The Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway (A&BR) was an English railway located in Buckinghamshire, England operating between Aylesbury and Verney Junction.

History

The Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway Company was incorporated on 6 August 1860, and the line opened on 23 September 1868 connecting  Aylesbury and Verney Junction and serving intermediate stations at Waddesdon Manor (renamed Waddesdon on 1 October 1920), Quainton Road, Grandborough (renamed Granborough Road on 6 October 1920), and Winslow Road. The A&BR was never extended to Buckingham.

In the late 1880s the Metropolitan Railway  planned to extend its projected Aylesbury line northwards to , to make a junction with the East and West Junction Railway. Instead, the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway Company was absorbed by the Metropolitan Railway on 1 July 1891 and it thus formed the northward progress of the Metropolitan Railway.

The section of line from Morton Pinkney to just north of Quainton Road railway station was built later as part of the London Extension of the Great Central Railway, joining the, by then, Metropolitan Railway tracks into London, and forming the Great Central Main Line which opened for passenger traffic on 15 March 1899.

In April 1906 the Metropolitan Railway section from Harrow-on-the-Hill station to Verney Junction was leased to a Joint Committee of the Metropolitan Railway and Great Central Main Line: it was worked on a five-yearly basis alternately by the joint lessees.

Passenger services on the line were withdrawn between Quainton Road and Verney Junction from 6 July 1936, having last run on the 4th, and the intermediate stations of Granborough Road and Winslow Road closed. The last through service, a parcels train from Verney Junction, was on 6 April 1947. The line was officially closed on 8 September 1947 but was retained as a siding to a point near Winslow Road until at least 1963. On 14 September that year a railtour ran on this part of the line.

Current and future developments

In December 2008 a section of track between Aylesbury and the newly opened Aylesbury Vale Parkway station was reinstated for regular passenger use. There are plans to continue the reinstatement north of Aylesbury Vale as part of new the East West Rail Consortium route around London. However the route would use only the section just to the north of Quainton Road, continuing via the Great Central route and the Calvert curve towards . There are no firm plans for stations between Aylesbury Vale and  nor a reinstated station at Verney Junction.

See also
 Great Central Railway, The "London Extension"
 Metropolitan Railway
 Buckinghamshire Railway

References

Clive's UndergrounD Line Guides, Metropolitan line

Aylesbury
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Great Central Railway
London and North Eastern Railway constituents
Closed railway lines in South East England
Railway companies established in 1860
Railway lines opened in 1868
Railway companies disestablished in 1891

Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway


In botany, an evergreen is a plant that haes leafs in aw fower saisons, aye green. This contrasts wi deciduous plants, that completely lose thair foliage in the winter or dry saison. Thare mony different kins o evergreen plants, baith trees an shrubs. Evergreens include:
maist species o conifers (e.g. hemlock, blue spruce, reid cedar, an white/scots/jack pine), but nae aw (e.g. larick)
live aik, holly, an "auncient" gymnosperms like cycads
maist angiosperms frae frost-free climates, such as eucalypts an rainforest trees

The Laitin binomial term sempervirens (leeterally, "always green") refers tae the evergreen naitur o the plant, for instance:
Acer sempervirens (a maple)
Cupressus sempervirens (a cypress)
Lonicera sempervirens (a honeysuckle)
Sequoia sempervirens (a sequoia)
Ulmus parvifolia 'Sempervirens' (an elm)

Leaf persistence in evergreen plants varies frae a few month (wi new leafs constantly bein grown as auld anes is shed) tae several decades (ower thirty year in the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine).

References

Plants
Botany

Evergreen


Estêvão da Gama (about 1430–July 1497) was a wealthy Portuguese knight of the fifteenth century, best known as the father of explorer Vasco da Gama.

Family and early life
Estêvão da Gama was the eldest son (out of four) of a certain Vasco da Gama of Olivença and Dona Teresa da Silva. In the 1460s, Estêvão was a knight in the household of the royal prince Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, and, at some point, entered the military Order of Santiago.  He was subsequently rewarded for his services with the position of Alcaide Mor (civil governor) of Sines, a post he held until 1478.  He continued collecting taxes and dues in Sines and environs on behalf of the Order of Santiago.

Order of Santiago
Around 1472, the mastership of the Order of Santiago fell into the hands of Infante D. João, the royal prince and heir.  Upon ascending to the throne as King John II of Portugal in 1481, the Order's fortunes - and Estêvão da Gama's - rose with him. Through the 1480s, Estêvão da Gama climbed through the ranks of the Order of Santiago, holding a variety of positions, and served John II in a position of trust.  Estêvão held the comenda of Cercal and possibly Seixal on behalf of the Order.

Marriage and family
Estêvão da Gama married Isabel Sodré, a daughter of João Sodré (also known as João de Resende), scion of a well-connected family of English origin.  She was the sister of Vicente Sodré and Brás Sodré.

Estêvão da Gama and Isabel Sodré had five sons, in probable order of age, Paulo da Gama, João Sodré (who took his mother's surname), Vasco da Gama, Pedro da Gama and Aires da Gama, and one known daughter, Teresa da Gama (who became the wife of Lopo Mendes de Vasconcelos).  In addition, Estêvão da Gama had an illegitimate son, confusingly also named Vasco da Gama, born of another woman while he was still single.  Despite the Sodré's traditional attachment to the Order of Christ, the sons of Gama followed their father into the Order of Santiago.

Service to John II
After Bartolomeu Dias doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, Estêvão da Gama was appointed by John II to lead the first sea expedition from Portugal to India (at least according to chroniclers Barros and Castanheda).  This expedition, however, did not materialize in the lifetime of either men.

In 1491, John II attentions became embroiled in a domestic struggle over his successor. Estêvão da Gama loyally backed John II's choice, Jorge de Lencastre (also the new grand master of the Order of Santiago), against the eventual winner, Manuel, Duke of Beja (also the grand master of the rival Order of Christ).

Death, planned Indian voyage
At the death of John II in 1495, Estêvão da Gama and his sons remained part of the opposition party gathered around D. Jorge in Palmela, against King Manuel I. The new king resurrected John II's plans for the India expedition, and the appointment was, once again, to go to Estêvão da Gama, as had been earlier promised.  But by the time the expedition was set to depart (July, 1497), Estêvão da Gama was already dead (or on his deathbed).  As a result, the appointment was given to his son, Vasco da Gama.

(It is conjectured by some chroniclers that the appointment was first offered to Paulo da Gama, who as the eldest son, had the 'right' to succeed his father's position; but Paulo turned it down, so then it was offered to Vasco.   However, Paulo seems to have changed his mind and agreed to captain one of the ships, under his younger brother's command.)

After Vasco da Gama's return in 1499, King Manuel I offered him his father's old base, the town of Sines, as a reward.  However, actually taking possession of it turned out to be a bit more complicated.

Namesakes
One of Vasco da Gama's sons, Estêvão da Gama, who would become Portuguese governor of India (1540–1542), was named for him.

[There is a third Estêvão da Gama in the lists of this time - the one who led a squadrons of the 4th Armada (1502).  He was a first cousin of Vasco da Gama - that is the son of Aires da Gama, a younger brother of the elder Estêvão.]

References

Sources

 Subrahmanyam, S. (1997) The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama. Cambridge University Press

1430 births
1497 deaths
Estevao
15th-century Portuguese people
Portuguese knights
People from Sines

Estêvão da Gama (15th century)


Auðr (Old Norse "prosperity") or Aud is in the Norse mythology a son of Naglfari and Nótt, and half-brother of Jörð (Earth) and Dagr (Day). He is an uncle of Thor. Jörð is called "Auðr's splendid sister".

Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that Auðr is the invention of Snorri Sturluson. Simek notes that Auðr is a female name in other Icelandic sources.

Norse mythology

Auðr


Lan Yu (died 1393) was a Chinese military general and official who contributed to the founding of the Ming dynasty. His ancestral home was in present-day Dingyuan County, Anhui. In 1393, Lan was accused of plotting a rebellion and put to death by the Hongwu Emperor. About 15,000 people were implicated in the case and executed as part of the Four Major Cases of the early Ming dynasty.

Biography
According to the History of Ming, in his early years, Lan Yu was a subordinate of Chang Yuchun, another general under the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (later the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming). Lan Yu was also the younger brother of Chang Yuchun's wife. As Lan Yu displayed courage in battle, Chang Yuchun spoke well of him numerous times in front of Zhu Yuanzhang, and Lan was later promoted from guanjun zhenfu () to an administrative officer in the commander-in-chief's office (). In 1371, Lan Yu followed Fu Youde to attack Shu (covering present-day Sichuan) and conquered Mianzhou () around present-day Mianyang. In 1372, he accompanied Xu Da on a campaign against the Northern Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia, departing from Yanmen Pass and defeating the Yuan armies at Mount Luan () and near the Tula River (). Seven years later he followed Mu Ying to attack Tibet, capturing three tribal leaders and around a thousand men. For his efforts, in 1379, Lan Yu was conferred the title of "Marquis of Yongchang" (), in addition to receiving 2500 dan () of grain and a shiquan (), a type of plaque granted by the emperor to officials in recognition of their contributions.

Hui Chinese generally claim that Lan Yu was a Hui as well.

