Kiowa () or Ka'igwa (from their endonym Cáuigú ) people are a Native American tribe and an indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in the 17th and 18th centuries, and eventually into the Southern Plains by the early 19th century. In 1867, the Kiowa were moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma.

Today, they are federally recognized as Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma with headquarters in Carnegie, Oklahoma. , there were 12,000 members.  The Kiowa language (Cáuijògà), part of the Tanoan language family, is in danger of extinction, with only 20 speakers as of 2012.

Name

In the Kiowa language, Kiowa call themselves [kɔ́j–gʷú], spelled variously as Ka'igwu, Cáuigú, Gáuigú, or Gaigwu, most given with the speculated meaning "Principal People."

The first part of the name is the element [kɔ́j] (spelled Kae-, Cáui-, Gáui-, or Gai-) which simply means 'Kiowa'. Its origin is lost. The second element -gua/gú [–gʷú] (or [–gʷúɔ̯] in older Kiowa) is a plural marker.

Ancient names of the tribe were Kútjàu or Kwu-da [kʰʷút–tɔ̀] ("emerging" or "coming out rapidly") and Tep-da [tʰép+dɔ̀ː], relating to the tribal origin myth of a creator pulling people out of a hollow log until a pregnant woman got stuck. Later, they called themselves Kom-pa-bianta (Kòmfàubî̱dàu) [kòmpɔ̀+bį̂ː–dɔ̀] (tipi flap+big–plural) for "people with large tipi flaps", before they met Southern Plains tribes or before they met white men.

In English, Kiowa is pronounced KYE-o-wə /ˈkaɪ.oʊ.wə/, KEE-o-wə /ˈki.oʊ.wə/ is considered improper. The English name derives from how the Comanches would say /kɔ́j–gʷú/ in their language. Some older Kiowas will say Kiowa as KYE-wah /ˈkaɪ.wɑː/.

In Plains Indian Sign Language, Kiowa is expressed by holding two straight fingers near the lower outside edge of the right eye and moving these fingers back past the ear. This corresponded to the ancient Kiowa hairstyle cut horizontally from the lower outside edge of the eyes to the back of their ears. This was a functional practice to keep their hair from getting tangled while they shot an arrow from a bow string. George Catlin painted Kiowa warriors with this hairstyle.

Language

The Kiowa language is a member of the Kiowa-Tanoan language family. The relationship was first proposed by Smithsonian linguist John P. Harrington in 1910, and was definitively established by Ken Hale in 1967. Parker McKenzie, born 1897, was a noted authority on the Kiowa language, learning English only when he began school. He worked with John P. Harrington, who gave him first-author credit on a co-published work, in an era when Native consultants were rarely credited at all Later he also worked with Laurel Watkins on the Kiowa language. He went on to discuss the etymology of words and insights of how the Kiowa language changed to incorporate new items of material culture. McKenzie's letters are in the National Anthropological Archives on pronunciation and grammar of the Kiowa language.

Kiowa /ˈkaɪ.əwə/ or Cáuijṑ̱gà / [Gáui[dò̱:gyà ("language of the Cáuigù (Kiowa)") is a Tanoan language spoken by Kiowa people, primarily in Caddo, Kiowa, and Comanche counties.

Additionally, Kiowa were one of the numerous nations across the US, Canada and Mexico that spoke Plains Sign Talk. Originally a trade language, it became a language in its own right that remained in use across North America.

Government

The Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in Carnegie, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area includes Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Jackson, Kiowa, Tillman, Greer and Harmon Counties. Enrollment in the tribe requires a minimum blood quantum of ¼ Kiowa descent.

, the Kiowa Tribal Chairman is Lawrence SpottedBird, and the Vice-Chairman is Jacob Tsotigh.

Economic development
The Kiowa tribe issues its own vehicle tags. , the tribe owns one smoke shop, the Morningstar Steakhouse and Grill, Morningstar Buffet, The Winner's Circle restaurant in Devol, Oklahoma, and Kiowa Bingo near Carnegie, Oklahoma.

The tribe owns three casinos, the Kiowa Casino in Carnegie, in Verden, and the Kiowa Casino and Hotel Red River in Devol (approximately 20 minutes north of Wichita Falls, Texas).

Culture
Originally from the Northern Plains and migrating to the Southern Plains,  Kiowa society follows bilateral descent, that is, both maternal and paternal lines are significant. They do not have clans but have a complex kinship-based system, and societies based on age and gender.

Tipis, conical lodges made from hide or later canvas, provided lightweight, portable housing. They hunted and gathered wild foods and traded with neighboring agrarian tribes for produce. The Kiowa migrated seasonally with the American bison because it was their main food source. They also hunted antelope, deer, turkeys and other wild game. Women collected varieties of wild berries and fruit and processed them with prepared meats to make pemmican. Dogs were used to pull travois and rawhide parfleche that contained camping goods for short moves. The Kiowa tended to stay in areas for long periods of time.

When they adopted horse culture, after acquiring horses from Spanish rancherias south of the Rio Grande, the Kiowa revolutionized their life-ways. They had much larger ranges for their seasonal hunting, and horses could carry some of their camping goods. The Kiowa and Plains Apache established a homeland that lay in the Southern Plains adjacent to the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado and western Kansas and the Red River drainage of the Texas Panhandle and western Oklahoma.

The Kiowa use Plantago virginica make garlands or wreaths for old men to wear around their heads during ceremonial dances as a symbol of health.

Cuisine

The Kiowa historically had a nomadic hunter-gatherer society. They shared a similar cuisine with their neighboring Plains tribes, such as the Comanche. The most important food source for the Kiowa and fellow plains nations is the American bison or buffalo. Before the introduction of horses, bison were hunted on foot and required the hunter to get as close as possible to the target before going close to shoot with arrows or use the long lance. Occasionally they wore the skins of wolves or coyotes to hide their approach towards the bison herds.

Hunting bison became far easier after the Kiowa acquired horses. Bison were hunted on horseback and the men used bows and arrows to take them down, as well as long lances to pierce the hearts of the animals. The women prepared bison meat in a variety of ways: roasted, boiled, and dried. Dried meat was prepared into pemmican, for sustenance while the people were on the move. Pemmican is made by grinding dried lean meat into a powder, then mixing a near equal weight of melted fat or tallow and sometimes berries; the pemmican was shaped into bars and kept in pouches until ready to eat. Certain parts of the bison were sometimes eaten raw. Other animals hunted included deer, elk, pronghorn, wild mustang, wild turkey, and bears. During times of scarce game, the Kiowa would eat small animals such as lizards, waterfowl, skunks, snakes, and armadillos. They raided ranches for Longhorn cattle to eat during hard times, and horses to eat during hard times and to acquire for their own use.

Men did most of the hunting in Kiowa society. Women were responsible for gathering wild edibles such as berries, tubers, seeds, nuts, vegetables, and wild fruit but could choose to hunt if they wanted to. Plants important to Kiowa cuisine includes pecans, prickly pear, mulberries, persimmons, acorns, plums, and wild onions. They acquired cultivated crops, such as squash, maize, and pumpkin, by trading with and raiding various Indian peoples, such as the Pawnee people, living on the western edge of the great plains. Prior to acquiring metal pots from Europeans, Kiowa cooks boiled meat and vegetables through a process of lining a pit in the earth with animal hides, filling that with water, and adding fire-heated rocks.

Transportation and dwellings

The main form of shelter used by the Kiowa was the tipi or skin lodge. Tipis were made from bison hides shaped and sewn together in a conical shape. Wooden poles called lodge poles from  in length are used as support for the lodge. Lodge poles are harvested from red juniper and the lodgepole pine. Tipis have at least one entrance flap. Smoke flaps were place at the top, so that smoke could escape from the fire pit within. The floor of the tipi was lined with animal pelts and skins for warmth and comfort. The tipi is designed to be warm inside during the cold winter months and cool inside during the warm summer. Tipis are easily collapsed and can be raised in  minutes, making it an optimal structure for a nomadic people like the Kiowa and other Plains Indian nations. The poles of the tipi were used to construct a travois during times of travel. Hide paintings often adorn the outside and inside of the tipis, with special meanings attached to certain designs.

Before the introduction of the horse to North America, the Kiowa and other plains peoples used domestic dogs to carry and pull their belongings. Tipis and belongings, as well as small children, were carried on travois, a frame structure using the tipi poles and pulled by dogs and later horses.

The introduction of the horse to Kiowa society revolutionized their way of life. They acquired horses by raiding rancheros south of the Rio Grande into Mexico, as well as by raiding other Indian peoples who already had horses, such as the Navajo and the various Pueblo people. With the horse, they could transport larger loads, hunt more game over a wider range and more easily, and travel longer and farther.  The Kiowa became powerful and skilled mounted warriors who conducted long-distance raids against enemies. The Kiowa were considered among the finest horsemen on the Plains. A man's wealth was measured primarily by the size of his horse herd, with particularly wealthy individuals having herds numbering in the hundreds. Horses were targets of capture during raids. The Kiowa considered it an honor to steal horses from enemies, and such raids often served as a rite of passage for young warriors. They adorned their horses with body paint from the medicine man for ritual and spiritual purposes, such as good fortune and protection during battle. Kiowa horses were also often decorated with beaded masks (sometimes with bison horns attached to the sides) and feathers in their manes. Mules and donkeys were also used as means of transportation and wealth; however, they were not as esteemed.

