හර්බට් ස්පෙන්සර් (1820 අප්‍රියෙල් 27 – 1903 දෙසැම්බර් 8) යනු ඉංග්‍රීසි ජාතික දාර්ශනිකයෙකි.ඔහු ජීව විද්‍යාඥයෙක් මානව විද්‍යාඥයෙක් සමාජ විද්‍යාඥයෙක් මෙන්ම ලිබරල්වාදී චින්තකයෙකුද වෙයි

ස්වභාවික විද්‍යා මානව ශාස්ත්‍ර මෙන්ම සමාජීය විද්‍යා පිළිබද හසල දැනුමක් ඇති විද්වතෙකුවූ ස්පෙන්සර් විවිධ විෂයන් අලලා ප්‍රකාශයට පත්කල ග්‍රන්ත රැසක්විය.කුඩාකල එතරම් පොතපතට නැඹුරු නොවුවද තරුණවියේදී දැඩිලෙස පොත්පත් පරිශීලනයට කැමැත්තක් දක්වා ඇත.එසේම ලංඩනයේ ආර්ථික විද්‍යා ජර්නලයේ සංස්කාරකවරයෙකු ලෙස කටයුතු කරද්දී සමකාලීන දේශපාලන සමාජ ආර්ථික තොරතුරු පිළිබද හසල දැනුමක් හා විවිධ විද්වතුන්ගේ ඇසුර ලැබීමට ස්පෙන්සර්ට හැකිවෙයි.මාධ්‍යවේදියකු ඔහු ගතකල කාලයේදී තම ලිබරල්වාදී අදහස් සමාජගතකිරීමට ඔහුට හැකිවිය.මෙම අවධියේදී ඔහුගේ කීර්තිරාවය මහා බ්‍රිතාන්‍යයට පමණක් නොව ලොව දසදිග පැතිරගියේය.

කොමියුනිස්ට් විරෝධී ලිබරල්වාදී චින්තකයෙකුවූ ස්පෙන්සර් පරිණාමවාදී අදහස් පළකල විද්වතෙකු ලෙස ප්‍රකටය.ඒ සදහා ඔහුට චාර්ස් ඩාවින්ගේ පාරිණාමවාදී අදහස් ප්‍රබලව බලපා ඇතිබව විද්වතුන් පවසයි. ඩාවින්ගේ ස්වභාවික වරනවාදය පිළිබද අදහස් ඔහු සමාජ පරිණාමය පිළිබදව අදහස් දැක්වීමට ායාදාගෙන ඇත.

ජීවිතය
ස්පෙන්සර් 1820 අප්‍ර්ල් 27 දින එංගලංතයේ ඩර්බි නගරයේදී උපතලැබීය.විලියම් ජෝර්ජ් ස්පෙන්සර් ඔහුගේ පියාවිය.දරුවන් 9 වනදෙනකුගෙන් යුතු පවුලේ ප්‍රධානියාවූයේ ස්පෙන්සර්ය.ඔවුන් මෙතොදිස්ත ආගමික නිකායට අයත්විය.කුඩාකල සිටම ඉගෙනීමට දක්ෂතා දැක්වූ ස්පෙන්සර් ස්වභාවික විද්‍යා ගණිතය හා යාන්ත්‍රික විද්‍යාවන්ට දැඩි ඇල්මක් දැක්වීය.මීට අමතරව දර්ශනයද ඔහුගේ ප්‍රියතම විෂයක්විය.

ස්පෙන්සර් තම පියාගෙන් අනුභවික විද්‍යාවන් පිළිබද දැනුමක් ලැබීය.මීට අමතරව ඩර්බි දාර්ශනිකයන්ගේ සංගමයයෙන් දර්ශනය හා ඩාවින්වාදය පිළිබද දැනුම ලැබීය.ස්පෙන්සර් පවුලේ බොහෝ දෙනෙක් දැඩි පුද්ගලවාදී චින්තනයක් දරාසිටි අතර ස්භාවික විද්‍යා දර්ශනය යන විදෂයන් පිළිබද උගත්පිරිසක්විය.විශේෂයෙන් ඔවුන් චාර්ස් ඩාවින්ගේ පරිණාමවාදය ඉතා හොදින් හදාරා තිබිණ. ස්පෙන්සර් ගණිතය හෞතික විද්‍යාවට අමතරව ලතික් භාෂාව පිළිබදවද පාසැල් වියේදී හොදින් හැදෑරීය.ඔහුගේ මාමා කෙනෙකුවූ තෝමස් ස්පෙන්සර් ගෙන් රාජ්‍ය නිර්බාධවාදය හා ලිබරල්වාදය පිළිබද ඉගෙනගත්හ.මීට අමතරව පොතපත පරිශිලනය උගතුන් හා සංවාද කිරීම මගින් තම දැනුම වර්ධනයකරගත්හ.

පාසැල් අධ්‍යාපනයෙන් පසු ඔහු ලන්ඩනයේ දුම්රිය දෙපාර්තුමේන්තුවේ සිවිල් ඉංජිනේරුවෙකු ලෙස සේවය කරයි.මෙම අවධියේදීම ඔහු පුවත්පත් වලට තම අදහස්හා මතවාද ඉදිරිපත් කරමින් ලිපි පළකලහ.මෙමෙ ලිපි බොහෝ දෙනා අතර ජනප්‍රිය විය.පසුව ඔහු ලංඩනයේ අර්ථික විද්‍යා ජර්නලයේ (The Economist) සංස්කාරකවරයෙකු ලෙස කටයුතු කරයි.මෙම පුවත්පත් කලාවේදියකු ලෙස ගතකල කාලය තුල ඔහුට ප්‍රවීනමාධ්‍ය වේදින් හා විද්වතුන් රැසක් අසුරට ලැබේ. 1851 දී ඔහුගේ ප්‍රථම කෘතියවූ සමාජ ස්ථිතිකත්වය (Social Statics) නම් කෘතිය ප්‍රකාශයට පත්කරයි. මෙම කෘතිය මගින් රජ්‍ය මගින් ඉටුකලයුතු කාර්‍ය පෙන්වා දෙයි.ඹහු තවදුරටත් ධනවාදය  ඔගස්ට් කොම්ට්ගේ යථානුභුතවාදය හදාරයි.කෙසේ වෙතත් ස්පෙන්සර් කොම්ට්ගේ ඇතැම් අදහස් විවේචනය කරයි.1855 දී ඔහුගේ දෙවන කෘතියවන මනෝවිද්‍යාවේ මූල ධර්ම (Principles of Psychology) නම් ග්‍රන්තය රචනා කළේය.එහෙත් මෙය එතරම් ජනප්‍රියවූයේ නැත.මෙම අවදියේදී මානසික රෝගයකින් පෙළුණු ස්පෙන්සර් අරමුණක් නොමැතිව නගරවල ඇවිදිමින් ගතකරන ලදී.කෙසේ වෙතත් පසුව ඔහු මෙම මානසික රෝගී තත්වයෙන් සුවය ලැබුවද එහි දෝංකාරය ඔහුගේ මුළු ජීවිත කාලය පුරාම විටින්විට මතුවිය.

ස්පෙන්සර් මනෝ විද්‍යා හා දර්ශනය යන විෂයන් කෙරෙහි වැඩි කැමැත්තක් දැක්වූබව පැවසේ.ඔහු විසින් රචිත දෙවන කෘතියද මනෝවිද්‍යාව පිළිබදවය.ඔහු ඹගස්ටි කොම්ට්ගේ දර්ශනය කෙරෙහිද වැඩි අවදානයක් යොමුකළේය.

1870 වනවිට ස්පෙන්සර් ප්‍රකට දාර්ශනිකයෙකු ලෙස නම්දරා තිබිණ. ඔහු වැඩි කාලයක් කියවීම කෙරෙහිද අවදානය යොමු කළේය.ස්පෙන්සර් විසින් රචිත කෘතීන් රැසක්ම පසුකාලීනව ජර්මන් ඉතාලි ස්පාඥ්ඥ ප්‍රංශ රුසියානු ජපන් හා චීන භාෂාවට මෙන්ම විවිධ භාෂාවන්ට පරිවර්තනය විය.ස්පෙන්සර් විසින් සිදුකල මෙහෙය වෙනුවෙන් විවිධ රජ්‍යයන්ගෙන් ඔහුට ගෞරව සම්මාන ලැබිණ.

ස්පෙන්ර් විවිධ දාර්ශනිකයන් ඇසුරේ ජීවත් වෙමින් මහා දැනුම් සම්භාරයක් එක්කර ගත්තේය.ඔහු කිසිවිටෙක තම පෞද්ගලික දියුණුවගැන සිතුවේ නැත.ඔහුටම කියා නිවසක් හෝ නොතිබිණ.ඔහු හුදෙකලාව ප්‍රියකල අතර කිසිදිනක විවාහවූයේ නැත.ඔහු සැමවිටම හුදෙකලා හා නිහඩ දිවියක්

ඔහුගේ මරණයට ටික කලකට පෙර එනම් ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ 1902දී ස්පෙන්සර් ගේ නාමය නොබෙල් ත්‍යාගය සදහාද යෝජනාවිය. පැවති අසනීම තත්වය නිසා වයස අවුරුදු 83 ජීවන ගමන නිමාකරමින් වර්ෂ 1903 දෙසැම්බර් මස 8 වන දින මෙලොවින් සමුගත්තේය.ඔහුගේ දේහය ශේෂ්ඨ විද්‍යාඥයෙකුවූ කාල් මාක්ස්ගේ දේහය මිනිදන් කරඇති ස්ථානයට නුදුරුව ලංඩනයේ හයිගේට් සුසාන භුමියේදී මිනිදන් කළහ.

දර්ශනය
ස්පෙන්සර් යනු පරිණාමවාදී හා ලිබරල්වාදී අදහස් දැරෑ චින්තයෙකි.මැවුම්වාදී දෛවවාදී ආගමික මතයන් අනුමත නොකළහ.භෞතිකවාදී හේතුවාදී චින්තනය පොෂණය කළ විද්වතෙක්විය.ඔහුගේ චින්තනය බොහෝවිට කොම්ට්ගේ යථානුභූත දර්ශනය හා ඩාවින්ගේ පරිණාමවාදී චින්තනයන් ගෙන් පෝෂණය විය.උපතින් ක්‍රිස්තියානි බැතිමතෙකු වුවද ඔහු පසුව දේවවාදී අදහස් වෙනුවට විද්‍යාත්මක වින්තනය ගරු කරමින් නිදහස් චින්තකයෙකුවිය.ස්පෙන්සර් දක්වන ආකාරයට සමාජයක් උසස් තත්වයකට පත්වන්නේ ආගමික ඉගැන්වීම් නිසා නොව කාර්මීකරණය ඉදිරියට යාම හා මිත්‍යාව වෙනුවට විද්‍යාව මත තීරණ ගන්නා සමාජයක් බිහිවීම නිසාය.එසේම ආර්ථිකය සදහා රජයේ මැදිහත්වීම අවම මට්ටමක පැවතිය යුතුබව ඔහු පෙන්වාදෙයි.එනම් රාජ්‍ය නිර්බාධවාදී අදහස් ඇති දාර්ශනිකයෙකු ලෙස ස්පෙන්සර් පෙන්වාදිය හැක.

