Compound interest is the addition of interest to the principal sum of a loan or deposit, or in other words, interest on principal plus interest. It is the result of reinvesting interest, or adding it to the loaned capital rather than paying it out, or requiring payment from borrower, so that interest in the next period is then earned on the principal sum plus previously accumulated interest. Compound interest is standard in finance and economics.

Compound interest is contrasted with simple interest, where previously accumulated  interest is not added to the principal amount of the current period, so there is no compounding. The simple annual interest rate is the interest amount per period, multiplied by the number of periods per year. The simple annual interest rate is also known as the nominal interest rate (not to be confused with the interest rate not adjusted for inflation, which goes by the same name).

Compounding frequency
The compounding frequency is the number of times per year (or rarely, another unit of time) the accumulated interest is paid out, or capitalized (credited to the account), on a regular basis. The frequency could be yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, monthly, weekly, daily, or continuously (or not at all, until maturity).

For example, monthly capitalization with interest expressed as an annual rate means that the compounding frequency is 12, with time periods measured in months.

The effect of compounding depends on:
 The nominal interest rate which is applied and
 The frequency interest is compounded.

Annual equivalent rate
The nominal rate cannot be directly compared between loans with different compounding frequencies. Both the nominal interest rate and the compounding frequency are required in order to compare interest-bearing financial instruments.

To help consumers compare retail financial products more fairly and easily, many countries require financial institutions to disclose the annual compound interest rate on deposits or advances on a comparable basis. The interest rate on an annual equivalent basis may be referred to variously in different markets as effective annual percentage rate (EAPR), annual equivalent rate (AER), effective interest rate, effective annual rate, annual percentage yield  and other terms. The effective annual rate is the total accumulated interest that would be payable up to the end of one year, divided by the principal sum.

There are usually two aspects to the rules defining these rates:

 The rate is the annualised compound interest rate, and
 There may be charges other than interest. The effect of fees or taxes which the customer is charged, and which are directly related to the product, may be included. Exactly which fees and taxes are included or excluded varies by country, may or may not be comparable between different jurisdictions, because the use of such terms may be inconsistent, and vary according to local practice.

Examples

 1,000 Brazilian real (BRL) is deposited into a Brazilian savings account paying 20% per annum, compounded annually. At the end of one year, 1,000 × 20% = 200 BRL interest is credited to the account. The account then earns 1,200 × 20% = 240 BRL in the second year.
 A rate of 1% per month is equivalent to a simple annual interest rate (nominal rate) of 12%, but allowing for the effect of compounding, the annual equivalent compound rate is 12.68% per annum (1.0112 − 1).
 The interest on corporate bonds and government bonds is usually payable twice yearly. The amount of interest paid (every six months) is the disclosed interest rate divided by two and multiplied by the principal. The yearly compounded rate is higher than the disclosed rate.
 Canadian mortgage loans are generally compounded semi-annually with monthly (or more frequent) payments.
 U.S. mortgages use an amortizing loan, not compound interest. With these loans, an amortization schedule is used to determine how to apply payments toward principal and interest.  Interest generated on these loans is not added to the principal, but rather is paid off monthly as the payments are applied.
 It is sometimes mathematically simpler, for example, in the valuation of derivatives, to use continuous compounding, which is the limit as the compounding period approaches zero. Continuous compounding in pricing these instruments is a natural consequence of Itô calculus, where financial derivatives are valued at ever increasing frequency, until the limit is approached and the derivative is valued in continuous time.

History

Compound interest when charged by lenders was once regarded as the worst kind of usury and was severely condemned by Roman law and the common laws of many other countries.

The Florentine merchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti provided a table of compound interest in his book Pratica della mercatura of about 1340. It gives the interest on 100 lire, for rates from 1% to 8%, for up to 20 years. The Summa de arithmetica of Luca Pacioli (1494) gives the Rule of 72, stating that to find the number of years for an investment at compound interest to double, one should divide the interest rate into 72.

Richard Witt's book Arithmeticall Questions, published in 1613, was a landmark in the history of compound interest. It was wholly devoted to the subject (previously called anatocism), whereas previous writers had usually treated compound interest briefly in just one chapter in a mathematical textbook. Witt's book gave tables based on 10% (the maximum rate of interest allowable on loans) and other rates for different purposes, such as the valuation of property leases. Witt was a London mathematical practitioner and his book is notable for its clarity of expression, depth of insight, and accuracy of calculation, with 124 worked examples.

Jacob Bernoulli discovered the constant  in 1683 by studying a question about compound interest.

In the 19th century, and possibly earlier, Persian merchants used a slightly modified linear Taylor approximation to the monthly payment formula that could be computed easily in their heads.

Calculation

Periodic compounding
The total accumulated value, including the principal sum  plus compounded interest , is given by the formula:

where:
A is the final amount
P is the original principal sum

r is the nominal annual interest rate
n is the compounding frequency
t is the overall length of time the interest is applied (expressed using the same time units as r, usually years).

The total compound interest generated is the final value minus the initial principal:

Example 1
Suppose a principal amount of $1,500 is deposited in a bank paying an annual interest rate of 4.3%, compounded quarterly. Then the balance after 6 years is found by using the formula above, with P = 1500, r = 0.043, n = 4, and t = 6:

So the amount A after 6 years is approximately $1,938.84.

Subtracting the original principal from this amount gives the amount of interest received:

Example 2

Suppose the same amount of $1,500 is compounded biennially (every 2 years). (This is very unusual in practice.) Then the balance after 6 years is found by using the formula above, with P = 1500, r = 0.043 (4.3%), n = 1/2 (the interest is compounded every two years), and t = 6 :

So, the balance after 6 years is approximately $1,921.24.

The amount of interest received can be calculated by subtracting the principal from this amount.

The interest is less compared with the previous case, as a result of the lower compounding frequency.

Accumulation function

Since the principal P is simply a coefficient, it is often dropped for simplicity, and the resulting accumulation function is used instead. The accumulation function shows what $1 grows to after any length of time.

Accumulation functions for simple and compound interest are

If , then these two functions are the same.

Continuous compounding

As n, the number of compounding periods per year, increases without limit, the case is known as continuous compounding, in which case the effective annual rate approaches an upper limit of , where  is a mathematical constant that is the base of the natural logarithm.

Continuous compounding can be thought of as making the compounding period infinitesimally small, achieved by taking the limit as n goes to infinity. See definitions of the exponential function for the mathematical proof of this limit. The amount after t periods of continuous compounding can be expressed in terms of the initial amount P0 as

Force of interest
As the number of compounding periods  tends to infinity in continuous compounding, the continuous compound interest rate is referred to as the force of interest .

In mathematics, the accumulation functions are often expressed in terms of e, the base of the natural logarithm. This facilitates the use of calculus to manipulate interest formulae.

For any continuously differentiable accumulation function a(t), the force of interest, or more generally the logarithmic or continuously compounded return is a function of time defined as follows:

This is the logarithmic derivative of the accumulation function.

Conversely:
 (since ; this can be viewed as a particular case of a product integral.)

When the above formula is written in differential equation format, then the force of interest is simply the coefficient of amount of change:

For compound interest with a constant annual interest rate r, the force of interest is a constant, and the accumulation function of compounding interest in terms of force of interest is a simple power of e:
 or

The force of interest is less than the annual effective interest rate, but more than the annual effective discount rate. It is the reciprocal of the e-folding time. See also notation of interest rates.

A way of modeling the force of inflation is with Stoodley's formula:  where p, r and s are estimated.

Compounding basis

To convert an interest rate from one compounding basis to another compounding basis, so that

use

where
r1 is the interest rate with compounding frequency n1, and
r2 is the interest rate with compounding frequency n2.

When interest is continuously compounded, use

where
 is the interest rate on a continuous compounding basis, and
r is the stated interest rate with a compounding frequency n.

Monthly amortized loan or mortgage payments

The interest on loans and mortgages that are amortized—that is, have a smooth monthly payment until the loan has been paid off—is often compounded monthly. The formula for payments is found from the following argument.

Exact formula for monthly payment
An exact formula for the monthly payment () is

or equivalently

where:
  = monthly payment
  = principal
  = monthly interest rate
  = number of payment periods

This can be derived by considering how much is left to be repaid after each month. The principal remaining after the first month is

that is, the initial amount plus interest less the payment. If the whole loan is repaid after one month then
 so
After the second month  is left, so

If the whole loan was repaid after two months,
 so

This equation generalizes for a term of n months, . This is a geometric series which has the sum

which can be rearranged to give

Spreadsheet formula
In spreadsheets, the PMT() function is used.  The syntax is:

 PMT( interest_rate, number_payments, present_value, future_value, [Type] )
See Excel, Mac Numbers, LibreOffice, Open Office, Google Sheets for more details.

For example, for interest rate of 6% (0.06/12), 25 years * 12 p.a., PV of $150,000, FV of 0, type of 0 gives:

 = PMT(0.06/12, 25 * 12, -150000, 0, 0)
 = $966.45

Approximate formula for monthly payment
A formula that is accurate to within a few percent can be found by
noting that for typical U.S. note rates ( and terms =10–30 years), the monthly note rate is small compared to 1:
 so that the  which yields a simplification so that

which suggests defining auxiliary variables

Here  is the monthly payment required for a zero–interest loan paid off in  installments. In terms of these variables the approximation can be written

The function  is even:

implying that it can be expanded in even powers of .

It follows immediately that  can be expanded in even powers of  plus the single term:

It will prove convenient then to define

so that

which can be expanded:

where the ellipses indicate terms that are higher order in even powers of . The expansion

is valid to better than 1% provided .

Example of mortgage payment
For a $120,000 mortgage with a term of 30 years and a note rate of 4.5%, payable monthly, we find:

which gives

so that

The exact payment amount is  so the approximation is an overestimate of about a sixth of a percent.

Investing: monthly deposits
Given a principal (initial) deposit and a recurring deposit, the total return of an investment can be calculated via the compound interest gained per unit of time. If required, the interest on additional non-recurring and recurring deposits can also be defined within the same formula (see below).

