eventually lead to the  jailing of his chief aide and MIR co-founder, Oscar Eid, for drug trafficking connections. He served his full four-year prison sentence.
In foreign policy, Paz did successfully negotiate the cession of a sovereign port on the Peruvian coast, although without territorial continuity from Bolivian territory its benefits proved rather limited. In 1990 and in 1992 his presidency achieved to restore non-diplomatic and unofficial relationships between The Republic of Bolivia and The Republic of China (Taiwan) through representative and commercial offices in La Paz (opened in 1990) and in Taipei (opened in 1992) and vice-president Sajines personally meet with then taiwanese president Lee Teng Hui and expressed that Sajines'visit was going to increase the economic and technical cooperation between The Republic of China (Taiwan) and The Republic of Bolivia and as well to improve the friendship relationships between the Bolivian and Taiwanese peoples.

The debacle
The MIR, and Paz, emerged from the 1989–93 considerably damaged, especially after Eid's incarceration. As per the stipulations of the "Patriotic Accord," the MIR supported Banzer in the 1993 presidential elections, but failed to have him elected in Congress. The MNR's Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada was sworn in instead. Paz again ran for the top post in 1997, finishing third. He tried again in 2001, finishing a distant fourth. All the while, the MIR's presence in Congress was diluted to a fraction of what it once was. Paz's latest participation in an election occurred in the 2005 Tarija Prefectural (the equivalent of a U.S. governorship) contest. Jaime Paz this time lost to the MNR's candidate, a man by the name of Cossío, who had been former President of the Bolivian Congress. This seems to have brought a rather sad end to a career marked by great expectations, many corruption scandals, never proved to be right and a share of electoral defeats. Perhaps Paz sealed his own fate when he signed the 1989 accord with General Banzer. The short-term benefits (the Presidency) may not have been worth the long-term losses, especially as regards to legitimacy.

References

Notes

Footnotes

External links

1939 births
Living people
20th-century Bolivian politicians
21st-century Bolivian politicians
Bolivian exiles
Candidates in the 1985 Bolivian presidential election
Candidates in the 1989 Bolivian presidential election
Candidates in the 1997 Bolivian presidential election
Candidates in the 2002 Bolivian presidential election
Christian Democratic Party (Bolivia) politicians
Democratic and Popular Union politicians
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of Peru
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Paz family
People from Cochabamba
Presidents of Bolivia
Revolutionary Left Movement (Bolivia) politicians
Sole survivors
Vice presidents of Bolivia
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Bolivia

Jaime Paz Zamora


Marc Sangnier (; 3 April 1873, Paris – 28 May 1950, Paris) was a French Roman Catholic thinker and politician, who in 1894 founded Le Sillon ("The Furrow"), a social Catholic movement.

Work
Sangnier aimed to bring the Catholic Church into a greater conformity with French Republican ideals and to provide an alternative to anticlerical labour movements. The movement was initially successful, but was eventually condemned by Pope Pius X in the letter Notre charge apostolique in 1910. A plaque however in the garden of the Marc Sangnier Institute in Boulevard Raspail recalls the visit some years later of Cardinal Cerretti, the emissary of Pope Benedict XV. In 1912 Sangnier founded a replacement group, the Young Republic League to promote his vision of social Catholicism.

Sangnier founded a newspaper, La Démocratie, which campaigned for equality for women, proportional representation at elections, and for pacifism. He was also one of the pioneers of the French youth-hostelling movement. In 1928 he employed the 19-year-old Émilien Amaury in his first job, from which he went on to found the Amaury publishing empire.

References

External links
 Biography (in French)

1873 births
1950 deaths
Politicians from Paris
French Roman Catholics
Young Republic League politicians
Popular Republican Movement politicians
Members of the 12th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1945)
Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1946)
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni

Marc Sangnier


Sadism is a condition in which people get pleasure from humiliating, harming or hurting others. Often the pleasure is of a sexual kind.  When a person finds pleasure in being hurt or humiliated, their condition is called Masochism.

The terms "sadism" and "masochism" were both invented by Richard von Krafft-Ebing, a German psychiatrist. He named Sadism after the Marquis de Sade, a French nobleman who in the eighteenth century wrote many books, stories and plays. Sade's books include many characters who find pleasure in cruelty, including torture and even murder.

These kind of people usually enjoy when others are hurt, but specific ones love pain in general. Most of the time people who are masochistic or sadistic are sad in real life.

