An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It may be a liquid, a soft paste or a solid, depending upon the proportion of mercury. These alloys are formed through metallic bonding, with the electrostatic attractive force of the conduction electrons working to bind all the positively charged metal ions together into a crystal lattice structure. Almost all metals can form amalgams with mercury, the notable exceptions being iron, platinum, tungsten, and tantalum. Silver-mercury amalgams are important in dentistry, and gold-mercury amalgam is used in the extraction of gold from ore. Dentistry has used alloys of mercury  with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc.

Important amalgams

Zinc amalgam
Zinc amalgam finds use in organic synthesis (e.g., for the Clemmensen reduction).
It is the reducing agent in the Jones reductor, used in analytical chemistry. Formerly the zinc plates of dry batteries were amalgamated with a small amount of mercury to prevent deterioration in storage. It is a binary solution (liquid-solid) of mercury and zinc.

Potassium amalgam
For the alkali metals, amalgamation is exothermic, and distinct chemical forms can be identified, such as KHg and KHg2. KHg is a gold-coloured compound with a melting point of 178 °C, and KHg2 a silver-coloured compound with a melting point of 278 °C. These amalgams are very sensitive to air and water, but can be worked with under dry nitrogen.  The Hg-Hg distance is around 300 picometres, Hg-K around 358 pm.

Phases K5Hg7 and KHg11 are also known; rubidium, strontium and barium undecamercurides are known and isostructural. Sodium amalgam (NaHg2) has a different structure, with the mercury atoms forming hexagonal layers, and the sodium atoms a linear chain which fits into the holes in the hexagonal layers, but the potassium atom is too large for this structure to work in KHg2.

Sodium amalgam

Sodium amalgam is produced as a byproduct of the chloralkali process and used as an important reducing agent in organic and inorganic chemistry. With water, it decomposes into concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, hydrogen and mercury, which can then return to the chloralkali process anew. If absolutely water-free alcohol is used instead of water, an alkoxide of sodium is produced instead of the alkali solution.

Aluminium amalgam

Aluminium can form an amalgam through a reaction with mercury. Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire or foil to react with a solution of mercuric chloride. This amalgam is used as a reagent to reduce compounds, such as the reduction of imines to amines. The aluminium is the ultimate electron donor, and the mercury serves to mediate the electron transfer.
The reaction itself and the waste from it contain mercury, so special safety precautions and disposal methods are needed. As an environmentally friendlier alternative, hydrides or other reducing agents can often be used to accomplish the same synthetic result. Another environmentally friendly alternative is an alloy of aluminium and gallium which similarly renders the aluminium more reactive by preventing it from forming an oxide layer.

Tin amalgam
Tin amalgam was used in the middle of the 19th century as a reflective mirror coating.

Other amalgams
A variety of amalgams are known that are of interest mainly in the research context.
 Ammonium amalgam is a grey, soft, spongy mass discovered in 1808 by Humphry Davy and Jöns Jakob Berzelius. It decomposes readily at room temperature or in contact with water or alcohol:

 Thallium amalgam has a freezing point of −58 °C, which is lower than that of pure mercury (−38.8 °C) so it has found a use in low temperature thermometers.
 Gold amalgam: Refined gold, when finely ground and brought into contact with mercury where the surfaces of both metals are clean, amalgamates readily and quickly forms alloys ranging from AuHg2 to Au8Hg.
 Lead forms an amalgam when filings are mixed with mercury and is also listed as a naturally occurring alloy called leadamalgam in the Nickel–Strunz classification.

Dental amalgam

Dentistry has used alloys of mercury with metals such as silver, copper, indium, tin and zinc. Amalgam is an "excellent and versatile restorative material" and is used in dentistry for a number of reasons. It is inexpensive and relatively easy to use and manipulate during placement; it remains soft for a short time so it can be packed to fill any irregular volume, and then forms a hard compound. Amalgam possesses greater longevity when compared to other direct restorative materials, such as composite. However, this difference has decreased with continual development of composite resins.

Amalgam is typically compared to resin-based composites because many applications are similar and many physical properties and costs are comparable.

Dental amalgam has been studied and is generally considered to be safe for humans, though the validity of some studies and their conclusions have been questioned.

In July 2018 the EU, in consideration of the persistent pollution and environmental toxicity of amalgam's mercury, prohibited amalgam for dental treatment of children under 15 years and of pregnant or breastfeeding women.

Use in mining
Mercury has been used in gold and silver mining because of the convenience and the ease with which mercury and the precious metals will amalgamate. In gold placer mining, in which minute specks of gold are washed from sand or gravel deposits, mercury was often used to separate the gold from other heavy minerals.

After all of the practical metal had been taken out from the ore, the mercury was dispensed down a long copper trough, which formed a thin coating of mercury on the exterior. The waste ore was then transferred down the trough, and gold in the waste amalgamated with the mercury. This coating would then be scraped off and refined by evaporation to get rid of the mercury, leaving behind somewhat high-purity gold.

Mercury amalgamation was first used on silver ores with the development of the patio process in Mexico in 1557. There were also additional amalgamation processes that were created for processing silver ores, including pan amalgamation and the Washoe process.

Gold amalgam

Gold extraction (mining)
Gold amalgam has proved effective where gold fines ("flour gold") would not be extractable from ore using hydro-mechanical methods. Large amounts of mercury were used in placer mining, where deposits composed largely of decomposed granite slurry were separated in long runs of "riffle boxes", with mercury dumped in at the head of the run. The amalgam formed is a heavy solid mass of dull gray color. (The use of mercury in 19th century placer mining in California, now prohibited, has caused extensive pollution problems in riverine and estuarine environments, ongoing to this day.) Sometimes substantial slugs of amalgam are found in downstream river and creek bottoms by amateur wet-suited miners seeking gold nuggets with the aid of an engine-powered water vacuum/dredge mounted on a float.

Gold extraction (ore processing)

Where stamp mills were used to crush gold-bearing ore to fines, a part of the extraction process involved the use of mercury-wetted copper plates, over which the crushed fines were washed. A periodic scraping and re-mercurizing of the plate resulted in amalgam for further processing.

Gold extraction (retorting)
Amalgam obtained by either process was then heated in a distillation retort, recovering the mercury for reuse and leaving behind the gold. As this released mercury vapors to the atmosphere, the process could induce adverse health effects and long term pollution.

Today, mercury amalgamation has been replaced by other methods to recuperate gold and silver from ore in developed nations. Hazards of mercurial toxic waste have played a major role in the phasing out of the mercury amalgamation processes. However, mercury amalgamation is still regularly used by small-scale gold placer miners (often illegally), particularly in developing countries.

Amalgam probe

Mercury salts are, compared to mercury metal and amalgams, highly toxic due to their solubility in water. The presence of these salts in water can be detected with a probe that uses the readiness of mercury ions to form an amalgam with copper. A nitric acid solution of salts under investigation is applied to a piece of copper foil, and any mercury ions present will leave spots of silvery-coloured amalgam. Silver ions leave similar spots but are easily washed away, making this a means of distinguishing silver from mercury.

The redox reaction involved where mercury oxidizes the copper is:

Hg2+ + Cu → Hg + Cu2+.

See also

 Pan amalgamation
 Patio process

References

Further reading
 Prandtl, W.: Humphry Davy, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, zwei führende Chemiker aus der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart, 1948
 Hofmann, H., Jander, G.: Qualitative Analyse, 1972, Walter de Gruyter,

External links

Amalgam (chemistry)


Fritz Reuter (7 November 1810 – 12 July 1874) was a German novelist. He was born at Stavenhagen in Mecklenburg-Schwerin.

In 1831, Reuter started to study at the University of Rostock, and in 1832 went to the University of Jena. At Jena he joined a Burschenschaft (nationalist students' club). In 1833 he was arrested in Berlin by the Prussian government. They could only prove he had worn the club's colours, but he was condemned to death for high treason. King Frederick William III of Prussia changed this to imprisonment for thirty years. In 1838 he was sent to a prison in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and he spent two years in the fortress of Dömitz. Reuter was set free in 1840, when Frederick William IV became king of Prussia.

After his release from prison, Reuter started studying law again at the University of Heidelberg but had to leave and go back to Stavenhagen and help to run his father's farm. When his father died, he gave up farming, and in 1850 became a private teacher in a little town then called Treptow-an-der-Tollense in Pomerania. Here he married Luise Kunze, the daughter of a Mecklenburg pastor.

Reuter's first book was written in Low German. It was published in 1853. Three years later Reuter decided to give up teaching to become a writer, so he left Treptow and moved to Neubrandenburg.

Ut de Franzosentid and Ut mine Stromtid are Reuter's best books. In them he describes the men and women he knew in the villages and farmhouses of Mecklenburg. Ut de Franzosentid is set at the time of the fight against Napoleon. Ut mine Stromtid describes the revolutionary movement of 1848.

In 1863 Reuter moved from Neubrandenburg to Eisenach and here he died on 12 July 1874. In the books he wrote at Eisenach were not as good as his earlier writings.

Other websites
FRITZ REUTER (1810–1894)  -Jrank

Further reading
 Otto Glagau: Fritz Reuter und seine Dichtungen. Berlin: Lemke, 1866 (2nd ed. Berlin: Grote,1875)
 Hermann Ebert: Fritz Reuter: sein Leben und seine Werke Güstrow: Opitz, 1874
 Friedrich Latendorf: Zur Erinnerung an Fritz Reuter: verschollene Gedichte Reuters nebst volkstümlichen und wissenschaftlichen Reuter-Studien. Poesneck: Latendorf, 1879
 Karl Theodor Gaedertz: Fritz Reuter-Studien. Wismar: Hinstorff, 1890
 Karl Theodor Gaedertz: Aus Reuters jungen und alten Tagen : Neues über des Dichters Leben und Werke. 3 Bde. Wismar: Hinstorff, 1894–1900
 Briefe von Fritz Reuter an seinen Vater aus der Schüler-, Studenten-, und Festungszeit (1827 bis 1841) hrsg. von Franz Engel. 2 Bde. Braunschweig: Westermann, 1896
 Abraham Römer: Fritz Reuter in seinem Leben und Schaffen. Berlin: Mayer & Müller, 1896
 Gustav Raatz, Wahrheit und Dichtung in Fritz Reuter's Werken: Urbilder bekannter Reuter-Gestalten. Wismar: Hinstorff, 1895
 Ernst Brandes: Aus Fritz Reuters Leben. 2 Tle. Strasburg i. Westpr.: Fuhrich, 1899–1901 (Wissenschaftliche Beilage zu den Schulnachrichten des Gymansiums Strasburg i. Westpr. 1899, 1901)
 Karl Friedrich Müller: Der Mecklenburger Volksmund in Fritz Reuters Schriften: Sammlung und Erklärung volksthümlicher Wendungen und sprichwörtlicher Redensarten im Mecklenburgischen Platt. Leipzig: Hesse, 1901
A complete bibliography of Fritz Reuter can be found in the Niederdeutsches Jahrbuch for 1896 and 1902.