පරිණාමය
Spencer first articulated his evolutionary perspective in his essay, 'Progress: Its Law and Cause', published in Chapman's Westminster Review in 1857, and which later formed the basis of the First Principles of a New System of Philosophy (1862). In it he expounded a theory of evolution which combined insights from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's essay 'The Theory of Life' – itself derivative from Friedrich von Schelling's Naturphilosophie – with a generalisation of von Baer's law of embryological development. Spencer posited that all structures in the universe develop from a simple, undifferentiated, homogeneity to a complex, differentiated, heterogeneity, while being accompanied by a process of greater integration of the differentiated parts. This evolutionary process could be found at work, Spencer believed, throughout the cosmos. It was a universal law, that was applying to the stars and the galaxies as much as to biological organisms, and to human social organisation as much as to the human mind. It differed from other scientific laws only by its greater generality, and the laws of the special sciences could be shown to be illustrations of this principle.

However, as Bertrand Russell stated in a letter to Beatrice Webb in 1923, this formulation has problems: 'I don't know whether [Spencer] was ever made to realise the implications of the second law of thermodynamics; if so, he may well be upset. The law says that everything tends to uniformity and a dead level, diminishing (not increasing) heterogeneity'.

Spencer's attempt to explain the evolution of complexity was radically different from that to be found in Darwin's Origin of Species which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalised Darwin's work on natural selection. But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' as his own term for Darwin's concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection into his preexisting overall system. The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognised was Lamarckian use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of equilibrium. He tried to apply the theory of biological evolution to sociology. He proposed that society was the product of change from lower to higher forms, just as in the theory of biological evolution, the lowest forms of life are said to be evolving into higher forms. Spencer claimed that man's mind had evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking man. Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. Intuition, or knowledge learned unconsciously, was the inherited experience of the race.

Spencer in his book Principles of Biology (1864), proposed a pangenesis theory that involved "physiological units". These hypothetical hereditary units were similar to Darwin's gemmules.

සමාජ විද්‍යාව

Spencer read with excitement the original positivist sociology of Auguste Comte. A philosopher of science, Comte had proposed a theory of sociocultural evolution that society progresses by a general law of three stages. Writing after various developments in biology, however, Spencer rejected what he regarded as the ideological aspects of Comte's positivism, attempting to reformulate social science in terms of his principle of evolution, which he applied to the biological, psychological and sociological aspects of the universe. Given the primacy with which Spencer placed on evolution in his work, Spencer's sociology might be described as socially Darwinistic (though strictly speaking he was a proponent of Lamarckism rather than Darwinism).  Despite the popularity of this view, such a description of Spencer's sociology is mistaken.  While Spencer's political and ethical writings had themes consistent with social Darwinism, such themes are not present in Spencer's sociological works, which focus on building a theory regarding how processes of societal growth and differentiation lead to changing amounts of complexity amongst the various forms of social organization

The evolutionary progression from simple, undifferentiated homogeneity to complex, differentiated heterogeneity was exemplified, Spencer argued, by the development of society. He developed a theory of two types of society, the militant and the industrial, which corresponded to this evolutionary progression. Militant society, structured around relationships of hierarchy and obedience, was simple and undifferentiated; industrial society, based on voluntary, contractually assumed social obligations, was complex and differentiated. Society, which Spencer conceptualised as a 'social organism' evolved from the simpler state to the more complex according to the universal law of evolution. Moreover, industrial society was the direct descendant of the ideal society developed in Social Statics, although Spencer now equivocated over whether the evolution of society would result in anarchism (as he had first believed) or whether it pointed to a continued role for the state, albeit one reduced to the minimal functions of the enforcement of contracts and external defence.

Though Spencer made some valuable contributions to early sociology, not least in his influence on structural functionalism, his attempt to introduce Lamarckian or Darwinian ideas into the realm of sociology was unsuccessful. It was considered by many, furthermore, to be actively dangerous. Hermeneuticians of the period, such as Wilhelm Dilthey, would pioneer the distinction between the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften) and human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften). In the United States, the sociologist Lester Frank Ward, who would be elected as the first president of the American Sociological Association, launched a relentless attack on Spencer's theories of laissez-faire and political ethics. Although Ward admired much of Spencer's work he believed that Spencer's prior political biases had distorted his thought and had led him astray. In the 1890s, Émile Durkheim established formal academic sociology with a firm emphasis on practical social research.  By the turn of the 20th century the first generation of German sociologists, most notably Max Weber, had presented methodological antipositivism. However, it should be noted that Spencer's theories of laissez-faire, survival-of-the-fittest and minimal human interference in the processes of natural law had an enduring and even increasing appeal in the social science fields of economics and political science, and one writer has recently made the case for Spencer's importance for a sociology that must learn to take energy in society seriously.

අඥෙයවාදය
Spencer's reputation among the Victorians owed a great deal to his agnosticism. He rejected theology as representing the 'impiety of the pious.' He was to gain much notoriety from his repudiation of traditional religion, and was frequently condemned by religious thinkers for allegedly advocating atheism and materialism. Nonetheless, unlike Thomas Henry Huxley, whose agnosticism was a militant creed directed at 'the unpardonable sin of faith' (in Adrian Desmond's phrase), Spencer insisted that he was not concerned to undermine religion in the name of science, but to bring about a reconciliation of the two. The following argument is a summary of Part 1 of his First Principles (2nd ed 1867).

Starting either from religious belief or from science, Spencer argued, we are ultimately driven to accept certain indispensable but literally inconceivable notions. Whether we are concerned with a Creator or the substratum which underlies our experience of phenomena, we can frame no conception of it. Therefore, Spencer concluded, religion and science agree in the supreme truth that the human understanding is only capable of 'relative' knowledge. This is the case since, owing to the inherent limitations of the human mind, it is only possible to obtain knowledge of phenomena, not of the reality ('the absolute') underlying phenomena. Hence both science and religion must come to recognise as the 'most certain of all facts that the Power which the Universe manifests to us is utterly inscrutable.' He called this awareness of 'the Unknowable' and he presented worship of the Unknowable as capable of being a positive faith which could substitute for conventional religion. Indeed, he thought that the Unknowable represented the ultimate stage in the evolution of religion, the final elimination of its last anthropomorphic vestiges.

දේශපාලන දෘෂ්ටිය
Spencerian views in 21st century circulation derive from his political theories and memorable attacks on the reform movements of the late 19th century. He has been claimed as a precursor by libertarians and anarcho-capitalists. Economist Murray Rothbard called Social Statics "the greatest single work of libertarian political philosophy ever written." Spencer argued that the state was not an "essential" institution and that it would "decay" as voluntary market organisation would replace the coercive aspects of the state. He also argued that the individual had a "right to ignore the state." As a result of this perspective, Spencer was harshly critical of patriotism. In response to being told that British troops were in danger during the Second Afghan War, he replied: "When men hire themselves out to shoot other men to order, asking nothing about the justice of their cause, I don't care if they are shot themselves."

Politics in late Victorian Britain moved in directions that Spencer disliked, and his arguments provided so much ammunition for conservatives and individualists in Europe and America that they are still in use in the 21st century. The expression 'There Is No Alternative' (TINA), made famous by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, may be traced to its emphatic use by Spencer.

By the 1880s he was denouncing "the new Toryism" (that is, the "social reformist wing" of the Liberal party – the wing to some extent hostile to Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, this faction of the Liberal party Spencer compared to the interventionist "Toryism" of such people as the former Conservative party Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli). In The Man versus the State (1884), he attacked Gladstone and the Liberal party for losing its proper mission (they should be defending personal liberty, he said) and instead promoting paternalist social legislation (what Gladstone himself called "Construction" – an element in the modern Liberal party that he opposed). Spencer denounced Irish land reform, compulsory education, laws to regulate safety at work, prohibition and temperance laws, tax funded libraries, and welfare reforms. His main objections were threefold: the use of the coercive powers of the government, the discouragement given to voluntary self-improvement, and the disregard of the "laws of life." The reforms, he said, were tantamount to "socialism", which he said was about the same as "slavery" in terms of limiting human freedom. Spencer vehemently attacked the widespread enthusiasm for annexation of colonies and imperial expansion, which subverted all he had predicted about evolutionary progress from 'militant' to 'industrial' societies and states.

Spencer anticipated many of the analytical standpoints of later libertarian theorists such as Friedrich Hayek, especially in his "law of equal liberty", his insistence on the limits to predictive knowledge, his model of a spontaneous social order, and his warnings about the "unintended consequences" of collectivist social reforms.

While often caricatured as ultra-conservative, Spencer had been more radical earlier in his career – opposing private property in land and claiming that each person has a latent claim to participate in the use of the earth (views that influenced Georgism), calling himself "a radical feminist" and advocating the organisation of trade unions as a bulwark against "exploitation by bosses", and favoured an economy organised primarily in free worker co-operatives as a replacement for wage-labor. Although he retained support for unions, his views on the other issues had changed by the 1880s. He came to predict that social welfare programmes would eventually lead to socialisation of the means of production, saying "all socialism is slavery"; Spencer defined a slave as a person who "labours under coercion to satisfy another's desires" and believed that under socialism or communism the individual would be enslaved to the whole community rather than to a particular master, and "it means not whether his master a single person or society"

සමාජ ඩාවින්වාදය
For many, the name of Herbert Spencer would be virtually synonymous with Social Darwinism, a social theory that applies the law of the survival of the fittest to society; humanitarian impulses had to be resisted as nothing should be allowed to interfere with nature's laws, including the social struggle for existence.

Spencer's association with Social Darwinism might have its origin in a specific interpretation of his support for competition. Whereas in biology the competition of various organisms can result in the death of a species or organism, the kind of competition Spencer advocated is closer to the one used by economists, where competing individuals or firms improve the well being of the rest of society. Spencer viewed private charity positively, encouraging both voluntary association and informal care to aid those in need, rather than relying on government bureaucracy or force. He further recommended that private charitable efforts would be wise to avoid encouraging the formation of new dependent families by those unable to support themselves without charity.

Focusing on the form as well as the content of Spencer's "Synthetic Philosophy", one writer has identified it as the paradigmatic case of "Social Darwinism", understood as a politically motivated metaphysic very different in both form and motivation from Darwinist science.

In a letter to the Japanese government regarding intermarriage with Westerners, Spencer stated that "if you mix the constitution of two widely divergent varieties which have severally become adapted to widely divergent modes of life, you get a constitution which is adapted to the mode of life of neither—a constitution which will not work properly". He goes on to say that America has failed to limit the immigration of Chinese and restrict their contact, especially sexual, with the presumed European stock. He states "if they mix they must form a bad hybrid" regarding the issue of Chinese and (ethnically European) Americans. Spencer ends his letter with the following blanket statement against all immigration: "In either case, supposing the immigration to be large, immense social mischief must arise, and eventually social disorganization. The same thing will happen if there should be any considerable mixture of European or American races with the Japanese."

