Ohio Columbus Barber (April 20, 1841 – February 4, 1920)  was an American businessman, industrialist and philanthropist.  He was called "America's Match King" because of his controlling interest in the Diamond Match Company, which had 85 percent of the market in 1881. He founded the city of Barberton, Ohio in 1891 and moved his manufacturing plant there in 1894.  It produced 250 million matches per day. He also founded the Akron City Hospital.

Biography
Ohio Columbus Barber (called O.C.) was born the second son of George and Eliza Barber in Middlebury, a small Ohio village later annexed by Akron. His father made matches by hand, which his sons sold door to door. O.C. received a common school education, and at age 15 began working for his father. At age 16, O.C. Barber became the company salesman.  At 20, he was a partner in the business, and by 21 the general manager.

The company had difficulties through the American Civil War, and O.C.'s older brother, George H. Barber, who was a soldier, died of dysentery, one of the many war casualties of disease.  By 1880 the Barber Company had become the biggest match-producing company in Ohio and one of the largest in the nation. Unregulated competition made it difficult for the Barber Company to keep stable. In 1881, the Barber Company and 11 other match-producing companies merged into the Diamond Match Company, which dominated the match market, holding 85 per cent of the U.S. Market.

Barber was long a leader in his own home town, Akron. He was, for many years, president of the First National Bank of Akron, and when it was consolidated with the Second National Bank under the name of the First-Second National Bank he was unanimously elected to the presidency of the combined institutions.

To expand manufacturing operations, Barber purchased a large area from Norton Township founding the city of Barberton in 1891. He intended it to be a model for industrial and residential development. Barber developed its early stages through The Barberton Land and Improvement Company. Within a few years, the city had expanded with industrial and residential areas, growing at such a rate it was nicknamed "Magic City". It attracted many new immigrants to its industrial jobs.

In 1894 Barber moved his match-making plant from Akron to Barberton, which helped the city's economy. The factory produced 250 million matches each day.

In 1889, Barber founded and organized the American Straw Board Company. He was one of the early manufacturers of rubber products, and organized and managed the Diamond Rubber Company up to the time of its acquisition by the B. F. Goodrich Company. The sewer-pipe and steel-tube industry next engaged his attention, and he became a western pioneer in this line of endeavor. He founded the Stirling Boiler Company which was merged with the Babcock & Wilcox Boiler Manufacturing Company of Barberton and Bayonne, New Jersey, the concern thus becoming the largest manufacturer of steel boilers in the world. For a number of years, they constructed four-fifths of the product used by the United States Navy.

One of the biggest achievements of Barber's career, particularly from the humanitarian and economical standpoints, was the establishment, with Frederick Grinnell and others, of the General Fire Extinguisher Company. Barber was the founder and sole owner of the O. C. Barber Concrete Company, whose plant at Barberton was said to be the largest of its kind in the world. It also made art works in concrete. He originated the O. C. Barber Fertilizer Company, of Barber, Virginia. He also undertook the development of large tracts of land in and about the city of Canton, Ohio, in connection with which he has organized and operated a large plant under the name of the O. C. Barber Allied Industries Company. Some of these lands contain valuable coal, lime, and clay properties.

He was the originator and guiding spirit of Barber Subways, at Cleveland. His plans called for the building of an underground system of subways connecting every railroad entering Cleveland, at the Lake Front, thus facilitating the handling of freight, and the establishment of the great warehouse system on the Lake Shore, where he owned large frontages.

In 1905, he began his last project, to create a scientific farm. He gradually purchased more than . In 1909, Barber used his wealth to commission construction of a three-story, 52-room mansion in Barberton; it was completed in 18 months. Over  long, the mansion was designed in the French Renaissance Revival style by the Akron architects Harpster & Bliss.  It cost more than $400,000 to construct and had an area of .  Among its amenities was an elevator with a glass skylight. On the grounds were gardens and a  park, designed by a Chicago landscape architect firm. The extravagant building was reported by local and national papers; the New York Times called it the "finest mansion between New York and Chicago."  Barber and his family moved into the mansion in October 1910. It stood until 1965, when it was demolished.

In addition, Barber had 35 structures built as part of his experimental, scientific Anna Dean Farm, which covered . He named it after his daughter Anna and her husband, Dr. Arthur Dean Bevan.  These were also in the French Renaissance Revival style, as he believed farm buildings should be both beautiful and functional. He intended to have a farm that operated as efficiently as industry.  For education, he opened the grounds to the public weekly on Sundays. Many of his facilities were the largest in the world at the time, such as the greenhouses, covering  and heated by the Heating House; Barn #3,  long,  wide and three stories high, the largest barn in the world when constructed in 1912, and the Brooder Barn's incubator.  He raised 50,000 chickens, which were allowed "free range".  Barber had a barn for 140 thoroughbred Belgian draft horses, used for show and for farm work.

In 1920, Barber died at his mansion in Barberton. He willed his farm to Case Western University, intending it to serve as the basis of an agricultural college, but he failed to complete the financing before his death.  Since neither his widow nor the university was able to operate the farm, the university sold most of the property with the mansion being purchased by Arthur O. Austin.  It was divided and redeveloped.

Family
After the American Civil War, when Barber was 26, he married Laura Brown of  Coventry, Ohio.  They had one daughter Anna, the namesake years later for a lake and park in Barberton, and a son Charles, who died young.  Anna Dean Farm was named after their daughter and her husband, Dr. Arthur Dean Bevan.  Laura died in 1894. After being a widower for 20 years, in 1915 Barber married Mary Orr, who had worked as his secretary and shared his vision.

Legacy and honors
 Eight of the farm buildings of Anna Dean Farm survive. Six are owned and maintained by the Barberton Historical Society, which is stabilizing them. The eight surviving buildings are Barn No. 1, the Colt Barn, the Creamery, the Piggery, the Brooder Barn, the Poultry Manager's Office, the Feed Barn, and the Heating House, gradually being renovated and restored for other uses.  Two are now used as private residences. The most significant, the former dairy barn, Barn No. 1, was restored in 1985 by the Yoder Brothers, horticulturalists who use it for their world headquarters. Its silos resemble castle towers and are visible from across the city. They are constructed of red brick edged in white concrete block, with royal blue trim and red tile roofing. The other barns have been structurally stabilized and at least partially restored. All but one may be renovated for other economic uses.
 Barberton, Ohio
 The Barberton Erie Depot
 Barber near Chico, California was named after him. He had the neighborhood built as workers' housing for the employees of the Diamond Match factory in Chico. At its peak, Barber also had orchards, shops, a swimming pool, social hall, and neighborhoods of bungalow houses. Barber faced stiff competition by local manufacturers, and in 1908 he consolidated his operations in Ohio. The village of Barber was eventually absorbed into the town of Chico, California.
 He founded Akron City Hospital in 1904 and in 1906 the Akron Chamber of Commerce.

References

External links

"O.C. Barber Mansion Collection", Summit Memory

American city founders
1841 births
1920 deaths
People from Barberton, Ohio
American industrialists
American philanthropists
Burials at Glendale Cemetery, Akron
Businesspeople from Akron, Ohio

O. C. Barber


The harmonized sales tax (HST) is a consumption tax in Canada.   It is used in provinces where both the federal goods and services tax (GST) and the regional provincial sales tax (PST) have been combined into a single value-added tax.

Jurisdiction

The HST is in effect in five of the ten Canadian provinces: New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Prince Edward Island. The HST is collected by the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA), which remits the appropriate amounts to the participating provinces. The HST may differ across these five provinces, as each province will set its own PST rates within the HST. In provinces and territories which have not enacted the HST, the CRA collects only the 5% goods and services tax. The current rates are as follows:

The introduction of the HST changed the PST for these provinces from a cascading tax system, which has been abandoned by most economies throughout the world, to a value-added tax like the GST.

Individual HST credit
To help maintain revenue neutrality of total taxes on individuals, the Canadian government (for the GST) and the participating provincial governments have accompanied the change from a cascading tax to a value-add tax with a reduction in income taxes, and instituted direct transfer payments (refundable tax credits) to lower-income groups. The federal government provides a refundable "GST Credit" of up to $248 per adult and $130 per child to low income people for 2009-10.  Provinces offer similar adjustments, such as Newfoundland and Labrador providing a refundable tax credit of up to $40 per adult and $60 for each child.

1997 implementation
In 1996, three of the four Atlantic provinces — New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia — entered into an agreement with the Government of Canada to implement what was initially termed the "blended sales tax" (renamed to "harmonized sales tax") which would combine the 7% federal GST with the provincial sales taxes of those provinces; as part of this project, the PST portion of the new HST in these provinces dropped from 10% to 8%.  The result was a 15% combined tax when the federal GST was added.  The new tax for these provinces went into effect on April 1, 1997.

The HST is collected by the Canada Revenue Agency, which then remits the appropriate amounts to the participating provinces.  Subsequent studies have been equivocal as to the success of this implementation for these provinces' economies and their consumers.

2006 and 2008 GST reductions
On July 1, 2006, the Government of Canada reduced the GST nationwide to 6%, resulting in a combined HST for Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador of 14%.  The GST was again lowered nationwide on January 1, 2008 to its current rate of 5%, resulting in a combined HST in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador of 13%.

2010 HST increase in Nova Scotia
On April 6, 2010, the Government of Nova Scotia raised the provincial portion of the HST to 10%, restoring the overall rate in that province to 15% effective July 1, 2010 as part of deficit fighting measures. On April 2, 2012 the premier indicated that the provincial government was planning to decrease the HST back to 13% by 2015 but this has since been canceled by a new government.