1810 births
1874 deaths
Writers from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

Fritz Reuter


Charon can mean:
Charon, the ferryman to the Greek underworld in Greek mythology
Charon (moon), a moon of the dwarf planet, Pluto
Charon (band), a Finnish gothic metal band
Charon (web browser), a web browser for the Inferno operating system
Charon (Forever War), a fictional planet in the Forever War
Charon (animal), a genus of amblypygid
Charon (cars), a Dutch automobile manufacturer
Charon of Lampsacus|Charon of Lampsacus, ancient Greek logographer
CHARON, a programming language
Charon (Dungeons & Dragons), a lord of the yugoloths whose primary function is to provide passage across the River Styx for a steep price
Charon (CrossGen), a comic book character from CrossGen Entertainment's Sigilverse
Charon QC (Law), a law blog http://charonqc.wordpress.com/
Charon (The Three Worlds), a fictional human species from Ian Irvine's arc of novels, The Three Worlds.

Charon


"Retreat to Move Forward" is the ninth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock, and the 45th overall episode of the series. It was written by executive story editor Tami Sagher and directed by Steve Buscemi. The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 22, 2009. Guest stars in this episode include Shalin Agarwal, Cheryl Lynn Bowers, Mark La Mura, Chris Parnell, Lola Pashalinski, and Elizabeth Rouse.

In the episode, Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) invites Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) to a corporate retreat, following his Bush administration and CEO debacles, for moral support. Meanwhile, Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) employs method acting for her Janis Joplin role, which Frank Rossitano (Judah Friedlander) quickly takes advantage of. After Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) is diagnosed with diabetes, Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) attempts to find a way to dissuade Tracy from eating sugary food.

"Retreat to Move Forward" was generally well received among television critics. According to the Nielsen Media Research, the episode was watched by 6.4 million households during its original broadcast, and received a 3.2 rating/8 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic.

Plot
Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) asks Liz Lemon (Tina Fey) to accompany him to the Six Sigmas Retreat in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, following his Bush administration and CEO debacles. There, Jack meets with the Six Sigmas, six men who each embody a core feature of Six Sigma: teamwork, insight, brutality, male enhancement, hand-shake-fulness and play-hard. They disapprove of Liz's antics during the team building exercises and demand that Jack distance himself from her if he wants to succeed, which he does. Before his dinner speech, Jack psyches himself up in the men's room, completely forgetting that he is wearing a microphone and that everyone can hear him. Liz quickly takes the stage to draw attention away from Jack's embarrassment and finally ends up ripping her blouse open and dancing in front of everyone. She succeeds, and is banned from the retreat forever.

Meanwhile, Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) employs method acting for her upcoming role as singer Janis Joplin, thus allowing Frank Rossitano (Judah Friedlander) to take advantage of her. He tells her to do her research on Joplin on Wikipedia, then edits the page contents with nonsense when Jenna goes off to read it. Jenna, however, believes what she reads and proceeds to imitate all the "facts" on the page to the amusement of everyone. When she finally confronts Frank, they end up having sex and Jenna is affronted when Frank wants to keep it a secret from their co-workers. She reveals their fling in front of the other TGS with Tracy Jordan writers to the dismay of Frank. At hearing this, Katie (Elizabeth Rouse), the show's hair dresser and Frank's girlfriend, ruins Jenna's hair and face making her look like a witch.

At the same time, NBC page Kenneth Parcell (Jack McBrayer) tries to help Tracy Jordan (Tracy Morgan) understand how diabetes affects him after Dr. Leo Spaceman (Chris Parnell) told Tracy that he is at risk of getting diabetes. Kenneth tells him a story of how a wicked witch will come and take him away if he continues to consume his unhealthy eating habits but Tracy does not believe him. Tracy gets disgusted when Kenneth tries to scare him by dressing as a witch but suddenly Jenna comes running in screaming and looking like a witch complete with a broomstick in hand. This scares both Kenneth and Tracy who fearfully vows to change his eating habits immediately.

Production

"Retreat to Move Forward" was written by executive story editor Tami Sagher and directed by Steve Buscemi. This was Sagher's second writing credit, having written season two episode "Ludachristmas" that aired on December 13, 2007. This was Buscemi's first directed episode. "Retreat to Move Forward" originally aired on January 22, 2009, on NBC in the United States as the ninth episode of the show's third season and the 45th overall episode of the series.

Buscemi has appeared on the show as the character Lenny Wosniak, a private investigator who has been hired by Jack Donaghy in the episodes "The Collection", "The Natural Order", "Mamma Mia", and "Season 4". Actor Chris Parnell reprised his role as Dr. Leo Spaceman in this episode. This was Parnell's ninth appearance on the show.

Cultural references
At the beginning of this 30 Rock episode, Liz tells Jack that she and Jenna used to perform improvisation at corporate retreats. In a flashback, the audience shout out Sling Blade and Oprah as suggestions for Liz and Jenna to do. Liz does the impression of the Sling Blade character, but Jenna believed that Liz was Oprah. Tracy becomes intrigued with the idea of having his foot replaced with a wheel, after Dr. Spaceman informs him that if diabetes is left untreated he could lose a foot, to which he asks Dr. Spaceman "Could I replace it with a wheel like Rosie from The Jetsons?" Rosie is the humanoid robot maid for the title family, and she rolls about on a set of caster wheels. When the TGS writers learn from Jenna that she will be employing method acting, Frank suggests that she do her research of Janis Joplin on Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia. When Frank sees Jenna getting ready to eat a cat, he stops her and tells her that ALF, an extraterrestrial, eats cats. After admitting that she hooked up with Frank, Jenna reveals that Dog the Bounty Hunter is the second grossest guy she has ever been with.

Later in the episode, to cover-up for Jack, after psyching himself up and completely forgetting that he was wearing a microphone and that everyone could hear him, Liz starts singing the song "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)" by dance music group C+C Music Factory. "Retreat to Move Forward" references Jack's time in the Bush administration that occurred in the show's second season, and Jack's unsuccessful attempts of becoming CEO of General Electric in the December 4, 2008, episode "Reunion", after Don Geiss (Rip Torn)—who woke up from his diabetic coma—informs him he wants to remain as CEO of the company. This was the second time 30 Rock referenced Jenna trying to play singer Janis Joplin in a feature film. This plot first began in the episode, "Señor Macho Solo", in which Jenna auditions to play the singer in a biographical movie.

Reception
In its original American broadcast, "Retreat to Move Forward" was watched by 6.4 million households, according to the Nielsen Media Research. This episode earned a 3.2 rating/8 share in the 18 and 49 demographic, meaning that 3.2 percent of all people in that group, and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time, watched the episode. This was a decrease from the previous episode, "Flu Shot", which was watched by 6.6 million American viewers.

Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star-Ledger felt that "Retreat to Move Forward" was one of the best episodes of an uneven season. Sepinwall, however, felt it "petered out" towards the end, and that the Tracy and Kenneth plot did not work until it met the Jenna and Frank story. He noted that without the addition of a guest star, "this one made good use of virtually the entire cast". IGN contributor Robert Canning enjoyed Liz and Jack's relationship in the episode. Canning felt that while the show occasionally hints at a romantic relationship between the two, they should never become linked. In his opinion, the episode demonstrated their non-romantic friendship "perfectly". Bob Sassone of AOL's TV Squad liked the episode, but noted "...it's the second week in a row where one of the plots was way too over the top for me." Sassone wrote that he was not thrilled with the Kenneth and Tracy plot, citing that it was "way too silly and loud". TV Guide's Matt Mitovich said that "Retreat to Move Forward" was "[a]nother very funny, super-huge-guest-star-free episode". Rick Porter of Zap2it reported that he found himself "more attracted" to the second-tier plots than to the Jack and Liz plot, observing that it "had its moments, but the overall story didn't hit too many new notes in their relationship. [...] So yeah, some funny bits here and there with the main story ... But we've seen this kind of dynamic between Liz and Jack before, and so it didn't have the same comedic force as in the past." Kevin D. Thompson for The Palm Beach Post praised 30 Rock for doing a perfect job with its three plots in the episode, and said that Jenna's line, "The academy loves dead singers and the handicapped. And Janis was both!", was "[h]ands-down, the funniest line of the show."

The A.V. Club's Nathan Rabin, who had been favorable to Jenna's story arc of her playing Joplin, was not impressed with her antics in this episode. In regards to the episode itself, Rabin opined, "Tonight's episode was consistently amusing but 30 Rock engenders such sky-high expectations that being good oftentimes just isn't good enough." In conclusion, he gave the episode a B grade rating. "'Retreat to Move Forward' had some amusing moments, but it's a bit unmemorable in retrospect. I'm still waiting for a true classic 30 Rock episode this season", said Jeremy Medina for Paste magazine. Nonetheless, Medina preferred this episode over The Office's "Prince Family Paper", in which its plot focused on whether actress Hilary Swank was attractive or not.

References

External links

2009 American television episodes
30 Rock (season 3) episodes
Television episodes directed by Steve Buscemi

Retreat to Move Forward


Quora is a website for asking questions and posting answers. The company was launched in 2009 and the website opened in 2010.

Quora was founded by Adam D'Angelo and Charlie Cheever, both of them work for Facebook.

Making a Quora account is free and asking questions are free as well. Quora does not pay anyone for answering the questions asked by other users.

Quora has a Upvote/Downvote system. If you like an answer, you can upvote it and if you do not like it you can downvote it. Any user can upvote or downvote a question' answer no matter whether he asked that question or not. Quora has some strict policies to fight with spam and people posting copied content. If you do not follow them, your account will be suspended by the Quora Moderation team.

