William Sharp Macleay or McLeay (21 July 1792 – 26 January 1865) was a British civil servant and entomologist. He was a prominent promoter of the Quinarian system of classification.

After graduating, he worked for the British embassy in Paris, following his interest in natural history at the same time, publishing essays on insects and corresponding with Charles Darwin.

Macleay moved to Havana, Cuba, where he was, in turn, commissioner of arbitration, commissary judge, and then judge. Retiring from this work, he emigrated to Australia, where he continued to collect insects and studied marine natural history.

Early life
Macleay was born in London, eldest son of Alexander Macleay, who named him for his then business partner, fellow wine merchant William Sharp. He attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with honours in 1814. He was then appointed attaché to the British embassy at Paris, and secretary to the board for liquidating British claims on the French government, and following his father in taking an interest in natural history, became friendly with Georges Cuvier, and other celebrated men of science.

Early scientific career
Macleay's principal work was Horae Entomologicae; or, Essays on the Annulose Animals, parts 1-2 (1819–1821). The first part of Horae Entomologicae included a re-examination of Linnaeus' genus Scarabaeus (12th edition of Systema Naturae, 1767) within the taxonomic context of Pierre Andre Latreille's "Lamellicornes" becoming the first monographer of what today is the family Scarabaeidae. He also published Annulosa Javanica or an Attempt to illustrate the Natural Affinities and Analogies of the Insects collected in Java by T. Horsfield, no. 1 (London, 1825).

Other minor publications on insects include Remarks on the devastation occasioned by Hylobius abietis in fir plantations in the Zoological Journal and several notes in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. Macleay sent many insects to Frederick William Hope, which are now preserved in the Hope Department of Entomology at Oxford University. He was also a correspondent of Charles Darwin, though he disagreed fervently with the latter's theories of evolution.

Macleay was the originator of the short-lived Quinarian system of classification, which is used extensively in his Horae Entomologicae. This was an attempt to classify animals into related groups and was put forward in Part 2 of his book Horae Entomologicae (1821). According to his reasoning, each major group of animals could be subdivided into 5 subgroups, and each sub-group could be further divided into 5. MacLeay was one of the first systematists to note the difference between similarity due to true relation, called affinity, and similarity due to function, called analogy. Major groups united by affinities could also be related to other groups or subgroups by overlaps known as osculations, based on analogy. As precursors of the concepts of homology and homoplasy, these proposals were taken very seriously at the time, and Charles Darwin, who got to know Macleay  after he returned from the Beagle voyage, tried to fit Quinarian ideas into his evolutionary schemes up to about 1845 (see "The Development of Darwin's Theory" by Dov Ospovat, 1981). The ideas were also taken up by William Swainson, Nicholas Aylward Vigors, and others.

Havana
In 1825, Macleay was appointed British commissioner of arbitration to the joint British and Spanish Court of Commission in Havana, Cuba, for the abolition of the slave trade; he became commissary judge in 1830, and then was appointed judge to the Mixed Tribunal of Justice in 1833. He retired in 1836 (at the age of 44) on a pension of £900. Throughout these years, he also maintained a correspondence with his sister Frances (Fanny) Leonora Macleay (1793–1836).
These letters typically convey a harsh, even severe impression of his character.

Macleay had maintained his scientific work whilst in Havana and was elected to the Linnean Society, of which his father had been Secretary (1798–1825), and the Zoological Society. He was elected president of the natural history section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Australia
Macleay emigrated to Australia in 1839, living briefly at the Colonial Secretary's House in Macquarie Place with his parents before moving in September of that year to the family's still unfinished Elizabeth Bay House.
He took possession of the estate in 1845, having taken on his father Alexander's considerable debts and the mortgages on the property (he formally inherited it in 1848). In an attempt to raise funds, he also sold furniture he had acquired in London on behalf of his father, but for which he had never been reimbursed. He did not, however, complete the house, and it remained without its planned colonnade. The house became a meeting place for a small circle of intellectuals and naturalists, though Macleay was not known for being actively sociable. Thomas Mitchell Jnr satirised the house and owner: 'Bleak House blears blindly o'er Eliza's Bay, chill as its owner's hospitality' (Carlin, p. 45). Macleay was interested in the natural history of Australia, the marine fauna around Port Jackson in particular. Later, he collected a large number of Australian insects; on his death, these were bequeathed to his cousin William John Macleay, whose interest in natural history he encouraged and who in 1888 transferred them to the Macleay Museum, University of Sydney, for which act he was knighted.
He also encouraged the scientific interests of his brother George Macleay.

Macleay lived alone at Elizabeth Bay House until his death on 26 January 1865.

See also

References

Bibliography

A.Y. Swainston (1985). William Sharp Macleay, Linnean, 1 (5) : 11–18.

David S. Macmillan, 'Macleay, William Sharp (1792 - 1865)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP, 1967, pp. 182–183
Carlin, Scott. (2000) Elizabeth Bay House: A History and a Guide. Sydney, Historic Houses Trust.

Additional resources listed by the Australian Dictionary of Biography:
P. P. King, Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia, vols 1–2 (Lond, 1827)
Linnean Society of New South Wales, Macleay Memorial Volume, ed J. J. Fletcher (Syd, 1893)
Calcutta Journal of Natural History, July 1841
Annals of Natural History, 8 (1841), 9 (1842)
Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, 3 (1849)
Macleay papers (University of Sydney Archives)

External links
Watercolour and pencil drawings of insects, caterpillars and spiders from Cuba, attributed to W. S. Macleay, State Library of New South Wales, PXE 682/ff. 95-146
William Sharp Macleay, account between, and James Macarthur, for passages to Sydney for Macleay and two cousins in 'Royal George', State Library of New South Wales, A 2922/Vol. 26/pp.159-160
Macleay, William Sharp (1792-1865) National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for William Sharp Macleay
About the Macleay Museum
Elizabeth Bay House guidebook online version

1792 births
1865 deaths
19th-century British zoologists
British entomologists
British taxonomists
British carcinologists
British lepidopterists
Australian carcinologists
Coleopterists
Australian people of Scottish descent
Macleay family

William Sharp Macleay


Norman Myers Chaney (October 18, 1914 – May 29, 1936) was an American child actor, notable for appearing in 19 Our Gang comedies as "Chubby" from 1929 to 1931.

Early life and career
Chaney was born on October 18, 1914 (though Richard Bann and Leonard Maltin's book "The Little Rascals: Life & Times of Our Gang stated he was born in 1918) in Cambridge, Maryland, and became a member of Our Gang at the dawn of the sound era. He relied on an affable personality, a flair for funny dialogue, and a priceless frown of frustration that seemed to swallow up his whole moon face. In the fall of 1928, Our Gang producer Hal Roach and director Robert F. McGowan began to look for an overweight child actor to replace Joe Cobb in the popular film series. Cobb was twelve years old, and the series was about to transition to sound. Roach and McGowan held a nationwide contest to find a replacement for Cobb. Chaney won this contest in early 1929 and was offered a two-year contract. "He adapted gracefully, and we all liked him, he was a nice fellow," said McGowan of Chaney. His stay with the series was brief, but he made a memorable impression on generations of fans. He was taught the expression of the "slow burn" by the comedian Edgar Kennedy.

At the time, Chaney was only 3' 11" and weighed about 113 pounds (119 cm and 51 kg respectively). He was nicknamed "Chubby" for the series and made his debut in the second sound entry, Railroadin',  appearing in 19 Our Gang films over a period of two years, including shorts such as Boxing Gloves and Teacher's Pet. Norman Chaney and Joe Cobb appeared in three shorts together. Chubby's meatiest moments are in Love Business, in which he competed with Jackie Cooper for the affections of their teacher, Miss Crabtree (bringing her flowers and candy, he coyly proposes, "Don't call me Norman; Call me 'Chubsy-Ubsy'").

By spring 1931, Chaney was getting taller and increasingly heavier. He finished out the 1930–31 season without being offered another contract. Both Chaney and his parents decided he would not pursue acting following his final Our Gang short, Fly My Kite. Chaney's departure occurred during a period of great cast turnover, as Allen Hoskins (a member of the original 1922 cast), Jackie Cooper and Mary Ann Jackson had outgrown the series as well.

Later years and death
After leaving the series, Chaney returned to his native Baltimore and attended public school, where he excelled in his studies. In spite of having a normal diet and regular exercise since childhood, he continued to gain weight and eventually topped , though he never grew beyond . His weight continued to increase, and it was discovered that he had a glandular ailment. In 1935, Chaney underwent treatment for the ailment at Johns Hopkins Hospital; his weight then dropped from over  to less than .

Chaney became seriously ill from the stress on his body that the rapid weight loss caused and he died from myocarditis on May 29, 1936, at age 21, according to his death certificate. At the time of his death, Chaney weighed . He was the first of the regular Our Gang alumni to die.

Chaney was buried in Baltimore Cemetery in his hometown of Baltimore, Maryland. His grave remained unmarked for 76 years because his mother was not able to afford a marker for him or herself. Even though he was paid a weekly salary for his movie appearances, he never received any royalties or residuals for the films' subsequent uses. An online fundraising drive led by Detroit rock musician MIKAL raised $4,500 for headstones to be placed at the graves of both Chaney and his mother. The etched black granite markers, both of which are 16 inches (40.64 cm) tall and 28 inches (71.12 cm) wide, were unveiled on November 10, 2012.

Filmography
 Railroadin' (1929)
 Lazy Days (1929)
 Boxing Gloves (1929)
 Bouncing Babies (1929)
 Moan and Groan, Inc. (1929)
 Shivering Shakespeare (1930)
 The First Seven Years (1930)
 When the Wind Blows (1930)
 Bear Shooters (1930)
 A Tough Winter (1930)
 Pups Is Pups (1930)
 Teacher's Pet (1930)
 School's Out (1930)
 Helping Grandma (1931)
 Love Business (1931)
 Little Daddy (1931)
 The Stolen Jools (1931)
 Bargain Day (1931)
 Fly My Kite (1931)

References

Bibliography
 John Holmstrom, The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995, Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 85.

External links

American male child actors
American male film actors
Male actors from Baltimore
1914 births
1936 deaths
20th-century American male actors
People from Cambridge, Maryland
American male comedy actors
Hal Roach Studios actors
Our Gang

Norman Chaney


The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) is a sports organization in the United States.  It was founded in 1888.  It holds meets in many sports for amateur athletes (athletes who do not get paid) of all ages.  These sports include baseball, basketball, football, golf, and track.  A long time ago, when most athletes were amateurs, winning an AAU title meant that you were one of the best in your sport.  In the United States, AAU meets used to also be trials for the Olympic Games.  Since 1978, the AAU has lost most of its power.  This is due to the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 and the fact that many good athletes are no longer amateurs.  It is currently based in Lake Buena Vista, Florida at Disney's Wide World of Sports.