2010 implementation
The Government of Canada's 2008 federal budget called sales tax harmonization "the single most important step provinces with retail sales taxes could take to improve the competitiveness of Canadian businesses" and federal finance officials began to pressure/entice non-HST provinces to abandon their PST systems.

Consequently, in 2008 and 2009, the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia entered into negotiations with the Government of Canada for adopting the HST.

On March 26, 2009, in its annual budget, the province of Ontario announced its intention to merge the PST and GST to take effect on July 1, 2010.

On July 1, 2010 the HST was implemented in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia, despite public opinion polls showing that 82% of British Columbians and 74% of Ontarians opposed it before it was implemented.  The implementation of HST in British Columbia and Ontario replaced the separate GST and PST charged on goods and services in those provinces. Evidence from numerous studies demonstrated that tax harmonization raises business investment and that PST-type taxes slowed provincial economic growth. British Columbia combined the 5% GST with a 7% PST and implemented the HST at a rate of 12% and committed to lowering the HST by two further points, to 10%, by 2014. Ontario's HST rate is 13%, similar to New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador.

Ontario committed to provide a refundable tax credit of up to $260 per adult or child in 2010-11 to low income people, and British Columbia committed to provide a refundable tax credit of up to $230 per adult or child in 2010-11. Federal and provincial tax credits are paid quarterly through the year. British Columbia also provided a one-time transition payment of $175 to low and modest income seniors as well as $175 for each child under 18 to every family with children. British Columbia's low income credit was mailed out to 1.1 million British Columbians every three months and amounted to up to $230 annually per individual.

On May 4, 2011, an independent panel commissioned by the British Columbia government released a report on the impact of the HST in that province. The report concluded that "Unless you are among the 15 per cent of families with an income under $10,000 a year, you're paying more sales tax under the HST than you would under the PST/GST: On average about $350 per family." The report also predicted that by 2020, the HST is anticipated to result in a BC economy that will "Be $2.5 billion larger than it would be under the PST. That's about $480 per person or $830 per family." British Columbia residents voted in a referendum in August 2011 to repeal the HST, resulting in the province reverting to the former PST/GST model, with rates of 7% and 5% respectively, on April 1, 2013.

Reception in British Columbia and Ontario
A study, conducted by the CD Howe Institute before announcements to exempt low value purchases, found B.C. and Ontario's HST likely revenue neutral. A separate report from the Roger Martin task force on the economy found the HST would lower taxes overall as "increased revenue from the harmonized sales tax is matched by reductions in corporate and personal taxes and by tax credits. The effect is revenue loss." The Globe and Mail reporting on the study found that the "Ontario government will actually lose revenue."  In a report by researcher David Murrell for the Canadian Centre for Policy Studies, the net impact of the tax was expected to be "modestly progressive" for the poorest households to upper-middle-income families while increasing taxes by $320 in British Columbia and $290 in Ontario.

In November 2009, an Ipsos Reid poll found that the vast majority of British Columbians (82%) and Ontarians (74%) opposed their provincial governments' plans to harmonize the sales tax. Only 39% of the public believed the HST would be beneficial for businesses whereas the Task Force on Competitiveness, Productivity and Economic Progress concluded that a harmonized sales tax would reduce administrative costs for small businesses and lead to reduction in taxes, as they would recover sales taxes they would have paid on goods and services they purchased. Additionally, only 10% of the public agreed that the move would create more jobs. A study by Jack Mintz of the University of Calgary School of Public Policy suggested the HST and a drop in the corporate tax rate would have created almost 600,000 new jobs over ten years.

Rejection in British Columbia

The introduction of HST in British Columbia was extremely unpopular, due to its perception as a "tax hike" and the fact that Premier Gordon Campbell had denied any plans to implement the HST before the 2009 election, only to introduce it anyway shortly after winning a majority government.

Former British Columbia Premier Bill Vander Zalm launched a petition against the HST in response to the public outrage.  On August 11, 2010, Elections BC informed him that the campaign had succeeded in collecting the signatures of more than 10% of registered voters in each of the province's 85 ridings by July 5, 2010. The success of the petition could require the provincial government to hold a referendum on the tax. Elections BC was expected to make a formal announcement but they declined to do so and chose not to move forward in the process until the courts decided on a case, brought by local business groups, challenging the petition.  On Monday, July 5, 2010, Bill Vander Zalm, Chis Delaney and Bill Tieleman announced that they had launched their own lawsuit, a constitutional challenge against the HST because it was never passed into law by the British Columbia's provincial legislature.
On August 20, 2010, Chief Justice Robert J. Bauman ruled a petition opposing British Columbia's controversial harmonized sales tax was valid. This decision sent the issue back to the provincial legislature. Bauman said Elections BC was correct when it approved the petition on August 11.

The approval of the petition to recall the HST in British Columbia paved the way for a referendum that allowed British Columbians to decide the fate of the tax system. Elections BC conducted the referendum via mail-in ballot, allowing registered voters to send in their decision in regards to the HST. The 2011 British Columbia sales tax referendum was conducted throughout June and July 2011. In an attempt to appease public anger, the government pledged the referendum would be binding and that they would abide by the will of the people. The Question on the ballot was: "Are you in favour of extinguishing the HST (Harmonized Sales Tax) and reinstating the PST (Provincial Sales Tax) in conjunction with the GST (Goods and Services Tax)? Yes or No"

In November 2010, Gordon Campbell resigned as Premier, noting that his own unpopularity had effectively stopped the government from moving forward with its agenda and made real discussion about the HST impossible. He was replaced by Christy Clark.

The ruling BC Liberals had campaigned in favour of the HST since its introduction the previous year, noting it would be too costly to return to the original GST/PST system; they pointed to the money they would have to pay back to Ottawa, the lost tax revenue, and the amount it would cost taxpayers to have to switch back and forth between tax systems. In April 2011, British Columbia Premier Christy Clark announced a province-wide engagement initiative to listen to British Columbians' suggestions to "fix" the HST.

Faced with plummeting support and the ongoing anger against the HST, in May 2011 Minister of Finance Kevin Falcon announced that if British Columbians vote to keep the HST the rate will drop by 1% on July 1, 2012 and another point in 2014.  This will bring the overall rate to 10%.  The provincial government also committed to mailing onetime transition payments of $175 per child to families with children and $175 for low and middle income seniors. A month later, the federal government passed legislation to "formalize and give legal force to the reductions in the rate of the provincial component of the HST in British Columbia".

On August 26, 2011, the results of the referendum were revealed by Elections BC, with 55% of 1.6 million voters in favour of abolishing the HST. Retaining the HST was most popular in affluent and highly educated ridings and those with a significant proportion of family businesses. The BC Liberals revealed a plan to reinstate the GST/PST system within 18 months, with a target date of March 31, 2013. As a direct result, British Columbia will have to pay back $1.6 billion to the federal government in order to opt out of the HST program.

On April 1, 2013, British Columbia abandoned the HST and reverted to the GST/PST system.

2013 implementation
In the provincial budget released April 18, 2012, the Government of Prince Edward Island announced plans to introduce a 14% HST to be implemented on April 1, 2013. This would reduce Prince Edward Island's provincial sales tax component from 10% to 9%. The Government of Prince Edward Island was unique amongst Canadian provinces in that it "taxed the GST". Since the implementation of the federal GST in 1990, PEI's 10% PST has been charged on the subtotal of goods which included the federal GST; PST was not charged on services. This resulted in a combined tax of 17.7% for goods purchased before the 7% GST was reduced to 6% and then 5% in 2006 and 2008 respectively. As of 2012, consumers in PEI paid a combined 15.5% tax rate (5% GST and 10% PST applied to the subtotal). The provincial government committed to exempting some items while critics noted that electricity would see an increase from 5% GST to 14% HST; prior to the HST, electricity was not taxed by the PST.

The HST was introduced to Prince Edward Island on April 1, 2013 which dropped the tax on goods to 14% from 15.5% and raised the tax on services from 5% (GST) to 14%.

Affected items
 In Ontario, the HST increased tax on gasoline and diesel from 5% to 13%.
 In British Columbia, the HST applied on motor fuel and diesel but the 7% provincial portion was refunded at the point of sale, meaning the effective tax would remain at 5%, the rate of the GST.
 PST was only applicable to goods, whereas HST is generally applicable to both goods and services. Service items from haircuts to carpet cleaning that previously include only the five per cent GST saw an increase in costs. However, in Ontario the PST portion of the HST will be exempt on newspapers and fast food items not exceeding $4 per purchase.
 In Ontario, a rebate compensating for the HST leaves the first $400,000 of a new home purchase unaffected whereas the portion of a home above $400,000 will be charged the full HST. However, buyers of new homes can receive a rebate of up to $24,000 regardless of the price of the new home. The CRA has been actively reassessing many purchasers of newly constructed homes in Ontario and disallowing their claim for the HST New Housing Rebate.
 There is also an HST Rebate in Ontario for rental properties called the HST New Residential Rental Rebate which provides up to a $24,000 HST rebate on the purchase of a new residential complex that is first used as a rental property.
 For Ontarians HST is not charged on the resale of an existing home, however renovations are taxable.
 Ontarians are paying more for management and other fees associated with investment funds, such as: mutual funds, segregated funds and ETFs.