In 1381, Lan Yu was appointed "Left Deputy General Who Conquers the South" () and accompanied Fu Youde to attack Yunnan and pacify the region. He was rewarded with 500 dan of grain and his daughter was granted the title of "Princess Consort of Shu" (). In 1387, Nahachu () of the Northern Yuan invaded Liaodong and the Hongwu Emperor sent Feng Sheng, with Lan Yu and Fu Youde as his right and left deputies respectively, along with a 200,000-man army to attack him. Nahachu was defeated and surrendered. Lan Yu garrisoned the army at Jizhou ().

In 1388, the Hongwu Emperor commissioned Lan Yu as General-in-Chief () and sent him with 150,000 troops to attack the Northern Yuan ruler Uskhal Khan. In the fourth lunar month of that year, Lan Yu's force arrived at Buir Lake and defeated the Northern Yuan army, capturing Uskhal Khan's family members numbering more than 100, more than 77,000 civilians, more than 150,000 livestock, along with several priced items, including Uskhal Khan's imperial seals. Uskhal Khan attempted to flee to the Mongol Empire's old capital of Karakorum, but was killed shortly after the defeat. The Hongwu Emperor was pleased when he received news of Lan Yu's victory and intended to grant Lan the title of "Duke of Liang" (), but changed the Chinese character for "Liang" from "梁" to "涼" after he heard that Lan seized a Mongol noble lady for himself and violated her. This resulted in a change in the area that was to be Lan Yu's dukedom. Despite so, Hongwu still praised Lan Yu as "comparable to Wei Qing of the Han dynasty and Li Jing of the Tang dynasty".

In 1392 a surrendered Yuan general Yuelutiemu'er () rebelled in Jianchang (present-day Xichang, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan) and Lan Yu was sent to suppress the revolt. Lan Yu crushed the uprising and captured Yuelutiemu'er and his son, and was appointed as the Crown Prince's Tutor () for his achievement.

As he made more achievements, Lan Yu became more arrogant, self-indulgent and unbridled. He started abusing his power and status and behaved violently and recklessly, sometimes even showing disrespect towards the emperor. Once, after he seized land from peasants in Dongchang (), an official questioned him on his actions, but Lan Yu drove the official away in anger. In another incident, after Lan Yu returned from a campaign in the north, he arrived at Xifeng Pass (), where the guards denied him entry as it was already late at night, but Lan led his men to force his way through. When he was away at war, Lan Yu sometimes also demoted officers at his own will and defied orders, to the extent of going to battle without permission. During his appointment as the Crown Prince's Tutor, Lan Yu was unhappy that his post was lower than the dukes of Song and Ying, so he exclaimed, "Am I not fit to be the Imperial Tutor (太師)?" The Hongwu Emperor became more angry with Lan Yu after learning of these incidents.

Lan Yu had a close friendship with the crown prince Zhu Biao. Once after Lan Yu returned from a campaign against the Mongols, he warned the crown prince that Zhu Di (the Prince of Yan and future Yongle Emperor) seemed to be a likely a threat to his succession. Zhu Di heard about this, so after Zhu Biao died in 1392, he cautioned the Hongwu Emperor that Lan Yu and other founding pioneers of the dynasty were becoming a threat to the throne and should be dealt with before they get out of control. Lan Yu and others did not restrain themselves and continued behaving in the same manner as they did. Around this time, Hongwu was already making plans to eliminate them. Five months later when Hongwu appointed Zhu Biao's son Zhu Yunwen (future Jianwen Emperor) as the new crown prince, he allowed Lan Yu to continue serving as the Crown Prince's Tutor.

Death
In the second lunar month of 1393, a Jinyiwei (secret police) commander Jiang Huan () accused Lan Yu of plotting a rebellion and a search was conducted in Lan's residence and around 10,000 Japanese swords were found. The Hongwu Emperor immediately had Lan Yu put to death on a charge of treason. Lan Yu's clan was exterminated to the third degree and his properties confiscated. More than 15,000 people were implicated and executed in this incident, including 12 marquises and two counts. This incident is known historically as the Lan Yu Case (). It was believed that Hongwu Emperor orchestrated his death to eliminate any threat for his successor Zhu Yunwen; ironically, Lan Yu's death contributed greatly to Zhu Yunwen's downfall as after his death, there were no capable generals that could prevent the powerful Zhu Di (future Yongle Emperor) from usurping the throne after Hongwu Emperor's death.

See also
Ming campaign against the Uriankhai
Four Major Cases of the early Ming dynasty

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography
Zhang Tingyu et al. History of Ming, Volume 132, Biography of Lan Yu.

1393 deaths
14th-century executions
Chinese Muslim generals
Executed Ming dynasty people
Executed people from Anhui
Generals from Anhui
Ming dynasty generals
Ming dynasty government officials
People executed by the Ming dynasty
Politicians from Chuzhou
Victims of familial execution
Yuan dynasty people
Year of birth unknown

Lan Yu (general)


Marie Joséphine of Savoy (Maria Giuseppina Luigia; 2 September 1753 – 13 November 1810) was the wife of the future Louis XVIII of France. She was a princess of Savoy by birth, became the titular Queen consort, and was known by her title: Her Royal Highness, Countess of Provence (comtesse de Provence).

Family

She was born at the Royal Palace of Turin on 2 September 1753 and was the third child and second daughter of Victor Amadeus and his wife the Spanish Infanta Maria Antonia of Spain. At the time of her birth her grandfather, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, was the King of Sardinia.

Marriage

Maria Giuseppina was engaged to the French Prince Louis Stanislas of France. He was known as the Count of Provence. They were married on 16 April 1771 by proxy in the Turin. They were married in person on 14 May 1771 at the Palace of Versailles. A luxurious ball followed the wedding on 20 May. She was considered to be ugly. Louis Stanislas hated his wife. We know today that these rumors were created by those who supported Marie Antoinette as a rivalry soon emerged after the youngest brother 'comte d'Artois', married the Comtesse's sister, thereby bringing yet another Savoyard princess to Versailles and creating an Italian party at court.

In France she was known as Marie Joséphine de Savoie. She had a high rank at court as her husband was a grandson of the reiging king. She was a cousin of the ill-fated Princess of Lamballe who was instrumental in the arrangement of the marriage. At the death of her husband's grandfather Louis XV in 1774, her brother-in-law succeeded as Louis XVI. She became pregnant in 1774 and 1781, but both pregnancies ended in miscarriage. In 1791 Marie Joséphine went to Germany. During the period of exile, the Count and Countess fought constantly. Some historians have suggested Marie Joséphine's possible lesbian relationship with a lady-in-waiting as the primary cause for discord between the couple.

Marie Joséphine died of an edema at Hartwell House, English residence of the exiled French royal family. Marie Joséphine was laid to rest in the Lady Chapel of Westminster Abbey. Her body was removed a year later on Louis's orders and buried in the Kingdom of Sardinia; today in Cagliari Cathedral.

Other websites

1753 births
1810 deaths
House of Bourbon
House of Savoy
Princes and Princesses of Savoy

Princess Marie Joséphine of Savoy


Camelot is a musical. Alan Jay Lerner wrote the book and lyrics. Frederick Loewe wrote the music. The musical is based on T. H. White's novel, The Once and Future King. It tells the story of King Arthur and his knights in Camelot.

The original 1960 production was directed by Moss Hart. It ran on Broadway for 873 performances. It starred Julie Andrews, Robert Goulet, and Richard Burton.

The original production was followed by several revivals and foreign shows. In 1967, a movie version starring Richard Harris, Franco Nero, and Vanessa Redgrave was released. The original cast album was America's top-selling LP for 60 weeks. The musical has become associated with John F. Kennedy's Presidential Administration.

Broadway musicals
1960s musicals
Musicals based on books

1960 works

Camelot (musical)


A song is a piece of music which contains lyrics and words. Songs may be made by songwriters. Other songs are folk songs, which are songs created by people long ago that have been sung as tradition.

Some people form bands which write and record songs to make money from it. When two or three singers sing the song it is called a duet or trio. Some people also make parodies of songs, which is usually changing the words of the song but keeping the tune. Parodies are usually made to make fun of a song or its writer/singer (parody artist "Weird Al" Yankovic is an example of this).

The word "song" is often used to describe any piece of music, even one without words or lyrics. The proper word for a piece of music without words is "instrumental".

References

Basic English 850 words

Musical forms

Song


The ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex is a  multi-purpose sports complex located at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, United States, near Orlando. The complex allows families to combine tournaments and competition with a visit to vacation destinations in the area. The complex includes nine venues and hosts numerous professional and amateur sporting events throughout the year.

In reference to the weekly ABC Sports television show, Wide World of Sports (Disney bought ABC in 1996), the complex was originally known as Disney's Wide World of Sports Complex from 1997 until 2010, when it was rebranded with the name of the Disney-owned ESPN.

The complex is a part of the sports tourism emerging market. The complex is mainly used for AAU tournaments; however, many prominent professional sporting events have taken place here, including the 2020 NBA Bubble, MLS is Back Tournament, 2016 Invictus Games, Pro Bowl skills competition from 2017 to 2020, 1997 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, and Atlanta Braves spring training from 1997 to 2019 among other events. The complex hosted the 2022 Special Olympics USA Games.