Other websites
 Quora official website

Websites established in the 2010s

Quora


Luk Van Parijs was an associate professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Center for Cancer Research. After investigating for a year, MIT fired Van Parijs for research misconduct. Van Parijs admitted to fabricating and falsifying research data in a paper, several unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications. In March 2011, Van Parijs pleaded guilty in a U.S. District Court in Boston to one count of making a false statement on a federal grant application. The government asked Judge Denise Casper for a 6-month jail term because of the seriousness of the fraud, which involved a $2-million grant. After several prominent scientists including Van Parijs' former post-doc supervisor pleading for clemency on his behalf, on 13 June, Van Parijs was finally sentenced six months of home detention with electronic monitoring, plus 400 hours of community service and a payment to MIT of $61,117 - restitution for the already-spent grant money that MIT had to return to the National Institutes of Health .

Van Parijs' area of research was in the use of short-interference RNA in studying disease mechanisms, especially in autoimmune diseases. He was studying normal immune cell function and defects in these cells during disease development.

Timeline

 About 1970: Born in Belgium.
 Before 1997: Receives undergraduate education at Cambridge University in England.
 About 1993 - 1997: Works in the laboratory of Harvard professor Dr. Abul Abbas at Brigham and Women's Hospital (BWH).
 1997: Earns doctorate in immunology from Harvard.
 1998 - 2000: Postdoctoral student in the laboratory of Dr. David Baltimore at MIT and California Institute of Technology.
 2000: Joins the biology department at MIT.
 2001: Named the Ivan R. Cottrell Career Development Assistant Professor of Immunology at MIT for a three-year term.
 July 2004: Promoted to the rank of associate professor at MIT, without tenure.
 August 2004: MIT begins a confidential investigation when a group of researchers in van Parijs' laboratory alleges research misconduct.
 September 2004: Placed on paid administrative leave and denied access to laboratory by MIT.
 6 October 2005: Caltech begins inquiry (requested by Baltimore, "when New Scientist pointed out" problems in Caltech papers). (Date & quote: news media #8 and #18, below, respectively.)
 27 October 2005: MIT fires van Parijs.
 28 October 2005: News media coverage begins; Harvard/BWH and Caltech work questioned by New Scientist; Abbas determining "course of action" in light of New Scientist enquiries.
 26 January 2006: Data in 2 Caltech patent applications having inventors van Parijs & others questioned in press (News media #16, below).
 March 2007: Caltech investigation concludes: van Parijs committed research misconduct; four(4) published papers require correction.
 23 January 2009: Office of Research Integrity's findings of scientific misconduct at Harvard/BWH, Caltech, & MIT as well as van Parijs' Voluntary Exclusion Agreement published in the Federal Register: Vol. 74, No. 14, Notices, Pp. 4201-2

Literature corrections
(Original paper, correction; Chronological by literature correction - w/in institution of origin.)

Harvard papers

van Parijs L, Perez VL, Biuckians A, Maki RG, London CA, and Abbas AK (1997) Role of interleukin 12 and costimulators in T cell anergy in vivo. Journal of Experimental Medicine 186(7): 1119-28 (6 October). ; Open access.
Retraction: "Role of interleukin 12..." by van Parijs, L et al. Journal of Experimental Medicine published online 13 April 2009. Retraction by journal editors. Open access.
van Parijs L, Peterson DA, and Abbas AK (1998) The Fas/Fas Ligand Pathway and Bcl-2 Regulate T Cell Responses to Model Self and Foreign Antigens. Immunity 8(2): 265-274 (1 February).
van Parijs L, Peterson DA, and Abbas AK (2009) Retraction: The Fas/Fas Ligand Pathway and Bcl-2 Regulate T Cell Responses to Model Self and Foreign Antigens. Immunity 30(4): 611 (17 April).

Caltech papers

van Parijs L, Refaell Y, Lord JD, Nelson BH, Abbas AK, and Baltimore D (1999) Uncoupling IL-2 Signals that Regulate T Cell Proliferation, Survival, and Fas-Mediated Activation-Induced Cell Death.  Immunity 11(3): 281-288 (1 September).
van Parijs L, Refaell Y, Lord JD, Nelson BH, Abbas AK, and Baltimore D (2009) Retraction: Uncoupling IL-2 Signals that Regulate T Cell Proliferation, Survival, and Fas-Mediated Activation-Induced Cell Death. Immunity 30(4): 611 (17 April).
van Parijs L, Refaell Y, Abbas AK, and Baltimore D (1999) Autoimmunity as a Consequence of Retrovirus-Mediated Expression of C-FLIP in Lymphocytes. Immunity 11(6): 763-770 (1 December).
van Parijs L, Refaell Y, Abbas AK, and Baltimore D (2009) Retraction: Autoimmunity as a Consequence of Retrovirus-Mediated Expression of C-FLIP in Lymphocytes. Immunity 30(4): 612 (17 April).

MIT papers

(Each correction retracts data.)
Nencioni A, Sandy P, Dillon C, Kissler S, Blume-Jensen P, and van Parijs L (2004) RNA interference for the identification of disease-associated genes. Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics 6(2): 136-40 (April).
 (2005) Erratum: [Nencioni A, Sandy P, Dillon C, Kissler S, Blume-Jensen P, and van Parijs L (2004) RNA interference for the identification of disease-associated genes. Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics 6(2): 136–40, Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics 7(3): 282 (June). Pdf available here.
Rubinson DA, Dillon CP, Kwiatkowski AV, Sievers C, Yang L, Kopinja J, Zhang M, McManus MT, Gertler FB, Scott ML, and van Parijs L (2003) A lentivirus-based system to functionally silence genes in primary mammalian cells, stem cells and transgenic mice by RNA interference. Nature Genetics 33(3): 401-6 (March). ; Figures & tables open access. Authors list subsequently changed twice by "corrigenda": June 2003 (34(2): 231) (Open access) & June 2007 (following ref.).
Rubinson DA, Dillon CP, Kwiatkowski AV, Sievers C, Yang L, Kopinja J, Zhang M, McManus MT, Gertler FB, Scott ML, and van Parijs L (2007) Corrigendum: A lentivirus-based system... Nature Genetics 39(6): 803 (June). Open access; Data in original paper actually removed from site.
Kelly E, Won A, Refaeli Y, and van Parijs L (2002) IL-2 and related cytokines can promote T cell survival by activating AKT. Journal of Immunology 168(2): 597-603 (15 January). ; Open access.
Kelly E, Won A, Refaeli Y, and van Parijs L (2007) Erratum: IL-2 and related cytokines... Journal of Immunology 179(12): 8569 (15 December). "Retraction" of Figure 5B. Open access.
Layer K, Lin G, Nencioni A, Hu W, Schmucker A, Antov AN, Li X, Takamatsu S, Chevassut T, Dower NA, Stang SL, Beier D, Buhlmann J, Bronson RT, Elkon KB, Stone JC, Van Parijs L, and Lim B (2003) Autoimmunity as the consequence of a spontaneous mutation in Rasgrp1. Immunity 19(2): 243-55 (August). ; Open access.
Fig. 6A falsified according to ORI findings of misconduct published 23 Jan 2009.

News media
(Chronological)

 Robert L. Hotz, "Caltech President Who Raised School's Profile to Step Down" (Los Angeles Times, 4 Oct. 2005, P. A1)
 MIT News Office, "MIT professor dismissed for research misconduct" (press release) 27 Oct. 2005; published in News Office's TechTalk 2 Nov. 2005 (50(7): 3, 6)
 Boston Globe, "MIT professor is fired over fabricated data," 28 Oct. 2005
 Samuel Reich, Eugenie (2005) MIT professor sacked for fabricating data. NewScientist.com (28 Oct.)
 New York Times, "M.I.T. Dismisses a Researcher, Saying He Fabricated Some Data," 28 Oct. 2005
 The Tech (MIT student paper), "MIT Fires Professor Van Parijs for Using Fake Data in Papers," 28 Oct. 2005
 Boston Globe, "More doubts raised on fired MIT professor," 29 Oct. 2005
 Harvard Crimson, "MIT Professor Fired for Faking Data," 31 Oct. 2005
 The Tech, "Van Parijs' Research at Caltech, Brigham Drawing New Scrutiny," 1 Nov. 2005
 TheScientist.com, "Immunologists prepare for fraud fallout," 3 Nov. 2005
 Dalton, R. (2005) Universities scramble to assess scope of falsified results. Nature 438(7064): 7 (3 Nov.)
  Couzin, J. (2005) MIT terminates researcher over data fabrication. Science 310(5749): 758 (4 Nov.)
 New Scientist, "One bad apple..." (unsigned editorial), 5 Nov. 2005
 Chronicle of Higher Education, "MIT Fires Biology Professor Who Admitted Faking Data," 11 Nov. 2005  (Payment or subscription required.)
 unsigned editorial (2006) Scientific blues. Nature Immunology 7(1): 1 (1 Jan.)
 Reich, E.S. (2006) Bad data fail to halt patents. Nature 439(7075): 379 (26 Jan.)
 Odling-Smee, L., Giles, J., Fuyuno, I., Cyranoski, D., & Marris, E. (2007) Misconduct Special: Where are they now? Nature 445(7125): 244-5 (18 Jan.)
 Reich, E.S. (2007) Scientific misconduct report still under wraps. New Scientist ?(2631): 16 (24 Nov.)
 Reich, E.S. (2009) Former MIT biologist penalized for falsifying data. Nature.com (3 Feb.) Nature News or here
 Reich, E.S. (2009) Beating the science cheats. New Scientist ?(2706): 22 (2 May)

See also
 List of scientific misconduct incidents

External links
 ScienceInsider Former MIT Researcher Convicted of Fraud
 Nature Biologist spared jail for grant fraud: A prompt confession and apparent remorse helped a former MIT researcher to secure a lighter sentence.
 MIT News Office: MIT professor dismissed for research misconduct
 PubMed search: "van parijs l" [AU]
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1970 births
Living people
21st-century American biologists
Academic scandals
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Harvard Medical School alumni
People involved in scientific misconduct incidents

Luk Van Parijs


Córdoba is a city in the center of Argentina, about 700 km from Buenos Aires. It is the capital of Córdoba Province. As of 2006 Córdoba has a population of over 1,300,000 inhabitants, making it Argentina's second largest city.