Exemptions
 Most provinces under HST exempt books from the tax, either through an outright exemption, or through a point-of-sale rebate.
 Nova Scotia exempts residential heating sources from HST, such as fuel oil, electricity used for residential heating, fire wood, and wood pellets.
 Ontario exempts HST from being charged to household goods such as children's clothing and shoes, books, car seats, diapers and feminine hygiene products. British Columbia did the same thing before reverting to PST/GST.
 British Columbia exempted HST for public transit fares, BC Ferries tickets, bridge and road tolls.
 In Ontario, First Nations status card holders are exempt from the provincial part of the HST for eligible off-reserve purchases. This exemption is in addition to the relief provided to First Nations under the GST/HST framework, such as for purchases on a reserve or delivered to a reserve.
 Prince Edward Island exempts residential fuel oil used for heating, as well as some clothing, books and personal care items.

See also
 Goods and services tax (Canada)
 Sales taxes in British Columbia
 Sales taxes in Canada

References

External links

Taxation in Canada
Value added taxes

Harmonized sales tax


Hanukkah is a Jewish holiday which celebrates the victory of the Maccabees over the larger Syrian army. It also celebrates a miracle that happened during this time, where just a day's supply of oil allowed the menorah (Hanukkiah or Hanukkah Menorah) in the rededicated Temple in Jerusalem to remain lit for eight days. Therefore, Jewish people celebrate Hanukkah for eight days. Hanukkah begins on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which on the Gregorian calendar is late November or December. For example, in 2013 it started on November 27. The Hebrew word  means rededication.

The hanukiah (or hanukkah menorah) is a candle holder, an important Hanukkah symbol. It has nine branches.   Traditionally, one candle is separated from the rest, usually by being higher than the other eight. On the first night, only one candle is lit, on the right side of the hanukiah. On the second night, a second candle is added, and they are lit from left to right -- but the Hanukkiah is filled from right to left. This continues for all eight nights. The candles are never lit directly - instead, the higher candle, (called a shamash, meaning "attendant") is lit first, and then used to light the rest of the candles. While the candles are lit, blessings are said over them.

Jewish children often play a game called dreidel. The dreidel is a four-sided spinning top, each side having a Hebrew letter. The four letters (nun, gimel, hey, and shin) stand for the Hebrew phrase, "Nes gadol haya shaam," meaning, "A great miracle happened there." In Israel, by contrast, the dreidel reads "Po" instead of "shaam," meaning "here." So in Israel the phrase is, "a great miracle happened here."

History of Hanukkah
Approximately 2,200 years ago, there was a war between the Greeks and the Jews.  The Greeks won and forced their culture on the Jews. A group of Jewish people called the Maccabees led by someone named Matityahu revolted against the Greeks and after he died his son Judah Maccabee beat them and liberated Jerusalem. The Maccabees found their Temple defiled. They wanted to rededicate it to God, as the Greeks had been worshipping Zeus there.  As part of the rededication, they needed to relight the menorah, whose source of fuel was olive oil.

According to the Talmud, the Jewish people only found a single jar of undefiled oil, and that oil was only enough to last a single day. The Jewish people took a leap of faith and relit the menorah. To their surprise, the menorah stayed lit for eight days, which was seven more days than they expected. The Jewish people attributed the surprising amount of time that the oil lasted to God (a miracle).

Hanukkah is an eight-day celebration, and each day commemorates each day that the oil lasted. On each day, a branch of the nine-branch Hanukkah menorah is lit with the shamash ("helper" candle), which sits on the middle branch.

Dates
 2017: 12-20 December
 2018: 2-10 December
 2019: 22-30 December
 2020: 10-18 December
 2021: 28 November-6 December
 2022: 18-26 December
 2023: 7-15 December

References

Other websites

"Chanukah: Connecting to the Hidden Light Within"

Hanukkah


Susan Margaret Bullock  (born 9 December 1958 in Cheshire) is a British soprano. She has performed dramatic soprano parts at major opera houses, and also sung in concert and recital.

Bullock was educated at Cheadle Hulme School, and further at Royal Holloway College, University of London, the Royal Academy of Music and the National Opera Studio. Her talent was first recognised after she received first prize in the 1984 Kathleen Ferrier Award, which led to her being offered roles by the English National Opera.

Bullock has a Welsh background and has recorded music in Welsh.

She developed an international career in the mid-1990s as she moved increasingly into late-Romantic and 20th Century German opera repertoire, with engagements at the Frankfurt Opera and Garsington Opera, where she sang Helen in the first British performance of Richard Strauss' Die ägyptische Helena in 1998. Her assumption of Isolde in Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in productions at Opera North, Leeds and the English National Opera confirmed her command of the dramatic soprano repertoire. She sang Brunnhilde in Der Ring des Nibelungen first in Tokyo, and in 2007 performed the role in the first complete Ring cycle by the Canadian Opera Company in their new Toronto opera house.

She made her debut at both La Scala, Milan and the Metropolitan Opera, New York in the title role of Richard Strauss' Elektra. In 2009, she received the Royal Philharmonic Society's award for best singer for her assumption of Elektra in a production at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. She had made her Covent Garden debut previously as Marie in Berg's Wozzeck.

She sang Brunnhilde in all performances of Der Ring des Nibelungen at Covent Garden in the London Olympic Year, Autumn 2012. Recordings notably include Richard Strauss' Salome in the Chandos "Opera in English" series conducted Sir Charles Mackerras, and live performances of the Frankfurt Ring cycle, conducted by Sebastian Weigle. Other houses she has sung in include Dresden, Berlin Staatsoper, Teatro Colón (Buenos Aires), Sydney Opera House,  La Monnaie (Brussels), Prinzregententheater (Munich), Lisbon and Toulouse. She sings in several languages—her performances include Janáček in Czech, and she has sung contemporary as well as the classical repertoire.

She was the solo soprano at the 2011 Last Night of the Proms on 10 September 2011, performing Brunnhilde's Immolation Scene from Act 3 of Götterdämmerung in Richard Wagner's Ring Cycle, as well as the traditional "Rule, Britannia" and "Land of Hope and Glory".

She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to opera.

References

External links
 Susan Bullock at HarrisonParrott

1958 births
Living people
English operatic sopranos
Alumni of Royal Holloway, University of London
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Cheadle Hulme School
Singers from Cheshire
English people of Welsh descent
20th-century British women opera singers
21st-century British women opera singers

Susan Bullock


Jing zuo (pratisaṃlīna, ) refers to the Neo-Confucian meditation practice advocated by Zhu Xi and Wang Yang-ming. Jing zuo can also be described as a form of spiritual self-cultivation that helps a person achieve a more fulfilling life ("6-Great Traditions").

Terminology
The term Jing zuo simply means 'sitting quietly'. The collocation soon acquired more specific meanings, referring to methods of quiet sitting that were practiced for medical or spiritual purposes. In early sources, such as the philosophical work Hanfeizi in the 3rd century BCE, Jing zuo seems to have been mainly understood as being of benefit to health, but some centuries later spiritual practices were also referred to using this term. At the outset, it was not limited to Confucianism, but could equally well be used about Buddhist and Daoist practices. The term became widely used in the Song dynasty and became the preferred term for seated meditation among Neo-Confucians, who tended to avoid more narrowly Buddhist or Daoist terms. In modern Western parlance, it often refers specifically to Neo-Confucian forms of meditation, but it is also used for other religious and non-religious practices.

Confucian meditation and Buddhist meditation
The concept of meditation was not a major aspect of the Confucian life until the Neo-Confucian era. At this time Buddhism and Daoism had begun to expand into China and started to influence some aspects of Chinese culture. Even though there are some similarities, there are also some fundamental differences. Confucian meditation, unlike Daoist and Buddhist meditation, does not require the stopping of rational thought, but instead relies upon disciplined attention to one's current situation and mental phenomena. Its purpose is to develop as an individual in order to find full realization. (Johnston 2006) As Zhu Xi notes in [Reflections on Things at Hand]: "Whenever you have to attend to your daily affairs, or undertake any matter, always spend some time in meditation and everything will be all right" (Zhu Xi, 4:25).

A central aspect of Confucian meditation is Jing zuo or quiet sitting. Again, there is a fundamental difference between Neo-Confucians and Buddhist or Daoist meditation, in respect to Jing zuo (quiet sitting). "Neo-Confucians argued that quiet sitting was oriented to this world and aimed at perfecting one's self, whereas Buddhist and Daoist meditation focused on forgetting the world and abandoning one's self." (Yao 2000, p. 222). Furthermore, "Neo-Confucian scholars take quiet sitting (Jing zuo) to be only a way to help understand one's gain in self-cultivation and they do not see it as a means to isolate oneself from human affairs. They believe that it is only within this world and among worldly affairs that one can progress in the path of spiritual cultivation." (Yao 2000, p. 223).

Significant figures in Confucian meditation
There are two central concepts and schools of thought when it comes to Jing zuo. The two schools of thought were started by Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi) and Wang Yang-Ming. Each individual took a different approach; most would say an opposing approach. Here, each approach is examined separately.

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi)
Zhu Xi was very influential in the Rational School of thought. Zhu Xi's concept of li was that it is the constitution of all things, the way by which the world runs its course. This way of thinking and looking at li, when applied to Jing zuo, was that a person needed to combine both thinking and action in order to achieve enlightenment. Investigation of things and the world around you were very important aspects and teachings of Zhu Xi. "He also believed that knowledge and action always required each other."(Yao, p 220). According to Zhu Xi, in order to achieve enlightenment, an individual must be actively seeking knowledge, investigating ideas/events, meditate upon them, and then investigate some more. "According to this understanding, spiritual meditation is like a circular journey of tranquility and activity, or of preserving the mind and investigating the principle, or of knowledge and action." (Yao, p 220). For Zhu Xi, Jing zuo "does not mean to 'sit still like a blockhead, with the ear hearing nothing, the eye seeing nothing, and the mind thinking of nothing."(Yao p 220). It meant actively searching out, investigating, and exploring the world that a person lives in.