The Tampa Bay Rays are currently using the complex for 2023 spring training, due to Charlotte Sports Park having been heavily damaged by Hurricane Ian.

History
Disney built the US$100 million facility on former wetlands under the direction of Disney Vice President Reggie Williams. Construction started in July 1995. The complex was built to publicize Walt Disney World, fill hotel rooms, grow sponsorship revenue, and build Walt Disney World's position as a sports destination.

Disney-branded

The venue opened on March 28, 1997, with an exhibition baseball game between the Atlanta Braves and the Cincinnati Reds. On April 21–27, the main tennis courts hosted the U.S. Men's Clay Court Tennis Championships. A grand opening was held May 15, 1997. The initial build out consisted of nine venues with a 10th, the Olympic velodrome, expected in the third quarter 1997. Initial tenants were Braves & its rookie team, the Harlem Globetrotters, NFL Experience, the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Amateur Athletic Union, Official All Star Café and Northeastern University's Center for the Study of Sport in Society.:2 Disney bid for the Florida state high school football finals for 1997 but lost to Gainesville. In June 1999, the complex made a deal with the Florida High School Activities Association to host the state prep volleyball championships at the Disney Fieldhouse for three years. USA Trampoline and Tumbling Championships was held at the complex the weekend of June 7, 1997.

A former baseball umpire and an architect alleged that they approached The Walt Disney Company in 1987 with plans for a sports complex, and that Wide World of Sports, which opened 10 years later, was heavily based on their designs. Disney claimed that, while the designs had some similarities, the complex was also similar to numerous other sporting facilities, and the concept of a sports park was too generic for any one group to claim ownership. The two men, represented in part by noted attorney Johnnie Cochran, sued Disney in Orange County civil court. In August 2000, a jury returned a verdict for the plaintiffs with damages in the amount of $240 million, a fraction of the $1.5 billion sought. Disney appealed the judgment, and settled out of court in September 2002 for undisclosed terms.

With Planet Hollywood just out of bankruptcy, Disney offered to purchase its All Star Café located here in February 2000 and acquired the lease in March 2000. It became What's Next? Cafe in 2007 before being rebranded as ESPN Wide World of Sports Grill in 2010.

In August 2004, 20 acres of additional fields, four baseball diamonds with other multi-use fields, were added under the name of Hess Sports Fields. Plans for a 100 lane bowling stadium with restaurant was announced for the complex by Disney officials in May 2008. This stadium would be built and operated by a third party and was supposed to completed in 18 months. About 13 United States Bowling Congress tournaments were expected for the facility.

ESPN-branded
During an ESPN the Weekend kick off event on February 25, 2010,  the complex was rebranded as the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex. It received a massive upgrade, having installed HD video scoreboards at several venues, a new complex-wide audio system, and a broadcast production facility. New venues and activities at the complex included the PlayStation Pavilion and Custom Tee Center by Champion.

Prior to the rebranding in 2007, Disney announced a 450-acre Flamingo Crossings hotel-and-retail development. It would be located near the area for complex visitors and budget-minded Disney World visitors. Shelved due to economic downturn, the project was revived with the 2013 sale of the property to first phase developer JL Properties Inc. of Alaska. An October 16, 2014, groundbreaking took place for the first phase, consisting of two Marriott International brand hotels which opened in January 2016.

In 2008 and 2009, the Disney Channel Games were held at the complex. From May 9–11, 2014, a WNBA pre-season tournament consisting of four teams was held alongside an AAU girls basketball tournament at the complex, with the Minnesota Lynx winning the tournament over the Chicago Sky 76–69.  While the Citrus Bowl was under repairs, the Orlando City Soccer Club played its 2014 home games at the complex.

In July 2015, it was announced that the 2016 Invictus Games would be held at the complex. The Invictus Games were held from May 8 to 12, 2016. Prince Harry, Michelle Obama, and Morgan Freeman all spoke at the Opening and Closing ceremony. Over 500 service members were in attendance, along with other notable public figures, including former United States President George W. Bush and Second Lady Jill Biden.

In early January 2018, The Arena opened at the complex as its third indoor multi-purpose sports and entertainment arena. Also that month, United States Specialty Sports Association left for the Space Coast Complex in Viera, Florida ending its use of ESPN's complex.

Since 2017, the Complex is host of the NFL Pro Bowl activities prior to the game. Besides having open practices for fans, ESPN broadcasts the Pro Bowl Skills Showdown, a series of head-to-head competitions between the players. According to event organizers, over the last four years, the Pro Bowl and festivities surrounding it have generated an estimated $100-million economic impact for Central Florida.

In March 2019, it was announced that Wide World of Sports would host the 2022 Special Olympics USA Games.

Use as a bubble during the COVID-19 pandemic
In May 2020, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, there were reports that both Major League Soccer and the NBA were in talks with Disney to host the teams to have their respective seasons in the complex.

It was then confirmed that the complex would host both leagues. The 2020 Major League Soccer season held the MLS is Back Tournament, which had three regular season matches for each of the 26 teams as well as a bracket tournament to determine a berth into the 2021 CONCACAF Champions League (for a total of 54 matches), from July 8 to August 11. On August 11, 2020, the Portland Timbers defeated Orlando City SC 2-1 to win the tournament.

Meanwhile, the 2019–20 NBA season was concluded at the AdventHealth Arena, HP Field House, and the Visa Athletic Center. 22 teams were invited: the 16 teams in playoff position at the time of the season being put on hold due to the pandemic, including the host Orlando Magic, and the six teams within six games of the eighth and final playoff spot in either conference. The three chosen arenas hosted scrimmages, eight regular season games for each team invited to the NBA Bubble starting July 30, a play-in mini-series, and the entirety of the NBA Playoffs and Finals. On October 11, 2020, the Los Angeles Lakers defeated the Miami Heat 106-93 to win the best-of-7 series 4-2.

In 2021, the NBA G League reached an agreement to host the 2020–21 season exclusively at the complex. On March 11, 2021, the Lakeland Magic defeated the Delaware Blue Coats 97-78 to win the championship.

Venues

The Stadium at the ESPN Wide World of Sports

A 7,500 seat baseball stadium built in 1997 also has 2,000 more lawn seating. One of the original components of Wide World of Sports, it was formerly known as Champion Stadium, Cracker Jack Stadium and The Ballpark at Disney's Wide World of Sports. It was the spring training home of the Atlanta Braves from 1997 to 2019, and the recurring home for the Gulf Coast Braves. The Braves initially announced that 2017 would be their final year in the complex, but their departure would be delayed to 2019. In 2020, the Atlanta Braves officially moved their spring training site to CoolToday Park located in North Port, FL after 21 years in the ESPN complex. The stadium has hosted two regular season Major League Baseball series in 2007 and 2008 featuring the Tampa Bay Rays as the home team.

State Farm Field House
A 5,000-seat multi-purpose arena, formerly the Milk House, Disney Fieldhouse and HP Field House, sponsored by  State Farm It hosts the ESPN Events Invitational college basketball tournament annually. The State Farm Field House has  with stadium style seating with the highest row  off the floor. It also features a smaller gymnasium behind the main arena with retractable seating. It was formerly sponsored by the California Milk Processor Board, progenitors of the famous Got Milk? campaign.  Beginning in 2018, the arena hosts the Jr. NBA Global Championship, a tournament that features both boys' and girls' teams divided into national and international regions (and is thus similar in setup to the Little League World Series). It also hosted the first-ever NBA play-in game between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Memphis Grizzlies in 2020 bubble basketball.

Visa Athletic Center
First announced in March 2007, the complex's 10th anniversary year, the Visa Athletic Center (formerly Jostens Center) is a  arena (36% smaller than the HP Field House without the stadium seating) that opened in the fall of 2008. The center features six college-size basketball courts, twelve volleyball courts, or two roller hockey rinks. Its seating capacity is 1,200.

AdventHealth Arena
AdventHealth Arena opened in early January 2018 as the third indoor multi-purpose sports and entertainment arena at the complex. While multipurpose, the venue was designed for cheer and dance events. Its first event was the UCA and UDA College Cheerleading and Dance Team National Championship, January 12 to the 14, 2018. It has 8,000 seats in standard arena configuration, and features a flexible configuration that can accommodate six regulation-sized basketball or volleyball courts. AdventHealth Arena hosted the Eastern and Western Conference Finals of the 2020 NBA Playoffs, along with the 2020 NBA Finals.

Marathon Sports Fields
Marathon Sports Fields, presented by Marathon Petroleum, consists of twelve fields, the Baseball Quadraplex, Softball Quadraplex and four multiple purpose fields.

One of the fields has 500 permanent seats, and another has 1,000 permanent seats, expandable to up to 3,000 with additional grandstands. Field 17, the field with the larger grandstands, hosts the Walt Disney World Pro Soccer Classic, an annual eight-team preseason soccer tournament featuring Major League Soccer teams.

The complex hosted the USL Pro Orlando City Soccer Club during the 2014 season. The team had additional seating added for a total of 5,200 seats.

Complexes

Baseball Quadraplex
Consisting of four professional baseball fields and one practice infield, the quadraplex also includes batting tunnels, pitching mounds, hitting tunnels, masters pitching machines, and ten bullpens. All fields are equipped for night play.