Sociopolitical organization
The Kiowa had a well structured tribal government like most tribes on the Northern Plains. They had a yearly Sun Dance gathering and an elected head-chief who was considered to be a symbolic leader of the entire nation. Warrior societies and religious societies were important to Kiowa society and carried out specific roles. Chiefs were chosen based on bravery and courage shown in battle as well as intelligence, generosity, experience, communication skills, and kindness to others. The Kiowa believed that the young fearless warrior was ideal. The entire tribe was structured around this individual. The warrior was the ideal to which young men aspired. Because of these factors, the Kiowa was of utmost importance in the history of the Southern Plains.

The women gain prestige through the achievements of their husbands, sons, and fathers, or through their own achievements in the arts. Kiowa women tanned, skin-sewed, painted geometric designs on parfleche and later beaded and quilled hides. The Kiowa women took care of the camp while the men were away. They gathered and prepared food for winter months, and participated in key ritual events. Kiowa men lived in the families of their wives' extended families. Local groups (jōfàujōgáu or jōdáu) were led by the jōfàujōqì, which merged to become a band (topadoga). These bands were led by a chief, the Topadok'i ('main chief').

The Kiowa had two political subdivisions (particularly with regard to their relationship with the Comanche):
To-kinah-yup or Thóqàhyòp /Thóqàhyòi ("Northerners", lit. 'Men of the Cold' or 'Cold People', 'northern Kiowa', lived along the Arkansas River and the Kansas border, comprising the more numerous northern bands)
Sálqáhyóp or Sálqáhyói ("Southerners", lit. 'Hot People', 'southern Kiowa', lived in the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains), Oklahoma Panhandle and Texas Panhandle, allies of the Comanche).

As the pressure on Kiowa lands increased in the 1850s, the regional divisions changed. A new regional grouping emerged:
 the Gwa-kelega or Gúhàlēcáuigú ('Wild Mustang Kiowa' or 'Gúhàlē Kiowa', they were named for the large mustang herds in the territory of the Kwahadi (Quohada) Band of the Comanche, this Comanche Band was known to them as Gúhàlēgáu – 'Wild Mustang People', with which they were living in close proximity during the last resistance to white settlement on the Southern Plains).

After the death of the high chief Dohäsan in 1866, the Kiowa split politically into a peace faction and a war faction. War-bands and peace-bands developed primarily based on their proximity to Fort Sill (Xóqáudáuhága – 'At Medicine Bluff', lit. 'Rock Cliff Medicine At Soldiers Collective They Are') and their degree of interaction.

Kiowa bands within the tipi ring during the annual Sun Dance (called Kc-to):
Kâtá or Qáutjáu ('Biters', lit. Arikara, because they had a strong trading history with the Arikara people and some families have had Arikara kin; this is the most powerful and largest Kiowa band)
Kogui or Qógûi ('Elks Band')
Kaigwa or Cáuigú ('Kiowa Proper')
Kinep / Kí̱bi̱dau / Kíbìdàu ('Big Shields') or Khe-ate / Kí̱ːet / Kíèt ('Big Shield'), also known as Káugyabî̱dau / Kāugàbîdāu ('Big Hides / Robes')
Semat / Sémhát ('Stealers' or 'Thieves', Kiowa name for their allies, the Kiowa Apache, during the Sun Dance also called Taugûi – 'Sitting (at the) Outside')
Soy-hay-talpupé / Sáuhédau-talyóp ('Blue Boys') or Pahy-dome-gaw / Pái-dome-gú ('Under-the-Sun-Men') (smallest Kiowa band)

During the Sun Dance, some bands had special obligations. These were traditionally defined as follows:

The Kâtá had the traditional right (duty or task) to supply the Kiowa during the Sun Dance with enough bison meat and other foods. This band was particularly wealthy in horses, tipis and other goods. The famous Principal Kiowa chiefs Dohäsan (Little Mountain) and Guipago (Lone Wolf) were members of this band.

The Kogui were responsible for conducting the war ceremonies during the Sun Dance. There were numerous famous families and leaders known for their military exploits and bravery, such as Ad-da-te ("Islandman"), Satanta (White Bear), and Kicking Bird, and the war chiefs Big Bow (Zepko-ete) and Stumbling Bear (Set-imkia).

The Kaigwu were the guardians of the Sacred or Medicine bundle (Tai-mé, Taimay) and the holy lance. Therefore, they were respected and enjoyed a special prestige.

The Kinep or Khe-ate were often called "Sun Dance Shields", because during the dance, they observed police duties and ensured security. The chief Woman's Heart (Manyi-ten) belonged to this band.

The Semat were allowed to participate equally, but had no specific duties and obligations during the Sun Dance.

Enemies and warrior culture

Typical of the plains Indians, the Kiowa were a warrior people. They fought frequently with enemies both neighboring and far beyond their territory. The Kiowa were notable even among plains Indians for their long-distance raids, including raids far south into Mexico and north onto the northern plains. Almost all warfare took place while mounted on horses. Enemies of the Kiowa include the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Navajo, Ute, and occasionally Lakota to the north and west of Kiowa territory. East of Kiowa territory they fought with the Pawnee, Osage, Kickapoo, Kaw, Caddo, Wichita, and Sac and Fox. To the south they fought with the Lipan Apache, Mescalero Apache, Chiricahua Apache called by the Kiowa Do'-ko'nsenä'go - ""People of the turned-up moccasins" and Tonkawa. The Kiowa also came into conflict with Indian nations from the American south and east displaced to Indian Territory during the Indian Removal period including the Cherokee, Choctaw, Muskogee, and Chickasaw. Eastern tribes found that Indian Territory, the place they were sent, was already occupied by plains Indians, most notably the Kiowa and Comanche. The Cheyenne and Arapaho would later make peace with the Kiowa and form a powerful alliance with them, the Comanche, and the Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and U.S soldiers, as well as Mexicans and the Mexican Army.

Like other plains Indians, the Kiowa had specific warrior societies. Young men who proved their bravery, skill, or displayed their worth in battle were often invited to one of the warrior societies. In addition to warfare, the societies worked to keep peace within the camps and tribe as a whole. There were six warrior societies among the Kiowa. The Po-Lanh-Yope (Little Rabbits) was for boys; all young Kiowa boys were enrolled and the group served mostly social and education purposes, involving no violence or combat. The Adle-Tdow-Yope (Young Sheep), Tsain-Tanmo (Horse Headdresses), Tdien-Pei-Gah (Gourd Society), and Ton-Kon-Gah (Black Legs or Leggings), were adult warrior societies. The Koitsenko (Qkoie-Tsain-Gah, Principal Dogs or Real Dogs) consisted of the ten most elite warriors of all the Kiowa, who were elected by the members of the other four adult warrior societies.

Kiowa warriors used a combination of traditional and nontraditional weapons, including long lances, bows and arrows, tomahawks, knives, and war-clubs, as well as the later acquired rifles, shotguns, revolvers, and cavalry swords. Shields were made from tough bison hide stretched over a wooden frame, or made from the skull of bison, which made a small, strong shield. Shields and weapons were adorned with feathers, furs, and animal parts such as eagle claws for ceremonial purposes.

Kiowa calendars

The Kiowa people told ethnologist James Mooney that the first calendar keeper in their tribe was Little Bluff, or Tohausan, who was the principal chief of the tribe from 1833 to 1866. Mooney also worked with two other calendar keepers, Settan, or Little Bear, and Ankopaaingyadete, In the Middle of Many Tracks, commonly known as Anko. Other Plains tribes kept pictorial records, known as "winter counts".

The Kiowa calendar system is unique: they recorded two events for each year, offering a finer-grained record and twice as many entries for any given period. Silver Horn (1860–1940), or Haungooah, was the most highly esteemed artist of the Kiowa tribe in the 19th and 20th centuries, and kept a calendar. He was a respected religious leader in his later years.

Funeral practices
In Kiowa tradition, death had strong associations with darks spirits and negative forces, which meant that the death of an individual was seen as a traumatic experience. Fear of ghosts in Kiowa communities stemmed from the belief that spirits commonly resisted the end of their physical life. The spirits were thought to remain around the corpse or its burial place, as well as haunt former living spaces and possessions. Lingering spirits were also believed to help encourage the dying to cross from the physical world to the afterlife. The fear of ghosts can be seen in the way skulls were treated, which was believed to be a source of negative spiritual contamination that invited danger to the living. Due to the fears and risks associated with death, the community's reactions were instantaneous and vicious. Families and relatives were expected to demonstrate grief through reactions such as wailing, ripping off clothes and shaving of the head. There have also been accounts of self-induced body lacerations and finger joints being cut. In the process of grief, women and the widowed spouse were expected to be more expressive in their mourning.

The body of the deceased must be washed before burial. The washer, historically a woman, also combs the hair and paints the face of the dead. Once the body has been treated, a burial occurs promptly. When possible, the burial takes place on the same day, unless the death occurs at night. In this case the dead is buried the following morning. A quick burial was believed to reduce the risk of spirits remaining around the burial site. After the burial, most of the belongings of the dead were burned along with their tipi. If their tipi or house was shared with family, the surviving relatives moved into a new house.

History

As members of the Kiowa-Tanoan language family, the Kiowa at some distant time likely shared an ethnic origin with the other Amerindian nations of this small language family: Tiwa, Tewa, Towa, and others. By historic times, however, the Kiowa lived in a hunter-gatherer economy unlike the sedentary pueblo societies of the others. The Kiowa also had a complex ceremonial life and developed the 'Winter counts' as calendars. The Kiowa recount their origins as near the Missouri River, and the Black Hills. They knew that they were driven south by pressure from the Sioux.

For the earliest recorded — and recounted — history of the Kiowa, see further below.

