A planetarium is a theater built to show educational and entertaining presentations about astronomy and the night sky. They are also used for training in celestial navigation. A main part of most planetariums is the large dome-shaped screen onto which images of stars, planets and other celestial objects can be shown and made to move to show the 'motions of the heavens'. The celestial scenes can be created using many different technologies. These include 'star balls' that combine optical and electro-mechanical technology, slide projector, video, full dome projector systems, and lasers. These technologies are used together to give an accurate image of the motion of the sky. Common systems can be set to show the sky at any point in time, past or present. They often show the night sky as it would appear from any point of latitude on Earth.

There are many different sizes of planetariums. They can be as large as the Hayden Planetarium's 21-meter dome. It seats 423 people. They can also be as small as a three-meter portable domes where children sit on the floor. These portable planetariums are used for education presentations outside of the permanent planetariums at museums and science centers.

The term planetarium is sometimes used to mean other things which show the solar system. These include computer simulations or an orrery. Planetarium software refers to software that creates a three dimensional image of the sky on a two dimensional computer screen. The term planetarian is used for someone who works at a planetarium. The plural of planetarium is either planetariums or planetaria.

External link
WPD (Worldwide Planetariums Database)

Astronomy
Entertainment venues

Planetarium


Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)  is a spiral shaped bacterium that lives in or on the lining of the stomach. It causes more than 90 percent of ulcers, which are sores in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). Before 1982, when this bacterium was discovered, doctors thought that spicy food, acid, stress and lifestyle caused most ulcers. Because doctors now know that most ulcers are caused by an H. pylori infection, they can be cured with the correct antibiotics.

Heliobacter pylori was first discovered by Australian scientists, Barry J. Marshall and J. Robin Warren. They won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2005 for their work.

Other websites

Gram-negative bacteria

Helicobacter pylori


गेमेलान धागु छगु कथंयागु इन्डोनेसियाली सांगीतिक परम्परा खः। थुकिलि मेटालोफोन, जाइलोफोन, ड्रम, गंग, पंयागु बांसुरी, तार बाजं व मेहालिम्ह थें न्यागु चीजत दै। A gamelan as a set of instruments is a distinct entity, built and tuned to stay together — instruments from different gamelan are not interchangeable.

The word "gamelan" comes from the Javanese word "gamel", meaning to strike or hammer, and the Malay-Indonesian suffix "an" makes the root a collective noun.

बाजं व गुण

Gamelan are found in the Indonesian islands of Java, Madura, Bali, and Lombok (and other Sunda Islands), in a wide variety of ensemble sizes and formations. In Bali and Lombok today, and in Java through the 18th century, the term "gong" has been preferred to or synonymous with gamelan. Traditions of gamelan-like ensembles (sometimes called "gong-chime ensembles" by ethnomusicologists) also exist in the Philippines, Malaysia and Suriname, sometimes due to emigration, trade, or diplomacy. More recently, through immigration and local enthusiasm, gamelan ensembles have become active throughout Europe, The Americas, Asia, and Australia.

Although gamelan ensembles sometimes include solo and choral voices, plucked and/or bowed string and wind instruments, they are most notable for the large number of metal percussion instruments. A central Javanese gamelan ensemble includes:
 metallophones, such as the saron, gendér, gangsa, and ugal (sets of metals bars laid out in a single row and struck like a glockenspiel)
 cradled gongs called bonang and kenong (sets of large, drum-shaped gongs laid out horizontally on stands)
 hanging gongs called kempul and a the large gong ageng
 xylophone-like instruments called gambang (similar to saron and gendér but with wooden bars instead of metal ones)
 drums called kendhang

Metals used include bronze, brass, and iron, with a 10:3 copper-to-tin bronze alloy usually considered the best material. In addition, there are gamelan ensembles composed entirely of bamboo-keyed instruments, of bamboo flutes, of zithers, or of unaccompanied voices with the functions of metallophones or gongs in the metal ensemble transferred to surrogates.

There are many ways to look at the musical structure of gamelan music. One is to consider three layers: a fixed melodic outline, with punctuated by lower pitched instruments and decorated by higher pitched instruments. A Javanese classification also adds a leader of the melody and a leader of time. Many of the music forms will be marked at the end by the largest gong in the ensemble, although there are some exceptions.

Varieties of gamelan ensembles

Balinese gamelan varieties

 Gamelan angklung
 Gamelan bebonangan
 Gamelan gandrung
 Gamelan gambang
 Gamelan gender wayang
 Gamelan gong gede
 Gamelan gong kebyar
 Gamelan gong suling
 Gamelan jegog
 Gamelan joged bumbung
 Gamelan selunding
 Gamelan semar pegulingan
 Kecak
 Beleganjur
 Genje
 Gamelan Batel
 Gamelan Pearjaan
 Gamelan Gambuh
 Gamelan Gong Luang
 Gamelan Gong Saron
 Gamelan Semarandana
 Gamelan Trompong Beruk
 Gamelan Tembang Girang

जाभानिज ग्यामेलान प्रकारतः
 मध्य जावा
 Ritual or "archaic" gamelan
 Classical gamelan
 Gamelan Gadhon
 Gamelan Siteran
 The court gamelan
 Mangkunagaran
 Pakualaman
 Surakarta
 Yogyakarta
 Banyumas
 Bamboo gamelan
 Gamelan without instruments
 Cirebon (Northwest Java)
 Gamelan Prawa
 Gamelan Pelog
 Renteng
 Sekati
 Dengung
 Gamelan Kedempling
 पूर्व जावा
 सुन्दा (West Java)
 Degung
 Jaipongan
 Kliningan
 Salendro
 Kecapi suling
 Tembang sunda

मेमेगु इन्डोनेशियाली ग्यामेलान

सांस्कृतिक पक्ष
Gamelan is often used to accompany dance, wayang puppet performances, and rituals. Some performances are associated with royalty, such as visits by the sultan of Yogyakarta. Certain gamelans are associated with rituals, such as the Gamelan Sekaten, which is used in celebration of Mawlid an-Nabi (Muhammad's birthday). In Bali, almost all religious rituals include gamelan performance.

In the West, gamelan is often performed in a concert context, but may also incorporate dance or wayang.

ट्युनिंग

The tuning and construction of a gamelan orchestra is a complex process. Javanese gamelans use two tuning systems: sléndro and pélog. There are other tuning systems such as degung (exclusive to Sunda, or West Java), and madenda (also known as diatonis, similar to a European natural minor scale). In central Javanese gamelan, sléndro is a system with five notes to the diapason (octave), fairly evenly spaced, while pélog has seven notes to the octave, with uneven intervals, usually played in five note subsets of the seven-tone collection. This results in sound quite different from music played in a western tuning system. Many gamelan orchestras will include instruments in each tuning, but each individual instrument will only be able to play notes in one. The precise tuning used differs from ensemble to ensemble, and give each ensemble its own particular flavour. Colin McPhee (1966) remarks, "Deviations in what is considered the same scale are so large that one might with reason state that there are as many scales as there are gamelans." However, this is a view that is contested by some teachers of gamelan, and there have been efforts to combine multiple ensembles and tuning structures into one gamelan so as to ease transportation issues at the times of festivals. One such ensemble is gamelan Manikasanti, which can play the repertoire of many different ensembles.

A peculiarity of gamelans is that, although the intervals between notes in a scale are very close to identical for different instruments within each gamelan, the intervals vary from one gamelan to the next. The occasion for the word approximately is that it is common in Balinese gamelan that instruments are played in pairs which are tuned slightly apart so as to produce interference beating which are ideally at a consistent speed for all pairs of notes in all registers. It is thought that this contributes to the very "busy" and "shimmering" sound of gamelan ensembles. In the religious ceremonies that contain Gamelan, these interference beats are meant to give the listener a feeling of a god's presence or a stepping stone to a meditative state.

Influence on Western music
The gamelan has been appreciated by several western composers of classical music, most famously Claude Debussy who heard a Javanese gamelan play at the Paris Exposition of 1889 (World's Fair). (The gamelan Debussy heard was in the near-diatonic madenda scale and was played by Sundanese musicians.) Despite his enthusiasm, direct citations of gamelan scales, melodies, rhythms, or ensemble textures have not been located in any of Debussy's own compositions. However, the equal-tempered pentatonic scale appears in his music of this time and afterward, and a Javanese gamelan-like heterophonic texture is emulated on occasion, particularly in "Pagodes," from Estampes (solo piano, 1903), in which the great gong's cyclic punctuation is symbolized by a prominent perfect fifth.

Direct homages to gamelan music are to be found in works for western instruments by Béla Bartók, Francis Poulenc, Olivier Messiaen, Colin McPhee, Benjamin Britten and Steve Reich. In more recent times, American composers such as Barbara Benary, Lou Harrison, Dennis Murphy, Michael Tenzer, Evan Ziporyn, Daniel James Wolf and Jody Diamond as well as Australian composers such as Peter Sculthorpe, Andrew Schultz and Ross Edwards have written several works with parts for gamelan instruments or full gamelan ensembles. I Nyoman Windha is among contemporary Indonesian composers that have written compositions using western instruments along with Gamelan. American folk guitarist John Fahey included elements of gamelan in many of his late-60s sound collages, and again in his 1997 collaboration with Cul de Sac, The Epiphany of Glenn Jones. The experimental art-rock band King Crimson, while not using Gamelan instruments, used interlocking rhythmic  paired guitars that were influenced by Gamelan.  Experimental pop groups His Name is Alive and Xiu Xiu use Gamelan percussion in many songs. The avant-garde group The Residents have also used gamelan in their music, particularly in their 1976 album Fingerprince.

Many Americans were first introduced to the sounds of gamelan by the popular anime film Akira. Gamelan elements are used in this film to punctuate several exciting fight scenes, as well as to symbolize the emerging psychic powers of the tragic hero, Tetsuo. The gamelan in the film's score was performed by the members of the Japanese musical collective Geinoh Yamashirogumi. Gamelan and kecak are also used in the soundtrack to the video game Secret of Mana.

