African Burial Ground National Monument is a monument at Duane Street and African Burial Ground Way (Elk Street) in the Civic Center section of Lower Manhattan, New York City. Its main building is the Ted Weiss Federal Building at 290 Broadway. The site contains the remains of more than 419 Africans buried during the late 17th and 18th centuries in a portion of what was the largest colonial-era cemetery for people of African descent, some free, most enslaved. Historians estimate there may have been as many as 10,000–20,000 burials in what was called the Negroes Burial Ground in the 18th century. The five to six acre site's excavation and study was called "the most important historic urban archaeological project in the United States." The Burial Ground site is New York's earliest known African-American cemetery; studies show an estimated 15,000 African American people were buried here.

The discovery highlighted the forgotten history of enslaved Africans in colonial and federal New York City, who were integral to its development. By the American Revolutionary War, they constituted nearly a quarter of the population in the city. New York had the second-largest number of enslaved Africans in the nation after Charleston, South Carolina. Scholars and African-American civic activists joined to publicize the importance of the site and lobby for its preservation. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1993 and a national monument in 2006 by President George W. Bush.

In 2003 Congress appropriated funds for a memorial at the site and directed redesign of the federal courthouse to allow for this. A design competition attracted more than 60 proposals. The memorial was dedicated in 2007 to commemorate the role of Africans and African Americans in colonial and federal New York City, and in United States history. Several pieces of public art were also commissioned for the site. A visitor center opened in 2010 to provide interpretation of the site and African-American history in New York.

Africans and African Americans in New York City

Pre-Revolutionary War
Slavery in the New York City area was introduced by the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland in about 1626 with the arrival of Paul D'Angola, Simon Congo, Lewis Guinea, Jan Guinea, Ascento Angola, and six other men. Their names denote their place of origin- Angola, the Congo, and Guinea. Two years after their arrival three female Angolan slaves arrived. These two groups heralded the beginning of slavery in what would become New York City, and which would continue for two hundred years. The first slave auction in the city took place in 1655 at Pearl Street and Wall Street – then on the East River. Although the Dutch imported Africans as slaves, it was possible for some to gain freedom or "half-freedom" during the time of Dutch rule. In 1643, Paul D'Angola and his companions petitioned the Dutch West India Company for their freedom. Their request was granted, resulting in their acquisition of land on which to build their own houses and farm. By the mid-17th century, farms of free blacks covered 130 acres where Washington Square Park later appeared. Enslaved Africans in chattel bondage were granted certain rights and afforded protections such as the prohibition against arbitrary physical punishment – for example, whipping.

The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and renamed the fledgling settlement to New York (after the Duke of York). The new city administration changed the rules governing slavery in the colony. At the time of the seizure, some forty percent of the small population of New Amsterdam were enslaved Africans. The new rules regarding slavery were more restrictive than those of the Dutch, and rescinded many of the former rights and protections of enslaved residents, such as the prohibition against arbitrary physical punishment. In 1697 Trinity Church gained control of the burial grounds in the city and passed an ordinance excluding blacks from the right to be buried in churchyards. When Trinity took control of the municipal burial ground, now its northern graveyard, it barred Africans from interment within the city limits. Through much of the 18th century, the African burying ground was beyond the northern boundary of the city, which was just beyond what is today Chambers Street.

As the city population increased, so did the number of residents who held slaves. "In 1703, 42 percent of New York's households had slaves, much more than Philadelphia and Boston combined." Most slaveholding households had only a few slaves, used primarily for domestic work. By the 1740s, 20 percent of the population of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people. Enslaved residents also worked as skilled artisans and craftsmen associated with shipping, construction, and other trades, as well as laborers. By 1775, New York City had the largest number of enslaved residents of any settlement in the Thirteen Colonies excepted Charles Town, South Carolina, and had the highest proportion of Africans to Europeans of any settlement in the Northern colonies.

Post-Revolutionary War
During the Revolutionary War, the British occupied New York City in the summer of 1776 and they maintained control of the city until the Peace of Paris was signed and they departed on November 25, 1783, a date which came to be known as Evacuation Day. As in the rest of the Thirteen Colonies, the Crown had offered freedom to enslaved peoples who escaped from their Patriot masters and fled to British lines. 3,000 of these individuals were eventually listed in the Book of Negroes. This promise of freedom attracted thousands of slaves to the city who had escaped to British lines. In 1781 the New York legislature offered a financial incentive to Loyalist slaveowners who assigned their slaves to military service, and promised freedom at the war's end for the slaves.