The condition is often fetishized on the internet and sometimes related to self-doubt or self-hate.

Different forms of Sadism
At first Sadism meant only cruelty for sexual pleasure, but as the word became more widely used its meaning changed. Nowadays any person who enjoys being cruel to others can be called "sadistic," even if they get no sexual excitement from what they do.

Some people who have sadistic sexual fantasies mean no real harm to anyone. In BDSM a "top" or dominant person will bind his or her partner or "punish" them in different ways, but what they do will not go beyond limits which the partner has agreed on. On the other hand, a small minority are severely perverted or mentally ill, and wish to act out their sadistic fantasies for real. Such people are rare, but they can be very dangerous. Many serial killers and psychopaths have been sexual sadists.

Treating sadism
Treating sadism is difficult, but it looks like psychotherapy can help in certain cases. Note: It has not been proven that people with sadism can be successfully treated. The former statement is not accurate.

Reading materials
 Fromm, Erich: The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, 1973
 Fromm, Erich: Escape from Freedom, 1941
 Lennig, Walter: Marquis de Sade.
 Schorsch, Eberhard und Becker, Nikolaus: 'Angst, Lust Zerstörung  -  Sadismus als soz. u. kriminelles Handeln. Zur Psychodynamik sexueller Tötungen' (2000) Psychosozial-Verlag,

BDSM

Sadism


The Museum of Coastal Carolina is a natural history museum located at Ocean Isle Beach in Brunswick County, North Carolina. Animal exhibits include an aquarium and a touch tank with live sea animals, shells, fossils, insects, a display about sharks, live snakes, bird dioramas and an ocean reef diorama that includes life-sized models of whales, sharks, sea turtles and rays. Other exhibits include river basins, the effects of storm water runoff and beach litter on the water's ecology, barrier islands and tides.  The museum also includes displays of local and maritime history, including shipbuilding and area Native Americans.

The museum offers afternoon and evening programs and special lectures, including area efforts to protect sea turtles.

The Board of Trustees of the Ocean Isle Museum Foundation, Inc. is the governing body of the Ingram Planetarium, located 4 miles away in Sunset Beach, North Carolina, as well as the Museum of Coastal Carolina.

References

Aquaria in North Carolina
Natural history museums in North Carolina
Museums in Brunswick County, North Carolina
Museums established in 1991
1991 establishments in North Carolina

Museum of Coastal Carolina


Karl Barth (1886-1968) was a Protestant theologian who started a movement in theology that is now called Neo-Orthodoxy. He wrote Church Dogmatics and the Gottingen Dogmatics, as well as a number of Biblical commentaries, most famously on the Book of Romans. He was heavily involved in the authorship of the anti-Nazi Barmen declaration in 1934.

Barth rejects Biblical inerrancy, and he also rejects stronger forms of predestination.

Other websites
 Theopedia on Karl Barth and the Theology of Karl Barth

1886 births
1968 deaths
Swiss theologians
Writers from Basel

Karl Barth


Saguia el Hamra was one of the two territories that made up the territory Western Sahara, when it was under Spanish rule, until 1978. At that time, Western Sahara was called Sahara Occidental. It makes up the northern part of the territory, that extends from about 26° northern longitude, to about 27° 50'. It covers an area of roughly . It is named after the river Saguia el Hamra, which only exists during part of the year - a wadi. During the rainy season, it turns into a lake, located near the capital, El Aaiún. The other territory was called Río de Oro

Western Sahara
Territories
Spanish Africa

Saguia el Hamra


Acetobacter is a kind of bacteria. These bacteria are
known by their ability to change alcohol to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria that can form acetic acid under different conditions; but all of the Acetobacter are known by this ability.

Why Acetobacter is important
Acetobacter are important to people, because:
 they are used to make vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
 they can destroy wine which it infects by producing big amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate.

Sometimes, Acetobacter is not wanted. It can be killed by adding preservatives like Sulfur dioxides, or by getting rid of the air when the wine is stored.

Gram-negative bacteria

Acetobacter


"Super Best Friends" is the third episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series South Park and the 68th episode of the series overall. Going by production order, it is the 4th episode of Season 5 instead of the 3rd. It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on July 4, 2001. In the episode, Stan, Kyle, Cartman and Kenny discover the magician David Blaine performing in South Park and decide to join his cult, the Blaintologists. Stan quickly finds out that the Blaintologists are not as nice as everyone thinks and tries to convince the other boys that they have been brainwashed. Teaming up with Jesus, Stan calls upon the Super Best Friends, a parody of the Super Friends, to destroy Blaine and thwart the mass suicide pact he has launched.