स्वया दिसं

 Kulintang
 Music of Indonesia
 Legong: Dance of the Virgins

ब्वना दिसं

बालीनिज गेमेलान
 Balinese Music (1991) by Michael Tenzer, ISBN 0-945971-30-3. Included is an excellent sampler CD of Balinese Music.
 Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music (2000) by Michael Tenzer, ISBN 0-226-79281-1 and ISBN 0-226-79283-8.
 Music in Bali (1966) by Colin McPhee. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Javanese gamelan
 Gamelan: Cultural Interaction and Musical Development in Central Java (1995) by Sumarsam, ISBN 0-226-78010-4 (cloth) 0226780112 (paper)
 Music in Java: History Its Theory and Its Technique (1949) edited by Jaap Kunst, ISBN 90-247-1519-9. An appendix of this book includes some statistical data on intervals in scales used by gamelans.
 A Gamelan Manual: A Player's Guide to the Central Javanese Gamelan (2005) by Richard Pickvance, Jaman Mas Books, London, ISBN 0-9550295-0-3

Footnotes

पिनेयागु स्वापू
 Balinese Music
 Introduction to Gamelan Music by Qehn, Javanese only.
 American Gamelan Institute
 France Gamelan Information (special section on 1889)
 Yogyakarta Gamelan Festival
 Javanese gamelan notation - a huge collection maintained by Barry Drummond (in PDF format)
 Javanese gamelan notation - prepared by Vi King Lim
 Balinese and Javanese Gamelan

न्येनादिसं
 Gongcast - Webcast of gamelan recordings
 Play a gamelan instrument online (saron, slentem, bonang, kempuls)
 Another virtual gamelan. Allows to play, and "program" (sequencer like) gamelans. Text is in French.
 The Virtual Javanese Gamelan play and compose Javanese music using this award winning free resource

संस्कृति

गेमेलान


Queen Camilla is a satirical novel by the British author Sue Townsend.

It was published in the UK on 26 October 2006 by Penguin Books and is a sequel to her novel The Queen and I. Most of the Hell Close neighbours from the earlier novel are also in the subsequent book.

Plot summary
It follows Queen Elizabeth II, Charles, Prince of Wales and his wife, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, who, at the start of the novel, have been living for the last 13 years on the Flowers Estate, now called the Flowers Exclusion Zone or 'The Fez'. The Fez is the private fiefdom of scaffolding magnate Arthur Grice, Prince William's employer. Grice fancies himself a grand-scale public benefactor; he often wonders why most Fez residents dismiss him as little more than the self-aggrandising businessman he is. He lobbies the Queen for a knighthood, which she cannot grant him, all honours having been abolished.

The exclusion zones are the worst sign of the authoritarian country Britain has become, with almost lock-down security in the Fez. Jack Barker, Cromwell (formerly People's Republican) Party leader and prime minister, is exhausted after 13 years in office, and wants out. The New Conservative ("New Con") Party elects "Boy" English as its new leader; Boy promises to restore the monarchy.

The Queen, now 80, does not want to return to public life; she tells her family she has decided to abdicate. One reason: the Duke of Edinburgh, her husband, suffered a debilitating stroke two years earlier, and is now being (badly) cared for in a nursing home in another part of the Fez. With the Queen's abdication, the Prince of Wales will now become King Charles III – but Camilla will only be his consort, not his queen. Charles refuses to become king unless Camilla is his queen. Prince William then offers, too eagerly for the Queen's liking, to reign in his father's place. Charles consults his friend, MP Nicholas Soames, who tells him there is no constitutional reason Camilla cannot become his queen.

Enter Graham Cracknall, who claims to be the son of Charles and Camilla, born in 1965. His adoptive parents revealed his biological parentage in a codicil to their will, opened only after both had died. Graham visits Charles and Camilla; the whole family takes an instant dislike to him – particularly after he claims that he, not Prince William, is second in line to the throne after Charles. Graham then attracts the online attention of a mysterious lady named Miranda – who, unknown to him, is a New Con operative in the General Election that is finally called. On learning of the New Con ruse, the enraged Graham goes to the Daily Telegraph with his story; he is not believed, causes a disturbance when thrown out, and ends up in Rampton Hospital. The New Cons win the election, restoring the monarchy as promised, but the Queen follows through on her decision to abdicate, and Charles becomes king. The other members of the Royal Family, including Queen Camilla, spend part of each day talking with tourists.

Inconsistencies between novels
There are several inconsistencies between the two novels, among them:

 The fate of the Imperial State Crown; despite being destroyed in The Queen and I, it is still in the Queen's possession in Queen Camilla.
 The death of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. The character was killed off in The Queen and I, set in 1992, yet in Queen Camilla she is said to have lived to the age of 101, as she did in real life.
 In The Queen and I Jack Barker effectively "sells" Britain to the Japanese; in Queen Camilla this is changed to the Americans. Accordingly, the marriage of Prince Edward to the daughter of the Emperor of Japan is forgotten and the character is married to his real-life wife, Sophie.
 Tony Threadgold's name is changed to Vince, and he and Beverley apparently now only have one child, Aaron, as opposed to two, Lisa-Marie and Vernon. They also now live next door to Charles and Camilla instead of the Queen.
 In The Queen and I Prince Charles goes on the run after escaping from prison. No explanation is given for his return to Hell Close.
 At the very end of The Queen and I, the whole book is revealed to have been the Queen's nightmare. This is completely ignored in the second novel.

References

Novels by Sue Townsend
2006 British novels
Cultural depictions of Elizabeth II
Cultural depictions of Charles III
Books about United Kingdom royalty
Michael Joseph books
Penguin Books books

Queen Camilla (novel)


A claque (pronounce: 'clack') is a small group of people in an opera house who deliberately either clapped loudly (applauded) or shouted boo for a particular singer. Usually it means an organised group who know in advance what they are going to do.

In the 19th century there was very often a claque at performances of an opera. Someone who liked one of the singers and wanted them to have lots of applause would pay a group of people to sit near the back of the opera house and to clap and shout enthusiastically whenever that singer had finished a song. This would encourage the rest of the audience to clap loudly too. Sometimes the claque would be paid to do the opposite: they would be told to hiss and boo when the singer had sung.

Very often a singer would have to pay some money to the claque so that they would applaud him (or her). If the singer did not pay, the claque would hiss and boo. This was, of course, a nasty form of blackmail. In the early 20th century, when the world-famous tenor Enrico Caruso refused to pay the claque in Naples a bribe, they hissed during his singing of the great aria Una furtiva lagrima.

Groups of supporters at football ('soccer') matches do much the same thing without being paid. Abuse of match officials is also quite common. Abuse between rival groups of fans is also common. Clubs are required to keep away fans in different sections from home fans.

References
Teach yourself opera by Susan Sutherland 1997, LCCC number: 06-72382

Opera terminology

Claque


Bushido is a German rapper. He was born in Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia, 28 September 1978 and raised in Berlin. His real name is Anis Mohamed Youssef Ferchichi. Bushido left the record company Aggro Berlin in 2001. Now he has his own record label ersguterjunge and insults his old label, for example in the song Sonnenbank Flavour. Other big hits are Von der Skyline zum Bordstein und zurück and Nie Ein Rapper ( Never a rapper ). In 2006, he won the category German act of the European Music Awards in Copenhagen.

History
The artist name "Bushido" is Japanese and means "Way of the Warrior". Bushido was raised by his mother. He met his Tunisian father when he was 26 years old. Bushido was raised in Berlin-Tempelhof and went to the "Gymnasium" (German "grammar school", the highest school form) which he quit without his Abitur (German "A-level", right to study at university). He started his drug-selling career.

He first came to rap through graffiti where he painted walls using the name "Fuchs" (German "Fox"). He learned about rap music from his friend Vader(-licious) from DMK (Dark Mingz Klique). Together with King Orgasmus, the three recorded a tape under the name "030" which is the telephone number for Berlin. Bushido's first commercial appearance was on the Frauenarzt-Tape with King Orgasmus for I Luv Money Records in 2002. A short time later he published his self-made first album King of Kingz.

German Rap is based on a monarchy view of things. Everything is a kingdom and the best rappers are kings. There are currently three Kings: Kool Savas, Azad and Bushido himself. However at that time, nobody knew him, but his raps were thought of being very good. Because he knew that, he named his record "King of Kingz". He said "there can be 2 Kings, one for Berlin (Kool Savas) and one for Frankfurt am Main (Azad). Whatever. I shit on 'em. I'm the King. There is noone despite me. Fuck it. I'm the King of Kings."

This record was his way up. He was signed by Aggro Berlin which released this tape. He then made his well known record Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten (English: Carlo, Cocain, Hoes) and Vom Bordstein bis zu Skyline (From Pavement to the Skyline) which gained him fame nationwide.

In 2004 he quit Aggro Berlin and started his own label Ersguterjunge ("First best boy", a term which was used in the 1930s). He recorded albums and released them every 6 months. Including Electroghetto, Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten 2 and Staatsfeind Nr 1 ( State enemy No. 1). He was officially accused for making racist material and disrespect of minorities and females. However, this could not stop him from gaining success and fame. All his Albums gained Top-3 Chart placements. He was the first German Rapper to have two Albums in TOP-10 Charts placement.

Real life
Other rappers, for example the American rapper Raptile, said that Bushido rapped about a way of life he never lived. Media like CNN showed that this is not true. In August 2005 he was sentenced to jail in Austria for beating someone with his bodyguards. They beat up the person because that person damaged the tires of his car. The Austrian judge gave him the option to pay 100.000 Euro ( 150,000 USD) to get out of jail. This was the highest amount possible by law and the judge thought Bushido could not afford that.