Cordoba, sometimes abbreviated Cba, is the capital of the same name province and from Buenos Aires Argentina's most populous city. Consequently, it is an important centre for cultural, economic, financial and entertainment. Cordoba is referred also as La Docta and to the city of bells.

It is in the central region of the country, on both banks of the River Suquía. It is the only Department Capital municipality. Communal participation centers that decentralized is administratively divided into eleven. The provincial census 2008 established a population of 1.309.536 inhabitants, which indicates that the same grows to rate decreasing.

Shaped a square of 24 km side, totalling an area of 576 km². Limited to the North with the Columbus Department; East with the Columbus (North of the River Suquía) Department and Department Santa Maria (South of the Suquía River); the Santa María Department in the South and West with Santa Department Mary (South of the Suquía River) and the colon (North of the River Suquía) Department.

Córdoba was founded by from Seville Jerome, Luis Cabrera on 6 July in 1573 as a people of Spanish to serve as a refuge for indigenous to be able to navigate and traded freely. The city was declared provisional capital on two occasions, the first 1806 (such as capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata during the English invasions), and then click 1955 during the events of the Revolution freedom. It is the second largest since the beginning of radiation metropolis industrialists.

Much of the mass transit (during the day are more than 700 units) system works 24 hours, as well as the guards of the hospitals.

Cordoba is an important cultural, receiving factory of university students throughout the country and the world. [ 10 ] your University the first to have been founded in Argentina and the oldest fourth in America, was founded in 1613. It is considered one of the most important of the continent. Has more than one hundred thousand students.

The city has important historical, cultural and tourist points. The Cañada de Córdoba It is the partial channelling of a stream which crosses the city of South to North. The Arc of Cordoba is an important symbol in the Southeast, deposit on Route 9 national. In 2000 the UNESCO declared the Apple Jesuit heritage and American Capital of culture that year was appointed in 2006.

Its skyline is rather low buildings (11-18 floors), but in neighbourhoods as New Córdoba the density is high. The Tower Angela, 30-story is the highest building.

Cordoba economy relies heavily on the commercial sector (57 per cent of companies), services (31%) and industrial (11%), although respect this last sector is important to clarify that while the number of companies is not as important as in the commercial sector, its weight in the economy it is. The primary sector, still low in comparison to the rest of the province, has its place in the green belt, on the outskirts of the area urban. [ 12 ] In 2007 the Geographical gross product was $10.939.049.000 (1993 purchasing power party) representing approximately 3.65 per cent of the Gross domestic product of the country.

Major deficits in Córdoba include social inclusion (via education) of the inhabitants of the poor districts and villas misery. On the urban side one of the main problems is the system define, which is overwhelmed and only reaches 50.3 per cent of the population, the value lowest between major cities of the country.

It occurred in Córdoba made of historical relevance. It was Centre of the university reform in 1918, the industrialization of 1930, the Revolution freedom in 1955 and the Cordobazo, in 1969.

Capitals of Argentine provinces

1573 establishments
16th-century establishments in Argentina

Córdoba, Argentina


John Hays Hammond (March 31, 1855 – June 8, 1936) was an American mining engineer, diplomat, and philanthropist. He amassed a sizable fortune before the age of 40. An early advocate of deep mining, Hammond was given complete charge of Cecil Rhodes' mines in South Africa and made each undertaking a financial success. He was a main force planning and executing the Jameson Raid in 1895. It was a fiasco and Hammond, along with the other leaders of the Johannesburg Reform Committee, was arrested and sentenced to death. The Reform Committee leaders were released after paying large fines, but like many of the leaders, Hammond escaped Africa for good. He returned to the United States, became a close friend of President William Howard Taft, and was appointed a special ambassador. At the same time, he continued to develop mines in Mexico and California and, in 1923, he made another fortune while drilling for oil with the Burnham Exploration Company.

Early life
Hammond was the son of Major Richard Pindell Hammond, a West Point graduate who fought in the Mexican War, and Sarah, daughter of Harmon Hays and his wife, née Elizabeth Cage. Sarah was sister to Captain John Coffee Hays of the Texas Rangers, and had formerly been married to Calvin Lea. The family moved in 1849 to California to prospect in the California gold rush, and young John was born in San Francisco. After an adventurous boyhood in the American Old West, Hammond went East to attend the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, where he earned a Bachelor of Philosophy in 1876, and later attended the Royal School of Mines, Freiberg, Germany, 1876–1879, and there he met his wife-to-be, Natalie Harris.

Mining career
Hammond took his first mining job as a special expert for the US Geological Survey 1879-1880 in Washington, DC. He returned to California in 1881 to work for Senator George Hearst, the mining magnate and father of William Randolph Hearst. In 1882, he was sent to hostile country in Mexico, near Sonora, to become superintendent of Minas Nuevas. When a revolution broke out, Hammond barricaded his family in a small house and fought off the attacking guerrillas.

From 1884-1893, Hammond worked in San Francisco as a consulting engineer for Union Iron Works, Central Pacific Railway and Southern Pacific Railway. In 1893, Hammond left for South Africa to investigate the gold mines in Transvaal for the Barnato Brothers. In 1894, he joined the British South Africa Company to work with Cecil Rhodes and opened mines in the Rand, in Mashonaland (territory which became Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). In 1895, he was managing Rhodes' property in Transvaal, with headquarters at Johannesburg, South Africa. An early advocate of deep-level mining, Hammond was given complete charge of Rhodes' gold and diamond mines and made each undertaking a financial success. While working for Rhodes, he made his worldwide reputation as an engineer. He continued to work for Rhodes until 1899, but events in Africa would go on to change Hammond's life forever.

Reform Committee of Transvaal

When Hammond arrived in the Transvaal, the political situation was tense. The gold rush had brought in a considerable foreign population of workers, chiefly British and American, whom the Boers referred to as "Uitlanders" (foreigners). These immigrants, manipulated by Rhodes, formed a Reform Committee headed by Colonel Frank Rhodes (brother of Cecil), Hammond, and others. They demanded a stable constitution, a fair franchise law, an independent judiciary, a better educational system, and charged that the Government under President Paul Kruger had made promises, but failed to keep them. These demands were orchestrated by Rhodes, knowing that Kruger would never accede to them, justifying subsequent intervention by the British government to protect the supposed interests of British miners, the vast majority of whom had no desire to vote or settle in the Transvaal. Civility finally collapsed when Leander Starr Jameson, the British South Africa Company's Administrator General for Matabeleland, prematurely invaded the Transvaal with 1 500 troops in the ill-fated Jameson Raid and was captured by the Boers in December 1895. Shortly thereafter, the Boer government arrested Hammond and most of members of the Reform Committee and kept them in deplorable conditions. The U.S. Senate petitioned President Kruger for clemency.

The Reform Committee case was heard in April. Hammond, Lionel Phillips, George Farrar, Frank Rhodes and Percy Fitzpatrick, all of whom had signed an incriminating document found with Jameson's raiders, were sentenced to be hanged, but Kruger commuted the sentence the next day. For the next few weeks, Hammond and the others were kept in jail under deplorable conditions. In May it was announced that they would spend 15 years in prison, but by mid-June Kruger commuted the sentences of all, Hammond and the other lesser figures each paying a £2,000 fine. The ringleaders had been shipped off to London to be dealt with by the imperial Government, paying fines of £25,000 each. All fines, amounting to some £300,000, were paid by Rhodes. Shortly hereafter, Hammond left for England.

Return to United States

About 1900, the now-famous Hammond moved to the U.S. and reported on mining properties in the U.S. and Mexico. He reported on the value of the Camp Bird Mine in Colorado, pursuant to its sale in 1902. His report on Winfield Scott Stratton's Independence mine, also in Colorado, and then being floated on the London market, revealed that the ore reserves had been greatly overvalued, and burst the stock bubble. He became a professor of mining engineering at Yale University 1902-1909, and from 1903–1907, he was employed by Daniel Guggenheim as a highly paid general manager and consulting engineer for the Guggenheim Exploration Company (Guggenex).

Hammond's five-year contract included a $250,000 base salary and "an interest from each property that he brought in to Guggenex." He earned $1.2 million in the first year alone. He employed Pope Yeatman, his eventual successor at Guggenex, and Alfred Chester Beatty.

Politics
In 1907, Hammond became the first president of the Rocky Mountain Club and he remained president of the club until it disbanded in 1928. Hammond was also active in the Republican Party and he became a close friend of President William Howard Taft whom he had known since his student days at Yale. In early 1908 it was announced that Hammond was a candidate for Vice-President for the Republican party, but he did not receive many delegates at the national convention. Nevertheless, he became acquainted with many prominent politicians at the convention and became the president of the League of Republican Clubs. He moved to Washington to be closer to the President and he accompanied President Taft on many excursions. In 1911, Taft then sent him to the coronation of George V as a special U.S. Ambassador, and twice sent him to assist Nicholas II of Russia on irrigation and other engineering problems. In addition to Taft, Hammond also befriended Presidents Grant, Hayes, Roosevelt, and Coolidge.

Hammond became chairman of the U.S. Coal Commission, 1922-1923. His close friendship and longtime business associations with Frederick Russell Burnham, the highly decorated Scout who he knew from Africa, led Hammond to become a wealthy oil man when Burnham Exploration Company struck oil at Dominguez Oil Field, near Carson, California, in 1923.

May 1926: A Celebration of Hammond

In May 1926, an organization called "The Company of Friends of John Hays Hammond" sponsored eleven dinners around the world (Manhattan, San Francisco, London, Paris, Tokyo, Manila, etc.) in honor of Hammond. Over 10,000 people wrote tributes to Hammond, including: Hearst whose father gave him his first job, Woolf Barnato whose father (Barney Barnato) took him to South Africa, Sir Lionel Phillips who was condemned to death with him, the Guggenheims who employed him at a fabulous salary, former President Taft who offered him an ambassador position, and President Calvin Coolidge who consulted with him on the coal situation. The event was so extraordinary that Time magazine put Hammond on the cover of the May 10, 1926 issue and ran a biographical sketch on him called "Unique".

He died of coronary occlusion on June 8, 1936, in Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Family

He married Natalie Harris (1859 – 1931), of Harrisville, Mississippi (40 miles SSW south of the state capital, Jackson) on January 1, 1881, in Hancock, Maryland. Together they had four sons and one daughter:

Harris Hays Hammond (1881 - 1969), a financier, became president of Dominguez Oil Fields Company, which earned him $2 million in 1936, and president of Laughlin Filter Corporation, a small New Jersey company which manufactures centrifuges. In 1928, he and Anthony "Tony" Joseph Drexel Biddle Jr. were among the directors of Acoustic Products Co., which later became Sonora Products Corp. of America.