The episode was written by series co-creator Trey Parker and is rated TV-MA in the United States. It depicts several religious figures, including Muhammad, whose appearance at the time of the original airing caused little to no controversy. Following Islamists' death threats regarding Muhammad's portrayal in the 2010 episode titled "201", the South Park Studios website no longer streams "Super Best Friends", nor is it available for streaming or purchase from online stores. The episode has been replaced on the South Park Studios with a notice: "We apologize that South Park Studios cannot stream Super Best Friends." The episode was also featured in syndication, but was permanently removed after the threats. It is one of five episodes which are unavailable on Max, along with season 14's "200", and the aforementioned "201", as well as season 10's "Cartoon Wars Part I" and "Cartoon Wars Part II".

Plot
David Blaine visits South Park, impressing the town's residents, including Kyle, Stan, Cartman, and Kenny, with his street magic. Mesmerized, the boys join the cult of "Blaintology," hoping to learn more about magic. Stan becomes progressively more disturbed by the cult and soon leaves, but Kyle refuses to join him, and so Stan asks Jesus for help. Meanwhile, Kyle and Cartman go door to door in a recruitment drive, sporting nametags labeled "Elder Kyle" and "Elder Cartman."

Jesus appears at Blaine's show in Denver, and challenges him by performing the miracle of the loaves and fish... after requesting that everybody in the audience turn around; Blaine manages to win the crowd with much more powerful enchantments. Jesus promptly requires the assistance of the Super Best Friends: a group of major religious figures including Muhammad, Buddha, Moses, Joseph Smith, Krishna, Laozi and "Sea Man", an Aquaman-like character.  They are dedicated to defending the world against evil (except for Buddha, who "doesn't really believe in evil").

The Blaintologists, meanwhile, petition the government for tax-exempt status. Their request is denied, and all the Blaintologists are told that they are to commit mass suicide in Washington, D.C. Kyle is shown to have escaped the cult's control, but when he tries to convince Cartman that they should flee, Cartman reports him, and Kyle is imprisoned in a glass bubble and forced to participate at the mass suicide. When word about the mass suicide reaches the Super Best Friends, they consult Moses (previously seen in "Jewbilee") for advice.

In D.C., the Blaintologists begin to drown themselves in the Reflecting Pool even though it is only approximately a foot deep, while Cartman installs a hose in Kyle's glass bubble to fill it with water, so as to drown him. The Super Best Friends arrive at the scene, to which Blaine responds by animating the statue of Abraham Lincoln to fight them.

Meanwhile, Stan searches for his friends, first finding Kenny drowned in the pool and shouting "Oh, my God! They killed Kenny!", to which Kyle replies "You bastards!"; they alternately repeat their catchphrases in Marco Polo fashion to find each other. In order to defeat the Abraham Lincoln statue, the Super Best Friends create a giant animated John Wilkes Booth statue, which shoots it in the head, causing it to fall over and shatter Kyle's prison. Afterwards, Joseph Smith uses his ice powers to freeze the reflecting pool so as to prevent more suicides.

It is revealed that Cartman has not managed to kill himself, as he keeps coming up for air.  Blaine curses the Super Best Friends for ruining his plans and flies away in a rocket ship. Stan finally announces that any religion which forces people to relinquish their money or control over their lives is really a cult. After his speech, Kyle reconciles with Stan, they amuse themselves with kicking a taunting Cartman in the testicles, and the episode ends with the Super Best Friends flying away.

References to Scientology
In the DVD commentary, Parker states that the episode's references to real-life magician David Blaine and Blaintology were allusions to Scientology.

Depiction of Muhammad

In 2005, cartoon depictions of Muhammad became more controversial during the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. The creators of South Park returned to this theme in later episodes, parodying censorship attempts and portraying Muhammad again in the 2006 episodes "Cartoon Wars Part I" and  "Cartoon Wars Part II" and again in the 2010 episode "200". Further controversy ensued, and one group, "Revolution Muslim", warned that South Parks creators would "probably wind up like Theo van Gogh". Around this time, the original "Super Best Friends" episode was removed from the South Park Studios website.

