Capacitance is the capability of a material object or device to store electric charge. It is measured by the charge in response to a difference in electric potential, expressed as the ratio of those quantities. Commonly recognized are two closely related notions of capacitance: self capacitance and mutual capacitance. An object that can be electrically charged exhibits self capacitance, for which the electric potential is measured between the object and ground. Mutual capacitance is measured between two components, and is particularly important in the operation of the capacitor, an elementary linear electronic component designed to add capacitance to an electric circuit.

The capacitance between two conductors is a function only of the geometry; the opposing surface area of the conductors and the distance between them, and the permittivity of any dielectric material between them. For many dielectric materials, the permittivity, and thus the capacitance, is independent of the potential difference between the conductors and the total charge on them.

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (symbol: F), named after the English physicist Michael Faraday. A 1 farad capacitor, when charged with 1 coulomb of electrical charge, has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates. The reciprocal of capacitance is called elastance.

Self capacitance
In discussing electrical circuits, the term capacitance is usually a shorthand for the mutual capacitance between two adjacent conductors, such as the two plates of a capacitor. However, every isolated conductor also exhibits capacitance, here called self capacitance. It is measured by the amount of electric charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its electric potential by one unit of measurement, e.g., one volt. The reference point for this potential is a theoretical hollow conducting sphere, of infinite radius, with the conductor centered inside this sphere.

Self capacitance of a conductor is defined by the ratio of charge and electric potential:

where
 is the charge held,
 is the electric potential,
 is the surface charge density,
 is an infinitesimal element of area on the surface of the conductor,
 is the length from  to a fixed point M on the conductor,
 is the vacuum permittivity.

Using this method, the self capacitance of a conducting sphere of radius  in free space (i.e. far away from any other charge distributions) is:

Example values of self capacitance are:
for the top "plate" of a van de Graaff generator, typically a sphere 20 cm in radius: 22.24 pF,
the planet Earth: about 710 µF.

The inter-winding capacitance of a coil is sometimes called self capacitance, but this is a different phenomenon. It is actually mutual capacitance between the individual turns of the coil and is a form of stray or parasitic capacitance. This self capacitance is an important consideration at high frequencies: it changes the impedance of the coil and gives rise to parallel resonance. In many applications this is an undesirable effect and sets an upper frequency limit for the correct operation of the circuit.

Mutual capacitance
A common form is a parallel-plate capacitor, which consists of two conductive plates insulated from each other, usually sandwiching a dielectric material. In a parallel plate capacitor, capacitance is very nearly proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely proportional to the separation distance between the plates.

If the charges on the plates are  and , and  gives the voltage between the plates, then the capacitance  is given by
which gives the voltage/current relationship

where  is the instantaneous rate of change of voltage, and  is the instantaneous rate of change of the capacitance. For most applications, the change in capacitance over time is negligible, so you can reduce to:

The energy stored in a capacitor is found by integrating the work :

Capacitance matrix
The discussion above is limited to the case of two conducting plates, although of arbitrary size and shape. The definition  does not apply when there are more than two charged plates, or when the net charge on the two plates is non-zero. To handle this case, James Clerk Maxwell introduced his coefficients of potential. If three (nearly ideal) conductors are given charges , then the voltage at conductor 1 is given by

and similarly for the other voltages. Hermann von Helmholtz and Sir William Thomson showed that the coefficients of potential are symmetric, so that , etc. Thus the system can be described by a collection of coefficients known as the elastance matrix or reciprocal capacitance matrix, which is defined as:

From this, the mutual capacitance  between two objects can be defined by solving for the total charge  and using .

Since no actual device holds perfectly equal and opposite charges on each of the two "plates", it is the mutual capacitance that is reported on capacitors.

The collection of coefficients  is known as the capacitance matrix, and is the inverse of the elastance matrix.

Capacitors

The capacitance of the majority of capacitors used in electronic circuits is generally several orders of magnitude smaller than the farad. The most common units of capacitance are the microfarad (µF), nanofarad (nF), picofarad (pF), and, in microcircuits, femtofarad (fF). Some applications also use supercapacitors that can be much larger, as much as hundreds of farads, and parasitic capacitive elements can be less than a femtofarad.  Historical texts use other, obsolete submultiples of the farad, such as "mf" and "mfd" for microfarad (µF); "mmf", "mmfd", "pfd", "µµF" for picofarad (pF).

The capacitance can be calculated if the geometry of the conductors and the dielectric properties of the insulator between the conductors are known. Capacitance is proportional to the area of overlap and inversely proportional to the separation between conducting sheets. The closer the sheets are to each other, the greater the capacitance.

An example is the capacitance of a capacitor constructed of two parallel plates both of area   separated by a distance . If  is sufficiently small with respect to the smallest chord of , there holds, to a high level of accuracy:

where
 is the capacitance, in farads;
 is the area of overlap of the two plates, in square meters;
 is the electric constant
 is the relative permittivity (also dielectric constant) of the material in between the plates  for air); and
 is the separation between the plates, in meters.

The equation is a good approximation if d is small compared to the other dimensions of the plates so that the electric field in the capacitor area is uniform, and the so-called fringing field around the periphery provides only a small contribution to the capacitance.

Combining the equation for capacitance with the above equation for the energy stored in a capacitor, for a flat-plate capacitor the energy stored is:

where  is the energy, in joules;  is the capacitance, in farads; and  is the voltage, in volts.

Stray capacitance

Any two adjacent conductors can function as a capacitor, though the capacitance is small unless the conductors are close together for long distances or over a large area. This (often unwanted) capacitance is called parasitic or stray capacitance. Stray capacitance can allow signals to leak between otherwise isolated circuits (an effect called crosstalk), and it can be a limiting factor for proper functioning of circuits at high frequency.

Stray capacitance between the input and output in amplifier circuits can be troublesome because it can form a path for feedback, which can cause instability and parasitic oscillation in the amplifier. It is often convenient for analytical purposes to replace this capacitance with a combination of one input-to-ground capacitance and one output-to-ground capacitance; the original configuration – including the input-to-output capacitance – is often referred to as a pi-configuration. Miller's theorem can be used to effect this replacement: it states that, if the gain ratio of two nodes is , then an impedance of Z connecting the two nodes can be replaced with a  impedance between the first node and ground and a  impedance between the second node and ground. Since impedance varies inversely with capacitance, the internode capacitance, C, is replaced by a capacitance of KC from input to ground and a capacitance of  from output to ground. When the input-to-output gain is very large, the equivalent input-to-ground impedance is very small while the output-to-ground impedance is essentially equal to the original (input-to-output) impedance.

Capacitance of conductors with simple shapes
Calculating the capacitance of a system amounts to solving the Laplace equation  with a constant potential  on the 2-dimensional surface of the conductors embedded in 3-space. This is simplified by symmetries. There is no solution in terms of elementary functions in more complicated cases.

For plane situations, analytic functions may be used to map different geometries to each other. See also Schwarz–Christoffel mapping.

Energy storage
The energy (measured in joules) stored in a capacitor is equal to the work required to push the charges into the capacitor, i.e. to charge it. Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, holding a charge +q on one plate and −q on the other. Moving a small element of charge dq from one plate to the other against the potential difference  requires the work dW:

where W is the work measured in joules, q is the charge measured in coulombs and C is the capacitance, measured in farads.

The energy stored in a capacitor is found by integrating this equation. Starting with an uncharged capacitance () and moving charge from one plate to the other until the plates have charge +Q and −Q requires the work W:

Nanoscale systems
The capacitance of nanoscale dielectric capacitors such as quantum dots may differ from conventional formulations of larger capacitors. In particular, the electrostatic potential difference experienced by electrons in conventional capacitors is spatially well-defined and fixed by the shape and size of metallic electrodes in addition to the statistically large number of electrons present in conventional capacitors. In nanoscale capacitors, however, the electrostatic potentials experienced by electrons are determined by the number and locations of all electrons that contribute to the electronic properties of the device. In such devices, the number of electrons may be very small, so the resulting spatial distribution of equipotential surfaces within the device is exceedingly complex.

Single-electron devices
The capacitance of a connected, or "closed", single-electron device is twice the capacitance of an unconnected, or "open", single-electron device. This fact may be traced more fundamentally to the energy stored in the single-electron device whose "direct polarization" interaction energy may be equally divided into the interaction of the electron with the polarized charge on the device itself due to the presence of the electron and the amount of potential energy required to form the polarized charge on the device (the interaction of charges in the device's dielectric material with the potential due to the electron).

Few-electron devices
The derivation of a "quantum capacitance" of a few-electron device involves the thermodynamic chemical potential of an N-particle system given by

whose energy terms may be obtained as solutions of the Schrödinger equation. The definition of capacitance,

with the potential difference

may be applied to the device with the addition or removal of individual electrons,
 and

The "quantum capacitance" of the device is then

This expression of "quantum capacitance" may be written as

which differs from the conventional expression described in the introduction where , the stored electrostatic potential energy,

by a factor of 1/2 with .