  = principal deposit
  = rate of return (monthly)
  = monthly deposit, and
  = time, in months

The compound interest for each deposit is:

and adding all recurring deposits over the total period t (i starts at 0 if deposits begin with the investment of principal; i starts at 1 if deposits begin the next month) :

recognizing the geometric series:  and applying the closed-form formula (common ratio :) we obtain:

If two or more types of deposits occur (either recurring or non-recurring), the compound value earned can be represented as

where C is each lump sum and k are non-monthly recurring deposits, respectively, and x and y are the differences in time between a new deposit and the total period t is modeling.

A practical estimate for reverse calculation of the rate of return when the exact date and amount of each recurring deposit is not known, a formula that assumes a uniform recurring monthly deposit over the period, is:
 or

See also

 Credit card interest
 Exponential growth
 Fisher equation
 Interest
 Interest rate
 Rate of return
 Rate of return on investment
 Real versus nominal value (economics)
 Yield curve

References

Interest
Exponentials
Mathematical finance
Actuarial science

it:Anatocismo

Compound interest


Rationality is the state that exists when reason is used. It's also related to moderation in some contexts and sensibility in others.

When a person is reasonable or rational they are using all available information to make a decision, and whether their decision can be judged as rational or reasonable depends on the reasons they made it. If they believe that the most important factor in any decision is how they will personally benefit, then self-interested or even selfish behavior would be rational. But if they believe that benefiting a group of people is more important than benefiting just one person, then purely selfish behavior is irrational. Determinations of rationality depend on context, the background information and assumptions.

Philosophy

Rationality


સ્યાયવાદ એ જૈનત્વનો એક ધાર્મિક સિદ્ધાંત છે. આ એક સમજણ આપતો સિદ્ધાંત કે પદ્ધતિ છે જેના દ્વારા કોઈ નિયમ કે પ્રમેય આદિને તર્ક બદ્ધ રીતે સાબિત કરી શકાય.
આ સિદ્ધાંત સાત ધારણાઓ ઉપર આધારિત છે જેને સપ્તભંગીનાય કહે છે. તેના આધારે અન્ય સિદ્ધાંતો કે નિયમ આદિને સાબિત કરી શકાય છે.સપ્તભંગીનયનો ઉપયોગ કરી કોઈ એક પદ્ધતિ કે વિચાર સરણીના સત્ય કે તથ્ય ને કોઈ અન્ય વિચારસરણીના સ્ત્ય કે તથ્યની તેની સંબંધીત સમાન તીવ્રતાથી સાપેક્ષ વાદના સિદ્ધાંત વડે આવરી લેવાય છે.
કોઈ એક વિચાર સરણી કે સંજોગના સત્યને માત્ર તે વિચારસરણી કે સંજોગોના પરિપેક્ષમાં સંપૂર્ણ રીતે સમજી શકવું અશક્ય છે. આમ વિવિધ પ્રકારના સત્યોના દાવાઓને એન્ય વિચાર સરણીના સંદર્ભ કે માપદંડના પરિપેક્ષમાં જાણી સમજીને જ અનેકાંત વાદ થકી યોગ્ય અનુમાન કરી શકાય છે.   આમ કોઈ પણ એક તથ્ય તેના સંજોગોની સંદર્ભમાં જ સત્ય હોય છે, વિવિધ પ્રકરના સત્યોનું સમન્વય કરી શકાય છે અને તે પરસ્પર અનન્ય હોય છે. કોઈ એક વસ્તુ વિષ્હેના એક , બે , બંને કે વધુ તથ્યો વૈદ્ય હોઈ શકે છે.

સંસ્કૃત
ઈ.સ. ૨૦૦ પૂર્વેનું જૈન સાહિત્ય પ્રાકૃત ભાષામાં લખાયેલું છ અને તેમાંનું ઘણું ખરું પ્રાચીન કન્નડ ભાષામાં લિપી બદ્ધ થયેલું છે. ઈ.સ્. ૪૦૦ પછીની ટિપ્પણીઓ, ક્રિયાઓ, ઉપાસનાઓ આદિને લાગતું સાહિત્ય સંસ્કૃત, હિંદી અને અન્ય સ્થાનીય  ભાષામાં લખાયેલું છે.
સ્યાદવાદ  એ સંસ્કૃત શબ્દ છે જે બે મૂળમાં આવે છે. સ્યાત (શાયદ) જેનો અર્થ છે કદાચ, જ્યારે વાદ નો અર્થ થાય છે દાવો. આ બંને સાથે મૂકતા શબ્દનો અર્થ થાય છે શક્યતાઓનો દાવો

સાતસ્તરીય વિધાન નો સિદ્ધાંત
જૈન પ્રમાણશાસ્ત્ર કે જ્ઞાન મીમાંસા સપ્તભંગીનય કે સાત સ્તરીય વિધાન આ પ્રમાણે બતાવે છે.
 1.સ્યાદ-અસ્તિ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે છે"
 2.સ્યાદ-નાસ્તિ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે નથી"
 3.સ્યાદ-અસ્તિ-નાસ્તિ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે છે અને તે નથી"
 4.સ્યાદ-અસ્તિ-અવક્તવ્યહ્ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે છે અને અને તે અવર્ણનીય છે"
 5.સ્યાદ-નાસ્તિ-અવક્તવ્યહ્ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે નથી અને તે અવર્ણનીય છે"
 6.સ્યાદ-અસ્તિ-નાસ્તિ-avaktavyaḥ — "કદાચ (અમુક રીતે) તે છે અને તે નથી અને તે અવર્ણનીય છે"
 7.સ્યાદ-અવક્તવ્યહ્ — "કદાચ (અમુકરીતે તે અવર્ણનીય છે"

આ સિદ્ધાંતમાં નીચે બતાવ્યો છે.
The order for these propositions is altered below.

Saptbhangi: A syllogism for evidence based inference 3

The Saptbhangi syllogism comes from the vacch nay tradition (Syadvad) of tools, rules, modules and methods for reasoning and discourse.  Its paradigm is that words are the means for the mind to mind communication.  Words in a conversation express cognized awareness of sense inputs about an object of concern (pramey) to create the awareness of the object that listener can cognize.  A shared cognition mediated by words is normative of argumentation and such words also facilitate further reasoning about the object.  Equivocation in assertions and doubt (syad) in propositions about an object beyond direct scrutiny are minimized with independent evidence (praman) to affirm assertions, to verify and calibrate propositions.  Doubtful propositions tentatively retain information in unresolved or undecided affirmed assertions that may otherwise be discarded. This syllogism provides a framework for wide ranging logics to resolve semantic arguments as well as self-reference paradoxes 3.

The Saptbhangi inference propositions develop in two steps from assertion about an object of concern.  First, equivocation in an assertion is minimized with independent evidence, or it may be rephrased to conform to the evidence.  Eight propositions are obtained from three assertions that equivocate existence of an object. The first assertion asti for it exists (A) may be affirmed on the basis of observable and measurable sense inputs from the object.  Its cognized awareness forms the basis of its word description.  The second assertion avaktavya for it is undescribable (U) is for example affirmed if the awareness of the object is not described.  A tangible object also exhibits context dependent action and behavior consequences.  The third assertion nasti for it does not exist (N) is for example affirmed if the object has no context-dependent action and behavior consequences of its presence versus its absence.  NAU assertions in a proposition together relate to the cognized sense inputs for word description and for reasoning of the consequences of an object.  The set of eight NAU propositions in Table 1 is a template for the possible relations to be interpreted for an inference:

Propositions with N (does not exist), A (exists), and U (undescribable) assertions affirmed (+) or not-affirmed (-) by evidence

	N 	A	U 	bit map
1	-	-	-	0 0 0
2	-	+	-	0 1 0
3	-	-	+	0 0 1
4	-	+	+	0 1 1
5	+	-	-	1 0 0
6	+	+	-	1 1 0
7	+	-	+	1 0 1
8	+	+	+	1 1 1

1. May be it is emptiness of nothing or null with no affirmed assertion.  [N-A-U-] node (0 0 0) of maximum equivocation accommodates the affirmed assertions for the other seven propositions.
2. May be it exists is a true (T) proposition for affirmed existence (A+) supported by not affirmed non-existence and is not asserted as undescribable:  (0 1 0) or [N-A+U-].
3. May be it is undescribable is a false (F) proposition for not affirmed existence or non-existence asserted as undescribable: (0 0 1) or [N-A-U+].
4. May be it exists asserted as undescribable is a doubtful (D) proposition for not affirmed nonexistence and affirmed existence yet undescribable: (0 1 1) or [N-A+U+].
5. May be it does not exist is a valid proposition for affirmed non-existence that is consistent with not affirmed existence and is not undescribable: (1 0 0) or [N+A-U-].
6. May be it is a contradiction of affirmed existence and affirmed non-existence that is not affirmed as undescribable: (1 1 0) or [N+A+U-].
7. May be it does not exist with affirmed nonexistence and not affirmed existence and undescribable: (1 0 1) or [N+A-U+].
8. May be it is a contradiction of affirmed existence and affirmed non-existence and also undescribable: (1 1 1) or [N+A+U+].

The logical inference of each of the propositions tentatively follows from its affirmed assertions.  As in sculpting a rock, the criteria-based identity of the object emerges as a particular and as a member of a class by carving away the extraneous to minimize equivocation with evidence and to resolve inconsistencies and eliminate contradictions with additional assertions.  N-A-U- (0 0 0) is the maximally noncommittal null (X) proposition with no affirmed input for the three assertions.  Validity of each of the other seven propositions is calibrated with its affirmed assertions.  N-A+U- (0 1 0) rephrased as A+N-D- is it exists, and not non-exists, and not un-describable. Congruence of A+ with orthogonal and inversely complementary N- and U- provides a consistent cognitive basis to interpret it as a true proposition (T) that paves the way to identify, conceptualize and verify and represent the existence.  The total number of propositions (2n) increases exponentially with the number of assertions (n).  The X and T position remain the same but with additional support.  However, the others with contradictory, inconsistent or invalid assertions may be interpreted as false (F) or doubtful (D).  If the identified contradictory states are discarded, the focus of reasoning would be to minimize the D in relation to the identified T and F states.