Discography

Albums
 1999: Demotape (Not distributed)
 2001: King of KingZ
 2002: Carlo, Cokxxx, Nutten, as Sonny Black with Fler aka Frank White
 2003: King Of KingZ [Digital Remastered Version]
 2003: Demotape 1999 (First limited distribution, just 300 copies)
 2003: Vom Bordstein bis zur Skyline
 2004: King of KingZ 2004 Edition
 2004: Electro Ghetto
 2005: Carlo Cokxxx Nutten 2, as Sonny Black with Saad
 2005: King of KingZ & Demotape - extended version
 2005: Staatsfeind Nr. 1
 2005: Electro Ghetto (Limited Pur Edition) (18. November 2005) (non-explicit with 5 Remixes)
 2006 Von der Skyline zum Bordstein zurück
 2008: Heavy Metal Payback
 2009 Carlo,Cokxxx Nutten 2,as Sonnyblack with Fler aka Frank White
 2010 Zeiten ändern dich
 2011 Jenseits von Gut und Böse 2011 23 (with Sido)
 2012  AMYF
 2014  Sonny Black
 2015 Carlo, Coxxx, Nutten III
 2016 CLA$$IC with Shindy

Singles
 2003: Bei Nacht  2003: Gemein wie 10  2004: Nie wieder 2004: Mitten ins Gesicht (Promo track in Electro Ghetto Player)
 2004: Electro Ghetto  2004: Nie wieder 2004: Zukunft
 2005: Hoffnung stirbt zuletzt (with Cassandra Steen)
 2005: FLERräter (Free track with Eko Fresh)
 2005: Nie ein Rapper (feat. Saad)
 2005: Worldwide (Strapt & Bushido)
 2005: Endgegner / Staatsfeind Nr.1 2006: Von der Skyline zum Bordstein zurück
 2006: Sonnenbank Flavour
 2006: Vendetta (with Chakuza & Eko Fresh)
 2007: Janine
 2007: Eure Kinder (Chakuza feat. Bushido)
 2007: Alles verloren
 2007: Reich mir nicht deine Hand
 2007: Ring frei! (Eko Fresh feat. Bushido)
 2007: Alles Gute kommt von unten (with Chakuza & Kay One)
 2008: Regen (Saad feat. Bushido)
 2008: Unter der Sonne (Chakuza feat. Bushido)
 2008: Ching Ching
 2008: Für immer jung (feat. Karel Gott)
 2009: Kennst du die Stars (Oliver Pocher & Bushido)
 2009: Eine Chance / Zu Gangsta (Bushido produziert Sonny Black & Frank White)
 2010: ''Alles wird gut

1978 births
Living people
Entertainers from Berlin
German criminals
German musical entertainers
Musicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
Rappers

Bushido (rapper)


The Centre for the Scots Leid (CSL) is a curn that wirks tae promote the uiss o Scots an gie information an wittins aboot whit's gaun on in the Scots leid warld.

History
The CSL wis stairtit in 1994, unner the name o The Scots Language Resource Centre.  It cam about frae an ineetiative begoud by the Scots Leid Associe.  They got support frae the Perth Cooncil an a space wis fund for thaim tae hae an office in the AK Bell Librar in Perth, that wis bein biggit at thon time, the office is aye in the same steid the day.  The first director o  the Centre wis Stuart McHardy.  The Buird Convenor wis Chairlie Jones frae the Varsity o Edinburgh.

Wabsite
The CSL's wark is tae gaither in an pit oot information aboot Scots an maist o this wark is duin on their wabsite, that haes wittins, airticles, spoken wird recordins, blogs an ithir featurs.  Maist o the site is in baith Scots an Inglis, tho pairts o it is juist in ane o thir leids, sic as the blogs, that's juist in Scots.  Ane o the featurs is the Scots Wurd o the Week, that's taen frae the Herald Newspaper, an can be heard in a wee soondclip file read by sic fowk as actress Joyce, makar Rab Wilson an Alasdair Allan MSP.

Mair oot ower the CSL rins an annual programme o its ain online events an featurs.

Fowk that's wantin wittins o whit's gaun on in the warld o the Scots leid can sign up tae a mailin list frae the Centre on the wabsite, that sends oot emails ilka month tellin fowk whit's comin in the near an furder aff future, sic as the SLA's Collogue, scrievin compeetitions, talks etc.

Relationship wi ither Scots leid groups
Syne the CSL gies a space whaur fowk can gie wittins an find oot whit's gaun on, it haes  richt freendly relationships wi ither groups an single bodies that's aye dargin tae gie the leid mair o a staundin in ilka day life.
Mair speceefically, the CSL wirks wi a reenge o pairtners, amang them can be coontit the National Library of Scotland, the Scottish Poetry Library, the Herald an the Lorimer Trust.

Staff
Michael Hance - Director
Dr. Dauvit Horsbroch - Language an Lair
Avril Nicol - Clerical Assistant
Andy Philip - Politics an Activism
Katrina Macleod - Eddication an Lairnin
Stuart Muddie - Volunteer Information Officer
Duncan Sneddon - Volunteer Information Officer

Fremmit Airtins
Scots Language Centre

Scots leid

Centre for the Scots Leid


Lieutenant general or lieutenant-general (abbrev Lt Gen, LTG etc.), is a military rank (NATO code OF-8). It is used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second in command on the battlefield. The lieutenant general was normally subordinate to a captain general.

In modern armies, lieutenant general normally ranks directly below a general and above a major general. It is equivalent to the navy rank of vice admiral. In air forces with a separate rank structure, it is equivalent to air marshal. In the US Army a lieutenant general usually commands an army corps.

In a number of countries, the rank of lieutenant general is the highest army rank in use. In Latvia and Lithuania, the chief of defence is a lieutenant general. In the Irish Defence Forces and Israeli forces, the Chief of Staff holds this rank.

References

Military ranks
 2

Lieutenant general


In computer science, data validation is the way of making sure that a program operates on clean, correct and useful data.
It uses routines, often called "validation rules" or "check routines", that check for correctness, meaningfulness, and security of data that are input to the system. It is automatic and ensures that the data entered is reasonable.

Computer science

Data validation


William R. Jecelin (May 6, 1930 – September 19, 1950) was a soldier in the United States Army who posthumously received the United States military's highest decoration for bravery, the Medal of Honor, for his actions during the Korean War. He was born in and joined the Army from Baltimore, Maryland and was sent as a Sergeant to fight in the Korean War. While there he was fighting with Company C, 35th Infantry Regiment during the Pusan Perimeter Offensive when a grenade was thrown at them Jecelin sacrificed himself to save the other soldiers in his unit. He covered the grenade with his body and was killed. His body was returned to the US and buried in his hometown of Baltimore.

Biography
Jecelin was born May 6, 1930, in Baltimore, Maryland and joined the United States Army from that location. After attending training he was sent to fight in Korea as a Sergeant in  Company C, 35th Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division.

On September 19, 1950, his company was ordered to secure a ridge that was occupied by Korean forces they attacked as ordered but the first attempt to take the hill failed. They tried a second time and this time Jecelin led his platoon through heavy enemy fire advancing to the base of the cliff where the attack was stopped again due to enemy fire. He determined that a direct assault was the only way to gain control of the hill so he began firing his rifle and throwing grenades at the enemy position, calling to his men to follow him. The American troops were able to make it to the crest of the hill before being forced to take cover from enemy fire, before attempting another assault. They attached bayonets for hand-to-hand combat and were able to defeat a portion of the enemy before being forced to take cover after receiving fire from another group of enemy forces in the area. When they began attacking this new group, one of the enemy soldiers threw a grenade at the incoming Americans and Sergeant Jecelin dived on the grenade, smothering the blast with his body, saving the lives of the other American soldiers but was killed in the blast. For this action he posthumously received the United States military's highest decoration for bravery, the Medal of Honor.

His body was returned to the United States after his death and buried in Bohemian National Cemetery.

Medal of Honor citation
Citation:

Sgt. Jecelin, Company C, distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and Intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy. His company was ordered to secure a prominent, sawtoothed ridge from a well-entrenched and heavily armed enemy. Unable to capture the objective in the first attempt, a frontal and flanking assault was launched. He led his platoon through heavy enemy fire and bursting shells, across rice fields and rocky terrain, in direct frontal attack on the ridge in order to draw fire away from the flanks. The unit advanced to the base of the cliff, where intense, accurate hostile fire stopped the attack. Realizing that an assault was the only solution, Sgt. Jecelin rose from his position firing his rifle and throwing grenades as he called on his men to follow him. Despite the intense enemy fire this attack carried to the crest of the ridge where the men were forced to take cover. Again he rallied his men and stormed the enemy strong point. With fixed bayonets they charged into the face of antitank fire and engaged the enemy in hand-to-hand combat. After clubbing and slashing this force into submission the platoon was forced to take cover from direct frontal fire of a self-propelled gun. Refusing to be stopped he leaped to his feet and through sheer personal courage and fierce determination led his men in a new attack. At this instant a well-camouflaged enemy soldier threw a grenade at the remaining members of the platoon. He immediately lunged and covered the grenade with his body, absorbing the full force of the explosion to save those around him. This incredible courage and willingness to sacrifice himself for his comrades so imbued them with fury that they completely eliminated the enemy force. Sgt. Jecelin's heroic leadership and outstanding gallantry reflect the highest credit upon himself and uphold the esteemed traditions of the military service.

See also

List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients

References

External links

1930 births
1950 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
American people of Czech descent
Burials at Bohemian National Cemetery (Baltimore)
Military personnel from Baltimore
United States Army non-commissioned officers
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Deaths by hand grenade
United States Army personnel of the Korean War

William R. Jecelin


Mannheim school refers to both the orchestral techniques pioneered by the court orchestra of the Elector Palatine in Mannheim in the latter half of the 18th century and the group of composers of the early classical period, who composed for the orchestra of Mannheim. The father of the school is considered to be the Bohemian composer Johann Stamitz. Besides him, two generations of composers wrote compositions for the orchestra, whose reputation was due to its excellent discipline and the individual skill of its players; the English traveler Charles Burney called it "an army of generals". Their performance style included new dynamic elements, crescendos and diminuendos. Composers of the Mannheim school played an important role in the development of the classical period's genres and of the classical symphony form.

History
The origins of the Mannheim school go back to the court of the Elector Charles III Philip, who moved from Heidelberg to Mannheim in 1720, already employing an orchestra larger than those of any of the surrounding courts. The orchestra grew even further in the following decades and came to include some of the best virtuosi of the time. Under the guidance of Kapellmeister Carlo Grua, the court hired such talents as Johann Stamitz, who is generally considered to be the founder of the Mannheim school, in 1741/42, and he became its director in 1750.

The most notable of the revolutionary techniques of the Mannheim orchestra were its more independent treatment of the wind instruments, and its famous whole-orchestra crescendo. Contemporary musicians mentioned the high level of the orchestra, among them, Leopold Mozart in 1763, and W. A. Mozart in his letters in 1777/78, and the English music historian Charles Burney.

The role of the Mannheim school's composers in the evolution of the classical symphony is thus significant, although most scholars now agree that these changes occurred nearly simultaneously at various other centers, e.g. in Berlin and Vienna. Their influence on the evolution of the classical music period is due to the reputation of the ensemble at one hand, and on the other hand to the fact that the compositions of the Mannheim school's composers were published in Paris and London as well, some of their works even multiple times of different publishers.

Composers
Members of the Mannheim school included Johann Stamitz, Franz Xaver Richter, Ignaz Holzbauer, Carl Stamitz, Franz Ignaz Beck, Ignaz Fränzl, and Christian Cannabich, and it had a very direct influence on many major symphonists of the time, including Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus  Mozart and Leopold Hofmann. (Cannabich, one of the directors of the orchestra after the death of J. Stamitz, was also a good friend of Mozart from the latter's visit to Mannheim in 1777 onwards.)