Home media
"Super Best Friends", along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park: the Complete Fifth Season, were released on a three-disc DVD set in the United States on February 22, 2005. The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode.

The episode was included in the re-release of the fifth season on Blu-ray, released on December 5, 2017. This was the first time the episode was made available in HD, as the episode was not released alongside the rest of the season when it debuted in HD on iTunes in 2011. The episode is shown in its original presentation, without Muhammad's image being obscured as in later episodes of the series.

See also

South Park (Park County, Colorado)
South Park City

References

External links

 "Super Best Friends" Full episode at South Park Studios

Cultural depictions of Gautama Buddha
Cultural depictions of John Wilkes Booth
Cultural depictions of Joseph Smith
Television episodes about religion
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Cultural depictions of Muhammad
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Scientology in popular culture
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Super Best Friends


The Ethical movement (also the Ethical Culture movement, Ethical Humanism, and Ethical Culture) is an ethical, educational, and religious movement established in 1877, by the academic Felix Adler (1851–1933). In effort to develop humanist codes of behavior, the Ethical movement emerged from the moral traditions of the secular societies of Europe and the secular society of the United States of the 19th century. In practice, the Ethical movement organized themselves as two types of organization: (i) a secular humanist movement and (ii) a moral movement, with a religious approach.

In the U.S., ethical movements became organizations for the advancement of education (e.g. the American Humanist Association and the American Ethical Union), whereas in the U.K., the ethical movements became the South Place Ethical Society and the British Ethical Union, organizations which consciously transcended the congregational model of organization, as the Conway Hall Ethical Society, the Humanists UK, and the Sunday Assembly.

Internationally, Ethical Culture and secular humanist organizations organized jointly; the American Ethical Union and the British Ethical Union were the founders of Humanists International, whose original name, the "International Humanist and Ethical Union", reflected the philosophical unity of the Ethical Culture movement. The premise of Ethical Culture is that honoring and living in accordance with a code of ethics is required to live a meaningful life, and for making the world a better place for all people.

History

Background
The Ethical movement was an outgrowth of the general loss of faith among the intellectuals of the Victorian era. A precursor to the doctrines of the Ethical movement can be found in the South Place Ethical Society, founded in 1793 as the South Place Chapel on Finsbury Square, on the edge of the City of London.

In the early nineteenth century, the chapel became known as "a radical gathering-place". At that point it was a Unitarian chapel, and that movement, like Quakers, supported female equality. Under the leadership of Reverend William Johnson Fox (who became minister of the congregation in 1817), it lent its pulpit to activists such as Anna Wheeler, one of the first women to campaign for feminism at public meetings in England, who spoke in 1829 on "Rights of Women." In later decades, the chapel moved away from Unitarianism, changing its name first to the South Place Religious Society, then the South Place Ethical Society (a name it held formally, though it was better known as Conway Hall from 1929) and is now Conway Hall Ethical Society.

The Fellowship of the New Life was established in 1883 by the Scottish intellectual Thomas Davidson. Fellowship members included poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, animal rights activist Henry Stephens Salt, sexologist Havelock Ellis, feminist Edith Lees (who later married Ellis), novelist Olive Schreiner and Edward R. Pease.

Its objective was "The cultivation of a perfect character in each and all." They wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Davidson was a major proponent of a structured philosophy about religion, ethics, and social reform.

At a meeting on 16 November 1883, a summary of the society's goals was drawn up by Maurice Adams:

Although the Fellowship was a short-lived organization, it spawned the Fabian Society, which split in 1884 from the Fellowship of the New Life.

In the United States

In his youth, Felix Adler was being trained to be a rabbi like his father, Samuel Adler, the rabbi of the Reform Jewish Temple Emanu-El in New York. As part of his education, he enrolled at the University of Heidelberg, where he was influenced by neo-Kantian philosophy. He was especially drawn to the Kantian ideas that one could not prove the existence or non-existence of deities or immortality and that morality could be established independently of theology.

During this time he was also exposed to the moral problems caused by the exploitation of women and labor.  These experiences laid the intellectual groundwork for the Ethical movement.  Upon his return from Germany, in 1873, he shared his ethical vision with his father's congregation in the form of a sermon. Due to the negative reaction he elicited it became his first and last sermon as a rabbi in training. Instead he took up a professorship at Cornell University and in 1876 gave a follow-up sermon that led to the 1877 founding of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, which was the first of its kind. By 1886, similar societies had sprouted up in Philadelphia, Chicago and St. Louis.