Sports organizations of the United States
1888 establishments in the United States

Amateur Athletic Union


Charles G. "Chip" Groat (born March 25, 1940, in Westfield, New York) is an American geologist. He is a professional in the earth science community with involvement in geological studies, energy and minerals resource assessment, ground-water occurrence and protection, geomorphic processes and landform evolution in desert areas, and coastal studies.

Education and career
Groat received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geology (1962) from the University of Rochester, a Master of Science in Geology (1967) from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and a Ph.D. in Geology (1970) from the University of Texas at Austin.

Dr. Groat served as associate professor (1976–1978) at the University of Texas at Austin, in the Department of Geological Sciences, and as both Associate and acting director of the Bureau of Economic Geology. From 1978 to 1990, Dr. Groat held positions at Louisiana State University including professor for the Department of Geology and Geophysics; and at the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources including assistant to the Secretary of the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources (1983–1988) and later as Director and State Geologist for the Louisiana Geological Survey.

Groat was executive director (1990–1992) for the American Geological Institute. He served as executive director (1992–1995) at the Center for Coastal, Energy, and Environmental Resources, at Louisiana State University. From May to November 1998, he served as Associate Vice President for Research and Sponsored Projects at the University of Texas at El Paso, following three years as Director of the Center for Environmental Resource Management. He was also Director of the university's Environmental Science and Engineering Ph.D. Program and a professor of Geological Sciences.

Dr. Groat became the 13th Director of the U.S. Geological Survey on November 13, 1998. He was appointed by President Bill Clinton and retained by President George W. Bush. Groat resigned as Director on June 17, 2005.

After leaving the USGS, he returned to the University of Texas at Austin to direct the Energy and Earth Resources Graduate Program and the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy In July 2008, the University of Texas at Austin named him interim dean of the Jackson School of Geosciences.

Among his many professional affiliations, Groat is a member of the Geological Society of America, American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Geophysical Union, and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. He has also served on over a dozen earth science boards and committees and has authored and contributed to numerous publications and articles on major issues involving earth resources and the environment.

Dr. Groat became the founding president and CEO of the Water Institute of the Gulf formed in 2011. "There is no better laboratory in the world than what we have right here," says Charles "Chip" Groat, "We see this as an opportunity to form new engineering and science capabilities and advance the work in the field. It's good for the state, and it's good for science."

Fracturing study and controversy
Groat led a study at the University of Texas Energy Institute, presented at a February 2012 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, that "found no evidence that hydraulic fracturing... had contaminated shallow groundwater." The study narrowly defined hydraulic fracturing as only referring to the injection of fluid under pressure to create pathways. The definition excluded the impact of equipment failure, the nature of the fluids themselves, the preparations prior to injection, spills, and events following the injection, such as movement of the fluid through soil and faults, and impact of flowback and wastewater, which the study found to be likely sources of contamination.

In July 2012, the objectivity of the study was called into question by the Public Accountability Initiative after they discovered that Groat received compensation as a director of Plains Exploration & Production, an oil and gas producing company, and that he held 40,000 shares of their stock. The Initiative director characterized Groat as a "gas industry insider." In response, Groat stated, "The results were determined by the individual investigators, not me and I did not alter their conclusions." Officials at the University of Texas were previously unaware of his compensation by Plains and commissioned an outside review of the study. Professor Groat retired from the University of Texas of Austin effective November 30, 2012. On December 6, 2012, the University of Texas posted a statement on its website www.utexas.edu stating that an independent review of the circumstances surrounding the fracking study had found weaknesses in the university's ethics regulations. The university accepted the reviewers' findings and promised an overhaul of its conflict-of-interest policies. The statement also announced Groat's departure from the University of Texas and the immediate resignation of Raymond L. Orbach from his post as Director of the Energy Institute. The Plains Exploration & Production board dissolved in 2013 when the company merged with Freeport-McMoRan Copper and Gold Inc.

References

External links
Photograph of Charles G. Groat from the U.S. Geological Survey (About USGS: Directors)

1940 births
Living people
American geologists
United States Geological Survey personnel
People from Westfield, New York
University of Rochester alumni
University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Louisiana State University faculty
University of Texas at Austin faculty
University of Texas at El Paso faculty
Scientists from New York (state)

Charles G. Groat


Mariana Victoria of Spain (; 31 March 1718 – 15 January 1781) was an Infanta of Spain by birth and was later the Queen of Portugal as wife of King Joseph I. She acted as regent of Portugal in 1776–1777, during the last months of her husband's life and as advisor to her daughter, Maria I of Portugal, in her reign.

Early life
Mariana Victoria was born at the Royal Alcazar of Madrid in Madrid and was given the same forenames as her paternal grandmother Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria, wife of Le Grand Dauphin. She was an Infanta of Spain by birth and the eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain and his second wife Elisabeth Farnese. Her father was a grandson of Louis XIV and had inherited the Spanish throne in 1700. At the time of her birth, Mariana Victoria was fifth in line to the throne of Spain behind her half brothers Infante Louis, Prince of Asturias, Infante Ferdinand, Infante Pedro as well as her full brother Infante Charles. As an Infanta of Spain she had the style of Royal Highness.

Engagement to Louis XV

After the War of the Quadruple Alliance, France and Spain decided to reconcile by engaging the Infanta Mariana Victoria to her first cousin the young Louis XV of France. Organised by Philippe d'Orléans, Regent of France for the ten-year-old Louis XV, the match was part of a wider set of engagements which included the proposal of Philip V's eldest son Infante Louis, Prince of Asturias to Élisabeth d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Montpensier followed by another proposal between Philippine Élisabeth d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Beaujolais to the young Infante Charles.

Saint-Simon, the French ambassador, requested her hand on 25 November 1721. The exchange of the young Infanta and Mademoiselle de Montpensier was on the Île des Faisans ("Isle of Pheasants") and was the site where their common ancestors, Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Spain had met in 1660. Mariana Victoria arrived in Paris on 2 March 1722 amongst much celebration and took up residence at the Palais du Louvre. The young Infanta was nicknamed the l'infante Reine ("Queen-Infanta") as the couple were not to be married until Mariana Victoria reached a more mature age. Mariana Victoria was in awe of Louis XV and was popular with the court apart from the king himself who avoided her presence.

According to the mother of the Régent, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, Mariana Victoria was the "sweetest and prettiest little thing" and had considerable wit for her age. Her education was placed in the care of Marie Anne de Bourbon, the legitimised daughter of Louis XIV and Louise de La Vallière, and Madame de Ventadour was appointed her governess. In February 1723, Louis XV reached his majority and thus governed the country by his own accord.

Her establishment in France was not to be. Under the influence of the Prime Minister Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon and his mistress Madame de Prie, the decision was made to send the seven-year-old Mariana Victoria back to Spain on 11 March 1725. Bourbon had wanted to maintain influence over the young Louis XV and offered his sister Henriette Louise de Bourbon as a potential wife who, unlike Mariana Victoria, was old enough to conceive. The situation was not helped by the Spanish rejection of Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans whose husband died having ruled as Louis I of Spain for only seven months. As their marriage had not been consummated, the Spanish refused to support her and ordered she return to France with her sister Philippine Élisabeth. Mariana Victoria left Versailles on 5 April 1725 and travelled to the frontier where she and the two Orléans daughters were then exchanged. Louis XV subsequently married Marie Leszczyńska in September 1725 and Mariana Victoria's sister the Infanta Maria Teresa Rafaela married Louis XV's son in 1745 to reassure the insulted Spanish court.

Crown Princess of Portugal
Her arrival in Spain was taken as a great insult and caused a diplomatic rift between Spain and France. The offended Spanish soon after concluded a treaty with Austria in the form of the 1725 Treaty of Vienna, whilst England sought support from France. Having remained unmarried, she was still eligible to inherit the throne but was displaced by her younger brother Infante Philip who was born in 1720. Discussions with the Kingdom of Portugal began in 1727 and a marriage was negotiated by the Portuguese ambassador the Marquis of Abrantes. She was a rumored bride for Emperor Peter II of Russia, grandson of Peter the Great. Another double marriage was planned. Mariana Victoria would marry the Infante José, "Prince of Brazil", son and heir of João V of Portugal. Her older half brother Ferdinand, "Prince of Asturias" would marry José's sister the Infanta Bárbara. Mariana Victoria married the Prince of Brazil (traditional title for the Portuguese heir to the throne) on 19 January 1729 at Elvas in Portugal. The Prince of Asturias (traditional title for the Spanish heir to the throne) married the Infanta Bárbara the next day at Badajoz. From her marriage until the time of her husband's accession to the throne in 1750, she was styled Her Royal Highness the Princess of Brazil.

Mariana and Joseph would soon have a close relationship. The couple enjoyed hunting as well as music – Mariana Victoria was an accomplished singer – they patronized Italian opera singers and the theatre but were both passionately religious. Despite this, her husband maintained various mistresses much to the dislike of his strong-willed wife.  During her marriage, Mariana Victoria gave birth to eight children, four of whom survived infancy. Her first child Infanta Maria was given the style Princess of Beira as the heir apparent to her father. Two of Mariana Victoria's daughters remained unmarried. Her daughter Infanta Mariana Francisca was a proposed bride for the Dauphin of France, son of Louis XV, but Mariana Victoria herself rejected the plan. When her other daughter Infanta Doroteia was proposed as a wife for the future Philippe Égalité Mariana Victoria again refused to the match. Her youngest daughter Infanta Benedita married José, Prince of Brazil, Mariana Victoria's grandson. The latter marriage was organised by Mariana Victoria herself after the death of her husband.

Queen and regent
At the death of her father-in-law, King John V in 1750, her husband became the ruler of the Portuguese Empire which had significant territories in South America. Her husband's reign was dominated by the influence of the Marquis of Pombal who was a favourite of the Queen mother. Joseph I soon left the governing of the state to Pombal who used his power to remove the influence of the church at the court as well as that of his enemies. Mariana Victoria and her daughter disliked the influence Pombal had over Joseph I. Her husband's reign was marred by the devastating 1755 Lisbon earthquake of 1 November 1755 which killed 100,000 people. The earthquake caused Joseph I to develop a severe case of claustrophobia and he was never again comfortable living within a walled building. Consequently, he moved the royal court to an extensive complex of tents in the hills of Ajuda. It was Pombal who organised the reconstruction of Lisbon in the aftermath of the earthquake.