Johann Stamitz visited Paris, and the Mannheim school had an influence on the Concert Spirituel Sacred Concert since 1754. When Joseph Legros took over the Parisian concert series Concert Spirituel, the relationship with the Mannheim School flourished and the music of Haydn became extremely popular in Paris. Prominent concerts in Paris during the 1770s were the Concert de la Loge Olympique (Concert of the Olympic Lodge) and the Concert des Amateurs (Concert for the Fans) which may have been part of the Concert Spirituel.

Claude-François-Marie Rigoley (the Comte d'Ogny) commissioned Joseph Haydn's six "Paris Symphonies", Nr. 82–87, for performance by Concert de la Loge Olympique. Chevalier de Saint-Georges conducted their world premiere. The influence of the Mannheim school is evident in these symphonies.

Musical innovations

Composers of the Mannheim school introduced a number of novel ideas into the orchestral music of their day: sudden crescendos – the Mannheim Crescendo (a crescendo developed via the whole orchestra) – and diminuendos; crescendos with piano releases; the Mannheim Rocket (a swiftly ascending passage typically having a rising arpeggiated melodic line together with a crescendo); the Mannheim Roller (an extended crescendo passage typically having a rising melodic line over an ostinato bass line); the Mannheim Sigh (a mannered treatment of the Baroque practice of putting more weight on the first of two notes in descending pairs of slurred notes); the Mannheim Birds (imitation of birds chirping in solo passages); the Mannheim Climax (a high-energy section of music where all instruments drop out except for the strings, usually preceded by a Mannheim Crescendo); and the Grand Pause where the playing stops for a moment, resulting in total silence, only to restart vigorously. The Mannheim Rocket can be a rapidly ascending broken chord from the lowest range of the bass line to the very top of the soprano line. Its influence can be found at the beginning of the fourth movement of Mozart's Symphony No. 40 and the start of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, and the very start of Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 1 in F minor, Op. 2, No. 1.

Members of the Mannheim school abandoned quickly the praxis of the basso continuo in their compositions, which was almost universal in the Baroque era, and they used the minimum of contrapuntal elaboration. One of their chief innovations is the four-movement symphony form, introducing the menuet as its third movement, which was originally one of the Baroque suite's movements. The Mannheim school played an important role in the development of the sonata form, which is generally the form of the classical symphony's first movement. In their orchestration practice, the clarinet appears both as part of the woodwind section and as a solo instrument.

Recordings
 Clarinet Concertos by The Mannheim School  Seven concertos by Carl Stamitz; works by Franz Danzi, , Josef Fiala, Frédéric Blasius, Sébastien Demar, , Franz Tausch, Peter Winter; Karl Schlechta, clarinet and basset horn; , Jiří Malát, conductor. Arte Nova 74321 37327 2, 5 discs
 Many of the Mannheim symphonists have now been recorded on Chandos and the Naxos labels in various numbers of volumes per composer. J. Stamitz 2 volumes, F. X. Richter 2 volumes, Carl Stamitz, Cannabich 2 volumes, etc.
 Conductor Simon Murphy has made several recordings of the very first Mannheim School symphonies for Pentatone, including early four part, string symphonies by J. Stamitz and F. X. Richter.

References

Further reading
 Paul Corneilson, Opera at Mannheim, Ann Arbor, University of North Carolina, 1992, PhD diss. (UMI DA9309859)
 Romain Feist, L'École de Mannheim, Genève, éditions Papillon, 2001,  (in French)
 Ludwig Finscher, Die Mannheimer Hofkapelle im Zeitalter Carl Theodors, Mannheim, Palatinum Verlag, 1992,  (in German)
 Eugene K. Wolf, "The Mannheim Court" in The Classical Era, ed. by Neal Zaslaw, Houndmills, McMillan, 1989, pp. 213–239
 Roland Würtz, Verzeichnis und Ikonographie der kurpfälzischen Hofmusiker zu Mannheim nebst darstellendem Theaterpersonal 1723–1803, Wilhelmshaven, Heinrichshoffen, 1975,  (in German)

External links
History of the Mannheim school
Gerald Drebes, "Die 'Mannheimer Schule' – ein Zentrum der vorklassischen Musik und Mozart", 1992

Classical-period composers
Classical period (music)
Composition schools
German music
Mannheim

Mannheim school


Portmeirion is a tourist village in Gwynedd, North Wales. The village is in the community of Penrhyndeudraeth. Its is next to the River Dwyryd. It was created and built by Clough Williams-Ellis. He created and built it between the years 1925 and 1975. He wanted it to look like an Italian village. A charity owns it. Many movies and television shows were filmed there, including The Prisoner.

History

Portmeirion looks a lot like the Italian city of Portofino. But, Clough Williams-Ellis, who created Portmeirion, always said that it was not based on the city of Portofino. He said he did want it to look like it was a place near the Mediterranean, though. He designed and built the village between the years of 1925 and 1975. The mix of architecture in the village is believed to have influenced postmodernism architecture in the late 1900s.

An old estate used to be located on the property before Portmeirion was built. It was called Aber Iâ (). The hotel and three cottages, which are named "White Horses", "Mermaid", and "The Salutation", are part of the original estate. It was built in the 1850s. Before the estate, there was a foundry and a boatyard on site. There is also an old site which has a small group of remains from a mediaeval castle nearby.

In 1931, Williams-Ellis bought a Victorian mansion from his uncle Sir Osmund Williams, Bt. It was called Castell Deudraeth. Williams-Ellis planned on having the mansion be a part of the hotel. Lots of problems and the war did not allow that to happen. Williams-Ellis loved the building a lot and did anything he could to make it a part of the hotel. He received money from the Heritage Lottery Fund, the European Regional Development Fund, and Wales Tourist Board. This money allowed him to finally open Castell Deudraeth as a hotel with 11 bedrooms and a restaurant on August 20, 2001. Bryn Terfel performed at the opening.

There are a lot of rhododendrons at Portmeirion, which are part of gardens that go throughout the land. The gardens were started before Williams-Ellis lived there. They were started by George Henry Caton Haigh. An English charity owns Portmeirion, today. It is still a hotel. There is also a cafe, cottages for rent, shops, a tearoom, and a restaurant.

Lewis Mumford has written a lot about Portmeirion. He wrote a lot about it in his book, The Highway and the City in 1964.

Popular culture

A lot of people have found inspiration in Portmeirion. Noël Coward wrote the play Blithe Spirit while staying in a cottage at Portmeirion. Frank Lloyd Wright, Gregory Peck, Ingrid Bergman, and Paul McCartney have visited. Jools Holland visited it while he was making a TV show called The Tube. He loved Portmeirion so much that he used its type of architecture in building his recording studio and house in Blackheath.

The village is used in many movies and television shows to look like the shows are taking place in an exotic place in Europe. Episodes of Danger Man, Doctor Who, and The Prisoner have been filmed at Portmeirion. Many bands and musicians have recorded videos, songs, and held concerts there to do with The Prisoner, including Supergrass, Iron Maiden, XTC, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and a music festival called Festival N°6.

References

Other websites

 Official website

Villages in Wales

Portmeirion


Computer graphics are visual representations of data, made with the help of computer. Computer graphics can be a series of images (video or animation) or a single image.

Computer graphics are very useful. Computer-generated imagery is used for movie making, video games, computer program development, photo editing, scientific modeling, design for advertising and more. Some people see computer graphics as art.

Areas of computer graphics
Computer graphics can be 2D or 3D. They are made differently and used differently. People can use computer programs to make different types of graphics.

2D graphics
2D computer graphics are usually split into two categories: vector graphics and raster graphics.

Vector graphics

Vector graphics use lines, shapes and text to create a more complex image. If a vector graphic image is made very big on the monitor, it will still look as good (smooth) as its regular size. This is one of the reasons vector graphics are liked so much. Vector images also take very little computer memory when saved. Vector graphics are made with programs like Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape, and were used for some older computer games. Today, they are often used for when computer graphics have to be printed out.

Examples of vector graphics

Raster graphics

Raster images are made up of very small points called pixels. Digital cameras create raster pictures but artists can make them with computers too. The artists don't have to change a single pixel at a time – raster programs often have tools like paintbrushes, paint buckets and erasers to make a picture. Programs used to make these include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP and Corel Paint Shop Pro.

Sometimes people do use only pixels to make an image. This is called pixel art and it has a very unique style.

Examples of raster graphics

3D graphics
3D graphics are graphics that look more realistic because they are three-dimensional. This means the computer thinks it has a height, a length and a depth, and displays them as we would see them in the real world with our eyes. Among other things they use solid geometry and trigonometry to create correct perspective. Some programs used to make 3D graphics are Bryce, 3D Studio Max, Maya and Blender. 3D graphics are used many times in movies and TV shows and video games.

Most of 3D graphics can be seen as vector graphics because it uses mathematical shapes like 3D triangles to describe objects. But there also exists 3D graphics that uses a grid of "3D pixels" which we call voxels.

Examples of 3D graphics

Related pages
 Computer animation

Computer graphics

Computer graphics


Elisabeth Dorothea Bing (née Koenigsberger; 8 July 1914 – 15 May 2015) was a German physical therapist, co-founder of Lamaze International, and proponent of natural childbirth. She trained as a physical therapist in England after fleeing Nazi Germany due to her Jewish ancestry. Her hospital work there made her interested in natural childbirth, and she taught it to parents in the United States after she moved there in 1949. To promote natural childbirth methods, she co-founded the American Society for Psychoprophylaxis in Obstetrics (now Lamaze International), made several TV appearances and radio broadcasts, and wrote several books on the subject. She became known as the "mother" of the Lamaze method in the United States.

Early life
Bing was born on 8 July 1914, in a suburb of Berlin. Hers was a home birth, and she was delivered before the doctor could arrive. Her family were of Jewish descent, but converted to Protestantism years before her birth, and on sensing danger with the rise of Nazi Germany, they decided to leave the country. Elisabeth left Germany for England in September 1933. She was the first of the family to leave.

Career
In England, Bing trained as a physical therapist. At first she took a job as a student nurse, as physical therapy training was cheaper after one year of student nursing, and it was difficult to get money abroad from Germany at that time. However, she was forced to quit halfway through after falling ill and having to have surgery. After she moved to London, her family managed to get enough money to her to pay for her training. She trained for three years and became a member of the Chartered Society of Physical Therapy.