සාමාන්‍ය බලපෑම්
While most philosophers fail to achieve much of a following outside the academy of their professional peers, by the 1870s and 1880s Spencer had achieved an unparalleled popularity, as the sheer volume of his sales indicate. He was probably the first, and possibly the only, philosopher in history to sell over a million copies of his works during his own lifetime. In the United States, where pirated editions were still commonplace, his authorised publisher, Appleton, sold 368,755 copies between 1860 and 1903. This figure did not differ much from his sales in his native Britain, and once editions in the rest of the world are added in the figure of a million copies seems like a conservative estimate. As William James remarked, Spencer "enlarged the imagination, and set free the speculative mind of countless doctors, engineers, and lawyers, of many physicists and chemists, and of thoughtful laymen generally." The aspect of his thought that emphasised individual self-improvement found a ready audience in the skilled working class.

Spencer's influence among leaders of thought was also immense, though it was most often expressed in terms of their reaction to, and repudiation of, his ideas. As his American follower John Fiske observed, Spencer's ideas were to be found "running like the weft through all the warp" of Victorian thought. Such varied thinkers as Henry Sidgwick, T.H. Green, G.E. Moore, William James, Henri Bergson, and Émile Durkheim defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society is to a very large extent an extended debate with Spencer, from whose sociology, many commentators now agree, Durkheim borrowed extensively.

In post-1863-Uprising Poland, many of Spencer's ideas became integral to the dominant fin-de-siècle ideology, "Polish Positivism". The leading Polish writer of the period, Bolesław Prus, hailed Spencer as "the Aristotle of the nineteenth century" and adopted Spencer's metaphor of society-as-organism, giving it a striking poetic presentation in his 1884 micro-story, "Mold of the Earth", and highlighting the concept in the introduction to his most universal novel, Pharaoh (1895).

The early 20th century was hostile to Spencer. Soon after his death, his philosophical reputation went into a sharp decline. Half a century after his death, his work was dismissed as a "parody of philosophy", and the historian Richard Hofstadter called him "the metaphysician of the homemade intellectual, and the prophet of the cracker-barrel agnostic." Nonetheless, Spencer's thought had penetrated so deeply into the Victorian age that his influence did not disappear entirely.

In recent years, much more positive estimates have appeared, as well as a still highly negative estimate.

දේශපාලනික ආභාෂය
Despite his reputation as a Social Darwinist, Spencer's political thought has been open to multiple interpretations. His political philosophy could both provide inspiration to those who believed that individuals were masters of their fate, who should brook no interference from a meddling state, and those who believed that social development required a strong central authority. In Lochner v. New York, conservative justices of the United States Supreme Court could find inspiration in Spencer's writings for striking down a New York law limiting the number of hours a baker could work during the week, on the ground that this law restricted liberty of contract. Arguing against the majority's holding that a "right to free contract" is implicit in the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. wrote: "The Fourteenth Amendment does not enact Mr. Herbert Spencer's Social Statics." Spencer has also been described as a quasi-anarchist, as well as an outright anarchist. Marxist theorist Georgi Plekhanov, in his 1909 book Anarchism and Socialism, labelled Spencer a "conservative Anarchist."

Spencer's ideas became very influential in China and Japan largely because he appealed to the reformers' desire to establish a strong nation-state with which to compete with the Western powers. His thought was introduced by the Chinese scholar Yen Fu, who saw his writings as a prescription for the reform of the Qing state. Spencer also influenced the Japanese Westernizer Tokutomi Soho, who believed that Japan was on the verge of transitioning from a "militant society" to an "industrial society," and needed to quickly jettison all things Japanese and take up Western ethics and learning. He also corresponded with Kaneko Kentaro, warning him of the dangers of imperialism. Savarkar writes in his Inside the Enemy Camp, about reading all of Spencer's works, of his great interest in them, of their translation into Marathi, and their influence on the likes of Tilak and Agarkar, and the affectionate sobriquet given to him in Maharashtra – Harbhat Pendse.

සහිත්‍ය ආභාෂය
Spencer greatly influenced literature and rhetoric. His 1852 essay, "The Philosophy of Style", explored a growing trend of formalist approaches to writing. Highly focused on the proper placement and ordering of the parts of an English sentence, he created a guide for effective composition. Spencer aimed to free prose writing from as much "friction and inertia" as possible, so that the reader would not be slowed by strenuous deliberations concerning the proper context and meaning of a sentence. Spencer argued that writers should aim "To so present ideas that they may be apprehended with the least possible mental effort" by the reader.

He argued that by making the meaning as readily accessible as possible, the writer would achieve the greatest possible communicative efficiency. This was accomplished, according to Spencer, by placing all the subordinate clauses, objects and phrases before the subject of a sentence so that, when readers reached the subject, they had all the information they needed to completely perceive its significance. While the overall influence that "The Philosophy of Style" had on the field of rhetoric was not as far-reaching as his contribution to other fields, Spencer's voice lent authoritative support to formalist views of rhetoric.

Spencer influenced literature inasmuch as many novelists and short story authors came to address his ideas in their work. George Eliot, Leo Tolstoy, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Bolesław Prus, Abraham Cahan, D. H. Lawrence, Machado de Assis, Richard Austin Freeman, and Jorge Luis Borges all referenced Spencer. Arnold Bennett greatly praised First Principles, and the influence it had on Bennett may be seen in his many novels. Jack London went so far as to create a character, Martin Eden, a staunch Spencerian. It has also been suggested that the character of Vershinin in Anton Chekhov's play The Three Sisters is a dedicated Spencerian. H.G. Wells used Spencer's ideas as a theme in his novella, The Time Machine, employing them to explain the evolution of man into two species. It is perhaps the best testimony to the influence of Spencer's beliefs and writings that his reach was so diverse. He influenced not only the administrators who shaped their societies' inner workings, but also the artists who helped shape those societies' ideals and beliefs. In Rudyard Kipling's novel Kim, the Anglophile Bengali spy Hurree Babu admires of Herbert Spencer and quotes him to comic effect: "They are, of course, dematerialised phenomena.  Spencer says." "I am good enough Herbert Spencerian, I trust, to meet little thing like death, which is all in my fate, you know." "He thanked all the Gods of Hindustan, and Herbert Spencer, that there remained some valuables to steal."

ප්‍රාථමික මූලාශ්‍ර
 Papers of Herbert Spencer in Senate House Library, University of London
 Most of Spencer's books are available online
 "On The Proper Sphere of Government" (1842)
 Social Statics: or, The Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and the First of Them Developed (1851)
 "The Right to Ignore the State", Chapter XIX of the first edition of Social Statics(p)
 Social Statics: Abridged and Revised (1892)
 "A Theory of Population" (1852)
 Principles of Psychology (1855), first edition, issued in one volume
 Education (1861)
 System of Synthetic Philosophy',' in ten volumes
 First Principles ISBN 0-89875-795-9 (1862)
 Principles of Biology (1864, 1867; revised and enlarged: 1898), in two volumes
 Volume I – Part I: The Data of Biology; Part II: The Inductions of Biology; Part III: The Evolution of Life; Appendices
 Volume II – Part IV: Morphological Development; Part V: Physiological Development; Part VI: Laws of Multiplication; Appendices
 Principles of Psychology (1870, 1880), in two volumes
 Volume I – Part I: The Data of Psychology; Part II: The Inductions of Psychology; Part III: General Synthesis; Part IV: Special Synthesis; Part V: Physical Synthesis; Appendix
 Volume II – Part VI: Special Analysis; Part VII: General Analysis; Part VIII: Congruities; Part IX: Corollaries
 Principles of Sociology, in three volumes
 Volume I (1874–75; enlarged 1876, 1885) – Part I: Data of Sociology; Part II: Inductions of Sociology; Part III: Domestic Institutions
 Volume II – Part IV: Ceremonial Institutions (1879); Part V: Political Institutions (1882); Part VI [published here in some editions]: Ecclesiastical Institutions (1885)
 Volume III – Part VI [published here in some editions]: Ecclesiastical Institutions (1885); Part VII: Professional Institutions (1896); Part VIII: Industrial Institutions (1896); References
 The Principles of Ethics  (1897), in two volumes
 Volume I – Part I: The Data of Ethics (1879); Part II: The Inductions of Ethics (1892); Part III: The Ethics of Individual Life (1892); References
 Volume II – Part IV: The Ethics of Social Life: Justice (1891); Part V: The Ethics of Social Life: Negative Beneficence (1892); Part VI: The Ethics of Social Life: Positive Beneficence (1892); Appendices
 The Study of Sociology (1873, 1896)
 An Autobiography (1904), in two volumes
 See also
 v1 Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer by David Duncan (1908)
 v2 Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer by David Duncan (1908)
 Descriptive Sociology; or Groups of Sociological Facts, parts 1–8, classified and arranged by Spencer, compiled and abstracted by David Duncan, Richard Schepping, and James Collier (London, Williams & Norgate, 1873–1881).

 Illustrations of Universal Progress: A Series of Discussions (1864, 1883)
 The Man versus the State (1884)
 The man versus the state
 Essays: Scientific, Political, and Speculative (1891), in three volumes:
 Volume I (includes "The Development Hypothesis," "Progress: Its Law and Cause," "The Factors of Organic Evolution" and others)
 Volume II (includes "The Classification of the Sciences", The Philosophy of Style (1852), The Origin and Function of Music," "The Physiology of Laughter," and others)
 Volume III (includes "The Ethics of Kant", "State Tamperings With Money and Banks", "Specialized Administration", "From Freedom to Bondage", "The Americans", and others)
 Various Fragments (1897, enlarged 1900)
 Facts and Comments (1902)
 Great Political Thinkers (1960)

දාර්ශනික විචාර
 Herbert Spencer: An Estimate and Review (1904) by Josiah Royce.
 Lectures on the Ethics of T.H. Green, Mr. Herbert Spencer, and J. Martineau (1902) by Henry Sidgwick.
 Spencer-smashing at Washington (1894) by Lester F. Ward.
 A Perplexed Philosopher  (1892) by Henry George.
 A Few Words with Mr Herbert Spencer (1884) by Paul Lafargue.
 Remarks on Spencer's Definition of Mind as Correspondence (1878) by William James.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 Contributions to liberal theory
 Geolibertarianism
 Organicism
 Social Darwinism

සටහන්

යොමුව

බාහිර යොමු

 Herbert Spencer entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy by William Sweet
 Review materials for studying Herbert Spencer
 Find a Grave

 Project Gutenberg
 Internet Archive
 LibriVox
 Works by Herbert Spencer at the Online Library of Liberty (HTML, facsimile PDF, reading PDF)
 On Moral Education, reprinted in Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought (Spring 1966)
 First principles Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library.
 First Principles online
 "The Right to Ignore the State" by Herbert Spencer.

සමාජ විද්‍යාඥ‍යෝ

හර්බට් ස්පෙන්සර්


Monkey Island is a well-known adventure game series made and published by LucasArts.

The games are known for their humor, and often use parody and clichés, both from pirate stories as well as from films.

The story takes place in the Caribbean. In the different games. The first one involves main character Guybrush Threepwood, who wants to become a pirate, has many adventures. Each of the games usually involves the evil undead ghost/zombie pirate LeChuck and the island which gave the series its name.