Wang Yang-Ming
Wang Yang- Ming was very influential in the Idealistic School of thought. Wang Yang-Ming disagreed with the approach that Zhu Xi had towards quiet sitting. His concept of li was that it was inside every person, and reflection on li, which was manifested in you, is the only way to enlightenment. Wang Yang-Ming believed that "it was right to search for sagehood within and there was no need to seek it in things and affairs outside. Self-examination and inward exploration are enough for one to gain true knowledge and to be a sage." (Yao, p 221). Even though Wang Yang-Ming thought quiet sitting would be useful for his students he did not want it to be the only thing that they tried to accomplish. Quiet sitting was only good if it would help them to grow in virtue and learn/ reflect on how they, as a moral person, should grow.

Purpose and fundamental ideas

It is said that those who practice Jing zuo can "perceive the pristine ethical basis of human nature" and also be able to "grasp the essential emptiness of everything." (Johnston 2000). The neo-Confucians were also using Jing zuo as a method of "practical retreat" in order to grow and develop as individuals. This included spiritual growth as well as the personal improvement and full realization of the practitioner (Johnston 2000). It allows Confucians to practice veneration for the basic human nature and it allows them to "nourish the seeds of moral virtue" (Berthrong 1998). Meditation embodies the state of serenity and calmness, where the practitioner is able to free themselves from and/or becomes unaffected by their surroundings. They are able to clear and settle the heart-mind completely and are then able to assess their knowledge in an open-minded and unbiased manner (Wilson 1991): "The Master said, 'Hui is capable of occupying his whole mind for three months on end with no thought but that of Goodness. The others can do so, some for a day, some even for a month, but that is all.`` (Analects 6.5) Jing zuo is said to be the "complement to prayer" (Wilson 1991) because "While prayer directs the heart to Ultimate Reality as a transcendent object, meditation cleanses the heart of all finite objects which obscure Reality so that its ultimate point may be found within." (Wilson 1991). Both prayer and Jing zuo are practiced and are essential parts of spirituality in Confucianism.

Jing zuo is understood to complement Zhu Xi's dictum to "investigate things" (in order to penetrate the principle (li) of the cosmos):

For some, the reflection and meditation of Jing zuo must be balanced with studying of the Confucian texts. It is beneficial when Jing zuo is used alongside Confucian scholarship, as it causes the Confucian to "center the self in service to others." (Berthrong 1998). Confucius himself advised against spending too much time sitting quiet and reflecting, he stressed the fact that Confucians should find a balance in their lives where they would study and reflect upon what one studies equally (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d.) : "'He who learns but does not think is lost. He who thinks but does not learn is in great danger.' (Lunyu 2.15)" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d.).

Forms of meditation
"The Confucian transformation model starts with individual meditation and goes through personal enhancement, self-discipline, personality integrity, family integration, state governance, and reaches the excellence of universal commonwealth" ("Confucianism."). In order to achieve personal meditation, "one must learn to rest the energy (chu chu) in order to be stabilized (ting), be still and calm (ching), reach peace (an) and be mindful (li)" ("Confucianism."). To have mindful energy, one must be "ready to learn the truth and reveal the virtue (te)" ("Confucianism.").

One form of meditation is personal meditation Qigong. Qigong is when 'one sits still and frees their own character in order to get in touch with their true or real self.'  ("Confucianism.").  Qigong "is a process of training the mind, body, and spirit with the aim of guiding ones thoughts so that they can prepare for further development. It aims to internalize and calm the energy (qi) and to calm the mind, body and spirit" ("Confucianism."). Another component is to desire and "reach a peaceful state so that one can become a thoughtful person to themselves and others" ("Confucianism.") around them through practicing qigong.

Another form of Confucian meditation is called Chou Won. "Chou means to sit and Won means to forget one's self " ("Confucianism."). The person simply sits, "lets go and allows God to work". (Wilson 1991). Chou Wong's main focus is to "detach the character from one's self and reach mental freedom" ("Confucianism."). This form of Confucian meditation is "important because it teaches the practitioner many things to do with one's self: self-awareness, self-enhancement, self-discipline and self-actualization as well as learning how to find the truth and create social change" ("Confucianism.").

The "mental processes aim to rejuvenate internal virtue that leads to the insight of real self-awareness and universal energy interconnection" ("Confucianism.").  A main focus of these meditations "aim to incorporate mind, body and spirit for healing with the three main goals; disease prevention, healing, and human capacity development" ("Confucianism."). Confucian meditation is used as "an empowerment tool for the Confucians and their family members by teaching them stress management, personal enhancement, family integration and career development" ("Confucianism.").

Influence on Confucian society
Both schools of thought, Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi) and Wang Yang-Ming, influenced Confucian society. Both schools edited and rewrote different aspects of Confucian volumes and texts, tried to clarify concepts and ideas of Confucianism, and helped to develop the spiritual dimension of Confucians. Furthermore, both saw that it was very important to try to be a moral person; developing wisdom, loyalty, filial piety, compassion for humanity, and propriety; they lead to a better moral in society in general.
Confucian Meditation from the Great Learning

"The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good. Only after knowing what to abide in can one be calm. Only after having been calm can one be tranquil. Only after having achieved tranquility can one have peaceful repose. Only after having peaceful repose can one begin to deliberate. Only after deliberation can the end be attained. Things have their roots and their branches. Affairs have their beginnings and their ends. To know what is first and what is last will lead one near the Way." (Wilson 1991)

See also
Zazen
Zuowang

References

Works cited
 6-Great Traditions. Retrieved October 20, 2008
 Berthrong, John H. (1998). Transformations of the Confucian Way. Westview Press.
 Johnston, William M. (2000). Monasticism: Volume 1 A-L. London, Fitzroy, Dearborn Publishers.
 Riegel, Jeffrey. (n.d.) Confucius. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy online. Retrieved October 23, 2008, from
 Wilson, Dr. Andrew (1991). World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts. New York: Paragon House Publishers. Retrieved October 22, 2008 from
 Wilson, Dr. Andrew (1991). World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts. New York: Paragon House Publishers. Retrieved October 22, 2008 from
 Wittenborn, Allen (1991). Zhu Xi Chu Hsi: Further Reflections on Things at Hand. Trans. and commentary by Allen Wittenborn. Lanham, MD: University of America Press.
 Yao, Xinzhong (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Meditation
Confucian culture
Neo-Confucianism
Silence

Jing zuo


Alexander Melentyevich Volkov ( ; 14 June 1891 – 3 July 1977) was a Soviet novelist, playwright, university lecturer. He was an author of novels, short stories, plays and poems for children, mostly remembered for the Magic Land series of books, based on L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

Biography
Volkov was born in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Semipalatinsk Oblast, Russian Empire (now Oskemen, Kazakhstan). At the age of 12 he graduated from the Ust-Kamenogorsk town school as valedictorian, where he would later teach. In 1907 he entered the Tomsk Teachers Institute. In 1909 he graduated with right to teach all subjects of the school curriculum, except for the Law of God.

He began to work as a teacher in Ust-Kamenogorsk. Starting in 1910, he worked as a mathematics teacher in the village of Kolyvan. In the 1920s he moved to Yaroslavl, where he worked as a school principal. He graduated in absentia from the mathematical faculty of the Yaroslavl Pedagogical Institute.

In 1929 he moved to Moscow, where he worked as the head teacher of the rabfak. He completed coursework and passed the external examinations at the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Moscow University in seven months.

Starting in 1931 he worked as teacher, and later as Docent of the Department of Higher Mathematics of the Moscow Institute of Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold.

Writings

Magic Land series
The first of these books, The Wizard of the Emerald City (), is a loose translation of the first Oz book, with chapters added, altered, or omitted, some names changed (for example, Dorothy becomes "Ellie", Oz is renamed "Magic Land", and Toto can talk when in Magic Land), and several characters given personal names instead of generic ones. Baum's name is mentioned in the first of Volkov books but the Soviet Union paid no royalties to the Baum estate. First published in 1939 in the Soviet Union, the book became quite popular; and in the 1960s Volkov also wrote his own sequels to the story. He liberally borrowed from some of the originals, such as using the "Powder of Life" idea from The Marvelous Land of Oz, but mostly created a divergent universe. From 1963 to 1970, four more books in the series were published, with the sixth and final story published posthumously in 1982. Other authors such as Yuri Kuznetsov, Sergei Sukhinov, and Leonid Vladimirsky (Volkov's original illustrator) have recently written additional sequels in Russian, creating in effect an alternative series of Oz books.

The context and situations found in the Volkov version are notably different from the original Baum version in their political tones. The situations, while still maintaining a childlike clarity of good versus evil, often involve the characters encountering very mature political and ethical decisions. The heroes are repeatedly called upon to defend Magic Land against invasions or topple feudalistic or aristocratic governments to free the populace. Both themes are often found in Soviet sci-fi and adventure literature (see the Strugatsky brothers' novels Hard to be a God and Inhabited Island).

Volkov had faith in the omnipotence of the man-made technique, so the wizardry of his heroes was usually won with the help of various technical inventions (a cannon designed by Charly Black, a mechanical drill, and Tilly-Willy; a super-robot).