Her interest in obstetrics began after working with new mothers in hospital. At the time, standard childbirth procedures involved giving mothers large amounts of medication, and keeping them in hospital for ten days after they gave birth. Bing's job was to give physical therapy to these postpartum mothers. After talking about her experiences at the hospital with one of her part-time private patients, she learned of Grantly Dick-Read's book Natural Childbirth. She was unable to meet Read or other like-minded individuals because of the outbreak of World War II, so she taught herself as much as she could about obstetrics.

In 1949, Bing moved to Jacksonville, Illinois, in the United States, at the invitation of her sister. It was here that she first got the chance to teach natural childbirth methods, after being invited by an obstetrician she met at a house party. She coached all of the obstetrician's patients in natural childbirth, learning while she taught. After a year of this, she decided to go back to England. However, as she passed through New York, she met her husband, Fred Max Bing, and decided to remain there. They married in 1951.

Bing continued to teach natural childbirth methods in New York, and in 1951 she was invited by Dr. Alan Guttmacher to teach at Mount Sinai Hospital, which had just opened its first maternity ward. It was here that she heard about the psychoprophylactic method of childbirth developed by Dr. Fernand Lamaze. Lamaze's method incorporated breathing techniques as well as the natural childbirth techniques developed by Read. Mount Sinai Hospital cound not afford to send Bing to France to learn the method from Lamaze, but she met Marjorie Karmel, who had published the book Thank You, Dr. Lamaze, in 1959. Karmel had learned the method directly from Lamaze in Paris, and she in turn taught it to Bing. In 1960, the two went on to found the American Society for Psychoprophylaxis in Obstetrics, now known as Lamaze International.

Bing was an advocate for the importance of mothers making informed childbirth decisions. As well as educating parents about childbirth, she worked with obstetricians to introduce them to natural childbirth methods. She also wrote articles; appeared on television and radio shows, including shows hosted by Barbara Walters and Phil Donahue; and wrote several books, including Six Practical Lessons for an Easier Childbirth. She became known as the "mother" of Lamaze among the American public.

Bing is featured in the 1975 documentary Giving Birth: Four Portraits.

Bing died at the age of 100 in her New York apartment in May 2015. She was survived by her son, Peter, a professor of Greek (Hellenistic poetry).

References

1914 births
2015 deaths
Natural childbirth advocates
German centenarians
People from Berlin
People from the Province of Brandenburg
British physiotherapists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Immigrants to the United States
American centenarians
Women centenarians

Elisabeth Bing


A page or page boy is a young male servant.  A different meaning of "page boy", but based on the same idea of one who serves, is for a young boy who helps the bride at a wedding.

History
In medieval times, a page was a servant to a knight.  He had to clean things, help the knight, for example by running messages for him.  He also learned how to fight.  When he was 14 he usually became a squire.  When he was 21 he sometimes became a knight.

The decorative page
During the Renaissance and after it became fashionable for black boys and young men to be decorative pages.  They wore fancy costumes and served fashionable ladies and lords.  This custom of having an "African page" lasted for several centuries. This type of page is almost unheard of today.

Feudalism

Page-boy


The London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) was a railway company in south-eastern England (registered 1 August 1859).  It was previously called the East Kent Railway.

Its lines ran through London and northern and eastern Kent to form a part of the Greater London commuter network. The railway was always in a difficult financial situation. It went bankrupt in 1867 but was able to continue to operate. Many of the difficulties were caused by competition and duplication of services with the South Eastern Railway (SER). However, in 1898 the LCDR agreed with the SER to share the operation of the two railways and work them as a single system under the name South Eastern and Chatham Railway. Receipts were pooled but it was not a full amalgamation.

The SER and LCDR remained separate companies until they became part of the Southern Railway on 1 January 1923  (Railways Act 1921).

Pre-grouping British railway companies

London, Chatham and Dover Railway


Annette Kolodny (August 21, 1941 – September 11, 2019) was an American feminist literary critic and activist,  held the position of College of Humanities Professor Emerita of American Literature and Culture at the University of Arizona in Tucson. Her major scholarly writings examined the experiences of women on the American frontiers and the projection of female imagery onto the American landscape. Her other writings examined some aspects of feminism after the 1960s; the revision of dominant themes in American studies; and the problems faced by women and minorities in the American academy.

Biography
Kolodny was born in New York City. Capping what was already a long and distinguished career, in 2012 Annette Kolodny published In Search of First Contact: The Vikings of Vinland, the Peoples of the Dawnland, and the Anglo-American Anxiety of Discovery (Duke University Press). The influential magazine Indian Country Today immediately named it as one of the 12 most important books in Native American Studies published in 2012. The Western Literature Association awarded the book the Thomas Lyon Prize as "the best book in Western literary and cultural studies published in 2012." Professor Kolodny had earlier made her mark in the field of Native American Studies with the publication of the long-lost 1893 masterpiece of Native American literature, Joseph Nicolar's The Life and Traditions of the Red Man (Duke University Press, 2007). This new edition included an interpretive analysis of Nicolar's text as well as a fascinating history of the Penobscot Nation in Maine. These two latest books mark the culmination of a scholarly career that began with studies of the American frontiers and moved into breakthrough examinations of trans-Atlantic contacts between Europeans and Native Americans.

Kolodny was born in New York City to Esther Rifkind Kolodny and David Kolodny. She did her undergraduate work at Brooklyn College, from which she graduated Phi Beta Kappa magna cum laude in 1962.  After graduation, she took a position on the editorial staff at Newsweek. Kolodny left to return to graduate studies in 1964, citing a desire "to teach people to think critically and because she wanted to be able to publish her own ideas, not merely report the ideas of others." Her M.A. and Ph.D. work were completed at the University of California, Berkeley, and she earned the latter degree in 1969. Her first teaching position at Yale University was cut short as she left after a year to move to Canada with her husband, whose draft board appeal for conscientious objector status for the duration of the Vietnam War was rejected. Finding a position at the University of British Columbia, she helped develop western Canada's first accredited interdisciplinary women's studies program before returning to the United States in 1974 to teach at the University of New Hampshire.

In New Hampshire, she wrote her first major work of feminist eco-criticism, The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters (1975). While the book got positive reviews and pioneered the field of feminist ecocriticism, Kolodny was denied promotion and tenure in the English Department at the University of New Hampshire. (Richter 1387) Active in the student movements while in Berkeley, she continued to advocate for the right to establish a program in women's studies. She later sued the University of New Hampshire charging sex discrimination and anti-Semitism. She settled with the "largest financial award in history in a case of this kind". She used this money to establish the Legal Fund of the Task Force on Discrimination for the National Women's Studies Association (NWSA), an organization she had helped found, and served as director of the task force from 1980 to 1985. The Task Force is now renamed Feminists Against Academic Discrimination within the NWSA.

Kolodny taught at several universities, including the University of Maryland and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute before being named Dean of the College of Humanities at the University of Arizona in Tucson. Following her tenure as dean, which spanned from 1988 to 1993, Kolodny was named College of Humanities Professor of American Literature and Culture at the University of Arizona. She was a Professor Emerita of Comparative Cultural and Literary Studies at the University of Arizona in Tucson.

In 1993 she was elected to lifetime membership in the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

Her books won many awards both in the United States and abroad. Over the course of her scholarly career, Kolodny has received grants and fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Ford Foundation, the Guggenheim Foundation, the Rockefeller Humanities Fellowship, and others. She retired from the University of Arizona in July 2007 and has continued an active professional life as a consultant in higher education policy issues and as a scholar of American literature and culture. She died on September 11, 2019, in Tucson, Arizona.

Works
Kolodny's first two books were The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters (University of North Carolina Press, 1975) and The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860 (University of North Carolina Press, 1984); both of these texts deal with environmental concerns and the historic destruction of the land (Jay 217). Based on her experience as a senior administrator in higher education, Kolodny published Failing the Future: A Dean Looks at Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century (Duke University Press, 1998), which "details the extent to which women and non-white students are still outsiders on American campuses." The book also examines the status of the humanities disciplines in higher education, the value of tenure, and the need for family friendly policies on campus. It is a book about needed educational innovations in the twenty-first century.

Kolodny is also well known for two essays published in 1980: "Dancing Through the Minefield: Some Observations on the Theory, Practice, and Politics of a Feminist Literary Criticism" (Feminist Studies, Spring 1980) and "A Map for Re-Reading: Gender and the Interpretation of Literary Texts" (New Literary History, Spring 1980). Of these, "Dancing Through the Minefield" is the most well-known, and has been called "the most reprinted essay of American feminist literary criticism". It has been translated and reprinted worldwide.

In 2007, Kolodny published a long-lost masterpiece of Native American literature, Joseph Nicolar's The Life and Traditions of the Red Man (Duke University Press), originally published in 1893. Nicolar's work traces the history of his people, the Penobscot Nation, from the first moments of creation through the arrival of the white man. Kolodny's reprint of this important work includes a history of the Penobscot Nation and an interpretive introduction to the text. It was stipulated that the royalties from this text go to the Penobscot. In 2012, Kolodny published In Search of First Contact: The Vikings of Vinland, the Peoples of the Dawnland, and the Anglo-American Anxiety of Discovery (Duke University Press). A major contribution to the field of American Studies, this book examines both Native American and Euroamerican stories of first contacts between the peoples of the New and Old Worlds. It examines the competition between Leif Eiriksson and Christopher Columbus for the title of "first discoverer".

Literary theory and criticism

Landscape symbolism and ecofeminism

The Lay of the Land: Metaphor As Experience and History in American Life and Letters

In her first book, The Lay of the Land, Kolodny explores the colonization of America, both in reality and in the realm of metaphor. She examines "the continued repetition of the land-as-woman symbolization in American life and letters" (Kolodny, ix). The projection of female imagery onto the landscape was essential to its colonization, she argued; in her introduction, she asks, "was there perhaps a need to experience the land as a nurturing, giving maternal breast because of the threatening, alien, and potentially emasculating terror of the unknown?" (9) By construing the land as female, she argued, it was possible for the colonists to remove some of the terror and mystery from an unknown land. Instead, it became either a nurturing maternal figure, existing to provide sustenance, or a passive virginal figure, existing only to be dominated, sexually or otherwise. With these metaphors firmly in sight, the colonists had a framework through which to view the vast stretches of North America as less alien and terrifying. Through an examination of several male writers, such as Philip Freneau, James Fenimore Cooper, and John James Audubon, Kolodny pursues the implications of this metaphorically female land.