By 1780 the African-American community swelled to about 10,000 in New York City, which became the center of free blacks in North America. Among those who escaped to New York were Deborah Squash and her husband Harvey, who fled from George Washington's plantation in Virginia. After the end of the war, according to provisions concerning property in the Treaty of Paris, the Americans demanded the return of all former slaves who had escaped to British lines. The British steadfastly refused the American request and evacuated 3,000 freedmen with their troops in 1783 for resettlement in Nova Scotia, other British colonies, and England. Instead of returning the slaves which had been promised their freedom, the British came to an agreement with the Americans to financially recompensate them for each slave lost. Other freedmen scattered from the city to evade slave catchers.

Aided by individual manumissions after war's end, by 1790 about one-third of the blacks in the city were free. The total city population was 33,131, according to the first national census.

In 1799 the state legislature passed An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery with little opposition. Similar to Pennsylvania's law, it provided for gradual manumission of slaves. Children born to slave mothers after July 4, 1799, were considered legally free, but had to serve as indentured servants to their mother's master, until age 28 for men and 25 for women, before gaining social freedom. Until reaching age 21, they were considered the property of the mother's master. All slaves already in bondage before July 4, 1799, remained slaves for life, although they were reclassified as "indentured servants."

In 1817, the New York legislature granted freedom to all children born to slaves after July 4, 1799, under the Gradual Emancipation Act, with total abolition of slavery to take effect on July 4, 1827. July 4 is now known as New York's Emancipation Day, more than 10,000 slaves were freed in New York State with no financial compensation to their former owners. Blacks paraded in New York City to celebrate.

Under the 1777 New York constitution, all free men had to satisfy a property requirement to vote, which eliminated poorer men from voting, both blacks and whites. A new constitution in 1821 eliminated the property requirement for white men, but kept it for blacks, effectively continuing to disfranchise them. This lasted until passage of the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1870.

The early history of free blacks and slaves in New York City became overshadowed by the waves of mid- to late nineteenth century immigration from Europe, which dramatically expanded the population and added to the ethnic diversity. In addition, most of the ancestors of today's African-American population in the city arrived from the South in the Great Migration of the first half of the twentieth century. In a rapidly changing city, the early colonial and federal history of African Americans was lost.

Site history

Negros Burial Ground
The burial ground in use for New York Town residents in the late 1600s was located at what is now the north graveyard of Trinity Church (of the Anglican / Church of England – today the Episcopal Church U.S.A.). The public burial ground was open to all for a fee, including to enslaved Africans. Some burials of deceased slaves were made just south of the public burial ground to avoid the fee. The stockade in this area ran northeast from the present-day corner of Broadway and Chambers Street to Foley Square; the wide street on the top right (southwest) is Broadway.

After Trinity was established as a parish church in 1697, the vestryman of the church began taking control of land in Lower Manhattan, including existing public burial grounds. When Trinity purchased the land at Wall Street and Broadway for the construction of their church, they passed a resolution on October 25, 1697:

That after the Expiration of four weeks from the dates hereof no Negro's be buried within the bounds & Limitts of the Church Yard of Trinity Church, that is to say, in the rear of the present burying place & that no person or Negro whatsoever, do presume after the terme above Limitted to break up any ground for the burying of his Negro, as they will answer it at their perill & that this order be forthwith publish'd.

The "rear of the present burying place" did not include the town cemetery (now the north churchyard). The church petitioned for control of this burial ground, which was granted by the colonial Province of New York on April 22, 1703.

This prohibition against the burial of those of African descent necessitated finding another area acceptable to the colonial authorities. What would become the "Negro's Burial Ground" was located on what was then the outskirts of the developed town, just north of present-day Chambers Street and west of the former Collect Pond (later Five Points). The area was part of a land grant issued to Cornelius van Borsum on behalf of his wife Sara Roelofs (1624–1693) for her services as an interpreter between the town of New York and the various Native American tribes in the area, such as the Lenape and Wappinger. The land would remain part of her estate until the late 1790s when the grade was raised with landfill in anticipation of development, and the land subdivided into building lots.