A distinguishing feature of the saptbhangi syllogism with equivocating orthogonal assertion is that it considers validity of evidence to affirm an assertion separately from the validity of the logical inference from the relations between the assertions in a proposition. For example in the binary proposition A+N- affirmed existence is supported by independent not affirmed non-existence.  Three relations are apparent if the proposition read as combined assertion of existence AND NOT non-existence''.  Assertion A+ is logically related to N- with the connectives AND & NOT.  Thus as a valid proposition A+N- asserted A+ and also the implied N-.  It makes it a logically consistent with the proposition A+ NAND N+.  In the binary logic NAND is abbreviation for NOT-AND that corresponds to not both. Other binary connectives are derived from NAND.  In effect, two different kinds of negations implicit in NAND are distinguished as non- and NOT for the validation by evidence from the validation by logical connectives in a sapthbhangi proposition.

Ancient roots and assumptions of the Jain Nyay. 4

The Nay methods for reasoning with real world inputs evolved as an integral part of the Jain thought in India.   Its cornerstone is the conservation principle   (tangible reality is the net of inputs and outputs) attributed to Rishabhnath (ca. 3000 BC).  By the time of Parshvanath (850 BC), this principle was interpreted for reasoning and inference from sense inputs and analogies.  Other assumptions include: (1) World in front of the eyes (pratyakch) is what it is, it does what it does, it is neither created from nothing nor does it disappear into nothing.  (2)  A conscious (chetana) organism extracts information from the sense inputs about the phenomenal world of its experience.  Such images are interpreted as perceptions (itthi) by the internal world behind the eyes (parokch, mind).  (3)  Awareness of the images is also cognized in relation to other inputs and beliefs. Criteria-based descriptions (anugam) of the cognized parts provide information and evidence to abstract, represent, reason, interpret, assert and evaluate the consequences.  (4) Complexity of the external world may be daunting and its behavior unpredictable, however a useful starting point for its understanding is its reality that is never contradictory. (5)  As spectator, actor and decision maker, an organism interprets perceived parts of inputs to make choices that may be life altering and make one happy, anxious or regretful. (6) Organisms bear the consequences of individual and collective actions. Such interdependence calls for reasoned conversation to resolve conflict to arrive at a rational basis for coexistence, including a social contract for live, let live, and thrive.
	Mahaveer (599-527 BC) revitalized the Nay methods with the belief that all organisms interpret their experience to address concerns. Human ability to reason and deliberate to make choices and take decisions can further minimize gulf between belief and words through practice.  If common sense aligns inputs with perceptions, it takes reasoned uncommon sense to align perceptions with independent reality of the phenomenal world. Scrutiny of the content and context of propositions with identified assumptions encourages an open-ended search for certainty that proves and improves as some uncertainty goes away with each day.  In response to a query from his discussion leader Indrabhuti Gautam (607-515 BC), Mahaveer emphasized that a belief is inferred not only from its content and context that knows and how it came to be known, but to realize its full potential it is also necessary to know what one does not know, what else is needed, and what may falsify and contradict it.
	Saptbhangi Syad Nay of the prior oral tradition is elaborated in several works written over the last 2000 years 2.  The emphasis of Nay methods is to build shared knowledge about objects of concern with assertions affirmed by independent evidence.  The role of evidence in support of reasoning (up-nay) and decision (nir-nay) is elaborated in Gautam's Nyay Sutr compiled by Akchapad (ca. 100 AD). This text does not mention the word Nyay.  Apparently it come in the title through the Nyaya Bhasya commentary by Vatsyayana (ca. 400 AD) where the word Nyay appears in the text only once in an insignificant context.  Apparently by AD 500 the evidence-based Nay reasoning had morphed under the influence of Naiyayik beliefs into Nyay Darshan based on the evidence of insights from the scriptures.  Limitations of the scriptural evidence in relation to the logic of true and false (tark) were also recognized. Note that the modern usage of Nyay connotes evidence based judgment with the authority of rule.
	Bhadrabahu I (ca 350 BC) emphasized four inferred states it is (T), it is not (F), it is both (D), or it is neither (X) of a proposition with two assertions.  Umaswami (ca AD 200) noted that the authority of an affirmed assertion for reasoning is in the evidence ( ).  Evidence affirms a certain aspect of the object as a particular or as a class, or its functional state or current state, or as addressed in the past. An inference is valid within the bounds of all of its assertions affirmed in real time.  Samantbhadra (ca. AD 300) emphasized that evidence-based validity is necessarily incomplete unless the remaining doubt, if any, is also resolved.  Siddhsen Divakar (ca. AD 500) reiterated that reasoning is not possible unless assertions about the content and context of the object are affirmed by evidence.  Buddhists surmised nothingness (shoonyata) as the ultimate reality against which the perceived content and context are transitory constructs of mind.  It was rebutted by Akalank in a decisive debate in Kanchi (AD 670): shoonyata as a state without a basis in the content and context of an object is also without value for reasoning. Hemchandra (AD 1050) emphasized: Unless supported by evidence an assertion is no different than nothing.  As mentioned above, it is like a null matrix to organize, represent and interpret sense experience.
	Gunratn (AD 1435) reiterated reliance on criteria-based assertions affirmed by independent evidence as antidote against omniscience of ad hoc. More recently Hiraiynna 5 noted that the four syad states, is and is not with both is or is not and neither is nor is not, challenged the dichotomy of true or false in the faith-based Vedic absolutism.  It also identified contradiction of the undifferentiated Upnishadic reality of it is so, and also it is not so (eti eti, neti neti).  Such interpretations to identify the syad states are not red herrings of relativism4, skepticism or deviant logic, nor the metaphysics of four-cornered truth5.  Also attempts to cast the saptbhangi in the mould of Western binary logic or rhetoric are found in virtually all modern academic works on Indian Nyaya, Jain logic, Syadvada and Syad Nyaya.  It is not surprising that such efforts confined to the literal interpretations have failed to touch the deeper structure of the Saptbhangi Syad Nay.  Its features of general interest are outlined below.

No assertion is entire of itself.   Cognized awareness of an object rooted in independent reality is a basis of its descriptions.  Such descriptions permit shared reasoning and feed back supported by additional assertions about criteria-based attributes, relations, and action and behavior consequences (anekant) as illustrated in a parable in which six blind men encounter a beast (elephant) that they know little about.  Conundrum breaks out as each man interacts with a different part of it and sees (infers) the whole differently.  Confusion with asserted facets of reality is a common experience not only for cognition in individuals but also for the convergence to a mutually agreed version of the object as a named entity.  Imagine the stages through which conceptions of objects like sun, bacteria, air, or even a chair have evolved before convergence to their current conceptions that continue to evolve.
	Like the sense inputs, the evidence-based assertions also access a part of the reality of an object. Inference develops from a synthesis of their criteria based relations. A deduction is possible if all parts and relations are known, and discovery of a new part or relation modifies the deduction.  Induction builds on a known generalization such as all swans are white, and it does not deny the possibility of black swans.  The inference (anuman) of fire from the sight of smoke in the Jain Nyaya is not only consistent with such invariance, but the real-time basis for the inference is the relevance (hetu) of the concomitance (avinabhav) of the smoke with the burn characteristics of the fuel.  Concomitance of the reality of the object and the evidence to an inference is like a lamp that illuminates itself and others within its reach.  It balances the abstract frames of reference in the generalization with the particulars in the real time for a hypothesis that remains coupled to all valid inferences. A successful hypotheses that is falsifiable but are not falsified permits prediction, innovation, and evolution of shared knowledge with paradigm shifts.

Paradox of binary T or F.
	Sets of independently affirmed assertions not provide increasingly fine grained propositions, and resulting inferences are antidote for reasoning against paradoxes and fallacies.  Circular reasoning with self-referential propositions invariably lead to a null of neither is nor is not (X) that is like the emperor's clothes without a cognitive basis for the asserted content in the context of the emperor's body.  Descriptions of miracles, dreams, and hallucinations also lack cognizable content and context.  So does if God did not create the world then who did where neither the actor nor the action is independently established.  Certitude of ad hoc that contradicts facts of its own reality does not affirm any form of tangibility no matter how expedient, believable, useful, purposeful and meaningful they appear.  As for the role of faith in people's behaviors, about two thirds of the inmates in maximum security prisons in U. S. A. claim to be religious Christians, and the same in the total American population.
Versions of omniscient, omnipresent and omnipotent are indistinguishable from the empty space that can not be interpreted even as a node X of not-affirmed assertions.  The crux of atheism (na-astik) is that even without an observable basis for existence (A) an entity could be cognized from meaningful descriptions (U) that map consequences of its presence versus absence (N).

Quantum logic and computing.3
The 3x8 bitmap of the saptbhangi propositions can be suitably portioned to implement logic gates.  The classical computing bit has either F (0) or T (1) scalar state.  The quantum logic is implemented with qubits (quantum bits) of quantum states.  A qubit of two basis vectors (0 1) and (1 0) includes their linear combination by quantum superposition (1 1) and interference (0 0).  A qubit with n vectors can simultaneously maintain 2n states, which cuts down the number of memory swaps during a computing operation.  In principle, each additional vector in a qubit increases the computing speed by 2-fold.  Superposition of the basis vectors permits reversibility of quantum logic operations that conserves information. A family of reversible and conservative gates are generated from n+1 bit inputs for n valued logics.

Doubt is a necessity.
Cognized awareness of an object from its attributes and behavior consequences is a function of the actor-spectator mind that is also the basis for the description of the experience.  A response to real-time inputs requires extrapolation to weigh outcomes and consequences of the plausible options. Brute logic of the doubtful states dictates that for survival with incomplete information in real time it is prudent to conserve affirmed information and retain viable options.  Logical doubt also wards against make-beliefs while addressing emotive (meaning and desires), existential (values) or skeptic concerns. Such features are hallmark of natural languages where the processing continuum of possibilities resolves layers of meaning that impregnate words.  Fine-grained awareness of probable but unresolved states and their relations provides a cognitive basis to formulate assertions for reasoning.  An assertion partitioned for equivocation is a step towards resolution.  Assertions affirmed by independent evidence prune equivocation and enhance the degree of belief.  Possibly for such reasons organisms build sense awareness from orthogonal inputs from different sense organs. Questionable inputs and assumptions corrupt interpretation and inference.

