Harold Lee George (July 19, 1893 – February 24, 1986) was an American aviation pioneer who helped shape and promote the concept of daylight precision bombing. An outspoken proponent of the industrial web theory, George taught at the Air Corps Tactical School and influenced a significant group of airmen passing through the school, ones who had powerful influence during and after World War II. He has been described as the leader of the Bomber Mafia, the men who advocated for an independent military arm composed of heavy bombers. George helped shape America's bomber strategy for the war by assisting Air War Plans Division with the development of a complete aircraft production and bombing strategy.

In 1934, George helped institute the Order of Daedalians, and served as that organization's first Wing Commander.

During World War II, George led the Air Transport Command, taking it from 130 obsolescent aircraft to 3,000 modern transports, operated by 300,000 airmen. Following the war, he helped Hughes Aircraft become a very profitable company, and was twice elected mayor of Beverly Hills, California.

Early career
George was born July 19, 1893, in Somerville, Massachusetts, to Horace and Susan E. George. He attended George Washington University, but decided to interrupt his studies when the United States became directly involved in World War I. George joined the United States Army and on May 21, 1917, received his commission as second lieutenant in the Cavalry as a reserve officer. A month later, he went on active duty with the Cavalry at Fort Myer, Virginia, and married Anna Virginia Helms on August 10. In October George resigned his reserve commission to become a flying cadet with the Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps.

George attended the ASSC School of Military Aeronautics (an eight-week ground school) set up on the campus of Princeton University and learned to fly at Love Field, Texas, receiving his rating of Reserve Military Aviator and a new commission on March 28, 1918. George went to France that September with an initial assignment to the 7th Aviation Instruction Center (bombardment) at Clermont-Ferrand. Two months later he was posted to Ourches-sur-Meuse with the 163d Aero Squadron, one of two DH-4B day bomber squadrons of the new 2nd Day Bombardment Group, Second Army Air Service. In the week in which it saw action in November 1918, just prior to the armistice, the 163d flew 69 sorties in support of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. George observed that massed bombers, flying in formation, swamped enemy defenses and so reduced the attacker's casualties.

In 1919, George clerked part time for U.S. Supreme Court Justice James McReynolds, and graduated in 1920 from Georgetown University Law School.

Bombing advocate
In France, George met William "Billy" Mitchell and became convinced that Mitchell's vision of an independent Air Force was the best future direction for the American military.

After the war, George was assigned to the 49th Bombardment Squadron at Kelly Field, Texas. On July 1, 1920, when the Air Service became a combat arm of the line, he transferred to it in the permanent grade of 1st lieutenant. He next served with the 14th Bombardment Squadron at Langley Field, Virginia, and with the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, from 1921 to 1925. There George assisted Mitchell in his bombing demonstration against old battleships, and helped develop air-to-ship tactics. In August 1925, George went to Washington as chief of the Bombardment Section in the Operations Division of the Office of the Chief of Air Service. Later that year, still at the rank of first lieutenant, he was one of several young air officers to testify at Mitchell's court-martial.

In July 1929, George was ordered to Hawaii for two years with the 5th Composite Group at Luke Field. In September, 1931, he went to Maxwell Field, Alabama, to study at the Air Corps Tactical School (ACTS) where he helped refine the precision daylight bomber doctrine taught there. He was promoted to captain during the assignment, on December 1, 1931. Following graduation, George became an instructor at ACTS, teaching air tactics and precision bombing doctrine, and became de facto leader of the influential "Bomber Mafia". With Haywood S. Hansell, Laurence S. Kuter and Donald Wilson, George researched, debated and codified what the men believed would be a war-winning strategy that Wilson termed "industrial web theory". In 1934, George was made director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy, and vigorously promoted the doctrine of precision bombing in which massed air fleets of heavy bombers would be commanded independently of naval or ground warfare needs.

George was promoted to the temporary rank of major in July 1936. He graduated from the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, the following year and returned to Langley as commanding officer of the 96th Bombardment Squadron. George flew to South America as a part of Air Corps goodwill flights in February 1938 and November 1939, and received for his participation the Order of the Southern Cross (Knight), from the government of Brazil. In 1940, George took command of the 2d Bombardment Group, which in 1937 had become the first unit equipped with the B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. Promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel on December 30, 1940, he also filled the position of Executive Officer of the 2nd Bombardment Wing from January 1941.

In July 1941, George was appointed assistant chief of staff for Air War Plans Division, a unit of the newly created USAAF Air Staff in Washington. In that capacity he assembled a small group of "bomber mafia" members (including Hansell, Kuter, and Kenneth N. Walker) to prepare AWPD–1, an estimate of air resources needed in the event of war that became the plan for the air war against Germany. He was promoted to colonel on January 2, 1942, and to brigadier general on April 19, 1942, when he took command of the Air Corps Ferrying Command (ACFC).

Air transport
In June 1942, ACFC was redesignated Air Transport Command and tasked to become not just a delivery service of aircraft from factory to the field, but a worldwide cargo and personnel air transportation service. George led it brilliantly throughout World War II, with the able assistance of many staff officers including his deputy, General C. R. Smith, peacetime president of American Airlines.

New organizations were formed and new cross-ocean routes were established in the face of the enemy and under difficult conditions. George took the ferrying command from 130 obsolescent aircraft to 3,000 modern military transports, and expanded the personnel from 11,000 to 300,000. For this major contribution to his country, George received the Distinguished Service Medal, Legion of Merit, Distinguished Flying Cross, and Air Medal, as well as decorations from Great Britain, France, Brazil, Peru and China.

After the war he served for a while as director of information for the USAAF and as senior Air Force representative of the military staff of the United Nations. He retired from active duty December 31, 1946, with the rank of lieutenant general dating back to March 1945.

Post-war activity
George accepted a position at Hughes Aircraft to work for Howard Hughes, along with fellow bomber advocate Ira C. Eaker. Eaker and George transformed Hughes Aircraft into a very profitable military contractor, reaching $100M in sales in 1948. George expanded the company beyond the manufacture of aircraft to focus on the new field of military electronics, primarily by bringing together expert electronics designer Dean Wooldridge and engineer-businessman Simon Ramo, both hired by George in 1946. In August 1953, Ramo and Wooldridge resigned. George followed a few months later to help form the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation, competing directly with Hughes by developing ballistic missile defenses. In 1958, Ramo-Wooldridge would merge with Thompson Products, to become Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, which was shortened to TRW in 1965.

After moving there in 1948, George was elected to the City Council of Beverly Hills, California, in 1952, and in 1954 he was elected mayor, a one-year term. He served a second term in 1959. During his second term, George established an annual award to honor outstanding Beverly Hills police officers, given in the name of Clinton H. Anderson, the city's police chief.

In 1955, George was recalled to active duty in the United States Air Force for eight months as a special consultant to the Air Force Chief of Staff. George was relieved from active duty November 4, 1955.

By 1984, George was living in Laguna Hills, California. That year, he collected and donated more than $21,000 to various Republican Party candidates and conservative causes including the Jesse Helms-founded National Congressional Club and the "Helms for Senate" campaign. On February 24, 1986, George died in Laguna Hills. He is survived by his wife Violette; three daughters and one son.

Legacy
In his directorship of ACTS, George is known today as the unofficial leader of the men in the Army Air Corps who closed ranks and pushed exclusively toward the concept of daylight precision bombing as a strategic, war-winning doctrine. Though he played a fundamental role in the development of U.S. air power strategy, he is perhaps better known as the first commander of Air Transport Command—the man who guided and expanded that organization throughout World War II.

The Order of Daedalians has, since 1956, awarded the "Lieutenant General Harold L. George Civilian Airmanship Award", a trophy "presented annually to the pilot, copilot and/or crew of a United States certified commercial airline selected by a Federal Aviation committee to have demonstrated ability, judgment and/or heroism above and beyond normal operational requirements." The Air Force Aid Society bestows the "Lieutenant General Harold Lee George Educational Grant Award."

In 1991 he was inducted into the Airlift/Tanker Association Hall of Fame.

Recognition
George was awarded:
  Distinguished Service Medal
  Legion of Merit
  Distinguished Flying Cross
  Air Medal
 1939 - Knight of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil)

Effective dates of promotion
Second Lieutenant - May 21, 1917
First Lieutenant - April 1921
Captain - December 31, 1931
Major - July 1936
Lieutenant Colonel - February 1941
Colonel - January 1942
Brigadier General - April 1942
Major General - June 1942
Lieutenant General - March 16, 1945.

See also

Aviation history
List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (pre-1925)
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3)

References
Notes

Bibliography

Edkins, Craig R., Major, USAF. (1997) Anonymous Warrior: The Contributions of Harold L. George to Strategic Air Power. Research paper submitted to the Research Department at Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell Air Force Base
Finney, Robert T. (1998) History of the Air Corps Tactical School 1920–1940. Air Force History and Museums Program. Third imprint.
Hack, Richard. (2007) Hughes: The Private Diaries, Memos and Letters : the Definitive Biography of the First American Billionaire, Phoenix Books.

1893 births
1986 deaths
People from Somerville, Massachusetts
People from Beverly Hills, California
George Washington University alumni
Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
Aerial warfare pioneers
United States Air Force generals
United States Army Air Forces generals
United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I
United States Army officers
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Mayors of Beverly Hills, California
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
Air Corps Tactical School alumni
Recipients of the Air Medal
California Republicans
20th-century American politicians
United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II

Harold L. George


Anthony Rhodes (September 24, 1916 – August 23, 2004) was a British writer of memoirs, novels, travelogues, reviews and histories.

Rhodes was born in Plymouth, England, and was  the eldest of three sons of Dorothy and Colonel George Rhodes CBE. His early years were later spent at Lucknow and Delhi in India where his father served in the British Army. He was educated at Rugby School and the Royal Military College. Though his main interest was English literature he studied mechanical sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained his degree in 1939.

Rhodes served in the British Army during World War II and was involved with retreat of the British Army from Dunkirk. He wrote of his war time experiences in the 1942 book Sword of Bone, in a style that reminded reviewers of Evelyn Waugh. After being promoted to captain he lectured in Canada and the United States, where he met and married a niece of Gustav Mahler. The marriage was short-lived and led to a nervous breakdown. He was invalided out of the Army 1945.