However, within the framework of purely classical electrostatic interactions, the appearance of the factor of 1/2 is the result of integration in the conventional formulation involving the work done when charging a capacitor,

which is appropriate since  for systems involving either many electrons or metallic electrodes, but in few-electron systems, . The integral generally becomes a summation. One may trivially combine the expressions of capacitance

and electrostatic interaction energy,

to obtain

which is similar to the quantum capacitance. A more rigorous derivation is reported in the literature. In particular, to circumvent the mathematical challenges of spatially complex equipotential surfaces within the device, an average electrostatic potential experienced by each electron is utilized in the derivation.

Apparent mathematical differences may be understood more fundamentally. The potential energy, , of an isolated device (self-capacitance) is twice that stored in a "connected" device in the lower limit N=1. As N grows large, . Thus, the general expression of capacitance is

In nanoscale devices such as quantum dots, the "capacitor" is often an isolated or partially isolated component within the device. The primary differences between nanoscale capacitors and macroscopic (conventional) capacitors are the number of excess electrons (charge carriers, or electrons, that contribute to the device's electronic behavior) and the shape and size of metallic electrodes. In nanoscale devices, nanowires consisting of metal atoms typically do not exhibit the same conductive properties as their macroscopic, or bulk material, counterparts.

Capacitance in electronic and semiconductor devices

In electronic and semiconductor devices, transient or frequency-dependent current between terminals contains both conduction and displacement components. Conduction current is related to moving charge carriers (electrons, holes, ions, etc.), while displacement current is caused by a time-varying electric field. Carrier transport is affected by electric fields and by a number of physical phenomena - such as carrier drift and diffusion, trapping, injection, contact-related effects, impact ionization, etc. As a result, device admittance is frequency-dependent, and a simple electrostatic formula for capacitance  is not applicable. A more general definition of capacitance, encompassing electrostatic formula, is:

where  is the device admittance, and  is the angular frequency.

In general, capacitance is a function of frequency. At high frequencies, capacitance approaches a constant value, equal to "geometric" capacitance, determined by the terminals' geometry and dielectric content in the device.
A paper by Steven Laux presents a review of numerical techniques for capacitance calculation. In particular, capacitance can be calculated by a Fourier transform of a transient current in response to a step-like voltage excitation:

Negative capacitance in semiconductor devices

Usually, capacitance in semiconductor devices is positive. However, in some devices and under certain conditions (temperature, applied voltages, frequency, etc.), capacitance can become negative. Non-monotonic behavior of the transient current in response to a step-like excitation has been proposed as the mechanism of negative capacitance. Negative capacitance has been demonstrated and explored in many different types of semiconductor devices.

Measuring capacitance

A capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment used to measure capacitance, mainly of discrete capacitors. For most purposes and in most cases the capacitor must be disconnected from circuit.

Many DVMs (digital volt meters) have a capacitance-measuring function. These usually operate by charging and discharging the capacitor under test with a known current and measuring the rate of rise of the resulting voltage; the slower the rate of rise, the larger the capacitance. DVMs can usually measure capacitance from nanofarads to a few hundred microfarads, but wider ranges are not unusual.  It is also possible to measure capacitance by passing a known high-frequency alternating current through the device under test and measuring the resulting voltage across it (does not work for polarised capacitors).

More sophisticated instruments use other techniques such as inserting the capacitor-under-test into a bridge circuit. By varying the values of the other legs in the bridge (so as to bring the bridge into balance), the value of the unknown capacitor is determined. This method of indirect use of measuring capacitance ensures greater precision. Through the use of Kelvin connections and other careful design techniques, these instruments can usually measure capacitors over a range from picofarads to farads.

See also

 Capacitive displacement sensor
 Capacity of a set
 Displacement current
 Gauss law
 LCR meter
 Magnetocapacitance
 Quantum capacitance

References

Further reading

Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Electricity and Magnetism, Light (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks Cole.
Saslow, Wayne M.(2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light. Thomson Learning. . See Chapter 8, and especially pp. 255–259 for coefficients of potential.

Scalar physical quantities
Electricity
Electromagnetic quantities

Capacitance


Cordylobia anthropophaga, the mango fly, tumbu fly, tumba fly, putzi fly, or skin maggot fly, is a species of blow-fly common in East and Central Africa. It is a parasite of large mammals (including humans) during its larval stage. C. anthropophaga is found in the subtropics of Africa and is a common cause of myiasis in humans in the region.

Its specific epithet anthropophaga derives from the Greek word anthropophagos, "human eater".
The mode of infection by the Cayor Worm. Doctors Rodhain and Bequaert conclude, from their observations in the Congo Free State, that Cordylobia anthropophaga lays its eggs on the ground. The larvae, known generally as Cayor Worms, crawl over the soil until they come in contact with a mammal, penetrate the skin and lie in the subcutaneous tissue, causing the formation of tumors. On reaching full growth, the larvae leave the host, fall to the ground, bury themselves and then pupate.  This fly is said to be the most common cause of human or animal myiasis in tropical Africa, from Senegal to Natal. In the region of  Lower Katanga where these investigations were made, dogs appeared to be the principal hosts, although Cordylobia larvae were found also in guinea-pigs, a monkey, and two humans. The larvae are always localized on those parts of the hosts which come in immediate contact with the soil."
— Ann. Soc. Entom. de Belgique, Iv, pp. 192–197, 1911) summary translation in Entomological News. 1911 Vol. xxii:467.

History of discovery
The larvae of the tumbu fly, Cordylobia anthropophaga, were first described in Senegal in 1862, and Blanchard first described the adult and gave it its name in 1872. In 1903, Grünberg placed the tumbu fly in a new genus, Cordylobia.

Life cycle
Female tumbu flies deposit around 300 eggs in sandy soil, often contaminated with feces. The hatched larvae can remain viable in the soil for 9–15 days, when they need to find a host to continue developing. If a larva finds a host, it penetrates the skin and takes 8–12 days developing through three larval stages before it reaches the prepupal stage. It then leaves the host, drops to the ground, buries itself, and pupates. It then becomes an adult fly able to reproduce and begin the cycle all over again.

Clinical presentation in humans
Successful penetrations in humans results in furuncular (boil-like) myiasis, typically on the backs of arms or about the waist, lower back, or buttocks.

C. anthropophaga rarely causes severe problems, and mainly causes cutaneous myiasis. Geary et al. describe the presentation of cutaneous myiasis caused by the tumbu fly: "At the site of penetration, a red papule forms and gradually enlarges. At first the host may experience only intermittent, slight itching, but pain develops and increases in frequency and intensity as the lesions develop into a furuncle. The furuncle's aperture opens, permitting fluids containing blood and waste products of the maggot to drain."

Transmission
Female tumbu flies lay their eggs in soil contaminated with feces or urine or on damp clothing or bed linens. Damp clothing hanging to dry makes for a perfect spot. The larvae hatch in 2–3 days and attach to unbroken skin and penetrate the skin, producing swelling and infection. If the larvae hatch in soil, any disturbance of the soil causes them to wriggle to the surface to penetrate the skin of the host.

Reservoir and vector
A natural reservoir is defined as an organism that can harbor a pathogen indefinitely with no ill effects. Although C. anthropophaga larvae can cause ill effects for animal hosts, relative to myiasis in humans, animal hosts are reservoirs.

Many animals are hosts of C. anthropophaga. The dog is the most common domestic host and several species of wild rats are the preferred field hosts. Domestic fowl are dead-end hosts; the larvae cannot develop when they enter the tissue of a fowl.

Humans are, in fact, accidental hosts; tumbu fly larvae do not usually infect humans and are not necessary for the transmission cycle of the fly.

A vector is an organism that carries the parasites (the larvae) from one host to another. The tumbu fly itself is the vector in a loose sense, because the female deposits the eggs in soil or on damp cloth, where the larvae can hatch and attach to human or animal skin.

Diagnostics
Cutaneous myiasis caused by the tumbu fly should be suspected when a patient who has just spent time in Africa presents with ulcers or boil-like sores. Definitive diagnosis is only possible when the larvae are found. They should be removed and allowed to develop into adult flies for identification and examination purposes.

Treatment
When C. anthropophaga causes cutaneous myiasis, the larvae more often than not can be removed without any incision. Covering the punctum (the breathing hole) with petroleum jelly or similar substances cuts off the air supply and forces the maggot to the surface, where it is easy to capture with forceps. If this does not work, local anesthetic can be administered and an incision made to widen the punctum and remove the maggot. Another treatment discussed in the March 2014 Journal of the American Medical Association is to inject a combination of anaesthetic and epinephrine into the insect's chamber. Less drastically, because larvae of C. anthropophaga have smaller hooked bristles on the cuticle than those of Dermatobia hominis, it often is practical just to push on each side of the hole to squeeze the maggot out, especially after first enlarging the punctum. It is important not to burst the larva to prevent the risk of granulomatous or serious inflammatory reaction.

Patients should be monitored for additional and subsequent lesions, as development does not occur in unison and some larvae may take longer to reach the prepupal stage. Antiseptics or antibiotics may be useful to prevent bacterial infection after removal of the larvae, but in practice are not often necessary; the secretions of the larva tend to discourage bacterial growth. As a rule, the wound may be expected to heal readily.

Epidemiology
The tumbu fly is endemic to the tropical regions of Africa, south of the Sahara. Myiasis caused by C. anthropophaga is the most common cause of myiasis in Africa, but can be seen worldwide because of air travel, as human movements carry infestation outside endemic areas.