Softball Diamondplex
The first venue to be completed at the facility, it consists of six fields used for softball and youth baseball. Organized with four fields in circle and two adjacent.

Tennis Complex
A 1,000 to 8,500 seat tennis complex with 10-clay courts with center court stadium and was one of the original nine venues.

Track and Field Complex
A 500-seat competition facility for track and field events, designed to International Association of Athletics Federations specifications. This venue was one of the original nine venues.
nine lane track
three shot put rings
two discus/hammer rings
a javelin runway
two high jump areas
two horizontal jump runways
two pole vault runways
 wooded cross-country course

Programs and events
Disney created a third of its events while bidding for other tournaments or attracting long term partners such as the Amateur Athletic Union. As of 2006, the union hosted at the complex 30 to 35 tournaments a year. The United States Specialty Sports Association had reserved six weekends at the complex. Disney also hosted more than 180 events involving more than 30 sports at the complex since 2006. In recent years, the complex has been utilized in wide ranges from many youth and collegiate sports activities to even providing alternative measures for some professional sports leagues to complete their seasons in some safer environments. Some of these following programs and events have taken place in various areas at the complex over the years.

Disney Spring Training (1997–present) takes place from mid-February to mid-April in which high school and college teams practice during their spring break at the facility. Until 2005, the program accommodated teams primarily in track and field, lacrosse, and softball.
Pop Warner Super Bowl (1997–present) takes place in December where the top teams in the nation and internationally of youth football have the Pop Warner championships held in the complex. Thousands of players and families come to the event, with ESPN even broadcasting part of these games live on national television.
Disney Soccer Showcase (2000–present) a top youth soccer tournament
Sunshine Showdown, a women's baseball tournament not to be confused with the Florida–Florida State college rivalry
The resumption of the 2019–20 NBA season (July 30 – October 11, 2020): Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the National Basketball Association's 2019–20 season was suspended in March 2020. On June 4, after competing with Las Vegas for hosting rights, the NBA approved a plan to restart the season on July 30 in the NBA Bubble with all games to be played at the AdventHealth Arena (previously named The Arena), the HP Field House, and the Visa Athletic Center with 22 of the league's 30 teams being invited – the 16 clubs that were in playoff position at the time and the six teams (five in the Western Conference, one in the Eastern Conference) within six games of one (primarily a Seed 8 spot). Under this plan, the 22 teams played eight regular-season "seeding" games. A possible play-in tournament for the eighth seed in each conference would then be held if the ninth seed finished the regular season within four games of the eighth seed, which did happen in the Western Conference between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Memphis Grizzlies, ending with Portland overtaking Memphis' initial playoff spot after one game played under it. The NBA Playoffs and Finals were then set to proceed as normal inside the bubble, and the season was successfully completed after the Los Angeles Lakers were victorious over the Miami Heat in six games. Prior to the season officially resuming, the teams also played scrimmages at the venues with 10-minute quarters from July 22 to 28. During the resumption of the season, as part of the bubble format to combat the spread of the virus, the teams were based on the Walt Disney World resort grounds at Disney's Yacht Club Resort, Disney's Grand Floridian Resort and Spa, and the Gran Destino Tower at Disney's Coronado Springs Resort based on seeding, with the teams with the worst records staying at Disney's Yacht Club Resort and those with the best records (including the Lakers and Heat) staying at Disney's Coronado Springs Resort. No players staying at the bubble during that time were infected with COVID-19, though a select few NBA players did violate their quarantine rules at the time and games were briefly paused after the shooting of Jacob Blake came to light.
The MLS is Back Tournament (July 8 – August 11, 2020): Major League Soccer's 2020 season was also suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, though its season had just begun with each team first playing in only two games in late February and early March. On June 4, 2020, MLS and the MLS Players Association came to an agreement that included a tournament at the sports complex during the summer of 2020 to help restart their season. The tournament started in the group stage on July 8, entered the knockout stage on July 25 and ended in the final on August 11 with the Portland Timbers beating host Orlando City 2–1. They then officially continued the rest of their 2020 Major League Soccer season, including the 2020 Cup Playoffs, soon afterward.
The entire, truncated 2020–21 NBA G League season (February 10 – March 11, 2021): With the 2019–20 NBA G League season cancelled due to the continuing COVID-19 pandemic combined with the National Basketball Association having their next season be played from December 2020 to July 2021, the NBA G League decided they had to do their season under a more truncated format, similar to the 2020 NBA Bubble. While initial plans had the G League's Bubble setting take place in Atlanta, the G League decided to host their entire season on the same grounds the NBA played in during their previous season. To help cover for expenses this season, each participating G League team's parent team had to contribute around $400,000-$500,000 in order for them to stay at the nearby resorts, as well as provide daily medical care, food, and COVID-19 tests. For this season, only 17 of the G League's 28 teams at the time, as well as the newly implemented NBA G League Ignite farm team, were able to compete in a regular season that lasted only 15 games long from February 10 to March 6 before entering a single elimination playoff format lasting from March 8–11. All games aired during that period of time were broadcast onto either ESPN2, ESPNU, or ESPN+. The season ended with the host #6 seed Lakeland Magic upsetting the #4 seed Delaware Blue Coats 97–78 in the championship match.

Prior tenants
 Orlando City Soccer Club (2014)

References

External links

Baseball venues in Florida
Buildings and structures in Osceola County, Florida
Cross country running courses in Florida
Defunct NBA G League venues
ESPN
Former Major League Soccer stadiums
Former National Basketball Association venues
Rugby league stadiums in the United States
Rugby league in Florida
Sports venues in Greater Orlando
Tourist attractions in Osceola County, Florida
Disney sports
Walt Disney World
Wide World of Sports (American TV series)
1997 establishments in Florida
Sports venues completed in 1997
USL Championship stadiums
Sports complexes in Florida
Sports in Osceola County, Florida

ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex


The activation energy of a chemical reaction is the minimum energy that is needed to make the reaction happen. It usually has the symbol Ea and it is measured in kilojoule per mole. It can be thought of as a barrier between the reagents and the products of a reaction. The activation energy is the difference in energy between the transition state and the starting reagents.

Arrhenius equation
This equation is a way of calculating the activation energy. Its form is:

Here, k is the rate constant of the reaction (which can be measured using chemical kinetics), A is a frequency factor, R is the universal gas constant, T is the temperature. If we measure how fast the reaction goes at different temperatures, then we can make a graph and calculate the activation energy using this equation.

Catalysis
When using a catalyst the activation energy is made smaller. This means that the reaction can go faster at the same temperature. The catalyst does not change the energy of the reagents or the products. Also, the catalyst does not change in the reaction. Therefore, it can be used again and again and only a small amount of a catalyst is needed.

Chemical kinetics

References

Activation energy


Scott Squires (born 1956) is a visual effects supervisor and director.
His first film project was Close Encounters of the Third Kind, where he developed the Cloud Tank Effect.
In 1979 Squires, Hoyt Yeatman, Rocco Gioffre, Fred Iguchi, Tom Hollister and Bob Hollister co-founded Dream Quest Images, a visual effects house, which was later purchased by Disney.  Squires was president of Dream Quest and left in 1985 to work for Industrial Light and Magic.  Squires worked as visual effects supervisor and commercial director at ILM for 20 years and is now a freelance director and visual effects supervisor.

While at ILM, Squires received an Academy Technical Award for Input Scanning and received Academy Award nominations for The Mask, Dragonheart, and  Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.

External links

 Scott Squires Home Page
 Scott Squires Visual Effects Blog - Effects Corner

Living people
Visual effects supervisors
1956 births

Scott Squires


Landulf II (died 961), called the Red, was the Lombard prince of Benevento and prince of Capua (as Landulf IV) from 939 or 940, when his father, Landulf I, first associated him with the government. His mother was Gemma, daughter of Athanasius of Naples. He may have been associated as early as 933, when his elder brother, Atenulf III, was made co-regent. His uncle Atenulf II died in 940 and it is likely that Landulf served as a replacement. Landulf married Yvantia on an unknown date.

Whatever the case, when the elder Landulf died on 10 April 943, Landulf removed his elder brother Atenulf to Benevento and his uncle Atenulf's son Landulf to Capua. Fearing for their lives, the two fled to Guaimar II of Salerno and Landulf the Red became sole prince. His first act was to continue the family policy of associating younger sons as co-princes in the government. He made his eldest son Pandulf co-prince. Other than that, Landulf made few attempts to continue the family policy of alliance with his fellow Lombards and détente with the Byzantines. He distanced himself from Constantinople, while trying not to enter into open warfare, and made several tries at reuniting the Lombard principality of Salerno with the united Capua-Benevento. He abandoned imperial dating and dated from his own reign.

In 946, he allied with John III of Naples to oust Gisulf I of Salerno, son of Guaimar. He was ambushed in  a pass at La Cava by Mastalo I of Amalfi and the ousting failed. He soon broke his alliance with Naples and allied with Gisulf to besiege Neapolitan Nola. In 950, he was called to the aid of Aligerno, abbot of Monte Cassino. His descendants would prove to be some of the worst persecutors of the monastery. He followed up his Salernitan and Neapolitan failures with successful campaigns against the gastald of Aquino, Atenulf Megalu, whom he exiled to the court of Docibilis II of Gaeta.