In the early post-war years he taught at Geneva University whilst reading for a degree in Romance languages. He published in 1949 The Uniform, a satirical novel about "young society women who worshipped Hitler". Though Rhodes was not yet a Roman Catholic he embarked on a pilgrimage during the Holy Year of 1950.  His journey from Terni to Rome with a donkey was later recorded in his 1952 travel book, A Sabine Journey. In 1952 he returned to England and taught romance languages at Eton College.  His novel A Ball in Venice, about a comic struggle between an Englishman, an American millionairess, an art critic, and the Communist mayor, was published in 1953. Another novel, The Prophet's Carpet (1961), struck a more sombre tone. In it the character of  Mr Sanderson tries to commercialise the Balkan state of "Blagoland" and this leads to conflict with a British consul who is determined to respect the people's culture and Islamic faith.

Rhodes married his second wife Rosaleen Forbes in 1956. Forbes had previously worked with  General Edward Spears in Damascus and had been an ambulance driver across Africa, earning the Croix de Guerre. The Rhodes became prominent figures in  London's literary circles, with  Rose Macaulay, Arthur Koestler, the Sitwells and other literary figures often in attendance at the parties they held in Lower Belgrave Street.

Rhodes went to Hungary when news broke of the uprising in 1956. He likely supplied British Intelligence with reports during this period as well as writing articles on the crisis for  the Daily Telegraph. He recounted this period in his subsequent book, Journey to Budapest.  His biography of the 19th-century Italian writer and proto-Fascist Gabriele D'Annunzio, was published in 1960 under the title The Poet as Superman. Another biography, this time of the French car manufacturer Louis Renault, who collaborated with Hitler, was published  in 1969. In 1976 he published with Victor Margolin Propaganda - The Art of Persuasion: World War II (reprinted 1993).

Rhodes  translated several books such as Egyptian and Ancient Eastern Painting and the memoirs of the former Moroccan monarch King Hassan, with whom he struck up a friendship. He was an advisor to  King Hassan on cultural matters for  seventeen years.

Between 1973 and 1992 Rhodes published, through the encouragement of a Papal Nuncio, three history books under the series title The Power of Rome in the Twentieth Century, the product of five years of research using the archives available at the Vatican and Bonn. The first volume in the trilogy, The Vatican in the Age of Dictators 1922-45 earned the praise of Rebecca West,  who considered it  "scrupulously fair and informative on matters obscured by the mutterings of fools".  The second volume of the series, The Vatican in the Age of Liberal Democracies, 1870-1922, was published in 1983 and drew upon the recently released archive material of Pope Leo XIII's reign. The final volume, The Vatican in the Age of the Cold War, was released in  1992 but had a disappointing reception. For his work on the series he was made a Papal Knight by the Roman Catholic Church and he subsequently converted to Roman Catholicism.

References
 "Anthony Rhodes: Cosmopolitan and well-connected man of letters who write a deeply researched three-volume history of the Vatican", Obituary, The Times, September 8, 2004
"Anthony Rhodes, Cosmopolitan travel writer, biographer, novelist and memoirist", Obituary, The Independent, Wednesday, 25 August 2004
"Anthony Rhodes", Obituary, The Telegraph, 6 September 2004

Notes

1916 births
2004 deaths
English travel writers
British Army personnel of World War II
English Roman Catholics
Roman Catholic writers
Schoolteachers from Devon
Writers from Plymouth, Devon
Academic staff of the University of Geneva
English male novelists
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English male writers
English male non-fiction writers
Teachers at Eton College
People educated at Rugby School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge

Anthony Rhodes


The McDonald's Sign, also known as McDonald's Store #433 Sign, in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, United States, is one of only a few surviving examples of a single-arch McDonald's sign. The sign was erected in 1962 and remained at its original location until 2007. That year, McDonald's Store #433 moved and the sign was renovated and moved to the new location. The McDonald's sign was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2006, but is no longer standing at 2819 S. Olive St.

History
Before McDonald's Store #433 was built on South Main Street in Pine Bluff, the neighborhood was mostly residential. The area began to change as the mid-20th century approached and commercial enterprises began to appear in the area. The McDonald's was constructed at 1300 South Main Street in 1962 and followed the standard corporate design for the era: a red, white and yellow motif with arches projecting through the roof (owned by Mike Retzer).

McDonald's Store #433 opened on July 3, 1962, and remained in operation until it was announced in August 2007 that the store would close by the end of the year. A new location was constructed in the 2800 block of South Olive Street, about two miles from the original location. Initially, it was unknown what the sign's fate would be; by September, it was announced that the sign would move to the new location.

As the date of closure approached in September the sign was dismantled and transported to Skylite Sign & Neon in Mabelvale, Arkansas, for renovation work which lasted through October 2007.

Design
The McDonald's sign in Pine Bluff represents a transition between the "Speedee" sign and the now-ubiquitous double golden arches. The design featured in Pine Bluff was used for one year and was relatively rare even when it was being used, even more so today. The first double golden arches sign appeared just three months after the Pine Bluff store opened.

Typical of the single-arch style from McDonald's early years,  the Pine Bluff sign has plastic panels held in a metal frame and red advertising space midway up the sign. The sign was manufactured by Sign Crafters of Evansville, Indiana and the plastic sheeting was made by Rohm & Haas Company of Philadelphia.

Ray Kroc designed the sign after seeing an image of the McDonald family crest. The arch itself evokes modernism. In Orange Roofs, Golden Arches:  The Architecture of American Chain Restaurants Phillip Langdon stated the arch was symbolic of a "buoyant spirit: a feeling of skyward momentum, symbolic of an aerospace age in which man could hurtle himself into the heavens." Langdon goes on to state that the purpose of the McDonald's arch was to bring a sense of structural modernism in a roadside hamburger stand.

Historic significance

The U.S. National Register of Historic Places added the Pine Bluff McDonald's sign to its listings on August 21, 2006, as McDonald's Store #433 Sign. McDonald's has used a variety of designs for its signs; consequently, early examples are exceedingly rare. The sign in Pine Bluff, Arkansas' only known surviving example of an early single arch McDonald's sign, is also a good example of a rare early backlit plastic sign. Backlit plastic signs were popularized post-World War II and revolutionized the sign industry through the 1950s and 60s.

It remains unclear exactly how many single-arch McDonald's signs remain nationwide. Before Hurricane Katrina in 2005, one was still in use in Biloxi, Mississippi. The store on MacArthur Boulevard in Springfield, Illinois, also had a single arch up until 2006. Others exist in Magnolia, New Jersey; Green Bay, Wisconsin; St Clair Shores, Michigan; Warren, Michigan; Montrose, Colorado; Independence, Missouri; Winter Haven, Florida; Belleville, Illinois; and Muncie, Indiana. A sign is also on display in The Henry Ford museum in Dearborn, Michigan. The sign in Pine Bluff, which has been removed as of October 2023, was the only such sign that has its own listing on the National Register, though a few others may exist as contributing properties within historic districts. It is likely that most single-arch signs were incorporated into private collections.

See also

Golden Arches
National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, Arkansas
Oldest McDonald's restaurant in Downey, California

References

Further reading
Auer, Michael J. "The Preservation of Historic Signs", Preservation Brief #25, October 1991, National Park Service, accessed April 22, 2008.
Langdon, Philip. Orange Roofs, Golden Arches: The Architecture of American Chain Restaurants, (Google Books),  Joseph, 1986, ().

Buildings and structures in Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
Individual signs in the United States
Individual signs on the National Register of Historic Places
McDonald's buildings and structures
National Register of Historic Places in Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Restaurants in Arkansas
Tourist attractions in Pine Bluff, Arkansas
1962 establishments in Arkansas
1962 works

McDonald's sign (Pine Bluff, Arkansas)


A scandal is a very public incident which involves a claim of wrong-doing, shame, or moral offence. A scandal may be about a real event, an untrue event (often called a false allegation) or a mixture of both.  Something which is a scandal can be described as scandalous.

Scandals may be told by whistleblowers, who have access to secrets and allow them to go public. A well-known scandal was the Watergate scandal, in which US President Richard Nixon was found to be supporting and hiding illegal burglaries.

Untrue claims often lead to a loss of respect for that person, and can destroy their careers. Sometimes an attempt to cover up a scandal creates a bigger scandal when the cover-up does not succeed.

Sometimes there are scandals surrounding people who work for the president such as during the Grant administration. The Iran-Contra affair was also a known scandal that surrounded Ronald Reagan and his administration. All were not-guilty of the crime.

Scandal


A fracture is the separation of a body into more than one piece under the action of stress.

The word fracture is often applied to bones of living creatures or to crystals or crystalline materials, such as gemstones or metal. Sometimes, fractures can happen without the object actually separating into two or more pieces.

Materials science

Material fracture


The Moors Sundry Act of 1790 was a 1790 advisory resolution passed by South Carolina House of Representatives, clarifying the status of free subjects of the Sultan of Morocco, Mohammed ben Abdallah. The  resolution offered the opinion that free citizens of Morocco were not subject to laws governing blacks and slaves.

Petition from Sundry Free Moors
On January 20, 1790, a petition was presented to the South Carolina House of Representatives from a group of four individuals who were subjects of the Moroccan emperor and residents of the state. They desired that if they happened to commit any fault amenable to be brought to justice, that as subjects to a prince allied with the United States through the Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, they would be tried as citizens instead of under the Negro Act of 1740.

The Free Moors, Francis, Daniel, Hammond and Samuel petitioned on behalf of themselves and their wives Fatima, Flora, Sarah and Clarinda. They explained how some years ago while fighting in defense of their country, they and their wives were captured and made prisoners of war by an African king. After this a certain Captain Clark had them delivered to him, promising they would be redeemed by the Moroccan ambassador residing in England, and returned to their country. Instead, he transported them to South Carolina, and sold them for slaves. Since then, "by the greatest industry," they purchased freedom from their respective masters. They requested that as free born subjects of a Prince in alliance with the U.S., that they should not be considered subject to a state law (then in force) known as the negro law. If they be found guilty of any crime or misdemeanor, they would receive a fair trial by lawful jury. The matter was referred to a committee consisting of Justice John Faucheraud Grimké, General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Edward Rutledge.