Public health and prevention strategies
The fly commonly infects humans by laying its eggs on wet clothes, left out to dry. The eggs hatch in one to three days and the larvae (which can survive without a host for up to 15 days) then burrow into the skin when the clothes are worn. A prevention method is to iron all clothes, including underwear, which kills the eggs/larvae.

References

Calliphoridae
Parasitic flies
Parasitic arthropods of humans
Parasitic arthropods of mammals
Diptera of Africa
Insects described in 1872

Cordylobia anthropophaga


OpenVPN is a VPN protocol that is open-source. This means the source code is openly available for anyone to access and develop.

An active community has formed around the OpenVPN project, which has kept it up-to-date and provided regular security audits to ensure it's viability.

It is particularly known for its security and privacy as well as its adjustability.

OpenVPN typically works on any port and has five encryption algorithms to such as SSL, IPSec or SSH
For the best security and privacy, you should use AES 256-bit encryption, which is essentially unbreakable and should also use a TCP 443 port.

The TCP 443 port will make your connection similar to an https connection. It is essentially a secure connection which can help prevent website blocking and can help you bypass censorship.

For greater speed, it is recommended to use UDP ports, and you can select the default, Blowfish-128 cipher.  This isn't the absolute highest level of security, but for most people, it will suffice and will operate significantly faster than AES 256 on TCP.

Software

OpenVPN


Pluto Records is a record label started in 1999 by Eric Shirey and Brian Cobbel. Since 2002, it has been owned and operated by Brian Cobbel and based near Dallas, TX. It is primarily known for punk, metal and hardcore releases, although not exclusively. The label has been home and launching pad to such bands as Grammy-nominated metal act As I Lay Dying, HORSE the band, Luti-Kriss (Norma Jean), Society's Finest and more.
Pluto Records is currently a member of the Warner Music Group division of East West Records.

History
As I Lay Dying released their debut album, Beneath the Encasing of Ashes on Pluto Records in 2001 and also a split album with the band American Tragedy in 2002. They are now on Metal Blade Records where they have released additional albums, 2003's Frail Words Collapse, 2005's Shadows Are Security, 2007's An Ocean Between Us and The Powerless Rise in 2010. Their releases on Pluto have also been compiled and re-released by Metal Blade Records in 2006 as A Long March: The First Recordings. As I Lay Dying has gone on to sell over half a million records worldwide, and were nominated for a Grammy Award in 2008 for Best Metal Performance.

HORSE the band, who coined the term nintendocore describing their electro-metal sound, released their debut album, R. Borlax on Pluto Records in 2003. They are now on Koch Records and have released their second album, The Mechanical Hand, in 2005, and EP called Pizza in 2006, and their third album, A Natural Death, in 2007. Pluto Records' logo remains on all the bands' albums.

Norma Jean was on the label under their original moniker Luti-Kriss. Luti-Kriss released their first recording on Pluto Records in 1999. The band then signed to Solid State Records where they released one album before changing their name to Norma Jean because of confusion with the rapper Ludacris.

Current band list

 Bloodjinn
 Broadcast Sea
 The Dead See
 Divide The Day
 DSGNS
 Imperial
 My America Is Watching Tigers Die
 Spark is a Diamond

Former bands

 Acedia
 American Tragedy
 As I Lay Dying
 Beauty To Ashes
 Canterbury Effect
 Dreaming of the Fifth
 Evelynn
 Horse the band
 The Jonbenet
 Kill Ratio
 Life in Pictures
 Lovelorn
 Luti-Kriss/Norma Jean
 Mindrage
 My Spacecoaster
 Nailed Promise
 The Orangeburg Massacre
 Society's Finest
 Shmunks For You
 Thirty Called Arson
 Travail
 With All Sincerity
 The Deadly
 Please Mr. Gravedigger
 The Underdog Conspiracy

See also

 List of record labels

References

External links

American record labels
Record labels established in 1999
Heavy metal record labels
Hardcore record labels
1999 establishments in Texas

Pluto Records


Least squares is the name of a procedure in mathematics, to construct a function from a number of observed values. The basic idea is to construct the function in such a way that the sum of the difference between the observed value and its data point is minimized. Since the difference may go in either direction, the value of the difference is squared, for each value.

Carl Friedrich Gauss said he developed the method in 1795. He used it to recover the lost asteroid 1 Ceres and published it in 1807. He used ideas from Pierre-Simon Laplace. Adrien-Marie Legendre developed the same method independently, in 1805.

Related pages
 Normal distribution
 Ordinary least squares

Further reading
 Lawson, C. L., & Hanson, R. J. (1995). Solving least squares problems (Vol. 15). SIAM.
 Bjorck, A. (1996). Numerical methods for least squares problems (Vol. 51). SIAM.

Mathematical approximation
Statistics

Least squares


The Polish 4th Rifle Division (, ) was a Polish military unit, forming, together with the Polish 5th Rifle Division of the Blue Army, the only part of the Polish military which took part in the Russian Civil War. Under the command of General Lucjan Żeligowski, it operated as an ally of the White movement from autumn 1918 to  August 1919 in southern Russia and Bessarabia.

History and operations

The 4th Rifle Division could trace its origins to the Polish 2nd Corps in Russia. The 2nd Corps was formed from various Polish units, but primarily the 2nd Brigade of the Polish Legions in World War I, which rebelled against the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and decided to join the newly-forming Polish army and help secure the territories inhabited by the Poles in the Kresy region. The Polish 5th Rifle Division found itself fighting in the northern territories of the former Russian Empire; the 4th, in its southern regions.

The ever-changing and chaotic currents of the Russian Civil War, coupled with the weak chain of command of the newly reborn Polish Army, meant that the local commanders had much autonomy; thus the 2nd Corps found it most useful to ally itself with the forces of the White movement, even though Polish commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski declined to support the Whites with any other units after he had established firm control over the Polish forces in 1919. Nonetheless this meant that the soldiers of the 2nd Corps were fighting the Bolsheviks and their Red Army even before the Polish-Soviet War began in 1919.

After the Battle of Kaniów on 11 May 1918, in which the forces of the 2nd Brigade broke through the front and created the 2nd Corps, the Polish commanders entered the alliance with one of the White generals, Mikhail Alekseev, and his Volunteer Army in the northern Caucasus near the Kuban River. By September 1918 the Polish forces in the region, called the 'Polish Unit of the Volunteer Army', numbered over 700 people under the command of Col. Franciszek Zieliński, and were engaged in several battles with the Bolsheviks.

In October 1918 General Lucjan Żeligowski assumed command of the Polish forces in the east from General Haller. At the same time, General Alekseev died, and General Anton Ivanovich Denikin assumed the command of the White forces in the region. The local Polish forces were reorganized into the Polish 4th Rifle Division, subordinated to the 2nd Corps of the Blue Army of General Józef Haller. By the end of January 1919 the division numbered over 2800 men, including many from the now-disbanded Polish 1st Corps in Russia.

At that time Piłsudski ordered the Polish units in the far East to move close to the core Polish territory. Denikin, who received this order through French General Ferdinand Foch, ordered Żeligowski to move to Odessa, a major port west of  Crimea. Żeligowski reorganized and strengthened the units in the area, and in December 1918 he found himself facing the Ukrainian forces of Symon Petlura. Reinforced by French and Greek troops, it helped to secure Odessa as part of the Allied Southern Russia Intervention and took part in the fights near Tiraspol. In March 1919 the unit numbered about 3000 men, including a sizeable cavalry contingent.

By the end of March the division, and the Allied forces, were no longer fighting the Ukrainians, but the Bolsheviks. Żeligowski was able to influence the placement of his unit, and until May the division successfully screened the retreat of Allied troops from Odessa towards the Romanian lines in Bessarabia. Near the end of May the division was relieved and finally transported to Poland. It was the only major Polish military formation that took part in the Russian Civil War and managed to return to Poland as a functioning unit.

The division then took part in the last phase of the ongoing Polish-Ukrainian War, starting from the area near Chernivtsi and Stanyslaviv. This time it was not fighting Petliura (who was soon to become a Polish ally), but one of the other Ukrainian factions, the West Ukrainian National Republic. From 11 to 13 July the division fought its first (and victorious) battle near a town with a sizeable Polish population in the area, Jazłowiec.

On 19 July 1919 the division was reformed into the Polish 10th Infantry Division and took part in the major conflict of that time, the Polish-Soviet War.

References

 Nie tylko korpusy... Inne polskie formacje zbrojne w Rosji 1918-1920
 Polskie formacje wojskowe podczas I wojny światowej (a short paragraph confirming the most important facts)

See also
4th Infantry Division (Poland)
Polish Armed Forces in the East (1914–20)

04
Military units and formations established in 1918
Polish divisions of World War I
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
1918 establishments in Poland

4th Rifle Division (Poland)


The Simputer is a small, cheap device, similar to personal digital assistant (palmtop). The unique feature of this device is a smart-card interface which allows a single Simputer to be used by many users. User's private data might be kept on a cheap smart-card. This device was constructed by Indian company- Simputer Trust. The name stands for "Simple computer".