Volkov's Magic Land series was translated into many languages and was popular with children all over the Eastern bloc. Volkov's version of Oz seems to be better known than Baum's in some countries, for example in China, in Germany (especially former East Germany), and also in Arab countries such as Syria. In Germany, two authors have written their own set of sequels to Volkov's books. The books in Volkov's Magic Land series have been translated into English — or retranslated, in the case of the first book — by Peter L. Blystone, and were published by Red Branch Press in three volumes (two books a volume) in 1991 (revised edition 2010), 1993, and 2007.

Volkov's Magic-Land books
The Wizard of the Emerald City (Волшебник Изумрудного города, 1939)
Urfin Joos and his Wooden Soldiers (Урфин Джюс и его деревянные солдаты, 1963)
The Seven Underground Kings (Семь подземных королей, 1964)
The Fiery God of the Marrans (Огненный бог марранов, 1968)
The Yellow Fog (Жёлтый туман, 1970)
The Secret of the Deserted Castle (Тайна заброшенного замка, 1975, published in 1982)

Other books
Wonderful balloon (The first aeronaut) (1940)
The Two Brothers (1950, rewritten in 1961)
The Architects (1954)
Astern trace (1960)
The Wandering (1963) (about childhood and youth of Giordano Bruno)
Prisoner of Zargrad (1969)
Land and Sky (1972)

References

1891 births
1977 deaths
20th-century Russian novelists
20th-century Russian male writers
Russian children's writers
Soviet children's writers
Russian fantasy writers
Soviet fantasy writers
Russian science fiction writers
Soviet science fiction writers
Russian male novelists
Soviet novelists
Soviet male writers
Russian historical novelists
Tomsk State Pedagogical University alumni

Alexander Volkov (writer)


In medicine a chronic disease or condition is one that takes a long time to heal (or go away), or one that comes again.  Many chronic diseases require special treatment, as this has to be done for a long time. A chronic disease can even last for a lifetime.

Related pages
Acute (medicine)

Medicine

Chronic


កូដ QR គឺជា បារកូដ matrix មួយប្រភេទ ដែលមានសណ្ឋាន២ជ្រុង ឬ២D, កូដនេះអាចអានបានដោយ ម៉ាស៊ីនអានកូដ កម្មវិធី ឬ កាំមេរ៉ាក្នុងទូរស័ព្ទដៃ។

លក្ខណៈរបស់កូដQRនេះគឺមានចំនុចពណ៌ខ្មៅ ដែលគេអោយឈ្មោះថា module មានរាងការេនៅលើផ្ទៃពណ៌ស ដែលអាចកំណត់ពីអក្សរ លេខ អាស័យដ្ឋាន អ៊ីម៉ែល ជាដើម។

កូដនេះត្រូវបានប្រើប្រាស់ទូលំទូលាយនៅប្រទេសជប៉ុន ដែលបង្កើតដោយ Toyota subsidiary Denso-Wave នៅឆ្នាំ១៩៩៤ ដែលជាកូដមានប្រជាប្រិយភាពក្នុងចំណោមកូដដែលមានលក្ខណៈ2D។

QR មកពីពាក្យថា Quick Response, ដែលអ្នកបង្កើតកូដនេះមានគោលបំណង អោយការអានព័ត៌មានដែលមានក្នុងកូដនេះមានលក្ខណៈលឿន។

នៅប្រទេសកម្ពុជា នៅឆ្នាំ២០១២ ខែមិថុនា មានកិច្ចប្រជុំមួយដែលនាំបច្ចេកវិទ្យាថ្មីនេះជាមួយនឹងបច្ចេកវិទ្យា NFC (Near Field Communication) ដែលអាចប្រើប្រាស់បំរើដល់ផលប្រយោជន៍នៅវិស័យជាច្រើនដូចជា វិស័យអប់រំ វិស័យពាណិជ្ជកម្ម វិស័យទេសចរណ៍ ជាដើម។ នៅដើមឆ្នាំ២០១៣ នឹងចាប់ផ្ដើមមានគំរោងបន្ដបន្ទាប់ដែលទាក់ទងនឹងបច្ចេកទេសមួយនេះ ដែលគំរោងមួយកំពុងសិក្សាគឺ ផ្ដោតទៅលើវិស័យអប់រំស្រាវជ្រាវ និង វិស័យទេសចរណ៍។

កូដQR នេះមិនកំណត់ត្រឹមតែពណ៌ខ្មៅសប៉ុណ្ណោះទេ អ្នកអាចធ្វើការរចនាកែប្រែកូដនេះដោយធ្វើការប្ដូរពណ៌ ឬ ដាក់បន្ថែមរូបភាព ធ្វើយ៉ាងណាអោយតែម៉ាស៊ីនអានកូដនេះនៅអានបាន។ សមត្ថភាពរបស់កូដនេះអាចធ្វើការកែប្រែកំហុសដល់ទៅ៣០ភាគរយ ប្រសិនបើកូដនោះមានការបាត់បង់ទំរង់ ឬ ដូចជាយើងដាក់បន្ថែមរូបភាពចូលជាដើម។

ទិដ្ឋភាពទូទៅ

Although initially used for tracking parts in vehicle manufacturing, QR codes are now used in a much broader context, including both commercial tracking applications and convenience-oriented applications aimed at mobile phone users (known as mobile tagging). QR codes can be used to display text to the user, to add a vCard contact to the user's device, to open a URI or to compose an email or text message. Users can also generate and print their own QR codes for others to scan and use by visiting one of several free QR code generating sites. Frank C. Hudetz, a US Marketing Services Professional, claims to have invented the idea of mapping bar codes to a URL.

QR codes storing addresses and URLs may appear in magazines, on signs, buses, business cards, or on just about any object about which users might need information. Users with a camera phone equipped with the correct reader application can scan the image of the QR Code to display text, contact information, connect to a wireless network, or open a web page in the phone's browser. This act of linking from physical world objects is known as a hardlink or physical world hyperlinks.

Google's mobile Android operating system supports QR codes by natively including the barcode scanner (ZXing) on some models, and the browser supports URI redirection, which allows QR Codes to send metadata to existing applications on the device. Nokia's Symbian operating system is also provided with a barcode scanner, which is able to read QR codes, while mbarcode  is a QR code reader for the Maemo operating system. In the Apple iOS, a QR code reader is not natively included, but over 50 free Apps are available with reader and metadata browser URI redirection capability.

បទដ្ឋាន
There are several standards documents covering the physical encoding of QR codes:

 October 1997 — AIM (Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility) International
 January 1999 — JIS X 0510
 June 2000 — ISO/IEC 18004:2000 Information technology — Automatic identification and data capture techniques — Bar code symbology — QR Code (now withdrawn)  Defines QR Code Model 1 and QR Code Model 2 symbols.
 1 September 2006 — ISO/IEC 18004:2006 Information technology — Automatic identification and data capture techniques — QR Code 2005 bar code symbology specification  Defines QR Code 2005 symbols, an extension of QR Code Model 2. Does not specify how to read QR Code Model 1 symbols, or require this for compliance.

At the application layer, there is some variation between implementations. NTT DoCoMo has established de facto standards for the encoding of URLs, contact information, and several other data types. The open-source "ZXing" project maintains a list of QR code data types.

អាជ្ញាបណ្ឌ
The use of QR codes is free of any license. The QR code is clearly defined and published as an ISO standard. Denso Wave owns the patent rights on QR codes, but has chosen not to exercise them.

The term QR code itself is a registered trademark of Denso Wave Incorporated.

Storage

QR codes use the Reed–Solomon error correction.

Variants
Micro QR code is a smaller version of the QR code standard for applications with less ability to handle large scans.
There are different forms of Micro QR codes as well. The highest of these can hold 35 numeric characters.

ការប្រើប្រាស់ជាស្នាដៃសិល្បៈ

Since 2006, the Italian artist Fabrice de Nola has used QR codes in oil paintings or embedded in photographs.

In 2007 the British pop group Pet Shop Boys used QR code for the artwork of their download-only single Integral. The videoclip for the song also features a QR code. When the codes are scanned, users are directed to the Pet Shop Boys website, and web pages about the British national identity card plans, respectively.

In 2008, the Australian born artist Simone O'Callaghan created a series of screenprinted artworks called RGB, based on QR codes. Here, she challenged the latitudes of scanning technologies by altering the codes to take on more organic and less pixelated forms, whilst still ensuring that they could be scanned by a mobile phone. They link to quotes about media. She also exhibited another series of works called home.html featuring QR codes linking the photographic prints to online content about the places in which the images were taken. They were exhibited as part of an exhibition called Signals in the City at the Hannah McLure, Abertay University, Dundee, Scotland.

In March 2008, software engineer Duncan Robertson embedded the BBC logo inside a QR code.

In 2009, Japanese artist Takashi Murakami, in collaboration with creative agency SET and Louis Vuitton, created a design QR featuring the LV pattern and one of the artist's characters.

In 2010, musician and artist DJ Spooky used a QR code in a fine art print exhibited at Experimenta Biennale, Melbourne. Scanning the code takes users to an experiential web based artwork called the Nauru Ellegies, about the complexities of the South Pacific island of Nauru.

A QR code which scans to produce the word "LOVE" was also featured prominently in Australian artist Kylie Minogue's music video for her 2010 single All The Lovers.