Blind Men and an Elephant
There is a conundrum put forth in the story of blind men and an elephant.  This story can be analyzed from several perspectives of spirituality, with the Jain version of the blind men and an elephant bringing together all statements in synthesis.

Enlightenment
The ability to dogmatically uphold and support the theory of manifold predictions appears self-defeating.  The question for the truth, therefore feels unattainable once the reality is seen to be multifaceted from various points of view. However, this dilemma is resolved because Kevalis, are those who have found infinite knowledge and they can arrive at the ultimate truth or wisdom of the matter.  Those who are not Kevali, and only exist in the mundane world would have only a portion of the truth and arrive at sevenfold predication.

See also
Anekantavada
Jain epistemology
Jainism
Mahavira
Jainism (Truth)

Notes and references

3.	Jain, M.K., Logic of evidence-based inference propositions. Current Science, 2011. 100: p. 1663-1672.
4.	Jain, M.K., Nay: English translation of the seminal works (URL http://www.hira-pub.org/nay/index.html). 1999.
5.	Hiraiynna, M., Outlines of Indian Philosophy. 1921, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 420.

Jain philosophical concepts

સ્યાદવાદ


Automata theory is a branch of Theoretical computer science. Automata theory is concerned with the study of abstract machines called automata, and with the problems that can be solved using such machines. An automaton is characterized by a number of states it can be in, a number of transitions between those states, and an alphabet of symbols it accepts.  One state is special: it is the state the automaton is in at the start. There are a number of states that are called final states or exit states; if at the end of the input, the automaton is in one of those states, it is said to accept the word just processed, otherwise it is said to reject it.

Example problems of automata theory include:
The question to know whether a given automaton is the smallest possible, that accepts a given number of words. There are algorithms that permit to reduce the number of states, by combining different states that are equivalent.

Related pages
 cellular automaton

Theoretical computer science

Automata theory


Cox's Bazar Destrict is the soothmaist destrict in the Bangladesh, locatit in the Chittagong Diveesion. It is namit efter Cox's Bazar, which is ane o the warld's langest natural sea beaches (120 kilometres (75 mi) includin mud flats). It is located 150 kilometres (93 mi) sooth o Chittagong. Cox's Bazar is an aw kent bi the name Panowa ("yellae flower"). Anither auld name was Palongkee. The modren Cox's Bazar derives its name frae Captain Cox (deed 1798), an airmy officer who served in Breetish Indie. It is ane o the fishin ports o Bangladesh.

Geography
Aften termed as the warld's langest beach, Cox's Bazar haes yet tae become a major tourist destination in Asie.

Cox's Bazar Destrict haes an aurie o 2491.86 km². It is locatit at  an is bundit bi Chittagong Destrict on the north, Bay o Bengal in the soothwast, an Bandarban Detrict on the east. Major rivers include Matamuhuri, Bakkhali, Reju Khal, Naf River, Maheshkhali channel an Kutubdia channel. The aurie o the ceety o Cox's Bazar is 6.85 km².

History
The history o Cox's Bazar begins in the Mughal period. On his way tae Arakan, when the Mughal Prince Shah Shuja (1616–1660) passed through the hilly terrain o the present day Cox's Bazar, he wis attractit tae the scenic and captivating beauty o the region. He commandit his forces tae camp there. A place namit Dulahazara, meanin "ane thoosan palanquins", still exists in the aurie.

Efter the Mughals, the place came unner the control o the Tipras an the Arakanese, follaed bi the Portuguese an then the Breetish.

The name Cox's Bazar/Bazaar derived frae the name o Captain James Cox o the East Indie, who wis in chairge o the naval base. In 1854, Cox's Bazar wis made a subdiveesional heidquarters.

Efter the end o Breetish rule, Cox's Bazar remained pairt o East Pakistan. Captain Advocate Fazlul Karim wis the first chairman efter unthirldom frae the Breetish o Cox's Bazar municipality. He established the Tamarisk Forest alang the beach tae draw tourism tae the toun an tae protect the beach frae the tide. He donatit mony o his faither-in-law's an his awn lands tae establish a public leebrar an toun haw. In 1971, the wharf wis uised as a naval port bi the Pakistan Navy's gunboats. This an the nearbi airstrip o the Pakistan Air Force wur the scene o intense shellin bi the Indie Navy durin the Bangladesh Leeberation War in 1971.

In 1984 Cox's Bazar wis made a Destrict.

Subdiveesions

There are aicht upazilas unner this destrict, namely:
Chakaria Upazila
Cox's Bazar Sadar Upazila
Kutubdia Upazila
Maheshkhali Upazila
Ramu Upazila
Teknaf Upazila
Ukhia Upazila
Pekua Upazila

The population o Cox's Bazar includes Muslims, Hindus an Buddhists.

Climate
The annual average temperatur in Cox's Bazar is 34.8 °C an a minimum o 16.1 °C. The climate remains hot an humid wi some saisons o temperate wather. The average amunt o rainfaw is 4285 nm.

Economy an development
The major livelihuid o Cox's Bazar destrict is tourism. Millions o foreign an Bangladeshi natives visit this coastal ceety ivery year. A number o hotels, guest hooses, an motels hae been built in the ceety an coastal region an the hospitality industry is a major employer in the aurie.

A number o fowk are involved in the fishin an collection o seafuids an sea products. Oysters, snails, searls an jewelry made frae shells are popular wi the tourists in the seaside an ceety stores. A number o fowk are an aw involved in the transportation business for tourists. Mony fowk o the destrict are fermers.

In 2002, a surfin club wis initiatit at Cox's Bazar bi a local Bangladeshi. It haes nou extendit tae hauldin an annual competition includin locals an foreign tourists. This is the first surfin initiative in Bangladesh's history.

Releegion

The destrict o Cox's Bazar consists o 2300 mosques, 1200 Buddhist Temples, 700 kirk an 400 temples.

Places o interest

Cox's Bazar, maistly famous for its bonnie sea beach an the sunset, haes several ither attractions, includin:
Aggmeda Khyang, a lairge Buddhist monastery, an a place revered bi aroond 400,000 Buddhist fowk o Cox's Bazar Hill Tracts.
Himchari, locatit aboot 8 km sooth o Cox's Bazar, is a picnic spot famous for its waterfaws. Birds an animals roam near the road.
Inani Beach haes interestin rocks an coral boulders. It is 32 km frae the main beach. There are nae facilities so a packed lunch is required.
Coxsbazar Circuit House, locatit 2 km frae Laboni Point, haes a guid viewpoint. The ocean can be seen frae a heicht, an ane can an aw enjoy the view o Cox's Bazar ceety.
St. Martin's Island, the anerlie coral island in Bangladesh, is situatit at 9 km sooth o Teknaf. It is a popular tourist spot.

References

Freemit airtins
Offeecial wabsteid
New York Times Travel Article, December 2006
Visit tae Cox's Bazar

Destricts o Bangladesh

Cox's Bazar Destrict


A tap changer is a component of a transformer. It controls the transformer's output voltage by adjusting its winding ratio within some range of step levels. The tap changer can be done manually or automatically and either when the transformer is energized (On Load Tap Changer; OLTC) or when it is off (Off Circuit Tap Changer; OCTC).

Electricity

Tap changer


Herbert von Karajan (born Salzburg, Austria, 5 April 1908; died Salzburg 16 July 1989) was an Austrian conductor. He was probably the best-known conductor in the world during his time. He conducted the greatest orchestras, and made many wonderful recordings. He was the conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic for 35 years.

Early years
Herbert von Karajan was born in Salzburg. His name at first was Heribert Ritter von Karajan. In 1916, he went to study the piano at the Mozarteum in Salzburg. There he was told he should learn conducting. By 1929, he was conducting at the Festspielhaus, Salzburg and in 1934 he led the Vienna Philharmonic for the first time. He conducted regularly in Ulm and Aachen.

In 1937, Karajan first conducted the Berlin Philharmonic and the Berlin State Opera He was very successful when he conducted Tristan und Isolde. In 1938 a Berlin music critic called him Das Wunder Karajan (The Karajan miracle). He started to make recordings. However, one day in June 1939 he was conducting "Die Meistersinger" at Bayreuth in front of Hitler and his guests the King and Queen of Yugoslavia when he suddenly could not remember the music (he was conducting without the score). The singers stopped and the curtain came down. Hitler was very angry and said that Karajan would never conduct at Bayreuth again. This event may actually have helped his career after World War II. Many people who had worked for the Nazis and for Hitler were not allowed to work.

Marriage, and wartime career
During the war, in 1942, Karajan married Anita Gütermann. She was the daughter of a rich man who had a business making sewing machines. His wife was partly Jewish. This caused the Nazis to talk about whether Karajan should still be allowed to conduct. By 1944, he was not in favour with the Nazis, but he was still conducting in Berlin. He left Berlin and went to Milan, Italy with his wife in February 1945. Karajan divorced Anita in 1958.

Although he was deposed after the war because of his Nazi connections, he started to conduct again in 1946.

After the war
Karajan gave his first concert after the war in 1946 in Vienna with the Vienna Philharmonic. He was banned again by the occupying Russians, but started conducting again the next year.

Karajan gave many concerts with the Vienna Symphony Orchestra for the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Vienna. He conducted at La Scala in Milan for the 1948-49 season. From 1947, he made many recordings with the Philharmonia Orchestra in London and the Vienna Philharmonic in Vienna.

In 1951 and 1952, he conducted again at the Bayreuth Festspielhaus where he changed the seating plan for the orchestra that had been compulsory since Wagner made it in 1876.

In 1955, after the death of Wilhelm Furtwängler, he was made artistic director (conductor) for life of the Berlin Philharmonic. From 1957 to 1964 he was artistic director of the Vienna State Opera.