The Monkey Island series
 The Secret of Monkey Island (1990)
 Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge (1991)
 The Curse of Monkey Island (1997)
 Escape from Monkey Island (2000)
 Tales of Monkey Island (2009)
 The Secret of Monkey Island Special Edition (2009)
 Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge Special Edition (2010)
 Return to Monkey Island (2022)

Video game series

Monkey Island


Satyr plays were an ancient Greek form of theatre, similar in spirit to burlesque. They featured choruses of satyrs, were based on Greek mythology, and were rife with mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment.

Theatrical forms
Theatre of ancient Greece

Satyr play


BanxCorp is a financial services firm established since 1984. The company was founded by its CEO Norbert Mehl, a Swiss-born, New York-based, multilingual serial entrepreneur and international finance professional engaged in startups, M&A, financial services, and real estate..

BanxQuote
Over a period of three decades, the company's BanxQuote unit was the foremost provider and licensor of indexes and analytics used as a barometer of the U.S. banking and mortgage markets until its exit in 2015. Its banking and mortgage benchmarking solutions, historical indices and analytical tools have been available online for nearly two decades on WSJ.com, The Wall Street Journal, Bloomberg Professional terminals, and other leading media.  BanxQuote was featured by the White House in the 2008 Economic Report of the President.

Clients of the firm have included hundreds of financial institutions nationwide. BanxQuote operated an online B2C national banking and mortgage marketplace for 15 years, until its exit in 2010.

From the mid 80s until the late 90s, the firm's predecessor, MasterFund Inc., also led by its founder and CEO Norbert Mehl, had joint ventures with various retail and wholesale fixed income broker dealers, with a physical presence on their trading floors. During this period the firm originated, routed and facilitated the placement of several billion dollars of consumer and institutional brokered deposits at hundreds of banks nationwide.

References

Comment
|
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Financial services companies based in New York City

BanxCorp


The Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna (Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna) is an academic society in Bologna, Italy, that was founded in 1690 and prospered in the Age of Enlightenment. Today it is closely associated with the University of Bologna.

Origins

By the end of the seventeenth century the University of Bologna, the world's oldest university and once a thriving center of artistic and scientific discovery, had entered a long period of decline. The Academy degli Inquieti was founded in Bologna around 1690 by Eustachio Manfredi as a place where mathematical topics could be discussed. At first, the academy held its meetings in Manfredi's house, where it began to attract scholars working in other disciplines such as anatomy and physiology, from Bologna and from nearby provinces. In 1694 the academy moved to the house of Jacopo Sandri, a professor of anatomy and medicine at the University of Bologna. In 1704 the academy acquired a more formal structure with the appointment of a president and a secretary.

In 1705 the academy moved again to the palazzo of Conte Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli. Marsigli was a polymath, widely seen as the founder of the sciences of oceanography and marine geology. His ambition, never fulfilled, was to complete his Treatise on the Structure of the Earthy Globe, of which about 200 sheets have been preserved in the University of Bologna's library. Marsigli's goal with the institute was to gather all modern scientific knowledge within the rooms of an old senatorial residence, the Palazzo Poggi.

A constitution for the Institute of Science was approved on 12 December 1711. In 1712 Marsigli donated his museum to the city of Bologna, and it was moved to the Palazzo Poggi.

Early years

The Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna was formally inaugurated in 1714, and the Accademia degli Inquieti merged into it. Marsigli had also founded an Academy of Fine Arts in his house for painting, sculpture and architecture. The Senate allowed him to join this academy, the Accademia di Belle Arti di Bologna, to the Science Academy. Pope Clement XI was a strong supporter of the Fine Arts Academy and supplied it with its statutes. The Arts Academy was sometimes called the Accademia Clementina di Bologna in his honor. The Accademia Clementina was on the first floor of the Institute in the Palazzo Poggi, the Accademia delle Scienze on the second floor and the observatory on the third floor.

The science academy initially had five professorial chairs. Marsigli's vision was that the Accademia delle Scienze would carry out scientific research in the tradition of Galileo and Newton. At first, the institute did not come up to Marsigli's expectations. He found that it was used only as a place for intellectual entertainment, a place to show off to visitors to the city, and few people attended the lectures or scientific demonstrations. In 1723 a serious conflict arose between Marsigli, who had largely funded the institute, and the Senate of Bologna, who were in charge of it. The Senate had not, in Marsigli's view, met the conditions of his donation. With pressure from the Pope, the issues were temporarily resolved to Marsigli's satisfaction in 1726, but his enemies continued to be obstructive, and in 1728 Marsigli abandoned his project in disgust. Marsigli died in 1730.

Various changes and additions were made to the two-story Palazzo Poggi to accommodate the needs of the institute. The Astronomical Observatory Tower (Specola) was built in 1725 to a design by Carlo Francesco Dotti. Laboratories, galleries and workshops were set up, and the institute became a research facility as well as a venue for exchanging information. In 1727 Marsigli transferred his collection of materials from the Dutch East and West Indies to the institute. The institute published its first volume of Proceedings in 1731, three volumes between 1745 and 1747, and five more volumes before the end of the eighteenth century. The institute helped pull Bologna out of its provincial isolation, reengaging with centers such as the French Academy of Sciences and the British Royal Society.

Age of Enlightenment

Prospero Lambertini, archbishop of Bologna and later Pope Benedict XIV, was a strong supporter of the institute. Elected Pope in 1741, he arranged for purchase of astronomical instruments for the Specola observatory from Jonathan Sisson of London. He launched a major project to reorganize the library of the Istituto delle Scienze e della Arti, building the "Benedictine" wing of the Aula Magna reading room, now part of the university library. The collections and library of the Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522-1605), the natural historian, were transferred from the university to the institute. The influence of Aldrovandi may be seen in the "liberal Diluvianism" of the institute's scientists at this time, who believed in a "balanced integration of science, philosophy and religion." In 1742 Ercole Lelli was asked to supply wax anatomical models for the institute's Museum of Anatomy. In 1743 the institute obtained the donation of the Naturalia Museum collection of natural objects that had been assembled by Senator Ferdinando Cospi.

In 1744 the advice of Pieter van Musschenbroek and Willem 's Gravesande was sought in acquiring instruments from the Netherlands to teach and explore the theories of Galileo and Newton. In 1745 the institute opened a Gabinetto di Fisica, a room that held a museum and a laboratory for exploring physics. The entire workshop of the optical instrument maker Giuseppe Campani (1635-1715) was donated to the Gabinetto di Fisica in 1747. Additional funds were supplied to improve the chemical laboratories and support the Professor of Chemistry. In 1754 Cardinal Filippo Maria Monti gave the institute his 12,000-volume library and a collection of paintings that included portraits of major scientific figures. The library was formally opened in 1756. In 1757 Giovanni Antonio Galli was made Professor of Obstetrics, and the next year the Pope overrode opposition and established a school of obstetrics at the institute.

After the reforms by Pope Benedict XIV, the Science Academy became a center for all who wanted to advance sciences in Bologna. A new interest arose in the theories of Marcello Malpighi, René Descartes and Isaac Newton, and in the teachings of Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei and Francis Bacon, as well as interest in social issues. The physicist Laura Bassi, who in 1732 had become the second European woman to be awarded a university degree, became a member of the institute where she presented annual papers such as her 1746 On the compression of air. Another early female member was Émilie du Châtelet. The chemist Bartolomeo Beccari looked for ways to make populations resistant to famine through a new type of emergency diet. The academy reached a high level of scientific progress towards the end of the eighteenth century under its President Luigi Galvani. In 1791 he published his revolutionary treaty de viribus electricitatis in motu musculari ("Commentary on the Force of Electricity on Muscular Motion").

Later history

The Napoleonic period caused great upheavals. Around 1802 or 1803 the Accademia Clementina was dissolved, leaving only the Science Academy. In 1804 the academy was temporarily suspended. It reopened in 1829 at the command of Bartolomeo Alberto Cappellari, the future Pope Gregory XVI (Pope from 1831 to 1846), who saw the academy as the authoritative source for scientific opinions and advice to the Papal States. Pope Pius IX (Pope from 1846 to 1878) considered it an important vehicle for achieving scientific and social progress. Prominent members during those years included Antonio Alessandrini, Antonio Bertoloni, his son Giuseppe Bertoloni, Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi, and Charles Lucien Bonaparte.

The institute experienced serious economic problems during the years that immediately followed the annexation of the Papal Legation of Bologna by the Kingdom of Italy in 1859, in which the city of Bologna lost much of its political importance. In 1883 "Royal" was added to the academy's name. This was dropped in 1945.

In the later nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth century the academy revived and was home to many famous scientists including Francesco Rizzoli, Augusto Righi, Giovanni Capellini, Luigi Calori and Pietro Albertoni. At the start of the twentieth century there was a move to establish a new faculty of human sciences, led by scholars such as Giosuè Carducci and Giovanni Pascoli. In 1907, the academy admitted legal scholars for the first time. Under the Fascist regime, the academy played a leading role in the new Royal Academy of Italy, due to important scholars such as Guglielmo Marconi and Alessandro Ghigi. After World War II the Academy of Italy was dissolved, and the Bologna Academy found itself again in serious financial difficulties.

Today

The academy today publishes original work in the fields of the humanities and the sciences, and promotes conferences and debates. The academy cooperates with the University of Bologna to arrange seminars attended by about 1,500 academics annually. With its legacy of frescoes by Pellegrino Tibaldi, it is particularly involved in the history of art and restoration of art.

Scientific journals

The Academy has published several journals during its history, some of which have been digitised and are accessible online. Typically, each journal was published in a series of up to about 10 volumes, the last in each series including a general index. Those journals include:
 Annali di storia naturale, 1829-1830.
 Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Instituti Bononiensis, 1834-1849.
 Nuovi annali delle scienze naturali, 1838-1854.
 Memorie della Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna, 1850at least 1923.
 Rendiconti delle Sessioni dell'Accademia delle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna, 1851-1857.

Notes and references

Notes

Citations

Sources

University of Bologna
1690 establishments in Italy
Learned societies of Italy
Educational institutions established in the 1690s


Sandra Cisneros (December 20, 1954-2018 ) is an author from Chicago, Illinois. She is famous for her book "The House on Mango Street." It has sold six million copies and been translated into over 20 languages. Middle and high schoolers read her books in school for education uses. The House on Mango Street is a series of vignettes. A vignette is a series of stories or a brief description of something. The girl in the novel goes through childhood to adulthood changes. Sandra studied at Loyola University of Chicago and the University of Iowa. Her books are about issues between other races, classes, and genders.

Family
Sandra is the second child of Alfredo Cisneros de Moral and Elvira Cordero Anguiano. They had seven children together, one girl and the rest were boys. There was one daughter but she died as a baby after giving birth. Sandra's father wants his family of boys. During her childhood, there was sexism so her father which is pushing her over the limits. Since her father Alfredo Cisneros de Moral moved the family between Mexico City and Chicago, Sandra was shy during her childhood.  She doesn't make close friends for pretty long. Her mother, Elvira Cordero Anguiano, was a strong female who wanted Sandra to achieve her goal.