In June 2010, Design Exchange, Canada's National Design Centre, unveiled a large QR code installation created by Rollout Wallpaper. Rollout Wallpaper is a custom wallpaper company operating in Vancouver. The installation is part of the 'Bent Out of Shape' exhibit, curated by Design Exchange staff.

In July 2010, SYCO Music recording artist Labrinth started using QR codes as part of a campaign to promote his debut single "Let The Sun Shine". As well as a cartoon video to educate users on how to use QR codes, they were placed in different media ranging from street posters & stickers to music videos, websites and social networks. The QR codes take users through to Labrinth's YouTube videos, website and social network profile.

The webcomic QR Comic is made entirely out of QR codes. The first 28 entries are Isaac Asimov's short story The Last Question converted into QR codes.

The 2010 comic, Carnivale De Robotique uses a QR code to reveal a subplot in its third issue.

In October 2010, at the Toronto International Art Fair, artist Jeff Tallon displayed Canada's first QR code painting in collaboration with the Engine Gallery. The work was a diptych that, when scanned, provided information about the adjoining panel.

ការប្រើប្រាស់ក្នុងវិស័យទីផ្សារ

Recently, QR codes have become more prevalent in marketing circles and have been integrated into both traditional and interactive campaigns. Media where QR codes have been deployed include: billboard ads, guerilla marketing campagns, in-store displays, event ticketing and tracking, trade-show management, business cards, print ads, contests, direct mail campaigns, websites, email marketing, and couponing just to name a few. QR codes are of particular interest to marketers, giving them the "ability to measure response rates with a high degree of precision" allowing for easier ROI (return on investment) calculation, thus helping justify spending on marketing budgets. QR codes have also been used at trade shows and in conferences.

QR codes can be seen on an art festival map for Canton Ohio's "First Friday". The QR code was designed by Think Roth, a multi-media marketing company from Ohio. The QR code on the festival's map takes you to a "phone friendly" map with coupons for free coffee and art discounts around town.

In the property market QR codes can replace brochure boxes and are used to promote properties as well as online search engines.  Approximately 50% of all homes are sold to first time buyers.  With the advent and acceptance of mobile technology, it is thought that adding QR codes will enhance their experience and deliver information instantly.

In street art, La Pluma Eléctri*k (street art collective based in Madrid) and Space Invader (from France) are two examples of artists who use it in the street for art purposes.

In July 2009, QR codes were created for character design and promotional materials in the Shane Acker film 9. The use of QR codes was part of the characters in the movie and culminated into a promotional campaign with unique QR code cards, posters and street advertisements on billboards or public transportation for major popular art events. These advertisements were largely focused upon the attendees of the 2009 San Diego Comic Con and 2009 Oscars. QR codes were integrated into the artwork and symbolized individual characters in the movie. Instructional pamphlets and videos were released to explain how the codes could be retrieved and deciphered. QR-coded artwork could be read with QR-capable cellphones for prizes and access to exclusive online content. This was one of the first major integrations of QR codes with Hollywood studios and urban environments.

In January 2011, the Memphis Rock 'n' Soul Museum launched a line of museum t-shirts and apparel which feature museum logos and designs on the fronts, and a QR code screened on the right back shoulder, which directs to the museum's web site or artist interviews.

QR codes are also widely used in the tourism. For example in Lviv (Ukraine), Lviv Tourism Movement that consolidates businessmen have placed QR codes on more than 80 tourism objects. QR codes are in several languages, which helps individual tourist easily to get the information on the city.

ការប្រើប្រាស់ក្នុងវិស័យបកប្រែ
QR codes have been used to interpret natural and historical points of interest on nature trails and walking tours, adding to or replacing expensive signs.

ការប្រើប្រាស់ក្នុងវិស័យកំសាន្ត
QR codes are becoming increasingly more innovative and more and more ideas for their use are becoming a reality. LBP.me has created a QR code for every user generated level in LittleBigPlanet 2 for the PlayStation 3, and all you have to do is print that QR code out and hold it in front of the PlayStation 3's dedicated camera, the PlayStation Eye, while the game is running and the game will automatically take you that level on the community page.

Standalone applications
While the adoption of QR codes in some markets has been slow to take off (particularly in markets like the United States where competing standards like Data Matrix exist), the technology is gaining some traction in the smartphone market. Many Android, Nokia, and Blackberry phones come with QR code readers pre-installed. QR reader software is available for most mobile platforms.

មើលផងដែរ

 Bokode
 Aztec Code
 Data Matrix
 CueCat
 Microsoft Tag
 PDF417
 Semacode
 ShotCode
 Object hyperlinking
 Touchatag
 SPARQCode
 SQR codes
 Social QR Code

ឯកសារយោង

Bibliography
  at OCLC

តំណភ្ជាប់ខាងក្រៅ

 QR Code - Official website by QR Code's creator Denso-Wave

កូដ QR


Raden Wijaya or Raden Vijaya (also known as Nararya Sangramawijaya, regnal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana) (reigned 1293–1309) was a Javanese emperor, and the founder and first monarch of the Majapahit Empire. The history of his founding of Majapahit was written in several records, including Pararaton and Negarakertagama. His rule was marked by the victory against the army and the Mongol navy of Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty.

Ancestry

There are several versions of his ancestry.

According to Pararaton, Raden Wijaya was the son of Mahisa Campaka, prince of Singhasari.

According to later controversial source from 17th century, Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara, Raden Wijaya was the son of Rakeyan Jayadarma (son of Sunda-Galuh King Prabu Guru Darmasiksa) and Dyah Lembu Tal (daughter of Mahisa Campaka from Singhasari). Rakeyan Jayadarma was poisoned and after her husband's death, Dyah Lembu Tal returned from Sunda-Galuh Kingdom to Singhasari with Raden Wijaya. This story is similar to that of Babad Tanah Jawi which mentioned the founder of Majapahit was Jaka Sesuruh, a son from the king of Pajajaran's which is located in Sunda Kingdom. Jaka Sesuruh ran to the east because of a rivalry with his step brother Siyung Wanara.

Alternatively with Nagarakretagama, Dyah Lembu Tal, also known as Dyah Singhamurti, was a man and the great-grandson of Ken Arok, king of Singhasari (1222–1227) and Ken Dedes, by their son Mahisa Wonga Teleng, and his son Mahisa Campaka (Nara Singhamurti). Because Nagarakretagama was written in 1365, 56 years since the Raden Wijaya's death, popular opinion supports it.

Prior to the founding of Majapahit
In 1289, Kublai Khan sent a demand for tribute to the Kingdom of Singhasari, although the demand was refused by Kertanagara, King of Singhasari and the messenger was humiliated with his ear cut off. Shortly after, there was a rebellion against Singhasari in the duchy of Gelang-Gelang (modern-day Madiun) led by Jayakatwang. Kertanagara was killed in the attempt to put down the rebellion in 1292, and Raden Wijaya fled to Sumenep, Madura, along with the governor of that region, Aria Wiraraja. There, Raden Wijaya made a plan to establish a new kingdom. Wijaya promised that he would divide Java with Aria Wiraraja if Aria Wiraraja could help him overthrow Jayakatwang's Kediri kingdom.

Wiraraja's son Ranggalawe served as one of Wijaya's senapati (warlord) but in later days he would rebel against the new king. Other famous officers were Lembu Sora and Nambi, both also rebelled against Wijaya respectively after the founding of Majapahit kingdom.

Foundation of the Majapahit kingdom
In November 1292, a Mongol force landed in Tuban, East Java, with the aim of revenge for Kertanagara's humiliation of the Mongol messenger. However, Kertanegara was already dead. Raden Wijaya initially made an alliance with the Mongols with the aim of attacking Kediri, which had become the strongest country in Java. Jayakatwang was defeated and destroyed in 1293, at which point Raden Wijaya turned and attacked the Mongol force.  The Mongols, already weakened by tropical diseases, the climate, and imperial overreach, were forced to flee Java. Raden Vijaya then established the Majapahit kingdom, taking the title Kritarajasa Jayavardhana.

Personal life
According to George Coedes, prior to the fall of Singhasari, Wijaya was married to Gayatri Rajapatni, the daughter of Kertanegara, King of Singhasari. However, during the formation of the new kingdom Majapahit, he married the four daughters of Kertanegara.

The siblings were Parameswari Tribhuwana the oldest, Prajnaparamitha, Narendra Duhita, and Gayatri Rajapatni the youngest. The reasons of Raden Wijaya's practice of siblings polygamy was to ensure his claim of legitimacy, also to prevent the contest for Kertanegara's Singhasari legacy. Raden Wijaya also took Indreswari (also known as Dara Petak), supposedly a princess of Malayu Dharmasraya Kingdom brought by Kebo Anabrang to Majapahit court from Sumatra through Kertanegara's Pamalayu expedition. Pararaton mentioned that Kala Gemet was born by Dara Petak, the Dharmasraya princess, while Nagarakretagama mentioned that he was born by Indreswari, leading to assumption that Indreswari was another name of Dara Petak. King Kertarajasa Jayawardhana has five wives, however in his posthumous portrayal as the god Harihara in Simping temple, his image was flanked by two female figures, suggested that he has two pramesvari (queen consort), one is Gayatri, the other is Tribhuwana or probably Dara Petak.