He very often conducted the Vienna Philharmonic and gave many concerts at the Salzburg Festival. He continued to work very hard performing, conducting, and recording until his death in 1989. In Karajan's last years he left the Berlin Philharmonic after arguments with them, and concentrated on working again with the Vienna State Opera and the Vienna Philharmonic.

His fame and personality
Herbert von Karajan had very good musicianship and memory. He conducted without a score in front of him, very often with his eyes closed. He is remembered for being very strict (like a dictator) and always insisting on having things the way he wanted. There are many stories about him that show this. He insisted on being paid very high fees. When he was being filmed conducting an orchestra, he wanted the cameras to show him all the time. When he conducted Wagner at the Metropolitan Opera, he made the stand for the conductor higher so that the audience could see him.

References

1908 births
1989 deaths
Austrian conductors
Grammy Award winners
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
People from Salzburg
Nazis

Herbert von Karajan


A collision occurs when two objects come in contact with each other. All collisions have the same momentum before and after a collision. Examples of collisions include car crashes, bouncing a ball, and playing pool. Collisions are made from two smaller sections called elastic and inelastic collisions.

Elastic Collisions

In the case of playing pool or bouncing a ball, an elastic collision occurs. An elastic collision generally occurs when an elastic or hard object experiences a collision that bounces off another elastic or hard object, where the kinetic energy and momentum are the same before and after the collision. In an experiment, a small amount of energy will still be lost because of the friction between the surface and the objects.

Inelastic Collisions
In the case of a car crash, an inelastic collision occurs. An inelastic collision generally occurs when a soft object experiences a collision that does not result in a bounce. Kinetic energy is lost during this type of collision because the energy is transformed into other forces. The momentum is the same before and after the collision.

Two Dimensional Collisions
In the case of a two dimensional collision, the rules in elastic and inelastic collision are still the same, but vectors are used to find the momentum before or after a collision.

Sources
Duncan, Tom. Advanced Physics for Hong Kong: Volume 1 Mechanics & Electricity. John Murray Ltd, 1995.
Wai, Loo Kwok. Longman A-Level Course in Physics: Volume 1. Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd, 2003.

Mechanics

Collision


Cowlairs Locomotive, Carriage and Wagon Works, at Cowlairs in Springburn, an area in the north-east of Glasgow, Scotland, was built in 1841 for the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway and was taken over by the North British Railway (NBR) in 1865.  It was named after the nearby mansion of Cowlairs, with both locomotive and carriage & wagon works. It was also the first works in Britain to build locomotives, carriages and wagons in the same place. It was located on the western side of the Glasgow-Edinburgh mainline at Carlisle Street.

In September 1904, the Eastfield Running Sheds were built on the other side of the Glasgow-Edinburgh mainline, just to the north of the Cowlairs complex, to maintain locomotives and to free-up more engineering space at Cowlairs Works. They were closed in 1994 but the depot site was redeveloped in 2005 and is once again in use as a maintenance facility for Class 170 trains by First ScotRail.

Production
The first few locomotives were bought in, but in 1844, William Paton produced the 0-6-0 Hercules numbered 21 and Samson numbered 22. The two locomotives were used for trials as banking engines on the 1 in 42 Cowlairs incline that started as soon as the trains left Queen Street station. The two 0-6-0s were two of the world's most powerful locomotives at the time; so powerful that it was said that they caused severe damage to the track and the lining of the tunnel. The trials that began in 1844 went on until 1847 when they were stopped and the two locomotives were sold off. From then until 1909, the incline used cable haulage to assist trains; banking resumed in 1909 and continued until the withdrawal of type 2 diesels around 1980.

After the NBR amalgamated with the London and North Eastern Railway at the 1923 grouping Grouping, new production finished, except for boilers and castings, such as brake blocks.

War work
During World War II, like the North British Locomotive Company, both Cowlairs and St. Rollox joined in the war effort producing, among other things, Airspeed Horsa gliders for the D Day airborne assault. Cowlairs also produced 200,000 bearing shells for Rolls-Royce Merlin engines.

Nationalisation and subsequent closure
At nationalisation, into British Railways in 1948, most of the work was transferred to Horwich railway works.

Cowlairs closed in 1968, the work transferring to the other British Rail Engineering Limited site at St. Rollox railway works.

Reuse of the site for railway purposes
The former site of the Eastfield Running Sheds was redeveloped in 2005 and is once again in use as a maintenance depot for Class 170 trains run by First ScotRail.

A new £200 million state-of-the-art Network Rail signalling centre and maintenance depot was opened in December 2008 on the former site of Cowlairs carriage sidings, which were located opposite the works on the other side of the main railway line. A total of 450 staff relocated to the new facilities. The new signalling centre replaced the previous 45-year-old system. The maintenance depot replaced existing bases, including Cathcart, Lenzie and Shields Road.

The former site of the main Cowlairs works itself was converted into the Carlisle Street Business Park and Cowlairs Industrial Estate, which has been partly occupied by a Bowmore Whisky bottling plant, Howarth Switchgear and some other light industrial units.

References
 Larkin, E.J., Larkin, J.G. (1988). The Railway Workshops of Great Britain 1823-1986. Macmillan Press.

Railway workshops in Great Britain
North British Railway
Locomotive manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Rail transport in Scotland
Companies of Scotland
1841 establishments in Scotland
Springburn

Cowlairs railway works


Salt Lake is a neighborhood of Honolulu, Hawaii on the island of O'ahu. The area is also known as Āliamanu after a nearby crater, although Salt Lake itself is in a crater called Ālia pa'akai — meaning "salt pond" in the Hawaiian language. The Salt Lake community was developed in the 1960s during a construction boom, providing residents with an expansive view of downtown Honolulu and the sugarcane plantations of the central plain of O'ahu. It is a community of high-rise condominiums, mid-rise town-dwellings, and houses snaking around the remnants of a now freshwater lake.

The U.S. Postal Code for Salt Lake is 96818.  Salt Lake is a part of the 15th District of the Hawaii Senate, currently represented by State Senator Glenn Wakai and the 32nd District of the Hawaii House of Representatives, currently represented by Linda Ichiyama.  It is also a part of Council District VII of the City and County of Honolulu, currently represented by Radiant Cordero.

Geography and history
The Salt Lake community is built in the larger and easternmost of three overlapping, low profile, tuff cones or volcanic craters: Makalapa, Āliamanu and Āliapa'akai. A lake, at one time 1.5 km across (20 ha) but very shallow, formed in the bowl of Āliapa'akai fed by freshwater springs or possibly seawater seepages (Alexander, 1926 in Maciolek, 1982). Because the lake had no outlet, water loss was largely by evaporation, concentrating salts. Up until 1910, the lake was regularly so salty that salt deposits formed around the shore. In that year, an artesian well was dug to bring the water level higher (and salt content lower) for use as a mullet fish pond; a tunnel, dug through the southeast rim of the crater, controlled the water level and provided an outlet (Macdonald, Abbott, and Peterson. 1983). This act, and later construction of a larger drainage outlet, eventually removed the salt from Salt Lake.

An ahupuaa in ancient Hawaii was a land division that stretched from a mountain to the sea. The area called Moanalua eventually became the property of the estate of Samuel M. Damon. Before him, it belonged to the House of Kamehameha. Damon was involved with the Provisional Government of Hawaii that took power after the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and abdication of Queen Liliuokalani. Damon later became one of the first trustees of the Kamehameha Schools with his business partner philanthropist Charles Reed Bishop. The Damon estate sold some of the land to commercial and residential developers in 1956. After statehood, Governor of Hawaii John A. Burns promoted the development as a modernization project.
In 1966 the lake was filled in except for a pond in the Honolulu Country Club golf course at .

Roadways
Salt Lake's growth was mainly attributed to the ease (in those days) with which residents could travel to and from downtown Honolulu and Waikīkī, where many worked. Salt Lake's main street is Salt Lake Boulevard, running the length of the community, from Moanalua High School to Aloha Stadium, connecting Puuloa Road (State Route 66) and Kamehameha Highway (State Route 99). Its major arteries are Ala Ilima Street, Likini Street, Ala Lilikoi Street and Ala Napunani Street. Most of Salt Lake's residential streets are named after native flora and fauna. For example, the 'ilima is the official flower of the City & County of Honolulu.

Highways and freeways passing close by Salt Lake include the Queen Lili'uokalani Freeway (no exits or entrances), Moanalua Freeway (Exit 2 – Ala Napunani; Exit 3 – Puuloa

Road), and Nimitz Highway (State Rte. 92).

Military
Salt Lake is almost surrounded by military installations. Nearby Fort Shafter is the headquarters of the United States Army Pacific. Hickam Air Force Base is headquarters of the United States Pacific Air Forces. Pearl Harbor is headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. United States Pacific Command is to the north of Salt Lake at Camp H. M. Smith. Tripler Army Medical Center, visible on the heights to the northeast, is the principal U.S. military medical facility for Asia and the Pacific Basin. Coast Artillery Battery Tiernon, which mounted 2 X 3" guns, was located at Salt Lake for the protection of Pearl Harbor.

Airport
Although not regarded as part of Salt Lake, the Honolulu International Airport is very close, just to the south. The area surrounding the airport is often referred to as the airport district, a commercial and retail region built up along Nimitz Highway. Located there are office buildings, the main United States Postal Service center in the state, and Ke'ehi Lagoon.

Community
A 2003 special feature of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin classified Salt Lake as affluent upper-middle class with equal distribution of European Americans and second and third generations of Filipino Americans and Japanese Americans. Korean American families have also been making their presence known most recently. There are under 30,000 people living in Salt Lake. Based on surveys compiled by the University of Hawaii, residents are composed of mostly Honolulu professionals and military officers choosing to live off base. The neighborhood community is home to the families of officers and enlisted servicemen from the Air Force, Army, Coast Guard and Navy.

According to the 2000 report of the United States Census Bureau, Salt Lake ranked eighth of all the neighborhood communities in Hawai'i in terms of median annual household income. It ranked second in median home values, then $875,000. Waikīkī was highest.