John Hays Hammond, Jr. (1888 - 1965) was born in San Francisco, California. In 1893 he moved with his family to South Africa, and five years later the family moved to England. The family returned to the United States in 1900, and Hammond attended Lawrenceville School, started inventing, and went on to study at the Sheffield School of Yale University, graduating in 1910. He established the Hammond Radio Research Corporation in 1911 and eventually developed a radio controlled torpedo system for the navy, which he successfully demonstrated in 1918. Between 1926 and 1929, he built a medieval-style castle in Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Natalie Hays Hammond (1904 – 1985) was born in Lakewood, New Jersey. Her estate in North Salem, New York was converted into the Hammond Museum & Japanese Stroll Garden in 1957.

Nathaniel Harris Hammond (1902 - 1907) and Richard Pindle Hammond (1896 – 1980), composer, were the two other children.

John Hays Hammond died in 1936 at the age of 81 in an easy chair in his showplace at Gloucester, Massachusetts. He left an estate estimated at $2.5 million, mostly to his four surviving children: inventor John Hays Hammond Jr.; artist Natalie Hays Hammond; composer Richard Pindle Hammond; and financier Harris Hays Hammond.

Awards
The Franklin Institute awarded John Hays Hammond Jr. the Elliott Cresson Medal for life achievement in 1959. He has been called the 'Father of Radio Control'.

Bibliography

Books
The milling of gold ores in California (1887)
A woman's part in a revolution (1897)
The truth about the Jameson raid (1918)
Great American Issues: Political Social Economic (1921)
The engineer (Vocational series) (1922)
The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond, volumes 1 and 2, (1935)

Other works
 South African Memories: Rhodes - Barnato - Burnham, published in Scribner's Magazine, vol. LXIX, January - June 1921
 Forward to, Scouting on Two Continents, by Major Frederick Russell Burnham, D.S.O., LC call number: DT775 .B8 1926. (1926)

See also
 List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s - 10 May 1926

References

Further reading
 Onselen, Charles van. The Cowboy Capitalist: John Hays Hammond, the American West, and the Jameson Raid (University of Virginia Press, 2018),
 Rotberg, Robert I. "The Jameson Raid: An American Imperial Plot?" Journal of Interdisciplinary History (2019) 49#4 pp 641–648.
 Frederick Russell Burnham Taking Chances, (1944) chapter XXXIV devoted to Hammond. LC call number: DT29 .B8. (1944)
 Spence, Clark C. Mining engineers & the American West; the lace-boot brigade, 1849-1933, . New Haven, Yale University Press, 1970. Yale Western Americana series 22.  (1970)
 John Hays Hammond, Sr. Papers. Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

External links

National Mining Hall of Fame biographical sketch
Hammond-Harwood House, Annapolis, Maryland
Guide to the John Hays Hammond, Sr, papers at Yale University
Time Magazine cover story, John Hays Hammond, May 10, 1926.

1855 births
1936 deaths
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Businesspeople from San Francisco
South African mining businesspeople
American mining engineers
People of the Second Boer War
Expatriates in Southern Rhodesia
American expatriates in Mexico
American businesspeople convicted of crimes
South African businesspeople
United States Geological Survey personnel
South African mining engineers
Engineers from California
American philanthropists

Washington, D.C., Republicans

Yale School of Engineering & Applied Science alumni
American emigrants
Immigrants to the South African Republic
19th-century South African engineers
20th-century South African engineers

John Hays Hammond


American Guerrilla in the Philippines (released as I Shall Return in the UK) is a 1950 American war film directed by Fritz Lang and starring Tyrone Power as a U.S. Navy ensign stranded by the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II. Based on the 1945 book of the same name by Ira Wolfert, it was filmed on location.

Plot
In April 1942 in the Philippines, an American motor torpedo boat is destroyed by Japanese planes. The survivors, among them Ensign Chuck Palmer (Tyrone Power), make their way ashore on Cebu. Their commander orders them to split up. Chuck pairs up with Jim Mitchell (Tom Ewell) and reaches Colonel Benson on Leyte, only to be told that he has been ordered by General Douglas MacArthur to surrender his forces soon.

Chuck helps Jeanne Martinez (Micheline Presle), a Frenchwoman married to a Filipino planter, get medical assistance for a pregnant woman. Jeanne pleads with Chuck to stay and fight, but he buys an outrigger canoe and recruits a crew of Air Corps soldiers in a desperate, but unsuccessful attempt to sail to Australia. When the boat founders, the crew is rescued by Miguel (Tommy Cook), a member of the Filipino resistance. The Americans evade capture and Chuck eventually meets Jeanne again, as well as her husband Juan (Juan Torena), a secret supporter of the resistance movement.

Chuck is ordered to stay in the Philippines to help set up a stay behind network to gather intelligence on the Japanese. Later, Juan is beaten to death in front of Jeanne in an attempt to find out where the guerrillas are hiding out. Jeanne joins the resistance and is reunited with Chuck at Christmas 1943. They begin to fall in love.

After three years of fighting, Chuck, Jeanne, Jim and the rest of their band are trapped in a church by a Japanese patrol. Just when it looks as if they will be wiped out, squadrons of American planes appear overhead and explosions are heard, announcing the liberation of the Philippines is underway. The Japanese leave to face this greater threat.

Cast
Tyrone Power as Ensign Chuck Palmer
Micheline Presle as Jeanne Martinez (as Micheline Prelle)
Tom Ewell as Jim Mitchell
Robert Patten as Lovejoy (as Bob Patten)
Tommy Cook as Miguel
Juan Torena as Juan Martinez
Jack Elam as The Speaker
Robert Barrat as General Douglas MacArthur

Production
US Navy Ensign Iliff "Rich" Richardson was the executive officer of PT 34. After its sinking by the Japanese, Richardson and a dozen fellow Americans attempted to sail a native outrigger to Australia, but the boat was sunk in a storm. He eventually joined the Philippine guerrilla forces, setting up a radio network to keep the various bands in touch with each other and Allied forces in Australia. After the liberation of the Philippines, Richardson dictated his memoirs to war correspondent Ira Wolfert, who published them in 1945 as An American Guerilla in the Philippines. The book became a Book-of-the-Month Club selection and was published in condensed form in the March 1945 issue of Reader's Digest.

Darryl F. Zanuck of 20th Century Fox bought the film rights and had Lamar Trotti write a screenplay by August 1945. Original plans were to film the movie in Puerto Rico with Fred MacMurray and William Bendix to be directed by Henry King, but later plans were to star John Payne and Linda Darnell to be filmed on Catalina Island. The end of the war led Zanuck to shelve all films with a World War II theme.

In 1950, American Guerrilla in the Philippines was the first American film made on location in the Philippines in color.  Fritz Lang was assigned the project, but said it was the least favorite of all his films. Though the story was well received in the Philippines, there was a protest that Filipino actors were left out of the credits, with the studio placing their names later.  Zanuck, who also worked on the script and edited it,  rushed the film's completion to tie in with the start of the Korean War.

Preservation
The Academy Film Archive preserved American Guerrilla in the Philippines in 2001.

References

External links

1950 films
1950 war films
20th Century Fox films
Pacific War films
Films directed by Fritz Lang
Films set in the Philippines
Japanese occupation of the Philippines films
American World War II films
Films with screenplays by Lamar Trotti
Films shot in the Philippines
Films scored by Cyril J. Mockridge
Films based on non-fiction books
American war films
1950s English-language films
1950s American films
Cultural depictions of Douglas MacArthur

American Guerrilla in the Philippines


When an object comes closer to the speed of sound (Mach 1), air pressure changes drastically, and there will be pressure waves around the object. This pressure will rise until the speed of Mach 1 is reached. At this point, it will suddenly decrease, and a sound burst will result. The speed of Mach 1, where this burst happens, is often called sound barrier. Aircraft wings had to be redesigned, so that certain aircraft can fly at speeds faster than Mach 1.

Thermodynamics

Sound barrier


Paratroopers are soldiers trained in parachuting and generally operate as part of an airborne force. Using paratroopers is called paradrop operations.

History
The idea of dropping soldiers from height dates back to Benjamin Franklin whose idea was to drop soldiers with parachutes from balloons. The idea was not very practical, but the development of aeroplanes in World War I meant that it was feasible (that is: a working idea) to drop soldiers with parachutes from air.

Italy was the first country which founded airborne forces in the 1930s. Germany and Soviet Union soon followed. Germany was the first country to use paratroopers, called Fallschirmjäger (German language for "parachute ranger") in combat in World War Two. Germany dropped paratroops in Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and Norway in 1940. United Kingdom founded its own airborne forces in 1941. The first British paradrop operation was a guerrilla strike against an important water line in Italy. In 1941, the Germans launched a massive paradrop operation in Crete, capturing the island from the British. The British troops had fought back so bitterly and caused so heavy casualties (that is: dead and wounded) to the German paratroopers that Adolf Hitler forbade any further paradrop operations.

When United States joined the war, it founded its own airborne forces. Americans made paradrops in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, France and Germany itself. The first really large paradrop operation was the Normandy invasion, called "Operation Overlord" 6.6. 1944 where the British dropped one and Americans dropped two divisions of paratroopers in Normandy, France to capture important bridges and traffic junctions.

The largest paradrop operation ever was Operation Market Garden in September 1944, which led into liberation of Belgium and capture of important ports at Rhine mouth. The last paradrop operation in World War Two was  Operation Varsity, which was used to secure the bridgeheads at River Rhine and to open roads to Germany itself.

The development of helicopter meant that troops could now be carried and landed quickly on the spot and there was no more need for large scale paradrop operations. The last large paradrop has been during the Suez Crisis 1951 when the British dropped a battalion of paratroops at Suez.

Troops
Paratroops are elite troops in all armies around the world. They work as light infantry, and receive an extremely hard and good training. They are taught to run, fight, carry weapons, move and survive in very difficult terrain and conditions. All paratroopers are always volunteers. To become a paratrooper, a soldier must be very fit, very intelligent, have a very good discipline and have enough courage to jump off an aeroplane.