Free Moors Petition: Committee report
Edward Rutledge reported from the committee on the petition on the same day and the House agreed to the report, which read as follows:
{{blockquote|They have Considered the same and are of opinion that no Law of this State can in its Construction or Operation apply to them, and that persons who were Subjects of the Emperor of Morocco being Free in this State are not triable by the Law for the better Ordering and Governing of Negroes and other Slaves.<ref>State Records of South Carolina. Journals of the House of Representatives, 1789-90. Michael Stevens, Christine Allen: Pub. for SCDAH by USC Press: ©1984 SCDAH'House Journal. pp. 373-74</ref>}}

Because the report was not forwarded to the state Senate for concurrence, it did not have the force of law but served as an advisory opinion offering the sense of the House. The report was later published in the Charleston City Gazette and the Charleston State Gazette of South Carolina.

See also
Naturalization Act of 1790
Moorish Science Temple of America

Notes

ReferencesState Records of South Carolina''. Journals of the House of Representatives, 1789-90. Michael Stevens, Christine Allen: Pub. for SCDAH by USC Press: ©1984 SCDAH 1st Ed. Pub. by University of South Carolina Press  (1511 words)

External links
Free Moors of South Carolina

South Carolina law
1790 in South Carolina
Legal history of South Carolina
Moroccan-American history
Slavery in Morocco
Race legislation in the United States
1790 in American law
18th-century Islam
Morocco–United States relations

Moors Sundry Act of 1790


Theatre (British English and also American English), or Theater (mostly American English), has several meanings.

The word comes originally from the Greek Theatron, meaning roughly, 'a place for viewing'. In American English, the word 'theater' can mean either a place where films are shown (this is also called a cinema) or a place where live stage plays are performed. In British English, 'theatre' means a place where live plays are performed.  Some people, both English and American, use the spelling 'theatre' to mean a place where live plays are performed, and the spelling 'theater' to mean a cinema.

'Theatre' can also mean the business of putting on plays. An actor might say "I am in the theatre business", or a writer might say "I write for the theatre", meaning that they write plays, rather than writing for movies or television shows.

History

Ancient Greece

The first people we know created plays were the Ancient Greeks, about the year 500 B.C. They divided plays into two kinds: tragedy and comedy. This division is still used today. The best known Ancient Greek writers of plays are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes. Some of their plays survived, and are still performed today.

These ancient Greek plays were performed outdoors in large amphitheatres, so that many people could see them. There were contests among the playwrights (people who write plays are called playwrights) and the winner would get a prize.

The Greeks had many brilliant ideas. They used mechanical devices like trap doors and the machina: a crane for winching gods on and off the stage (hence 'Deus ex machina'). They had a Greek chorus that offered information to help the audience follow the performance. The chorus comments on themes, and shows how an audience might react to the drama. The players wore masks. Illustrations on vases show helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth, plus a wig. The mask was to 'melt' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role. Therefore, onlookers did not think about the actor, but thought about the character.

Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church began to use theatre as a way of telling the stories from the Bible to people who did not know how to read.  They wrote Mystery Plays, where each part of the Bible story would be a play put on by a different group of people.  They wrote miracle plays which were about the lives of the saints.  They wrote morality plays which taught the audiences how to live a good Christian life.

Commedia dell'arte plays

In the 1500s, groups of actors toured around Italy performing comic plays to entertain townspeople.  These plays were called Commedia dell'arte, and different stories would be created around the same group of characters.  Often the spoken lines would be made up by the actors for each performance.

Other kinds of plays called Neoclassical Dramas and Neoclassical Comedies were also popular in Italy and in France at this time. These plays were written to copy the style of the plays from Ancient Greece and Rome.

Elizabethan theatre
At the end of the sixteenth century (before 1600), the traveling actors began to perform in fixed theatre buildings. This was the period when William Shakespeare wrote. He lived from 1564 to 1616. At that time, in England, women were not allowed to perform, so male actors would play female characters.

His theatre was in London, England. It was called The Globe Theatre.  It was an outdoor theatre and plays were performed in the daytime for large audiences. His plays were very popular and many are still performed today. Many people believe Shakespeare was one of the best playwrights (a writer of plays).

Plays including Shakespeare's were banned during the Protectorate'. After that, many more were written and acted.

Plays from the 1900s
After World War II, playwrights in Europe and the United States began doing plays in a new style called "Theatre of the Absurd." After seeing the horrors of war, these playwrights felt that all their old values had been destroyed. Playwrights such as Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Harold Pinter, and Jean Genet wrote plays that are considered to be "Theatre of the Absurd."

The "Theatre of the Absurd" plays have some of the same ideas that are found in the philosophy (a way of thinking) called existentialism. Existentialism is very different from many other philosophies. Most religions and philosopies say that human life has a meaning (or a purpose). The philosophy of existentialism is that human life does not have a meaning (or a purpose). When something has no meaning, it is "absurd". (absurd means means silly and meaningless.)

The plays written in this style make people think about questions like "what is it like to be a person in the world?" and "what does it mean for a person to be free?" They are often filled with sad emotions, such as worry, fear, and thoughts about death.

Theatre breaks
Theatre breaks are a form of short holiday, based around viewing a theatrical convention show. Theatre breaks tend to include a nights hotel accommodation included in the price.

References

Theatre


The Royal Monastery of Saint Mary of Guadalupe () is a Roman Catholic monastic establishment built during the 14th century located in Guadalupe, in Extremadura, Spain. It is located at the foot of the eastern side of the Sierra de las Villuercas and was one of the most important and fine monasteries in the country for more than four centuries. UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site in 1993.

History
The monastery had its origins in the late 13th century, when a shepherd from Cáceres, named Gil Cordero, discovered on the bank of the Guadalupe River a statue of the Blessed Virgin, which had been apparently hidden by local inhabitants from Moorish invaders in 714. On the site of his discovery a chapel was built, dedicated under the title of Our Lady of Guadalupe.

King Alfonso XI, who visited the chapel more than once, invoked Santa Maria de Guadalupe in the Battle of Rio Salado. After gaining the victory, he ascribed it to the Madonna's intercession, declared the church at Guadalupe a royal sanctuary and undertook an extensive rebuilding program.

In 1389, the Hieronymite monks took over the monastery and made it their principal house. Construction works continued under the auspices of the order's first prior, and in 1474 Henry IV of Castile was entombed in Guadalupe, next to his mother.

King Ferdinand II of Aragon issued the Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe
at the monastery on 21 April 1486, thus effectively ending the onerous evil customs allowing medieval nobles in Catalonia to maltreat the remensa peasants and tie them to their lands.

The monastery has rich associations with the New World, including the Guadeloupe island in the Caribbean. It was here in Extremadura where Christopher Columbus made his first pilgrimage after discovering America in 1492 and where he first thanked heaven for his discovery.

Even after the monks from Guadalupe founded the famous monastery of Escorial, which was much closer to the royal capital, Madrid, Santa Maria de Guadalupe retained the royal patronage. It remained the most important cloister in Spain until the Confiscation of monasteries in 1835. In the 20th century, the monastery was revived by the Franciscan Order and Pope Pius XII declared the shrine a "Minor Papal Basilica" in 1955.

Monuments

The monastery, whose architecture evolved throughout many centuries, is still dominated by the templo mayor, or the main church, built by Alfonso XI and his immediate successors in the 14th and 15th centuries. The square chapel of Santa Catalina is also of the 15th century; it is known for a cluster of ornate 17th-century tombs. The 16th-century reliquaries chapel connects Santa Catalina with the baroque sacristy (1638–1647), lavishly decorated and boasting a series of paintings by Zurbarán.

Behind the basilica is Camarin de la Virgen, an octagonal baroque structure (1687–1696) with the stuccoed Chamber of the Virgin and nine paintings by Luca Giordano. The jewel of this profusely ornamented hall is a throne containing the statue of the Madonna which gave the monastery its name.

Other notable structures include the Mudéjar cloister (1389-1405), with the magnificent Plateresque portal; the late Gothic cloister from 1531–1533, and the new church, commissioned by one of Columbus's descendants in 1730. Regrettably, the palace of Isabella I of Castile (1487–1491) was pulled down in 1856.

The sanctuary is divided into:

 Stewardship or portería
 Basilica Temple (finished in 15th century)
 Mudéjar cloister (finished in 14th century)
 Gothic cloister and Welcomer (finished in 14th century)
 Temple of the Holy Trinity (finished in 18th century) (since 1978 dedicated to Auditorium)
 Embroidery Museum: liturgical vestments made in its embroidery workshop and includes pieces that cover the period between 15th and 19th centuries
Museum of Books and Cantonals: more than ninety examples are exhibited, gigantic cantonals and two 15th century passionaries.
 Museum of sculpture and painting: include paintings by Goya and El Greco, along with Anequín carvings by Egas Cueman or a crucified ivory Christ attributed to Michelangelo. The canvases of Zurbarán are in the old sacristy.

Burials
Denis, Lord of Cifuentes

See also
 List of churches under the patronage of Our Lady of Guadalupe

References

External links
Materials from the World Heritage website

Hieronymite monasteries
Monasteries in Extremadura
Our Lady of Guadalupe
Shrines to the Virgin Mary
Franciscan monasteries in Spain
World Heritage Sites in Spain
Churches in Extremadura
13th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Spain
Mudéjar architecture in Extremadura
Gothic architecture in Extremadura
Organisations based in Spain with royal patronage
Roman Catholic shrines in Spain

Monastery of Saint Mary of Guadalupe


The Heart of the Civil War Heritage Area is a geographical location recognized by the Maryland Heritage Areas Program.  This area includes the Antietam National Battlefield and several other important American Civil War sites in Maryland.  Parts of Maryland's Carroll, Frederick and Washington counties are included in the Heritage Area.

Maryland's Civil War history

As a border state, many Maryland residents (particularly those in the Baltimore area, planned to join the Confederacy. However, imprisonment of those favoring secession and Federal occupations of Maryland cities prevented secession. Western Maryland and Central Maryland for the most part remained loyal to the Union.