History

The Simputer project was invented during the organization of the Global Village, an International Seminar on Information Technology for Developing Countries. It was conducted in October 1998. The discussion was about big need for a low-cost mass access device which will bring local-language IT to the masses. During inventing a name for new established original device, the purpose was to find complex acronym to fit the name Simputer. Thus Simputer is a Simple, Inexpensive, Multi-lingual comPUTER. Later it was expanded to Simple, Inexpensive Multi-lingual People's compUTER. Now it is also called "computer for the masses".

Features

It is architecturally similar to the Linux Advanced Radio Terminal and the Intel StrongARM reference platform. It has processor Intel StrongARM 200+ MHz, 64MB of RAM, 32MB Flash ROM and may use cheap smart-cards with capacity 8KB. It has also USB connectivity and software modem so might be connect to the internet. 320x240 LCD interface in Simputer is with a touch panel overlay on liquid-crystal display. Operating system runs on a version of the Linux Kernel (computer science). Type of the software used in Simputer is text-to-speech. This tool may use speakers and microphone because it has special jacks. It has also built-in Infrared Data Association (IrDA) port. The device is powered by 3 AAA sized NiMH batteries.

Licensees

The Simputer Trust has licensed to manufacturers to produce devices based on the Simputer. These companies are: PicoPeta Simputers and Encore Technologies.

Future prospects

The tool developed is very generic and has similarities to many other countries. It is ideally suited for developing and under developed countries like: India, Azerbaijan, Mauritius, Mongolia, Ghana, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Thailand or Vietnam.

Sources
 http://www.simputer.org/simputer/history/
 http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/digitalbridges/materials/marwaha_paper.pdf (International  Cooperation in the ICT Field: Bridging the Digital Divide)
 http://indic-computing.sourceforge.net/designaxes/analysis.html
 http://www.simputer.org/simputer/about/

Other websites
 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1535992.stm
 http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=85140
 http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Handhelds/Open_Source/Simputer/
 http://www.amidasimputer.com/
 http://www.picopeta.com/
 http://www.rediff.com/money/2001/apr/24spec.htm
 http://www.ncoretech.com/products/ia/simputer/index.html

Personal digital assistants

Simputer


A volunteer is someone who helps a common cause and who does not expect to get paid for it. There are many cases, such as cleaning up after a disaster, where anyone can help. There are many cases, though, where the volunteers are trained specialists. Examples for these are the volunteer fire departments or a doctor or nurse working for organisations such as the Red Cross. Another example are the people guiding police dogs, which may be trained for emergency rescue.

Related pages
Charity (practice)
Pro bono

Society

Volunteering


SKU (often pronounced "skew") is an acronym for Stock-Keeping Unit.  This is the barcode found on things sold in stores. It is made in a way that laser scanners in the check-out lane can read the code.  The code is then used to find the price.

Design

The bar code is made of vertical bars, some are thick, some are thin.  The scanner can see these bars and the pattern of the bars tells them what the numbers are.  The patterns are made in a way that the scanner can read it forwards or backwards, so it doesn't matter how the product is held, it can still read the number. The numbers are often also written underneath the bars, so that people can read the SKU.  There are two parts to the number.  The first part is who made the product, the second part is what the actual product is.

Commerce

Stock-Keeping Unit


Eos (Ionic and Homeric Greek: Ἠώς, Ēōs; Attic: Ἕως, Éōs; Aeolic: Αὔως, Aúōs; Doric: Ἀώς, Āṓs) is the goddess of the dawn in Greek mythology. She was the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. She is the sister of Helios, god of the sun, and Selene, goddess of the moon.

Myth
Eos leaves her home, which was at the edge of ocean, every morning to wake her brother, Helios. She opens the gates of heaven so that Helios can ride his chariot across the sky each day.

Related pages
 Aurora - Roman mythology version of Eos.
 Thesan - Etruscan mythology version of Eos.

Titans

Eos


Paddington 2 is a 2017 live-action animated comedy movie. It was directed by Paul King and written by King and Simon Farnaby. It is based on the stories of the character Paddington Bear, created by Michael Bond. It is the sequel to the 2014 movie Paddington. The movie was released in cinemas and IMAX with very good reviews and it has a 100% on Rotten Tomatoes.

The movie stars Ben Whishaw as the voice of Paddington, with Hugh Bonneville, Sally Hawkins, Brendan Gleeson, Julie Walters, Jim Broadbent, Peter Capaldi, Tom Conti, Ben Miller, Sanjeev Bhaskar, Noah Taylor and Hugh Grant with Eileen Atkins in live-action roles.

Other websites

 Paddington 2 on Metacritic
 Paddington 2 on Rotten Tomatoes

2017 comedy movies
2010s sequel movies
British comedy movies
Movies based on books

Paddington 2


Mainly Mozart is a 501(c)(3) non-profit based in San Diego, California.
Mainly Mozart was created in 1988 by Maestro David Atherton and Executive Director Nancy Laturno, formerly of the San Diego Symphony, to give the people of Southern California and Baja California an opportunity to experience classical music performed live in the summer by principal orchestral musicians.

The focus was placed on Mozart because he is considered by many to be the greatest composer of all time and because of the variety of his musical genius. Since its inception, Mainly Mozart has added the works of other composers with an emphasis on those of the 18th and 19th centuries.  Using the common language of music, Mainly Mozart has served as a regional resource by connecting communities in Southern California and Baja California to Mainly Mozart musicians, classical music, and stories behind the music.

Presentations

Concerts
The first Mainly Mozart Festival in June 1989 – a series of nine concerts—was performed on the outdoor stage of the Old Globe Theatre in Balboa Park. Over the ensuing years, Mainly Mozart has increased its overall annual concert performances staged at various venues.  In June 2008, and just in time for the 20th anniversary of the Mainly Mozart Festival, Mainly Mozart will become the primary tenant of the restored 83-year-old, 1,300-seat Balboa Theatre in downtown San Diego. A $26-million renovation of the "jewel box" theatre has maintained its blend of Mediterranean, Moorish and Spanish Revival architectural styles. Since 1992, the Balboa Theatre has been on the National Register of Historic Places. San Diego's Centre City Development Corporation funded the restoration.

Spotlight Series
In 1996, Mainly Mozart began producing the Spotlight Series featuring chamber music concerts during the winter and spring. The principal home of the series is The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, but facilities in the north San Diego County coastal community of Carlsbad, and the inland community of Rancho Santa Fe are also used.

Bi-national and educational outreach
In 1992 the Mainly Mozart Orchestra was invited to participate in the first Festival Internacional de Mozart in Baja California (now Mozart Binacional). This was also the year that Mainly Mozart established an educational component to bring music to students in low income or at risk neighborhoods in both San Diego County and Baja California. These programs are continually expanding and now reach over 60,000 students in both countries.

The lives and music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven are brought to school children through the Living Composers Series. These informative and entertaining half-hour assemblies engage students in interactive mini-plays set to the music of these master composers. Question and answer session rounds out the teaching session, and in-school materials are provided for both the pre- and post- performance educational activities.

Mainly Mozart also has been working to enrich the lives of economically disadvantaged families in Southeast San Diego through a partnership with the Jackie Robinson Family YMCA. Mainly Mozart's free ticket program has allowed hundreds of children to enjoy their very first concert experience at Copley Symphony Hall (home of the San Diego Symphony). In another outreach program, Mainly Mozart offers high school and college music students discounted concert tickets.

Other endeavors

The Amadeus Suite
Mainly Mozart commissioned "The Amadeus Suite" in 1999. It was created by British jazz trumpeter Guy Barker, who based his composition on characters from Mozart operas. In 2006, the suite was expanded by Barker and was performed in San Diego during the Mainly Mozart-led year-long San Diego County-wide celebration of Mozart's 250th birthday (January 27, 1756). The celebration was coordinated with cultural officials in Austria.

Club Amadeus
To show its appreciation of its patron/donors, Mainly Mozart has presented a smaller, more intimate concert series known as Club Amadeus.  The supporters hear chamber music in elegant private residences and other special venues throughout San Diego.
Other annual funding for Mainly Mozart is provided, in part, by the City of San Diego Commission for Arts and Culture; the County of San Diego Community Enhancement program; the California Arts Council; the National Endowment for the Arts; and contributions from local businesses and foundations.

References

External links
 Mainly Mozart Website

Classical music festivals in the United States
1988 establishments in California
Mozart festivals
Music organizations based in the United States
Arts organizations established in 1988
Music festivals established in 1988

Mainly Mozart Festival


The Boston Herald is a daily newspaper published in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, and its surrounding area. It was started in 1846. It is one of the oldest daily newspapers in the United States. It has been awarded eight Pulitzer Prizes in its history, including four for editorial writing and three for photography. In 1981, it became a tabloid newspaper.

Newspapers in Massachusetts

Boston Herald


Manchuria (Northeast China) is the homeland of the Manchu people. To the Chinese, the region is simply known as the Northeast (Chinese: 东北, Dōngbĕi). Manchuria is made up of China's three northeastern most provinces: Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. Parts of Manchuria were annexed by the Russian Empire in the past, and they are now ruled by Russia

The name "Manchuria" comes from a Japanese version of the Chinese word Manzhou ().

History
In the early history, Manchuria was under the control of many Chinese kingdoms. Later, the Manchu people formed their own empire called Jurchen. They eventually invaded China and founded the Manchu Qing Dynasty.