These societies all adopted the same statement of principles:
The belief that morality is independent of theology;
The affirmation that new moral problems have arisen in modern industrial society which have not been adequately dealt with by the world's religions;
The duty to engage in philanthropy in the advancement of morality;
The belief that self-reform should go in lock step with social reform;
The establishment of republican rather than monarchical governance of Ethical societies
The agreement that educating the young is the most important aim.
In effect, the movement responded to the religious crisis of the time by replacing theology with unadulterated morality. It aimed to "disentangle moral ideas from religious doctrines, metaphysical systems, and ethical theories, and to make them an independent force in personal life and social relations." Adler was also particularly critical of the religious emphasis on creed, believing it to be the source of sectarian bigotry.  He therefore attempted to provide a universal fellowship devoid of ritual and ceremony, for those who would otherwise be divided by creeds. For the same reasons the movement also adopted a neutral position on religious beliefs, advocating neither atheism nor theism, agnosticism nor deism.

The Adlerian emphasis on "deed not creed" translated into several public service projects.  The year after it was founded, the New York society started a kindergarten, a district nursing service and a tenement-house building company. Later they opened the Ethical Culture School, then called the "Workingman's School," a Sunday school and a summer home for children, and other Ethical societies soon followed suit with similar projects.  Unlike the philanthropic efforts of the established religious institutions of the time, the Ethical societies did not attempt to proselytize those they helped.  In fact, they rarely attempted to convert anyone.  New members had to be sponsored by existing members, and women were not allowed to join at all until 1893.  They also resisted formalization, though nevertheless slowly adopted certain traditional practices, like Sunday meetings and life cycle ceremonies, yet did so in a modern humanistic context.  In 1893, the four existing societies unified under the umbrella organization, the American Ethical Union (AEU).

After some initial success the movement stagnated until after World War II. In 1946 efforts were made to revitalize and societies were created in New Jersey and Washington D.C., along with the inauguration of the Encampment for Citizenship. By 1968 there were thirty societies with a total national membership of over 5,500. However, the resuscitated movement differed from its predecessor in a few ways. The newer groups were being created in suburban locales and often to provide alternative Sunday schools for children, with adult activities as an afterthought.

There was also a greater focus on organization and bureaucracy, along with an inward turn emphasizing the needs of the group members over the more general social issues that had originally concerned Adler. The result was a transformation of American ethical societies into something much more akin to small Christian congregations in which the minister's most pressing concern is to tend to his or her flock.

In the 21st century, the movement attempted to revitalize itself through social media and involvement with other Humanist organizations, with mixed success. As of 2014, there were fewer than 10,000 official members of the Ethical movement.

In Britain

In 1885, the ten-year-old American Ethical Culture movement helped to stimulate similar social activity in Great Britain, when American sociologist John Graham Brooks distributed pamphlets by Chicago ethical society leader William Salter to a group of British philosophers, including Bernard Bosanquet, John Henry Muirhead, and John Stuart MacKenzie.

One of Felix Adler's colleagues, Stanton Coit, visited them in London to discuss the "aims and principles" of their American counterparts. In 1886 the first British ethical society was founded. Coit took over the leadership of South Place for a few years. Ethical societies flourished in Britain. By 1896 the four London societies formed the Union of Ethical Societies, and between 1905 and 1910 there were over fifty societies in Great Britain, seventeen of which were affiliated with the Union. Part of this rapid growth was due to Coit, who left his role as leader of South Place in 1892 after being denied the power and authority he was vying for.

Because he was firmly entrenched in British ethicism, Coit remained in London and formed the West London Ethical Society, which was almost completely under his control. Coit worked quickly to shape the West London society not only around Ethical Culture but also the trappings of religious practice, renaming the society in 1914 to the Ethical Church; he did this because he subscribed to a personal theory of using "theological terms in a humanistic sense" in order to make the Ethical movement appealing to irreligious people with otherwise strong cultural attachments to religion, such as cultural Christians. Coit transformed his meetings into "services", and their space into something akin to a church. In a series of books Coit also began to argue for the transformation of the Anglican Church into an Ethical Church, while holding up the virtue of ethical ritual.  He felt that the Anglican Church was in the unique position to harness the natural moral impulse that stemmed from society itself, as long as the Church replaced theology with science, abandoned supernatural beliefs, expanded its bible to include a cross-cultural selection of ethical literature and reinterpreted its creeds and liturgy in light of modern ethics and psychology.  His attempt to reform the Anglican church failed, and ten years after his death in 1944, the Ethical Church building was sold to the Roman Catholic Church.