For example, the 'Heart of the Civil War' document states:
During the summer of 1861, the Maryland General Assembly met in Frederick, which was at the time the largest city in Maryland not under Federal occupation. This legislative body was dominated by pro-secession delegates, and as talk of secession increased throughout the summer, many delegates were eventually arrested on orders from the pro-Union governor of Maryland to prevent the Assembly from voting.

Heart of the Civil War Heritage Area Exhibit and Visitor Center
The Heart of the Civil War Heritage Area Exhibit and Visitor Center is located in Sharpsburg, Maryland in the Newcomer House at Antietam National Battlefield.  The Center features interpretive exhibits focus on heritage area themes: On the Home Front, in the Heat of Battle, and Beyond the Battlefield, and panels feature sites where these themes may be explored. Tourism materials including brochures, Civil War Trails map guides, area visitor guides and other materials are available.

References

 Heart of the Civil War

External links
 Heart of the Civil War - official site
 Newcomer House - Heart of the Civil War Heritage Area Exhibit and Visitor Center

Maryland in the American Civil War
Carroll County, Maryland
Frederick County, Maryland
Washington County, Maryland

Heart of the Civil War Heritage Area


The Blue Grotto or Blue Cave (Croatian: Modra špilja), is a waterlogged sea cave located in a small bay called Balun (Ball in the local dialect), on the east side of the island of Biševo and about  from Komiža, in the Croatian Adriatic. It is situated in the central Dalmatian archipelago, 5 km south-west of the island of Vis. The grotto is one of the best known natural beauty spots on the Adriatic and a popular show cave because of the glowing blue light that appears at certain times of day.

The grotto

First described and painted by Baron Eugen von Ransonet, the cave was originally accessible only by diving as it had one natural entrance below the sea level. Based on his suggestion, an artificial entrance large enough for small boats was built in 1884.

The natural entrance to the cave, located on its southern side, is said to resemble a vault on the ceiling of a grotto. It is through this submarine-like opening on the ceiling of the cave that sunlight gets in and creates an iridescent blue glowing effect all around the cave. As well, a stone bar, connecting two walls of the cave, is clearly visible just below the waterline, both in above-water photographs and in underwater photos.

Depending on the season, the ideal moment to visit the cave is between 11 AM and 12 noon. At this time of day the sunlight reflects through the water coming from the white floor of the cave and bathes the grotto in aquamarine light, while objects in the water appear to be silver. The Blue Grotto (Italian: Grotta Azzurra) on the island of Capri in Italy is also famous for this type of phenomenon.

The cave was formed by the wave action of the sea, as sea water eroded the limestone rock of which the whole island of Biševo is composed. The cave itself is 24 meters long, 10–12 metres deep and up to 15 metres high, while the entrance to it measures 1.5 metres high and 2.5 metres wide.

The cave receives more than 10,000 tourist visits every year, and tourist boats often include a visit to another similar cave on the island, the Zelena špilja (English: The Green Grotto), which is bigger in size and appears to be of an emerald-green tone due to a similar effect.

See also
Biševo
Island of Vis
Show cave
Blue Grotto (Malta)

References

External links

Modra Špilja at Show Caves of the World
Biševo at Dalmacija.net
Blue Cave Bisevo Island Croatia HD - 720p on YouTube
Travel guide for visiting Blue Cave at zentravelcroatia.com

Caves of Croatia
Sea caves
Show caves in Croatia
Grottoes
Landforms of Split-Dalmatia County

Blue Grotto (Biševo)


The Prince Edward Islands are two islands in the subantarctic Indian Ocean. They are part of South Africa. The two islands are called Marion Island and Prince Edward Island. The only people on the islands are meteorologists and biologists.Now they are allowing more people to live there.

The islands were discovered in 1769 by a Dutch explorer. Different people visited the islands over the years but no one settled there. The British claimed the islands in 1908, then gave the islands to South Africa in 1948.

Antarctic region
Indian Ocean
Geography of South Africa
Islands

Prince Edward Islands


An aphorism is a memorable saying. It often contains a surprising truth. Most aphorisms are quite short, but not all:

Ars longa, vita brevis (Art is long but life is short). Hippocrates' opening to his work on medicine.
To do nothing is sometimes a good remedy. Hippocrates.
The various modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the magistrate, as equally useful. Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", volume 1, chapter 1.
Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Lord Acton (John Dalby-Acton, 1st Baron Acton), in The history of freedom in antiquity (1877).
Our virtues are most frequently but vices in disguise. ("Nos vertus ne sont, le plus souvent, que de vices déguisés".)  Francois de La Rochefoucauld. Reflections; or Sentences and Moral Maxims (1665–1678)
We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. Oscar Wilde, in Lady Windermere's Fan (1892).
Fool, nothing is impossible in Russia but reform. Oscar Wilde, in Vera; or, The Nihilists (1880).
All is flux, and You cannot step into the same river twice. Both quoted by Plato in his Cratylus, and both were remarks of Heraclitus. But Plato's version was not quite the same. The first was All entities move and nothing remains still.

Phrases
Literary terms

Aphorism


Seismic performance is an execution of a building structure's ability to sustain its due functions, such as safety and serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake. A structure is, normally, considered safe if it does not endanger the lives and wellbeing of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.

Ancient builders believed that earthquakes were a result of wrath of gods (in Greek mythology, e.g., the main "Earth-Shaker" was Poseidon) and, therefore, could not be resisted by humans.

Nowadays, the people's attitude has changed dramatically though seismic loads, sometimes, exceed ability of a structure to resist them without being broken, partially or completely.

Related pages
 Richter scale
 Tsunami
 Volcano

Notes

Earthquake engineering

Seismic performance


Walkenried Abbey () was a Cistercian abbey located in the village of Walkenried in Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1127 on the southern rim of the Harz mountain range, the remnants of the monastic complex since 2010 are part of the Upper Harz Water Regale World Heritage Site.

History
The third Cistercian monastery on German territory was founded by Adelheid of Lare (Lohra), wife of Count Volkmar of Klettenberg, under the first abbot Henry I (1127–28); the foundation was backed by King Lothair III and confirmed in 1137 by Pope Innocent II. The constituent convent arrived in 1129 from Kamp Abbey in the Rhineland, where Adelheid had stayed on a pilgrimage. The premises were conveniently situated on the Wieda creek and the southern slopes of the Harz mountains. Shortly afterwards construction work of a Romanesque basilica began, which was dedicated in 1137. Two Cistercian daughter houses were founded: Pforta (Sancta Maria ad Portam, 1137) near Naumburg and Sittichenbach Abbey (1141) near Eisleben in the County of Mansfeld.

Walkenried grew rich and acquired lands as far away as the Rhineland and Pomerania. The monks gave much attention to land clearance and development, especially mining, smelting and charcoal works, and also the construction of fishponds. They used the Upper Harz water management system to cultivate the surrounding estates along the Helme river down to Thuringia, which are today called Goldene Aue. The abbey also held a library, where the 14th-century flagellant and millenarian Konrad Schmid, though a layman, educated himself. In the 13th century, about 100 monks and more than 200 lay brothers lived in the abbey, which became one of the most affluent and significant Cistercian monasteries in Germany. In 1209 the erection of a new basilica modelled on Morimond Abbey began, supported by Emperor Otto IV. The church, then one of the largest in Northern Germany, and the adjacent cloister were finished in a Gothic style and consecrated by Bishop Siegfried II of Hildesheim in 1290. The Counts of Klettenberg held the office of a Vogt (reeve), which upon their extinction about 1260 passed to the Counts of Hohnstein.

When in the mid 14th century plague epidemics depopulated the Harz region, both the mining in the Upper Harz and the agricultural business stagnated and the abbey began to decline. In the early 16th century, the premises were settled by only 12 monks and the abbot. The German Peasants' War brought the monastery to the verge of destruction, when on Easter 1525, a mob of about 800 peasants from the southern Harz region marched against Walkenried. Abbot Paulus (1520–36) and the monks fled, taking the archives with them. The abbey was plundered and the church spire torn down, severely damaging the underlying crossing vault.

In view of the Protestant Reformation the abbey was finally declared an immediate Reichsstift (Imperial abbey) by Emperor Charles V in 1542. Nevertheless, the next abbot, John VIII (1530–59), was very worldly and extravagant; in 1546 he and his monks turned Lutheran. Thereupon Count Ernst of Hohnstein, as patron of the abbey, laid a complaint before the Habsburg emperor, who in 1548 ordered that everything in the abbey should be restored to its former condition, but his command was unheeded. After the count's death the entire County of Hohnstein became Protestant, and in 1556, a Latin school was opened at Walkenried. Four Lutheran abbots directed the abbey until 1578 when the Count of Hohnstein appointed his son as administrator, after whose death in 1593 the Halberstadt cathedral chapter left the administration of Hohnstein and Walkenried Abbey to the Princes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.

During the Thirty Years' War the abbey was for a short time (1629–31) restored to the Cistercians. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia put an end to the existence of the Protestant monastery and the abbey was secularised. In 1668, the Latin school was closed. The Wolfenbüttel dukes ruled the former abbey's estates within an incorporated Amt also comprising the neighbouring villages of Zorge and Hohegeiß.

From that time the abbey was systematically quarried as a source of building stone. The Gothic church was greatly damaged since the destruction of the roof tower by the peasants in 1525; today only a few picturesque remains are still in existence. The library was also destroyed by the peasants, but the archives are preserved at the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. Otherwise, however the claustral buildings are generally well preserved. The chapter hall has served since 1570 as a Lutheran church. The demolition of the buildings was stopped in 1817, first comprehensive works to renovate the cloister started in 1876. Since 1977 the premises are managed by the Osterode district authorities; a museum opened in 2006.

See also

References

1127 establishments
Religious organizations established in the 1120s
1648 disestablishments
States and territories established in 1542
Monasteries in Lower Saxony
Cistercian monasteries in Germany
Lutheran monasteries in Germany
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Christian monasteries disestablished in the 17th century
Abbeys and churches in the Harz
1542 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Lutheran churches in Lower Saxony
Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor

Walkenried Abbey


Flash Film Works is a computer graphics company that provides visual effects for films, television shows and commercials. It is owned by director William Mesa and is located in Los Angeles, California.