Different chapters of the book correspond to different chronological eras after the discovery and colonization of the Americas and to different metaphorical mindsets as manifested in the writings of the authors considered. In chapter 2, "Surveying the Virgin Land: The Documents of Exploration and Colonization, 1500–1740", the comparison of the land to an untouched, virginal paradise begins the exploration. Chapter 3, "Laying Waste Her Fields of Plenty: The Eighteenth Century", discusses the romanticized agrarian and pastoral ideals that coloured the view of America, especially in its comparisons to ideal lands like Elysium and Arcadia, and the consequences that arose from such ideals, such as the exploitation and alteration of the land. Chapter 4, "Singing Her Past and Singing Her Praises: The Nineteenth Century", examines the dual images of Mother and Mistress in the land, as well as the frustration of the pastoral impulse with the closing of the American frontier and the victory of the industrialized North in the American Civil War. Finally, chapter 5, "Making It with Paradise: The Twentieth Century", deals with the increase of industrialization and the yearning both "to return to and to master the beautiful and bountiful femininity of the new continent." (139)

Freudian and psychoanalytic influences are apparent in this text, especially in the "psychosexual dynamic of a virginal paradise" (Kolodny, Land Before Her, 3). It also has tones of ecofeminism, which will be discussed below.

The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860

In the preface to this book, Kolodny states that "[t]he purpose of this study is to chart women's private responses to the successive American frontiers and to trace a tradition of women's public statements about the west." (Kolodny, Land Before Her, xi) Thus, she approaches the same topic as that of Lay of the Land ("landscape as a symbolic…realm" [xii]), but from a different direction. In the writings she examined, she noticed a different theme from that of the male writers:

Like their husbands and fathers, women too shared in economic motives behind emigration; and like the men, women also dreamed of transforming the wilderness. But the emphases were different…Avoiding for a time male assertions of a rediscovered Eden, women claimed the frontiers as a potential sanctuary for an idealized domesticity. Massive exploitation and alteration of the continent do not seem to have been a part of women's fantasies.  They dreamed, more modestly, of locating a home and a familial human community within a cultivated garden. (xii–xiii)

There is little sense of the conquering-of-the-frontier mentality that Kolodny discovered in the male writers she discussed in Lay of the Land. There were no triumphant heroes of the order of Daniel Boone or Davey Crockett; rather, the narratives of these women focused on the triumph of domesticity and order in a wild land.

The book is organized chronologically, in much the same way as Lay of the Land. The first section is titled "Book One: From Captivity to Accommodation, 1630-1833", and traces the writings of and about women as they moved from captivity both literal (Mary Rowlandson's account of being captured by Native Americans) and figurative (the sense of being forcibly confined in a new and strange land) to adaptation in the form of survival skills, such as those reputedly possessed by Rebecca Boone, the wife of Daniel Boone. Book two, "From Promotion to Literature, 1833–1850", follows attempts to encourage women to move westward by male writers to western narratives by the women themselves. The third and final section, "Book Three: Repossessing Eden, 1850–1860", documents the attempts by women to create a familiar order in a still unfamiliar country.

Ecofeminism

Both of these books relate to a subgenre of feminism called ecological feminism or ecofeminism, a social and political doctrine that posits a relationship between the subjugation of women and the destruction of nature. Ecofeminists theorize that a culture based on dominating women is directly connected to social ideals that promote the environmental abuse of the earth.

These two books have a connection to ecofeminism, particularly Lay of the Land. The feminization of the land and the images of the earth as a passive, giving female figure show the social ideas that ecofeminism protests against. Likewise, The Land Before Her exemplifies the same ideas from a different point of view in the ideal of the domestic garden, or the altering of nature.

"Dancing Through the Minefield"

Perhaps her best known work, Kolodny's 1980 essay "Dancing Through the Minefield" was the "first work to attempt both a survey of the first ten years of feminist literary inquiry and an analysis of the informing theoretical propositions". It has been the subject of criticism in the years since its initial publication, but can still be seen as a guide to "feminist concerns and methodologies."

Social constructionism

Kolodny emphasizes Social constructionism in this essay, although she herself never uses the term. Briefly, social constructionism is a school of thought that involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, by people. (See full article on Social constructionism) Using this theory, social entities are seen as always being in a state of change as society itself changes, and the relationships of the entities change. "[T]hings in the world … are the products of ongoing social processes of interaction, and thus do not have fixed or inherent meanings."

In "Dancing Through the Minefield", Kolodny applies this theory to the literary canon, those works of literature that are considered appropriate for study. But such a canon is formed by critics whose values of aestheticism are not neutral. The critical interpretation is formed by the interaction between two objects: the text and the reader. According to Kolodny, the reader's ability to read any given text is shaped by the social conventions and assumptions of their time and place; Reading becomes a social product. But neither is the text pure; it is also moulded by social relations and customs. So any critical interpretation is necessarily a product of two forms of social construction. "Readers and texts are both made — and they are continually being remade." The dynamic nature of both texts and readers must be taken into consideration when examining any text, or the established criticism of that text.

Theory
Kolodny's essay has a clear theoretical outline. In light of the social constructionist view that aesthetic values, as assigned to the literary canon, are in actuality the products of social conventions and values, Kolodny claims that feminist criticism should "discover how aesthetic value is assigned in the first place" (Kolodny 2147) and then assess the socially-constructed reading patterns that lead to those value judgements. "Having become embroiled in value disagreements, feminism should consider the processes underlying value judgements." "Dancing Through the Minefield" outlines a three-part nucleus assumed by most contemporary feminist literary critics to be essential. First, any construction of a literary canon is a social construction; second, readers unconsciously engage texts from a certain point-of-view; and third, this unconscious bias present in all readers must be consciously and critically re-examined.

First, she writes, "literary history…is a fiction." (Kolodny 2153) This refers to the traditional formation of the literary canon and literary history as a social construction. Literary histories define the major, minor, and ignored texts according to their own social values and conventions, not out of any inherent aesthetic value on the text itself. For example, the western literary canon has been largely created by well-educated white men, and the focus of the canon is therefore on works by well-educated white men. It embodied, as well as upheld, the dominant ideology of the time, and had implications beyond aesthetic values. To give preference to texts by this group was to ignore texts created by other social groups. In recent years, the monolithic nature of the canon has been challenged, and works by previously ignored sections of the literary world (women, homosexuals, and ethnic minorities) have gained some footholds in the canon.

Secondly, readers of texts "engage…not texts but paradigms." (2155) Just as texts and canons are socially constructed, so are the vantage points from which readers engage with any given text. This was also mentioned by Stanley Fish, who called these vantage points interpretive communities. Kolodny states that "we appropriate meaning from a text…according the critical assumptions or predispositions (conscious or not) that we bring to it." (2155)

Finally, Kolodny "strives to undo the unconsciousness of the reader identified" in the second part of her theory:

Since the grounds upon which we assign aesthetic value to texts are never infallible, unchangeable, or universal, we must re-examine not only our aesthetics but, as well, the inherent biases and assumptions informing the critical methods which (in part) shape our aesthetic responses. (Kolodny 2158)

These three general theoretical principles are then supported by the concept of pluralism. Pluralism in this context refers to a conscious effort not to limit oneself to a single critical approach when reading a text. Rather, the object of pluralism is to make use of multiple critical approaches and to get a fuller appreciation of the variety of meanings which can be present in a single text. Kolodny specifically refers to a feminist pluralism, which validates "multiple interpretations of various texts" according to the usefulness of a pluralistic view of a text. This method of reading would give equality to different approaches as well as allow critical examinations of those same approaches, which in turn helps create the "broad critical awareness" advocated by Kolodny's third principle as outlined above.

The essay emphasizes the real situation of contemporary women. Kolodny believes that feminism and women's studies should not be confined to books or classrooms. "[I]deas are important because they determine the ways we live, or want to live, in the world" (Kolodny 2164); ideas are therefore not meant to exist in a vacuum. Rather, they must be taken into the world through activism.

Criticism
Several authors have criticized "Dancing Through the Minefield". The most well-known of these criticisms appeared in a collaborative article Kolodny wrote with Judith Gardiner, Elly Bulkin, and Rena Patterson entitled "An Interchange on Feminist Criticism: On 'Dancing Through the Minefield'", which was published in the journal Feminist Studies in 1983.

Both Bulkin and Patterson believe that Kolodny, while speaking to women in her essay, is only speaking to a certain group of women — those who are white, middle class, and heterosexual. Patterson states that "despite its language and intent, [the essay]…represents classist, white, and heterosexist attitudes which are common in feminist literary criticism and which contradict the best of feminist thought and the aims of the women's movement" (Patterson, 654). This is a common criticism of second-wave feminism: that it tended to ignore the problems of non-white and non-heterosexual women in favor of a homogenized white heterosexual feminist culture. However, Kolodny's advocacy of the concept of pluralism may offset this claim. While she does not specify that alternative critical approaches should come from different ethnicities or sexualities, there is no reason why they could not and such inclusion would only increase the scope of the "broad critical awareness" mentioned above.

Gardiner, on the other hand, disagrees with Kolodny about the use of pluralism. While there can be no single ideology to which all feminist theories belong, Gardiner writes, there are some strong ideological concepts that define areas of feminism. Examples of this would include liberal feminism, socialist feminism, and ecofeminism. In Gardiner's view, the strong ideological beliefs shared by these groups would "limit their susceptibility to pluralism." (Gardiner 634)

Failing the Future: A Dean Looks at Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century
Kolodny's 1998 book is not a work of literary criticism, but rather one of institutional criticism. After serving as dean of Humanities for five years at the University of Arizona, Kolodny wrote this book in order to outline some of the problems facing academic institutions. These include the ability of legislators and administrators to make uninformed decisions about budget cuts without realizing the effect of such cuts on quality education; a myriad of problems about tenure and promotions processes, which Kolodny believes still reflect an attitude antagonistic to women or ethnic minorities; a problem with anti-feminist and anti-intellectual harassment; the lack of support available for students with children; the extent to which women and non-whites are still considered outsiders on university campuses; and the effect of an outdated curriculum in the face of greater demographic diversity and changing student learning needs. She outlines a number of changes which can be made to improve conditions and, realizing that any substantial change will require equally substantial money, encourages government reinvestment in higher education.

Sources
"Annette Kolodny." Leitch, Vincent B., ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2001, pp. 2143–2146.
Gardiner, Judith, Elly Bulkin, Rena Patterson, and Annette Kolodny. "An Interchange on Feminist Criticism: 'On Dancing Through the Minefield.'" Feminist Studies v.8 (3) 1983.
Groden, Michael, and Martin Kreiswirth, eds. The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
Jay, Gregory, ed. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1988.
Kolodny, Annette. "Dancing Through the Minefield: Some Observations on the Theory, Practice, and Politics of Feminist Literary Criticism." The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. Vincent B. Leitch, ed. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2001.
Kolodny, Annette. Failing the Future: A Dean Looks at Higher Education in the Twenty-first Century. Durham: Duke University Press, 1998.
Kolodny, Annette. The Land Before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
Kolodny, Annette. The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
Richter, David, ed. Critical Tradition. New York: Bedford/ St. Martin's, 1998.