Labelled on old maps as the "Negros Burial Ground", the 6.6-acre area was first recorded as being used around 1712 for the burials of enslaved and freed people of African descent. The first burials may date from the late 1690s after Trinity barred African burials in the former city cemetery. The area of the burial ground was in a shallow valley surrounded by low hills on the east, south and west, which enveloped the southern shore of Collect Pond and the Little Collect. The burial ground was outside the stockade marking the northern boundary of the city. The stockade in this area ran northeast from the present-day corner of Broadway and Chambers Street to Foley Square after it had expanded northward, similar in form and function to the former stockade on Wall Street. The revelation that physicians and medical students were illegally digging up bodies for dissection from this burial ground precipitated the 1788 Doctors' Riot.

Development
After the city closed the cemetery in 1794, the area was platted for development. The grade of the land was raised with up to  of landfill at the lowest points covering the cemetery, thus preserving the burials and the original grade level. As urban development took place over the fill, the burial ground was largely forgotten. Washington Hall, a hotel and banquet hall was built on a portion of the site from 1809-1812. The first large-scale development on the land was the construction of the A.T. Stewart Company Store, the country's first department store; it opened in 1846 at the corner of 280 Broadway and Chambers Street, replacing Washington Hall. Several skeletons were unearthed during the commencement of building the store.

The site's earliest discovery in the early 19th century seems to have aroused little interest.  According to an article in The New York Tribune, homeowner James Gemmel, who owned a house at 290 Broadway in the early 19th century, told an unnamed daughter that when the cellar for their house was being dug many human bones were found.  He assumed that he had discovered a potter's field. In 1897, when the building at 290 Broadway was demolished to make way for the R. G. Dun and Company Building (later financial firm of Dun & Bradstreet), workers in excavating found a large number of human bones. Some concluded at that time that these were connected to a 1741 incident in which thirteen African Americans were burned at the stake and eighteen were hanged, however others wondered whether the bones were of Dutch or Indian origin. Many bones were taken as souvenirs by so-called relic hunters.

Discovery of site and controversy

On October 8, 1991, the federal General Services Administration (GSA) announced the discovery of 8 intact burials during an archaeological survey and excavation (which had started in May 1991) for the construction of a new $275 million federal office building planned at 290 Broadway between Reade and Duane streets. The building was to be later known as the Ted Weiss Federal Building, named for deceased U.S. Representative Ted Weiss from New York. Under section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act, the federal government is required to identify and assess the historic presence of a site prior to building on the land. The agency had done an environmental impact statement (EIS) prior to purchase of the site, but the archaeological survey had predicted that human remains would not be found because of the long history of urban development in that area.

After the discovery of the first intact burials became publicly known, the African-American community became very concerned. With the pressure of construction costs, GSA tried to continue excavation and construction on the site. The community believed it was not being sufficiently consulted and that respect was not being given to the nature of the discoveries. They believed that the burial findings required a better archaeological project design for protection and study of the remains.

Protests
Initially, GSA had planned full archaeological retrieval of the remains as full mitigation of the effects of its construction project on the burial ground. Within the year, its teams removed the remains of 419 persons from the site, but it had become clear that the extent of the burial ground was too large to be fully excavated. In 1992, activists staged a protest at the site about GSA's handling of the burial issue, especially when it was found that some intact burials were broken up during construction excavation at part of the site. GSA halted construction until the site could be thoroughly assessed. It provided additional funding to conduct a further archaeological excavation to reveal any other bodies on the site and to assess the remains. Located between New York City Hall and the federal courts, the site had symbolic value. "The 'invisibility' of Black history in New York City partially accounts for the importance of the Foley Square site"; activists hoped to find a means there to redress "the injustice and the imbalance of the historic record, and to give voice to the silenced ones".

Although archaeologists studied the site and the remains for almost a dozen years, critics of the construction project believed GSA's original archaeological research design was inadequate, as it did not require a plan for the treatment of uncovered remains. In addition, the African-descendant community in New York City was not consulted in the development of the research design, nor were any archaeologists who had experience studying the African diaspora, although GSA had distributed the EIS to more than 200 state and local agencies and stakeholders, many recommended by the city. In the early stages of the project, national GSA officials and related Congressional committees directed that excavation and construction proceed.