History
In 1993, Visual Effects Supervisor William Mesa left Introvision International to direct the low budget science fiction film Galaxis. To create the effects work for the film,  Mesa formed his own effects company, which he dubbed Flash Film Works.

As an independent visual effects company, they were hired by New Line Cinema to work on Wes Craven's New Nightmare. This work led to them getting work on other films.

John Dykstra hired Flash Film Works for work on the Warner Brothers motion picture Batman and Robin, creating a digital matte painting of an ice-laden Gotham City, as well as performing some rig and wire removal work on the film.

For Tale of the Mummy, Flash Film works created 3-D mummy wrappings which unraveled and reformed into the mummy. Flash Film works also worked on the Adam Sandler comedy The Waterboy during this time as well as the Renny Harlin  killer shark flick, Deep Blue Sea.

For the science fiction film, Red Planet, Flash Film works created various monitor display screens and interactive holographic monitors along with over 150 other shots for the film, including many wire removal shots to create the illusion of the actors floating in space.

In the year 2001, Flash Film works worked on the Eddie Murphy science fiction film The Adventures of Pluto Nash, creating computer generated Moonscapes for the actors to walk through.

For the Arnold Schwarzenegger action film Collateral Damage, Flash Film works was responsible for over 200 visual effects shots including creating CG Helicopters and debris, multiple rig and wire removal shots and several other types of shots as well.

For the Andy Davis directed film, Holes, based on the book by Louis Sachar, William Mesa was the visual effects supervisor as well as the Second Unit Director. For the film Flash Film works created and animated 3D lizards, designed and composited the "God's Thumb" mountain range and added desert and holes to many shots as well as considerable additional work.

Flash Film works big project for 2003 was the Edward Zwick directed film, The Last Samurai, starring Tom Cruise. Flash Film works performed around 200 effects shots on this film, including CG arrows, matte painting, compositing armies and face replacements.

Flash Film works created a CG Storm for several sequences in The Guardian and creating backgrounds for Blood Diamond. They later worked on Clash of the Titans and The Pacific.

Flash Film Works also acquired the rights to several video games originally produced by Digital Pictures and spearheaded having them remastered for newer game systems such as PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch.

Selected visual effects filmography
 Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994)
 Cutthroat Island (1995)
 Batman & Robin (1997)
 Tale of the Mummy (1998)
 Very Bad Things (1998)
 The Waterboy (1998)
 Deep Blue Sea (1999)
 Red Planet (2000)
 Collateral Damage (2002)
 Death to Smoochy (2002)
 The Adventures of Pluto Nash (2002)
 Birds of Prey (pilot) (2002)
 Holes (2003)
 The Last Samurai (2003)
 The Perfect Score (2004)
 White Chicks (2004)
 Ghost Whisperer (pilot) (2005)
 Dark Water (2005)
 Elizabethtown (2005)
 The Guardian (2006)
 Blood Diamond (2006)
 Defiance (2008)
 The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008)
 All About Steve (2009)
 The Pacific (2010)
 Clash of the Titans (2010)
 Dragon Age: Redemption (2011)
 Dolphin Tale (2011)
 Dolphin Tale 2 (2014)
 Against the Sun (2014)
 The Librarians (2014–15)
 Spy (2015)
 Barely Lethal (2015)
 Jack Reacher: Never Go Back (2016)
 Geostorm (2017)

Awards
Flash Film Works won a number of Advertising Industry awards for its work on the series of Onstar television commercials which featured Batman driving the Onstar-equipped Batmobile.

Flash Film Works won the Visual Effects Society Award for "Best Supporting Visual Effects" for its work on the motion picture The Last Samurai in 2004. In 2010 they won two VES Awards for The Pacific for "Outstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Mini-Series, Movie or Special" and for "Outstanding Compositing in a Broadcast Series or Commercial."

Flash Film Works in 2010 won a Primetime Emmy Award for its Visual Effects work on the HBO mini-series, The Pacific.

References

External links

 Digital Media Net- Your Gateway To Digital Media Creation
 Article about the vfx work on "The Guardian"
 Another article on "The Guardian"

Visual effects companies
Privately held companies based in California
Academy Award for Technical Achievement winners

Flash Film Works


Signwriters design, manufacture and install signs, including advertising signs for shops, businesses and public facilities as well as signs for transport systems.

Signwriting today

Traditional signwriters use methods closely related to those of their forebears in this craft and do not depend on technology - they are able to set out a sign with chalk and write it by eye in freehand. They do not rely on fonts and normally have their own individual lettering styles, yet also have the ability to render fonts closely to brand, as in architectural design briefs, for example.

Designs are often created by hand on the drawing board and later combined with CAD software for preliminary layout production. The final execution is made by hand using brushes known as quills and similar signwriting 'pencils' and chiseled brushes. Specialist enamels are also employed to fashion a long-lasting finish along with the traditional use of gold leaf.

Historically, signwriters drew or painted signs by hand using a variety of paint depending on the background i.e. enamel paint for vehicles and general signs, and water-based paints for short-term window signs.

The term "modern signwriters" is misleading, as most do not use the traditional brush as method of application. Many use vinyl masking screens in order to replicate traditional signwriting. Modern print-based signage producers design and 'output' signs with the assistance of computer software and a range of equipment such as large format digital printers, plotters, cutters, flat bed routers and engraving machines.

Signwriting and signmakers may offer many different processes to present the same lettering or images in different media, such as banners, metal engraving, LED or neon signs.

Signs created with large-format printers may use solvent inks, water-based inks, latex inks or ultraviolet-curable/cured inks. The last material is the most modern, and can be printed directly onto many different substrates such as wood, metal and plastic, adhesive-backed or non-adhesive films. Adhesive-backed films are then laminated to another substrate.

So called 'permanent' signage for use in shopfronts can be cut by machine or hand from acrylic or metal. However these deteriorate and lose pigmentation and surface polish after two to three years.

Many traditional signwriters point out that a painted sign, by contrast, grows more beautiful with age, eventually becoming what's known as a 'ghost sign' as it fades revealing grounds, surfaces, brushstrokes and undercoats.

History
Signwriters were employed to paint signs for a wide variety of purposes. They required good hand-eye coordination as well as the ability to produce different styles of font, ornamentation and lettershapes.

Bars, pubs and restaurants

Signwriting for these establishments is typically elaborately painted, cast in metal or gilded, for the latter sometimes also for the menu case. This is typically done by signage machine specialists or by visual (manual) artists and/or metalworkers.

See also
 Muralist
 Signage
 House painter and decorator
 Van lettering

References

Craft occupations
Advertising occupations
Painting
Signage
Typography

Signwriter


Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch (born 30 October 1941) is a German pheesicist. He received ane fowert o the 2005 Nobel Prize in Pheesics for "contreibutions tae the development o laser-based preceesion spectroscopy, includin the optical frequency comb technique", sharin the prize wi John L. Hall an Roy J. Glauber.

German physicists
Experimental pheesicists
Optical pheesicists
Members o the Pontifical Academy o Sciences
Nobel laureates in Pheesics
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners
1941 births
Livin fowk
German Nobel laureates
Stanford Varsity Depairtment o Pheesics faculty
Ludwig Maximilian Varsity o Munich alumni
Heidelberg Varsity alumni
Fowk frae Heidelberg
Members o the Optical Society
Fellaes o the Optical Society
Laser resairchers
Naitional Academy o Sciences laureates
Knicht Commanders o the Order o Meerit o the Federal Republic o Germany
Members o the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science an Airt
Members o the French Academy o Sciences
Members o the Unitit States Naitional Academy o Sciences
Max Planck Society fowk
Spectroscopists
Winners o the Comstock Prize in Pheesics
Alexander von Humboldt Fellaes

Theodor W. Hänsch


Tennis elbow or archer's elbow is a condition where the outer part of the elbow becomes sore and tender. It is often associated with playing tennis, golf or other kinds of sport that use a racquet.

The following can cause the condition:
Only using part of the elbow; this can happen with mouse/keyboard users (called Repetitive strain injury), or with certain forms of mountain climbing.
Keeping the body in a bad tenure/positioning
Wrong technique in sports that use clubs or racquets (such as tennis or  golf)

Treatment
There are few specific means of treatment, but certain general forms may help:
Physical therapy
Using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like ibuprofen or aspirin
Using heat or cold
Using a brace or strap to reduce the strain on the elbow

Tennis
Injuries

Tennis elbow


Michael Carbajal (born September 17, 1967) is an American five-time world boxing champion of Mexican descent. His nickname was "Little Hands of Stone" after his favorite boxer, "Hands of Stone" Roberto Durán.

Amateur career
Carbajal had an amateur record of 94-9 and won a silver medal as a light flyweight at 1988 Seoul Olympics in South Korea.

Highlights
 1986 National Golden Gloves Light Flyweight champion
 1987 – Carbajal won the silver medal at the 1987 Pan American Games
 1988 – United States amateur Light Flyweight champion

1988 Olympic Results
Below are the results of Michael Carbajal, an American light flyweight boxer who competed at the 1988 Seoul Olympics:

 Round of 32: Defeated Kwang-Soo Oh (South Korea) points (3:2 decision)
 Round of 16: Defeated Dang Hieu Hien (Vietnam) points
 Quarterfinal: Defeated Scotty Olson (Canada) points
 Semifinal: Defeated Robert Isaszegi (Hungary) points
 Final: Lost to Ivailo Marinov (Bulgaria) points (0:5 decision)
There were suspicions of politics influencing the judges in Carbajal's decision loss in the gold medal bout.

Professional career
Seven months after the Olympics, in February 1989, Carbajal made his debut in front of a national television audience as part of the card where Duran became a four-time world champion by beating Iran Barkley in Atlantic City. In his first fight, Carbajal outboxed another future world champion, Will Grigsby.

Carbajal followed that win with a spectacular first-round knockout of Silviano Perez on NBC. In his tenth bout, he met Pedro Feliciano, handling him a ten-round beating. Four more wins followed, and Carbajal was presented with an opportunity to fight for a world championship.