Awards

 American Book Award - 1985
 Lannan Literary Award for Fiction - 1991
 Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Fiction - 1993
 MacArthur Fellowship Award - 1995
 Texas Medal of Arts - 2003
 National Medal of Arts - 2016 (Presented by Barack Obama)

References

1954 births
Living people
Writers from Chicago

Sandra Cisneros


A zettabyte (ZB) is a unit of measurement for computers of the future. One zettabyte holds 1000 exabytes (EB) or a billion trillion (1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) bytes, and 1000 zettabytes make one yottabyte.

A zettabyte is so large that it would take about a million supercomputers (or a billion powerful home computers)
to store this amount of data.

Units of information

Zettabyte


The term Blank verse means poetry that does not use rhyme.

Blank verse relies on the meter of the lines in the poem to give structure, and to create the feeling of poetry as compared to prose. An example from William Wordsworth's poem Michael shows  the lack of rhyme and the strict meter in blank verse – each line sticks fairly closely to the pattern of iambic pentameter:

 Upon the forest-side of Grasmere Vale
 There dwelt a shepherd, Michael was his name;
 An old man, stout of heart, and strong of limb.
 His bodily frame had been from youth to age
 Of an unusual strength: his mind was keen,
 Intense, and frugal, apt for all affairs,
 And in his shepherd's calling he was prompt
 And watchful more than ordinary men.

Many critics judge blank verse to be better than rhyme for serious subjects, and many poets have used blank verse for their most important works. Shakespeare used rhyme in his early plays, but in his more mature works like Hamlet he preferred blank verse. John Milton wrote Paradise Lost in blank verse, including a note at the beginning of the poem saying that rhyming poetry was used to disguise badly written poems, Lord Tennyson used it for Idylles of the King, and Wordsworth used it for The Prelude and The Excursion. John Keats used rhyme in his Endymion, his first try at a major poem; for his second attempt, Hyperion, he switched to blank verse. The longest poems in English literature are written in blank verse, for example The Fall of Nineveh by Edwin Atherstone or King Alfred by John Fitchett. This last is about 130 000 lines long.

Many 20th century poets gave up both rhyme and the strict meter of blank verse to write free verse.

References

Related pages
Free verse

Bibliography
Joseph Berg Esenwein, Mary Eleanor Roberts, Art of Versification. Revised edition. Springfield: 1920.

Poetry forms

Blank verse


Standard of living usually refers to the economic level of an individual, family, or nation.  People can measure it by the value of the goods and services produced or used by the individual, family, or nation in a period of time.

Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms a good standard of living as a human right with enough food, clothing, housing, social security and aid when having difficult situation, such as joblessness, illness, disability, losing one's partner, and being old. Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights affirms this as well.

Quality of life
Some measures try to take non-material things into account when trying to understand how people live. In an Economist study in 2005 Ireland was rated highest in quality of living, while Zimbabwe was seen as having one of the worst quality of life rates in the world.

Related pages
Economic development
Quality of life
Right to an adequate standard of living

Economics
Human rights

Standard of living


Renier of Montferrat (in Italian, Ranieri di Monferrato) (1162–1183) was the fifth son of William V of Montferrat and Judith of Babenberg. He became son-in-law of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and Caesar in 1180, and was later murdered in a Byzantine power-struggle.

Early life
It was Manuel who suggested the marriage of his daughter Maria the Porphyrogenita to a son of William V. Since Conrad and Boniface were already married, and Frederick was in the priesthood, the only eligible son was the youngest, 17-year-old Renier. The Byzantine chronicler Niketas Choniates described him as handsome, blond (his hair "shone like the sun") and beardless.

Renier arrived in Constantinople in autumn 1179 and soon afterwards accompanied Manuel on a military expedition. His marriage to the 27-year-old Maria took place at the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae, in February 1180. The wedding was celebrated with lavish festivity including games in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, as fully described by William of Tyre, who happened to be present.  Renier was given the title Caesar, was renamed John, and (according to some Western sources) was granted Thessalonica, presumably as an estate for life, a pronoia. Maria was second in line to the throne, and had only been deprived of the succession by the birth of her much younger half-brother Alexios. Thus Renier became entangled in the perpetual power struggle around the Byzantine throne.
With the death of Manuel in September 1180, the throne fell to the boy Alexios II, with his mother, Maria of Antioch, acting as regent. She caused a scandal by taking the protosebastos Alexios Komnenos as a lover. This, combined with her Latin-friendly views, triggered a plot to end the regency (or, as some describe it, to overthrow the emperor) and give power to Maria and Renier. The plot was discovered, and several conspirators arrested. Maria and Renier sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia cathedral with some 150 of their followers. Fighting ensued, later dubbed the Holy War as it took place in that most holy church. Eventually, the conspirators were offered an amnesty to end the hostilities.

Background
Both the emperor and the conspirators soon fell victim to another usurper, however, as Manuel's cousin and rival Andronikos Komnenos returned from exile, apparently with Maria's encouragement, and, more importantly, with an army in support. Andronikos' takeover was marked by the massacre of the Latins that followed. Maria died soon afterwards, allegedly by poison: she was, no doubt, a potential focus of opposition to the usurper. Renier seems to have shared her fate, though his death is noted by very few sources.

Alexios II was forced to recognise Andronikos as his co-emperor, and was soon murdered. The Latin massacre had not been forgotten, twenty years later, when the leaders of the Fourth Crusade found reasons to divert their expedition to Constantinople. Later sources suggest that Renier's surviving older brother Boniface based his claim to Thessalonica on his late brother's title.

See also
List of people who disappeared

Notes

Sources
 Nicetas Choniates, Historia, ed. J.-L. Van Dieten, 2 vols., Berlin and New York, 1975; trans. as O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, by H.J. Magoulias, Detroit; Wayne State University Press, 1984,

Bibliography

 Garland, Lynda, & Stone, Andrew, "Maria Porphyrogenita, daughter of Manuel I Comnenus", De Imperatoribus Romanis (external link)

Queller, Donald E. & Madden, Thomas F. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (2nd Edition, 1999)

Usseglio, Leopoldo. I Marchesi di Monferrato in Italia ed in Oriente durante i secoli XII e XIII, 1926.

1162 births
1183 deaths
12th-century Byzantine people
12th-century Italian nobility
Aleramici
Caesars (Byzantine nobles)
Komnenos dynasty
Missing person cases in Italy
Murdered royalty
Officials of Manuel I Komnenos

Renier of Montferrat


Rhys Llywelyn Isaac (20 November 1937 – 6 October 2010) was a South African-born Australian historian of American history who also worked in the United States.

Isaac and his twin brother Glynn were born in Cape Town, South Africa, to William Edwyn Isaac and Frances Margaret Leighton, both professional botanists.

Isaac earned his B.A. and M.A. degrees from the University of Cape Town.  In 1959 he was the Cape Province Rhodes Scholar at Balliol College (Oxford), earning his Ph.D. in 1962.

In 1963 Isaac emigrated to Australia, where he taught at the University of Melbourne, and later at La Trobe University (1971–91), where he was emeritus professor of American history.  In 1975 he was a distinguished visiting professor of early American history at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia.

Isaac won the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for History for his book The Transformation of Virginia, 1740-1790 (1982), becoming the first and only Australian historian to win a Pulitzer Prize.

In 2004 Isaac published Landon Carter's Uneasy Kingdom: Revolution and Rebellion on a Virginia Plantation, which made use of the exemplary diary of a Virginian landholder and member of the House of Burgesses.

Death
Isaac died at his home in Blairgowrie, Victoria, Australia, on 6 October 2010, aged 72, from cancer.

References

1937 births
People from Cape Town
2010 deaths
20th-century South African historians
Colony of Virginia
Historians of the American Revolution
Historians of the Southern United States
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Historians of the United States
Academic staff of La Trobe University
College of William & Mary faculty
Pulitzer Prize for History winners
Deaths from cancer in Victoria (state)
20th-century Australian historians
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers

Rhys Isaac


Cartagena is a city in the Region of Murcia, in Spain. In the south of the region, at the Mediterranean Sea. The population of the city is 205,000 and it is an industrial centre. Cartagena was founded by the Carthaginese as "Qart Hadasht" and the name means New City.

Other websites

Cartagena


Autogenic training is a relaxation technique developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz and first published in 1932.

The technique involves the daily practice of sessions that last around 15 minutes, usually in the morning, at lunch time, and in the evening. During each session, the practitioner will repeat a set of visualisations that induce a state of relaxation. Each session can be practiced in a position chosen amongst a set of recommended postures (e.g. lying down, sitting meditation, sitting like a rag doll, etc.).

Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation. However, unlike some forms of yoga and meditation, autogenic training is devoid of any mysticism.  It is a method for influencing one's autonomic nervous system.

Example of an autogenic training session
 sit in the meditative posture and scan the body
 "my left arm is heavy and warm" (repeat 3 times)
 "my arms and legs are heavy and warm" (repeat 3 times)
 "my heartbeat is calm and regular" (repeat 3 times)
 "my solar plexus is warm" (repeat 3 times)
 ...
 finish part one by cancelling
 start part two by repeating from steps 2 to cancelling
 part three repeat steps 2 to cancelling

Counter-indications
Autogenic Training is counter-indicated, or needs to be adapted, for a series of conditions including: heart problems such as myocardial infarction, diabetes, psychotic conditions such as schizophrenia, glaucoma, alcohol or drug abuse, epilepsy.

References

 Luthe Dr W & Schultz Dr JH, "Autogenic Therapy", first published by Grune and Stratton, Inc., New York, (1969). Republished in (2001) by The British Autogenic Society.
In six volumes.
Vol. 1 Autogenic Methods
Vol. 2 Medical Applications
Vol. 3 Applications in Psychotherapy
Vol. 4 Research and Theory
Vol. 5 Dynamics of Autogenic Neutralisation
Vol. 6 Treatment with Autogenic Neutralisation

Other websites
The British Autogenic Society
Spanish Society of Psychotherapy and the Institute for Autogenic Psychotherapy (in Spanish)
An audio version of the Autogenic Training
Autogenics: A self-help training schedule.

Psychology
Meditation

Autogenic training


Wilhelm Nienstädt (16 October 1784 — 28 April 1862) was a Prussian educator and writer.

Nienstädt was born in Geitelde (now Braunschweig).  The son of a minister, he studied theology at Helmstedt and Göttingen. In 1808  Nienstädt contributed the essay On Didactic Poetry to the literary journal Phöbus, published by Heinrich von Kleist and Adam Heinrich Müller.

After graduation, he took a two-year trip or Bildungsreise, probably to Italy, and worked as a tutor for various aristocratic families, including the houses of Count Häseler and Count von Voß. On the recommendation of the future Prussian Foreign Minister Friedrich Ancillon, in 1815 he was appointed tutor of Prince Albert of Prussia (1809-1872), the son of Frederick William III, and over the next ten years he produced many works, including the play Ein Zaubertag (1816), the essay Versuch einer Darstellung unser Zeit (1819), and the collection of poems Gedichte vermischten Inhalts (1820), which includes some drama and ballads, as well as the epic Olint and Elvire.