In 1759, the Távora affair emerged after an assassination attempt on her husband failed and the powerful Távora family were, in the eyes of Pombal, completely responsible for the attack. Pombal later ordered the execution of all members of the noble family and it was only at the intervention of Mariana Victoria and her daughter, the Princess of Brazil, that some women and children were spared. As Pombal was de facto ruler of the state, Mariana Victoria and her husband took a less prominent role in politics.

Her husband, having suffered from a series of strokes, decided to allow his wife to take his place as head of government. As such, Mariana Victoria was created Regent of Portugal in her husband's name. Created Regent on 29 November 1776, she remained so until her husband's death on 24 February 1777. Upon her husband's death, their eldest daughter became the first queen regnant as Maria I. Throughout Maria I's reign Mariana Victoria exerted significant influence on her daughter, who would often ask her mother's advice on matters of state. In the early days of Maria I's reign, Pombal was exiled to the country.

Queen dowager

When her daughter had assumed government, Mariana Victoria took it upon herself to improve relations with her native Spain, which was ruled by her older brother Carlos III. The two countries had been in conflict regarding territorial possessions in the Americas. Leaving Portugal on 28 October 1777, Mariana Victoria travelled to Spain where she stayed for just over a year, residing both in Madrid and at Aranjuez. Mariana Victoria helped bring about a treaty between the two nations which was to be cemented by a double marriage between her grandchildren. These unions were between Charles III's son Infante Gabriel and Mariana Victoria's granddaughter the Infanta Mariana Vitória. The second marriage was between the Infanta Carlota, eldest granddaughter of Carlos III and Infante João. While in Spain, Mariana Victoria had had an attack of Rheumatism and was confined to a wheelchair for some time in August 1778. She returned to Portugal in November 1778. Her illness was furthered when it became clear that she was suffering from heart disease as well. The elderly Mariana Victoria died at the Real Barraca de Ajuda, a building which is where the present Ajuda National Palace is. She was buried at the Church of Saint Francis of Paola in Lisbon.

Legacy

She was the godmother of Marie Antoinette who was born a day after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake devastated Lisbon. Mariana Victoria has descendants ranging from the present King of Spain, King of Belgium, Grand Duke of Luxembourg pretending Duke of Parma and the French Count of Paris. In 1822, her great-grandson Pedro became the first emperor of Brazil.

Issue

Maria Francisca Isabel Rita Gertrudes Joana (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816), married her uncle Infante Peter of Portugal and had issue. Later Queen regnant of Portugal.
Maria Ana Francisca Dorotea Josefa Antonia Gertrudes Rita Joana Efigenia (7 October 1736 – 6 May 1813), potential bride for Louis, Dauphin of France, but her mother refused to consent to the marriage, died unmarried.
Stillborn daughter (February 1739).
Maria Francisca Doroteia Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joana Efigénia de Braganca (21 September 1739 – 14 January 1771), potential bride for Philippe Égalité but she refused to marry him, died unmarried.
Stillborn son (7 March 1741).
Stillborn son (15 October 1742).
Stillborn son (May 1744).
Maria Francisca Benedita Ana Isabel Joana Antonia Lourença Inácia Teresa Gertrudes Rita Rosa (25 July 1746 – 18 August 1829) married her nephew Infante Joseph, Prince of Beira, no surviving issue.

Ancestors

References

Bibliography

Armstrong. Edward: Elisabeth Farnese: The Termagant of Spain, 1892
Myrl. Jackson-Laufer. Guida: Women rulers throughout the ages: an illustrated guide, ABC-CLIO, 1999,
Pevitt. Christine : The Man Who Would Be King: The Life of Philippe d'Orléans, Regent of France, Phoenix, London, 1997,
Roberts. Jennifer:  The Madness of Queen Maria: The Remarkable Life of Maria I of Portugal; Templeton Press, London, 2009,

External links

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1718 births
1781 deaths
18th-century Spanish people
18th-century Portuguese people
18th-century Spanish women
18th-century Portuguese women
18th-century regents
18th-century women rulers
Female regents
House of Bourbon (Spain)
Queens consort of Portugal
People of the Regency of Philippe d'Orléans
Regents of Portugal
Nobility from Madrid
Spanish infantas
Portuguese infantas
Queen mothers
House of Braganza
Princesses of Brazil
Duchesses of Braganza
Burials at the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora
Daughters of kings
Women who experienced pregnancy loss
Children of Philip V of Spain

Mariana Victoria of Spain


Multi-criteria optimization, or multiobjective optimization is a way of solving a mathematical or economic problem where many different parameters need to be changed to get one of the best possible solutions to the problem. The result of this is called Pareto efficiency, named after Vilfredo Pareto, who first used it in his studies.

In welfare economics, the idea of Pareto efficiency is very simple: If there is no way of improving the situation of one person, without making that of another person worse, the solution found is Pareto-efficient.

If we look at what the economy produces, we might say it is on its Pareto Frontier or Production Possibility Frontier, meaning that it is making (or "producing") all it can with the things it has (such as machines, labour, land and ideas -- all called resources or factors of production). If this is the case, making more of one thing would mean making less of another; the resources are already being used to full capacity, so making more of one thing will take resources away from making another.

Just because something is Pareto efficient, it doesn't mean it is fair or "equitable". Even though no-one could be made better off without making someone else worse off, it is possible that one person owns all of the world's things. To make anyone else better off, some would have to be taken away from this person, making them worse off.

Welfare economics

Pareto efficiency


Giovanni Battista Pastene (1507–1580) was a Genoese maritime explorer who, while in the service of the Spanish crown, explored the coasts of Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Chile as far south as the archipelago of Chiloé.

Early life
Juan Bautista Pastene was born in Genoa.  His parents were Thomas and Esmeralda Solimana Pastene.  He married Geneva Seixas, with whom he had three children.  He arrived in Honduras in 1526, traveling in his own ship.  He then came to Peru in 1536 to serve Francisco Pizarro.  In 1544, and was pilot and Master of the ship Concepción.

He participated actively in many maritime explorations, which led to him being appointed by the Audiencia of Panama as a piloto mayor of the Mar del Sur (the Spanish name for the Pacific Ocean at the time).

Chile
King Charles V ordered the exploration of southern Chile.  This task was given by the Viceroy of Peru to Pastene, in 1543, for which he was awarded the title of general de la Mar del Sur.

In 1544 Pedro de Valdivia entrusted exploring the coasts of the south to Pastene, ordering him to reach the Strait of Magellan.  Although he did not reach this goal, he explored much of the coast. He was the first to arrive at Bay of Concepción, in the ship "San Pedro", and took possession of it.

In 1545 Pastene went to Peru in search of aid for the new settlements in Chile, returning in 1547. He made other voyages in support of the struggling colony.

In 1550, Pastene supported Valdivia's campaign into Mapuche territory in what is now the Biobío Region linking up with the conquistadors land expedition at Penco with his two ships on February 23, 1550. There he was present in the foundation of Concepción.  He took one ship to acquire provisions at an offshore Island where seven of his crew were killed by the islanders.

During the Government of García Hurtado de Mendoza, Juan Bautista Pastene made a naval reconnaissance down the coast to Chiloé.  He also held the position of regidor of the city of Santiago, Chile in 1548, 1551, 1553, 1557 and 1568, and was mayor in 1564. He was also the first Governor of Valparaíso. He died in 1580 in Santiago, Chile.

The city of Capitán Pastene, formed by Italian immigrants to Chile in the early 1900, was named in his honor.

He was great grandfather of the Jesuit chronicler Alonso de Ovalle.

Sources
Pedro de Valdivia, Cartas de Pedro de Valdivia (Letters of Pedro Valdivia), University of Chile: Diarios, Memorias y Relatos Testimoniales: (on line in Spanish)
  Inicio Historia de Chile / Biografías / Juan Bautista Pastene

References

1507 births
1580 deaths
Spanish explorers
Spanish explorers of the Pacific
Explorers of Chile
Italian explorers of the Pacific
16th-century explorers
Italian expatriates in Chile
Italian explorers of South America
Explorers from the Republic of Genoa

Juan Bautista Pastene


The Black and White Ball was a masquerade ball held on November 28, 1966, at the Plaza Hotel in New York City. Hosted by author Truman Capote, the ball was in honor of The Washington Post publisher Katharine Graham.

Impulse
Truman Capote decided in June 1966 to throw a lavish party. He was at the height of his popularity as an author and as a public figure following the publication of his non-fiction novel, In Cold Blood, earlier that year. For the first time Capote had the financial resources to host a party he deemed worthy of the friends he had cultivated in high society.

According to Capote's friend, the writer and editor Leo Lerman, Capote had declared in 1942 on a journey to the writer's colony Yaddo that when he, Capote, became rich and famous he would throw a party for his rich and famous friends. Capote always discounted the story but through constant repetition it became part of the ball's legend.

Capote's friend, author Dominick Dunne, had given a black and white ball in 1964 for his tenth wedding anniversary. Capote attended with Alvin Dewey and others he had met while researching In Cold Blood. Capote was also inspired by the "Ascot scene" from the film My Fair Lady in which the women were all dressed in black and white.

Planning
After deciding to throw the party, Capote had to select a guest of honor. Throwing the party for himself would have been viewed by his society friends as vulgar. Rather than selecting from amongst his stable of beautiful society women he called his "swans", Capote chose The Washington Post publisher Katharine Graham. "Truman called me up that summer and said, 'I think you need cheering up. And I'm going to give you a ball.'...I was...sort of baffled....I felt a little bit like Truman was going to give the ball anyway and that I was part of the props."

For his venue, Capote chose the Grand Ballroom of the Plaza Hotel in New York City. Capote had long held a deep affection for the Plaza, even setting the opening scene of his attempted first novel, Summer Crossing, in a Plaza dining room. Capote enlisted Evie Backer, who had decorated his apartment at United Nations Plaza, for the event's decor. Initially Capote planned to cover the ballroom's white and gold walls with heavy red drapes but Backer and Capote's friend Babe Paley convinced him to abandon this idea. Instead he brought in the color with red tablecloths. Rather than flowers, Capote had the tables adorned with gold candelabra wound with smilax and bearing white tapers. The menu, to be served at midnight, consisted of scrambled eggs, sausages, biscuits, pastries, spaghetti and meatballs and chicken hash, a specialty of the Plaza and one of Capote's favorite dishes.  To drink, Capote laid in 450 bottles of Taittinger champagne.