Paratroopers are mainly used as rangers in modern warfare. A ranger is a soldier who is employed very far from home base, often behind enemy lines. Their main task is to capture important bridges, buildings, villages and other sites, do guerrilla strikes like blowing up an enemy railway line, capture enemy leaders and important soldiers and do long range reconnaissance (that is: scouting and gathering information of enemy troops, movements etc).

Many paratrooper units have their own names, such as British "Red Devils", American "Screaming Eagles" and "All American" and German "Green Devils".

Operations
Paratroopers are dropped off at a place where they are meant to operate.  This is called a drop zone (DZ).  Paratroopers usually jump from heights of 100 to 400 m. They usually use round "bell" parachutes and they use static line deployment. (See the article Parachute on how the static line works.) They usually carry pistols and rifles with them, and their other weapons and gear are dropped on containers at the same time.

Once the paratroopers have landed, they take off their parachute rigs and gather to designated places.  Their leaders then assign them orders.  For example they may capture a bridge so their troops can use it, or destroy it with explosives so the enemy cannot use it.

Paratroopers usually fight as light infantry.  They usually have few heavy weapons, and no tanks or heavy artillery.  Once the paratroopers have carried out their mission, they usually wait for their ground troops to arrive and take control.  They may continue to fight on the ground, or may return to base and prepare for the next drop.

References

Other websites
 Paratroop -Citizendium

Military occupations

Paratrooper


Ivan Andreevich Tolstoy () (1644–1713) was a Russian officer in the army of Tsar Peter I.

Ivan Andreevich was a member of prominent Tolstoy family, son of Andrey Vasiliyevich Tolstoy and Solomonida Miloslavskaya, older brother of Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy, distant relation of Maria Miloslavskaya (first wife of tzar Aleksey Mikhailovich).

The royal relations became very dangerous for brothers Tolstoys after Peter I took the power, as he hated his half-sister Sophia and distrusted all her Miloslavsky relatives. Despite this Peter respected the abilities of the Tolstoy brothers and allowed them to follow a military career: Ah head, head, were you not so clever I should have cut it off long ago - he actually said to Pyotr Tolstoy.

In 1703 Ivan Tolstoy was appointed  Governor of Azov - the fortress and naval base on the Black Sea that was  critically important in the confrontation between Russia and Turkey, bands of Don Cossacks and Kondraty Bulavin uprising. In 1708 Bulavin's forces accompanied by Turks and cossacks stormed Azov, but Tolstoy's troops were victorious and not only kept the fortress but according to historian Nikolay Tolstoy captured and hanged Bulavin himself. (According to other sources, Bulavin was killed by a renegade among his own cossacks). Ivan Tolstoy also marched his troops to take part in the Battle of Poltava in 1709.

In 1710 Ivan was replaced as a Governor of Azov by Admiral Apraxin. In 1712 after the disastrous Pruth Campaign, Azov was surrendered to Turkey. As a condition of peace, Turkey requested that the governor Ivan Tolstoy personally moved to Azov and surrendered the fortress to Turkey representative Achmed Pascha. Despite concerns that he might share the fate of his diplomat brother Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy, who was at that time thrown into Turkey's notorious prison Seven Towers, Ivan travelled to Azov and on the way back became ill and died in Cherkassk on 25 August 1713.

Sources
 Nikolay Tolstoy, The Tostoys: twenty-four generations of Russian History, London,1983,

1644 births
1713 deaths
Ivan Andreyevich
Military personnel of the Russian Empire

Ivan Andreyevich Tolstoy


Knowth is the name given to a number of passage graves, in the Boyne valley in Ireland. It consists of a bigger tumulus with two passages, and of 20 smaller ones. Of the smaller graves, 17 remain, 3 have been destroyed. Knowth is approximately 1 km west of Newgrange. It is probably older than Newgrange, which has been dated to about 3.150 BCE, but not as old as Dowth.  The main tumulus is one of the biggest to be found in Ireland.

County Meath

Knowth


Fire Blade is a flight simulation video game released in 2002 by Kuju Entertainment. In the game, the player takes control of an advanced helicopter gunship as a part of the Fire Blade task force, which in the arc of the game's story is responsible for fighting terrorism. The enemies of the game are the United Eastern States, who are believed to be building terrorist training camps and factories for weapons of mass destruction.

Gameplay
The game is similar in many respects to ThunderHawk: Operation Phoenix. However, in Fire Blade, the player is forced to be far less cautious unless on a stealth mission and is usually pitted against far larger numbers of enemies. The main element of the game is aggressively piloting the player's attack helicopters against large enemy armored formations and completing the main mission objectives, these vary in creativity from simply blowing up a bridge to aiding a special forces team in stopping a train by parking a truck across the tracks and stopping enemy troops from moving it.

A secondary element of the game is FPS-style sniping, when the player's helicopter enters "stealth mode" the autocannon is used as a precision sniper weapon that can be used to accurately target individual soldiers, allowing the player to snipe enemy infantry much like in an FPS.

Additional fuel and ammunition for the helicopter's jet boosters and heavier armaments are acquired from destroyed enemy vehicles instead of the more conventional reloading areas from games such as the Strike Series.

Reception

The game received "mixed or average reviews" on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.0

References

External links

2002 video games
Combat flight simulators
Xbox games
GameCube games
Helicopter video games
Kuju games
PlayStation 2 games
Midway video games
Sniper video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Fire Blade (video game)


A hockey stick is a long, wooden pole used to push, pass, or shoot in the sports of ice hockey and field hockey. The art of developing ice hockey sticks is a complex science and has become big business. Ice hockey sticks are mostly made of composite materials and they have different "flexes", meaning some sticks are more flexible than others.
In ice hockey, the end or blade of the stick is normally curved, to help the player get better control of the puck and better shots at the goaltender.  The goaltender has a bigger blade, to make it easier to stop shots.  Players sometimes use hockey sticks to hold back the bodies of other players, or to trip or hit them; sometimes players who do this get penalties. In field hockey, sticks are shorter, but the blade is thicker, than in ice hockey.  It is used to move a ball instead of a puck. More research has gone into studying how hockey sticks perform. The main difference between the two sticks is how they are used in the games.

All the players in both ice and field hockey use hockey sticks.

References

Sports equipment
Hockey

Hockey stick


A marker is a writing device that allows a person to draw, write, or scribble. Ink comes out of the tip of the marker and onto the writing surface, commonly a piece of paper. Markers generally come in a variety of different colors. They are sometimes referred to as "magic markers", or magic pens.

The tip of the marker where ink comes out from is usually made of cloth. This allows the ink to go through easily. A lot of ink can come out from it at one time.

Marker types

 Whiteboard markers are marker pens in which the ink can be rubbed out easily with tissues or dusters.
 Permanent markers are markers which the ink cannot be rubbed off.

Art
Writing tools

Marker


The Winter's Tale is a play by William Shakespeare, published in the First Folio, in 1623. It was grouped among the comedies, but some modern editors have relabelled the play as one of Shakespeare's late romances. Some critics, among them W. W. Lawrence, consider it to be one of Shakespeare's "problem plays", because the first three acts are filled with intense psychological drama, while the last two acts are comedic and supply a happy ending.

Despite this, the play has been popular, and there are different adaptations of it to the stage. The first was done by  David Garrick in his adaptation called Florizel and Perdita; first performed in 1754 and published in 1756. The Winter's Tale was revived again in the 19th century, when the third "pastoral" act was widely popular). In the second half of the 20th century The Winter's Tale  was often performed as a whole. The text was usually taken from the First Folio.

Plot
Polixenes, King of Bohemia, visits his old friend Leontes, King of Sicilia. Leontes wants Polixenes to stay longer, but at first Polixenes wants to go home. However, he is persuaded to stay for longer by Leontes's wife, Queen Hermione. Leontes starts to fear that Hermione and Polixenes are in love with each other. Leontes orders Lord Camillo to poison Polixenes, but Camillo decides to warn Polixenes instead and they run away together to Bohemia.

Leontes is furious. He accuses his wife of betraying him and puts her in prison. He orders two lords, Cleomenes and Dion, to visit the Oracle, a wise person who is believed to know everything. When Hermione gives birth to a daughter, Leontes believes that Polixenes is the girl's father. He orders Lord Antigonus to take the baby away and abandon her. Hermione is put on trial, when Cleomenes and Dion return with the Oracle's reply. Leontes does not want to hear it, but they read it out. The Oracle says that Hermione and Polixenes were never in love with each other, that Camillo is an honest man, and that Leontes will have no heir until his lost daughter is found.

News then comes in that Leontes's only son, Mamillus, has died. He fell ill after seeing his mother being accused by his father. Hermione then collapses. Leontes is then told that she has died. He is left in despair. He vows to make up for what he has done wrong and find his lost daughter. Meanwhile, Hermione appears to Antigonus in a dream and tells him to name the baby Perdita. He leaves the baby on the coast, with her name written down and some jewellery to show she comes from a noble family. He is then chased away by a bear (and probably killed). Perdita is later found by a shepherd.

Sixteen years pass. Camillo lives with Polixenes but wants to return home to Sicilia. Polixenes believes his son, Prince Florizel, has fallen in love with a shepherd girl called Perdita. Polixenes and Camillo disguise themselves and go to the shepherd's feast to see if this is true. They watch Florizel get engaged with Perdita at the feast. Polixenes then removes his disguise and angrily tells his son never to see Perdita again. Camillo steps in and instead takes Florizel and Perdita to Sicilia, with the shepherd's family joining them.

Back in Sicilia, Leontes is still mourning his family. Cleomenes and Dion want the king to marry again, but Leontes believes no woman would be as good as Hermione, and his servant Paulina agrees. Florizel arrives and tries to hide why he has come, but it gets revealed once Polixenes and Camillo also arrive. After all that has happened, everyone becomes friends again. Once Leontes learns that the shepherds raised Perdita, he decides to make them lords in his kingdom. Paulina then takes them to see a statue of Hermione that has just been finished. The statue comes to life, and Hermione is alive once more. Everyone celebrates the miracle.

About the play
Like most of Shakespeare's plays, it was based off an existing story. It is mainly based off a 1588 play called Pandosto by Robert Greene. Shakespeare made less changes to the story than he would usually make. The main difference is that he changed it from a sad ending to a happy ending. Shakespeare made other, smaller changes. All the characters have different names, and Bohemia and Sicilia are swapped around.