See also
Ecofeminism
Feminism
Higher Education
Literary Criticism
Second-wave feminism
Social constructionism

Notes

1941 births
2019 deaths
American literary critics
American women literary critics
American non-fiction writers
Feminist studies scholars
Jewish American journalists
Jewish feminists
Brooklyn College alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Yale University faculty
University of New Hampshire faculty
University of Arizona faculty
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute faculty
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Social constructionism
Journalists from New York City
21st-century American Jews

Annette Kolodny


Stev is a form of poetry. It can be found in lyric poetry from Scandinavia. Stev are made of stanzas, that have four lines

The different types of stev

There are different types of stev:
 gamle-stev or "gamlestev" is the oldest type. It is likely that gamle-stev were danced.  The earliest gamle-stev have been found from around the end of the 1200's. Most gamle-stevs are from Setesdal and Vest-Telemark. Some gamle-stev may be part of folk songs. The gamle-stev is the only part of the folk song which was passed down from generation to generation. The rest of the folk song is no longer known.
 ny-stev or "nystev" have probably been around since about year 1700. Most ny-stevs have been replaced by rural folksongs in Telemark, but not in Setesdal.
 om-kved or "omkved" are similar to refrains in ballads. Inn-stev, etter-stev, mellom-sleng  and etter-sleng  are different types of om-kved.
 slåtte-stev or "slåttestev" are instrumental dance songs.
 herme-stev or hermestev are often referred to as "parody-quote" stev. The contain apologetic proverbs (also known as Wellerisms).

The people who can perform stev

A person who can perform a stev, is known as a kveder (a type of artist). Aslak Brekke is possibly the most well known of those who have been recorded. A kveder from Setesdal, when performing stev, usually sings more slowly, than a kveder from Telemark. One reason for this may be that the text of Setesdal stev are usually more meditative (or elegiac).

Notes

References

Poetry forms

Stev


Mister Moses is a 1965 American adventure film about a con man blackmailed into persuading an entire African village into relocating for their own safety. It was directed by Ronald Neame and stars Robert Mitchum and Carroll Baker. The film was based on the 1961 novel of the same name by Max Catto. It was filmed on location in Kenya, at Lake Naivasha and the Amboseli National Park.

Plot
Beaten and expelled by African villagers for trying to cheat them, the unconscious Joe Moses drifts down a river, where he is discovered by the natives of another village. This tribe is being pressured to move by the District Officer (Ian Bannen), as their land will be flooded by the release of waters from a dam; but they refuse to leave their homes. Deeply Christian, the villagers compare Joe Moses to the real Moses due to his discovery in the reeds as was the baby Moses. With a broken leg and no money, Joe Moses is trapped in the village.

Nursed to health by missionary Rev. Anderson (Alexander Knox) and his daughter Julie (Carrol Baker), Moses impresses the natives with his medicine show. He further astounds the locals when he discovers Emily, that he recognizes as an Indian elephant, in the village. Moses gets her to respond to commands in Hindustani, a language he acquired through his army service in the China Burma India theatre.

The Chief (Orlando Martins) agrees to allow his people to move, but only if they are led by Moses.  Reverend Anderson and Julie blackmail Moses through their knowledge of his diamond smuggling in order to lead the people to the "Promised Land". Seeing through Moses's confidence tricks is an educated African, Ubi (Raymond St. Jacques). Ubi initially wishes to team up with Moses to con other Africans, but then attempts to steal Moses's show with a concealed flame thrower that has unexpectedly disastrous consequences for Ubi.

Leading the villagers from atop his elephant, Moses takes them on a journey that has many parallels with the biblical trek, including a bit where he has to part the waters by entering the dam.

Cast
Robert Mitchum as Joe Moses
Carroll Baker as Julie Anderson
Ian Bannen as Robert
Alexander Knox as Rev. Anderson
Raymond St. Jacques as Ubi
Orlando Martins as Chief
Reginald Beckwith as Parkhurst

Production
Max Catto's novel was published in 1961. Film rights were purchased that year by Frank Ross for $310,000. Ross announced he would make it for United Artists at a budget of $6.5 million. It was the seventh time Catto had sold a novel to the movies.

Reception
The New York Times reviewer A. H. Weiler was unimpressed, writing that it "strains credibility and rarely excites a viewer."

See also
List of American films of 1965

Notes

External links

1965 films
1965 adventure films
American adventure films
Films about con artists
Films based on British novels
Films directed by Ronald Neame
Films set in Kenya
Films shot in Kenya
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
United Artists films
Films with screenplays by Charles Beaumont
Films about elephants
1960s English-language films
1960s American films

Mister Moses


John Cyrus "Red" Oldham (July 15, 1893 – January 28, 1961) was a left-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played five years with the Detroit Tigers (1914–1915, 1920–1922) and two years with the Pittsburgh Pirates (1925–1926). He pitched the final inning of the 1925 World Series for the Pirates, striking out Goose Goslin to end the game and the series.

Detroit Tigers
Born in Zion, Maryland, Oldham was drafted by the Detroit Tigers on July 31, 1914.  Boston Red Sox owner Joseph Lannin bought the Providence Grays and Melrose Park from the Tigers for $75'000.  Detroit got to pick one player from the Providence roster and they selected Oldham' overlooking Carl Mays.

Oldham made his debut for the Tigers at age 21 in August 1914 and pitched in nine games for the 1914 team—seven as a starter.  He had a record of 2–4 with a 3.38 ERA (Adjusted ERA+ of 83) in 45.3 innings pitched.

In 1915, Oldham played in 17 games for Detroit, only two as a starter.  He had a 3–0 record with a 2.81 ERA (Adjusted ERA+ of 107) in 57.7 innings pitched.

On April 5, 1916, the Tigers released Oldham to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League "under optional agreement."

Oldham returned to the Tigers in 1920, playing in 39 games, including 22 as a starter.  He had a record of 8–13 with a 3.85 ERA (Adjusted ERA+ of 97).

In 1921, Oldham was the #3 starter behind Dutch Leonard and Hooks Dauss on the 1921 Tigers team that set all time American League records with 1724 runs scored and a team batting average of .316.  But without pitching, the 1921 team finished in sixth place, 27 games behind the Yankees.  With a 4.24 ERA (11-14 record), Oldham had the second lowest ERA on the 1921 team.

In 1921, Ty Cobb became the Tigers' manager.  Shortly after an interview in which he told a reporter that "his aim was to use tact and diplomacy" in dealing with players, Cobb called time-out from his position in center field, "ran in, wrested the ball from pitcher Red Oldham's hand, and gave him a dressing-down before calling in a reliever."

Oldham played his final season in Detroit in 1922, going 10–13 with a 4.67 ERA (Adjusted ERA+ of 83).

Minor leagues
On November 24, 1922, The New York Times reported that Oldham, who was under investigation by Judge Landis on the charge of playing winter baseball in Los Angeles, had announced that he would retire from baseball and go into business.

There were also published reports that Odham signed on with the Santa Rita team in the Copper League.  It was reported that during the 1924 season, the Santa Rita team had signed up Oldham to pitch.  Santa Rita tried to sneak him into the game under the assumed name of Miller.  The El Paso team, however, caught them at their game and refused to play if Oldham participated.

Pittsburgh Pirates
Oldham made it back to the big leagues in 1925 with the Pittsburgh Pirates.  He appeared in 11 games and had a record of 3–2 in 53 innings pitched. His ERA in 1925 was 3.91, well below the league average, for a career high Adjusted ERA+ of 115.

Oldham accompanied the Pirates to the 1925 World Series against the Washington Senators.  He pitched the final inning of Game 7 on October 15, 1925, before 42,856 fans at Forbes Field in Pittsburgh.  In the 8th inning, AL MVP Roger Peckinpaugh homered to put the Senators on top 7–6.  In the bottom of the 8th inning, the Pirates scored three runs to take a 9–7 lead.  Then, in the top of the 9th inning, Oldham entered the game with the heart of the Washington lineup coming to bat.  Oldham proceeded to pitch a masterful 1-2-3 inning against three future Hall of Famers.  He struck out Sam Rice looking, got Bucky Harris on a lineout to second base, and finished the game by striking out Goose Goslin looking.  The Pirates won the game and the World Series with Oldham on the mound.  Walter Johnson was the losing pitcher for the Senators.

In 1926, Oldham's ERA soared to a career high 5.64 (Adjusted ERA+ of 70).  He played his last major league game on July 8, 1926.

Career statistics and death
In his seven major league seasons, Oldham appeared in 176 games (92 as a starter) and had a record of 39–48 with 292 walks, 267 strikeouts, and an ERA of 4.15.

Oldham was a better than average hitting pitcher, posting a .226 batting average (64-for-283) with 35 runs, 2 home runs, 30 RBIs and 22 bases on balls. He had 13 RBI in 1922 as a member of the Tigers.

Oldham died in Costa Mesa, California at age 67 in 1961.

References

External links

Red Oldham - Baseballbiography.com
Game Log of Game 7 of 1925 World Series

Detroit Tigers players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from Maryland
Pittsburgh Pirates players
1893 births
1961 deaths
York White Roses players
Trenton Tigers players
Providence Grays (minor league) players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
San Francisco Seals (baseball) players
Portland Beavers players
Vernon Tigers players
Kansas City Blues (baseball) players
Mobile Bears players
Atlanta Crackers players
Mobile Marines players
Knoxville Smokies players
People from Cecil County, Maryland

Red Oldham


The Big West Conference is a NCAA conference that plays in the NCAA Division I. The conference is based in Irvine, California, and eight of its nine current members are from California. The other member is from Hawaii.

Members
This is a list of colleges and universities who play sports in the Big West. Since the University of the Pacific left in 2013, all of the members are now public schools. Four each are from the University of California and California State University systems, and the other is the main campus of the University of Hawaii system.