Capote spent $16,000 on the ball.

Guest list
Capote purchased a black-and-white composition book and spent most of July sitting by his friend Eleanor Friede's pool compiling his initial guest list. Capote carried the book with him everywhere he went for the next three months, constantly adding and deleting names. Among the guests were Katharine Graham, Lady Bird Johnson, Andy Warhol, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Gloria Vanderbilt, Babe Paley, Billy Baldwin, Marianne Moore, Harry Belafonte, the Maharani of Jaipur, Frank Sinatra, Candice Bergen, Gloria Guinness, Lee Radziwill, Brooke Astor, Pat Sheehan, Mia Farrow, and the Italian Princess Luciana Pignatelli (wearing a 60-carat diamond borrowed from Harry Winston).

November 28, 1966
Leading up to the ball, many guests attended one of sixteen small private dinner parties that Capote's friends had been drafted to host.

Aftermath
The Black and White Ball was credited for an immediate upsurge in masquerade and costume parties. It has been described as "a pinnacle of New York's social history".  Six days after the ball, on the December 4 episode of the television panel show What's My Line?, panelist Arlene Francis wore the mask she had worn at the party, transformed into a blindfold. The wearing of blindfolds during the show's special Mystery Guest segment was customary on the part of the panel.

Re-creations
Princess Yasmin Aga Khan hosted a Black and White Ball in 1991, commemorating the 25th anniversary of the original. The ball, held in a tent outside Tavern on the Green, was a charity event that raised $1.4 million for the Alzheimer's Association.

In anticipation of selling the contents of the Plaza Hotel, Christie's Auction House recreated the Black and White Ball in 2006 at Rockefeller Center. The event followed Capote's dress code, schedule and menu exactly and the Peter Duchin Orchestra, which had played the original, played the recreation.

TV chef Ina Garten recreated a scaled-down version of the event for a themed dinner party on her daytime cookery show Barefoot Contessa. She served chicken hash followed by French toast and truffles for dessert, in keeping with the black and white theme of Capote's party.

Notes

References
 Clarke, Gerald (1988). Capote: A Biography. New York, Simon & Schuster. .
 Davis, Deborah (2006). Party of the Century: The Fabulous Story of Truman Capote and His Black and White Ball. John Wiley & Sons. .
 Gathje, Curtis (2000). At the Plaza: An Illustrated History of the World's Most Famous Hotel. Macmillan. .
 Nowell, Iris (2004). Generation Deluxe: Consumerism and Philanthropy of the New Super-rich. Dundurn Press Ltd. .
 Plimpton, George (1997). Truman Capote: In Which Various Friends, Enemies, Acquaintances and Detractors Recall His Turbulent Career. New York, Doubleday. .

Balls in the United States
Masquerade balls
Truman Capote
1966 in New York City
November 1966 events in the United States

Black and White Ball


Matthew Flinders  (16 March 1774 – 19 July 1814) was an English navigator and cartographer. He was the leader of the first circumnavigation of Australia and identified it as a continent.

Flinders made three voyages to the southern ocean between 1791 and 1810. In the second voyage, George Bass and Flinders confirmed that Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) was an island. In the third voyage, Flinders circumnavigated the mainland of what was to be called Australia, along with Aboriginal man Bungaree.

Heading back to England in 1803, Flinders' vessel needed urgent repairs at Isle de France (Mauritius). Although Britain and France were at war, Flinders thought the scientific nature of his work would ensure safe passage, but a suspicious governor kept him under arrest for more than six years. In captivity, he recorded details of his voyages for future publication, and put forward his rationale for naming the new continent 'Australia', as an umbrella term for New Holland and New South Wales – a suggestion taken up later by Governor Macquarie.

Flinders' health had suffered, however, and although he reached home in 1810, he did not live to see the publication of his widely praised book and atlas, A Voyage to Terra Australis.

Royal Navy officers
English explorers
1774 births
1814 deaths

Matthew Flinders


Galaxian is an arcade video game released by Namco in 1979. In this game, the player controls a spaceship and shoots enemies coming down in different directions. A sequel, Galaga, was released in 1981.

The game was a very popular game when it was released. It has been ported to many video game consoles such as the Atari 2600, the NES, and the Game Boy. It has also been featured in Namco video game collections such as Namco Museum Remix for the Wii.

Other websites
Galaxian at the Killer List of Videogames
Galaxian at the Arcade History database

Arcade games
Namco video games

Galaxian


Jorge Luis Borges ( audio) (24 August 1899 – 14 June 1986) ek Argentine writer rahaa. Uske English bhasa waala des me jaada kar ke  uske chhota kahani aur fictive essays khatir jaana jaawe hae. Borges ek kavi, critic, translator aur man of wisdom bhi rahaa.

Duusra websites
 Borges Center, University of Iowa: important internet resources including bibliographies, chronologies, full text articles and books, and information on the journal Variaciones Borges
 BBC Radio 4: In Our Time Archive page for edition about Borges in a series on the 'History of Ideas'. Includes link to streaming audio.
 The Modern Word: The Garden of Forking Paths . A comprehensive Web site dedicated to exploring Borges and his work, including pages that discuss writers that Borges influenced.
 Internetaleph. Fully bilingual (English/Spanish) portal dedicated to Jorge Luis Borges. Links, recent news, reading suggestions and an introduction for beginners.
 The Borgesian Cyclopaedia. "Being a Virtual Reference to the World of Jorge Luis Borges".
 Hallucinating Spaces, or the Aleph  An essay from Borgesland by Susana Medina
 The Friends of Jorge Luis Borges Worldwide Society & Associates  A non-Governmental and not for profit organization with four distinctive entities that aim to promote artistic and intellectual talents along with civic virtues in new generations of mankind. Borges' works ("a writer of writers" for his extensive and insightful readings) are celebrated as a thread of Ariadne to walk the labyrinths of Philosophy and Literature and all fields of knowledge in quest of wisdom.
 Fundación San Telmo's Jorge Luis Borges Collection
 The Norton Lectures, delivered at Harvard University in the fall of 1967, by Jorge Luis Borges
 Borges' Bad Politics Slate.com presents an essay by Clive James arguing that Borges could have done more to engage with Argentina's political situation
 "El Tango"  on audio MP3 (in Spanish)
 Rend(er)ing L.C.: Susan Daitch Meets Borges & Borges, Delacroix, Marx, Derrida, Daumier, and Other Textualized Bodies  William A. Nericcio (1993); pdf full-text
 Poem of Jorge Luis Borges in Buenos Aires, Argentina, 'Fundación mítica de Buenos Aires'

B
J
Writers
Argentina ke log

Jorge Luis Borges


C minor is a minor scale based on C. The harmonic minor raises the B to B. Its key signature has three flats. When written in jazz notation, its short form is Cm.

Its relative major is E-flat major, and its parallel major is C major.

Use in classical music
In the Baroque period, music in C minor was usually written with a two-flat key signature. When this music is printed today, sometimes it is still printed in the same way.

C minor has had the meaning of heroic struggle from Beethoven's time and the composer wrote many of his most emotional, dramatic works in this key. This has also been done by many others, following Beethoven's style.

These are just a few of the well-known works to be written in C minor:
 Cello Suite No. 5 BWV 1011: VI. Gigue - Johann Sebastian Bach
 Great Mass in C minor (Mozart) - Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 Piano Concerto No. 24 - Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 Piano Concerto No. 3 - Ludwig van Beethoven
 Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven), op. 67 (1804-8)
 "Choral Fantasy" in C minor, op. 80 (1808), Beethoven
 Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor (Pathétique) - Ludwig van Beethoven
 Piano Sonata No. 32 (Beethoven) - Ludwig van Beethoven
 Symphony No. 2 (Tchaikovsky) "Little Russian" in C minor, op. 17 (1872)
 Symphony No. 8 - Anton Bruckner
 Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor - Sergei Rachmaninov
 Étude Op. 10, No. 12 - Fryderyk Chopin
 Prélude No. 20, Op. 28 - Fryderyk Chopin
 Nocturne in C minor Op. 48, No.1 - Fryderyk Chopin
 Symphony No. 4 - Dmitri Shostakovich
 Symphony No. 8 - Dmitri Shostakovich
 Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor - Bach
 Symphony No. 2 - Gustav Mahler

Scales and keys

Related pages
 List of symphonies in C minor

References

Musical keys
Minor scales

C minor


, abbreviated LTCB in English and  in Japanese, was a Japanese bank founded in 1952 under the direction of the Shigeru Yoshida government to provide long-term financing to various industries in Japan. Along with the Industrial Bank of Japan and the Nippon Kangyo Bank, it was one of the major financiers of the postwar economic development of Japan. After extensive problems with bad debt in the 1990s, the bank was nationalized in 1998, and finally sold in 2000 to a group led by US-based Ripplewood Holdings in the first foreign acquisition of a Japanese bank; it is now known as Shinsei Bank.

History

The Diet of Japan enacted a Long-Term Credit Bank Act in June 1952 which became effective that December, and LTCB was incorporated as a stock company (kabushiki kaisha) with headquarters in the Kudan district of north-central Tokyo. It opened branches in Osaka and Sapporo in 1953, and established agencies at various regional banks. LTCB was almost immediately profitable, owing to the rapid expansion of the Japanese economy at the time. It declared its first dividend in 1954 and was listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange in 1970.

Hayato Ikeda, then Minister of Finance, led the initiative to create LTCB as a specialty bank for the purpose of providing long-term credit to Japanese companies. Commercial banks at the time faced a mismatch between their own funding sources, which were mainly short-term demand deposits, and the needs of their customers for longer-term credit. LTCB was permitted to issue long-term bonds to fund its operations, which became popular investments in Japan due to their yield, credit rating and the fact that they were bearer bonds and therefore transferable like cash. The company moved to the Tokyo Building in Marunouchi in 1956 and established its first overseas office in New York City in 1964, followed by offices in London, Sydney, Amsterdam, Los Angeles, and other major financial centers.

Globalization

The 1970s were a time of major change for LTCB as Japanese government bond issuances increased, which drove up LTCB's cost of capital. Corporate funding needs decreased as expansion slowed, and more Japanese companies began to obtain funding from overseas sources.