During Stanton Coit's lifetime, the Ethical Church never officially affiliated with the Union of Ethical Societies, nor did South Place. In 1920 the Union of Ethical Societies changed its name to the Ethical Union. Harold Blackham, who had taken over leadership of the London Ethical Church, consciously sought to remove the church-like trappings of the Ethical movement, and advocated a simple creed of humanism that was not akin to a religion. He promoted the merger of the Ethical Union with the Rationalist Press Association and the South Place Ethical Society, and, in 1957, a Humanist Council was set up to explore amalgamation. Although issues over charitable status prevented a full amalgamation, the Ethical Union under Blackham changed its name in 1967 to become the British Humanist Association – establishing humanism as the principle organizing force for non-religious morals and secularist advocacy in Britain. The BHA was the legal successor body to the Union of Ethical Societies.

Between 1886 and 1927, seventy-four ethical societies were started in Great Britain, although this rapid growth did not last long.  The numbers declined steadily throughout the 1920s and early 30s, until there were only ten societies left in 1934. By 1954, there were only four. The situation became such that, in 1971, sociologist Colin Campbell even suggested that one could say, "that when the South Place Ethical Society discussed changing its name to the South Place Humanist society in 1969, the English Ethical movement ceased to exist."

The organizations spawned by the 19th century Ethical movement would later live on as the British humanist movement. The South Place Ethical Society eventually changed its name Conway Hall Ethical Society, after Moncure D. Conway, and is typically known as simply "Conway Hall". In 2017, the British Humanist Association again changed its name, becoming Humanists UK. Both organizations are part of Humanists International, which had been founded by Harold Blackham in 1952 as the International Humanist and Ethical Union.

Ethical perspective

While Ethical Culturists generally share common beliefs about what constitutes ethical behavior and the good, individuals are encouraged to develop their own personal understanding of these ideas. This does not mean that Ethical Culturists condone moral relativism, which would relegate ethics to mere preferences or social conventions. Ethical principles are viewed as being related to deep truths about the way the world works, and hence not arbitrary. However, it is recognized that complexities render the understanding of ethical nuances subject to continued dialogue, exploration, and learning.

While the founder of Ethical Culture, Felix Adler, was a transcendentalist, Ethical Culturists may have a variety of understandings as to the theoretical origins of ethics. Key to the founding of Ethical Culture was the observation that too often disputes over religious or philosophical doctrines have distracted people from actually living ethically and doing good. Consequently, "Deed before creed" has long been a motto of the movement.

Organizational model

Functionally, the Ethical Societies are organized in a similar manner to churches or synagogues and are headed by "leaders" as clergy. Their founders had suspected this would be a successful model for spreading secular morality. As a result, an Ethical Society typically would have Sunday morning meetings, offer moral instruction for children and teens, and do charitable work and social action. They may offer a variety of educational and other programs. They conduct weddings, commitment ceremonies, baby namings, and memorial services.

Individual Ethical Society members may or may not believe in a deity or regard Ethical Culture as their religion. Felix Adler said "Ethical Culture is religious to those who are religiously minded, and merely ethical to those who are not so minded."  The movement does consider itself a religion in the sense that

The Ethical Culture 2003 ethical identity statement states:

Since around 1950, the Ethical Culture movement has been increasingly identified as part of the modern Humanist movement. Specifically, in 1952, the American Ethical Union, the national umbrella organization for Ethical Culture societies in the United States, became one of the founding member organizations of the International Humanist and Ethical Union.

In the United Kingdom, the ethical societies consciously rejected the "church model" in the mid-20th century, while still providing services like weddings, funerals, and namings on a secular basis.

Key ideas
While Ethical Culture does not regard its founder's views as necessarily the final word, Adler identified focal ideas that remain important within Ethical Culture. These ideas include:

 Human Worth and Uniqueness – All people are taken to have inherent worth, not dependent on the value of what they do. They are deserving of respect and dignity, and their unique gifts are to be encouraged and celebrated.
 Eliciting the Best – "Always act so as to Elicit the best in others, and thereby yourself" is as close as Ethical Culture comes to having a Golden Rule.
 Inter-relatedness – Adler used the term The Ethical Manifold to refer to his conception of the universe as made up of myriad unique and indispensable moral agents (individual human beings), each of whom has an inestimable influence on all the others. In other words, we are all interrelated, with each person playing a role in the whole and the whole affecting each person. Our Inter-relatedness is at the heart of ethics.