Oversight of the project increased by stakeholders, such as the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and community activists. After continued protests from a coalition of community members, politicians, and scholars, in 1992 the House Subcommittee on Public Works held budget hearings for GSA in New York, at which it heard testimony from a wide variety of critics of GSA's handling of the project and also heard from the GSA Administrator. Several changes occurred. Control of the burial site was transferred from an archaeological firm in the city to the physical anthropologist Michael Blakey and his team at Howard University, a historically black college in Washington, D.C., for study at the Montague Cobb Biological Anthropology Laboratory. This ensured that African-American students would participate in studies of their ethnic ancestors' remains.

Effects of protests

In large part due to activism by the African-American community, the United States Congress passed, and on October 6, 1992, President George H. W. Bush signed, HR 5488 "The Treasury, Postal Service, and General Government Appropriations Act" (which became Public Law 102-393) which ordered the GSA to immediately cease construction, archeological excavation & skeletal exhumation on the pavilion portion of the Ted Weiss Federal Building (where the remains had been found) and to appropriate $3 million to modify the pavilion foundation, prevent further deterioration of the burial ground & memorialize the site. The southern portion of the building, slated to be built on the parcel by Duane and Elk Streets, was eliminated to provide adequate room for a memorial.

In addition, activists lobbied for landmark status for the burial ground, and gathered 100,000 signatures to send to the U.S. Department of the Interior. On April 19, 1993, 0.34 acre of the African Burial Ground was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (#93001597) and became a National Historic Landmark. Given its importance, GSA proposed partial mitigation of the adverse effects to the burial ground of the construction of 290 Broadway, by undertaking programs of data analysis, curation, and education. There was also growing support for a museum on the site to interpret African-American experience and history in New York. The discovery and long controversy received national media attention, raising interest and awareness in public archaeology projects. Theresa Singleton, an archaeologist at the Smithsonian Institution said,

The media exposure has created a larger, national audience for this type of research. I've been called by dozens of scholars and laypeople, all of them interested in African-American archaeology, all of them curious about why they don't know more about the field. Until recently, even some black scholars considered African-American archaeology a waste of time. That's changed now.

Government and private developers learned about the need to "include descendant communities in their salvage excavations, especially when human remains are concerned." The findings at the burial ground already had highlighted some of the losses of slavery, as African Americans had not been recently recognized as a major part of early New York history until then. As the journalist Edward Rothstein wrote, "Among the scars left by the heritage of slavery, one of the greatest is an absence: where are the memorials, cemeteries, architectural structures or sturdy sanctuaries that typically provide the ground for a people's memory?"

Site studies

In total, the intact remains of 419 men, women and children of African descent were found at the site, where they had been buried individually in wooden boxes. There were no mass burials. Nearly half were children under 12, indicating the high mortality rate of the time. Historians and anthropologists estimate that over the decades, as many as 15,000–20,000 Africans were buried in Lower Manhattan. They have determined that this was the largest colonial-era cemetery for enslaved African people. It is also "possibly the largest and earliest collection of American colonial remains of any ethnic group." Some of the burials included items related to African origins and burial practices.

The work of excavation and study of the remains was considered the "most important historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States." These remains stand for the estimated tens of thousands of persons at the burial ground and historically in New York, representing Africans' "critical" role in "the formation and development of this city and, by extension, the Nation."

As a result of public engagement, the Howard University team identified four questions which the community hoped to have answered from studies of the remains:
 "cultural background and origins of the burial population;
 the cultural and biological transformations from African to African-American identities;
 quality of life brought about by enslavement in the Americas; and
 modes of resistance to enslavement."

Before the erection of the monument, the burial ground had endured an immense amount of abuse. Archeologists found a substantial amount of industrial waste and ceramics while excavating the site. Archaeologists concluded that burial ground was being used as a dumpsite by Europeans during the 18th century. The burial ground was also subject to grave robbing and looting during this time. In April 1788, the Doctor Riot spread throughout New York City. The riots were led by physicians that would steal corpses from graves to study them as the supply of medical corpses was extremely low. Many of these stolen corpses came from the African Burial Ground. There was speculation that the grounds were not only being looted but were overcrowding due to the burial of unclaimed bodies in the place of the stolen remains.