Education

Moanalua High School was opened in 1972  in the newly developed community. It was dubbed by the Honolulu Advertiser as the Private School of Public Schools. This compares it to Iolani School and Punahou School. Also serving the community are Radford High School, Aliamanu Elementary School and Aliamanu Middle School, formerly known as Aliamanu Intermediate School until 1997. Salt Lake Elementary School hugs the slopes of the Aliamanu crater. There are two schools serving the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu, Holy Family Catholic Academy and the Saint Philomena Early Learning Center at Saint Philomena Church.

Commercial center
The commercial center of Salt Lake is Salt Lake Shopping Center, bound by Ala Ilima Street, Ala Lilikoi Street and Salt Lake Boulevard. Its anchor tenants are a Safeway grocery store, a Longs Drugs store and the only McDonald's in the region. In the 1980s, Mayor of Honolulu Frank Fasi established a mobile satellite city hall at Salt Lake Shopping Center to provide city services for residents without having to travel into City Hall. Salt Lake Shopping Center at one time was home to the Salt Lake Moanalua branch of the Hawaii State Public Library System until it moved to the campus of Aliamanu Elementary and Middle Schools.

Parks
Salt Lake is considered a green neighborhood community, endowed with large stretches of park lands. The largest of the parks is Salt Lake District Park renovated in 2003. The park has hiking trails around the slopes of Āliamanu and Āliapa'akai craters. Salt Lake District Park has playing fields, basketball and tennis courts, multipurpose buildings and a gymnasium operated by the City & County of Honolulu. A 50-meter swimming pool is the newest addition.

Smaller parks in the midst of high-rise condominiums include Salt Lake Municipal Park, which hosts the People's Market each Saturday morning. Established by former Mayor Frank Fasi, the People's Market allows Salt Lake residents to purchase fresh produce and fish from independent local producers. Hoa Aloha Park on Ala Ilima Street is the site of weekend soccer games.

Community events
Salt Lake is home to various public annual events:
 Menehune Classic is held in the fall, opening the competitive marching band season. One of the most important music festivals in Honolulu, various high school marching bands perform at the Moanalua High School football field showing off skill and precision. Moanalua High School is home to one of the preeminent marching bands in the state, having performed throughout the world.
 Winter Craft Fair is held each December as entrepreneurs gather on the campus of Moanalua High School to sell their unique goods and fresh, hot food. A similar craft fair is held each spring.

References

External links

 Aliamanu Elementary School
 Aliamanu Middle School
 Holy Family Catholic Academy
 Moanalua High School
 Radford High School
 Salt Lake Elementary School
 Salt Lake Watershed

Sources
 Macdonald, Gordon A., Agatin T. Abbott, and Frank L. Peterson. 1983. Volcanoes in the Sea, 2nd edition. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 517 p.
 Maciolek, J. A. 1983. Lakes and lake-like waters of the Hawaiian Archipelago. Occ. Papers B. P. Bishop Museum, XXV(1): 1-14.

Neighborhoods in Honolulu
Volcanoes of Oahu
Tuff cones
Volcanic crater lakes

Salt Lake, Hawaii


Jorge Camacho Cordón (born 18 November 1966, Zafra) is a writer in Esperanto and Spanish.

Camacho was born in Zafra, Spain and learned Esperanto in 1980. He was a member of the Academy of Esperanto from 1992 until 2001. Since 1995 he has worked in Brussels as an interpreter for the European Union from English and Finnish into Spanish.

Camacho was elected to the Academy of Esperanto in 1992, but on 15 August 2001 he announced his resignation due to disappointment with the Esperanto movement. However, he remains active in Esperanto and continues to review literary works.

Works
Camacho became famous for his poems and short stories in the late 1980s, for which he received several prizes in the Belartaj Konkursoj de UEA. In 1992 he won the Grabowski Prize, a prize for young authors writing in Esperanto. The prize is named after Antoni Grabowski.

Camacho was in the early 1990s considered a member of the so-called Ibera Skolo ("Iberian School") of Esperanto writers along with three other inhabitants of the Iberian peninsula.

In the 1990s, Camacho began to publicly oppose Giorgio Silfer for his interpretation of the political view "Raumism". He wrote La Majstro kaj Martinelli ("The Master and Martinelli"), a biting satire of Silfer (inspired by the similarly titled novel of Mikhail Bulgakov), and criticised his ideology in La liturgio de la foiro ("The Liturgy of the Fair").

Poetry in Esperanto
 Ibere libere (with Miguel Fernández, Gonçalo Neves and Liven Dek, pseudonym of Miguel Gutiérrez, 1993)
 Celakantoj (Coelacanths; poems written in Esperanto c. 1989-1995, 2004)
 Saturno (Saturn; bilingual collection of poems written both in Spanish and Esperanto c. 1995-2004, 2004)
 Eklipsas ([It] eclipses; collection of poems written mainly in Esperanto 2004-2006, with translations into Spanish, 2007)
 Koploj kaj filandroj (poems written in Esperanto, 2009)

Poetry in Spanish
 Palestina estrangulada (Calúmnia, 2018)
 Quemadura (Vitruvio, 2020)

Editorial work
Until December 2014 Jorge Camacho was editor-in-chief of the literary almanac Beletra Almanako, which was first issued in the autumn of 2007.

External links

 Jorge Camacho blog in Spanish
 Jorge Camacho blog in Esperanto

1966 births
Living people
People from Zafra
Writers of Esperanto literature
Spanish male writers
Writers from Extremadura
Spanish Esperantists

Jorge Camacho (writer)


An alkyne is a molecule that has a triple bond between two carbon atoms. They have general formula CnH2n-2. They are also called acetylenes. The smallest alkyne is acetylene, also called ethyne. Alkynes are hydrophobic: this means they dissolve well in organic solvents but not in water.

Alkynes are more reactive than usual hydrocarbons. For example, they are more reactive than alkenes in many reactions. If the alkyne is at the end of a molecule, it is easy to remove the proton with a strong base. Then, the alkyne can be used in addition reactions. For example, it can be added to a ketone. Alkynes are also easy to reduce to double bonds. They can be made into both trans and cis double bonds. Alkynes are also used a lot in pericyclic reactions.

Structure
Alkynes have a 180 degrees angle between the two carbon atoms. For this reason, they do not like to be in a cyclic compound. Some examples of alkynes are shown below.

References

Hydrocarbons
Functional groups

Alkyne


A testimonial is when a company uses a celebrity or famous person or a member of the public to endorse a product so the consumer wants it too. For example a professional football player recommends a particular brand of shirts. The idea behind this is for the consumer to think "Oh! That famous person likes that shirt, I think I'll get it too!".

Marketing

Testimonial


Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three laws that describe the motion  of planets around the sun:
Planets move around the sun in elliptic orbits. The sun is in one of the two foci of the orbit.
A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.
The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
Johannes Kepler found these laws, between 1609 and 1619.

Comparison to Copernicus
Kepler's laws improve the model of Copernicus. If the eccentricities of the planetary orbits are taken as zero, then Kepler basically agrees with Copernicus:
The planetary orbit is a circle
The Sun at the center of the orbit
The speed of the planet in the orbit is constant

The eccentricities of the orbits of those planets known to Copernicus and Kepler are small, so the rules above give good approximations of planetary motion; but Kepler's laws fit the observations better than Copernicus's.

Kepler's corrections are not at all obvious:
The planetary orbit is not a circle, but an ellipse.
The Sun is not at the center but at a focal point of the elliptical orbit.
Neither the linear speed nor the angular speed of the planet in the orbit is constant, but the area speed is constant.

The eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth makes the time from the March equinox to the September equinox, around 186 days, unequal to the time from the September equinox to the March equinox, around 179 days.  A diameter would cut the orbit into equal parts, but the plane through the sun parallel to the equator of the earth cuts the orbit into two parts with areas in a 186 to 179 ratio, so the eccentricity of the orbit of the Earth is approximately

which is close to the correct value (0.016710219) (see Earth's orbit).
The calculation is correct when perihelion, the date the Earth is closest to the Sun, falls on a solstice. The current perihelion, near January 4, is fairly close to the solstice of December 21

Astronomy

Kepler's laws


Owen Moncrieffe (born 5 August 1976) known professionally as Fantan Mojah is a Jamaican reggae singer.

Biography
Fantan Mojah was born in White Hill, St Elizabeth Parish, Jamaica. To gain experience, he took a job working with a traveling soundsystem, and performed songs during soundchecks. He adopted the name Mad Killer, in an homage to one of his favorite artists, Bounty Killer. After being exposed to the Rastafarian movement his music began to take on a more positive tone, and he was encouraged by Capleton to take the name Fantan Mojah.

Lyrical Themes
Fantan Mojah is notable for being one of the new wave of contemporary reggae singers who prefer to include positive themes in their lyrics. Like some popular new reggae singers, he is a Bobo Ashanti. His faith is reflected in his lyrics, where some recurring themes are - praise for Jah and messages of Rastafari, positive portrayal of women, and condemnation of ill morals. This is a contrast to many popular dancehall artists, who encourage "slackness" in their lyrics, with boasts of sexual prowess and derogatory messages to women.

Hail the King and success
After performing at many popular Jamaican festivals, Fantan Mojah recorded several songs on popular riddims, and was signed by Downsound Productions. In 2005, Fantan's debut album "Hail the King" was released. It featured popular singles like "Hail the King", "Nuh Build Great Man" featuring Jah Cure and "Corruption". Those were some of the most talked about records of 2005. He was dubbed the breakout artist of 2005. The album excelled in Europe, this opened the door to 3 consecutive European tours in 2006 and continued success worldwide.

Discography
Hail the King - 2005
Stronger - 2008
Rebel I Am - 2012
"Rasta got soul 2016"

Notes

Jamaican reggae musicians
Jamaican Rastafarians
Living people
People from Saint Elizabeth Parish
1975 births
Greensleeves Records artists

Fantan Mojah


Judicial astrology is the art of forecasting events by calculation of the planetary and stellar bodies and their relationship to the Earth. The term "judicial astrology" was mainly used in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance to mean the types of astrology that were considered to be heretical by the Catholic church, distinguished from the "natural astrology" such as medical astrology and meteorological astrology, which were seen as acceptable because they were a part of the natural sciences of the time.