Although the Manchus, who at the time ruled China, signed a treaty with Russia, the Russians took advantage of the weak Qing government and annexed the part that touches the Pacific Ocean, where the modern Chinese city of Dalian stands today. Japan then attacked the Russians to take this important piece of land. Later, Japan invaded the Chinese part of Manchuria too (see Manchukuo). This eventually led to World War II.

After the war, Manchuria was handed over to China by the Soviet Union.

Geography
Manchuria is in north-east China and the Russian Far East. The land has rocks, grasslands, mountains, and deserts. The weather is very extreme. It is very hot and humid in the summer, and is very cold and dry in the winter.

Regions of Russia
People's Republic of China

Manchuria


Radiant heating occurs when a hot surface warms other objects around it. Radiant heating has a long history of use in buildings by the Romans and the Koreans, and is much more efficient than standard ways of heating the air in a building. Underfloor radiant heating is the most common type of radiant heating used in buildings, but wall and overhead radiant heating systems are also used. Radiant heating can also be used to heat outdoor areas.

History of Radiant Heating

The Romans were the first people to use underfloor radiant heating systems. These systems were based on hypocausts, and used warm air for heat. The floor was set on top of many brick piles, leaving room for the hot air and steam produced by a furnace to pass underneath the floor. The hot air then went up chimneys on the sides of the walls, so the hot air and steam never actually went into the living rooms. These systems were very expensive to build and maintain, so only the rich could afford them.

In Korea, radiant underfloor heating has been in use for about 2000 years. Ondol, which means "warm stone," involves the use of stones and underground ducts to help transport warm air from the kitchen to the rooms in the house. Most homes and buildings in Korea still use ondol, although they now use hot water and electric systems. The American architect Frank Lloyd Wright discovered ondol in the early 1900s and used it in many of his building designs. Wright also invented hot water underfloor systems.

Types of Radiant Heating

Underfloor heating
The most common kind of radiant heating is underfloor heating. There are three types of underfloor heating: hot air systems, hot water systems and electric systems.

Hot air systems
Hot air systems use hot air to heat the floor, similar to the Romans' systems. However, air does not hold heat very well, and these systems aren't recommended for residential use.

Hot water systems
Hot water systems are the most popular and cost-effective systems for cold climates. In this type of system, water is heated by a boiler and pumped through pipes laid underneath the floor. Hot water systems can also be combined with solar thermal energy to make them more environmentally friendly. Solar thermal energy uses sunlight to heat water, which can then be used in the underfloor heating system.

Hot water systems can also be run in reverse by running cold water through the pipes to cool the building. However, this technology is difficult to use properly and can result in condensation on the floor, which can ruin hardwood floors or rugs and make people more likely to fall.

Electric systems
Electric systems are made of electric cables that are laid underneath the floor. Electricity is then used to heat the cables, and this type of system can be turned on or off much faster than a hot water system. However, these systems are often more expensive than hot water systems because of the high prices of electricity, especially if the hot water system includes the use of solar thermal energy. The high cost of an electric heating system can be reduced if the floor can be set to heat during non-peak hours, such as late at night, and is left turned off during the day. Electric systems are also less environmentally friendly because electricity is usually produced by burning fossil fuels, which increases carbon emissions.

Underfloor installation

Underfloor radiant heating systems can be installed as either wet or dry systems. Wet systems are laid down and then concrete is poured over them. Concrete floors hold heat very well, but can take a long time to absorb the heat. Dry systems run in open air space between the foundation and the floor, but can be less efficient because they have to heat the air too. However, dry systems are much easier to reach if the system breaks or leaks.

Any kind of flooring can be used with underfloor heating, but ceramic tiles are the most popular floor material because they transfer and store heat well. Materials like wood, carpet, or linoleum tile decrease the heat transfer from the underfloor system and the system must be set at a higher temperature if any of these materials are used.

Wall and overhead heating
Wall and overhead radiant heating systems are usually made of aluminum panels hung on the walls or ceiling. Like underfloor radiant heating, these panels can be heated by either hot water or electricity. However, panels heated by hot water often leak, so electric panels are the most common. These panels can't heat as much area as an underfloor system, but they can be quickly turned on and off when a person enters or leaves the room. Electric panels can reduce energy costs if panels are left turned off in empty rooms.

Outdoor heating
Using radiant heating outdoors is much more practical than heating air because the air is always moving outside. Outdoor radiant heaters are almost always electric devices, and usually portable, although it is possible to have underfloor radiant heating installed under a patio.

Related pages
Energy conservation
Energy efficiency
Heating
List of renewable energy topics

References

Construction
Heat

Radiant heating


The word prothonotary is recorded in English since 1447, as "principal clerk of a court," from L.L. prothonotarius (c. 400), from Greek protonotarios "first scribe," originally the chief of the college of recorders of the court of the Byzantine Empire, from Greek  protos "first" + Latin notarius ("notary"); the -h- appeared in Medieval Latin. The title was awarded to certain high-ranking notaries.

Byzantine usage
The office of prōtonotarios (), also proedros or primikērios of the notarioi, existed in mid-Byzantine (7th through 10th centuries) administration as head of the colleges of the notarioi in various administrative departments. There were prōtonotarioi of the imperial notarioi (secretaries of the court), of the various sekreta or logothesia (government ministries), as well as for each thema or province. The latter appeared in the early 9th century and functioned as the chief civil officials of the province, directly below the governing general (stratēgos). They were responsible chiefly for administrative and fiscal affairs (characteristically, they belonged to the financial ministry of the Sakellion), and were also responsible for the provisioning of the thematic armies. The office vanished after the 11th and 12th centuries, along with the themata and the logothesia, although there are traces of a single prōtonotarios functioning as the emperor's chief secretary until the Palaiologan period.

Catholic Church usage

In the Roman Catholic Church, protonotaries apostolic (Latin protonotarii apostolicii) are prelates in the Roman Curia who perform certain duties with regard to papal documents. Also, after examining the candidates, they name annually a fixed number of doctors of theology and canon law. Historically, the college of protonotaries developed out of the seven regional notaries of Roman antiquity, and are therefore called protonotaries de numero (of the number).  They are also called "participating" protonotaries, because they shared in the revenues as officials of the Roman Chancery.

These high papal officials are the highest class of Monsignor, are often raised directly to the cardinalate, and hold distinctive privileges in address and attire. Current practice is based on Pope Paul VI's two motu proprios, Pontificalis Domus of March 28, 1968 and Pontificalia Insignia of June 21, 1968.  They are addressed formally as "most reverend monsignor," and they wear the mantelletta, the purple choir cassock, the biretta with red tuft, and rochet for liturgical services, the black cassock with red piping and purple sash at other times, and may add the purple ferraiuolo to the black cassock for formal ceremonies of a non-liturgical nature, e.g., a graduation.

There are also honorary protonotaries, referred to as supernumerary (or 'beyond the number'), on whom the pope has conferred this title and its special privileges. This title is purely honorary and is not attached to any duties in the Curia. This is the type of protonotary found outside of Rome, and is the highest grade of monsignor found in most dioceses. Priests so honored are addressed as "reverend monsignor," wear the purple choir cassock (with surplice) for liturgical services, the black cassock with red piping and purple sash at other times, may add the purple ferraiuolo to this for formal non-liturgical ceremonies, and may put the letters "P.A." after their names, but use none of the other accoutrements mentioned above.

Secular judiciary
The term prothonotary is the title of the chief court clerk in several common law jurisdictions.

Australia
The chief clerks of the supreme courts of the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria are titled "prothonotary."

The prothonotary of the Victorian Supreme Court has responsibility for all administrative tasks of the trial division registry. Under the Supreme Court Act 1986 (Vic), and the accompanying rules, the prothonotary also has some quasi-judicial powers including taxation of costs, conducting mediations, prosecuting contempt and administering bail.

Much of the work of the prothonotary is delegated to specifically appointed deputy prothonotaries who, under the Supreme Court Act (s108), have the same powers and authority as the prothonotary.

Canada

Federal Court

Prior to October 12, 2022, the Federal Court in Canada appointed prothonotaries as judicial officers (and not clerks) appointed under the Federal Courts Act and exercise many of the powers and functions of a Federal Court judge. The prothonotary's authority includes mediation, case management, practice motions (including those that may result in a final disposition of the case, regardless of the amount in issue), as well as trials of actions in which up to $50,000 is claimed (see Rules 50, 382, and 383 to 387 of the Federal Courts Rules).

Since the enactment of the Budget Implementation Act, 2022, No. 1 s of October 12, 2022, the office of prothonotaries were renamed as associate judges.

Provincial courts
In the provincial courts of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, the prothonotary is the chief court clerk. In Quebec, prothonotary () is the term formerly used to identify the official now referred to as the clerk of the Superior Court of Quebec.

Great Britain
The chief clerk of the Court of King's Bench and the Court of Common Pleas was known as the Prothonotary. His deputy was the Second Prothonotary or Secondary. The positions were well paid and could be purchased. The posts, which had largely become sinecures, were abolished in 1837 and replaced by that of Master. The prothonotary and his deputy were the principal officers on the civil side of the palatine Court of Pleas of the County Palatine of Durham and Sadberge. The prothonotary and his deputy were the principal officers of the palatine Court of Common Pleas of the County Palatine of Lancaster. The office continued to exist up to the abolition of the two palatine courts by an Act of 1873.