Spouses and Children
Supreme Queen
 Rajapatni Sri Rajendra Dyah Dewī Gayatrithe youngest daughter of King Kertanegara of Singhasari
Queen
 Sri Parameswari Dyah Dewī Tribhuwaneswarithe eldest daughter of King Kertanegara of Singhasari
Consorts
 Sri Mahadewī Dyah Dewī Narendraduhitadaughter of King Kertanegara of Singhasari
 Sri Jayendra Dyah Dewī Prajña Paramitadaughter of King Kertanegara of Singhasari
 Sri Indreswariborn as Dara Petak, daughter of King Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauliawarmadewa of Dharmasraya
Children
 Tribhuwana, 3rd Queen of Majapahitborn as Dyah Tya, daughter of Gayatri
 Jayanagara, 2nd King of Majapahitson of Dara Petak
 Rajadewi Maharajasa, 2nd Princess of Dahaborn as Dyah Wiyat, daughter of Gayatri

Rule of Majapahit
Raden Wijaya was known as a firm and capable ruler. Aria Wiraraja who had been so useful during the period of the establishment of the kingdom, was given Madura, which was granted a special status. He was also given an autonomous region around Lumajang and the Blambangan Peninsula, and his son, Nambi, was appointed Prime Minister. Raden Wijaya also formed a special army guard for the king which consists of 7 people named Ra Kuti, Ra Semi, Ra Tanca, Ra Wedeng, Ra Yuyu, Ra Banyak, and Ra Pangsa

Heir
From his wife Indreswari, Raden Wijaya had a son, Dyah Jayanegara. From his wife Gayatri Rajapatni, he had two daughters, Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi and Rajadewi. Other wives seemed to be childless, including his first wife, Tribhuwana.

After his death, Raden Wijaya was succeeded by his son, Jayanegara.

Death
According to the Nagarakretagama, King Wijaya died in 1309. He was buried in the Simping Temple (id) as "Harihara", the combination of Vishnu and Shiva.

He was succeeded by his son Jayanegara.

See also
 Senapati of Mataram, the founder and first king of Mataram Sultanate was a descendant of Raden Wijaya

References

Monarchs of Majapahit
Indonesian Hindu monarchs
Majapahit
13th-century monarchs in Asia
14th-century monarchs in Asia
13th-century Indonesian people
14th-century Indonesian people
1309 deaths
13th-century Hindus
14th-century Hindus

Raden Wijaya


A curve is a line that turns or bends. A curved line is never straight, and a curved surface is a surface that is never flat. Some curves can be drawn on paper, but some curves, like a helix, can only be seen in 3-D. A circle is a curve that can be described with the formula x2 + y2 = r2. x and y are used as in a Cartesian coordinate system, and r is the radius of the circle (distance from the center to the outside). Many other curves can also be described with a formula like that.

Related pages
ellipse
parabola
hyperbola

Geometry

Curve


Maxïmo Park (sometimes spelled Maximo Park) are an English indie rock band who formed in 2001.

History
Maxïmo Park formed in 2001 (with frontman Paul Smith coming from Billingham in Teesside). To Start off with, the four founding members played only a little amount small shows, with Archis Tiku on vocals, constantly switching the instruments he played. Almost about to split up, but instead they decided to look for somebody else to sing vocals. Singer Paul Smith was discovered by the then-girlfriend of drummer Tom English in a pub while he was singing along to a Stevie Wonder song. Having found someone with a stage presence, they started to write their first songs together, all despite the fact that the frontman never imagined himself as a frontman of a band. Paul Smith had never sung on stage before.

Around March 2004, a friend of the band's paid for 300 copies of a 7" red vinyl single "Graffiti" and later released a vinyl of their tracks ("The Coast Is Always Changing"/"The Night I Lost My Head") that they'd recorded in their house in Fenham. After some time of doing shows around their home town, Steve Beckett of the dance-electronic label Warp Records found one of these records and decided to sign Maxïmo Park to his record label.

Members
Tom English – drums
Duncan Lloyd – guitar
Paul Smith – vocals
Archis Tiku – bass
Lukas Wooller – keyboard

Discography

Albums

A Certain Trigger

Missing Songs

Our Earthly Pleasures

References

Other websites
Maxïmo Park official website
Maxïmo Park MySpace
An acoustic session for Vox podcast
Karaoke Plays Review
Maximo Park, Newcastle 15th Dec 07 Review

Interviews
The Scenestar Maxïmo Park Interview July 2007
Interview by Alexander Laurence (The Portable Infinite 2006)
 Die Klangschau: 15 Songs chosen by Maxïmo Park  and interview
Maximo Park video interview with stv/music, June 2007
Video interview with Paul from Maximo Park
SUPERSWEET interview
Interview by Natalie Shaw for Clash Magazine

2001 establishments in England
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English rock bands
Music groups from Newcastle upon Tyne
Musical groups established in 2001

Maxïmo Park


The vibraslap is a percussion instrument. It is a modern version of the jawbone. Due to the fragile nature of the jawbone, the vibra-slap was created to provide a stronger alternative with a similar sound. It has been used mainly in popular music. Several rock bands have used this sound for the last decades of the 20th century and into the 21st century. It is also popular in Latin music.

The vibraslap is made of a cowbell-shaped hollow box (acting as a resonator) and a wooden ball connected by a steel rod. The steel rod is bent in an "L" shape that allows the performer to hold the rod in one hand and strike the ball with the palm of their other hand. The steel rod acts as a sort of spring that vibrates the box on the other end. The box acts as a resonating body for a metal mechanism placed inside with a number of loosely fastened pins or rivets that vibrate and rattle against the box, much like the teeth of the jawbone. The vibraslap is produced in a number of sizes using different materials such as wood, metal or composite materials.

The Vibra-Slap was the first patent granted to the instrument manufacturing company Latin Percussion.
The Vibra-Slap's inventor was Martin Cohen. It is sometimes sold as a "Donkey Call" or "Rattleslap".

Percussion instruments

Vibraslap


Maria d'Este (8 December 1644 – 20 August 1684) was a Modenese princess and Duchess of Parma as the wife of Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma. She was a daughter of Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena and Maria Caterina Farnese.

Family

Maria was the eighth child and fourth daughter of Francesco I d'Este, the reigning Duke of Modena since 1629.  Her mother was a daughter of Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma.

Biography

Maria was born in Modena to Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena and his consort Maria Caterina Farnese. A member of the House of Este, she was a princess of Modena by birth.

In order to cement relations between the House of Farnese, Maria's older sister Isabella d'Este had been married to Ranuccio Farnese, Duke of Parma, son of Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Margherita de' Medici in 1664. Isabella died in 1666 as a result of childbirth. In order to preserve the union between the two ducal houses, the unmarried Maria became Ranuccio's next consort.

A wedding was signed by proxies in October 1667 and formally in Modena on 1 January 1668 she was duly married to the widowed Ranuccio Farnese. The marriage produced seven children; she also had two stillborn children. Out of the seven, three survived infancy, however none of them went on to have further children.

Maria died in Parma at the age of 39. Her husband survived her by ten years. Her two youngest sons, Francesco and Antonio, each became the Duke of Parma. Antonio was the last member of the House of Farnese, the duchy of Parma going to the Spanish House of Bourbon in 1731.

Maria was buried at the Sanctuary of Santa Maria della Steccata in Parma on 21 August 1684. She has no surviving descendants.

Issue
Isabella Francesca Maria Lucia Farnese (14 December 1668 – 9 July 1718). She was a Benedictine nun in Santa Maria di Campagna Monastery of Piacenza;
Vittoria Maria Francesca Farnese (24 December 1669 – 15 September 1671);
A son (24 June 1671 – 28 June 1671);
Vittoria Farnese (19 November 1672), twin of Caterina;
Caterina Farnese (19 November 1672), twin of Vittoria;
A son (26 December 1674);
Eleonora Farnese (1 September 1675 – 3 November 1675);
Francesco Maria Farnese (19 May 1678 – 26 February 1727) succeeded as Duke of Parma; married Dorothea Sophie of the Palatinate, had issue;
Antonio Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma (29 November 1679 – 20 January 1731) married Enrichetta d'Este, no issue.

Ancestry

References and notes

See also

1644 births
1684 deaths
Maria
Maria
Maria
17th-century Italian women
17th-century Italian nobility
Maria
Burials at the Sanctuary of Santa Maria della Steccata
Daughters of monarchs
Women who experienced pregnancy loss

Maria d'Este


A historian is a bodie whilk studies an writes aboot the past an is regardit as an authority on it. Historians is concerned wi the conteenous, methodical narrative an resairch o past events as relatin tae the human race; as weel as the study o aw history in time. Gif the individual is concerned wi events precedin written history, the individual is a historian o prehistory. Tho "historian" can be uised tae descrive amateur an professional historians alik, it is reserved mair recently for thaim that haes acquired graduate degrees in the discipline.  Some historians, tho, is recognised bi publications or trainin an experience.  "Historian" became a professional thrift in the late nineteent century as resairch varsities wis kythin in Germany an itherwhaur.

References

Humanities occupations

Historian


The Boxer Movement or Boxer Rebellion was a Chinese uprising from November 1899 to September 7, 1901. It was against foreign influence in areas such as trade, politics, religion and technology that occurred in China during the final years of the Manchu rule (Qing Dynasty).

The members of the Chinese Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists were simply called boxers by the Westerners. This was due to the martial arts and calisthenics they practiced. It began as an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, peasant-based movement that attacked foreigners who were building railroads and violating Feng shui. Christians who they felt were responsible for foreign domination of China were also targeted. In June 1900, the Boxers invaded Beijing and killed 230 non-Chinese. Before it ended, tens of thousands of Chinese Christians, Catholic and Protestants were killed. Most of them in the Shandong and Shanxi provinces.