In 955, Landulf made his biggest failure in supporting an Apulian revolt against Greek authority, and subsequently was forced to recognize Byzantine supremacy. The rest of his reign was less eventful, as he failed in his two great ambitions: conquering Salerno and opposing the Byzantines. He associated his second son, Landulf, with him in 959 and died in 961.

Sources
Caravale, Mario (ed). Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani: LXIII Labroca – Laterza. Rome, 2004.

|-

961 deaths
Lombard warriors
Landulf 2
Landulf 4
10th-century Lombard people
10th-century monarchs in Europe
Year of birth unknown

Landulf II of Benevento


The kumquats or cumquats are a group of small fruit-bearing trees. The edible fruit (which is also called kumquat) is similar to other Citrus but is smaller.

Kumquats are slow-growing, evergreen shrubs or small trees, from 2.5 to 4.5 m tall, with dense branches. Sometimes they have small thorns. The leaves are dark glossy green, and the flowers pure white, similar to citrus flowers.

Kumquats came from China (they are known in literature of the 12th century), and have long been cultivated there and in Japan. They were introduced to Europe in 1846 by Robert Fortune, who was collector for the London Horticultural Society, and a short time later into North America.

They are much hardier than citrus plants as oranges. The 'Nagami' kumquat needs a hot summer, ranging from 25 °C(77 °F) to 38 °C(100.4 °F), but can withstand frost down to about -10 °C(14 °F). It grows in the tea regions of China where the climate is too cold for other citrus fruits, even the Mikan (also known as the Satsuma) orange.

Etymology
The English name "kumquat" derives from the Cantonese pronunciation gam1 gwat1 (given in Jyutping romanization). The alternate name 柑橘, also pronounced gam gwat in Cantonese (gān jú in Mandarin, literally "large tangerine orange") is now more commonly written by Cantonese speakers.

Names in other Asian languages include:
 Japanese: kinkan (金柑)
 Korean: geumgyul (금귤)
 Mandarin: jīnjú (金橘)
 Thai: somchíd (ส้มจี๊ด)
 Vietnamese: cam quất (from the Cantonese) or, less commonly, (quả) kim quất (if transliterated from the characters 金橘 into Sino-Vietnamese; "quả" (果) is the Sino-Vietnamese prefix for "fruit")

Notes

References and other websites

 Fruits of warm climates
 Burkill, I. H. (1931). An enumeration of the species of Paramignya, Atalantia and Citrus, found in Malaya. Gard. Bull. Straits Settlem. 5: 212–220.
 Mabberley, D. J. (1998). Australian Citreae with notes on other Aurantioideae (Rutaceae). Telopea 7 (4): 333-344. Available online  (pdf).

Citrus

Kumquat


ភាសាសាស្ត្រ គឺជាសាស្ត្រមួយដែលសិក្សាអំពីភាសា។ and involves an analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest activities in the documentation and description of language have been attributed to the 4th century BCE Indian grammarian Pāṇini, who wrote a formal description of the Sanskrit language in his .

Linguists traditionally analyse human language by observing an interplay between sound and meaning. Phonetics is the study of speech and non-speech sounds, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties. The study of language meaning, on the other hand, deals with how languages encode relations between entities, properties, and other aspects of the world to convey, process, and assign meaning, as well as manage and resolve ambiguity. While the study of semantics typically concerns itself with truth conditions, pragmatics deals with how situational context influences the production of meaning.

Grammar is a system of rules which governs the production and use of utterances in a given language. These rules apply to sound as well as meaning, and include componential sub-sets of rules, such as those pertaining to phonology (the organisation of phonetic sound systems), morphology (the formation and composition of words), and syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences). Modern theories that deal with the principles of grammar are largely based within Noam Chomsky's framework of generative linguistics.

In the early 20th century, Ferdinand de Saussure distinguished between the notions of langue and parole in his formulation of structural linguistics. According to him, parole is the specific utterance of speech, whereas langue refers to an abstract phenomenon that theoretically defines the principles and system of rules that govern a language. This distinction resembles the one made by Noam Chomsky between competence and performance in his theory of transformative or generative grammar. According to Chomsky, competence is an individual's innate capacity and potential for language (like in Saussure's langue), while performance is the specific way in which it is used by individuals, groups, and communities (i.e., parole, in Saussurean terms).

The study of parole (which manifests through cultural discourses and dialects) is the domain of sociolinguistics, the sub-discipline that comprises the study of a complex system of linguistic facets within a certain speech community (governed by its own set of grammatical rules and laws). Discourse analysis further examines the structure of texts and conversations emerging out of a speech community's usage of language. This is done through the collection of linguistic data, or through the formal discipline of corpus linguistics, which takes naturally occurring texts and studies the variation of grammatical and other features based on such corpora (or corpus data).

Stylistics also involves the study of written, signed, or spoken discourse through varying speech communities, genres, and editorial or narrative formats in the mass media. In the 1960s, Jacques Derrida, for instance, further distinguished between speech and writing, by proposing that written language be studied as a linguistic medium of communication in itself. Palaeography is therefore the discipline that studies the evolution of written scripts (as signs and symbols) in language. The formal study of language also led to the growth of fields like psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and function of language in the mind; neurolinguistics, which studies language processing in the brain; biolinguistics, which studies the biology and evolution of language; and language acquisition, which investigates how children and adults acquire the knowledge of one or more languages.

Linguistics also deals with the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence language, through which linguistic and language-based context is often determined. Research on language through the sub-branches of historical and evolutionary linguistics also focus on how languages change and grow, particularly over an extended period of time.

Language documentation combines anthropological inquiry (into the history and culture of language) with linguistic inquiry, in order to describe languages and their grammars. Lexicography involves the documentation of words that form a vocabulary. Such a documentation of a linguistic vocabulary from a particular language is usually compiled in a dictionary. Computational linguistics is concerned with the statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational perspective. Specific knowledge of language is applied by speakers during the act of translation and interpretation, as well as in language education – the teaching of a second or foreign language. Policy makers work with governments to implement new plans in education and teaching which are based on linguistic research.

Related areas of study also includes the disciplines of semiotics (the study of direct and indirect language through signs and symbols), literary criticism (the historical and ideological analysis of literature, cinema, art, or published material), translation (the conversion and documentation of meaning in written/spoken text from one language or dialect onto another), and speech-language pathology (a corrective method to cure phonetic disabilities and dis-functions at the cognitive level).

Nomenclature
Before the 20th century, the term philology, first attested in 1716, was commonly used to refer to the science of language, which was then predominantly historical in focus. Since Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, however, this focus has shifted and the term "philology" is now generally used for the "study of a language's grammar, history, and literary tradition", especially in the United States (where philology has never been very popularly considered as the "science of language").

Although the term "linguist" in the sense of "a student of language" dates from 1641, the term "linguistics" is first attested in 1847. It is now the common academic term in English for the scientific study of language.

Today, the term linguist applies to someone who studies language or is a researcher within the field, or to someone who uses the tools of the discipline to describe and analyse specific languages.

Variation and Universality
While some theories on linguistics focus on the different varieties that language produces, among different sections of society, others focus on the universal properties that are common to all human languages. The theory of variation therefore would elaborate on the different usages of popular languages like French and English across the globe, as well as its smaller dialects and regional permutations within their national boundaries. The theory of variation looks at the cultural stages that a particular language undergoes, and these include the following.

Pidgin

The pidgin stage in a language is a stage when communication occurs through a grammatically simplified means, developing between two or more groups that do not have a language in common. Typically, it is a mixture of languages at the stage when there occurs a mixing between a primary language with other language elements.

Creole

A creole stage in language occurs when there is a stable natural language developed from a mixture of different languages. It is a stage that occurs after a language undergoes its pidgin stage. At the creole stage, a language is a complete language, used in a community and acquired by children as their native language.

Dialect
A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic of a particular group among the language speakers. The group of people who are the speakers of a dialect are usually bound to each other by social identity. This is what differentiates a dialect from a register or a discourse, where in the latter case, cultural identity does not always play a role. Dialects are speech varieties that have their own grammatical and phonological rules, linguistic features, and stylistic aspects, but have not been given an official status as a language. Dialects often move on to gain the status of a language due to political and social reasons. Differentiation amongst dialects (and subsequently, languages too) is based upon the use of grammatical rules, syntactic rules, and stylistic features, though not always on lexical use or vocabulary. The popular saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and navy" is attributed as a definition formulated by Max Weinreich.

Universal grammar takes into account general formal structures and features that are common to all dialects and languages, and the template of which pre-exists in the mind of an infant child. This idea is based on the theory of generative grammar and the formal school of linguistics, whose proponents include Noam Chomsky and those who follow his theory and work.

"We may as individuals be rather fond of our own dialect. This should not make us think, though, that it is actually any better than any other dialect. Dialects are not good or bad, nice or nasty, right or wrong – they are just different from one another, and it is the mark of a civilised society that it tolerates different dialects just as it tolerates different races, religions and sexes."