In 1822 Nienstädt was appointed to the geheimer Hofrat, but was honourably discharged after a short time, with a pension, and in 1826, he published the seven-part drama cycle Die Hohenstaufen and the play Karl V. In 1829 he left Berlin for Hallendorf, a village near Salzgitter and married Johanna Henriette Augusta Pauli, also the child of a minister. The rest of his life is very obscure and his activities unknown.  He died in Wolfenbüttel, aged 77.

Significance
Nienstädt's conservative pessimism, inspired by Fichte, sees a break in cultural continuity around 1500 with the invention of printing, which made the Reformation possible, with the widespread use of gunpowder and with the Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. He praises the falling away of religious dogmatism but deplores the competition, political jockeying, alienation and individualism brought about by the Enlightenment, which he sees as the victory of ratiocination over love and tradition. Nienstädt was a monarchist and rejected the French Revolution in its entirety.

Only the Hohenstaufen dramas, inspired by the work of the historian Friedrich von Raumer, had any detectable influence on German literature of the ensuing decades.

1784 births
1862 deaths
19th-century German poets
Writers from Braunschweig
People from the Duchy of Brunswick
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German male writers

Wilhelm Nienstädt


MLB Extra Innings is an out-of-market sports package distributed in North America by satellite provider DirecTV since 1996 and by most cable providers since 2001. The package allowed its subscribers to see up to 80 out-of-market Major League Baseball games a week using local over the air stations and regional sports networks.

As of the 2008 season, the feeds from both teams' broadcasts were available for each game on DirecTV, even if a team is showing the game locally on a broadcast station. Even though the package relies on satellite uplink paths, DirecTV also carries feeds from local broadcast and even cable-only networks as well, such as NBC Sports Philadelphia for the Philadelphia Phillies.

The iN DEMAND version of Extra Innings added the "dual feed" system for select broadcasts after the 2008 MLB All-Star Game. Along with this, the iN DEMAND version of MLB Extra Innings was able to add broadcast television stations, WKYC (Indians), WJZ-TV (Orioles), WUSA (Nationals), WPIX (Mets, Yankees), WPHL-TV (Phillies), and in addition, one Canadian RSN, the Toronto Blue Jays' Rogers Sports Net feed. Previously, only one feed was available, usually the home team's. For the 2017 season, Comcast X1 customers could get all MLB EI games in HDTV, using the Beta IN DEMAND platform. DirecTV has offered all MLB EI (Most with dual HD feeds) games in HDTV for years.

Free previews of MLB Extra Innings were shown during the first week of the season, and the week after the All Star Game.

Availability
MLB Extra Innings is available with these cable and satellite providers:
 United States:
 DirecTV
 Dish Network
 iN DEMAND Game
 Bright House Networks
 C Spire
 Altice
 Charter Communications (Spectrum)
 Comcast (Xfinity)
 Cox Communications
 Midcontinent Communications
 RCN
 Verizon Fios
 Canada:
 Bell Satellite TV
 Telus TV
 Access Communications
 Cogeco Cable
 EastLink Cable
 Rogers Cable
 Vidéotron
 Westman Communications
 Spectrum
 Spain:
 Movistar Plus+ (Coming Soon)
 Vodafone TV (Coming Soon)
 Orange TV (Coming Soon)
 Euskaltel (Coming Soon)
 Telecable (Coming Soon)
 R (Coming Soon)
 Virgin telco (Coming Soon)
 Mexico:
 Sky México
 Megacable
 Central America:
 Sky México
 South America and Caribbean:
 Vrio
 Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay:
 Flow (Coming Soon)

Dish Network offered the package from 2004–2006, but as of January 2013, Dish was still not offering MLB Extra Innings. Despite the status, the satellite provider began carrying the MLB Network on September 1, 2011. On March 29, 2015, Dish announced it will again offer MLB Extra Innings.

New contract and controversy
On March 6, 2007, DirecTV signed a new seven-year carriage contract with MLB. At first, it was to be an exclusive deal worth $700 million. However, as a result of viewer complaints and antitrust concerns –voiced by, among others, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry– MLB agreed to offer the package for renewal by cable systems and Dish Network. By March 9, negotiations had begun to try to settle the dispute, with a deadline of April 1, the first day of the MLB regular season. MLB demanded that the cable systems bundle the renewal of the Extra Innings package with the MLB Network, a 24-hour network in the vein of NFL Network, NBA TV, and NHL Network that MLB launched on January 1, 2009. Furthermore, these systems were asked to place the channel on an expanded digital tier. At least one major system, Time Warner Cable, balked at the terms.

The offer from the cable consortium to MLB would have matched the financing portion, but cable was only willing to put the MLB Network on a premium tier. Cable systems did guarantee to reach at least as many viewers of MLB Network as DirecTV will reach. MLB was not satisfied with the offer, and publicly claimed that the cable companies failed to meet more of the criteria for the deal than they had actually met. However, while MLB wanted the cable systems to match the same offer as DirecTV, MLB would be providing more generous benefits to DirecTV for the very same offer: DirecTV would be receiving a stake in MLB Network, thereby barring cable systems from receiving the telecasts. Hence, MLB was accused of claiming that cable would not meet the same terms as DirecTV, while not offering the same deal to the cable consortium.

As of the start of the season on April 2, only DirecTV had agreed to those terms and was able to retain Extra Innings. It would not be available on any cable system until after the deadline was extended and agreements were reached.

On April 4, MLB and iN DEMAND finally reached an agreement similar to the one that MLB reached with DirecTV. Cable companies that carry iN DEMAND resumed carrying MLB Extra Innings and also agreed to add the MLB Network upon its launch. iN DEMAND only had the authority to negotiate directly for and agree to add the MLB Network on their owners' cable systems which are made up by Comcast, Time Warner Cable, Cox Communications and Advance/Newhouse (Bright House Networks); in turn, iN DEMAND got an equity stake in the MLB Network about the same as the one DirecTV received. Cablevision which had been asking for their own equity stake as terms for them to agree to add the MLB Network came to terms with iN DEMAND and Major League Baseball on May 4, 2007 which was iN DEMAND and MLB's deadline for cable companies and Dish Network to reach a deal. Dish never came to an agreement and did not carry the package until a new deal was reached with MLB on March 31, 2015. Cablevision agreed to carry the MLB Network without getting the equity stake in it. Charter Communications also reached an agreement with MLB.

iN DEMAND places MLB Extra Innings on the same channels as its NHL Center Ice service. Some providers, like Comcast and Suddenlink Communications, may not offer all 14 MLB game channels. Because of hockey games shown on the same channels (particularly in April), some nights on Comcast and Suddenlink see no more than 2 or 3 games being shown. Some Comcast cable systems do carry all 14 game channels, while some systems have limited number of channels. DirecTV customers do not have this problem, as their 15 channels (mostly RSN remaps) are dedicated solely to baseball.

Additional "Superfan" feature
In 2008, MLB Extra Innings on DirecTV launched a "Superfan" premium package similar to that available from NFL Sunday Ticket. This included a "Game Mix" with eight games on the same channel, and a "Strike Zone Channel" with live cut-ins to the night's games. It was commercial free and also available in HD.

DirecTV subscribers with the Superfan package also received access to up to 40 games in HD each week. In 2007, at least 10 games each week were in HD. HD equipment is required. Superfan cost an additional $50 on top of the MLB Extra Innings package subscription cost as well as requires one to subscribe to the $9.99 HD monthly access fee.

Beginning with the 2009 MLB season, "Superfan" no longer was offered as an option with MLB Extra Innings on DirecTV. Instead, the up to 40 HD games per week were part of the base package, provided to subscribers who already possess HD-ready equipment, and who paid the aforementioned HD monthly access fee.

Blackout restrictions

United States
Game broadcasts of a major league team in its home market are blacked out in that area if the same game is on the Extra Innings schedule. In most cases, these games can be seen locally on a broadcast or cable/satellite network. (If both feeds are available, as noted above, they are both blacked out.)

Games broadcast exclusively on ESPN are not available on Extra Innings. Beginning in the 2014 season, Fox broadcasts not shown on a local affiliate are available on Extra Innings.

Chicago Cubs and Chicago White Sox games formerly broadcast nationally via WGN America but still shown on WGN-TV in the Chicago area were available through the DirecTV version of Extra Innings from 2015-19. This also was the case for Cubs games televised by WLS-TV.

ESPN has exclusive broadcast rights for Sunday evening games. Any game starting after 5:10 p.m. Eastern on Sundays will not be broadcast on MLB Extra Innings. ESPN also televises a number of other games throughout the week. These, however, are not blacked out.

In North Carolina, Time Warner persistently refuses to carry the Mid-Atlantic Sports Network (MASN), which means all Washington Nationals and Baltimore Orioles games - home and away - are blacked out because MLB includes the state in those teams' broadcast territory.

Canada

Nationally-broadcast Toronto Blue Jays games and Sunday Night Baseball are not made available on Extra Innings and are available on Sportsnet and TSN2 respectively. All remaining televised games, including Major League Baseball on Fox, ESPN Major League Baseball and Major League Baseball on TBS are shown without exclusivity. New York Mets and New York Yankees games on WPIX-TV are not blacked out, nor were Chicago Cubs and White Sox games broadcast on WGN-TV. Out-of-market and shared territory games that air on Sportsnet's regional feeds are not blacked out, but may be subject to improper use of the simultaneous substitution rules.

Package price history
Many cable and satellite companies offer "early bird" package prices if ordered by the first week of the season or for automatic renewal, with some providers also offering a free subscription for the season for MLB.tv. The following prices were for the regular listed price per season for the cable packages.
 1996-2000: $139
 2001: $149
 2002: $159
 2008: $199
 2009: $191.94 (early renewal price)
 2010: $199
 2011: $209.94
 2012: $223.96
 2015: $197.94 (early renewal price)
DIRECTV has historically charged less for their SD only package than cable ($219 to renew and $179 for early bird in 2008) and instead offered HD and 'Superfan' for an additional charge.

DirecTV's first published prices (aka early bird) through the years: 2008:$179, 2009:$189, 2010:$192, 2011:$204 2012:$210

See also
 MLB.tv, the online equivalent service of MLB Extra Innings
 NFL Sunday Ticket
 NBA League Pass
 NHL Center Ice
 NASCAR Hot Pass
 MLS Direct Kick
 List of current Major League Baseball announcers
 Major League Baseball on regional sports networks

References

External links
 Official iNDEMAND Site

Extra Innings
Satellite television
Television channels and stations established in 1996
Out-of-market sports packages

MLB Extra Innings


The Badger Army Ammunition Plant (BAAP or Badger) or Badger Ordnance Works (B.O.W.) is an excess, non-BRAC, United States Army facility located near Sauk City, Wisconsin. It manufactured nitrocellulose-based propellants during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. It was a large munitions factory during World War II. As of 2013, the facility was in the end stages of demolition and remediation in preparation for property transfer.

History

Construction
On 29 October 1941, U.S. Representative William H. Stevenson announced the construction of a powder and acid works to be built by Hercules Powder Company. On 19 November 1941, despite protests from those living on Sauk Prairie, President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized $65,000,000 to build the plant. By 1 March 1942, the farmers who lived there had left their farms.