A 1985 accord liberalized the Japanese financial services industry to a great degree and spurred the need for LTCB to dramatically change its business model. LTCB proceeded to train many employees in the United States and Europe in an effort to globalize its business. In 1988, LTCB acquired Greenwich Capital Markets, a Connecticut-based securities firm, thus giving LTCB a US-based securities business. By the early 1990s, it was the largest handler of yen-denominated foreign debt (samurai bonds).

As the Industrial Bank of Japan had a strong foothold on corporate banking, LTCB built up a large real estate finance business in the mid-1980s. The bank later became particularly infamous for its investments in overleveraged hotel acquisitions in New York, Saipan, Vietnam and Australia, among other locales, as the Japanese asset price bubble grew in the late 1980s.

As of 1990, LTCB was the ninth-largest bank in the world by market capitalization and had become one of the most prestigious banks in Japan. It moved to a new office building on the south side of Tokyo's Hibiya Park in 1993.

Collapse in 1990s

Like many other Japanese banks, LTCB faced a bad loan crisis in the post-bubble 1990s as many of its investments soured. The Asian financial crisis of 1997, which bankrupted several major Japanese financial services companies (most notably Hokkaido Takushoku Bank), exacerbated the situation. Around this time, LTCB entered into discussions with Swiss Bank Corporation (now part of UBS AG) aimed at a cross-shareholding joint venture between the two banks. As SBC performed due diligence it discovered that LTCB had a dramatically high proportion of non-performing loans which continued to increase. The JV talks were cancelled in September 1997. LTCB calculated its NPL balance at 2.4 trillion yen as of 1993, but increased that number to 5 trillion yen by 1998.

LTCB's stock price plunged by over 70% in the summer of 1998 as the details of its bad loan situation leaked to the public through a Japanese monthly magazine. Lawrence Summers, then U.S. deputy treasury secretary, visited Tokyo in June to pressure the Japanese government into resolving its bad loan crisis, fearing that an LTCB collapse would lead to a global financial panic. LTCB briefly sought to merge with Sumitomo Trust and Banking, one of the few stable Japanese banks at the time, but the latter discarded these plans after negative investor reaction. The Keizo Obuchi government, which had helped to broker the talks between the banks, then investigated the nationalization of LTCB, which became effective by an act of the Diet on October 23, 1998.

LTCB was purchased for ¥1 billion (US$9.5 million) in March 2000 by an investment partnership, New LTCB Partners CV, consisting of a consortium of foreign banks led by Ripplewood Holdings, which had bid against The Chuo Mitsui Trust and Banking Co. for the acquisition of LTCB. The company was renamed Shinsei Bank in June 2000. Although LTCB was delisted from the TSE upon its purchase, Shinsei, which was relieved of the bad debts of its predecessor, had a successful initial public offering at 2004 and remains in operation today as a commercial bank.

Prosecution of executives

Prosecutors opened criminal investigations of several LTCB executives, owing to illegal payments of dividends in 1998 while the company was insolvent. Corporate planning head Takashi Uehara committed suicide in May 1999 shortly after his indictment was leaked to the public; Osaka branch manager Kazunori Fukuda followed suit days later.

LTCB president Katsunobu Onogi and two executive vice presidents were arrested in June 1999 on charges of reporting false profits and authorizing illegal dividends. On appeal, Onogi was sentenced to three years in prison and four years' probation while the other two executives were sentenced to two years in prison and three years' probation. The Supreme Court of Japan overturned their convictions in 2008, stating that the public accounting standards at the time were unclear and in a transitional period. The government was also unsuccessful in a suit to claim compensatory damages from the three executives.

Further reading

Gillian Tett, Saving The Sun (Harper Business, 2003)

References

Defunct banks of Japan
Financial services companies based in Tokyo
Banks established in 1952
Banks disestablished in 2000
Companies formerly listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Companies that have filed for bankruptcy in Japan
Japanese companies established in 1952
Japanese companies disestablished in 2000

Long-Term Credit Bank of Japan


In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine converts heat energy to mechanical work by using the temperature difference between a hot "source" and a cold "sink".  Heat is transferred from the source, through the "working body" of the engine, to the "sink", and in this process some of the heat changes into work by using the qualities of the gas or liquid inside the engine.

There are many kinds of heat engines. Each has a thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are often named after the thermodynamic cycle they use, like the Carnot cycle. They often pick up everyday names, such as gasoline/petrol, turbine, or steam engines.

Internal combustion engines generate heat inside the engine itself. Other heat engines may absorb heat from an external source. Heat engines can be open to the air or sealed and closed off to the outside (This is called an Open or Closed cycle).

Overview
When scientists study heat engines they come up with ideas for engines that cannot actually be built. These are called ideal engines or cycles. Real heat engines are often confused with the ideal engines or cycles they attempt to mimic.

Typically when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used. When describing the ideal the term 'cycle' is used.

One could say that the thermodynamic cycle is an ideal case of the mechanical engine. One could equally say that the model does not quite perfectly match the mechanical engine. However, much benefit is gained from the simplified models, and ideal cases they may represent.

In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the more efficient the cycle or engine. On Earth, the cold side of any heat engine is limited to the air temperature of the place where the engine is.

Most efforts to improve the efficiency of heat engines goes into increasing the temperature of the heat source, but at very high temperatures the metal of the engine begins to go soft.

The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today ranges from 3 percent (97 percent waste heat) for the OTEC ocean power proposal through 25 percent for most automotive engines, to 45 percent for a supercritical coal plant, to about 60 percent for a steam-cooled combined cycle gas turbine. All of these processes gain their efficiency (or lack thereof) due to the temperature drop across them.

The least efficient, OTEC, uses the temperature difference of ocean water on the surface and ocean water from the depths, a small difference of perhaps 25 degrees Celsius, and so the efficiency must be low.

The most efficient, the combined cycle gas turbine burns natural-gas to heat air to nearly 1530 degrees Celsius, a large temperature difference of 1500 degrees Celsius, and so the efficiency can be very large when the steam-cooling cycle is added.

Everyday examples
People mostly use heat engines where the heat comes from a fire that expands a working fluid (usually either water or air) and the heat sink is either a body of water or the atmosphere as in a cooling tower.

Familiar ones that use the expansion of heated gases include: the steam engine, the diesel engine, and the gasoline (petrol) engine in an automobile.

The Stirling engine is much rarer but is found in small models which can run off the heat of a hand.

One kind of toy heat engine is the drinking bird.

A bimetallic strip is a device that converts temperature into mechanical movement and is used in thermostats to control temperature. It is a heat engine that does not use a liquid or gas.

Related pages
 Heat pump

References

Other websites

 Heat Engine -Taftan Data
 Webarchive backup: Refrigeration Cycle Citat: "...The refrigeration cycle is basically the Rankine cycle run in reverse..."
 Red Rock Energy Solar Heliostats: Heat Engine Projects Citat: "...Choosing a Heat Engine..."
 Overview of heat engine types
 The rotary piston array machine
 The gyroscope combustion motor
 The external combustion air engine

Basic physics ideas
Heat
Thermodynamics

Heat engine


Romy Schneider (September 23, 1938 - May 29, 1982) was an Austrian actress. She was from Vienna. She had German and French citizenship. She had an international career, but worked mostly in France.

Life and career

She was born Rosemarie Albach-Retty in Vienna, Austria. Her parents were Wolf Albach-Retty (1906-1967) and Magda Schneider (1909-1996), both famous actors in Austria and Germany.

After her parents divorced in 1945, she was raised by her mother. With her mother's help, and using her mother's family name, she started acting in 1953. She quickly became very popular through Ernst Marischka's trilogy called Sissi, about the early life of Empress Elisabeth of Austria.

In 1958, she appeared in the movie Christine, opposite French actor Alain Delon. They became engaged and she moved to France with him.

Schneider worked with directors such as Luchino Visconti in Boccacio (1961), Orson Welles in The Trial (1962), and Otto Preminger in The Cardinal (1963).

After her breakup with Delon in 1964, she went back to Germany. There she married stage director Harry Meyen. They had a son named David (1966-1981).

She acted with Delon again in the movie La piscine in 1969. The rest of her career was mostly in France. Notable movies included; Les choses de la vie (1970), Max et les ferrailleurs (1971), Le trio infernal (1974), Le vieux fusil (1975), La banquière (1980), La passante du Sans-Souci (1981).

Her later years were plagued by personal tragedies. She gave birth to a stillborn child in 1976 by her second husband Daniel Biasini. Her first husband Harry Meyen killed himself in 1979. Her son David accidentally died impaled while trying to go over a fence in 1981. That same year she had a kidney operation.

She was found dead in her Paris apartment at the age of 43, probably from a heart attack, although no autopsy was performed. She left a daughter Sarah Biasini (born 1977, by her second husband), who is an actress.

Reference

1938 births
1982 deaths
Actors from Vienna
French movie actors
French stage actors
French television actors
German movie actors
German stage actors
German television actors

Romy Schneider


The Arab Democracy Foundation (ADF) is an independent international Arab civil society organization advocating democracy as a culture, a way of life, and the best system for good governance. ADF was established on May 27, 2007, at the initiative of Arab democracy advocates, and with support from the State of Qatar which accepted to host ADF's headquarters. H.H. Moza bint Nasser announced the inception of ADF and currently chairs its board of trustees.

Mission and resources
ADF aims at promoting democracy in the Arab region. It provides material and moral support to organizations and activists in this field, by using all possible peaceful means, and by channeling all human and financial resources available at the local, regional and international levels. ADF also seeks to disseminate the culture of human rights and to increase the citizens' awareness of, and commitment to, their legitimate rights. ADF uses all ways and means that fall in line with its objectives. It does not side with, or acts against, any Arab regime.

ADF resources come from the contributions of its founders, as well as from donations, grants, endowments, subscriptions, earnings, and other forms of financial support approved the board of trustees.

Management
The Forum on Democracy and Reform in the Arab World, held every three years, serves as a general assembly from which the ADF Board of Trustees emanates.

Board of trustees

The highest executive body of the ADF. It is currently composed of 15 members.
The board of trustees (BoT) draws the ADF general policy, adopts its plan of action and budget, appoints its senior officials, and regularly reviews the programs and projects included in its plan of action.
The BoT meets at least once a year. An executive committee, composed of board members, acts for the board during the interim between BoT meetings.

H.H. Moza bint Nasser is currently the chair of the board, with Dr. Salim El Hoss as her vice-chair. Until 26 January 2009, the late Dr. Aziz Sidqi was the board's vice-chair.