Following A'date, famous Kiowa leaders were Dohäsan (Tauhawsin, Over-Hanging Butte, alias Little Mountain, alias Little Bluff); Satank (Set-ankea, Sitting Bear), Guipago (Gui-pah-gho, Lone Wolf The Elder, alias Guibayhawgu, Rescued From Wolves), Satanta (Set-tainte, White Bear), Tene-angopte (Kicking Bird), Zepko-ete (Big Bow), Set-imkia (Stumbling Bear), Manyi-ten (Woman's Heart), Napawat (No Mocassin), Mamanti (Walking-above), Tsen-tainte (White Horse), Ado-ete (Big Tree).

Dohasan, who is also known as Touhason, is considered by many to be the greatest Kiowa Chief (1805–1866), as he unified and ruled the Kiowa for 30 years. He signed several treaties with the United States, including the Fort Atkinson Treaty of July 27, 1852, and the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865. Guipago became the head chief of the Kiowa when Dohosan (Little Bluff) named him as his successor. Guipago and Satanta, along with old Satank, led the warring faction of the Kiowa nation, while Tene-angopte and Napawat led the peaceful party.

In 1871 Satank, Satanta and Big Tree (translated in some documents as Addo-etta) helped lead the Warren Wagon Train Raid.  They were arrested by United States soldiers and transported to Jacksboro, Texas.  En route, near Fort Sill, Indian Territory, Satank killed a soldier with a knife and was shot by cavalry troops while trying to escape. Satanta and Big Tree were later convicted of murder by a "cowboy jury".

In September 1872, Guipago met with Satanta and Ado-ete, the visit being one of Guipago's conditions for accepting a request to travel to Washington and meet President Grant for peace talks. Guipago eventually got the two captives released in September 1873. Guipago, Satanta, Set-imkia, Zepko-ete, Manyi-ten, Mamanti, Tsen-tainte and Ado-ete led Kiowa warriors during the "Buffalo war" along the Red River, together with the Comanche allies, in the summer (June–September) 1874. They surrendered after the Palo Duro Canyon fight. Tene-angopte had to select 26 Kiowa chiefs and warriors to be deported; Satanta was sent to a prison in Huntsville, Alabama, while Guipago, Manyi-ten, Mamanti, Tsen-tainte, and others were sent to St. Augustine, Florida, at what was then known as Fort Marion. Tene-angopte, damned by the "medicine-man" Mamanti, died in May 1875; Satanta committed suicide at Huntsville in October 1878. Guipago, having fallen sick with malaria, was jailed in Fort Sill, where he died in 1879.

The sculptor of the Indian Head nickel, James Earle Fraser, is reported to have said that Chief Big Tree (Adoeette) was one of his models for the U.S. coin; it was minted from 1913 through 1938.

Early history and migration south

The Kiowa emerged as a distinct people in their original homeland of the northern Missouri River Basin. Searching for more lands of their own, the Kiowa traveled southeast to the Black Hills in present-day South Dakota and Wyoming around 1650. In the Black Hills region, the Kiowa lived peacefully alongside the Crow Indians, with whom they long maintained a close friendship, organized themselves into 10 bands, and numbered around 3000. Pressure from the Ojibwe in the north woods and edge of the great plains in Minnesota forced the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and later the Sioux westward into Kiowa territory around the Black Hills. The Kiowa were pushed south by the invading Cheyenne who were then pushed westward out of the Black Hills by the Sioux. Eventually the Kiowa obtained a vast territory on the central and southern great plains in western Kansas, eastern Colorado, most of Oklahoma including the panhandle, and the Llano Estacado in the Texas Panhandle and eastern New Mexico. In their early history, the Kiowa traveled with dogs pulling their belongings until horses were obtained through trade and raid with the Spanish and other Indian nations in the southwest.

In the early spring of 1790 at the place that would become Las Vegas, New Mexico, a Kiowa party led by war leader Guikate, made an offer of peace to a Comanche party while both were visiting the home of a mutual friend of both tribes. This led to a later meeting between Guikate and the head chief of the Nokoni Comanche. The two groups made an alliance to share the same hunting grounds and entered into a mutual defense pact and became the dominant inhabitants of the Southern Plains. From that time on, the Comanche and Kiowa hunted, traveled, and made war together. In addition to the Comanche, the Kiowa formed a very close alliance with the Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache), with the two nations sharing much of the same culture and participating in each other's annual council meetings and events. The strong alliance of southern plains nations kept the Spanish from gaining a strong colonial hold on the southern plains.

Indian wars

In closing years of the 18th century and in the first quarter of the 19th century, the Kiowa feared little from European neighbors. Kiowa ranged north of the Wichita Mountains. The Kiowa and Comanche controlled a vast expanse of territory from the Arkansas River to the Brazos River. The enemies of the Kiowa were usually the enemies of the Comanche. To the east there was warfare with the Osage and Pawnee.

In the early 19th, the Cheyenne and Arapaho began camping on the Arkansas River and new warfare broke out. In the south of the Kiowa and Comanche were Caddoan speakers, but the Kiowa and Comanche were friendly toward these bands. The Comanche were at war with the Apache of the Rio Grande region.

They warred with the Cheyenne and Arapaho, Pawnee, Sac and Fox, and Osages.

In summer 1833, the Osage attacked an exposed Kiowa camp near Head Mountain, Oklahoma. The Kiowa lost many aged people, children and women. The heads were cut off and placed in kettles. During this "Cut-Throat Massacre", the Osage captured the sacred Tai-me (the Sun Dance figure of the Kiowa) as well. The Kiowa were unable to perform the Sun Dance until the return of the Tai-me in 1835. Dohasan replaced the old Kiowa chief, since he had failed to anticipate danger.

The Kiowa traded with the Wichita south along Red River and with Mescalero Apache and New Mexicans to the southwest. After 1840 they and their former enemies the Cheyenne, as well as their allies the Comanche and the Apache, fought and raided the Eastern natives moving into the Indian Territory.

From 1821 until 1870 the Kiowa joined the Comanche in raids, primarily to obtain livestock, that extended deep into Mexico and caused the death of thousands of people.

Colonial Transition

The years from 1873 to 1878 marked a drastic change in Kiowa lifestyle. In June 1874, the Kiowa, along with a group of Comanche and Cheyenne warriors, made their last protest against the European invaders at the Battle of Adobe Walls in Texas, which proved futile. In 1877, the first homes were constructed for the Indian chiefs and a plan was initiated to employ Indians at the Agency. Thirty Indians were hired to form the first police force on the Reservation.

The Kiowa agreed to settle on a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma. Some bands of Kiowas remained at large until 1875. Some of the Lipan Apache and Mescalero Apache bands with some Comanche in their company held out in northern Mexico until the early 1880s, when Mexican and U.S. Army forces drove them onto reservations or into extinction. By the Treaty of Medicine Lodge in 1867, the Kiowas settled in Western Oklahoma and Kansas.

They were forced to move south of the Washita River to the Red River and Western Oklahoma with the Comanches and the Kiowa Apache Tribe. The transition from the free life of Plains people to a restricted life of the reservation was more difficult for some families than others.

Reservation period
The reservation period lasted from 1868 to 1906. In 1873, the first school among the Kiowa was established by Quaker Thomas C. Battey. In 1877, the federal government built the first homes for the Indian chiefs and initiated a plan to employ Indians. 30 Indians were hired to form the first police force on the reservation. In 1879, the agency was moved from Ft. Sill to Anadarko. The 1890 Census showed 1,598 Comanche at the Fort Sill reservation, which they shared with 1,140 Kiowa and 326 Kiowa Apache.

An agreement made with the Cherokee Commission signed by 456 adult male Kiowa, Comanche, and Kiowa Apache on Sept. 28, 1892, cleared the way for the opening of the country to white settlers. The agreement provided for an allotment of  to every individual in the tribes and for the sale of the reservation lands () to the United States – was to go into effect immediately upon ratification by Congress, even though the Medicine Lodge treaty of 1867 had guaranteed Indian possession of the reservation until 1898. The Indian signers wanted their names stricken but it was too late. A'piatan, as the leader, went to Washington to protest. Chief Lone Wolf the Younger immediately filed proceedings against the act in the Supreme Court, but the Court decided against him in Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock (1903).

Agents were assigned to the Kiowa people.

Modern period
Since 1968, the Kiowa have been governed by the Kiowa Tribal Council, which presides over business related to health, education, and economic and industrial development programs.

On March 13, 1970, the Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma drafted its constitution and bylaws, and Kiowa voters ratified them on May 23, 1970. The current constitution was approved in 2017.

In 1998, in the landmark decision of Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Indian tribes retain their sovereign immunity as nations from private lawsuits without their consent, even in off-reservation transactions where they do not waive that immunity.

, more than 4,000 of 12,500 enrolled Kiowa lived near the towns of Anadarko, Fort Cobb, and Carnegie, in Caddo and Kiowa counties, Oklahoma. Kiowa also reside in urban and suburban communities throughout the United States, having moved to areas with more jobs. Each year Kiowa veterans commemorate the warlike spirit of the 19th-century leaders with dances performed by the Kiowa Gourd Clan and Kiowa Black Leggings Warrior Society. Kiowa cultural identity and pride is apparent in their expressive culture and strong influence on the Gourd Dance and Southern Plains art.

Humanities

Documentation of the history and development of contemporary Kiowa art formulates one of the most unusual records in Native American culture. As early as 1891, Kiowa artists were being commissioned to produce works for display at international expositions. The "Kiowa Six" were some of the earliest Native Americans to receive international recognition for their work in the fine art world. They influenced generations of Indian artists among the Kiowa, and other Plains tribes. Traditional craft skills are not lost among the Kiowa people today and the talented fine arts and crafts produced by Kiowa Indians helped the Oklahoma Indian Arts and Crafts Cooperative flourish over its 20-year existence.