The government of Empress Dowager Cixi gave her support to the boxers. This caused foreign diplomats, civilians, soldiers and even some Chinese Christians to retreat. They went to the legation quarter. They held out against the boxers for 55 days. A multinational coalition rushed 20,000 troops to their rescue. The Chinese government was forced to compensate the victims and make many additional concessions. Subsequent reforms implemented after the crisis of 1900 laid the foundation for the end of the Qing Dynasty. It establishment of the modern Chinese Republic.

The Medal of Honor was created during the American Civil War. It is the highest military decoration presented by the United States government to a member of its armed forces. The recipients must have distinguished themselves at the risk of their own life above and beyond the call of duty in action against an enemy of the United States. Due to the nature of this medal it is commonly presented after the recipient has been killed (posthumously).

During the Boxer rebellion, 59 American servicemen received the Medal of Honor for their actions. Four of these were for Army personnel, twenty-two went to navy sailors and the remaining thirty-three went to marines.  Harry Fisher was the first Marine to receive the medal posthumously and the only posthumous recipient for this conflict.

Recipients

References
General

Specific

Further reading

Boxer Rebellion

List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Boxer Rebellion


Twilight Eyes is a novel by American writer Dean Koontz, released in 1985 (the original version, published by Land of Enchantment) and 1987 (expanded version, Berkley). Throughout the book, a character with the self-appointed name "Slim MacKenzie" uses his psychic powers to hunt Goblins – a kind of monster that seems to have the ability to mimic human beings.

Plot summary
The book begins with Slim sneaking up on, and killing, a "goblin or beast" on the fair grounds of a local carnival. Goblins are monsters which can shape shift between human and bestial forms, genetically engineered super-predators which desire bloodshed and human misery. Created in an ancient, technologically superior era of human civilization, they exist to torment and ultimately murder humans.  They can only be seen by a few people, including Slim himself, Rya Raines (his wife), and Joel Tuck (Slim's friend and fellow carnie). These goblins are superhuman and extremely dangerous and genocidal, at least as intelligent as us, and can mimic human behavior.  While they appear and act as a normal person would, they experience only negative emotions like fear and hate. Their only pleasure is in torturing and murdering humans.

Slim's claim to fame is his "Twilight Eyes", which give him the ability to receive psychic, or prophetic, premonitions of the future. They also allow him to see through the human seeming disguise of the goblins. These eyes are named what they are because they are colored purple like the skyline at dusk.

After this encounter, Slim proceeds to join the carnival (one of many he has drifted from) as a way to support himself while killing goblins and hiding from his murderous past (in which he killed an uncle by marriage that was a goblin responsible for the deaths of several family members). One of the prominent members of the "carnies" is a young woman named Rya Raines, who quickly becomes his lover and confidant. As their relationship matures, Slim has several more run-ins with the goblins which leads to the revelation that his friend Joel, and even Rya herself, can see the goblins too, and that each of them in their own way has suffered terribly from the goblins' actions in their past. It is soon revealed that Rya had long before made a pact with the goblins to report to them whenever she found someone who could see through their disguise in exchange for safety from their predations. She wants him to make the same pact with them, but he refuses. This reality creates a gulf between her and Slim that comes to bloodshed between them. She regrets this later and after reconciling with Slim she  becomes his wife. They decide to go on a mission to destroy any and all of the creatures they possibly can.

Together they set out on a personal mission to wage a secret war against the monsters in a small mining town named Yontsdown, Pennsylvania, the seeming center of their cruel and brutal version of civilization. There they would discover and face the ultimate, diabolical plans the goblins had for the world and all of mankind.

Differences in the two versions
This book was released in two entirely different forms. The first hardback printing was actually only the first half of the story. The full text appeared for the first time in America in the paperback edition. The hardback was first released in a limited edition with four variations:

 Trade Hardcover
 Collector's Edition (numbers 1 through 50)
 Signature Edition (numbers 51 through 250)
 Lettered Edition (24 copies marked A through Y)

They are identical except the trade hardcover was issued without the patterned leatherette slipcase which accompanied the various signed editions. The Signature Edition, the Collector's Edition and the Lettered Edition have a limitation page signed by both Dean Koontz and Phil Parks, the illustrator. The Collector's Edition was identical to the Signature Edition but included a special inscription by Koontz and an original drawing by Parks. The 24-copy Lettered Edition was divided between Koontz, Parks, and publisher Christopher.

Critical reception

External links
 Review

American horror novels
1985 American novels
Novels by Dean Koontz

Twilight Eyes


Relative atomic mass (symbol: A; sometimes abbreviated RAM or r.a.m.), also known by the deprecated synonym atomic weight, is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the atomic mass constant. The atomic mass constant (symbol: m) is defined as being  of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since both quantities in the ratio are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless. These definitions remain valid even after the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units.

For a single given sample, the relative atomic mass of a given element is the weighted arithmetic mean of the masses of the individual atoms (including all its isotopes) that are present in the sample. This quantity can vary significantly between samples because the sample's origin (and therefore its radioactive history or diffusion history) may have produced combinations of isotopic abundances in varying ratios. For example, due to a different mixture of stable carbon-12 and carbon-13 isotopes, a sample of elemental carbon from volcanic methane will have a different relative atomic mass than one collected from plant or animal tissues.

The more common, and more specific quantity known as standard atomic weight (A) is an application of the relative atomic mass values obtained from many different samples. It is sometimes interpreted as the expected range of the relative atomic mass values for the atoms of a given element from all terrestrial sources, with the various sources being taken from Earth. "Atomic weight" is often loosely and incorrectly used as a synonym for standard atomic weight (incorrectly because standard atomic weights are not from a single sample). Standard atomic weight is nevertheless the most widely published variant of relative atomic mass.

Additionally, the continued use of the term "atomic weight" (for any element) as opposed to "relative atomic mass" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s, mainly due to the technical difference between weight and mass in physics. Still, both terms are officially sanctioned by the IUPAC. The term "relative atomic mass" now seems to be replacing "atomic weight" as the preferred term, although the term "standard atomic weight" (as opposed to the more correct "standard relative atomic mass") continues to be used.

Definition

Relative atomic mass is determined by the average atomic mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses of all the atoms of a particular chemical element found in a particular sample, which is then compared to the atomic mass of carbon-12. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless (having no unit). This quotient also explains the word relative: the sample mass value is considered relative to that of carbon-12.

It is a synonym for atomic weight, though it is not to be confused with relative isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass is also frequently used as a synonym for standard atomic weight and these quantities may have overlapping values if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under defined conditions. However, relative atomic mass (atomic weight) is still technically distinct from standard atomic weight because of its application only to the atoms obtained from a single sample; it is also not restricted to terrestrial samples, whereas standard atomic weight averages multiple samples but only from terrestrial sources. Relative atomic mass is therefore a more general term that can more broadly refer to samples taken from non-terrestrial environments or highly specific terrestrial environments which may differ substantially from Earth-average or reflect different degrees of certainty (e.g., in number of significant figures) than those reflected in standard atomic weights.

Current definition

The prevailing IUPAC definitions (as taken from the "Gold Book") are:
atomic weight — See: relative atomic mass
and
relative atomic mass (atomic weight) — The ratio of the average mass of the atom to the unified atomic mass unit.
Here the "unified atomic mass unit" refers to  of the mass of an atom of C in its ground state.

The IUPAC definition of relative atomic mass is:
An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of C.

The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight…", as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is common practice to instead substitute the tabulated values of standard atomic weights, which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories and which are revised biennially by the IUPAC's Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW).

Historical usage

Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales based on the atomic mass unit (symbol: a.m.u. or amu) used either the oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass or else the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for reference. See the article on the history of the modern unified atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems.

Standard atomic weight

The IUPAC commission CIAAW maintains an expectation-interval value for relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) on Earth named standard atomic weight. Standard atomic weight requires the sources be terrestrial, natural, and stable with regard to radioactivity. Also, there are requirements for the research process. For 84 stable elements, CIAAW has determined this standard atomic weight. These values are widely published and referred to loosely as 'the' atomic weight of elements for real-life substances like pharmaceuticals and commercial trade.

Also, CIAAW has published abridged (rounded) values and simplified values (for when the Earthly sources vary systematically).

Other measures of the mass of atoms

Atomic mass (ma) is the mass of a single atom. It defines the mass of a specific isotope, which is an input value for the determination of the relative atomic mass. An example for three silicon isotopes is given below. A convenient unit of mass for atomic mass is the dalton (Da), which is also called the unified atomic mass unit (u).

The relative isotopic mass is the ratio of the mass of a single atom to the atomic mass constant (). This ratio is dimensionless.

Determination of relative atomic mass

Modern relative atomic masses (a term specific to a given element sample) are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are available for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples. For this reason, the relative atomic masses of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million).

The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose relative atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: Si, Si and Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However, the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table).

The calculation is as follows:
A(Si) = ( × 0.922297) + ( × 0.046832) + ( × 0.030872) = 28.0854

The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated, especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties, and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 or 10 ppm.

Apart from this uncertainty by measurement, some elements have variation over sources. That is, different sources (ocean water, rocks) have a different radioactive history and so different isotopic composition. To reflect this natural variability, the IUPAC made the decision in 2010 to list the standard relative atomic masses of 10 elements as an interval rather than a fixed number.

See also
 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
 Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights
NIST relative atomic masses of all isotopes and the standard atomic weights of the elements
Standard Atomic Weights

Amount of substance
Chemical properties
Stoichiometry
Periodic table

Relative atomic mass