Construction of Badger Ordnance Works, as it was known in World War II, began in March 1942.  Before the works were built, a 75,000 foot fence was erected around approximately 7,500 acres (30 km2) of the 10,500 acres (42 km2) acquired by the U.S. Army. When the plant was finished, it contained smokeless powder and rocket grain production facilities, housing for 12,000 construction workers and their families for six months, housing for 4,000-8,000 production workers and their families for the length of World War II, a school, a recreation center, a child care facility, a hospital, cafeterias, and a transportation system. By December 1942,  of standard gauge railroad were completed.

Within the first ten months of construction, the first production area went into operation. The plans originally called for production lines to make smokeless powder, diphenylamine, and sulfuric acid. In the end, the facility's production lines included smokeless powder, acid, sulfuric acid, rocket propellant, and Ball Powder.

During the 33 years it produced ammunition for World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, the Badger Army Ammunition Plant employed over 23,000 workers.

World War II
During World War II, Badger was managed by Hercules Powder Company. It produced rocket propellant, smokeless powder, and E.C. powder. Smokeless powder had been patented a decade before World War II by DuPont and Hercules Powder Company had the rights to make it at Badger. E.C. Powder was used in hand grenades, tear gas canisters, and blank cartridges. Badger also produced acid and oleum which are necessary for the production of these forms of ammunition. The acid and oleum produced at Badger were used both on site and at other Army ammunition plants in the area.

On 10 May 1943, the first train load of finished product left Badger; 60,000 pounds of smokeless powder was sent to the Twin Cities Ordnance Plant in Minnesota where it was used in M-1 rifle cartridges.

After World War II, the facility was placed on stand-by and subsequently placed into excess federal property status. The Hercules Powder Company began the process of demolishing and burning contaminated buildings, scrapping equipment, and donating office furniture and supplies to area schools. This led to some difficulties when Badger was reactivated for the Korean War.

Korean War
In 1951, during the Korean War, Olin Industries was awarded the contract to manage Badger; the company continued to operate Badger until 2004. To get the plant into operational shape, Olin replaced machinery, office furniture and supplies, and added building production areas and capabilities such as the Ball Powder plant. At that time, Olin Industries was the only manufacturer of Ball Powder in the United States. Ball Powder, which was a trademarked name, had been introduced by Western Cartridge, a subsidiary of Olin Corporation, in 1933, but was not accepted by the U.S. Army until 1944.

Ball Powder is a fine-grained, spherical gunpowder coated in graphite that is easy to store and transport in any climate and ideal for modern infantry small arms ammunition cartridges. Because the time it took to build the Ball Powder plant at Badger was too long to enable any of the Ball Powder produced there to be used in the Korean War, it was put into storage and eventually used during the Vietnam War.

Cold War
During the Cold War years between the Korean War and the Vietnam War, Badger was held in stand-by status. It was believed that Badger would not be reactivated unless a war was imminent because the threat of a nuclear strike existed. Badger was important to the United States because of its location far from large cities, its water source, small reactivation costs, and the fact that it had the greatest ammunition manufacturing capabilities in the United States; Badger had the capability of producing most of the ammunition necessary for a land war. These qualities of Badger also made it a likely target of a nuclear attack if it were to be reactivated. Therefore, Olin Corporation maintained Badger on stand-by status until the United States announced its intent to send troops to Vietnam.

Vietnam War
Before the Vietnam War began, the army was testing the new M16 rifle which used Ball Powder ammunition. DuPont and Olin Corporation each developed Ball Powder that was compatible with the M16 rifles used in the Vietnam War and were used interchangeably. Hercules Powder Company also developed a Ball Powder for the rifles; however, it was not selected by the rifle manufacturers or the U.S. Army.

Olin Corporation also had another, smaller, plant in East Alton, Illinois where it could make Ball Powder. It was believed that the East Alton plant would produce the Ball Powder necessary for the Vietnam War. However, when workers at the East Alton plant went on strike, the entire Vietnam operation was put into jeopardy. Therefore, Badger was reactivated on January 3, 1966, and Olin Corporation prepared to make what would be millions of pounds of ammunition before propellant production ended in 1975.

By September 1966, Badger was producing and shipping oleum, a highly concentrated sulfuric acid, to the Joliet Army Ammunition Plant near Chicago, Illinois, in addition to using it locally.

Post-war period
Olin Corporation continued to maintain Badger on stand-by status after the Vietnam War.  The plant was initially laid away in 1977 and placed in stand-by status. In 1997, the U.S. Army declared Badger to be excess to its needs. Until 2004, Olin Corporation led the clean-up of Badger. In 2004, SpecPro, Inc., an 8(a) Certified Alaska Native Corporation (ANC) and subsidiary of the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, was awarded the contract to operate Badger, including all maintenance, demolition, and remediation activities. In 2012, Badger Technical Services, LLC became the sole contractor at Badger. Demolition of the Army manufacturing infrastructure began in 2004 and is expected to be complete in 2014.

Reuse
In early 2000, the Sauk County Board of Supervisors acted to establish a locally driven reuse planning process with the assistance of then-U.S. Congresswoman Tammy Baldwin and funds provided by the U.S. Department of Labor, establishing the Badger Reuse Committee (BRC). The 21-member BRC included representatives from neighboring communities, local, state, and federal governments, and the Ho-Chunk Nation. In its mission statement, the BRC charged itself with the task of developing "a common vision for the reuse of the Badger property that can be meaningfully considered and realistically implemented by the appropriate local, state, and federal agencies." It sought to achieve a community-based consensus for use of the site.

Early meetings were devoted to gathering and reviewing basic information about the Badger property and its role – past, present, and future – in Sauk County's landscape, community, and economy. In the past, the Badger lands had been a place of division and conflict. The committee identified nine key values and detailed criteria for each value to guide consideration of future uses. The BRC chose one plan that best fit the parameters of the values out of 25 different proposals. The reuse plan calls for all 7,275 acres to be managed as a whole. The land uses include conservation, prairie and savanna restoration, agriculture, education and recreation.

The Badger Reuse Plan established the need for a Badger Oversight and Management Board (BOMC), which meets bi-monthly to facilitate collaboration around the future uses of the Badger properties.

Future use

Once the installation was declared excess to the Army's needs, the General Services Administration (GSA), the federal government's real estate manager, received applications from other federal agencies interested in acquiring the land. Six applicants with federal sponsorship were approved but only five have agreed to accept property.

 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Dairy ForageThe USDA Dairy Forage Research Center was established on a portion of the Badger installation in the 1970s. USDA accepted  in 2004 and  in 2005. Another  will transfer in 2014. The research toward "greener horizons for cows, crops, and communities" continues at the USDA Dairy Forage Research Center on the land received.
 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)/Ho-Chunk NationThe BIA declined to accept any land (1553 acres) for the Ho-Chunk Nation, citing no authority to incur excessive cost for performing their own environmental assessment in addition to the work completed by the Army and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. The Ho-Chunk Nation has been unsuccessful in changing the BIA's position.
 National Park Service (NPS)/Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR)The NPS agreed to land use by the WDNR through the Federal Lands to Parks Program for park and recreation use. The transferred property will become the Sauk Prairie Recreation Area adjacent to and managed by Devil's Lake State Park. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources is drafting the master plan for the future Sauk Prairie Recreation Area, and now manages hunting on the property.  The NPS and DNR will accept all land not transferred to other owners, including the acreage originally planned for the BIA/Ho-Chunk Nation.
 Town of Sumpter, WisconsinThe Town of Sumpter will receive the three historic cemeteries located at Badger and the water and wastewater systems. The Army acquired the cemeteries (Pioneer, Thoelke, and Miller) during the initial land acquisition in 1942 and has maintained them since. The cemetery acreage totals .
 Bluffview Sanitary DistrictThe Town of Sumpter's Bluffview Sanitary District has received land relating to the sewage and water treatment system previously managed by the Army. The estimated area to be received is approximately . Bluffview, located across US 12 from Badger, is former Badger employee housing which has been further developed and is now private residences.
 Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT)WisDOT received land along the existing State Highway 78 to expand and straighten it. In 2011,  were transferred for the highway right-of-way. The department also controls the rail line that crosses the installation, by a permanent easement that has been rail banked for a trail under a long-term lease agreement with the WDNR (2011).

The Badger Army Information Repositories are located at the Sauk City Public Library, Ruth Culver Public Library, and at the Badger Army Ammunition Plant. The Badger Repositories include Army publications, RAB meeting minutes, groundwater monitoring data, and reports on remediation projects.

The mailing address is: Badger Army Ammunition Plant, S7560 Highway 12, North Freedom, Wisconsin  53951.

Geography
Originally over 10,000 acres in size, in 2004 Badger consisted of 7,275 acres of land in Sauk County. It is bounded by Devil's Lake State Park and the Baraboo Hills to the north, the Town of Merrimac and the Wisconsin River to the east, the Town of Prairie du Sac to the south, and the Town of Sumpter and the Bluffview community to the west.

Geology
Badger is located on the terminal moraine of the outwash plain of a glacier that stopped in the area during the Wisconsin Glaciation approximately 12,000 years ago. The bedrock in the area consists of quartzite, sandstone, shale, and limestone. Groundwater flow is influenced by the Baraboo Hills to the north and the Wisconsin River to the east.

Vegetation
This area originally consisted of oak savanna and prairie habitat. After settlers populated the area, agriculture became predominant and few prairie and oak savanna remnants remained. Under Army management, the open spaces at Badger consisted of a few prairie remnants, some agricultural lands, and open grassy spaces around buildings maintained by grazing. Prairie restoration began in the 1970s and these areas were maintained by fire. Grazing ended in 2003 when demolition started, and the open areas are now growing up into shrubs such as autumn olive and honeysuckle.

Environmental contamination
32 areas within the plant are polluted with solvents, toxic metals and explosive wastes. Groundwater beneath the plant is contaminated with cancer-causing chemicals, including carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene and dinitrotoluenes. An area known as the Propellant Burning Grounds is the source of a three-mile long plume of contaminated groundwater that has migrated offsite, polluting private drinking water wells in its path and flowing into the Wisconsin River. Since December 2003, dinitrotoluene (DNT) has been found in a number of private wells near the Badger Army Ammunition Plant. DNT was found above the Wisconsin Enforcement Standard in three private wells and three other private wells had nitrates above the Wisconsin ES. As of 2021, regular groundwater monitoring found hazardous levels of contaminants located halfway between Baraboo and Prairie du Sac. Restoration Advisory Board members and the Town Administrator were displeased with the Army s inaction and attempted to lobby Congress for direct funding to create a public water system.