Many Ethical Societies prominently display a sign that says "The Place Where People Meet to Seek the Highest is Holy Ground".

Locations
New York City metropolitan area
The largest concentration of Ethical Societies is in the New York metropolitan area, including Societies in New York, Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn Society for Ethical Culture, Brooklyn, Queens, Westchester and Nassau County; and New Jersey, such as Bergen and Essex Counties, New Jersey.
U.S. cities
Ethical Societies exist in several U.S. cities and counties, including Austin, Texas; Baltimore; Chapel Hill; Asheville, North Carolina; Chicago; San Jose, California; Philadelphia; St. Louis; St. Peters, Missouri; Washington, D.C.; Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and Vienna, Virginia.
London
Ethical Societies also exist outside the U.S.: Conway Hall in London is home to the South Place Ethical Society, which was founded in 1787.

Structure and events
Ethical societies are typically led by "Leaders". Leaders are trained and certified (the equivalent of ordination) by the American Ethical Union.  Societies engage Leaders, in much the same way that Protestant congregations "call" a minister. Not all Ethical societies have a professional Leader. (In typical usage, the Ethical movement uses upper case to distinguish certified professional Leaders from other leaders.) A board of executives handles day-to-day affairs, and committees of members focus on specific activities and involvements of the society.

Ethical societies usually hold weekly meetings on Sundays, with the main event of each meeting being the "Platform", which involves a half-hour speech by the Leader of the Ethical Society, a member of the society or by guests. Sunday school for minors is also held at most ethical societies concurrent with the Platform.

The American Ethical Union holds an annual AEU Assembly bringing together Ethical societies from across the US.

Legal challenges
The tax status of Ethical Societies as religious organizations has been upheld in court cases in Washington, D.C. (1957), and in Austin, Texas (2003). In challenge to a denial of tax-exempt status, the Texas State Appeals Court decided that "the Comptroller's test was unconstitutionally underinclusive and that the Ethical Society should have qualified for the requested tax exemptions... Because the Comptroller's test fails to include the whole range of belief systems that may, in our diverse and pluralistic society, merit the First Amendment's protection..."

Advocates
British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald was a strong supporter of the British Ethical movement, having been a Christian earlier in his life. He was a member of the Ethical Church and the Union of Ethical Societies (now Humanists UK), a regular attender at South Place Ethical Society. During his time involved with the Ethical movement, he chaired the annual meeting of the Ethical Union on multiple occasions and wrote for Stanton Coit's Ethical World journal.

The British critic and mountaineer Leslie Stephen was a prominent supporter of Ethical Culture in the UK, serving multiple terms as President of the West London Ethical Society, and was involved in the creation of the Union of Ethical Societies.

Albert Einstein was a supporter of Ethical Culture. On the seventy-fifth anniversary of the New York Society for Ethical Culture, in 1951, he noted that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. Humanity requires such a belief to survive, Einstein argued. He observed, "Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity."

First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was a regular attendee at the New York Society for Ethical Culture at a time when humanism was beginning to coalesce in its modern-day form, and it was there that she developed friendships with the leading humanists and Ethical Culturists of her day. She collaborated with Al Black, Ethical Society leader, in the creation of her nationwide Encampment of Citizenship. She maintained her involvement with the movement as figures on both sides of the Atlantic began to advocate for organizing under the banner of secular humanism. She provided a cover endorsement for the first edition of Humanism as the Next Step (1954) by Lloyd and Mary Morain, saying simply that it was "A significant book."

See also
 Arthur E. Briggs, Los Angeles City Council member, 1939–41, Ethical Society leader
 British Humanist Association, which inherited many British ethical societies
 International Moral Education Congress
 Religious humanism
 Unitarian Universalism
 Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia

References

Sources

Further reading
 Ericson, Edward L. The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion. A Frederick Ungar book, The Continuum Publishing Company. 205 pages, 1988.
 Muzzey, David Saville. Ethics as a Religion, 273 pages, 1951, 1967, 1986.
 Radest, Howard. Toward Common Ground: The Story of the Ethical Societies in the United States. Ungar, 1969

External links

1877 establishments in the United States
Religious ethics
Humanism
Nontheism

Ethical movement