Categorisation
In the Middle Ages natural astrology was mainly focused on the diagnosis and the treatment of medical patients. For more information on this, see the article on medical astrology. An additional use would have been the application of astrology to determine future weather patterns based on the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic rationale that the planets cause change in the sublunary world by producing an efflux of elements and qualities. Every other branch was lumped together into the heading of 'judicial astrology'. These included natal astrology, mundane astrology, horary astrology, and electional astrology. Judicial astrology is an obsolete category, because since the Middle Ages other sciences have arisen, astrology has ceased to be a tool in medicine and meteorology, and scientifically demonstrable parts of natural astrology such as the moon's effect on tides are considered to be physics not astrology.

References

Sources

Further reading

 A History of Western Astrology, Jim Tester, New Hampshire: Boydell Press (1987)
 An Introduction to Political Astrology, by Charles E.O. Carter (1951)
 Astrology: A History, Dr. Peter Whitfield (2001)
 Cardano's Cosmos, Anthony Grafton (1999)
 Electional Astrology, by Vivian Robson (1937)
 Hebrew Astrology, Hindu Astrology, by Sepharial (Walter Gorn Old)
 Precepts in Mundane Astrology, Frederic Van Norstrand (1962)
 The Modern TextBook of Astrology, Margaret E. Hone (1951)
 The Nostradamus Code, by David Ovason (1997)
 The Secret Zodiac, by Fred Gettings (1987)

Astrology by type

Judicial astrology


Sinn Féin is a political party in Ireland. Beginning with the Sinn Féin organisation set up in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, it took its current form in 1970 after a split within the party. The leader of Sinn Féin has been Mary Lou McDonald since February 2018. It is one of the most important parties arguing for a united island of Ireland and is described as left wing. In the past, the party has been linked to the Provisional IRA. The name is Irish for "ourselves" or "we ourselves", although it is frequently wrongly translated as "ourselves alone".

Sinn Féin is the second largest party in the parliament of Northern Ireland (the Northern Ireland Assembly), the second largest party in the parliament of the Irish Republic (Dáil Éireann) and has 7 elected members of the British House of Commons, however, party policy is that representatives do not take their seats there.

Sinn Féin
Irish nationalist organisations
1905 establishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in the Republic of Ireland
1905 establishments in the United Kingdom

Sinn Féin


The Border states were those states that during the American Civil War did not leave the Union. The border states were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. After West Virginia separated from Virginia, it was also considered a border state. Most border states had strong ties to the South culturally, but they had economic ties to the North. While remaining loyal to the Union, the Border States were themselves slave-holding states.

In the Border States the war caused divided loyalties. They were the scene of often brutal guerilla warfare where neighbor fought against neighbor. The bitter feelings in the Border States lasted long after the Civil war.

Background
In the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton. Several cities were rapidly industrializing, including Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, most of the African Americans in Delaware were free. By the start of the Civil War, slave ownership in the south had become concentrated into fewer and fewer hands. In 1830, 36% of Southern families owned slaves. By 1860, the number had fallen to 25%. In the Upper South it had fallen even more. In 1830, slaves made up 18% of the population. In 1860, they made up only 10%. During the same period in Kentucky, it fell from 24% to 19%. In Maryland, it went from 23% to 13%. Some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders to be resold in the slave markets in the Deep South. They needed field hands for the cotton plantations.

In the South, slavery had become less and less useful to farmers as tobacco prices began to fall after the American Revolutionary War. But in 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. This made Southern grown cotton highly profitable. Cotton also required large numbers of slaves. Most Southerners, however, did not own slaves. But by 1860 cotton and slavery was the strong link in the Southern economy. Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, which had many areas with much stronger cultural and economic ties to the South than the North, were deeply divided.

The five border states
Each of these five states shared a border with Union states. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederate States of America (CSA).

West Virginia
In October 1859 John Brown's raid on the Harpers Ferry Armory in what is now Harpers Ferry, West Virginia (at the time part of the state of Virginia) sent shock waves through the South. Although Brown was quickly captured and executed, the incident had a profound effect on the 1860 presidential election. When Abraham Lincoln won over three Democratic Party candidates, it triggered Southern secession. At the outbreak of the Civil War, the 40 western counties of Virginia were strongly against secession and they seceded from Virginia. The counties that later became West Virginia had relatively few slaves.

Delaware
By 1860 Delaware was tied to the Northern economy and slavery was rare except in the southern parts of the state. Overall, 91.7% of the black population of Delaware was free by this time. Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession. Delaware's lower house was unanimous in rejecting the idea. The state senate voted against secession five to three. Many of the state's politicians including the governor, their two U.S. Senators and their sole representative in Congress, were sympathetic towards the South. But the state legislature better represented the feelings of the people of the state in remaining with the Union. However, they also disapproved of forceful abolitionism. Generally, most people in the state wanted a compromise that would prevent a war between the North and South.

Maryland
Maryland found itself trapped by the war. The state was split. They were clearly tied economically to the North but culturally to the South. By 1860, 49.1% of Maryland's black population was free. But Maryland's Southern and Eastern counties had a history of over 200 years of using slaves in growing tobacco and other crops. This put them in a difficult position. Their politicians had worked hard to prevent government from interfering with slavery in their counties. In the 1860 presidential election, Lincoln did not receive a single vote from these counties. This was in spite of the fact that Lincoln promised not to interfere with slavery in the states where it already existed. But the Maryland legislature never considered a resolution to secede from the Union. The governor suggested calling a convention to consider secession, but the legislature ignored his request.

On April 19, 1861, Union troops moving through Baltimore were attacked by angry mobs of Southern sympathizers. It left 14 people dead and lasted for three days. Many rushed to the outskirts of Baltimore to set up roadblocks to try to prevent Union troops from passing through the city. The riots and protests might have led to secession had they been organized. But Union troops moving to Washington, D.C. were quickly changed to being transported by water to avoid the tense situation in Baltimore. Throughout the winter and spring of 1861, Maryland decided against neutrality and against joining the Confederacy. But in May of 1861, acting without orders, General Benjamin Franklin Butler marched into Baltimore. He occupied Federal Hill and set up cannons threatening anyone who would move against them. Lincoln was furious and promptly relieved Butler of his command. Still, the Massachusetts troops were left on Federal Hill.  To prevent further trouble Lincoln suspended habeas corpus and imprisoned without charges or trials one sitting U.S. congressman as well the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of Baltimore.

Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly). They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies. During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery. It also freed all remaining slaves in the state.

Kentucky
Kentucky was strategic to Union victory in the Civil War. Lincoln once said,
"I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland."

Lincoln reportedly also declared, "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky." In the spring of 1861, Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin along with the state legislature declared the state would remain neutral. They would not provide troops to either the Union or the Confederacy. At the same time the declaration offered to mediate a peace between the two sides.

Neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. This caused Kentucky to call for Northern aid to repel the Confederate invaders. Union General Ulysses S. Grant, who was waiting across the Ohio River in Illinois, moved to occupy Paducah and Southland, Kentucky. Polk's blunder cost the Confederacy any chance of getting Kentucky to join them. The occupied areas gave the Union a tremendous advantage in both Kentucky and Tennessee. During the war, about 35,000 men from Kentucky joined the Confederacy. Those who joined the Union army totaled about 74,000, including about 24,000 African Americans.

Missouri
Missouri had been involved in fighting on the Kansas-Missouri border since 1854 over the issue of slavery. The dispute was aptly named Bleeding Kansas. When the Civil War began on April 12, 1861, the entire state of Missouri was firmly divided between pro-Confederate and pro-Union forces. The governor of Missouri, Claiborne Jackson refused to send volunteers from the state to fight for Abraham Lincoln when he called for troops. Instead, the governor had the state militia muster outside the city to begin training in preparation to join the Confederate forces. He called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and sent delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union.

Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp, and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair). This caused greater Confederate support in the state. The already pro-Southern legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair, Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital.

Lyon quickly moved his army to attack the pro-confederate forces at Jefferson City, Missouri, the state capital. He moved quickly enough to catch them unprepared. On June 15, Lyon's small Union army occupied Jefferson City. Lyon installed a pro-Union government after Jackson and most of his militia retreated to the southwest corner of Missouri. Lyon moved his army to go after the rebels. On June 17, both sides fought the Battle of Boonville which lasted only about 30 minutes. The Union forces completely routed the pro-confederates. He then lead his troops into a series of skirmishes with the Missouri State Guard and the Confederate Army.

Lyon next moved to Springfield, Missouri where the army camped. On August 10, Lyon's Army of the West was defeated by a combined force of the Missouri Militia and Confederate troops under the command of Benjamin McCulloch near Springfield, Missouri. This was called the Battle of Wilson's Creek. Lyon was killed while trying to rally his outnumbered soldiers. However, Lyon's efforts prevented the State of Missouri from joining the Confederacy. Missouri abolished slavery during the war in January 1865.

References

Other websites
 Border States Documentary: YouTube
 A State Divided: Delaware During the Civil War
 Maryland, Whoes Maryland?
 W.Va. Tourism Civil War Series - Introduction; YouTube

Origins of the American Civil War

Border states (American Civil War)


For the effects of global warming on sea levels, see global warming

The sea level is the average height of the ocean (informally called the sea). The word 'average' must be used because the height of the sea changes with the tides. The height of mountains, countries, and so on, is almost always given as "above sea level".

Technical details
Sea level is generally used to refer to mean sea level (MSL). This is the average level for the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans.

MSL is a type of standardised geodetic reference point. It is used, for example, as a geodetic datum in cartography and marine navigation. In aviation it is the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured. This is used to calibrate altitude, which influences aircraft flight levels. A common mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular place.

Sea levels can be affected by many factors. They have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL offers insights into ongoing climate change. The present slight rise in sea levels is offered as proof of ongoing global warming.