IBF light flyweight title
On July 29, 1990, Carbajal faced Muangchai Kittikasem, who came to Phoenix from Thailand to defend his IBF light flyweight championship. Carbajal methodically took apart the champion in front of an ABC national audience.  In round 7, after a combination of punches left Kittikasem lying defenseless against the ropes, the referee stepped in and stopped the fight, making Carbajal the world champion for the first time in his career.

Carbajal began a string of twelve victories over the next two and a half years, including six title defenses against challengers such as Leon Salazar, Hector Patri, Kim Kwang-Sun and Robinson Cuesta, and a win over future champion Jesus Chong in a non-title fight.

Unification against Humberto "Chiquita" Gonzalez
He then fought a highly anticipated unification match with WBC champion Humberto González  on March 13, 1993. Carbajal and Gonzalez became the first Junior Flyweights in history to earn a million dollar purse, and it was the first Junior Flyweight "superfight" and championship bout to headline a Pay Per View event.

Carbajal was downed in rounds 2 and 5, and he was bleeding from his right eyebrow when he blasted a tremendous left hand to the side of Gonzalez's chin in the seventh round. Gonzalez turned sideways, and Carbajal landed another right hand that sent him to the canvas. Gonzalez could not beat the count, and Michael Carbajal had unified the world's Junior Flyweight championship in The Ring's fight of the year. He would also be named fighter of the year for 1993.

Many television endorsement deals followed, including printed and television ads for Diet Pepsi and Emergency Chiropractic, but trouble seemed to follow, as well.  He was accused of firing gunshots onto the roof of a party in Scottsdale.

This unwanted attention seemed to take its toll on Carbajal, and after two additional defenses, he fought Gonzalez once again in a pay-per-view match in Los Angeles, California.  In his 11th world title fight, Carbajal suffered the first loss of his career as he was defeated by a controversial 12 round split decision.

WBO light flyweight title
Carbajal next took on former sparring partner Abner Barajas, winning by a fifth-round knockout in Laughlin, Nevada, and then was given another shot at a world title by the WBO title holder Josue Camacho, who came from Puerto Rico to the challenger's hometown to defend his title. Carbajal put on a brilliant performance and won a unanimous twelve-round decision over Camacho.

A title holder again, Carbajal set to try to recover his International Boxing Federation and WBC belts against Gonzalez in a third unification bout between the boxers.  In November 1994, three months after the Camacho victory, they met once again, this time in Mexico City. Once again, it was a split decision, and once again, Carbajal came out on the losing end. He wouldn't give up, however, and he kept training under the guidance of his brother, Danny Carbajal, the only man ever to train Michael.

IBF light flyweight title
He put another string of seven wins together, against the likes of former world champion Jose Quirino, whom he stopped in one round, and tough Mauro Salas, who lasted seven. Then he met two-time world champion Melchor Cob Castro in Las Vegas for the vacant International Boxing Federation Junior Flyweight title. Carbajal beat Castro by unanimous decision to claim his fourth world title.

His third title reign lasted 22 months and three defenses, including an eighth-round knockout of tough two-time challenger Tomas Rivera, before he lost his crown again. On January 18, 1997, Carbajal suddenly looked aged and was unable to do anything against the charges of Colombian Mauricio Pastrana. Carbajal still made the fight close, but lost a twelve-round split decision.

After that, Carbajal met Canada's Scotty Olson in San Antonio, Texas. Carbajal showed he had more left than Olson did, and dominated the fight until a spectacular right hand sent Olson down for the count in round 11.

The win over Olson gave Carbajal a minor title, but in July 1997 in Las Vegas once again, he was defeated by South Africa's Jacob Matlala. Matlala handed Carbajal his first inside the distance defeat ever, stopping the past-his-prime former world champion in round nine via cuts. Carbajal did not fight for 19 months after this defeat.

Second comeback, WBO title win, and retirement
Carbajal announced a comeback early in 1999. He won three bouts, including a tko victory over former champion José de Jesús, and on July 31, 1999, he took the short flight from Phoenix to Tijuana to challenge WBO world Junior Flyweight champion Jorge Arce, who was fighting in his hometown. Arce dominated Carbajal for nine of the first ten rounds, but Carbajal floored the 21-year-old Arce in the sixth round. The fight moved along, and in the 11th round, Carbajal struck Arce with a right hand that sent him into the ropes. The referee stopped the fight, and Michael Carbajal was a world champion for the fifth time.

After this fight, Carbajal retired as a world champ. Carbajal is trying to live a quieter life nowadays in Phoenix, but he does many public appearances. He enjoys meeting his public and signing autographs for his fans. Carbajal also owns two boxing gyms in Phoenix.

Michael Carbajal and former rival Humberto González were elected together to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2006.

His career record was 49 wins against four losses, with 33 wins coming by way of knockout.

Professional boxing record

See also
List of light-flyweight boxing champions

References

External links

Michael Carbajal - CBZ Profile

|-

|-

1967 births
Living people
Olympic boxers for the United States
Boxers at the 1987 Pan American Games
Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Phoenix, Arizona
Light-flyweight boxers
World light-flyweight boxing champions
International Boxing Federation champions
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Organization champions
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
American boxers of Mexican descent
Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers
Boxers from Arizona
American male boxers
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in boxing
Pan American Games medalists in boxing
Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games

Michael Carbajal


Ginger Rogers (born Virginia Katherine McMath, July 16, 1911 - April 25, 1995) was an American actress, dancer and singer. She was born in Independence, Missouri.

During her long career, she made a total of 73 films, collaborating with Fred Astaire as a romantic lead actress and dancing partner in a series of ten Hollywood musical films that revolutionized the genre.

She achieved great success on her own in a variety of film roles and won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Kitty Foyle (1940). She ranks #14 on the AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars list of actress screen legends. She also appeared on numerous television programs. She died of a heart attack in Rancho Mirage, California.

1933–1939: Astaire and Rogers
Rogers was most famous for her partnership with Fred Astaire. Together, from 1933 to 1939, they made nine musical films at RKO and one at MGM. They revolutionized the Hollywood musical, introducing dance routines of unprecedented elegance and virtuosity, set to songs specially composed for them by the greatest popular song composers of the day.

Films with Astaire
Flying Down to Rio (1933)
The Gay Divorcee (1934)
Roberta (1935)
Top Hat (1935)
Follow the Fleet (1936)
Swing Time (1936)
Shall We Dance (1937)
Carefree (1938)
The Story of Vernon and Irene Castle (1939)
The Barkleys of Broadway (1949)

Other websites

Ginger Rogers at 92 dances salsa with her grandson.

Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Missouri
American dancers
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Independence, Missouri
Singers from Missouri
1911 births
1995 deaths

Ginger Rogers


The alto flute is a flute that plays a fourth (half an octave) lower than the regular flute.  It is longer than the regular flute.  Sometimes alto flutes have a bent part at the top end.

The alto flute is a transposing instrument.  This makes it easy for someone who plays the flute to play on the alto flute.  The fingering for the note C on the flute will give a G on the alto flute.

The alto flute is not very often used, and only in very large orchestras.  Maurice Ravel wrote a beautiful tune for alto flute in Daphnis et Chloé.  Igor Stravinsky used one in The Rite of Spring.  In The Planets by Gustav Holst there is a passage with three flutes and alto flute playing 4 part harmony.

The alto flute must not be confused with a bass flute which is even bigger and lower.

Other websites

Flutes

Alto flute


Planning is the way most organizations work to do big projects. It is thinking about what needs to happen, and then making a detailed plan. It may include a schedule.

All humans plan to some extent: it is a fundamental property of intelligent behaviour. In big organisations and government planning is a main activity. It combines forecasting  developments with scenarios of how to react to them.

Forecasting is predicting what the future will look like, whereas planning predicts what the future should look like.

The "nuts and bolts" of planning are the documents, diagrams, and meetings, the objectives and the strategy to be followed. Beyond this, planning has a different meaning depending on the context in which it is used.

The counterpart to planning is self-organization, when order emerges spontaneously out of seeming chaos.

References

Planning


Dean Charles Ing (June 17, 1931 – July 21, 2020) was an American author, who usually wrote in the science fiction and techno-thriller genres. His novel The Ransom of Black Stealth One (1989) was a New York Times bestseller.   He wrote more than 30 novels, and co-authored novels with his friends Jerry Pournelle, S. M. Stirling, and Leik Myrabo. Following the death of science fiction author Mack Reynolds in 1983, Ing was asked to finish several of Reynolds' uncompleted manuscripts.

Ing was a United States Air Force veteran (where he served as a USAF interceptor crew chief), a former aerospace engineer, and a university professor who held a doctorate in communications theory. He was a former member of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy.

Background

Ing was born on June 17, 1931, in Austin, Texas. He earned a bachelor's degree from Fresno State University (1956), a master's degree from San Jose State University (1970), and a Ph.D. from the University of Oregon (1974). Ing and his wife resided in Ashland, Oregon until his death on July 21, 2020.

Work
Much of Ing's fiction includes detailed, practical descriptions of techniques and methods which would be useful in an individual or group survival situation, including instructions for the manufacture of tools and other implements, the recovery of stuck vehicles, and avoidance of disease and injury.

Ing's short story "Devil You Don't Know" was both a Hugo Award nominee and Nebula Award nominee in 1979.

Reviews

Kirkus Reviews called his novel Butcher Bird "Credible and entertaining, especially for fans of the previous books, and a definite improvement over The Big Lifters (1988)."

Kirkus Reviews also gave a positive review to Ing's novel The Nemesis Mission, stating: "The enormous cast can be confusing, and the setup takes extraordinarily long—but the tone is light, the gimmickry supports the fun, and the chase, when it comes, is a ripsnorter."

Publishers Weekly had praise for his 1995 novel Spooker, stating: "Ing's earlier novels (Butcher Bird, etc.) imaginatively described the special world of experimental aircraft and weaponry. Here he enters new territory, both geographically (California's Central Valley from Bakersfield to Fresno, detailed with accurate local color) and thematically, proving that he is a master of ground-based spy novels as well as of high-in-the-sky techno-thrillers. The high-tech touches that do appear, including an intriguing ultra-light aircraft, are pure Ing, who seems to have relished creating the peculiar world of his two monstrous villains. Tinged with a sense that life is bittersweet, this is a welcome offering from an always entertaining author."