Ledger art and hide painting

Early Kiowa ledger artists were those held in captivity by the U.S. Army at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, Florida (1875–1878), at the conclusion of the Red River War, which also is known as the Southern Plains Indian War. Ledger art emerges from the Plains hide painting tradition. These Fort Marion artists include Kiowas Etadleuh Doanmoe and Zotom, who was a prolific artist who chronicled his experiences before and after becoming a captive at the fort. After his release from Fort Marion, Paul Zom-tiam (Zonetime, Koba) studied theology from 1878 until 1881, when he was ordained as a deacon in the Episcopal church.

Kiowa Six
Following in Silver Horn's footsteps were the Kiowa Six, or, as they have been known in the past, the Kiowa Five. They are Spencer Asah, James Auchiah, Jack Hokeah, Stephen Mopope, Lois Smoky Kaulaity, and Monroe Tsatoke. Coming from the area around Anadarko, Oklahoma, these artists studied at the University of Oklahoma. Lois Smoky left the group in 1927, but James Auchiah took her place in the group. The Kiowa Six gained international recognition as fine artists by exhibiting their work in the 1928 International Art Congress in Czechoslovakia and then participated in the Venice Biennale in 1932.

Painters and sculptors
Besides the Kiowa Six and Silver Horn, Kiowa painters active in the 20th and 21st centuries include Sharron Ahtone Harjo, Homer Buffalo, Charley Oheltoint, Michael C. Satoe Brown, T. C. Cannon, Wilson Daingkau, George Geionty, Bobby Hill (1933–1984), Harding Bigbow (1921–1997), Jim Tartsah, Mirac Creepingbear (1947–1990), Herman Toppah, Ernie Keahbone, C. E. Rowell, Dixon Palmer, Roland Whitehorse, Blackbear Bosin, Woody Big Bow (1914–1988), Parker Boyiddle Jr. (1947–2007), Dennis Belindo (1938–2009), Clifford Doyeto (1942–2010), Al Momaday, George Keahbone, Joe Lucero (Hobay), Ladonna Tsatoke Silverhorn, R.G. Geionty, Huzo Paddelty, Keri Ataumbi, David E. Williams. Micah Wesley. Thomas Poolaw, Tennyson Reid, Sherman Chaddlesone (1947–2013), Cruz McDaniels, II (1950-2020), Robert Redbird (b. 1939), Gus Hawziptaw, Gerald Darby, Lee Tsatoke Jr., N. Scott Momaday, and Barthell Little Chief.

Beadwork artists
Noted Kiowa beadwork artists include Lois Smoky Kaulaity, Donna Jean Tsatoke, Alice Littleman, Nettie Standing, Marilyn Yeahquo, Edna Hokeah Pauahty, Leona Geimasaddle, Barry D. Belindo, Kathy Littlechief, Katherine Dickerson, Charlie Silverhorn, Paul McDaniels Jr., Eugenia McDaniels, Kiowa J. Taryole, Grace Tsontekoy, Richard Aitson, Judy Beaver, Vanessa Paukeigope Jennings, Leatrice Geimasaddle, Teri Greeves, and Tahnee Ahtone.

Authors
Kiowa author N. Scott Momaday won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for his novel House Made of Dawn. Richard Aitson (Kiowa/Kiowa Apache) was a published poet. Other Kiowa authors include playwright Hanay Geiogamah, poet and filmmaker Gus Palmer Jr., Alyce Sadongei, Marian Kaulaity Hansson, Tocakut and Tristan Ahtone.

Musicians and composers
Kiowa music often is noted for its hymns that historically were accompanied by dance or played on the flute. Noted Kiowa composers of contemporary music include James Anquoe, noted for his contributions to Native American culture. Contemporary Kiowa musicians include Cornel Pewewardy, Tom Mauchahty-Ware, and Terry Tsotigh.

Photographers
Early Kiowa photographers include Parker McKenzie and his wife Nettie Odlety, whose photographs from 1913 are in the collection of the Oklahoma History Center. Kiowa photographer Horace Poolaw (1906–1984) was one of the most prolific Native American photographers of his generation. He documented the Kiowa people living near his community in Mountain View, Oklahoma, beginning the 1920s. His legacy is continued today by his grandson, Thomas Poolaw, a prominent Kiowa photographer and digital artist.

Image gallery

College
The tribe in February 2020 chartered Bacone College in Muskogee, Oklahoma as its tribal college. In March Kiowa Tribal Historian Phil "Joe Fish" Dupoint began offering an 8-week course in the Kiowa language online through the college.

Notable Kiowas

 Ado-ete (Big Tree) (c.1850–1929), war chief
 Ahpeahtone (1856–1931), chief
 Richard Aitson (b. 1953), bead artist and poet
 Spencer Asah, painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 James Auchiah, painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 Big Bow (Zepko–ette) (1833–c.1900), war chief
 Blackbear Bosin (1921–1980), painter and sculptor
 T. C. Cannon, painter and printmaker
 Cozad Singers, drum group and NAMMY winners
 Jesse Ed Davis (1944–1988), Kiowa-Comanche guitarist
 Dohäsan (c.1785–1866), chief of Kata band and Principal Chief of the Kiowas, artist, calendar keeper
 Teri Greeves (b. 1970), bead artist
 Sharron Ahtone Harjo (b. 1945), painter, ledger artist
 Jack Hokeah, painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 Beverly Horse (1931–2010), women's and Native rights administrator and activist
 Vanessa Paukeigope Jennings (b. 1952), bead artist, clothing and regalia maker
 Kicking Bird (Tene-angop'te) (1835–1875), war chief
 Guipago (Lone Wolf [the Elder]) (c.1820–1879)  Principal Chief
 Tom Mauchahty-Ware, musician and dancer
 Parker McKenzie (1897–1999), traditionalist and linguist
 Arvo Mikkanen, attorney
 N. Scott Momaday, Pulitzer Prize Winner, author, painter, and activist
 Stephen Mopope, painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 Horace Poolaw (1906–1984), photographer
 Pascal Poolaw (1922–1967), Native American war hero
 Red Warbonnet (d. 1849), traditionalist
 Satanta (Set'tainte) (–1878), war chief
 Silver Horn (1860–1940), artist and calendar keeper
 Sitting Bear (Set-Tank, Set-Angia, called Satank) (c.1800–1871), warrior and medicine man
 Lois Smoky, bead artist and painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 Kendal Thompson, professional football player
 Mamanti (Mama'nte) (c.1835–1875), medicine man
 Mamay-day-te (Lone Wolf [the Younger]) (c.1843–1923) chief
 Monroe Tsatoke, painter, one of the Kiowa Six
 White Horse (Tsen-tainte) (d. 1892), chief
 Chris Wondolowski, US professional soccer player
 Tahnee Ahtoneharjo-Growingthunder, (b. 1978) curator, artist, and dancer
 Lindy Waters III, (b. 1997) professional NBA player
 Mirac Creepingbear, (1947–1990) painter
 Sherman Chaddlesone, (1947–2013) muralist, sculptor, and painter

See also
Gourd Dance
Koitsenko, Kiowa warrior society
Big Pasture, 1901 Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache grazing reserve

Notes

References
Boyd, Maurice. Kiowa Voices: Ceremonial Dance, Ritual, and Song. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University, 1981. .
Dunn, Dorothy. American Indian Painting of the Southwest and Plains Areas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968. .
Greene, Candace S. Silver Horn: Master Illustrator of the Kiowas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. .
 Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. .

Viola, Herman (1998). Warrior Artists: Historic Cheyenne and Kiowa Indian Ledger Art Drawn By Making Medicine and Zotom. National Geographic Society.

Further reading

Boyd, Maurice (1983). Kiowa Voices: Myths, Legends and Folktales. Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University Press. .
Corwin, Hugh (1958). The Kiowa Indians, their history and life stories.
Hoig, Stan (2000). The Kiowas and the Legend of Kicking Bird. Boulder, CO: The University Press of Colorado. .
Meadows, William C. (1999) "Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche Military Societies." Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Meadows, William C. (2006) "Black Goose's Map of the Kiowa, Apache, and Comanche Reservation in Oklahoma Territory." Great Plains Quarterly 26(4):265–282.
Meadows, William C. (2008) "Kiowa Ethnogeography." Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Meadows, William C. (2010) "Kiowa Military Societies: Ethnohistory and Ritual." Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Meadows, William C. (2013) Kiowa Ethnonymy of Other Populations. Plains Anthropologist, 58(226):3–28.
Meadows, William C. and Kenny Harragarra (2007	)"The Kiowa Drawings of Gotebo (1847–1927): A Self Portrait of Cultural and Religious Transition." Plains Anthropologist 52(202):229–244.
Mishkin, Bernard (1988). Rank and Warfare Among The Plains Indians. AMS Press. .
Nye, Colonel W.S. (1983). Carbine and Lance: The Story of Old Fort Sill. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. .
Momaday, N. Scott (1977). The Way to Rainy Mountain. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. .
Richardson, Jane (1988). Law & Status Among the Kiowa Indians (American Ethnological Society Monographs; No 1). AMS Press. .
Tone-Pah-Hote, Jenny (2019). Crafting an Indigenous Nation: Kiowa Expressive Culture in the Progressive Era. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
US Department of the Interior (1974). "The Kiowa". Southern Plains Indian Museum and Crafts Center.
Walter Echo-Hawk, In the Courts of the Conqueror: The 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided (2010).