Discourse
A discourse is a way of speaking that emerges within a certain social setting and is based on a certain subject matter. A particular discourse becomes a language variety when it is used in this way for a particular purpose, and is referred to as a register. There may be certain lexical additions (new words) that are brought into play because of the expertise of the community of people within a certain domain of specialization. Registers and discourses therefore differentiate themselves through the use of vocabulary, and at times through the use of style too. People in the medical fraternity, for example, may use some medical terminology in their communication that is specialized to the field of medicine. This is often referred to as being part of the "medical discourse", and so on.

Standard Language

When a dialect is documented sufficiently through the linguistic description of its grammar, which has emerged through the consensual laws from within its community, it gains political and national recognition through a country or region's policies. That is the stage when a language is considered a standard variety, one whose grammatical laws have now stabilised from within the consent of speech community participants, after sufficient evolution, improvisation, correction, and growth. The English language, besides perhaps the French language, may be examples of languages that have arrived at a stage where they are said to have become standard varieties.

The study of a language's universal properties, on the other hand, include some of the following concepts.

The Lexicon
The lexicon is a catalogue of words and terms that are stored in a speaker's mind. The lexicon consists of words and bound morphemes, which are parts of words that can't stand alone, like affixes. In some analyses, compound words and certain classes of idiomatic expressions and other collocations are also considered to be part of the lexicon. Dictionaries represent attempts at listing, in alphabetical order, the lexicon of a given language; usually, however, bound morphemes are not included. Lexicography, closely linked with the domain of semantics, is the science of mapping the words into an encyclopedia or a dictionary. The creation and addition of new words (into the lexicon) is called coining or neologization, and the new words are called neologisms.

It is often believed that a speaker's capacity for language lies in the quantity of words stored in the lexicon. However, this is often considered a myth by linguists. The capacity for the use of language is considered by many linguists to lie primarily in the domain of grammar, and to be linked with competence, rather than with the growth of vocabulary. Even a very small lexicon is theoretically capable of producing an infinite number of sentences.

Relativity
As constructed popularly through the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, relativists believe that the structure of a particular language is capable of influencing the cognitive patterns through which a person shapes his or her world view. Universalists believe that there are commonalities between human perception as there is in the human capacity for language, while relativists believe that this varies from language to language and person to person. While the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is an elaboration of this idea expressed through the writings of American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, it was Sapir's student Harry Hoijer who termed it thus. The 20th century German linguist Leo Weisgerber also wrote extensively about the theory of relativity. Relativists argue for the case of differentiation at the level of cognition and in semantic domains. The emergence of cognitive linguistics in the 1980s also revived an interest in linguistic relativity. Thinkers like George Lakoff have argued that language reflects different cultural metaphors, while the French philosopher of language Jacques Derrida's writings have been seen to be closely associated with the relativist movement in linguistics, especially through deconstruction and was even heavily criticized in the media at the time of his death for his theory of relativism.

Structures
Linguistic structures are pairings of meaning and form.  Any particular pairing of meaning and form is a Saussurean sign.  For instance, the meaning "cat" is represented worldwide with a wide variety of different sound patterns (in oral languages), movements of the hands and face (in sign languages), and written symbols (in written languages).

Linguists focusing on structure attempt to understand the rules regarding language use that native speakers know (not always consciously).  All linguistic structures can be broken down into component parts that are combined according to (sub)conscious rules, over multiple levels of analysis.  For instance, consider the structure of the word "tenth" on two different levels of analysis.  On the level of internal word structure (known as morphology), the word "tenth" is made up of one linguistic form indicating a number and another form indicating ordinality.  The rule governing the combination of these forms ensures that the ordinality marker "th" follows the number "ten."  On the level of sound structure (known as phonology), structural analysis shows that the "n" sound in "tenth" is made differently from the "n" sound in "ten" spoken alone.  Although most speakers of English are consciously aware of the rules governing internal structure of the word pieces of "tenth", they are less often aware of the rule governing its sound structure.  Linguists focused on structure find and analyse rules such as these, which govern how native speakers use language.

Linguistics has many sub-fields concerned with particular aspects of linguistic structure. The theory that elucidates on these, as propounded by Noam Chomsky, is known as generative theory or universal grammar. These sub-fields range from those focused primarily on form to those focused primarily on meaning. They also run the gamut of level of analysis of language, from individual sounds, to words, to phrases, up to cultural discourse.

Grammar

Sub-fields that focus on a grammatical study of language include the following.

 Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and perception
 Phonology, the study of sounds as abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning (phonemes)
 Morphology, the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words and how they can be modified
 Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical phrases and sentences
 Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
 Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts, and the role played by context and non-linguistic knowledge in the transmission of meaning
 Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)
 Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a discourse in context
 Semiotics, the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication.

Style
Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts for aspects of their linguistic and tonal style. Stylistic analysis entails the analysis of description of particular dialects and registers used by speech communities. Stylistic features include rhetoric, diction, stress, satire, irony, dialogue, and other forms of phonetic variations. Stylistic analysis can also include the study of language in canonical works of literature, popular fiction, news, advertisements, and other forms of communication in popular culture as well. It is usually seen as a variation in communication that changes from speaker to speaker and community to community. In short, Stylistics is the interpretation of text.

Approaches

Theoretical
One major debate in linguistics concerns how language should be defined and understood. Some linguists use the term "language" primarily to refer to a hypothesized, innate module in the human brain that allows people to undertake linguistic behaviour, which is part of the formalist approach. This "universal grammar" is considered to guide children when they learn languages and to constrain what sentences are considered grammatical in any language. Proponents of this view, which is predominant in those schools of linguistics that are based on the generative theory of Noam Chomsky, do not necessarily consider that language evolved for communication in particular. They consider instead that it has more to do with the process of structuring human thought (see also formal grammar).

Functional
Another group of linguists, by contrast, use the term "language" to refer to a communication system that developed to support cooperative activity and extend cooperative networks. Such theories of grammar, called "functional", view language as a tool that emerged and is adapted to the communicative needs of its users, and the role of cultural evolutionary processes are often emphasized over that of biological evolution.

Methodology
Linguistics is primarily descriptive. Linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature or usage is "good" or "bad". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular species is "better" or "worse" than another.

Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures that they consider to be destructive to society. Prescription, however, may be practised appropriately in the teaching of language, like in ELT, where certain fundamental grammatical rules and lexical terms need to be introduced to a second-language speaker who is attempting to acquire the language.

Anthropology
The objective of describing languages is often to uncover cultural knowledge about communities. The use of anthropological methods of investigation on linguistic sources leads to the discovery of certain cultural traits among a speech community through its linguistic features. It is also widely used as a tool in language documentation, with an endeavour to curate endangered languages. However, now, linguistic inquiry uses the anthropological method to understand cognitive, historical, sociolinguistic and historical processes that languages undergo as they change and evolve, as well as general anthropological inquiry uses the linguistic method to excavate into culture. In all aspects, anthropological inquiry usually uncovers the different variations and relativities that underlie the usage of language.

Sources
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken data and signed data is more fundamental than written data. This is because:
 Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and perceiving it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;
 Features appear in speech which aren't always recorded in writing, including phonological rules, sound changes, and speech errors;
 All natural writing systems reflect a spoken language (or potentially a signed one) they are being used to write, with even pictographic scripts like Dongba writing Naxi homophones with the same pictogram, and text in writing systems used for two languages changing to fit the spoken language being recorded;
 Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;
 People learnt to speak and process spoken language more easily and earlier than they did with writing.

Nonetheless, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. In addition, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.

The study of writing systems themselves, graphemics, is, in any case, considered a branch of linguistics.

Analysis
Before the 20th century, linguists analysed language on a diachronic plane, which was historical in focus. This meant that they would compare linguistic features and try to analyse language from the point of view of how it had changed between then and later. However, with Saussurean linguistics in the 20th century, the focus shifted to a more synchronic approach, where the study was more geared towards analysis and comparison between different language variations, which existed at the same given point of time.

At another level, the syntagmatic plane of linguistic analysis entails the comparison between the way words are sequenced, within the syntax of a sentence. For example, the article "the" is followed by a noun, because of the syntagmatic relation between the words. The paradigmatic plane on the other hand, focuses on an analysis that is based on the paradigms or concepts that are embedded in a given text. In this case, words of the same type or class may be replaced in the text with each other to achieve the same conceptual understanding.

History of Linguistics

Early Grammarians

The formal study of language began in India with Pāṇini, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology. Pāṇini's systematic classification of the sounds of Sanskrit into consonants and vowels, and word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind. In the Middle East, Sibawayh, a non-Arab, made a detailed description of Arabic in 760 AD in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (, The Book on Grammar), the first known author to distinguish between sounds and phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system).
Western interest in the study of languages began somewhat later than in the East, but the grammarians of the classical languages did not use the same methods or reach the same conclusions as their contemporaries in the Indic world. Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into semantic theory were made by Plato in his Cratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a word's meaning. Around 280 BC, one of Alexander the Great's successors founded a university (see Musaeum) in Alexandria, where a school of philologists studied the ancient texts in and taught Greek to speakers of other languages. While this school was the first to use the word "grammar" in its modern sense, Plato had used the word in its original meaning as "téchnē grammatikḗ" (), the "art of writing", which is also the title of one of the most important works of the Alexandrine school by Dionysius Thrax. Throughout the Middle Ages, the study of language was subsumed under the topic of philology, the study of ancient languages and texts, practised by such educators as Roger Ascham, Wolfgang Ratke, and John Amos Comenius.