The play has five "acts" (parts). The first three acts have tense drama. A character called "Time" briefly appears to announce the sixteen-year time jump between the third and fourth acts. The last two acts are much lighter in tone. They are like the "pastoral" plays that were popular around Shakespeare's time, which were light plays that were set in the countryside. Although the play has a happy ending, some of the tragedy cannot be undone: Mamillus is still dead, and the bad things that happened in the past cannot be forgotten.

It appears Shakespeare was not trying to make the play realistic. Many things in the play suggest it is set in Europe in Shakespeare's day, but the "Oracle of Delphos" sounds like the Oracle of Delphi in Ancient Greece. This was located in the mountains, not on an island like in the play. In the play, it is also said that Bohemia has a coastline and deserts. The real Bohemia was located where the Czech Republic is now located. It never had a coastline or deserts. Shakespeare might have chosen to make it unrealistic, in order to make the play feel more like a fantasy.

The play also has a famous moment when Antigonus is chased away by a bear. In the stage directions, this is written as "Exit, pursued by a bear." It is not known whether Shakespeare used a real bear, or whether it was an actor dressed as a bear.

It is not clear how Hermione returns at the end of the play. The play suggests it might be magic, but it also suggests that Hermione was alive all along.

References

Plays by William Shakespeare
1610s plays

The Winter's Tale


Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925) was a German mathematician and philosopher. Today, he is remembered for the work he did in mathematical logic and the foundations of first order logic and mathematics. He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on the philosophy of language and mathematics.  When he published his works, they were mostly ignored by others of his time.  Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) introduced his work to later generations of logicians and philosophers.

Writings
An overview of Frege's writings  including  English translations, at the university of Berkeley.

1848 births
1925 deaths
German mathematicians
German philosophers

Gottlob Frege


The Zuidwal volcano is an extinct volcano in the Netherlands at more than  below ground under the Wadden Sea, between Harlingen and Vlieland, just south west of the island Griend. The volcano was last active during the late Jurassic, (about 160 - 148 Ma ago) and has since been covered by about  of sedimentary rock, most of it shale and sandstone from the Cretaceous.

Discovery
The volcano was discovered in 1970 when the French oil company Elf Aquitaine was doing test drills in the Wadden Sea, hoping to find a gas field that a seismic survey had indicated. To their surprise they hit volcanic rock beneath the reservoir rock, which turned out to be an extinct volcano. The gas field went in production in 1988 and is still producing gas. Another clue indicating the presence of the volcano was the temperature. While the usual temperature at that depth is about , they found .

Volcano

The volcano has a height of approximately  and a circumference of several kilometers. The volcano was formed about 160 million years ago, during a time of orogenesis on the European continent. The eruptions were short and severe with heavy explosions. This, along with the mineral composition, points to volcanic activity as a result of subduction far away from the volcano. During the Cimmerian Orogeny, the Cimmerian Plate collided with Kazakhstania, sending shock waves through the Eurasian Plate, resulting in volcanism.

The volcano is covered by layers of sandstone from the early Cretaceous that act as reservoir rock for the gas. The seal rock consists of shale.

The volcanic rock is magnetic, creating a magnetic anomaly.

See also
 Mulciber (volcano)

References

External links
Vulkaan in Nederland – Wetenschap24.nl

Volcanoes of the Netherlands
Wadden Sea
Jurassic volcanoes
Extinct volcanoes of Europe
Magnetic anomalies
Stratovolcanoes

Zuidwal volcano


Mycoplasma pneumonia (also known as "walking pneumonia") is a form of bacterial pneumonia caused by the bacterial species Mycoplasma pneumoniae. It is also known as PPLO, which is an acronym for Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism.

Pathophysiology
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is spread through respiratory droplet transmission. Once attached to the mucosa of a host organism, M. pneumoniae extracts nutrients, grows, and reproduces by binary fission. Attachment sites include the upper and lower respiratory tract, causing pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia. The infection caused by this bacterium is called atypical pneumonia because of its protracted course and lack of sputum production and wealth of extrapulmonary symptoms. Chronic Mycoplasma infections have been implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatological diseases.

Mycoplasma atypical pneumonia can be complicated by Stevens–Johnson syndrome, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, cardiovascular diseases, encephalitis, or Guillain–Barré syndrome.

Diagnosis
M. pneumoniae infections can be differentiated from other types of pneumonia by the relatively slow progression of symptoms.  A positive blood test for cold-hemagglutinins in 50–70% of patients after 10 days of infection (cold-hemagglutinin-test should be used with caution or not at all, since 50% of the tests are false-positive), lack of bacteria in a Gram-stained sputum sample, and a lack of growth on blood agar.

PCR has also been used.

Treatment
While antibiotics with activity specifically against M. pneumoniae are often used (e.g., erythromycin, doxycycline), it is unclear if these result in greater benefit than using antibiotics without specific activity against this organism in those with an infection acquired in the community.

See also
Mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine

References

External links

Pneumonia
Bacterial diseases

Mycoplasma pneumonia


The Thirty-Nine Articles are the historic statements of Anglican beliefs. The Articles were not meant to be a complete statement of the Christian faith.  They are a statement of the position of the Church of England against the Roman Catholic Church and against Protestants.

History
The articles were made in 1563, under the direction of Archbishop Matthew Parker, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. They are based on the Forty-Two Articles written under the direction of Thomas Cranmer in 1552 and passed under Edward VI of England in 1553. They are printed in the Book of Common Prayer and other Anglican prayer books. Priests, deacons, and bishops of the Church of England have to take an oath that what is said in the Articles is "agreeable to the Word of God." Other Anglican churches do not make such a requirement.

The Thirty-Nine Articles were needed because at that time in English history it was not possible to find an agreement about Protestantism. Rather than have the church become divided, they needed a way to list the essentials of what the Church of England believed. John Henry Newman (one of the leading Tractarians in the mid 19th century), before he converted to Roman Catholicism, tried to show that the Articles could be seen in a way less hostile to Catholic belief.

Acceptance of the Articles
Outside the Church of England, Anglican opinions of the Thirty-Nine Articles vary. The Episcopal Church in the United States of America sees them as an historical document but does not make its members follow them. Anglican priest John Wesley changed the Thirty-Nine Articles for use by American Methodists in the 18th century. These new Articles of Religion are still the official United Methodist Church doctrine.

Other websites

Articles of Religion
 Anglican Communion resources relating to the Book of Common Prayer, including the articles of religion
 facsimile of a 1762 printing  from the above site
  The revised 1801 version adopted by the US Episcopal Church
Christian creeds
Protestant Reformation
1563
1560s works

Thirty-Nine Articles


Dr. Richard Alpert (April 6, 1931 – December 22, 2019), also known as Baba Ram Dass, was a spiritual teacher. He was the writer of Be Here Now, the bestseller book of 1971.

In the 1960s, professors Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert collaborated on a book titled The Psychedelic Experience, which adapted portions of the Tibetan Book of the Dead as a guide for use in LSD experiences. They hoped to give users of LSD a simulation of death and rebirth, to "liberate" them from past problems or mistakes in their lives.

Dass died on December 22, 2019 in Maui, Hawaii at the age of 88.

References

1931 births
2019 deaths
Educators from Boston
Writers from Boston

Ram Dass


The Volunteers in Police Service (VIPS) is a volunteer program that provides volunteer assistance to local police. The program is managed by the International Association of Chiefs of Police in partnership with the White House Office of the USA Freedom Corps and the Bureau of Justice Assistance, a component of the Office of Justice Programs. The program is part of the Citizen Corps partner program.

Similar programmes

 The United Kingdom has similar programme which was first started in 1992 whereby unpaid civilians hold the casual rank of Police Support Volunteer in British police forces and voluntarily work on a variety of police duties.
 Australia has some police forces, particularly New South Wales Police, with programmes called Volunteers in Policing. The program is very similar to the British counterpart except volunteers wear a uniform of blue shirt and black trousers.

References

External links

Citizen Corps

Volunteers in Police Service


Maria Amalia of Saxony (24 November 1724 – 27 September 1760) was a Duchess of Saxony of the House of Wettin and wife of Charles III of Spain. Married to the then King of Naples, at the death of her brother in law Ferdinand VI of Spain, she became the queen of Spain. A cultured woman, she left a considerable architectural legacy in her adopted countries. She was also one of the shortest reigning queen consorts in Spanish history.

Biography

She was born at Dresden Castle in Dresden and was the eldest surviving the daughter of Frederick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and Maria Josepha of Austria. She was one of 15 children and was baptised with the names Maria Amalia Christina Franziska Xaveria Flora Walburga.

Marriage

In 1737 Maria Amalia became engaged to the King of Naples and Sicily, the future Charles III of Spain. The marriage was confirmed on 31 October 1737. The following year, 1738, at the age of 14, Maria Amalia married King Charles, on 19 June at Gaeta, a proxy wedding having taken place in May the same year with her brother, Frederick Christian of Saxony representing Charles.

Queen of Naples

The couple resided in Naples and were very content. This marriage was looked upon favourably by the Holy See and effectively meant the conclusion of the diplomatic disagreement Charles and the See had had. Festivities lasted till 3 July. Maria Amalia was a very cultivated woman and played an important role in the construction of the Caserta Palace as well as the Palace of Portici, Teatro di San Carlo, Palace of Capodimonte as well as the Royal Palace of Naples. She also popularised Neapolitan porcelain at the "Capodimonte Porcelain Manufactory"  in 1743. Maria Amalia was also a patron of the composer Gian Francesco Fortunati who was a favourite at the Neapolitan court. She ans Charles eventually had 13 children.

Queen of Spain

At the end of 1758, Charles' half brother Ferdinand VI was displaying the same symptoms of depression that his their father used to suffer from. Ferdinand lost his devoted wife, Barbara of Portugal in August 1758 and would fall into deep morning for her. He named Charles his heir on 10 December 1758 before leaving Madrid to stay at Villaviciosa de Odón where he died on 10 August 1759. Charles was thus proclaimed the King of Spain under the name of Charles III and adicated as King of Naples as he could not join the three kingdoms of Spain, Naples and Sicily.

That same year they left Naples for Madrid, leaving two of their children behind in Caserta. Her third son became Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, while his elder brother Infante Charles was groomed in Spain to inherit the Spanish crown. Her oldest son the Duke of Calabria was mentally retarded and was thus could not inherit the thrones.