External links

Kiowa Tribe, official website
Kiowa, Oklahoma Historical Society
Kiowa Drawings, National Museum of Natural History
1901 U.S. Government Map, Oklahoma Digital Map Collection
2019 Map of area, OpenStreetMap
Jane Richardson Hanks Kiowa Papers , Newberry Library
Kiowa Comanche Apache Indian Lands

Comanche campaign
Federally recognized tribes in the United States
Native American tribes in Colorado
Native American tribes in Kansas
Native American tribes in Oklahoma
Native American tribes in Texas
Plains tribes

Kiowa


Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide (a complex form of sugar).  It is added to certain foods, such as salad dressings, to make them thicker. It is also added to cosmetics to keep the ingredients from separating.  To make xanthan gum, workers add a kind of bacterium, Xanthomonas campestris, to glucose or sucrose.  They let the mixture ferment for a while, and then add isopropyl alcohol to separate the polysaccharide from the mixture.  They dry the polysaccharide, grind it into a powder, then add it to a liquid.  The xanthan gum is then ready to use.

History
Allene Rosalind Jeanes and her research team at the United States Department of Agriculture first discovered xanthan gum.  The team was studying many biopolymers to see whether some of them were useful, and how they could be used.  The Kelco Company was the first company to produce xanthan gum in the early 1960s.  At that time, Kelco called xanthan gum by its brand name, Kelzan.  Later, in 1968, xanthan gum was tested and declared safe to be used in food.  The USA, Canada, Europe, and many other regions and countries now accept xanthan gum as a safe food additive.

Uses

Xanthan gum is a very effective thickener.  It is stable under a wide range of temperatures and pH.  Only 0.5% of xanthan gum is added to most foods to thicken them.  The thickening property of xanthan gum decreases when a food is mixed, shaken or chewed, but it thickens up again when the force is removed.  This property is called pseudoplasticity.  Sometimes this property can be very useful.  For instance, the xanthan gum added to salad dressing makes the dressing thick enough to cling to a salad, but shaking the bottle of dressing makes it temporarily thin and easier to pour.

Salad dressings and sauces contain xanthan gum.  Even though xanthan gum is not an emulsifier, it helps to keep an emulsion stable so that the oil in it does not separate.  Xanthan gum also helps to keep spices and other solid bits of food evenly distributed in a liquid.  Xanthan gum, guar gum and locust bean gum help to give ice cream and other frozen foods a creamy texture.  Gluten-free bakers use xanthan gum instead of gluten to make bread dough or batter "sticky."  Packaged egg whites or egg substitutes contain xanthan gum to replace the fat and emulsifiers found in egg yolks.

Toothpaste often contains xanthan gum to give the toothpaste a smooth texture.  People who have trouble swallowing add xanthan gum to drinks and other liquids to make them thicker and easier to swallow.

Oil drillers use a lot of xanthan gum to make drilling mud thicker.  This thick fluid helps carry solids cut by the drill bit up to the surface of the earth.  When people need to pour concrete underwater, they add xanthan gum to the concrete to make it thicker and keep it from washing away.

Many cosmetics contain xanthan gum, which helps hold together oil and water emulsions.  Xanthan gum can also help keep skin moist.  Fake blood, toy slime and gunge all get their thickness from xanthan gum.

Possible health effects
Workers who were exposed to xanthan gum dust developed allergy-like symptoms from breathing in the dust.

Coeliac disease sufferers and other people who are sensitive to gluten and other allergens may need to be careful how much xanthan gum is in their food.  Some types of xanthan gum are made with wheat, corn or soy and could cause allergic reactions.  Xanthan gum is also a strong laxative and can cause diarrhoea in people who eat too much of it, or who are sensitive to it. There are many substitutes available for xanthan gum when used in baking such as guar gum or locust bean gum.

References

Food ingredients
Carbohydrates

Xanthan gum


Eastern Silesia was formerly the Austrian crownland Austrian Silesia, which was occupied by Czechoslovakia after World War I. It had an area of 1,987 sq mi (5,146 km2), with a population of 680,422 in 1900.  The capital was Opava. Plans for a plebiscite fell through, and the area was divided between Czechoslovakia and Poland.

The territory was entered by the Czech military on 23 January 1919, after negotiations with Poland broke down.

A final agreement on the border was reached on 28 July 1920.

Postage stamps

Eastern Silesia is remembered today by philatelists, since the plans for the plebiscite included the issuance of special postage stamps.  These were stamps of Czechoslovakia and Poland, overprinted with various combinations of "SO" or "S. O." (Fr. Silesie Orientale), and "1920". They were in use from February to September 1920. The overprints were produced in considerable numbers; with a few exceptions, the stamps are commonly available today at the minimum price.

The postal history of the territory is quite complicated, with both overprinted and  stamps of the contending countries (and Austria) in use at different post offices at different times.

External links
 In-depth article on Eastern Silesia and its postal history

Habsburg Silesia
History of Czech Silesia

Eastern Silesia


Royal Barry Wills  (August 21, 1895 – January 10, 1962) was an American architect and author. He was a master of the Cape Cod type house, particularly its 1930s–1950s Colonial Revival incarnation. Houses built to his designs continue to fetch a premium.

Life and work
Wills was born in Melrose, Massachusetts, and in 1918 graduated from M.I.T as an architectural engineer. From 1919 until 1925, he worked as a design engineer for the Turner Construction Company of Boston, while engaging in his own architectural practice on the side. To advance his business, he regularly published sketch plans and elevations in the Boston Transcript. He also answered questions from readers about architecture. Commissions followed; he became a registered architect in 1925, opening his own Boston office on lower Beacon Street the same year. With success, his firm moved to Beacon Hill.

The Cape Cod house is ubiquitous in New England and elsewhere, due in part to its simplicity, which sometimes simply means inexpensive, but also allows for versions that achieve a pure elegance due to their restraint and proportions. Wills' artistry brought refinement to every level of planning, engineering and detail of the Cape Cod model. They were low to the ground, with eaves just above the windows, and surmounted by an outsized central chimney (a Wills hallmark). The roof pitch ranged from , vertically, in a  run. The sash was made up from 24 to 36 individual lights, and clapboards graduated from a 2-inch exposure at the foundation, to a typical 4-inch exposure from the top of the window sill to the eave. But most of all, Wills emphasized what he termed "scale"—the relationship of parts to one another that gives a design perfection and charm. And unlike many architects, he offered "partial services", adding to contractor designs without credit.

In 1938, Life Magazine selected four modern architects and four traditional architects, asking them to prepare home designs for families in four income categories. In the category for people with $5,000 to $6,000 incomes, the modern design was by Frank Lloyd Wright and the traditional one by Royal Barry Wills. The family chose the Wills house over the Wright design, and the home was built in Edina, Minnesota. With the motto "no stock plans," Wills designed buildings not only in New England, but from Canada to Florida, including Cape Cods, garrisons, saltboxes, churches, and, in 1941, a 300-unit housing complex for defense workers in Springfield, Massachusetts.

Wills was author of eight books on architecture offering designs and advice. In 1949, he received the Certificate of Honor from the Massachusetts State Association of Architects. In 1954, he was elected a fellow of the American Institute of Architects. In 1957, his firm became Royal Barry Wills Associates, and remains active today. He died in Boston, Massachusetts on January 10, 1962.

"He wanted only to design the indigenous New England house supremely well, and succeeded beyond any other architect."

References

External links
Royal Barry Wills Associates, architects
Bob Vila -- Cape Cod-Style Architecture and Royal Barry Wills
Retro Renovation -- The Royal Barry Wills Cape Cod
Retro Renovation -- The first home that Royal Barry Wills built for his family, Melrose, Mass., 1920
Retro Renovation -- Images and documentation on the Springfield, Mass. Defense Housing Project designed by Royal Barry Wills.
Essays on Royal Barry Wills' life and work by Richard Guy Wilson, Marjorie Henderson Floyd, and The Saturday Evening Post.

Architects from Boston
Colonial Revival Movement
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
People from Melrose, Massachusetts
1895 births
1962 deaths

Royal Barry Wills


Censorship in movies is the act of giving a movie a very strong film rating systems classification, or banning the movie altogether.

United Kingdom
The highest rating label in United Kingdom is 18. These means people under 18 cannot look at, buy or rent any movie under this rating. Movies with such a rating often have very strong language, explicit sexual content or heavy violence. If the content of the movie is higher than the 18 rating, the movie is then banned entirely.

Australia
Refused Classification is the very strongest rating in Australia. This rating means a movie has been banned from a part of Australia. In some cases, it has been banned in all of the country. This rating is tagged onto movies which the Australian Classification Board has said are too severe for viewing by general public.

United States
The movie rating is NC-17 in the United States. This means No Children 17 and Under Admitted. Such movies contain strong sexual content, very strong violence or extremely graphic language and are usually considered too intense for an R rating.

Canada
The highest rating label in Canada is R. This means nobody under 18 may view, buy, rent, or watch any movie under this rating. Movie with this rating have strong sexual content/nudity, prolonged scenes of graphic violence, strong coarse language, graphic horror, and other disturbing content. If the content of the movie is higher than the R rating, the movie is then banned entirely.