See also
Companies/Contractors
 Olin Corporation, previous contractor
 SpecPro, Inc., previous contractor
 Badger Technical Services, LLC. previous contractor
 SpecPro Professional Services, LLC current contractor
 The Shaw Group, previous contractor

Materials
 Ammunition
 Ball propellant
 Dinitrotoluene
 Nitrocellulose
 Nitroglycerin
 Oleum
 Propellant
 Rocket propellant
 Smokeless powder

Other AAPs Associated with Badger
 Joliet Army Ammunition Plant
 Ravenna Army Ammunition Plant

Other Topics
 Environmental remediation
 Prairie restoration
 Restoration ecology

References

Further reading

External links

Historical information
A Day at Badger, film produced by the U.S. Army in the early 1970s
Badger Ammo History, video produced by Wisconsin Public Television
Badger Ammo Demolition, video produced by Wisconsin Public Television

Site information
Badger Reuse Plan
Plans for the Sauk Prairie Recreation Area
Badger Installation Action Plan (IAP)

SpecPro, Inc., provided site management through May 2012

Community groups

Badger History Group
Sauk Prairie Conservation Alliance
Citizens for Safe Water Around Badger

Military installations in Wisconsin
United States Army arsenals during World War II
Ammunition manufacturers
Military logistics of the Korean War
Military logistics of the Vietnam War
Military installations closed in 1977
Olin Corporation
Buildings and structures in Sauk County, Wisconsin
Geography of Sauk County, Wisconsin
Historic American Engineering Record in Wisconsin
United States Army arsenals
Baraboo, Wisconsin
1942 establishments in Wisconsin

Badger Army Ammunition Plant


Cubbon Park, officially Sri Chamarajendra Park, is a landmark park in Bengaluru, located in the heart of the city in the Central Administrative Area. Originally created in 1870 under Major General Richard Sankey, then British Chief Engineer of Mysore State, it covered an area of . Subsequent expansion has since taken place and the park's area is now reported to be . It has a rich recorded history of abundant flora and fauna plantations coupled with numerous impressive and aesthetically located buildings and statues of famous personages, in its precincts.

This public park was first named as Meade's Park after Sir John Meade, the acting commissioner of Mysuru in 1870 and subsequently renamed as Cubbon Park after the longest-serving commissioner of the time, Sir Mark Cubbon. To commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Sri Krishnaraja Wodeyar's rule in Mysore State, in 1927, the park was again renamed as Sri. Chamarajendra Park, in memory of the 19th-century ruler of the state Sri Chamarajendra Wodeyar (1868–94), during whose rule the park came into existence.

The landscaping in the park creatively integrates natural rock outcrops with thickets of trees, massive bamboos, with grassy expanse and flowerbeds and the monuments within its limits, regulated by the Horticulture Department of the Government of Karnataka. The predominantly green area of the park has many motorable roads, and the well-laid-out walking paths running through the park are frequented by early morning walkers and the naturalists who study plants in the tranquil natural environment. Tourists visiting this park in the city of Bengaluru have nicknamed the city itself as 'Garden City'.

The importance of the park to the city's environment is best stated by two urban architects who have won the national competition to design 'Freedom Park'.

Access
The park is accessible from M.G. Road, Kasturba road, Hudson Circle and Ambedkar Veedhi (Road). The motorable roads which run through the park are allowed for light motor vehicles only. All locations of the park are accessible through walking paths.
The park is open to the public at all times but the roads around the park are closed for traffic from 5:00 to 8:00 am every day to provide more safety and fresh environment for morning walkers and exercisers and also this park will be closed on every Sundays

Botanical assets
Indigenous and exotic botanical species found in the park are about 68 genera and 96 species with a total of around 6000 plants/trees. Indigenous species found in the park are:
artocarpus, cassia fistula, ficus, polyalthias etc., and exotic species such as araucaria, bamboo, castanospermum australe, grevillea robusta, millettia, peltophorum, schinus molle, swietenia mahagoni, tabebuia. sp etc.

Amongst the ornamental and flowering exotic trees lining the roads in the park are the Grevillea robusta (silver oak)—the first oaks introduced to Bangalore from Australia—and the delonix or the gulmohar tree (bright red flowers with long petals) along the Cubbon road in the park, which is a widely cultivated tropical ornamental tree around the world.

Avenues
The avenue of araucarias along with canna beds on either sides of the road from the Central Public Library to Hudson circle, avenue of Swieteninas in the Northern side of the park, the Java fig avenue along the road leading to the Government Museum, polyalthia avenue along the road from Queen Victoria's statue to King Edward VII's statue and the chestnut tree avenue from the Chamarajendra statue to Siddalingaiah circle are testimony to the botanical richness of the park. Other attractions at the park are the Ringwood circle, lotus pond and bamboo grove nook.

Historical buildings and monuments integral to the park
The formal gardens, from the central hall of the original Attara Kacheri (means 18 government offices) now the Karnataka High Court, extends along the ceal promenade developed symmetrically with avenues, to the museum building. Another impressive artistic structure is Iyer Hall, which houses the Central Library with a rose garden as a frontage. It is undisputedly the largest public library in the state as evidenced by the college students thronging to read here, and has the world's most extensive collection of Braille books. Other buildings located within or at the periphery of the park are 1) the Indira Priyadarshini Children's Library, 2) the Venkatappa Art Gallery, 3) the Aquarium (stated to be the second largest in India), 4) the YMCA, 5) Yuvanika — the State Youth Centre, 6) Century Club, 7) Press Club, 8) Jawahar Bal Bhavan, 9) Tennis Pavilion, 10) the Cheshire Dyer Memorial Hall and 11) the Ottawa Chatter.

A bandstand, in an octagonal shape made with cast-iron, was built in the early part of the 1900s. Before India's Independence, the British Royal Air Force used to play western band music at the band stand every Saturday evening.
An attraction for children is the well planned children's amusement park as part of Jawahar Bal Bhavan, which has the toy train, Puttani Express that runs (0.75 miles or 1.2 km) within the park, the Doll museum and a boating facility. A 20-million-year-old fossilized tree — a gift from the Geological Survey of India, is also reported at the park.

Memorials in the form of marble statues in honour of Queen Victoria (installed in 1906), King Edward VII (installed in 1919), Major General Sir Mark Cubbon, Sri Chamarajendra Wodeyar (installed in 1927) and Sir K. Sheshadri Iyer (installed (in 1913) are seen located in front of the historical buildings within the park.

Attara Kacheri

Attara Kacheri, built in 1864 A.D during British rule, is a stone structure in an intense red hue, a two storied building with Corinthian columns in Gothic Style of architecture and is located at the entrance to the park. The Public offices (Secretariat of the Government of Karnataka) were located here from 1868 AD to 1956 AD, which were later moved to the Vidhana Soudha, opposite to it. The building now accommodates the Karnataka High Court. In the Central Hall a portrait of Sir Mark Cubbon decorates the ceiling. An equestrian statue of Cubbon by Baron Marochetti is located at the back of the building.

Museum
The State Archeological Museum, one of the oldest in India, built in 1876 by Colonel Sankey, located within the park, is similar in design to the Attara Kacheri in its architectural style and hue. While the original collection in the museum belonged to Benjamin L. Rice of the Mysore Gazetteer, antiquities from Mohenjodaro period are on display in the museum. Exhibits in the museum include specimens of Vijaynagara and Halebid architecture, ancient coins and stone inscriptions as old as 5000 years.

Seshadri Iyer Memorial Hall
Seshadri Iyer Memorial Hall, built in 1915 in a classic European style with Tuscan and Corinthian columns, in honour of Sir K. Seshadri Iyer who was Dewan of Mysore State from 1883 to 1901, is an impressive red building with gables. It houses the Seshadri Memorial Library. The memorial building is ensconced in the middle of the park, framed by the greenery of the park and fronted by the rose garden. The library has an area of 300 km  and functions as the apex of the Karnataka Public Libraries system, which is governed by State Library Authority. In 2000, the library was awarded the Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation Award for the best state central library in India in recognition of its outstanding contribution to meritorious services rendered in the spread of knowledge and gearing up of library movement in the city of Bengaluru in particular and in the state of Karnataka in general. The library has presently a collection of 2.65 lakh books and also a braille section.

Preservation Act, 1979
The Preservation Act, 1979, passed by the Government of Karnataka to preserve the uniqueness of the park is under the provision of Karnataka Government Park (Preservation) Act, 1975, which states:
Accordingly, it is directed that neither any land should be granted to nor any further constructions be permitted whether temporary or permanent by any organization or individuals in the Cubbon Park and Lalbagh areas except the constructions taken up by the Horticulture Department in furtherance of the objectives of the department.

Awareness campaign
The Centre for Environment Education (CEE), India, in the year 2006, embarked on a project to develop a brochure on the park and involve the youth in several activities to help them to explore the park and through it, learn more about the wider environment. The brochure brought out as a joint effort of CEE and the Department of Horticulture.

Honoring Mark Cubbon
After being largely ignored since Indian independence in 1947, a large number of people have slowly started to acknowledge the pioneering work done by Mark Cubbon and other British administrators. On 23 August 2013, the statue of Mark Cubbon was garlanded for the first time since 1947, by Advocate S Umesh of the Cubbon Park Walkers' Association. The occasion was to mark the 238th birth anniversary of Sir Mark Cubbon. Special permission was obtained from the Karnataka High Court, and police protection was provided. The group credited Mark for being one of the chief architects of Bengaluru and Mysuru. The move was however opposed by Vatal Nagaraj, infamous for vandalizing the Cenotaph Memorial near the Hudson Memorial Church. However, the association defended their move of honoring Mark Cubbon, as his contribution to Bengaluru was undeniable. Cubbon Park was renamed as Sri Chamarajendra Park way back in 1927, but the name was never popular, and people continued to call it Cubbon Park. Further, according to historians, it would be foolish to erase history, by trying to remove all symbols of British rule, and mere symbolism cannot lead to development.

On 28 June 2020, the equestrian statue of Mark Cubbon was moved to the park grounds from the premises of Karnataka High Court.

Gallery

Location in context

References

Kingdom of Mysore
History of Bangalore
Parks in Bangalore
1870 establishments in India
Protected areas established in 1870

Sri Chamarajendra Udyanavana


Meteor burst communication uses radio waves which bounce off the ionized trails made by meteors as they enter the earth's atmosphere.  It is also called Meteor scatter communication.

Meteors are lumps of rock which are floating about in space.  There are always meteors which are entering the earth's atmosphere.  They normally burn up in the atmosphere.  A few very large ones that hit the earth are called 'meteorites'.  Most meteors are only tiny specks of dust.  As they enter the atmosphere the heat made by air friction rips off electrons.  This produces an ionized trail.  This trail can reflect radio waves in the same way that a wire would.

The meteors that are used for meteor burst communication are between one thousandth and one hundredth of a gram.  Meteors which are smaller than this are too weak to be used.  Larger ones are not frequent enough.

The ionized trail can last for several seconds.  During this time messages can be sent between two radio communication stations.  The messages will be transmitted very fast: about 200 times as fast as with ordinary shortwave radio communication.  A teletypewriter may type several lines of text during a meteor burst. The two stations that want to communicate will have to be ready all the time as they never know when the next burst of communication will come.  They may have to use several meteor bursts before the whole message is received.  The transmitters are often put on buoys in the sea.

Meteor burst communication was first widely used in the 1950s.  It was particularly useful for military communications, because a receiver could not tell exactly which direction the message had come from.  This was because the message was reflected on the way, so it did not travel in a straight line (i.e. in a simple great circle round the earth's curve).

The use of communications satellites in the late 20th century has made meteor burst communication rare.

Radio technology
Meteorites

Meteor burst communication