Long-term changes in sea level

In Earth's long history, the continents and sea floor have changed due to plate tectonics. This affects global sea level because it alters the depths of various ocean basins, and also changes the distribution of glaciers.

Over most of geologic time, the long-term mean sea level has been higher than today (see graph). Only at the Permian-Triassic boundary ~250 million years ago was the long-term mean sea level lower than today. This included the PermianTriassic extinction event, though this may not be relevant to the concept of sea level.

Long term changes in the mean sea level are the result of changes in the oceanic crust, with a downward trend expected to continue in the very long term.

Rapid changes in sea level
Rapid changes may happen by huge lakes breaking through into seas. This has happened on a number of occasions. When the latest ice age was ending, melting caused huge lakes in central North America. This eventually broke through into the Atlantic. Melting ice in the North Sea are also broke through into the English Channel. The largest known example of marine flooding was when the Atlantic breached the Strait of Gibraltar about 5.2 million years ago. This restored Mediterranean sea levels, which had dried up.

The present rise in sea level is taken from tide gauges. It is about 1.8 mm/yr. Active research continues on this subject.

References

Other websites
 Flooding, food and climate change in Bangladesh
 Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries? Past
 Sea level rise - How much and how fast will sea level rise over the coming centuries? Present

Oceans
Seas
Climate change

Sea level


Hanja is the Korean word for Chinese characters. It is about the Chinese characters that are borrowed from the Chinese language and used in the Korean language with Korean pronunciation. Hanja-mal or hanja-eo is about words which can be written with hanja. Hanmun (한문) is about the Chinese Classical writing, but hanja can sometimes be used to generally mean hanmun too. Hanja was never very changed, so almost all of the Chinese characters in hanja are the same as in traditional Chinese. Only a few hanja characters are unique to Korea.

In the 1440s, however, a Korean hangul alphabet relying on sound was made by a group of students, led by King Sejong the Great. It was not widely used at first. However, by the early 19th and 20th century it was more widely used than hanja, and it is now the official writing system of Korea.

But until then, everyone mostly read and wrote in hanja, so most of the older books in Korean literature are written in hanja. Students who learn Korean history learn hanja to read historical papers. Children in South Korea still learn hanja, for many South Korean words still have roots in hanja. In North Korea, however, hanja has been abolished along with many Chinese loanwords, and North Koreans only use hangul to write in Korean.

Related pages
 Hangul
Kanji

References

Korea
Writing systems
1440s establishments
15th-century establishments in Asia
Korean language

Hanja


Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just (Jean Biencourt, Baron of Poutrincourt and Saint-Just) (1557–1615) was a member of the French nobility best remembered as a commander of the French colonial empire, one of those responsible for establishing the most successful among early attempts to establish a permanent settlement in the North American territory that became known as Acadia, a region of New France.

Life
Jean de Poutrincourt was born in 1547, the third son of Florimond de Biencourt and Jeanne de Salazar. In 1565 he was given the seigneury of Marsilly-sur-Seine. In 1590 Poutrincourt married Claude Pajot; they had two sons and six daughters.

He made his first voyage to the New World in 1604 as a senior member of the expedition led by Pierre Dugua de Mons that established a colony, first on Saint Croix Island but which moved after one winter to build a new settlement in 1605 at Port-Royal. Because of political opposition at home, de Mons decided to remain in France and appointed Poutrincourt governor of Port Royal in 1606. In addition to the title, de Mons granted him ownership of the land in and around the colony, along with fur-trading privileges and fishing rights. These privileges and rights were confirmed by Henri IV, King of France on February 25, 1606. The inclusion of the fur-trading rights was particularly important to Poutrincourt's fortunes in the early years of the colony. After one successful winter, Port Royal was abandoned in 1607 when support from France was cut off. Poutrincourt again returned to Acadia in 1610, along with his son Charles de Biencourt de Saint-Just, Claude de Saint-Étienne de la Tour and his son Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour. Port-Royal was re-established and was successful until destroyed by a British raid in 1613.

Following the destruction of Port-Royal, Poutrincourt returned to a military career in France, where he became a victim of a dynastic dispute between Henri IV's widow, Marie de Medici, and Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Condé. In 1615, Poutrincourt was killed during a battle over possession of the town of Méry, in the Champagne region.

See also

Order of Good Cheer

References

Governors of Acadia
Barons of France
People of New France
1557 births
1615 deaths
1610s in Canada
People from Annapolis County, Nova Scotia
Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people


The Chinese Orthodox Church is a church in China, which, before the Chinese Revolution in 1949 was estimated to have as 30,000 members. It was given independence from the French Orthodox Church in the mid 1930s. The church today has about 92,000 members.

References

Religion in China
Eastern Orthodox Church

Chinese Orthodox Church


A galactic quadrant  is one of four sectors of the Milky Way galaxy.

A galactic quadrant is also a fictional area in the television show Star Trek. In the television show the Milky Way Galaxy is split into four sections. These sections are the Alpha Quadrant, Beta Quadrant, Gamma Quadrant, and Delta Quadrant.

Astronomy
Milky Way
Star Trek

Galactic quadrant


Pollution is when harmful substances are added to the environment and then change it in a bad way. There are six kinds of pollution of the environment: water pollution, air pollution, light pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution and thermal pollution.

As pollution grows, ways to combat it have been in demand. Solar energy and wind energy give people clean opportunities to power their homes. But these may also have environmental issues depending on the situation. When people  use these alternative forms of energy, they put less carbon dioxide into the environment.

Water pollution

Water pollution is the presence of harmful materials in water, such as sewage, dissolved metal, waste from farms, factories and crude oil spilled from oil tankers. The three main substances that pollute water are nitrates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents.

Activities such as bathing and washing clothes near lakes, ponds or rivers add nutrients like nitrate and phosphate into the water bodies.This leads to excessive growth of algae on the surface of water. It blocks the penetration  of sunlight and air, thus reducing oxygen.

It causes harm to organisms living in water and can also harm people's health. In extreme cases, it may cause diseases like cancer. It also leads to loss of a large amount of aquatic life.

Epidemic diseases
Water pollution has been a problem from the time human population increased, and live in cities. Cities have been prone to cholera and typhoid fever and other infectious diseases since Roman times. Existing water systems put in place in the 19th century are overwhelmed by the rapid growth of population in cities.

Air pollution

Air can be polluted by many things.  Examples include poisonous gases, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and very small particulates.  Smoke and harmful gases released by fires, industries, and thermal power plants cause air pollution.  Using coal and wood as fuels for fire causes a lot of air pollution.  Petroleum produces less pollution per ton, but it causes a lot of pollution since a lot of it is burned globally.  Air pollution may cause health problems such as asthma or other breathing problems.

Air pollution causes global warming and acid rain. This makes it difficult for some living things to survive.

Noise pollution/Sound pollution

Noise pollution, also known as sound pollution, is harmful to the brain and hearing of all animals and humans. This includes the sound of vehicles, loud speakers, airplanes, jets, train horns etc. Noise pollution can cause ear problems or even permanent deafness, especially to older people. The schools which are beside the roads suffer from noise pollution. Students cannot concentrate in their studies. People in hospitals near main roads also suffer.

Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution is the harmful release of heated liquid into a body of water or heat released into the air as a waste product of an industry.

A common cause of thermal pollution is using water as a coolant by power stations and industrial manufacturers. This puts back warm water, and so raises the temperature and decreases how much oxygen is in the water. The heat released into the air will make the air warmer which increase global warming.

Related pages
Climate change
Ozone depletion
Overpopulation
Environmentalism

References

Further reading

Pollution


Flora is plant life as distinct from animal life (fauna); or, a book or other work that describes the plant species in a particular area or region.

Flora may also refer to:
 Gut flora, the bacteria and other microorganisms in the intestines of a larger animal.
 Flora (grape), a cross between Sémillon and Gewürztraminer.
 Flora (margarine), the name used in the UK and Ireland for the Becel brand of margarine made by Unilever
 Flora (mythology), a goddess in Roman mythology
 Flora (Prague Metro), a station on Line A of the Prague Metro
 8 Flora, an asteroid
 FC Flora Tallinn, a football team in Estonia
 Flora (Winx Club), a fictional character from the show The Winx Club
 Flora, a painting by Titian

People named Flora:
 Flora Brovina, a Yugoslavian pediatrician, feminist, poet, and human rights activist
 Flora Larsson (1904-2000), Commissioner in The Salvation Army, writer, mother of John Larsson,
 Flora MacDonald, a Canadian politician
 Flora MacDonald (Scottish Jacobite), a Jacobite who aided Bonnie Prince Charlie
 Flora Robson, a British actress
 Flora Sheldon, the grandmother of US President George H. W. Bush
 Flora Stevenson, a Scottish educational reformer
 Flora Tristan, a founder of modern feminism
 Flora Twort, an English painter
 Flora Purim, the singer on Chick Corea's early Return to Forever albums
 Jim Flora, an American illustrator
 Paul Flora, an Austrian painter and cartoonist
 Snowden Flora, an American meteorologist and tornado researcher
 Flora the Valentinian - a 2nd-century Valentinian

Places named Flora include:
 Flora, Norway
 Flora, Apayao, The Philippines
 Flora, Illinois, USA
 Flora, Indiana, USA
 Flora Township, Minnesota, USA
 Flora, Mississippi, USA

Flora (disambiguation)


Seasoning is when salt, herbs, or spices is added to food to make it taste better. There are many ways of adding seasoning in different cultures. For example, in some cultures, meat may be seasoned by pouring sauce over the dish when it is on the table.

Related pages
Condiment
Flavor

Cooking

Seasoning


A hanamachi (花街) is a Japanese word used to call a neighborhood where courtesans and geisha lived and worked. The word's literal meaning is "flower town". These neighborhoods used to have many okiya (geisha houses) and ochaya (tea houses, where geishas entertained guests). The term hanamachi is used in modern Japan to call the areas where modern-day geisha are still living and working. Today, hanamachi are rare outside of Kyoto.

Japanese culture

Hanamachi