Charles and his wife arrived in Barcelona on 7 October 1759. Residing in Spain, Maria Amalia once again did much to improve the royal residences having them redecorated and founded another porcelain factory at "Buen Retiro". A popular queen, she died of tuberculosis at the Buen Retiro Palace outside the capital having been a heavy smoker. She was buried at the Royal Crypt in El Escorial.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

24 November 1724 – 17 January 1734 Her Serene Highness Duchess Maria Amalia of Saxony
17 January 1734 – 19 June 1738 Her Royal Highness Princess Maria Amalia of Saxony, Duchess in Saxony
19 June 1738 – 10 August 1759 Her Majesty The Queen of Naples and Sicily
10 August 1759 – 27 September 1760 Her Majesty The Queen of Spain

House of Wettin
1724 births
1760 deaths
Deaths from tuberculosis
Spanish House of Bourbon
Kings and Queens consort of Spain

Maria Amalia of Saxony


Ascanius (; Ancient Greek:  Ἀσκάνιος) was a legendary king of Alba Longa (1176-1138 BC) and is the son of the Trojan hero Aeneas and Creusa, daughter of Priam. He is a character in Roman mythology, and has a divine lineage, being the son of Aeneas, who is the son of the goddess Venus and the hero Anchises, a relative of the king Priam; thus Ascanius has divine ascendents by both parents, being descendants of god Jupiter and Dardanus. He is also an ancestor of Romulus, Remus and the Gens Julia. Together with his father, he is a major character in Virgil's Aeneid, and he is depicted as one of the founders of the Roman race.

Mythology
In Greek and Roman mythology, Ascanius was the son of the Trojan prince Aeneas and Creusa, daughter of Priam. After the Trojan War, as the city burned, Aeneas escaped to Latium in Italy, taking his father Anchises and his child Ascanius with him, though Creusa died during the escape.

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ascanius' original name was Euryleon and this name was changed to Ascanius after his flight from Troy. According to Virgil, Ascanius was also called Iulus or Julus. The Gens Julia, or the Julians, the clan to which Julius Caesar belonged, claimed to have been descended from Ascanius/Iulus, his father Aeneas, and, ultimately, the goddess Venus, the mother of Aeneas in myth, his father being the mortal Anchises.

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, however, Julus was a son of Ascanius who disputed the succession of the kingdom of Alba Longa with Silvius, upon the death of Ascanius.

According to another legend mentioned by Livy, Ascanius may have been the son of Aeneas and Lavinia and thus born in Latium, not Troy. Ascanius later fought in the Italian Wars along with his father Aeneas.

After the death of Aeneas, Ascanius became king of Lavinium and an Etruscan king named Mezentius took advantage of the occasion to besiege the city. Mezentius succeeded in making the city surrender and agree to pay a yearly tribute. Upon his retirement, Ascanius fell upon him and his army unaware and entirely defeated Mezentius and killed his son Lausus. Mezentius was forced to agree to pay a yearly tribute.  Subsequent to this, exactly thirty years after the founding of Lavinium, Ascanius founded the city of Alba Longa and became its first king. He left Lavinia in charge of the city of Lavinium. Ascanius was succeeded by Silvius, who was either his younger brother or his son. Ascanius died in the 28th year of his reign.

Aeneid

However, in the Aeneid, Virgil claims that Mezentius fought in the Italian Wars at the time Aeneas was alive. In the Aeneid, it is Aeneas who kills Lausus after harming Mezentius, who escaped while his son faced the Trojan king. When the news about Lausus' death reaches Mezentius, he comes back to face Aeneas, and is killed too. In this account, Ascanius does not participate in these deaths.

Nevertheless, Virgil shows Ascanius' first experience at war. In the Aeneid, Ascanius is a teenager without real war experiences, but while besieged by the Italians, Ascanius launches an arrow against Numanus, the husband of the youngest sister of Turnus. After killing Numanus, Apollo comes and says to Ascanius:

Macte nova virtute, puer:  sic itur ad astra,
dis genite et geniture deos.

This phrase can be translated into English as: "Go forth with new value, boy: thus is the path to the stars; son of gods that will have gods as sons." or "Blessings on your fresh courage, boy, scion of gods and ancestor of gods yet to be, so it is man rises to the stars." In this verse, Virgil makes a clear reference to the offspring of Iulus, from whom Augustus Caesar claimed descent. Therefore, in this verse Virgil refers to the Gens Julia, the family of Augustus and Julius Caesar, who was deified after his death.

The sic itur ad astra become almost proverbial and several mottos use an ad astra phrase. After this episode, Apollo orders to the Trojans to keep Ascanius away from the war.

In this same episode Ascanius, before launching the fatal arrow in Numanus, prays to Jupiter, saying: Jupiter omnipotens, audacibus annue cœptis ("Omnipotent Jupiter, please favour my bold attempt"). The last part of the hexameter became the United States motto annuit coeptis.

The name Iulus was popularised by Virgil in the Aeneid: replacing the Greek name Ascanius with Iulus linked the Julian family of Rome to earlier mythology. The emperor Augustus, who commissioned the work, was a great patron of the arts. As a member of the Julian family, he could claim to have four major Olympian gods in his family tree: (Jupiter, Juno, Venus and Mars), so he encouraged his many poets to emphasize his supposed descent from Aeneas.

See also
Augustan literature
Gens Julia
Kingdom of Rome
The Golden Bough (mythology)

Notes

References
 Livy, Ab urbe condita Book 1.
 Virgil, Aeneid, Book IX.

External links

The Aeneid in Latin
The Aeneid in English

Characters in Roman mythology
Characters in the Aeneid
Kings of Alba Longa
Kings in Greek mythology

Ascanius


iOS 11 is the eleventh major release of the iOS mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc., coming after iOS 10. It was announced at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference on June 5, 2017, and released on September 19, 2017.

Some of iOS 11's changes: the lock screen and Notification Center are combined, allowing all notifications to be displayed directly on the lock screen. The various pages of the Control Center are unified, gaining custom settings and the ability to 3D Touch icons for more options. The App Store receives a big visual change to focus on editorial content and daily highlights. A "Files" file manager app allows direct access to files stored locally and in cloud services. Siri can now translate between languages and use a privacy-minded "on-device learning" technique to better understand a user's interests and offer suggestions. The camera has new settings for better portrait-mode photos and will use new encoding technologies to reduce file sizes on newer devices. In a future release, Messages will be used with iCloud to better synchronize messages across iOS and macOS devices. A previous point release also added support for person-to-person Apple Pay payments. The operating system also introduces the ability to record the screen, limited forms of drag-and-drop functionality, and support for augmented reality. Certain new features will appear only on iPad, including an always-accessible application dock, cross-app drag-and-drop, and a new user interface to show multiple apps at once.

iOS 11 received mixed reviews. People significantly praised the application dock and new multitasking interface on the iPad, crediting them for renewing the user experience. Further praise was directed at the redesigned Control Center offering customizable toggles, though it was criticized for lack of third-party app support, lack of Wi-Fi network selection ability and for difficult usage on small screen sizes, along with its instability. People also noted the new augmented reality development tools, but said their impact would depend on third-party apps and how fast developers embraced them. Praise was also directed at the App Store's redesign and the new file-management tools. Shortly after release, it was discovered that disabling Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connections through the Control Center does not disable the respective chips in the device in order to remain functional for background connectivity, a design decision sparking criticism for "misleading" users and reducing security due to potential vulnerabilities in inactive open connections. The iOS 11.2 update added warning messages and a new toggle color to explain the new functions. iOS 11 has also received continuous criticism from reviewers and end-users for its perceived stability and performance issues, particularly on older devices; Apple has issued numerous software updates to address such issues.

Two months after release, 52% of iOS devices were running iOS 11, a slower adoption rate than previous iOS versions. The number increased to 81% of devices by May 2018.

On June 4, 2018, at the Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced its successor, iOS 12.

Changes

Messages
The user now has the option of downloading applications from a app store in Messages.

References

Operating systems
11

IOS 11


Johannes Ockeghem (born Saint-Ghislain, near Mons, Belgium about 1410; died Tours, France, 6 February 1497), was the most famous composer of the Franco-Flemish School (from around the area which is now Belgium) in the last half of the 15th century, and is often thought of as the most important composer between Dufay and Josquin des Prez. He was an excellent choirmaster and teacher. He spent most of his life working for the French royal court.

Life

The name Ockeghem is found with many different spellings in old documents. He was almost certainly born in the town of Saint-Ghislain. His native language was probably French.

Like many composers in this period, he started to learn about music by singing in a church choir, quite possibly in Saint-Ghislain and then in Mons.

His first important job was working for Charles I, Duke of Bourbon in Moulins, (France). Then in 1451 he went to work for King Charles VII of France. By this time he was well known as a singer and composer. He worked for the royal court for more than 50 years and was rewarded with promotions and honours. Charles VII gave him important jobs. After Charles VII's death Louis XI became king. He reigned for a long time and Ockeghem was in favour with the king. He often travelled with the king, visiting places such as Cambrai and even as far as Spain. He met famous people including the composers Dufay and Binchois. He also had other jobs in Paris.

Louis XI died in 1483. We do not kinow much about where Ockeghem went after that, but he probably died in Tours because that is where he left his will.

Music and influence

Ockeghem was not a composer who wrote lots of music, but it is hard to tell as some of it might have got lost. There are 14 masses that survive and other vocal works. His Missa pro Defunctis is the earliest surviving polyphonic Requiem. Ockeghem based many of his masses on well-known tunes in a way that is called "cantus firmus technique". Sometimes he put the borrowed tunes in the lowest part (he sang bass himself). This was rather unusual.

Ockeghem's music influenced Josquin des Prez and other composers from Flanders and the Netherlands.

When Ockeghem died Josquin Des Prez composed a motet called La déploration de la mort de Johannes Ockeghem in his honour. The music theorist Johannes Tinctoris described him as a great musician and one of the best singers he knew. Many younger composers used some of Ockeghem's melodies as a base for their own compositions. In the Renaissance this kind of borrowing from the music ofc another composer was thought to be a great honour.

References

 Article "Johannes Ockeghem." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. (ISBN 1-56159-174-2)
 groves music online

1410s births
1497 deaths

Belgian composers
Renaissance composers
Franco-Flemish composers

Johannes Ockeghem