Publishers Weekly also had positive remarks for his 2000 novel Loose Cannon: "Ing takes direct aim at the reader's sense of humor—connecting more often than not—in this lighthearted thriller about a Silicon Valley engineer forced into hiding after one of his inventions attracts the interest of the wrong people. ...The thriller as farce is only one of Ing's modes—he also writes sci-fi-inflected suspense novels and more serious techno-thrillers—but it is his best. The witty repartee and situational humor of his latest amusement are strained at times, but Ing continues to mine a profitable side vein in a field crowded with the claims of more conventional thriller writers."

Survivalism
In addition to his fiction writing, Ing wrote nonfiction articles for the survivalist newsletter P.S. Letter, edited by Mel Tappan. Following in the footsteps of science-fiction novelist Pat Frank, Ing included a lengthy nonfiction appendix to his nuclear-war survival novel Pulling Through. (Pat Frank authored both the nuclear-war survival novel Alas, Babylon and the non-fiction book How to Survive the H Bomb and Why.)

Robert A. Heinlein dedicated his 1985 novel The Cat Who Walks Through Walls to Ing and eight of the other members of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy.

In an interview for the July 29, 1996, issue of Medford Mail Tribune, Dean Ing made mention of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in Atlanta. He said: "I predict more of the same," he said, "because we haven't learned anything and they have."

Bibliography

Quantrill series
Systemic Shock (1981)
Single Combat (1983)
Wild Country (1985)

Aerospace Systems series
The Ransom of Black Stealth One (1989)
The Nemesis Mission (1991)
Butcher Bird (1993)

Larry Niven's Man-Kzin Wars series (Known Space)
Cathouse (1988)
Briar Patch (1989)

Other
Soft Targets (1979)
Anasazi (1980)
Pulling Through (1983)
Blood of Eagles (1986)
Firefight 2000 (1987) - see also Firefight Y2K, below
The Big Lifters (1988)
Chernobyl Syndrome (1988)
Silent Thunder (1991)
Spooker (1995)
Flying to Pieces (1998)
Skins of Dead Men (1998)
Firefight Y2K (2000)—updated version of Firefight 2000, with new intros to each story/article and some new/added content
Loose Cannon (2000)
The Rackham Files (2004)
Gyp Artist (2012)
It's Up to Charlie Hardin (Released by Baen Books in October 2015)

Collaborations

L-5 Community series with Mack Reynolds
The Lagrangists (1983)
Chaos in Lagrangia (1984)
Trojan Orbit (1985)

Other collaborations with Mack Reynolds
The Other Time (1984)
Home Sweet Home: 2010 A.D. (1984)
Eternity (1984)
Deathwish World (1986)

Nonfiction collaborations
Mutual Assured Survival (1984) with Jerry Pournelle—non-fiction
The Future of Flight (1985) with Leik Myrabo—non-fiction

See also

 James Wesley Rawles
 Retreat (survivalism)
 Mack Reynolds
 Survivalism
 Mel Tappan

References

External links

1931 births
2020 deaths
Writers from Ashland, Oregon
American science fiction writers
American thriller writers
Techno-thriller writers
Survivalists
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American military writers
San Jose State University alumni
University of Oregon alumni
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Oregon
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers

Dean Ing


Sir Sultan Muhammed Shah, Aga Khan III, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, GCVO, PC (2 November 1877–11 July 1957) was the 48th Imam of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam.

He became Imam at a very young age. He was seven years old when his father, Aga Khan II, died in 1885. He was one of the founders and the first president of the All-India Muslim League, and served as President of the League of Nations from 1937-38.

He was born in Karachi, in what was British India. He was given a religious education, and also a European education. He attended Eton and Cambridge University, and was a frequent visitor to Britain.

His followers celebrated his anniversaries as Imam in 1937, 1946 and 1954 by weighing him in gold, diamonds and platinum. The proceeds were spent on welfare and development in Asia and Africa. Girls schools were set up in the remote northern areas of what is now Pakistan. He was knighted by Queen Victoria, and later made a member of the Privy Council.

His choice of successor
At the end of his life, Sir Sultan Mohammed did a remarkable thing. In his will, he disinherited his son, Aly Khan, in favour of his grandson, Karim. So the next Khan, Aga Khan IV, was a younger man better suited to the modern world.

Marriages
The Aga Khan married four times:
2 November 1896 in Poona, India: to Shazadi Begum
1908 to Cleope Teresa Magliano (1888–1926). They had two sons: Prince Giuseppe Mahdi Khan (d. February 1911) and Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960). She died in 1926, following an operation on 1 December 1926.
1929 (civil), in Aix-les-Bains, France, and (religious), in Bombay, India. The bride was the co-owner of a dressmaking shop in Paris. She became known as Princess Andrée Aga Khan, but did not convert to Islam. By this marriage, he had one son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, in 1933-2003.
1944, in Geneva, Switzerland, Yvonne Blanche Labrousse. She had been his social secretary.

Mausoleum
The Aga Khan's mausoleum is near the Nile at Aswan, Egypt.

1877 births
1957 deaths
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Leaders of All India Muslim League
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom

Aga Khan III


The stratosphere is one of the layers of the atmosphere of the planet Earth. It extends from about 8 km above the poles (18 km above the equator) to about 50 km. In the stratosphere, the temperature rises with increasing height. This makes the stratosphere very stable. This temperature gradient is caused by the ozone layer which absorbs some UV radiation from sunlight. The absorbed radiation is converted to heat.

This differs from the lower layer, the troposphere, where temperature declines with higher altitude, and from the next higher layer, the mesosphere, where the temperature again declines.

Airplanes that are going far usually fly in the lower stratosphere, because the engines are more efficient in cold air and drag is small in low air density air.

Layers of Earth's atmosphere

Stratosphere


Thoughts on Government, or in full Thoughts on Government, Applicable to the Present State of the American Colonies, was written by John Adams during the spring of 1776 in response to a resolution of the North Carolina Provincial Congress which requested Adams' suggestions on the establishment of a new government and the drafting of a constitution. Adams says that "Politics is the Science of human Happiness -and the Felicity of Societies depends on the Constitutions of Government under which they live." Many of the ideas put forth in Adams' essay were adopted in December 1776 by the framers of North Carolina's first constitution.

The document is notable in that Adams sketches out the three branches of American government: the executive, judicial, and legislative branches, all with a system of checks and balances.  Furthermore, in response to Common Sense by Thomas Paine, Adams rejects the idea of a single legislative body, fearing it may become tyrannical or self-serving (as in the case of the Netherlands at the time).  Thus, Adams also conceived of the idea that two legislative bodies should serve as checks to the power of the other.

See also
John_Adams#Thoughts_on_Government
Constitutionalism
Rule according to higher law

References

External links

1776 non-fiction books
1776 in North Carolina
Books in political philosophy
Constitutional law
Documents of the American Revolution
1776 essays
John Adams

Thoughts on Government


Stems can refer to two things in music, relating to music notation and production.

Notation
Stems are the lines which extend from the notehead. Stems may point up or down. Different-facing stems indicate the voice for polyphonic music written on the same staff. For single-note melodies, the stems usually point down for notes on the middle line or higher, and up for those below. If the stem points up from a notehead, the stem starts at the right-hand side of the note, but if it points down, it starts from the left. The exception to this rule is when a chord contains a second, in which case the stem runs between the two notes, the higher being placed on the left of the stem and the lower on the right. The length of a stem is usually that of an octave on the staff, going to either an octave higher or lower than the notehead, depending on which way the stem is pointing.

Production
Stems are the individual parts of a mix, separately saved (usually to disc) for the purposes of use in a remix.

Musical notation

Stem (music)


Abuko National Park is a nature reserve in the Gambia lying south of the town of Abuko. It is a popular tourist attraction and was the country's first designated wildlife reserve.

History
The area was first accorded some measure of protection in 1916 when the Lamin Stream, which flows through the reserve, was fenced to form a water collection point. The enclosure of the stream saw an increase in the stock of wildlife and flora in the forest.

In 1967 wildlife officer Eddie Brewer and his daughter Stella Marsden visited the area and realised the conservation importance of the forest and its wildlife.  Brewer made a request to the government for the area to be protected. In 1968 the Department of Wildlife, now the Gambia Department of Parks and Wildlife Management, was established at the reserve.

Flora
The flora consists of a typical savanna and gallery forest landscape. Typical trees, up to thirty feet high, are: oil palm, mahogany, iroko and anthocleista procera.

Fauna
There are three monkey species: vervet monkeys, red colobus monkeys and patas monkeys. Other mammals include antelope, squirrel, porcupine, African palm civets, mongooses,  galagos, and several types of rodents, including cane rats.

Among the reptiles at the park are monitor lizard, Nile crocodile, dwarf crocodile, spitting cobra, black cobra, python, puff adder and green mamba. More than 270 bird  species have been recorded in the forest. There are also numerous butterflies and moths.

At one end of the site are several enclosures which serve as an orphanage for needy animals, including an enclosure in which a pack of hyenas is held.

References

National parks of the Gambia
Protected areas established in 1968

Abuko Nature Reserve


A submarine (or sub) is a vessel that goes underwater. Most large submarines are war vessels. Some small ones are used for scientific or business purposes. These are often called "submersibles" and cannot go far or stay long away from base. Some people buy their own to explore under the sea. A submarine is a boat, not a ship.

History
Early submarines were often powered by hand. This is because boat engines had not been invented yet. They were almost always made for war. Submarines would try to sink enemy ships by crude methods. These included drilling screws into their wooden hulls. Some tried to blow up a ship. This often destroyed the submarine, too.  At the end of the 19th century, the Whitehead torpedo and electrical systems allowed much better submarines.