Related pages
 Movies banned in China

Movie ratings
Censorship

Movie censorship


Glee is an American musical comedy-drama television show. It started on May 19, 2009. It ended on March 20, 2015. Its sixth and last season started on January 9, 2015. The show is about a group of high school students and their teachers at the fictional William McKinley High School. The show is set in Lima, Ohio. Most of the students are in the school's glee club, called New Directions. The students and adults deal with relationships, sexuality and social issues. They often sing to help them understand these topics. The show announced In 2002

Cast and characters

Main
Lea Michele as Rachel Berry
Chris Colfer as Kurt Hummel
Matthew Morrison as Will Schuester
Jane Lynch as Sue Sylvester
Kevin McHale as Artie Abrams
Cory Monteith as Finn Hudson (seasons 1–4)
Jenna Ushkowitz as Tina Cohen-Chang (seasons 1–5; recurring 6)
Amber Riley as Mercedes Jones (seasons 1–4, 6; recurring 5)
Mark Salling as Noah Puckerman (seasons 1–4; recurring 5–6)
Darren Criss as Blaine Anderson (seasons 3–6; recurring 2)
Naya Rivera as Santana Lopez (seasons 2–5; recurring 1, 6)
Dianna Agron as Quinn Fabray (seasons 1–3; recurring 4–6)
Heather Morris as Brittany S. Pierce (seasons 2–4; recurring 1, 5–6)
Chord Overstreet as Sam Evans (seasons 4–6; recurring 2–3)
Jayma Mays as Emma Pillsbury (seasons 1–3; recurring 4–6)
Harry Shum Jr. as Mike Chang (seasons 3–4; recurring 1–2, 5–6)
Jessalyn Gilsig as Terri Schuester (seasons 1–2; recurring 6; guest 4)
Mike O'Malley as Burt Hummel (season 2; recurring 1, 3–6)
Dot Jones as Shannon/Sheldon Beiste (season 6; recurring 2–5)
Becca Tobin as Kitty Wilde (season 5; recurring 4, 6)
Alex Newell as Wade "Unique" Adams (season 5; recurring 4, 6)
Jacob Artist as Jake Puckerman (season 5; recurring 4; guest 6)
Blake Jenner as Ryder Lynn (season 5; recurring 4; guest 6)
Melissa Benoist as Marley Rose (season 5; recurring 4)

Special guest stars
Jonathan Groff as Jesse St. James (seasons 1–3; 6)
Idina Menzel as Shelby Corcoran (seasons 1, 3; guest 4)
Whoopi Goldberg as Carmen Tibideaux (seasons 3–4; guest 5)
Kristin Chenoweth as April Rhodes (seasons 1, 5; guest 2)
Gwyneth Paltrow as Holly Holliday (seasons 2, 5)
Gloria Estefan as Maribel Lopez (seasons 3, 6)
Eve as Grace Hitchens (season 1)
Olivia Newton-John as herself (season 1)
Neil Patrick Harris as Bryan Ryan (season 1)
John Stamos as Dr. Carl Howell (season 2)
Britney Spears as herself (season 2)
Patti LuPone as herself (season 2)
Katie Couric as herself (season 2)
Matt Bomer as Cooper Anderson (season 3)
Ricky Martin as David Martinez (season 3)
Lindsay Lohan as herself (season 3)
Perez Hilton as himself (season 3)
Kate Hudson as Cassandra July (season 4)
Sarah Jessica Parker as Isabelle Wright (season 4)
Katey Sagal as Nancy Abrams (season 4)
Demi Lovato as Dani (season 5)
Shirley MacLaine as June Dolloway (season 5)
Peter Facinelli as Rupert Campion (season 5)
Ioan Gruffudd as Paolo San Pablo (season 5)
June Squibb as Maggie Banks (season 5)
Tyra Banks as Bichette (season 5)
Jennifer Coolidge as Whitney S. Pierce (season 6)
Geraldo Rivera as himself (season 6)

Recurring
Iqbal Theba as Principal Figgins
Lauren Potter as Becky Jackson
Brad Ellis as Brad the Piano Player
Romy Rosemont as Carole Hudson-Hummel
John Sussman as Jacob Ben Israel (seasons 1–4; guest 5)
Ashley Fink as Lauren Zizes (seasons 1–3; guest 4, 6)
Max Adler as Dave Karofsky (seasons 1–3, 6; guest 5)
NeNe Leakes as Roz Washington (seasons 3–5; guest 6)
Grant Gustin as Sebastian Smythe (seasons 3–4; guest 5)
Vanessa Lengies as Sugar Motta (seasons 3–4, 6)
Samuel Larsen as Joe Hart (seasons 3–4, 6)
Damian McGinty as Rory Flanagan (seasons 3–4)
Ivonne Coll as Alma Lopez (season 6; guest 3)
James Earl as Azimio (seasons 1–2; guest 3)
Robin Trocki as Jean Sylvester (seasons 1–2)
Stephen Tobolowsky as Sandy Ryerson (season 1; guest 2)
Jennifer Aspen as Kendra Giardi (season 1)
Patrick Gallagher as Ken Tanaka (season 1)
Charice as Sunshine Corazón (season 2)
Cheyenne Jackson as Dustin Goolsby (season 2)
Meat Loaf as Barry (season 2)
Lindsay Pearce as Harmony (season 2)
Dean Geyer as Brody Weston (season 4)
Trisha Rae Stahl as Millie Rose (season 4)
Erinn Westbrook as Bree (season 5)
Adam Lambert as Elliot "Starchild" Gilbert (season 5)

Awards
Glee has won and been nominated for many awards. In 2009, the series won five Satellite Awards: "Best Musical or Comedy TV Series", "Best Actor" and "Actress in a Musical or Comedy TV Series" for Morrison and Michele, "Best Supporting Actress" for Lynch and "Special Achievement for Outstanding Guest Star" for Kristin Chenoweth. In 2010, the show won a Golden Globe Award for "Best Television Series — Musical or Comedy". Morrison, Michele and Lynch also got acting nominations. The series was nominated for two Writers Guild of America Awards, with screenplays nominated in the "Comedy Series" and "New Series" categories. The Glee cast won the "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series" award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Paris Barclay and Ryan Murphy both got nominations for "Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series" at the Directors Guild of America Awards for their work on Glee. In July 2010, Glee got 19 Emmy Award nominations, including "Outstanding Comedy Series", "Outstanding Lead Actor – Comedy Series" for Morrison and "Outstanding Lead Actress – Comedy Series" for Michele. It won 4, including "Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series" for Lynch and "Outstanding Guest Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series" for Neil Patrick Harris.

On January 16, 2011, the show won a Golden Globe for "Best Television Series - Musical or Comedy" and both Lynch and Colfer won Golden Globes for Best Supporting Actress and Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series, Miniseries, or TV Film.

Songs
Some songs are old, by singers like Madonna and Journey, and some are still on the radio by singers like Lady Gaga and Britney Spears. The show has won many awards and is shown in several countries because of its popularity.

Mash-ups
Mash-ups are a very common thing in the show. The first mash-ups were Bon Jovi's "It's My Life" with Usher's "Confessions Part II" by the boys, and Beyonce's "Halo" with Katrina and the Waves' "Walking on Sunshine" by the girls. Those were both in the episode "Vitamin D".

References

Other websites

 Glee episode list at TV Guide
 Encyclopædia Britannica: Glee (American television program)

2009 American television series debuts
2015 American television series endings
English-language television programs

Glee


Changchun () is the capital and largest city of the Jilin province of China. The name of the city means "Eternal Spring". In the year 1800, the Jiaqing Emperor set up a trading post in a small village to trade furs and other goods. This village later became Changchun Ting.

In 1898, Changchun got its first train station, which was built by the Russian Empire.

After Japan invaded Manchuria in September 1931, the Japanese established the capital of the newly formed puppet state, Manchukuo, in Changchun. The Japanese renamed the city Shinkyō (kanji: 新京, meaning: New Capital), and it is here where the Japanese established the former Emperor Pu-yi as the Emperor of Manchukuo. During the Japanese occupation, the Japanese built much of the infrastructure that still stands today, including the Manchukuo Imperial Palace, the First Clinical Hospital of Jilin University, the Palace of Geology, and several others.

On August 20, 1945, the Soviet Union's Soviet Red Army entered the city, captured Emperor Pu-yi, and drove the Japanese out. They stayed there until the Kuomintang drove them out in 1946. The KMT held the city until 1948, when it got overwhelmed by the communist PLA in 1948. During the Siege of Changchun, up to 80% of civilians starved to death.

The Chinese took down few of the Japanese buildings because they were already so well-built that the Chinese thought it would be a waste to tear them down. Nonetheless, the tumblers that Starbucks sells in Changchun feature the Changchun Railway Station out of all the other monuments in the city, due to the fact that it itself is not a Japanese-made building.

Changchun is also the heart of China's car-making business.

Cities in China
Capital cities in Asia
Jilin

Changchun


Judas Iscariot (last name means "Man of Kerioth") was one of the original disciples of Jesus. He is found in all four gospels of the New Testament. He is described as having betrayed Jesus for money, then killing himself. He is said to have been the treasurer for the apostles.

Even though he was one of Jesus' disciples, he helped the chief priests arrest Jesus. Then those priests told the Roman governor to kill Jesus. The priests paid Judas thirty pieces of silver for his help. Later; due to great sense of guilt for betraying Jesus, Judas tried to give back the silver. When he was unable to undo when he had done, he committed suicide.

At the Last Supper, Jesus told his disciples that one of them would betray him. Matthew and Luke wrote that Jesus implied that it was Judas.

While Jesus was praying on the Mount of Olives, Judas brought the priests and their men to him. Then he kissed Jesus, so that the priests could know who he was. Then the priests took Jesus away to be killed. The priests gave Judas money for helping them.

The Gospel of Matthew states that Judas felt guilty that he helped kill Jesus. He tried to give the money back to the priests, but they said it was illegal. So Judas threw the money into the temple, and then hanged himself. Then the priests used the money to buy a graveyard for strangers.

In the book of Acts, Judas used the money to buy a field for himself, but died there a while after. After Judas died, the other disciples chose a man named Matthias to take his place as a new disciple in the group of 12.

Related pages
The following people were the other apostles of Jesus:
Andrew
Bartholomew
James of Zebedee
James of Alphaeus
John
Jude Thaddeus
Matthew
Peter
Philip
Simon the Zealot
Thomas
Matthias was chosen by the remaining eleven apostles to replace Judas  following his suicide (Acts 1:18-26)
Paul became an apostle after Jesus' death, resurrection, and ascension

References

Twelve Apostles
Suicides by hanging

Judas Iscariot


António Feliciano de Castilho, 1st Viscount of Castilho (28 January 180018 June 1875) was a Portuguese writer.