India
The chief clerk and head of the administrative division of the Bombay High Court is known as the Prothonotary and Senior Master.

United States
While the term was once commonly used in the United States, only the courts of Pennsylvania and Delaware still term their chief clerks "prothonotaries".

Pennsylvania
The Unified Judicial System of Pennsylvania titles several of its court administrators prothonotaries. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania maintains two deputy prothonotaries, one in Philadelphia and the other in Pittsburgh, supplementing the role of the prothonotary in Harrisburg. The Superior Court of Pennsylvania's chief administrative officer is also titled a prothonotary and also maintains offices in Harrisburg, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. The Pennsylvania Courts of Common Pleas also title their chief clerks prothonotaries, except for the District of Delaware County, which has a clerk of courts instead of a prothonotary under the terms of its special Home Rule Charter. Similarly, Allegheny County's clerks are consolidated as the Department of Court Records, and there is no longer a Prothonotary in that county. The Commonwealth Court of Pennsylvania and the minor courts (the magisterial district courts, the Philadelphia Municipal Court, and the Pittsburgh Municipal Courts) do not have prothonotaries; their administrators are titled a "Chief Clerk" and "administrators," respectively.

U.S. President Harry S. Truman was introduced to a prothonotary during a campaign stop in Pittsburgh in 1948. It is rumored that Truman's first reaction upon hearing the term "prothonotary" was to say "What the hell is a prothonotary?" It has also been claimed that Truman called "prothonotary" the most impressive-sounding political title in the U.S.

References

Sources

Catholic ecclesiastical titles
Ecclesiastical titles
Legal professions
Notary

Prothonotary


Sharecropping is a term for when one person farms another person's land, and then the two share what is produced.  Sharecroppers are almost always poor, and are often in debt to landowners or other people.  Sharecropping was very common in the Southern United States after the Civil War and the end of slavery. At that time, many African-Americans sharecropped on the land that they had once farmed as slaves.  Sharecropping was part of the system of "Jim Crow", which kept blacks poor and not really citizens.

Sharecropping became more common in the Southern United States when slavery was abolished. During the 20th century it became rare there.

History of the United States
Labor
Agriculture
Property

Sharecropping


Sarah Island is an island in the Hingham Bay area of the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area. The island has a permanent size of just under , and is composed large outcroppings and ledges of Roxbury puddingstone together with glacial till which rises to a height of  above sea level. The ledges, beaches and mudflats make the ideal nesting place for gulls.

The island was purchased by John Langlee in 1686, later passing to John R. Brewer, at the time the owner of nearby World's End. Today it is managed by the town of Hingham and access is by private boat only. Access by humans is discouraged during the nesting season.

References

Boston Harbor islands
Hingham, Massachusetts
Coastal islands of Massachusetts
Islands of Plymouth County, Massachusetts

Sarah Island (Massachusetts)


Shake Hands with the Devil is a 1959 film produced and directed by Michael Anderson and starring James Cagney, Don Murray, Dana Wynter, Glynis Johns and Michael Redgrave.  The picture was filmed in Dublin, and at Ardmore Studios in Bray, Ireland. The picture was based on the 1933 novel of the same title by Rearden Conner, the son of a Royal Irish Constabulary policeman.

The film is set in 1921 Dublin, where the Irish Republican Army battles the Black and Tans, ex-British soldiers sent to suppress the rebels.

Plot
Irish-American Kerry O'Shea (Don Murray) is studying at the College of Surgeons in 1921 Dublin, Ireland, during a guerrilla war – the Irish War of Independence.  Apolitical and sick of killing after fighting in World War I, he is drawn into the struggle between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the British Black and Tans.

He and his friend and fellow medical student, Paddy Nolan (Ray McAnally), are caught in the middle of an IRA ambush, and Nolan is shot by the British. Nolan tells O'Shea to fetch Sean Lenihan (James Cagney), one of their professors. Lenihan, it turns out, is also a high-ranking IRA leader known as "the Commandant". Lenihan removes the bullet, but Nolan dies anyway.

Since O'Shea left his textbook (with his name inscribed) at the scene of the ambush, he is now a wanted man. Lenihan takes him to meet his superior, "the General" (Michael Redgrave), an old comrade-in-arms of O'Shea's father. When O'Shea refuses his invitation to join the IRA, the General arranges for a boat passage out of Ireland. Lenihan takes him to a hideout by the sea, the base of an IRA unit commanded by Chris Noonan (Cyril Cusack). Lenihan is furious to find local barmaid Kitty Brady (Glynis Johns) consorting with the men there.

When Liam O'Sullivan (Noel Purcell), a top IRA leader, is wounded escaping from prison, O'Shea agrees to accompany the unit to the rendezvous point to treat him. O'Sullivan is discovered in the boot of the car of aged Lady Fitzhugh (Sybil Thorndike) and killed in a shootout by the British. When the soldiers check the people in the nearby pub (where the IRA men are waiting), Terence O'Brien (Richard Harris) tries to hide a pistol he brought (against Noonan's explicit orders). When it is found, it is O'Shea who is taken away. He is brutally beaten by Colonel Smithson of the Black and Tans (Christopher Rhodes), but refuses to talk. Lenihan leads a raid to rescue him. At that point, O'Shea decides to join the IRA.

Lady Fitzhugh is sentenced to prison and goes on a hunger strike. Lenihan kidnaps Jennifer Curtis (Dana Wynter), the widowed daughter of a top British adviser, to try to force a prisoner exchange. Complications ensue when Kerry falls for her. When Kitty gets into trouble, both with Lenihan and the British, she decides to leave Ireland.

Lenihan prepares to assassinate Colonel Smithson at the dock. However, he suspects he has been betrayed when Kitty, purely by coincidence, tries to board a ship there. During the ensuing shootout, Lenihan shoots Kitty dead in cold blood.

When the men reassemble at a lighthouse, they hear two bits of news. First, Lady Fitzhugh has died. Second, the British have offered a peace treaty. The General is satisfied to have peace, but not Lenihan. When he decides to execute Mrs. Curtis, O'Shea has to stop him. They exchange shots, and Lenihan is killed.

Cast

 James Cagney as Sean Lenihan
 Don Murray as Kerry O'Shea
 Dana Wynter as Jennifer Curtis
 Glynis Johns as Kitty Brady
 Michael Redgrave as The General
 Sybil Thorndike as Lady Fitzhugh
 Cyril Cusack as Chris Noonan
 Harry Brogan as Tom Cassidy
 Robert Brown as First Sergeant (Black and Tans)
 Lewis Casson as Judge
 Christopher Casson as Brigadier
 John Cairney as Mike O'Callaghan
 Harry H. Corbett as Clancy (as Harry Corbett)
 Allan Cuthbertson as Captain
 Donal Donnelly as Willie Lafferty
 Eithne Dunne as Eileen O'Leary
 Richard Harris as Terence O'Brien
 William Hartnell as Sergeant Jenkins
 John Le Mesurier as British General
 Niall MacGinnis as Michael O'Leary
 Patrick McAlinney as Donovan, bartender
 Ray McAnally as Paddy Nolan
 Clive Morton as Sir Arnold Fielding
 Noel Purcell as Liam O'Sullivan
 Peter Reynolds as Captain (Black and Tans)
 Christopher Rhodes as Colonel Smithson

Release
The film received its world premiere on 21 May 1959 in Dublin.

References

External links

 Shake Hands with the Devil at the blog Come Here to Me! about Dublin
Review of film at Variety

1959 films
1959 drama films
Irish drama films
1950s English-language films
British Empire war films
Films about the Irish Republican Army
Films directed by Michael Anderson
Films set in 1921
Films set in Dublin (city)
Films shot in the Republic of Ireland
Irish War of Independence films
Films scored by William Alwyn
American war drama films
1950s American films

Shake Hands with the Devil (1959 film)


Eva Anna Paula Hitler (; 6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was a German photographer who was the longtime companion and briefly the wife of Adolf Hitler. Braun met Hitler in Munich when she was a 17-year-old assistant and model for his personal photographer, Heinrich Hoffmann. She began seeing Hitler often about two years later.

She attempted suicide twice during their early relationship. By 1936, Braun was a part of Hitler's household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden, Bavaria, Germany, and lived a sheltered life throughout World War II. She became a significant figure within Hitler's inner social circle, but did not attend public events with him until mid-1944, when her sister Gretl married Hermann Fegelein, the SS liaison officer on his staff.

As Nazi Germany was collapsing towards the end of the war, Braun swore loyalty to Hitler and went to Berlin to be by his side in the heavily reinforced Führerbunker beneath the Reich Chancellery garden. As Red Army troops fought their way into the centre government district, on 29 April 1945, Braun married Hitler during a brief civil ceremony; she was 33 and he was 56. Less than 40 hours later, they died by suicide in a sitting room of the bunker: Braun by biting and swallowing a capsule of cyanide, and Hitler by a gunshot to the head. The German public was unaware of Braun's relationship with Hitler until after their deaths. Many of the surviving colour photographs and films of Hitler were taken by Braun.