These better submarines were much used during the First and Second World Wars. Many of these better submarines were created by Germany, called U-boats. The submarines were powered by a diesel-electric system. A diesel motor would be used to turn a generator. The generator would charge a large battery while the submarine was on the surface. The power in the battery was then used by the submarine when it went underwater. These submarines were dangerous to enemies. They were difficult to see while underwater but it was easy to attack them when they surfaced to recharge.  Many modern boats still use this diesel-electric propulsion system.

The First Battle of the Atlantic was the first major battle that was mainly fought between submarines and their enemies. As in later wars, the main jobs of submarines were to enforce a blockade and to sink enemy warships. They usually attacked freighters at night, shooting with their deck guns and then hiding under the water. Sometimes they used their torpedoes, which they could fire while underwater, especially against larger ships and warships. During World War II The US Navy lost around 52 submarines due to combat and non-combat causes.

After World War II better sonar helped the enemies of submarines to find and destroy them. New subs were more streamlined and had no deck guns because water dragging against the guns made noise underwater and slowed the subs.

Modern submarines
Most large modern military submarines are powered by nuclear reactors. These submarines often have a system which can get air from the seawater. These two things allow them to stay underwater for long periods of time. Their most important uses are attacking ships or launching missiles. These include cruise missiles and nuclear missiles. There are two main kinds of subs. Attack submarines are small and fast. They attack other subs and surface ships with torpedos. Missile subs are larger and slower. They are built to shoot missiles at far-away targets on land.

Other websites

 Submarine -Citizendium

Warships

Submarine


During the summer of 1976, a restaurant in Fire Island Pines, New York, denied entry to a visitor in drag named Terry Warren. Fire Island Pines is a beach community on Fire Island east of New York City with a gay majority population that was at the time more affluent and conservative than the population of nearby Cherry Grove. When Warren's friends in Cherry Grove heard what had happened, they too dressed up in drag, and, on July 4, 1976, with Cherry Grove's 1976 Homecoming Queen Thom Hansen (aka Panzi) in the lead, sailed to the Pines by water taxi. The boatload of drag queens that stormed into the Pines that day—to a surprised but exuberant welcome—was the first "invasion," an event now repeated each year.

Current annual event
Now, many years later, the annual Fourth of July Invasion of the Pines attracts hundreds of drag queens and thousands of spectators to what has become an annual Independence Day event.

On the afternoon of July 4 each year, drag queens from both Cherry Grove and the Pines gather at the Ice Palace Bar at the Cherry Grove Hotel in Cherry Grove; after parading through the street of Cherry Grove, they board a chartered ferry boat and sail to the Pines Harbor, where they are greeted by thousands of cheering residents and visitors. As each drag queen leaves the ferry and marches onto the dock, she is announced by Panzi, the original 1976 invasion leader, now mistress of ceremonies.

Jon Morrow, a film maker (and gynecologist) from New York, has made a short documentary film on the annual celebrations (link below).

Sources and external links
 Gay Travel Guide For Fire Island Pines and Cherry Grove
 Fire Island Invasion: history and photos
 Fire Island Men: Gay Men of Cherry Grove and Fire Island Pines
 Fire Island Q News: "Tales of the Beach: A Historical Review"
 "Invasion of the Pines": a documentary film by Jon Morrow

LGBT events in New York (state)
Recurring events established in 1976
1976 establishments in New York (state)
Fire Island, New York
1976 in LGBT history

Invasion of the Pines


Argus is the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek word Argos. It may mean:

Greek mythology

 See Argus (Greek myth) for mythological characters named Argus
Argus (king of Argos), son of Zeus (or Phoroneus) and Niobe
Argus (son of Arestor), builder of the ship Argo in the tale of the Argonauts
Argus Panoptes (Argus "All-Eyes"), a giant with a hundred eyes
Argus, the eldest son of Phrixus and Chalciope
Argus, the son of Phineus and Danaë, in a rare variant of the myth in which she and her two sons (the other being Argeus) travel to Italy
Argus or Argos (dog), the faithful dog of Odysseus
Argus or Argeus (king of Argos), the son of Megapenthes
Argus, one of Actaeon's dogs
Argus, a watchful guardian

Arts and entertainment

Gaming
ARGUS (Splinter Cell), a fictional private military contractor in the Splinter Cell series
Argus (video game), a 1986 Famicom game by NMK
Argus no Senshi, the original Japanese title for the arcade game Rygar
Argus, a fictional planet in the Warcraft computer game franchise
The KNRB-0 Argus, an autonomous weapons platform in the video game Vanquish
Argus, a hero in Mobile Legends: Bang Bang

Music
Argus (album), a 1972 album by Wishbone Ash
"The Argus", a song by Ween from the album Quebec

Other media

"Argus" (30 Rock), a 2010 episode in the TV comedy series
Argus (comics), a fictional character in the DC Comics Universe
Argus (Mortal Kombat), a fictional deity in the series
Argus (TV series), a Norwegian TV debate series that aired between 1993 and 1994
A.R.G.U.S., a fictional government agency in the DC Universe
Argus Filch, a fictional character in the Harry Potter series
The Manhattan Argus, a fictional newspaper in the 1994 Coen brothers film, The Hudsucker Proxy

Businesses

Argus (camera company), a camera manufacturer
Argus Brewery, a brewing company located in the historic Pullman District in Chicago, Illinois
Argus Corporation, a Canadian holding company once controlled by Conrad Black
Argus Media Ltd, a business information company
Argos (retailer), a British catalogue retailer

Places

Iran
Argus, Iran, a village in Kerman Province

Spain
Argos (river), a river in the region of Murcia

United States
Argus, California, an unincorporated community
Argus, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
Argus Range, a mountain range in Inyo County, California

Publishing
See The Argus (disambiguation) for publications named "The Argus"

United Kingdom
The Argus (Brighton), a newspaper serving Brighton and Hove, England; a member of the Newsquest Media Group
South Wales Argus, published in Newport, South Wales; a member of the Newsquest Media Group
Argus Press, a British publishing company

United States
Barre Montpelier Times Argus, a daily morning newspaper serving the capital region of Vermont
Carlsbad Current-Argus, a New Mexico newspaper
Livingston County Daily Press & Argus, a newspaper that covers Livingston County, Michigan
The Dispatch / The Rock Island Argus, American newspaper that covers the Quad Cities in Illinois and Iowa
Argus Leader, American newspaper that covers Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Argus, a newspaper in Albany, New York, which long functioned as the organ of the Albany Regency
Argus, Midwood High School's school newspaper

Elsewhere
The Argus (Dundalk), a newspaper serving Dundalk, Ireland; a member of the Independent News & Media group also known as Independent.ie
The Argus (Melbourne), former Australian newspaper of record, established in 1846 and closed in 1957
Cape Argus, a newspaper printed in Cape Town, South Africa
Weekend Argus, a newspaper in South Africa, owned by Independent News & Media
Goondiwindi Argus, a newspaper in Goondiwindi, Queensland, Australia, owned by Fairfax Media

Sport
Argus finals system, a set of tournament systems used in Australian rules football finals series in the early 20th century
Cape Argus Cycle Race, a major cycling event in South Africa, colloquially referred to as "The Argus"

Science and technology

Biology
Argus (bird), pheasants from the genera Argusianus and Rheinartia
Argus butterflies, including:
Nymphalidae, e.g., Erebia, Junonia
Polyommatinae (Lycaenidae), e.g., as Aricia, Plebeius, Polyommatus
Theclinae (Lycaenidae): the invalid genus Argus (described by Gerhard, 1850), now in Satyrium
Argus monitor (Varanus panoptes), a species of lizard
Scatophagus argus, a species of fish of the family Scatophagidae
Terebra argus, a mollusk of the family Terebridae

Electronics and computing
Argus (monitoring software), a network and systems monitoring application
Argus (programming language), an extension of the CLU language designed for distributed systems
Argus - Audit Record Generation and Utilization System, a network auditing system
Argus retinal prosthesis, a bionic eye implant manufactured by Second Sight
Ferranti Argus, a line of industrial control computers
ARGUS-IS, a wide-area surveillance system produced by BAE Systems
Oracle Argus Safety, a pharmacovigilance system from Oracle Health Sciences

Other uses in science and technology

Argus (camera company), a brand of camera
Argus Coastal Monitoring, a video system for observing coastal processes and related phenomena
ARGUS distribution, a probability distribution used in particle physics
Argus Motoren, a German aircraft engine manufacturing firm
ARGUS reactor, an aqueous homogeneous nuclear reactor at the Russian Kurchatov Institute
Operation Argus, a 1958 US military effort to create orbital electron belts using atomic bombs

Vehicles

Types
Argus (automobile), a German automobile manufactured between 1901 and 1909
Fairchild Argus, a British version of the C-61 Forwarder light military transport aircraft

Named vessels
CP-107 Argus, a Royal Canadian Air Force maritime patrol aircraft
French brig Argus (1800), a French naval ship that took part in the Battle of Trafalgar
HMS Argus, the name of many ships in the British Royal Navy
RFA Argus (A135), a 1981 Primary Casualty Receiving Ship in Britain's Royal Fleet Auxiliary
USS Argus, various ships of the United States Navy
SS Argus, a steel hulled ship lost in the Great Lakes Storm of 1913

Related pages
The Argus (disambiguation), the name of many newspapers
Argos (disambiguation)

Argus


Muiredach mac Eógain (died c. 489) was a King of Ailech and head of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill. He was the son of the founder of this dynasty Eógan mac Néill (died 465).

There is no mention of him in the Irish annals but the Laud Synchronisms give him a reign of 24 years as King of Ailech giving him an approximate reign of 465–489. He married Erca, daughter of Loarn mac Eirc of Dál Riata who was mother of his son Muirchertach mac Muiredaig (died 532), High King of Ireland, also known as Muirchertach mac Ercae and founder of the Cenél maic Ercae branch.  Other sons included: Feradach, founder of the Cenél Fearadhaigh branch; Moan, founder of the Cenél Moain branch; and Tigernach, founder of the Cenél Tigernaich branch.

Notes

References

 Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2000), Early Christian Ireland, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
 Laud Synchronisms at CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork
 Geoffrey Keating, History of Ireland at CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

External links
CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

Kings of Ailech
489 deaths
5th-century Irish monarchs
Year of birth unknown

Muiredach mac Eógain