The other trustees are: Dr. Ali Fakhro, Dr. Khalid bin Mohamed al-Attiyah, Emma Bonino, Dr. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Mary Robinson, Dr. Hasan Al-Ibrahim, Ely Ould Mohamed Vall, Dr. Mohammed Abed al-Jabri, Joschka Fischer, Sadiq al-Mahdi, Dr. Azmi Bishara, and Amat Al Alim Alsoswa.

Executive committee

The board members choose from among them a five-member executive committee, headed by the board president or her deputy, or by any other member chosen by the board. The secretary-general of ADF is also member of the executive committee.
The executive committee has the full authority of the board of trustees, and is directly responsible before the board. The committee meets at least four times a year, upon the invitation of its president or his deputy.
The executive committee follows up the work of the Secretariat General and the ADF, and submits periodic reports to the board of trustees. For the purposes of its work, the executive committee may create specialized, ad hoc or standing, committees.

Dr. Ali Fakhro currently chairs the executive committee which includes: Dr. Khalid bin Mohamed al-Attiyah, Dr. Hasan Al-Ibrahim, and Dr. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, as well as the secretary-general.

Secretariat-General

The executive body of the ADF, headed by a full-time Secretary-General, pursuant to a board decision. The secretariat-general includes divisions in charge of program and research, financial and administrative affairs, public relations and information.

Dr.  Ali Ben Smaikh al-Marry served as ADF's first secretary-general (May 2007-March 2008). Mohsen Marzouk is ADF's second and current secretary-general (March 2008–present).

External links
The official website of the Arab Democracy Foundation
The Second Forum on Democracy and Political Reform in the Arab World

Arab organizations
Foundations based in Qatar
2007 establishments in Qatar
Political advocacy groups in Qatar

Arab Democracy Foundation


Tarcisio Pietro Evasio Bertone  (born 2 December 1934) is an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church and a Vatican diplomat. A cardinal since 2003, he served as Archbishop of Vercelli from 1991 to 1995, as Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Archbishop of Genoa from 2002 to 2006, and as Cardinal Secretary of State from 2006 to 2013. On 10 May 2008, he was named Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati.

Bertone served as Camerlengo from 2007 to 2014. In the period between Pope Benedict XVI's resignation on 28 February 2013 and the election of Pope Francis on 13 March 2013, he served temporarily as the administrator of the Holy See and acting head of state of the Vatican City State. He was considered a contender to succeed Benedict XVI.

Besides his native Italian, Bertone speaks fluent French, Spanish, German and Portuguese. He has some knowledge of English, although he is not fluent, and he can read Polish, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.

Early life
Bertone was born in Romano Canavese, Piedmont, the fifth of eight children. Bertone has stated that his mother was a determined anti-fascist militant of the Italian People's Party, and later a Christian Democrat.

Bertone professed his vows as a member of the Salesians on 3 December 1950 and was ordained a priest by Archbishop Albino Mensa on 1 July 1960. He holds a doctorate in canon law. His dissertation was entitled The Governance of the Church in the Thought of Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758). He served as Professor of Special Moral Theology at the Pontifical Salesian University from 1967 until his appointment as Professor of Canon Law in 1976, a post he held until 1991. Bertone was a visiting professor of Public Ecclesiastical Law at the Institute Utriusque Iuris of the Pontifical Lateran University in 1978. He was commissioned by Pope John Paul II to assist Emmanuel Milingo, Archbishop Emeritus of Lusaka, Zambia, in returning to the Catholic Church in 2001. Milingo had left the church to marry Maria Sung of Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church.

Archbishop and Cardinal
On 4 July 1991, Bertone was appointed Archbishop of Vercelli by Pope John Paul II. He was consecrated bishop one month later by Mensa, who had also ordained him priest. He held this post until his resignation in 1995 upon being named Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI. Appointed Archbishop of Genoa on 10 December 2002 and installed on 2 February 2003, Bertone was elevated to the College of Cardinals in the consistory of 21 October 2003, as Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Ausiliatrice in Via Tuscolana.

He later specialized in the relationship between social morality, faith and politics. He also assisted with the revision of the 1983 Code of Canon Law and undertook pastoral work in parishes. In the Jubilee Year 2000, Bertone was entrusted by John Paul II with the publication of the third secret of Fatima.

Bertone was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI. He also participated as a cardinal elector in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis.

Cardinal Secretary of State

On 22 June 2006, Benedict XVI appointed Bertone to replace Angelo Sodano as the Cardinal Secretary of State. He assumed the office on 15 September. On 26 June 2006 Bertone was awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic.

Complaints about Bertone's performance as secretary of state began early in his tenure. He had no prior experience in the Vatican's diplomatic corps.

Two weeks before entering office, asked about reforms of the Roman Curia, Bertone remarked, "After almost two decades, an evaluation of how the dicasteries are organised is more than comprehensible, in order to reflect on how to make the existing structures more efficient for the mission of the Church and eventually to consider whether all of them should be maintained".

On 4 April 2007, Benedict XVI appointed Bertone as Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church. The duties of the camerlengo are largely confined to administration during the vacancy of the Holy See. On 10 May 2008, he was promoted to the rank of Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati.

When Pope Benedict XVI resigned on 28 February 2013, Bertone, as camerlengo, was the acting sovereign for Vatican City State and administrator for the Holy See until the election of a new pope.

On 13 February 2013, at the last public Mass of Pope Benedict XVI before his resignation took effect on 28 February, Bertone praised Pope Benedict, "We would not be honest, Your Holiness, if we said that this evening there is not a hint of sadness in our hearts. In recent years, your teaching has been a window open onto the Church and the world, which let in the rays of truth and love of God, to enlighten and warm our journey, even and especially at times when clouds gathered in the sky". Bertone continued: "All of us have realized that it is precisely the deep love that Your Holiness has for God and the Church that prompted you to make this act, revealing that purity of mind, that strong and demanding faith, that strength of humility and meekness, along with great courage, that have marked every step of your life and your ministry".

Bertone was the second most senior cardinal-elector in order of precedence among the cardinal-electors who participated in the 2013 conclave that elected Pope Francis, after the presiding cardinal Giovanni Battista Re. Bertone himself was seen as a contender to succeed to the papacy, although his chances as a papabile were thought diminished by the perception that he was a "potential scandal in the making". At Pope Francis' inauguration, Bertone was one of the six cardinals who made the public act of obedience on behalf of the College of Cardinals.

Bertone was a member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Congregation for the Clergy, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, the Congregation for Bishops and the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples until his 80th birthday on 2 December 2014.

Controversies

The Da Vinci Code

On 15 March 2005, Bertone was in the news for "breaking the Church's silence" and criticizing Dan Brown's 2003 novel The Da Vinci Code, saying the book was "shameful and full of unfounded lies", and that believers should boycott the book. Both Bertone and official Vatican spokespeople insisted that Bertone was not speaking as an official representative of the Catholic Church, but it was also noted that Bertone's high placement within the church hierarchy and the fact that he was often named as a potential candidate for the papacy gave his words considerable weight, such that his comments were often reported by various media as an official statement from the Vatican. In 2006, the NBC news program Dateline described his statement as "a high-ranking Vatican cardinal called for a boycott of the film."

Church and sports
Bertone suggested in December 2006 that the Holy See "could, in future, field a team that plays at the top level, with Roma, Internazionale, Genoa and Sampdoria." He continued: "If we just take the Brazilian students from our Pontifical universities we could have a magnificent squad". Hours later he said "I've got much more to do than cultivating a football squad for the Vatican" and explained that his earlier remark was not intended to be taken seriously.

Defense of Pius XII
On 5 June 2007, at a conference announcing the release of a new biography of Pope Pius XII, Bertone defended Pius against claims of indifference toward the Jews during the Holocaust. Bertone condemned this accusation as a "black legend" and "an attack on good sense and on rationality", which has "become so firmly established that even to scratch it is an arduous task". Although he admitted that Pius XII had been "cautious" in condemning Nazi Germany, Bertone stated that Nazi forces would have intensified its program of genocide had the Pope been more outspoken.

Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy

On 16 September 2006, Bertone, after one day as Cardinal Secretary of State, released a declaration explaining that the "position of the Pope concerning Islam is unequivocally that expressed by the conciliar document Nostra aetate" and that "the Pope's option in favour of inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue is equally unequivocal." He said:

Comments by Patriarch Alexius II
On 5 December 2006, Patriarch Alexy II of the Russian Orthodox Church accused the Holy See of an "extremely unfriendly policy" when he said that the Catholic Church was poaching converts in Orthodox lands in Russia and other ex-Soviet republics. Bertone said in response: "We do not want to engage in proselytism in Russia".

Media
In 2007, Bertone "blasted the media for highlighting the Vatican's views on sex while maintaining a 'deafening silence' about charity work done by thousands of Catholic organisations around the world." He continued: "I see a fixation by some journalists on moral topics, such as abortion and homosexual unions, which are certainly important issues but absolutely do not constitute the thinking and work of the Church."

Proposed excommunication of drug dealers
On 14 January 2009, Bertone suggested that the church would consider taking much stronger action against drug dealers. This action might possibly include excommunication. He made a statement about the church's alarm at the "disaster" of drug-fuelled violence on the eve of a trip to Mexico.

Support for universal and free access to anti-HIV drugs
On 22 June 2012, in an online news story article by Cindy Wooden of Catholic News Service (CNS), it was reported that, in a conference in Rome on the prevention of the transmission of HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) from mothers to children sponsored by the lay Community of Sant'Egidio (which runs the DREAM project, a free HIV prevention/treatment program in 10 African countries), the Cardinal Secretary of State urged that full and easy access to antiretroviral drugs be made free worldwide (these are drugs, such as AZT, that can treat, and in some cases, can prevent people from getting, HIV; they do not presently cure HIV once it has infected someone). Bertone acknowledged that the only way this would be remotely feasible, especially in Africa – where the efforts would be most needed and focused – would be through a collaborative effort involving aid groups, governments, donors, medical groups, pharmaceutical companies, and churches.

Our Lady of Fatima

Bertone came under fire by Antonio Socci, Christopher Ferrara, and others for allegedly manipulating the "third secret" of Our Lady of Fatima. In a 2007 address on the release of his book (The Last Secret of Fatima), he emphasized the more private nature of apparitions, urged caution in accepting them, and said "the fullness of [Fatima's] message...touches the hearts of human beings, inviting them to conversion and to co-responsibility for the world's salvation".