Comparative philology
In the 18th century, the first use of the comparative method by William Jones sparked the rise of comparative linguistics. Bloomfield attributes "the first great scientific linguistic work of the world" to Jacob Grimm, who wrote Deutsche Grammatik. It was soon followed by other authors writing similar comparative studies on other language groups of Europe. The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by Wilhelm von Humboldt, of whom Bloomfield asserts:

This study received its foundation at the hands of the Prussian statesman and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), especially in the first volume of his work on Kavi, the literary language of Java, entitled Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengeschlechts (On the Variety of the Structure of Human Language and its Influence upon the Mental Development of the Human Race).

Structuralism

Early in the 20th century, Saussure introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them. By introducing a distinction between diachronic and synchronic analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still foundational in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between syntagm and paradigm, and the langue- parole distinction, distinguishing language as an abstract system (langue) from language as a concrete manifestation of this system (parole). Substantial additional contributions following Saussure's definition of a structural approach to language came from The Prague school, Leonard Bloomfield, Charles F. Hockett, Louis Hjelmslev, Émile Benveniste and Roman Jakobson.

Generativism

During the last half of the 20th century, following the work of Noam Chomsky, linguistics was dominated by the generativist school. While formulated by Chomsky in part as a way to explain how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition, in practice it has largely been concerned with giving formal accounts of specific phenomena in natural languages. Generative theory is modularist and formalist in character. Chomsky built on earlier work of Zellig Harris to formulate the generative theory of language. According to this theory the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules universal for all humans and underlying the grammars of all human languages. This set of rules is called Universal Grammar, and for Chomsky describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics. For this reason the grammars of individual languages are of importance to linguistics only in so far as they allow us to discern the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated.

In the classic formalization of generative grammars first proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, a grammar G consists of the following components:

 A finite set N of nonterminal symbols, none of which appear in strings formed from G.
 A finite set  of terminal symbols that is disjoint from N.
 A finite set P of production rules, that map from one string of symbols to another.
A formal description of language attempts to replicate a speaker's knowledge of the rules of their language, and the aim is to produce a set of rules that is minimally sufficient to successfully model valid linguistic forms.

Functionalism

Functional theories of language propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, it is reasonable to assume that its structures are best analysed and understood with reference to the functions they carry out. Functional theories of grammar differ from formal theories of grammar, in that the latter seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, whereas the former defines the functions performed by language and then relates these functions to the linguistic elements that carry them out. This means that functional theories of grammar tend to pay attention to the way language is actually used, and not just to the formal relations between linguistic elements.

Functional theories describe language in term of the functions existing at all levels of language.
Phonological function: the function of the phoneme is to distinguish between different lexical material.
Semantic function: (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.), describing the role of participants in states of affairs or actions expressed.
Syntactic functions: (e.g. Subject and Object), defining different perspectives in the presentation of a linguistic expression
Pragmatic functions: (Theme and Rheme, Topic and Focus, Predicate), defining the informational status of constituents, determined by the pragmatic context of the verbal interaction. Functional descriptions of grammar strive to explain how linguistic functions are performed in communication through the use of linguistic forms.

Cognitive linguistics

Cognitive linguistics emerged as a reaction to generativist theory in the 1970s and 1980s. Led by theorists like Ronald Langacker and George Lakoff, cognitive linguists propose that language is an emergent property of basic, general-purpose cognitive processes. In contrast to the generativist school of linguistics, cognitive linguistics is non-modularist and functionalist in character. Important developments in cognitive linguistics include cognitive grammar, frame semantics, and conceptual metaphor, all of which are based on the idea that form–function correspondences based on representations derived from embodied experience constitute the basic units of language.

Cognitive linguistics interprets language in terms of concepts (sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue) that underlie its form. It is thus closely associated with semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitive psychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production and understanding of speech and writing.  Unlike generative theory, cognitive linguistics denies that there is an autonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use. Because of its conviction that knowledge of language is learned through use, cognitive linguistics is sometimes considered to be a functional approach, but it differs from other functional approaches in that it is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language, and not with the use of language as a tool of communication.

Areas of Research

Historical Linguistics
Historical linguists study the history of specific languages as well as general characteristics of language change. The study of language change is also referred to as "diachronic linguistics" (the study of how one particular language has changed over time), which can be distinguished from  "synchronic linguistics" (the comparative study of more than one language at a given moment in time without regard to previous stages). Historical linguistics was among the first sub-disciplines to emerge in linguistics, and was the most widely practised form of linguistics in the late 19th century. However, there was a shift to the synchronic approach in the early twentieth century with Saussure, and became more predominant in western linguistics with the work of Noam Chomsky.

Ecolinguistics
Ecolinguistics explores the role of language in the life-sustaining interactions of humans, other species and the physical environment. The first aim is to develop linguistic theories which see humans not only as part of society, but also as part of the larger ecosystems that life depends on. The second aim is to show how linguistics can be used to address key ecological issues, from climate change and biodiversity loss to environmental justice. (Ecolinguistics Association)

Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is shaped by social factors. This sub-discipline focuses on the synchronic approach of linguistics, and looks at how a language in general, or a set of languages, display variation and varieties at a given point in time. The study of language variation and the different varieties of language through dialects, registers, and ideolects can be tackled through a study of style, as well as through analysis of discourse. Sociolinguists research on both style and discourse in language, and also study the theoretical factors that are at play between language and society.

Developmental Linguistics
Developmental linguistics is the study of the development of linguistic ability in individuals, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. Some of the questions that developmental linguistics looks into is how children acquire language, how adults can acquire a second language, and what the process of language acquisition is.

Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is the study of the structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modelling

Applied Linguistics

Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, lexicography, translation, language planning, which involves governmental policy implementation related to language use, and natural language processing. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer. Applied linguists actually focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, and not literally "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics. Moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g., conversation analysis) and anthropology. (Constructed language fits under Applied linguistics.)

Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics that have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modelling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.

Linguistic analysis is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim. This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted either in the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter or in an international lingua franca like English. Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved. Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done either by private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.

Interdisciplinary fields
Within the broad discipline of linguistics, various emerging sub-disciplines focus on a more detailed description and analysis of language, and are often organized on the basis of the school of thought and theoretical approach that they pre-suppose, or the external factors that influence them.

Semiotics
Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs, and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless, semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language. Semiotics, within the linguistics paradigm, is the study of the relationship between language and culture. Historically, Edward Sapir and Ferdinand De Saussure's structuralist theories influenced the study of signs extensively until the late part of the 20th century, but later, post-modern and post-structural thought, through language philosophers including Jacques Derrida, Mikhail Bakhtin, Michel Foucault, and others, have also been a considerable influence on the discipline in the late part of the 20th century and early 21st century. These theories emphasize the role of language variation, and the idea of subjective usage, depending on external elements like social and cultural factors, rather than merely on the interplay of formal elements.

Language documentation
Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics, linguists have been concerned with describing and analysing previously undocumented languages. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s, this became the main focus of American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid-20th century. This focus on language documentation was partly motivated by a concern to document the rapidly disappearing languages of indigenous peoples. The ethnographic dimension of the Boasian approach to language description played a role in the development of disciplines such as sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, which investigate the relations between language, culture, and society.

The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has also gained prominence outside North America, with the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages becoming a primary focus in many university programmes in linguistics. Language description is a work-intensive endeavour, usually requiring years of field work in the language concerned, so as to equip the linguist to write a sufficiently accurate reference grammar. Further, the task of documentation requires the linguist to collect a substantial corpus in the language in question, consisting of texts and recordings, both sound and video, which can be stored in an accessible format within open repositories, and used for further research.

Translation
The sub-field of translation includes the translation of written and spoken texts across mediums, from digital to print and spoken. To translate literally means to transmute the meaning from one language into another. Translators are often employed by organizations, such as travel agencies as well as governmental embassies to facilitate communication between two speakers who do not know each other's language. Translators are also employed to work within computational linguistics setups like Google Translate for example, which is an automated, programmed facility to translate words and phrases between any two or more given languages. Translation is also conducted by publishing houses, which convert works of writing from one language to another in order to reach varied audiences. Academic Translators, specialize and semi specialize on various other disciplines such as; Technology, Science, Law, Economics etc.

Biolinguistics
Biolinguistics is the study of the biology and evolution of language. It is a highly interdisciplinary field, including linguists, biologists, neuroscientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and others. By shifting the focus of investigation in linguistics to a comprehensive scheme that embraces natural sciences, it seeks to yield a framework by which we can understand the fundamentals of the faculty of language.

Clinical linguistics
Clinical linguistics is the application of linguistic theory to the fields of Speech-Language Pathology. Speech language pathologists work on corrective measures to cure communication disorders and swallowing disorders

Chaika (1990) showed that schizophrenics with speech disorders, like rhyming inappropriately have attentional dysfunction, as when a patient, shown a colour chip and, then asked to identify it, responded "Looks like clay. Sounds like gray. Take you for a roll in the hay. Heyday, May Day." The color chip was actually clay-colored, so his first response was correct.'