Early life

Eva Braun was born in Munich and was the second daughter of school teacher Friedrich "Fritz" Braun (1879–1964) and Franziska "Fanny" Kronberger (1885–1976); her mother had worked as a seamstress before her marriage. She had an elder sister, Ilse (1909–1979), and a younger sister, Margarete (Gretl) (1915–1987). Her father was a Lutheran and her mother a Catholic.

Braun's parents were divorced in April 1921 but remarried in November 1922, probably for financial reasons (hyperinflation was plaguing the German economy at the time). Braun was educated at a Catholic lyceum in Munich, and then for one year at a business school in the Convent of the English Sisters in Simbach am Inn, where she had average grades and a talent for athletics.

At age 17, Braun took a job working for Heinrich Hoffmann, the official photographer for the Nazi Party. Initially employed as a shop assistant and sales clerk, she soon learned how to use a camera and develop photographs. She met Adolf Hitler, 23 years her senior, at Hoffmann's studio in Munich in October 1929. He had been introduced to her as "Herr Wolff". Braun's younger sister, Gretl, also worked for Hoffmann from 1932 onward. The women rented an apartment together for a time. Gretl often accompanied Eva on her subsequent trips with Hitler to Obersalzberg.

Relationship with Hitler
Hitler lived with his half-niece, Geli Raubal, in an apartment at Prinzregentenplatz 16 in Munich from 1929 until her death in 1931. On 18 September of that year, Raubal was found dead in the apartment with a gunshot wound to the chest, an apparent suicide with Hitler's pistol. Hitler was in Nuremberg at the time. His relationship with Raubal—likely the most intense of his life—had been important to him. Hitler began seeing more of Braun after Raubal's suicide.

Braun herself attempted suicide on 10 or 11 August 1932 by shooting herself in the chest with her father's pistol. Historians feel the attempt was not serious, but was a bid for Hitler's attention. After Braun's recovery, Hitler became more committed to her and by the end of 1932 they had become lovers. She often stayed overnight at his Munich apartment when he was in town. Beginning in 1933, Braun worked as a photographer for Hoffmann. This position enabled her to travel—accompanied by Hoffmann—with Hitler's entourage as a photographer for the Nazi Party. Later in her career, she worked for Hoffmann's art press.

According to a fragment of her diary and the account of biographer Nerin Gun, Braun's second suicide attempt occurred in May 1935. She took an overdose of sleeping pills when Hitler failed to make time for her in his life. Hitler provided Braun and her sister with a three-bedroom apartment in Munich that August, and the next year the sisters were provided with a villa in Bogenhausen at Wasserburgerstr. 12 (now Delpstr. 12). By 1936, Braun was at Hitler's household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden whenever he was in residence there, but she lived mostly in Munich. Braun also had her own apartment at the new Reich Chancellery in Berlin, completed to a design by Albert Speer.

Braun was a member of Hoffmann's staff when she attended the Nuremberg Rally for the first time in 1935. Hitler's half-sister, Angela Raubal (Geli's mother), took exception to her presence there and was later dismissed from her position as housekeeper at the Berghof. Researchers are unable to ascertain if her dislike for Braun was the only reason for her departure, but other members of Hitler's entourage saw Braun as untouchable from then on.

Hitler wished to present himself in the image of a chaste hero; in the Nazi ideology, men were the political leaders and warriors, and women were homemakers. Hitler believed that he was sexually attractive to women and wished to exploit this for political gain by remaining single, as he felt marriage would decrease his appeal. He and Braun never appeared as a couple in public; the only time they appeared together in a published news photo was when she sat near him at the 1936 Winter Olympics. The German people were unaware of Braun's relationship with Hitler until after the war. Braun had her own room adjoining Hitler's at both the Berghof and the Führerbunker complex beneath the Reich Chancellery garden in Berlin.

Biographer Heike Görtemaker wrote that women did not play a big role in the politics of Nazi Germany. Braun's political influence on Hitler was minimal; she was never allowed to stay in the room when business or political conversations took place and was sent out of the room when cabinet ministers or other dignitaries were present. She was not a member of the Nazi Party. In his post-war memoirs, Hoffmann characterized Braun's outlook as "inconsequential and feather-brained"; her main interests were sports, clothes, and the cinema. She led a sheltered and privileged existence and seemed uninterested in politics. One instance when she took an interest was in 1943, shortly after Germany had fully transitioned to a total war economy; among other things, this meant a potential ban on women's cosmetics and luxuries. According to Speer's memoirs, Braun approached Hitler in "high indignation"; Hitler quietly instructed Speer, who was armaments minister at the time, to halt production of women's cosmetics and luxuries rather than instituting an outright ban. Speer later said, "Eva Braun will prove a great disappointment to historians."

Braun continued to work for Hoffmann after commencing her relationship with Hitler. She took many photographs and films of members of Hitler's inner circle, some of which were sold to Hoffmann for extremely high prices; she received money from Hoffmann's company as late as 1943. Braun also held the position of private secretary to Hitler. This guise meant she could enter and leave the Chancellery unremarked, though she used a side entrance and a rear staircase. Görtemaker notes that Braun and Hitler enjoyed a normal sex life. Braun's friends and relatives described Eva giggling over a 1938 photograph of Neville Chamberlain sitting on a sofa in Hitler's Munich flat with the remark: "If only he knew what goings-on that sofa has seen."

On 3 June 1944, Braun's sister Gretl married SS-Gruppenführer Hermann Fegelein, who served as Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler's liaison officer on Hitler's staff. Hitler used the marriage as an excuse to allow Braun to appear at official functions, as she could then be introduced as Fegelein's sister-in-law. When Fegelein was caught in the closing days of the war trying to escape to Sweden or Switzerland, Hitler ordered his execution. He was shot for desertion in the garden of the Reich Chancellery on 28 April 1945.

Lifestyle
When Hitler purchased the Berghof in 1933, it was a small holiday home on the mountain at Obersalzberg. Renovations began in 1934 and were completed by 1936. A large wing was added onto the original house and several additional buildings were constructed. The entire area was fenced off, and remaining houses on the mountain were purchased by the Nazi Party and demolished. Braun and the other members of the entourage were cut off from the outside world when in residence. Speer, Hermann Göring, and Martin Bormann had houses constructed inside the compound.

Hitler's valet, Heinz Linge, stated in his memoirs that Hitler and Braun had two bedrooms and two bathrooms with interconnecting doors at the Berghof, and Hitler would end most evenings alone with her in his study before they retired to bed. She would wear a "dressing gown or house-coat" and drink wine; Hitler would have tea. Public displays of affection or physical contact were nonexistent, even in the enclosed world of the Berghof. Braun took the role of hostess amongst the regular visitors, though she was not involved in running the household. She regularly invited friends and family members to accompany her during her stays, the only guest to do so.

When Henriette von Schirach suggested that Braun should go into hiding after the war, Braun replied, "Do you think I would let him die alone? I will stay with him up until the last moment". Hitler named Braun in his will, to receive 12,000 Reichsmarks yearly after his death. He was very fond of her, and worried when she participated in sports or was late returning for tea.

Braun was very fond of Negus and Stasi, her two Scottish Terrier dogs, and they appear in her home movies. She usually kept them away from Hitler's German Shepherd, Blondi. Blondi was killed by one of Hitler's entourage on 29 April 1945 when he ordered that one of the cyanide capsules obtained for Braun and Hitler's suicide the next day be tested on the dog. Braun's dogs and Blondi's puppies were shot on 30 April by Hitler's dog handler, Fritz Tornow.

Marriage and suicide

In early April 1945, Braun travelled from Munich to Berlin to be with Hitler at the Führerbunker. She refused to leave as the Red Army closed in on the capital. After midnight on the night of 28–29 April, Hitler and Braun were married in a small civil ceremony within the bunker. The event was witnessed by Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann. Thereafter, Hitler hosted a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife. When Braun married Hitler, her legal name changed to Eva Hitler. When she signed her marriage certificate, she wrote the letter B for her family name, then crossed this out and replaced it with Hitler.

After 1:00 pm on 30 April 1945, Braun and Hitler said their farewells to staff and members of the inner circle. Later that afternoon, at approximately 3:30 pm, several people reported hearing a loud gunshot. After waiting a few minutes, Linge, accompanied by Hitler's SS adjutant, Otto Günsche, entered the small study and found the lifeless bodies of Hitler and Braun on a small sofa. Braun had bitten into a cyanide capsule, and Hitler had shot himself in the right temple with his pistol. The corpses were carried up the stairs and through the bunker's emergency exit to the garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were burned during the Red Army shelling in and around the area. Braun was 33 years old when she died and Adolf Hitler was 56.

By 11 May, Hitler's dentist's assistant Käthe Heusermann and dental technician Fritz Echtmann identified dental remains as belonging to Hitler and Braun. The remains of Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed, with the last location being the SMERSH compound in Magdeburg, East Germany. Hitler and Braun's remains were alleged to have been moved as well, but this is most likely Soviet disinformation. There is no evidence that any bodily remains of Hitler or Braunwith the exception of the dental remainswere found by the Soviets. On 4 April 1970, a Soviet KGB team with detailed burial charts secretly exhumed five wooden boxes of remains in Magdeburg. The remains were thoroughly burned and crushed, after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.