Life
Castilho was born in Lisbon.
He lost his sight at the age of six, but the devotion of his brother Augusto, and aided by a retentive memory, enabled him to go through his school and university course with success; and he acquired an almost complete mastery of the Latin language and literature.

His first work of importance, the Cartas de Echo e Narciso (1821), belongs to the pseudo-classical school in which he had been brought up, but his romantic leanings became apparent in the Primavera (1822) and in Amor e Melancholia (1823), two volumes of honeyed and prolix bucolic poetry. In the poetic legends A noite do Castello (1836) and Ciúmes do bardo (1838) Castilho appeared as a full-blown Romanticist. These books exhibit the defects and qualities of all his work, in which lack of ideas and of creative imagination and an atmosphere of artificiality are ill-compensated for by a certain emotional charm, great purity of diction and melodious versification.

Belonging to the didactic and descriptive school, Castilho saw nature as all sweetness, pleasure and beauty, and he lived in a dreamland of his imagination. A fulsome epic on the succession of King John VI brought him an office of profit at Coimbra. On his return from a stay in Madeira, he founded the Revista Universal Lisbonense, in imitation of Herculano's Panorama, and his profound knowledge of the Portuguese classics served him well in the introduction and notes to a very useful publication, the Livraria Classica Portugueza (1845–47, 25 volumes), while two years later he established the "Society of the Friends of Letters and the Arts."

A study on Luís de Camões and treatises on metrification and mnemonics followed from his pen. His praiseworthy zeal for popular instruction led him to take up the study of pedagogy, and in 1850 he brought out his Leitura Repentina, a method of reading which was named after him, and he became government commissary of the schools which were destined to put it into practice.

Going to Brazil in 1854, he there wrote his famous Letter to the Empress. Though Castilho's lack of strong individuality and his excessive respect for authority prevented him from achieving original work of real merit, yet his translations of Anacreon, Ovid and Virgil and the Chave do Enigma, explaining the romantic incidents that led to his first marriage with D. Maria de Baena, a niece of the satirical poet Nicolau Tolentino de Almeida and a descendant of António Ferreira, reveal him as a master of form and a purist in language. His versions of Goethe's Faust and Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, made without a knowledge of German and English, scarcely added to his reputation.

When the Coimbra question arose in 1865, Garrett was dead and Herculano had ceased to write, leaving Castilho supreme, for the moment, in the realm of letters. But the youthful Antero de Quental withstood his claim to direct the rising generation and attacked his superannuated leadership, and after a fierce war of pamphlets Castilho was dethroned. The rise of João de Deus reduced him to a secondary position in the Portuguese Parnassus, and when he died ten years later much of his former fame had preceded him to the tomb.

Castilho died in Lisbon.

Named after
A club named GS Castilho based in Mindelo, Cape Verde is named after him.  The club was founded by students on 18 February 1923 during Portuguese rule.  It is the second oldest club in Cape Verde.

References

Attribution:

External links

1800 births
1875 deaths
Blind poets
Romantic poets
19th-century Portuguese poets
Portuguese male poets
Portuguese journalists
Portuguese translators
Writers from Lisbon
19th-century journalists
Portuguese male journalists
19th-century translators
Portuguese blind people
19th-century Portuguese male writers

António Feliciano de Castilho


My Sister's Keeper is a 2004 novel written by Jodi Picoult. Set in Rhode Island, it tells the story of a 13-year-old girl named Anna Fitzgerald, a "savior sibling", who sues her parents so that they can no longer legally control her medical decisions once she learns she is expected to donate a kidney to her older sister Kate, who is dying from leukemia, cancer of the blood and bone marrow. It is written in first person, from the perspectives of several main characters. In 2008, the book was adapted into a movie.

Plot Summary
Anna Fitzgerald's older sister, Kate, suffers from acute promyelocytic leukemia, a cancer of the blood and bone marrow. When Anna's parents learn about Kate's diagnosis, they decide to conceive Anna through artificial selection and in vitro fertilization because nobody in the family is a genetic match to donate organs to Kate. Once Anna is born, her umbilical chord blood was used in treatments for Kate to save her life. Although the treatment was initially successful, Kate relapsed (became sick again). Since then, Anna had been used as a donor for any other bodily substance needed to treat Kate, who continues to swing between remission and relapse as she grows up.

2004 books
21st-century American novels
Cancer in fiction
Rhode Island in fiction

My Sister's Keeper


The painch, kyte, pechan or stamack is pairt o the digeestive seestem. The painch is a big seck atween the thrapple an the smaw thairms. The stamack keeps fuid efter we eat it. Fuid we eat is mixed in the painch. Then the painch gies the fuid tae the smaw thraim whaur maist o the nutreetion frae the fuid is taen up. Ae raison the painch is a big seck is tae haud aw the fuid we eat at a meal. Than it can slawly gie the fuidtae the smaw thraim.

Organs (anatomy)

Abdomen
Digeestive seestem

Painch


Colossus was the world's first programmable electronic digital computer.  British code breakers used Colossus for cryptanalysis during World War II.

These messages were sent between the German High Command, and  army field commanders.  Reading these messages helped the Allies to win the war.

Codebreaker Max Newman worked at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park. His problem was how to get a machine that would help turn German coded radio teleprinter messages into ordinary language. A group of Post Office telephone engineers led by Tommy Flowers worked out how to do this. Their design, which was called "Colossus" used many vacuum tubes (valves).  The first machine, Mark 1, worked in December 1943 and solved its first problem in February 1944.  Colossus Mark 2 was even better.  It first worked on 1 June 1944, just before the Normandy Landings on D-Day.  Ten Colossus computers were in use at the end of the war.

British codebreakers called the teleprinter messages "Fish". The messages had been coded by an unknown German machine.  They called the machine and its coded messages "Tunny".  Colossus imitated the machine and read the coded message from a punched tape. It tried various possibilities of how two of the wheels had been set up. When Colossus found likely settings for two wheels, the codebreaker designed further programs for Colossus until likely settings of other wheels were found. Colossus did not perform all of the decoding process. It just found likely settings of the machine. The output from Colossus was then worked on by people who had a very good knowledge of the German language.

After the war the British codebreakers found out that the code machine was the Lorenz SZ42.  All the secret Colossus computers were taken to pieces, so that no one would find out about them.  The designs were destroyed.  For thirty years no one knew who made them.  Between the early 1990s and 2007, a working copy of a Colossus computer was built.  This can be seen at The National Museum of Computing at Bletchley Park in England.

Purpose and origins
Regular radio transmissions of "Tunny" messages started in June 1941. The British codebreakers saw that it used a five-unit code like a teleprinter system. Their research also showed that the coding was being done by a rotor cipher machine with 12 wheels (rotors). For each new message sent, the wheels had first to be turned to new positions.  The start position for the message was chosen by the operator who was sending the message.  He told the operator who was receiving the message what the start positions were with 12 letters that were not coded. The total number of possible start positions of the 12 wheels was very large indeed.

The coding machine added together the plaintext (the un-coded version of the message) and a stream of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation) called the keystream (a stream of seemingly random characters) that it generated to make the ciphertext (the coded version of the message). The ciphertext, which made no sense, was transmitted by radio. At the receiving end an identical machine removed the keystream to produce the plaintext of the message.

If the German operators always worked correctly, no two messages would have the same start position of the wheels. However, mistakes were made. They helped the British codebreakers. On 30 August 1941 two versions of the same message, which was nearly 4,000 characters long, were sent with the same wheel start positions.  This mistake was very useful to the research codebreakers. A codebreaker called John Tiltman was able to get the keystream from these messages.

The codebreakers tried to work out the details of the machine from this information, but at first they failed. They were then joined by a young codebreaker called Bill Tutte who was given the job. After a lot of work he succeeded, and produced a logical description of the unseen machine.  This work has been described as "the greatest intellectual achievement of world war II". Tutte worked out that the machine made each keystream character by combining the effects of two sets of five wheels.  He used Greek letters to name the wheels.  He called one set of five the χ ("chi") wheels, and the other set of five the ψ ("psi") wheels. He worked out that the χ wheels moved on one position for each new character coded. The ψ wheels, however, did not move regularly. They only moved on some of the time. Whether or not the ψ wheels moved on was controlled by two wheels that he called two the μ ("mu") or "motor wheels".

Max Newman was a mathematician and codebreaker at Bletchley Park. He was given the job of working out how a machine could break "Tunny" messages. The machine would do a calculation for many possible start positions of the χ wheels. The start position that gave the largest count from this calculation was likely to be the right one. The first machine was called "Heath Robinson". This did not work very well. It had two punched paper tapes that had to work exactly together. One tape contained the ciphertext in a continuous loop. The second looped tape contained patterns made by the wheels of the coding machine. The tapes would often stretch or break when going at 2000 characters each second. Sometimes the tapes would not line up; then the counts were wrong.

Building Colossus
Tommy Flowers worked at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill in north-west London. He was asked to look at the Heath Robinson machine. He thought it was a weak machine. He designed an electronic machine to do the same job. It would make the patterns of the coding machine by electronics so that only one paper tape was needed. In February 1943 he showed Max Newman this design. The design needed 1,500 thermionic valves (vacuum tubes). Few people thought that so many valves could work without a lot failing. More Heath Robinson machines were ordered. Flowers, however, kept with the idea of an electronic machine.  He got support from Gordon Radley, his boss at the Post Office Research Station.  Tommy Flowers and his team started work on Colossus in February 1943.