California Polytechnic State University ("Cal Poly"; sometimes "Cal Poly SLO", from its home city of San Luis Obispo)
California State University, Fullerton ("Cal State Fullerton")
California State University, Northridge ("Cal State Northridge")
University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa ("Hawaiʻi")
California State University, Long Beach ("Long Beach State")
University of California, Davis ("UC Davis")
University of California, Irvine ("UC Irvine")
University of California, Riverside ("UC Riverside")
University of California, Santa Barbara ("UC Santa Barbara")

The conference once sponsored football, but dropped the sport in 2000. Three of its members play football in other conferences:
 Cal Poly and UC Davis are football members of the Big Sky Conference.
 Hawaiʻi is a football member of the Mountain West Conference.

References

NCAA Division I athletics conferences

Big West Conference


Fort Lisa (1812–1823) was established in 1812 in what is now North Omaha in Omaha, Nebraska by famed fur trader Manuel Lisa and the Missouri Fur Company, which was based in Saint Louis.  The fort was associated with several firsts in Nebraska history: Lisa was the first European farmer in Nebraska; it was the first settlement by American citizens set up in the then-recent Louisiana Purchase; Lisa's wife (his third) was the first woman resident of European descent in Nebraska; and the first steamboat to navigate Nebraska waters, the Western Engineer, arrived at Fort Lisa in September 1819.

History
Lisa established Fort Lisa on the Missouri River about 12 miles north of what became Omaha after abandoning his trading posts in the Upper Missouri River Valley, which were Fort Raymond/Manuel in Montana and the original Fort Lisa in North Dakota.  The War of 1812 disrupted the fur trade with Native Americans for years.

Fort Lisa (Nebraska) was located, "at a point between five and six miles below the original Council Bluff – where Lewis and Clark had a council with the Missouri and Otoe Indians, August 3, 1804, and now the site of the town of Fort Calhoun..." A plaque memorializing Fort Lisa is located at 11808 John J. Pershing Drive in the northeast corner of Hummel Park, north of Florence, Nebraska, but the exact location of the fort is not known. Father De Smet, a historical figure after Lisa's time, identified the fort as being a mile north of Cabanne's Trading Post on the Ponca Creek.

The fort traded in furs, cattle, horses and land, and served as a base from which Manuel Lisa acted as a sub-agent to neighboring tribes for the federal government.

With his wide trading network, Manuel Lisa had a unique role in relation to American Indian tribes. He traveled extensively among them to share agricultural products and build relations, as well as to promote trade. According to one source, the influence of Manuel Lisa, exerted from Fort Lisa, was strong enough to hold all the Missouri River Indians firmly in alliance with the United States during the War of 1812. He organized war expeditions from Fort Lisa against tribes on the Mississippi River allied with the British. During the same period he secured the allegiance of tribes along the northern Missouri River.

In 1819 the first steamboat to ply the Missouri River, the Western Engineer, piloted by Stephen Harriman Long, arrived at the fort. Aboard the ship were General Henry Atkinson and Captain Stephen Watt Kearny, both important to the future development of the American West.  Later forts in the Nebraska Territory were named after them: Fort Atkinson and Fort Kearny.

Lisa spent the winter of 1819-20 at Fort Lisa with his third wife, Mary Hempstead Keeney. That winter at the fort, they had the company of Major Stephen H. Long, whose famous expedition encamped a mile and a half north of Fort Lisa. In 1820 Lisa returned to St. Louis, where he died that year.

Major Joshua Pilcher next ran Fort Lisa and succeeded Lisa as president of the Missouri Fur Company. He closed Fort Lisa in 1823 after building Pilcher's Post downriver at what became Bellevue.

Fort Lisa likely influenced the positioning of several nearby historically significant sites. In competition, the American Fur Company established Cabanne's Trading Post two and one-half miles south in 1822. The proximity of the posts, along with Fort Atkinson, in turn influenced the positioning of Cutler's Park, the Mormon Bridge, Fort Omaha, and Florence. These establishments attracted the flow of Mormon Trail pioneers, which in turn led to the development of Kanesville, Omaha, Saratoga, and eventually all of North Omaha, as well as many further points in the western expansion of the United States.

See also
Cabanne's Trading Post
Engineer Cantonment
Fort Atkinson
Winter Quarters
History of North Omaha, Nebraska
Landmarks in North Omaha, Nebraska
Louisiana Purchase
Nebraska Territory
Timeline of North Omaha, Nebraska history

References

External links
 1902 photo of the site of Fort Lisa

Landmarks in North Omaha, Nebraska
Trading posts in Nebraska
History of United States expansionism
Missouri River
1812 establishments in the United States
Buildings and structures in Omaha, Nebraska
Archaeological sites in Nebraska
Lisa
Pre-statehood history of Nebraska
Forts along the Missouri River

Fort Lisa (Nebraska)


A gas giant is a large planet that has a solid core, but a very thick atmosphere. This means that most of the planet is made up of gas. These planets are very large.

In our Solar System, there are four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. However, Uranus and Neptune are also called ice giants.

Jupiter and Saturn are similar because they are made up of mostly hydrogen and helium. They both contain massive, rocky cores that are bigger than Earth. Neptune and Uranus are similar because they are mainly made up of water and rock (a mixture of one or several minerals).

Gas giants have also been found around other stars than the sun. Most of those giant extrasolar planets are "hot giants" orbiting close to their star.

References

Types of planet

Gas giant


V.I.P. Casino: Blackjack is a WiiWare blackjack video game developed by High Voltage Software. It was a launch title for the North American debut of the service on May 12, 2008.

The game features the player's alter ego of "Mr Paradise" playing against the computer or up to three other human opponents to score the most cash at the table. The game features three dimensional graphics, controls that utilise the pointer and motion control functions of the Wii Remote, and an Xbox Live-inspired goal achievement mechanic that involves satisfying criteria such as winning a set amount of money or getting 10 winning hands in a row during the course of the game.

Reception

IGN believed the game, despite its simplicity and lack of options such as the omission of online multiplayer, "still trumps other card games on the system". Chris Kohler of Wired thought it was well designed but preferred to have seen a title with a collection of different card games on the service.

References

2008 video games
Blackjack video games
High Voltage Software games
North America-exclusive video games
Video games developed in the United States
Wii games
Wii-only games
WiiWare games

V.I.P. Casino: Blackjack


Write Once Read Many (times) or WORM is a classification of computer storage media. It is used to describe media that can only be written once. After they are written, they can only be read.

There are two different kinds of such media:
In some, the hardware prevents multiple writes, examples of such media are the CD-R and DVD-R discs. There is also some kind of computer memory (called PROM) which can only be written once.
Certain kind of media use a software solution to emulate this behaviour. Examples are  certain kinds of  backup tapes and harddisks that can also have this property.

Storage devices

Write Once Read Many


Events
 September 30 – Nurhaci, chieftain of the Jurchens and founder of the Qing Dynasty dies and is succeeded by his son Huang Taiji.
 November 18 – The new St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is consecrated, the anniversary of that of the previous church in 326.
 Spanish establish a trading colony on Taiwan.
 Peter Minuit, director of the New Netherland colony, begins a policy of "purchasing" Manhattan from the Lenape.
 Work begins on building the sailing ship Vasa.
 The Duchy of Urbino is incorporated into the Papal States.
 The English Parliament impeach George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, favorite of Charles I of England.
 Charles I dissolves Parliament.
 The Dutch settle Manhattan, founding the town of New Amsterdam. The town would transform into a piece of what is now New York City.
 In New England, the Town (later City) of Salem, Massachusetts is founded at Naumkeag

1626


Christopher John Matthews (born December 17, 1945) is an American news anchor and political commentator. He is known for as the host of his talk show Hardball with Chris Matthews on MSNBC. On weekends he hosted the syndicated ABC News program The Chris Matthews Show.

Early life
Matthews went to La Salle College High School. Matthews served in the United States Peace Corps in Swaziland from 1968 to 1970 as a trade development adviser.

Career
Matthews worked with Tip O'Neill, the Speaker of the House. O'Neill, a Democrat, was a political rival of VHS Republican president Ronald Reagan, but the two remained friends, saying that after 6:00 the two could go out for a drink together. Matthews wrote a book about their relationship. The last episode of The Chris Matthews Show was shown on July 21 2013. After he wrote a best selling book about politics called Hardball, Matthews joined MSNBC and hosted a show of the same name. Matthews is a moderate Democrat who has supported Republicans before and said that he is "more conservative than people think I am." However, Matthews has been a long time supporter of Barack Obama. In 2004, following a speech by Obama, Matthews said he had "seen the first black president," a prediction which came true four years later. Matthews once stated that Obama gave him a "thrill up his leg." This quote was widely mocked by many people. He has also been critical of Hillary Clinton, and has said that she got her office by her husband's fame and not on her own ability. As of 2015, Matthews hosts Hardball with Chris Matthews on the MSNBC cable channel at 5:00PM on weekdays. He is also a political commentator that appears on other shows. Matthews is married to his wife of thirty five years, Kathleen, a businesswoman who is an executive at Marriott. He is a Roman Catholic.

References

Other websites

American political commentators
American political activists
Writers from Pennsylvania
American television news anchors
1945 births
Living people

Chris Matthews


Sir Stamford Raffles FRS (Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles 5 July 1781 – 5 July 1826),   was the founder of the city of Singapore. He is one of the most famous Britons who expanded the British Empire.

Early years
Raffles was born on the ship Ann to Captain Benjamin Raffles and Anne Raffles. Although his family was in debt, they managed to give him money for his education. When he was 14, he started working as a clerk in the British East India Company. The company sent him to Southeast Asia to look for another port as the trade between Britain and China was increasing.

He married Olivia Mariamne Fancourt. She was the widow of Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800.

Founding of Singapore
When the British East India Company sent Raffles to Southeast Asia, the company already had two ports, Penang and Bencoolen. However, these ports were far from the main trading area, the Straits of Malacca. Dutch ports, Malacca and Java, were closer to the trading area, which made them able to control the trade. They cut off the trade between Penang and the important trading centres at the Malay Archipelago.

The British East India Company thus needed a new port south of Malacca to protect British ships, and they chose Singapore, which was then a small fishing-port. Singapore had a lot of drinking water and a good location, in the centre of the Straits of Malacca. It was in an area not controlled by the Dutch. The deal was settled by Raffles making an agreement with the traditional rulers of the area to pay them money in return for the right to build, expand and use the port. Singapore eventually grew to be the important trading city-state it is today. Raffles held the title of Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1813 to 1816.<ref>Ricklefs M.C. 1991. A history of modern Indonesia since c.1300. 2nd ed. London: MacMillan. </ref>

The most famous hotel in Singapore is called Raffles''.

References

1781 births
1826 deaths
History of Singapore
British colonial officials

Stamford Raffles