However, normals suppress or ignore words which rhyme with what they've said unless they are deliberately producing a pun, poem or rap. Even then, the speaker shows connection between words chosen for rhyme and an overall meaning in discourse. schizophrenics with speech dysfunction show no such relation between rhyme and reason. Some even produce stretches of gibberish combined with recognizable words.

 copyright Elaine Ostrach Chaika>

Computational linguistics
Computational linguistics is the study of linguistic issues in a way that is "computationally responsible", i.e., taking careful note of computational consideration of algorithmic specification and computational complexity, so that the linguistic theories devised can be shown to exhibit certain desirable computational properties and their implementations. Computational linguists also work on computer language and software development.

Evolutionary linguistics
Evolutionary linguistics is the interdisciplinary study of the emergence of the language faculty through human evolution, and also the application of evolutionary theory to the study of cultural evolution among different languages. It is also a study of the dispersal of various languages across the globe, through movements among ancient communities.

Forensic linguistics
Forensic linguistics is the application of linguistic analysis to forensics. Forensic analysis investigates on the style, language, lexical use, and other linguistic and grammatical features used in the legal context to provide evidence in courts of law. Forensic linguists have also contributed expertise in criminal cases.

See also

 Anthroponymy
 Articulatory phonology
 Articulatory synthesis
 Asemic writing
 Axiom of categoricity
 Biosemiotics
 Cognitive science
 Concept mining
 Critical discourse analysis
 Cryptanalysis
 Decipherment
 Global language system
 Glottometrics
 Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)
 Integrational linguistics
 Integrationism
 Intercultural competence
 International Congress of Linguists
 International Linguistics Olympiad
 Language attrition
 Language engineering
 Language geography
 Linguistic typology
 List of departments of linguistics
 List of summer schools of linguistics
 Metacommunicative competence
 Microlinguistics
 Onomastics
 Reading

 Speaker recognition
 Speech processing
 Stratificational linguistics

References

Bibliography

External links

 The Linguist List, a global online linguistics community with news and information updated daily
 Glossary of linguistic terms by SIL International (last updated 2004)
 Language Log, a linguistics blog maintained by prominent (popular science) linguists
 Glottopedia, MediaWiki-based encyclopedia of linguistics, under construction
 Linguistic sub-fields  – according to the Linguistic Society of America
 Linguistics and language-related wiki articles on Scholarpedia and Citizendium
 "Linguistics" section – A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology, ed. J. A. García Landa (University of Zaragoza, Spain)
 An Academic Linguistics Forum (currently some technical problems, Feb 2013)
 Linguistics Contents for Non-English World
 Computerized comparative linguistics Calculator to compare the relatedness (genetic proximity) for over 160 languages (from Afar to Zulu)

 All About Linguistics from Sheffield University, as an introduction to linguistics.

វិទ្យាសាស្រ្តយល់ដឹង
ភាសា

ភាសាសាស្ត្រ


"But It's Better If You Do" is the third single by Panic at the Disco, from their album A Fever You Can't Sweat Out (2005).

Song information
Written by Ryan Ross and released on May 4, 2006 as a CD single, "But It's Better If You Do" is the third single to be released by Panic at the Disco, and the second with an accompanying video.

"It's a song about being in a strip club but not actually liking being in there. So I wanted it to be about the sort of complex inner-monologue," he said. "It's not completely fiction, though. It's based on a scenario when I was going through a breakup with a girl, and I was in one of these clubs but wishing I didn't have to be. Because in reality, I don't like strip clubs. I think they're kinda ecch," says Ryan Ross. Ross went on to say, "When I wrote it, I never thought about it being played in strip clubs. But I guess it would be kind of a change from what they usually play in there," he said. "It would be a surreal experience, for sure. I think the tempo is too fast, though. So maybe someone would have to do a chopped and screwed version or something."

Title
The title is a quote from the movie Closer. In the movie, the character portrayed by Natalie Portman says, "lying is the most fun a girl can have without taking her clothes off... but it's better if you do". "Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off" is also the title of another song by Panic at the Disco.

Music video
At the beginning of the song's music video, the song playing in the background is "Intermission", the song preceding "But It's Better If You Do" on the A Fever You Can't Sweat Out CD.

The music video starts with a black-and-white introduction of the band's lead singer, Brendon Urie, arguing with his wife. She is worried about him always singing at "illegal strip clubs"; he says he does not go to "illegal strip joints", but he goes anyway. The music video continues with the song in the overview of the strip joint. Urie plays onstage with the other members of the band and a Las Vegas showgirls dance group. Urie sees a woman who seems to be unusually interested in him. They retreat to a private room. The two begin to kiss, and Urie removes his mask. The woman likewise removes her mask to reveal that she was in fact his wife. A quick slap to Urie's face and his wife turns to leave. As she gains headway, however, the police bust into the club and arrest her. Urie fights with the chief, but is also arrested. They both are put into a police car, smile in an evil way at one and another, and the scene ends.

The video for "But It's Better If You Do" debuted on Total Request Live daily countdown on June 29, 2006 at #8.

Track listing
UK CD/Digital - May 2006
 But It's Better If You Do
 I Write Sins Not Tragedies (91X Acoustic Session)

UK 7" Poster Bag - May 2006
 A. But It's Better If You Do
 B. The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage (Tommie Sunshine Brooklyn Fire Remix)

UK 7" Colored Vinyl - May 2006
 A. But It's Better If You Do
 B. I Write Sins Not Tragedies (iTunes Session)

WMI CD - October 2006
 But It's Better If You Do
 I Write Sins Not Tragedies (91X Acoustic Session)

WMI CD/Digital - September 2006
 But It's Better If You Do
 I Write Sins Not Tragedies (91X Acoustic Session)
 Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off (Live in Denver)

Chart performance
Following release in the USA, the single reached number 4 on Billboard's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, before dropping to number 8 on the chart dated September 23, 2006. It peaked at number 81 on the Pop 100 chart, and number 74 on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart.

References

Other websites

2005 songs
Panic! at the Disco songs

But It's Better If You Do


Kinder Scout is a plateau in Derbyshire, England. It is about 600 metres above sea level. It is near Hayfield to the west, Edale to the southeast, and the town of Glossop to the northwest.

The gritstone rock under the plateau is covered by a thick layer of peat, cut by a dense network of streams which flow off it. One of the main streams is the Kinder River, which drops off the Western edge at Kinder Downfall. Plants on the plateau are mainly heather, with some mosses and bilberry. Bracken grows on the slopes around the plateau. The highest point is Kinder Low at .

It can be approached from the southeast up a steep track called Jacobs Ladder. It is crossed by the  Pennine Way long-distance footpath which starts in nearby Edale. Several sections of the path have been surfaced with large stone slabs in this area, to try to minimise environmental damage to the delicate moorland ecosystem by the large number of hikers it attracts all year round.

In the 1930s, Kinder Scout was the scene of the first mass trespasses by ramblers (Sunday, 24 April 1932) protesting at the lack of public access to the open moorland in many parts of northern England, which were then kept for grouse shooting by the estates of a number of stately homes. Public rights of way were established later, and the 2000 Countryside and Rights of Way Act set a new legal framework in which the bulk of Kinder Scout is now "Access Land" where the public has a right to roam freely.

References

Plateaus
Derbyshire

Kinder Scout


The sun bear (Ursus malayanus or Helarctos malayanus) is a bear living in Southeast Asia.

Appearance
The sun bear is the smallest bear. It has short black fur, and a yellow spot on its chest. Its ears are small and round. It has big feet with naked soles and long claws, which help the sun bear climbing. It can climb very well. It cannot see very well, but its sense of smell is very good.

Life

Sun bears mostly live in tropic rainforests. They are mostly active at night, and they stay in trees a lot of the time.

It eats a lot of different things: fruit and other plants, eggs, honey and insects. They also eat small vertebrate animals, like reptiles, birds and mammals.

After a pregnancy of 96 days the female gives birth to 1-2 babies. Young sun bears become mature when they are 3-4 years old. sun bears can become up to 28 years old when in captivity (held by humans, e.g. in zoos).

Sun bears do not hibernate.

Other websites
 Sun bear by BearPlanet

Bears
Mammals of Asia

Sun bear


The West Riding of Yorkshire is one of the three historic subdivisions of Yorkshire, England. From 1889 to 1974 the administrative county, County of York, West Riding (abbreviated: County of York (WR)) (the area under the control of West Riding County Council), was based closely on the historic boundaries. The lieutenancy at that time included the City of York and as such was named West Riding of the County of York and the County of the City of York.[3]

Its boundaries roughly correspond to the present ceremonial counties of West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and the Craven, Harrogate and Selby districts of North Yorkshire, along with smaller parts in Lancashire (for example, the parishes of Barnoldswick, Bracewell, Brogden and Salterforth became part of the Pendle district of Lancashire and the parishes of Great Mitton, Newsholme and Bowland Forest Low became part of the Ribble Valley district also in Lancashire), Cumbria, Greater Manchester and, since 1996, the unitary East Riding of Yorkshire.

References

1974 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Yorkshire

West Riding of Yorkshire