The tape with the message on it had to be read rapidly.  Tommy Flowers tested the tape reader up to 9,700 letters/second () before the tape broke.  He selected 5,000 characters per second as a good speed for regular work.  This meant that the paper tape moved at  or .  The electronic circuits were driven by a signal made from reading the sprocket holes of the punched tape.

The first Colossus worked at Dollis Hill in December 1943. Then they took Colossus apart and moved it to Bletchley Park. It got there on 18 January 1944. Harry Fensom and Don Horwood put it back together. Colossus read its first message on the 5th of February. After the first Colossus (Mark 1) there were nine Mark 2 machines. These each had 2,400 valves. They were easier to use. They could be programmed to work at five times the speed of the Mark 1. A Mark 2 Colossus first worked on 1 June 1944.

At first Colossus was only used to find the starting wheel places used for a message (called wheel setting). Codebreakers worked out how to use the Mark 2 to help find the patterns of the cams on the wheels (wheel breaking). At the end of the war there were ten Colossus computers working at Bletchley Park. This meant that very many messages were decoded.

Design and use
Colossus used parts that were new back then. It used vacuum tubes, thyratrons and photomultipliers. It read from paper with light. It then did a special thing for every letter; the special thing could be changed. It counted how often this special thing was "true". Machines with many vacuum tubes were known to break a lot.  They break most when turning on, so the Colossus machines were only turned off when a part broke.

Colossus was the first of the electronic digital machines that could have a program. It could not change as much as later machines:
 it had no program inside itself. A person used plugs, wires and switches to change the program. This is how it was set it up for a new thing to do.
 Colossus was not a general-purpose machine. It was made for only one kind of code-breaking: counting and Boolean operations.

It was not a Turing-complete computer, even though Alan Turing was at Bletchley Park. This idea had not yet been thought of, and most of the other early modern computing machines were not Turing-complete (like: the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the Harvard Mark I electro-mechanical relay machine, the Bell Labs relay machines by George Stibitz and others, or the first plans of Konrad Zuse). It took a long time for computers be used for many uses, instead of just a calculator only for working out one hard problem.

Influence and fate
What the Colossus computers were used for was very secret. The Colossus itself was highly secret even for many years after the War. This is why Colossus could not be included in the history of computing hardware for a long time. Nobody knew how important that Flowers and the other people who helped make it were.

Not many people knew about this secret computer, so it had little direct effect on the new design of later computers; EDVAC was the early  design which had the most effect on later computer design.

Once Colossus was made, some people now knew that high-speed electronic (no moving parts like electrical relays) digital computing devices could be made and they did not break too much. Just this knowledge was enough to have a big effect on the designs of early computers in Britain and probably in the US. People that knew about Colossus were important in the early computer field in Britain. In  1972, Herman Goldstine wrote that:

In writing that, Goldstine did not know of Colossus.  He did not know what it left to projects of people who knew about it.  People such as  Alan Turing (with the Pilot ACE and ACE), and Max Newman and I. J. Good (with the Manchester Mark 1 and  other early Manchester computers). Brian Randell later wrote that:

Colossus plans and machinery were secret from the when they were made. They stayed so after the War, when Winston Churchill ordered the destruction of most of the Colossus machines into "parts no bigger than a man's hand"; Tommy Flowers himself burned  the designs in a fireplace at Dollis Hill. Some parts, changed to look innocent, were taken to Newman's Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. The Colossus  Mark 1 was taken apart and the parts were sent back to the Post Office. Two Colossus computers, along with two copied Tunny machines, were  kept.  They were moved to GCHQ's new head office at Eastcote in April 1946. They moved again with GCHQ to Cheltenham between 1952  and 1954. One of the computers, known as Colossus Blue, was taken apart in  1959; the other in 1960. In their later years, the computers were used for training. Before that, there had been  attempts to change them (sometimes well) for other purposes. Jack Good was the first to use it after the war, getting  NSA to use Colossus to do something for which they were planning to build a special purpose machine. Colossus  was also used to perform letter counts on one-time pad tape to test for non-randomness.

At this time the Colossus was still secret, long after any of its technical details were of any importance. This was due to the UK's intelligence agencies use of Enigma-like machines which they got other governments to buy. The agencies then broke the codes using  different ways. Had the knowledge of the codebreaking machines been widely known, no one would have accepted these machines; rather, they  would have developed their own methods for encryption, methods that the UK services might not have been able to break. The need for such  secrets slowly went away as communications moved to digital transmission and all-digital encryption systems became common in the 1960s.

Colonel Winterbotham's book The Ultra Secret came out in 1975.  This broke the secrecy around the Colossus. After that, details about the  computer began to become public in the late 1970s.

A 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its code breaking – entitled General Report on Tunny – was given by GCHQ to the national Public Record Office in October 2000; the complete technical report is online.

Making it again

A team led by Tony Sale built a working copy of a Colossus Mark 2.  The plans and machines had been destroyed, but a surprising amount of other material was not destroyed.  It was mostly in engineers' notebooks, much of it in the U.S.  The optical tape reader might have been the biggest problem, but Dr. Arnold Lynch, its designer, was able to redesign it from his own first writings.  The rebuilt Colossus is on show at The National Museum of Computing, in H Block Bletchley Park in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire.  This is where the Colossus No. 9 was used in the war.

In November 2007, to mark both the end of the work and the start of fundraising (asking for money) they ran a competition. The money would help The National Museum of Computing with a Cipher Competition where the rebuilt Colossus competed with radio amateurs all around the world. The first to hear and decode three messages enciphered would win.  They would be enciphered using the Lorenz SZ42 and transmitted from the radio station in the Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum  computer museum in Germany. The competition was easily won by radio amateur Joachim Schüth.  Schüth had gotten ready for the event. He made his own signal processing and code-breaking program using Ada. The Colossus team lost because they wanted to use World War II radios,. They were a day late because of bad radio conditions. The winner's 1.4 GHz laptop, running his own program, took less than a minute to find the settings for all 12 wheels. The German codebreaker said: "My laptop worked on ciphertext at a speed of 1.2 million letters per second—240x faster than Colossus. If you compare the two computers, you could say Colossus had a speed of 5.8 MHz. That is very fast for a computer built in 1944."

Related pages
 ENIAC
 Supercomputer
 Enigma (machine)
 Lorenz Cipher

References

 Jack Copeland, Colossus: Its Origins and Originators (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 26(4), October–December 2004, pp. 38–45).
 Jack Copeland, Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age, in Action This Day, 2001, .

  That version is a facsimile copy, but there is a transcript of much of this document in '.pdf' format at: , and a web transcript of Part 1 at:
 I. J. Good, Early Work on Computers at Bletchley (IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 1 (No. 1), 1979, pp. 38–48)
 I. J. Good, Pioneering Work on Computers at Bletchley (in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota, (editors), A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century, Academic Press, New York, 1980)
 T. H. Flowers, The Design of Colossus (Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 239–252)
 D C Horwood, A technical description of COLOSSUS I, August 1973, PRO HW 25/24.
 Brian Randell, Colossus: Godfather of the Computer, 1977 (reprinted in The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982)
 Brian Randell, The COLOSSUS  (in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century)

 Albert W. Small, The Special Fish Report (December, 1944) describe the operation of Colossus to break Tunny messages

Further reading
 Harvey G. Cragon, From Fish to Colossus: How the German Lorenz Cipher was Broken at Bletchley Park (Cragon Books, Dallas, 2003; ) – A detailed description of the cryptanalysis of Tunny, and some details of Colossus (contains some minor errors)
 Ted Enever, Britain's Best Kept Secret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park (Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 1999; ) – A guided tour of the history and geography of the Park, written by one of the founder members of the Bletchley Park Trust
 Tony Sale, The Colossus Computer 1943–1996: How It Helped to Break the German Lorenz Cipher in WWII (M.&M. Baldwin, Kidderminster, 2004; ) – A slender (20 page) booklet, containing the same material as Tony Sale's website (see below)
 Michael Smith, Station X, 1998. .

 Jack Copeland: Colossus. The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers. Oxford University Press 2006.
 R. Rojas, U. Hashagen (eds.): The First Computers: History and Architectures. MIT Press 2000. . – Comparison of the first computers, with a chapter about Colossus and its reconstruction by Tony Sale.

Other websites

 The National Museum of Computing
 Tony Sale's Codes and Ciphers Contains a great deal of information, including:
 Colossus, the revolution in code breaking
 Lorenz Cipher and the Colossus
 The machine age comes to Fish codebreaking
 The Colossus Rebuild Project
 The Colossus Rebuild Project: Evolving to the Colossus Mk 2
 Walk around Colossus A detailed tour of the replica Colossus – make sure to click on the "More Text" links on each image to see the informative detailed text about that part of Colossus
 IEEE lecture – Transcript of a lecture Tony Sale gave describing the reconstruction project
 BBC news article reporting on the replica Colossus
 BBC news article: "Colossus cracks codes once more"
 BBC news article: BBC news article: "Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" with video interviews 2010-02-02
Website on Copeland's 2006 book with much information and links to recently declassified information
 Was the Manchester Baby conceived at Bletchley Park?

Historical computers
World War II

Colossus computer


Saint Joachim was the father of the Virgin Mary and the grandfather of Jesus. Joachim means "Yahweh prepares".

According to tradition, Joachim wanted to pray in the temple but was turned away because of his childlessness.  He went to a mountaintop to pray to God.  An angel appeared to him and his wife, Anna.  The angel told Joachim that the Lord heard their prayers and that Anna was with child.

It is believed that Anna and Joachim gave Mary to the service of the Temple when she was three years old.

St. Joachim and Saint Anna's feast day is July 26.

Early Christian saints
1st-century BC births

Saint Joachim