The rest of Braun's family survived the war. Her mother, Franziska, died at age 91 in January 1976, having lived out her days in an old farmhouse in Ruhpolding, Bavaria. Her father, Fritz, died in 1964. Gretl gave birth to a daughter—whom she named Eva—on 5 May 1945. She later married Kurt Beringhoff, a businessman. She died in 1987. Braun's elder sister, Ilse, was not part of Hitler's inner circle. She married twice and died in 1979.

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

1912 births
1945 suicides
1945 deaths
German shooting survivors
People from Munich
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
People from Nazi Germany
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Suicides by cyanide poisoning
Suicides in Germany
Joint suicides by Nazis
Spouses of chancellors of Germany
Women shooting survivors

Eva Braun


The Balkans is a peninsula, or group of countries, in Europe. The region has a combined area of 550,000 km² and an approximate population of 55 million people. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains, which run through the centre of Bulgaria into eastern Serbia and then continue to Slovenia as the Dinaric Alps.

Definitions and boundaries

Name
Balkans comes from the Turkish language meaning "chain of wooded mountains" or 'swampy forest'.

Geography

The Balkans are bordered by water on three sides: the Black Sea to the east and branches of the Mediterranean Sea to the south and west (including the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean and Marmara seas). The Balkan Peninsula is bordered on the north by the Danube, Sava, and Krča rivers.

History
Shortly before the medieval period in the 5th and 6th centuries, the Balkans were invaded by the Romans. The Romans were said not to be like other conquerors. They were said to be very powerful and robust. They won and spread the Roman culture through the Balkan peninsula. The Balkan peninsula was completely under Roman control by 1000 CE.

Member countries
Countries in the Balkan region are:

 Albania
 Kosovo
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Bulgaria
 Croatia
 Greece (sometimes)
 Montenegro
 North Macedonia
 Romania (sometimes)
 Serbia
 Slovenia (sometimes)
 Turkey (sometimes)

Related countries
Other countries that are not in the Balkan region but that are close to it and/or play or have played an important role in the region's politics, culture and history:

 Hungary (see also Ottoman Hungary, Austria-Hungary)

Austria (see also Austria-Hungary, Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria)
Cyprus (see also Cyprus dispute)
Italy (see Trieste and History of the Republic of Venice)
Russia (see History of Serbia)

Population composition by nationality and religion

The region's principal nationalities include:
 Albanians (5 million)
 Bosniaks (4.5 million)
 Bulgarians (6.6 million)
 Croats (4.5 million)
 Greeks (10.7 million)
 Macedonians (1.3 million)
 Montenegrins (0.3 million)
 Romanians (22 million)
 Serbs (8 million)
 Slovenes (2 million)
 Turks (80 million)
 others (Roma, Gorani, Pomak, Torbesh...)

The most common religions in the Balkans are Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Christianity and Sunni Islam. Many different specific kinds of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church with its own patriarch.

Eastern Orthodoxy is the principal religion in the following countries:
Bulgaria (Bulgarian Orthodox Church)
Greece (Greek Orthodox Church)
Montenegro (Serbian Orthodox Church or uncanonical Montenegrin Orthodox Church)
North Macedonia (Serbian Orthodox Church or uncanonical Macedonian Orthodox Church)
Romania (Romanian Orthodox Church)
Serbia (Serbian Orthodox Church)

Roman Catholicism is the principal religion in the following countries:
Croatia
Slovenia

Islam is the principal religion in the following countries:
Albania
Bosnia
Kosovo
Turkey/East Thrace

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a special case - 50% are Muslim Bosniaks, 31% are Serbian Orthodox, and 15% are Catholic Croats (therefore 46% are Christian). The remaining 4% adhere to other denominations of Christianity, other religions, or are irreligious. In Bulgaria, Dobruja in Romania, North Macedonia and West Thrace in Greece, a high Muslim Minority of different Ethinicity like Turks, Tatars, Torbesh, Pomak and Xoraxane Roma live there.

For more detailed information and a precise ethnic breakdown see articles about particular states:
 Albania (Demographics of Albania)
 Croatia (Demographics of Croatia)
 Bosnia and Herzegovina (Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
 Bulgaria (Demographics of Bulgaria)
 Greece (Demographics of Greece)
 Montenegro (Demographics of Montenegro)
 North Macedonia (Demographics of North Macedonia)
 Turkey (Demographics of Turkey)

References

 Banac, Ivo. Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe: Yugoslavia, American Historical Review, v 97 #4 (October 1992), 1084-1104.
 Banac, Ivo. The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics Cornell University Press, [1984].
 Carter, Francis W., ed. An Historical Geography of the Balkans Academic Press, 1977.
 Dvornik, Francis. The Slavs in European History and Civilization Rutgers University Press, 1962.
 Fine, John V. A., Jr. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century [1983]; The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, [1987].
 John R. Lampe and Marvin R. Jackson; Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations Indiana University Press, 1982
 Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans, 2 vols. Cambridge University Press, [1983].
 Jelavich, Charles, and Jelavich, Barbara, eds. The Balkans in Transition: Essays on the Development of Balkan Life and Politics since the Eighteenth Century University of California Press, 1963.
 Király, Béla K., ed. East Central European Society in the Era of Revolutions, 1775-1856. 1984
 Komlos, John, ed. Economic Development in the Habsburg Monarchy and in the Successor States: Essays 1990.
 Mazower, Mark, The Balkans: A Short History, 2000
 Traian Stoianovich; Balkan Worlds: The First and Last Europe 1994.

Other websites

 South-East Europe Review
 BalkanBaby travel writing, analysis and photos from the Balkans
 Balkan History by Steven W. Sowards
 SEEurope.net - news coverage on Southeastern Europe
 Southeast European Times
 The Centre for South East European Studies
 Balkans region: Oil and Gas Fact Sheet - United States Department of Energy Analysis Brief
 Balkans urged to curb trafficking - BBC
 News from Balkans

Regions of Europe
Peninsulas of Europe

Balkans


Erland Harold Hedrick, better known as E. H. Hedrick (August 9, 1894 – September 20, 1954) was an American Democratic politician from West Virginia.

Born in Barn in Mercer County, West Virginia, he was graduated from the medical school of the University of Maryland, Baltimore in 1917. During World War I he served in the United States Army Medical Corps as a first lieutenant (1917–1919). After the war he returned to Beckley where he started his own medical practice (1919–1944).

Hedrick also served as a medical examiner for the Veteran Administration from 1919 to 1944, city and country health officer (1927–1932) and superintendent of Pinecrest Tuberculosis Sanitarium in Beckley (1943–1944).

His political career began when he was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1944 from the now extinct 6th district. He served four consecutive two-year terms from January 3, 1945 to January 3, 1953.

Hedrick did not run for a fifth term in 1952, but instead sought the Democratic nomination for governor. However, he lost to William C. Marland, State Attorney General, who went on to win the general election. A fellow Democrat, State Senator Robert Byrd, who eventually became Dean and President pro tem of the United States Senate and a Senate Majority Leader, replaced him as congressman from the 6th district.

After his defeat for the gubernatorial nomination, Hedrick left politics and resumed his business and professional interests. He died in Beckley and is buried in Sunset Memorial Park.

External links

1894 births
1954 deaths
Politicians from Beckley, West Virginia
University of Maryland, Baltimore alumni
Physicians from West Virginia
Military personnel from West Virginia
United States Army Medical Corps officers
United States Army personnel of World War I
Physicians from Maryland
Medical examiners
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from West Virginia
20th-century American politicians

E. H. Hedrick


A social network is a set of people who interact. This includes group organizations. The social relationships may include friendship/affect, communication, economic transactions, interactions, kinship, authority/hierarchy, trust, social support, diffusion, contagion, and so on.

Calling social relationships a network calls attention to the pattern or structure of the set of relationships.

A community social network is the pattern of relationships among a set of people and/or organizations in a community. Each of these networks can involve social support, give people a sense of community, and
lead them to help and protect each other.

How big a personal network becomes depends on the individual and the type of relationships considered. The set of people that a person knows well or with whom a person frequently interacts seldom exceeds several hundred. As the size of a network grows, keeping relationships is strained by the size. There is a so-called "Law of 150" which suggests that about 150 people is the best size for a village or large clan though most people live in much bigger towns. Some experts think that a corporation has an ideal size of about 70 people: these people and their spouses would also make a large social network.

The free rider problem is that someone uses the social network but does not give help when needed. Social networks are vulnerable to them, since the circumstances where help is required, like disasters, occur by surprise. It might happen that someone cannot help at that one time - it might also happen that they are not there the next time. Only slowly does it become obvious who is and is not contributing to the safety of the group, or who is avoiding this duty.

Social networks are held together by common interest. This may be employment, common interest in a sport or pastime, a religion (a mosque, church or temple is almost always a center of a social network). Often the network has an identity of its own which is quite real, even though it may have no official recognition. Networks may be centered on places, or on families, or on worldwide communities with common interests.

Sources
The Law of 150 is documented in R.I.M. Dunbar 1992. Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution. 20, pp. 469–493.

The field of study which investigates human social life is social psychology.

Related pages
Social network service

Relationships
Social groups

Social network