Homosexuality to blame for child abuse by priests
On a visit to Chile in April 2010, Bertone commented on the psychology of child abusers, suggesting a predisposition between those that are homosexual to engage in child abuse:

Gay rights groups condemned his remarks. The head of one gay rights organization said that for someone of Bertone's stature "to dump the blame on homosexuals ... says a lot about the current state of desperation in the Vatican".

Holocaust-denying bishop
In 1988 Bertone was appointed to a group of experts that assisted Joseph Ratzinger in negotiations with the excommunicated archbishop Marcel Lefebvre. In January 2009, Pope Benedict lifted the excommunication pronounced on four bishops created by Lefebvre as a gesture towards reconciliation. The same day, an interview on Swedish television was broadcast in which one of the bishops, Richard Williamson, supported ideas denying the Holocaust. An ensuing media uproar questioned why the Pope would welcome a Holocaust denier who had previously been accused of antisemitism. Both Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re, prefect of the congregation for bishops, who signed the decree and Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, president of the pontifical commission "Ecclesia Dei," which dealt with the followers of Lefebvre said that they were taken by surprise, and were never aware that Williamson was a Holocaust denier. As the Secretary of State has direct access to the pope, and oversees the implementation and coordination of his decisions, many in the media questioned why Bertone didn't ensure that an adequate background review was conducted, particularly as it would only have required an internet search. This gave the appearance of a disorganized curia.

Vatileaks

Bertone figured prominently in documents leaked to the media in which Bertone appears to have reproved the general secretary of the Vatican governorate, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, for reporting detailed evidence of nepotism, cronyism, and general mismanagement. Viganò was subsequently transferred from the Vatican to Washington D.C. as apostolic nuncio.

Bertone blamed the scandal over leaked Vatican documents on unethical journalists and a spirit of hostility toward the Catholic Church. "Many journalists play at imitating Dan Brown", said Bertone, in an interview with the Italian magazine Famiglia Cristiana. "They continue to invent fables or repeat legends." Bertone made his remarks as Vatican judges were investigating leaks to Italian journalists of dozens of documents, including letters to the pope and encrypted cables from Vatican embassies around the world, several of which hint at power struggles among officials of the Holy See. "The truth is that there is a malicious will to produce division" among the collaborators of Pope Benedict XVI, he said.

During and after the Vatican leaks scandal, Bertone was widely blamed for cronyism, failing to address corruption, and failing to prevent many financial and ethical scandals under Benedict XVI.

Financial irregularities

During an inflight news conference on his return to Rome from the Holy Land in May 2014, Pope Francis confirmed reports the Vatican was investigating charges against its former secretary of state misappropriated $20 million from the Vatican bank. The pope also was asked about reports that Bertone mishandled 15 million euro (about $20.5 million) in funds held by the Institute for the Works of Religion, commonly known as the Vatican Bank. "It's something being studied, it's not clear," the Pope said. "Maybe it's the truth, but at this moment it's not definitive." This money was transferred from to a private company, Lux Vide when Bertone was in charge under Benedict XVI.

Apartment renovation
Between November 2013 and May 2014, Bertone combined and renovated two apartments in the San Carlo Palace in Vatican City to create a single residence for himself, a secretary, and three nuns, reportedly a total of  and a roof terrace. Bertone said he was renovating the apartment at his own expense, that it is half the size reported, and that Pope Francis telephoned him to express support when he was attacked in the press for expenditure. Bertone responded to reports that monies belong to Bambino Gesù Hospital had been used for the construction work by donating 150,000 euros to the hospital.

On 13 July 2017, the Tribunal of the Vatican City State charged Giuseppe Profiti, former president of the hospital, and Massimo Spina, its former treasurer, with illicitly using 422,000 euros belonging to the hospital's foundation to renovate the apartment. Profiti said the monies were an investment that would enable the foundation to hold fundraising events at the property.  No charges have been filed against either Bertone, the Castelli Re construction company or its owner, Gianantonio Bandera, a longtime Bertone associate who pocketed nearly a quarter-million euros for the whole project.  After the trial's first hearing on 18 July, it was announced that the trial was adjourned until 7 September and that court officials were open to the possibility that Bertone could be summoned as a witness when the trial resumes.

On 7 September, the trial began and went into recess after one day when it was announced that new evidence emerged and the defense and the prosecution requested more time to study a memorandum from Bambino Gesu Hospital's current head given to the tribunal a day earlier emerged. Dates were set for the court to be in session again on  19, 20, 21 and 22 September, first to hear from the defendants themselves, and then from roughly 7 projected witnesses, four called by prosecutors and three by the two defense teams between 21 and 22 September. No details have emerged on whether or not Bertone will testify.

On 19 September, Profiti testified that hospital funds were used for the renovation with the idea that Cardinal Bertone could host intimate dinners for eight to ten wealthy potential donors at a time at least six times a year, though no meetings were ever reported to have been held in Bertone's apartment.  On 22 September, an official of the Government of the Vatican City State testified that the remodeling project for Bertone's apartment bypassed the normal competitive bidding process and was "singular" and "anomalous."  The same day, Spina testified that his immediate superior "told me there were no problems because Cardinal Bertone had clarified the situation with the Holy Father in person."

On 3 October 2017, Gianantonio Bandera, an Italian businessman whose now-bankrupt contracting firm renovated the apartment, said that Bertone personally oversaw the renovation and contacted him directly without taking bids, as would ordinarily be required.

The three-judge tribunal overseeing the trial later acquitted Spina and convicted Profiti of a lesser offense of abuse of office after the defense argued that the money was intended as an investment to benefit the hospital rather than Bertone's apartment.

Vatican response to lavish lifestyle
On 15 February 2018, Pope Francis ordered Vatican officials and bishops to lead simple lives and renounce any desire for power after they retired from senior positions. A number of Vatican officials and bishops, including Bertone, had come under fire in recent years for holding on to luxuries, such as large apartments and in some cases even police escorts, after they left office.  Aside from the controversy surrounding his apartment, Bertone was also seen using escorts of Vatican and Italian police to move around Rome even after he retired.

McCarrick sex abuse
Restrictions Bertone and other Vatican officials placed on former cardinal Theodore McCarrick after the allegations of sex abuse surfaced also went unenforced. On 28 May 2019 a letter from September 2008 was published, which revealed that McCarrick told Bertone that he had slept with adult seminarians, while denying sexual relations.

Retirement
Bertone's retirement as Secretary of State was announced on 31 August 2013 and became effective on 15 October. Pope Francis designated Pietro Parolin as his successor.

A few weeks after Bertone turned 80, Pope Francis named Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran to replace him as Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church on 20 December 2014.

In an interview in 2015 Bertone said that he was not surprised by the resignation of Pope Benedict: "I had guessed it, but put it out my thoughts. I knew long in advance, at least seven months before. And I had many doubts. We debated the topic at length after it seemed already decided. I told him: Holy Father, you must bestow upon us the third volume on Jesus of Nazareth and the encyclopedia of faith, before you sign things over to Pope Francis".

Distinctions
In February 2010, President Lech Kaczyński of Poland conferred on Bertone the country's highest decoration for foreign nationals, the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Poland, "for the lofty merits acquired in the development of the collaboration between the Republic of Poland and the Holy See and for the work carried out in favor of the Church in Poland."

Bertone also received the Gaudium et Spes Award at the Knights of Columbus Supreme Convention in 2007.

Notes

References

External links

 Biography at catholic-pages.com
 Tarcisio Bertone, Salesian Cardinal

 Bertone interview
 Thomas P. Doyle – Letter to Cardinal Bertone
 God's bankers – Economist
 Fall of the Vice-Pope - New York Review of Books

1934 births
Living people
People from the Province of Turin
21st-century Italian cardinals
Salesian cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Frascati
Cardinal Secretaries of State
Salesians of Don Bosco
Roman Catholic archbishops of Genoa
Members of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
Members of the Congregation for the Clergy
Members of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches
Members of the Congregation for Bishops
Members of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
Members of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments
Camerlengos of the Holy Roman Church
Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II
Salesian Pontifical University alumni
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Members of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Recipients of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, 1st class

Tarcisio Bertone


A fluid ounce is a unit of volume in both the imperial system of units and the U.S. customary units system. However, the two measures are not quite the same:
 The Imperial fluid ounce is (1/160) of an imperial gallon or 8 fluid drams, about 1.734 cubic inches or exactly 28.413 07425 ml (as specified legally in The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995). This volume of water weighs very nearly 1 avoirdupois ounce.
 The U.S. fluid ounce is (1/128) of a U.S. fluid gallon, about 1.805 cubic inches or exactly 29.573 529 562 5 ml. This volume of water weighs about 1.04 avoirdupois ounces.
 U.S. law 21CFR101.9(b)(5)(viii) also defines a fluid ounce of exactly 30 ml, for use in nutrition labeling.

Other websites
Volume Conversion Calculator

Imperial units
Units of volume

Fluid ounce


Samuel Gustavo Moreno Rojas (11 February 1960 – 10 February 2023) was a Colombian lawyer and politician, son of former congressman  and former presidential candidate María Eugenia Rojas Correa, grandson of former Colombian political-military authoritarian leader and ex-president Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. His brother  is a former Mayor of Bucaramanga, minister and senator. On 28 October 2007, Moreno Rojas was elected Mayor of Bogotá representing the Alternative Democratic Pole (PDA) for the 2008–2012 term. On 3 May 2011, Moreno was suspended and stripped of his office by the Office of the Inspector General for improprieties in the appropriation of city contracts. For the same accusations, the Office of the Attorney General of Colombia argued for a pretrial detention, and Moreno was arrested on 23 September 2011. He was sentenced in 2016 to 18 years of prison for his direct involvement in a corruption scheme during his term.

Education
Moreno Rojas studied Economics and Law in the Universidad del Rosario in Bogotá and obtained specializations in business administration from the University of the Andes, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana and Harvard University.

Career
In 1982 Moreno Rojas joined the political party founded by his grandfather Gustavo Rojas Pinilla and then led by his mother, the National Popular Alliance (ANAPO). He became the coordinator of the ANAPO youth movement from 1982 to 1985. In 1985 he then became coordinator for Bogotá until 1987 when he was appointed the national coordinator, a post in which he served until 2003.

Public office career
Moreno Rojas was elected senator of Colombia in 1991 and then reelected for three more periods; 1994, 1998 and 2002. After 2002 Moreno Rojas focused on consolidating the Independent Democratic Pole, a leftist political movement that included ANAPO and of which he was made party president. In 2005 Moreno Rojas was defeated by Antonio Navarro Wolff during the Democratic Pole's convention to appoint a presidential candidate. He then decided not to run for a fifth term as senator in order to seek the Mayorship of Bogotá for 2008.

Candidacy for Mayor of Bogotá and election

Candidacy
On 8 July 2007, he was elected as the candidate for the Alternative Democratic Pole after defeating the frontrunner in the opinion polls, María Emma Mejía.

Controversy during candidacy
On 21 October, in a live TV debate, he was asked by Antanas Mockus if he would pay for 50 votes if that prevented someone who had already paid for 50,000 votes from winning, thus "saving Bogotá". His response was "Yes, without doubt!". His answer was controversial and highly criticized. Later, he claimed that he had not understood the question and that the expression "saving Bogotá" had led him to give such answer.

During his campaign he proposed the construction of an underground rapid transit system to increase the city's public transport capacity and reduce commuting time and crowding. This proposition was controversial, because the city already had a mass transit system, the TransMilenio which is not finished yet, and the construction of this new system will make impossible to finish it, there's also the possibility that the city can't afford the construction and maintenance of the railway. President Álvaro Uribe mentioned that he would support the new system after proper analysis of the proposal and viability and suggested that the system must be financially self-sustainable if built. Uribe alleged that the Colombian government was unable to sustain through subsidies the maintenance of the rapid transit system.

Elected mayor
Moreno defeated rival and former Mayor Enrique Peñalosa in Bogotá's mayoral elections in October 2007, with 43.7% of the votes against the 28.15% achieved by Peñalosa. He took office on 1 January 2008.

During his period in charge of the city, Moreno was widely criticised by media, members of his political party and a large proportion of his electors, due to his lack of results in terms of urban security, transit, and political promises made during his campaign.

2011 Suspension and Detention
On 3 May 2011, the Inspector General of Colombia, Alejandro Ordoñez decided to suspend Moreno for three months, due to alleged omissions on public works executions. This case has a link with an ongoing investigation for corruption and irregularities related to public construction bidding in Bogotá. On 2 August 2011, the Inspector decided to extend the suspension for three more months, claiming that the case against Moreno has not been resolved yet, and more time is required to achieve a resolution.
On 23 September 2011, he was put in pretrial detention by a judge while his legal status is defined.

Personal life and death
Moreno Rojas died from a cardiac arrest on 10 February 2023 at age 62, one day before his 63rd birthday.

References

External links
Official Website (spanish)
CityMayors profile

1960 births
2023 deaths
Del Rosario University alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
Politicians from Miami
Mayors of Bogotá
20th-century Colombian lawyers
Samuel
Independent Democratic Pole politicians
National Popular Alliance politicians

Samuel Moreno Rojas


Joseph Byrne also known as Joe Byrne (November 1856 - June 28 1880) was an Australian bushranger. He is known as the lieutenant of the Kelly Gang. He was shot dead in the siege of Glenrowan. Joe Byrne was a very good shot, a good horseman and skilled at living in the bush. This made it difficult for the police to capture him. His skill at writing helped him to write the items that were important in starting the Kelly legend. He wrote the famous Jerilderie letter. There is also a legend that Ned Kelly, with Byrne's help, was going to start an independent republic in north east Victoria. The siege at Glenrowan was the first step.

Early life

Joe was born at Woolshed, near Beechworth, in November 1856. His father, Patrick Byrne, had come from County Carlow, Ireland, in 1849, to join his father, Joseph, who had come to Australia as a convict in 1834. Joe's mother was an Irish lady from Galway. The family moved to Sebastopol, a small gold mining town, about two kilometres farther up the valley. Joe learned to speak Chinese from the Chinese miners who lived in a small camp near his house. He was educated at a small Roman Catholic school at Woolshed.

After leaving school in 1870, Joe had a number of jobs including driving a delivery cart for a tannery, putting up fences, looking for gold, wood cutting, and shearing. He often visited the Chinese village at Beechworth and became addicted to opium. During the celebrations for the Prince of Wales birthday in 1873, Joe saw a suit of Chinese armour in the Beechworth museum. This armour provided the ideas for the armour the Kelly Gang wore at Glenrowan.

Crime
In September 1873, Byrne was in court for taking a neighbour, Anton Wick's horse. He had ridden it for several days before bringing it back. He had to pay a fine of 20 shillings. In December 1875, he was in court again for taking a saddle, but the court believed Byrne when he said he had found it in the bush. On May 20, 1876, Joe Byrne and his friend, Aaron Sherritt, stole a cow and cut it up for the meat. Someone saw them and told the police. They were taken to court and given six months in the Beechworth Gaol. In prison, Byrne and Sherritt met Jim Kelly, who was the brother of Ned and Dan Kelly. Joe Byrne met Ned Kelly in 1876 and they became friends.

The Kelly Gang
Byrne was probably at the Kelly house on 15 April, 1878, when Constable Fitzpatrick said that Ned Kelly shot him and that Ellen Kelly, Ned's mother, had hit him over the head with a shovel. Ned and Dan Kelly went into hiding in the bush at Bullock Creek, an old gold mining area. The police offered a reward of £100 for them, and Ellen Kelly was sent to gaol for three years.

Stringybark Creek
Joe Byrne was at Stringybark Creek with the Kelly brothers and Steve Hart on 26 October, 1878, when they found four police officers on their trail, and shot three of them dead. Joe Byrne shot dead Trooper Scanlon, and was wearing Scanlon's ring at the time of his death. The gang were made outlaws on 15 November 1878, which meant they could be legally killed by anyone at any time. A reward of £2000 (about AU$754,000 in 2008) was offered for them, dead or alive.

Bushranger
Byrne was Kelly's lieutenant, and the two of them planned the gang's actions. The Kelly Gang robbed the Euroa branch of the National Bank of Australia and took over £2,000. Joe Byrne wrote a letter in red ink for Ned Kelly which was sent to Donald Cameron, a local member of the Victorian Parliament. Ned said justice had not been done in the case of his mother and himself. It ended: "For I need no lead or powder to revenge my cause, and if words be louder I will oppose your laws."

The police locked up over 20 possible supporters of the Kelly gang between January 1879 and April 1879 under the Felons Apprehension Act 1878. This increased public support for the gang, especially in north east Victoria. Joe Byrne was able to use this increase this by writing a number poems about Ned Kelly and his gang, including "My Name is Ned Kelly":

My friends are all united,
My mates are lying near.
We sleep beneath shady trees,
No danger do we fear.

Joe Byrne often visited his mother at her house in Beechworth. He was also seen drinking in hotels in the town, even though there was a reward for him. He could do it because of his skill and daring, and because the police were badly trained and badly led, and because of the support of local people for the Kelly Gang.

Jerilderie
Kelly and Byrne planned their next robbery for Jerilderie. On 10 February, 1879, dressed as policemen, the gang robbed the Bank of New South Wales at Jerilderie taking another £2,000. Byrne wrote the Jerilderie Letter after Ned kelly's words which wanted an independent republic in north east Victoria. The money from both the Euroa and Jerilderie robberies was given to the gang's family, friends and supporters.

After the Jerilderie robbery, the gang went into hiding for 16 months. This increased their reputation and embarrassed the government of Victoria and the police. The Victorian Government increased the reward for the Kelly Gang to £8,000 (about AU$2,000,000 in 2005).

Siege of Glenrowan

Byrne and Kelly planned another bank robbery in Benalla in 1880. They thought Aaron Sherritt was being used by police to get information about them. Byrne had told Sherritt to tell the police that the gang was planning a robbery in the Goulburn River while they were really planning the Jerilderie robbery. Kelly and Byrne believed that Sherritt could no longer be trusted. They also knew he was being protected by the police. Byrne and Dan Kelly murdered Sherritt on 26 June, 1880. Ned Kelly believed that this would bring a large group of police to Beechworth to search for the killers.

The next day, the Kelly Gang took over the town of Glenrowan. They tore up the railway tracks because they knew the police would travel by train to Beechworth. They held over 60 people hostage in Jones' Hotel. Thomas Curnow, the local school teacher, escaped and stopped the police train before it could crash on the missing track. The police were able to surround the hotel.

Joe Byrne helped design the armour worn by all members of the gang at Glenrowan. This did not stop him from being shot in the groin cutting his femoral artery. He was in the middle of a speech about the gang when he was shot. He died quickly from loss of blood on 28 June 1880. The police set fire to the hotel, but they dragged his body out of the hotel before it burned down. The bodies of Dan Kelly and Steve Hart were not brought out of the hotel, and were severely burned.

The next day his body was hung on the door of the police cells at Benalla, and photographed by newspaper reporters. It was only removed after a young woman begged the police to let Byrne rest in peace. His family did not take his body and the police would not give it to anyone else, they thought a funeral would become a starting point for a rebellion. He was buried in an unmarked grave on the edge of the Benalla cemetery.

Ned Kelly was captured and tried in Melbourne. Ned Kelly was hanged at Old Melbourne Gaol on 11 November 1880. There is a legend that Kelly and Byrne had written a Declaration for the Republic of north-east Victoria which was destroyed by the Victorian Government.

Byrne and the Kelly legend
By writing the letters and the bush ballads, and designing the armour, Joe Byrne and Ned Kelly helped make the Kelly legend. In the following 125 years, the legend has grown. There have been a number of movies made about the Kelly Gang including The Story of the Kelly Gang in 1906, the world's first feature-length movie. In 2003, Orlando Bloom played the part of Joe Byrne in Gregor Jordan's movie, Ned Kelly.

Australian novelist Peter Carey won the 2001 Booker Prize and the Commonwealth Writers Prize for  the True History of the Kelly Gang. This was based on the Jerilderie letter written by Byrne.

Ned Kelly and the Kelly Gang has been made famous by Sidney Nolan wearing the armour designed by Joe Byrne in a famous set of paintings. This was used as a scene at the opening ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

Other websites
 Joe Byrne: Lieutenant of the Kelly Gang page
 Glenrowan 1880 Joe Byrne page
Photographs of Joe Byrne

References

1856 births
1880 deaths
Australian criminals
Ned Kelly
Bushrangers
People from Victoria (Australia)
Booker Prize winners

Joe Byrne


In economics, an inferior good is a good that decreases in demand when the income of the consumer rises. People with little income might buy bread in the supermarket, but when their income increases, they buy their bread in the bakery instead. They did not buy from the bakery before, because the bread in the bakery is more expensive than the bread in the supermarket.

Goods where the demand rises with the income are called normal goods.

Goods

Inferior good