Some bodies had items buried with them, as part of personal and cultural rituals. An example is the silver pendant shown at right. Some heads showed filed teeth, an African ritual decoration. Howard University did forensic studies, assessing the remains for nutrition, diseases and indicators of general living conditions for African slaves and free blacks.

After the Howard University studies were completed, the 419 skeletons were placed in the Ancestral Reinterment Grove here on October 4, 2003, in a ceremony including the "Rites of Ancestral Return".  They were placed in hand-carved wooden coffins made in Ghana & lined with Kente cloth, which were placed in 7 sacrophagi & buried in 7 burial mounds with the heads facing west. The "commemorative ceremony was inclusive and international in scope, and was organized by GSA and the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture" of the New York Public Library. This emotional memorial stretched over multiple cities including Washington D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, Newark, and finally Manhattan. Thousands attended the reinterment and commemoration.

Memorial

Construction and dedication
GSA ran a design competition for the site memorial in consultation with stakeholders and community activists, attracting over 60 proposals. The winning memorial design, by Rodney Leon and Nicole Hollant-Denis, was selected in April 2005. The cultural landscape architect for the memorial was Elizabeth Kennedy Landscape Architects.

The memorial consists of two components: the  tall Ancestral Chamber and the large Circle of the Diaspora.  The height of the Ancestral Chamber represents the depth of the discovered graves.  The Ancestral Chamber is made from Verde Fontaine green granite from Africa and its engraved heart-shaped Sankifa symbol from West Africa means "Learn from the past to prepare for the future".  The Circle of the Diaspora features a map of the Atlantic area in reference to the Middle Passage, by which slaves were transported from Africa to North America. It is built of stone from Africa and North America, to symbolize the two worlds coming together. The Door of Return, refers to "The Door of No Return", a name given to slave ports set up for involvement with the age-old local institution of slavery on the coast of West Africa, from which so many people were transported after sale by their native chiefs, never to see their homeland again. The memorial is designed to reconnect ethnic African Americans to their ancestors' origins.

On February 27, 2006, President George W. Bush signed a proclamation designating the burial site as the 123rd National Monument. The federal government also announced plans for a $8 million memorial at the site. The Burial Grounds was transferred to the operating jurisdiction of the National Park Service as its 390th unit. The memorial was dedicated on October 5, 2007, in a ceremony presided over by Mayor Michael Bloomberg and poet Maya Angelou. As part of the dedication ceremonies, the city officially renamed Elk Street as African Burial Ground Way.

In 2016, Dan Hoeg, CEO of The Hoeg Corporation, tendered a $34.3 million offer and development proposal to purchase 22 Reade Street and the Burial Grounds to the City of New York. The African-American bidding group was led by Dan Hoeg, CEO of the African American owned development firm The Hoeg Corporation; Burial Ground Monument architect, Rodney Leon; and Davide Bizzi, CEO of Italian development company, Bizzi & Partners Development.

Visitor Center

On February 27, 2010, a visitor center for the African Burial Ground National Monument opened in the Ted Weiss Federal Building at 290 Broadway, which was built over part of the archaeological site. The visitor center includes a permanent exhibit, "Reclaiming Our History," on the significance of the burial site. Created by Amaze Design, it features a life-sized tableau by StudioEIS depicting a dual funeral for an adult and child. Other parts of the exhibit explore the work-life of Africans in early New York and connection to national history, as well as the late 20th-century community success in preserving the burial ground. The visitor center includes a 40-person theater and a shop. The NPS runs the visitor center and arranges for various cultural exhibitions and events at the site throughout the year.

Legacy

In addition to earning several historic-landmark designations for the site, the discoveries of the African Burial Ground have changed thinking about early African-American history in New York and the nation. Many new books have been published on this topic. In 2005 the New-York Historical Society mounted its first exhibit ever on slavery in New York; the planned six-month run was extended into 2007 because of its popularity.

When the visitor center at the burial ground opened in 2010, Edward Rothstein wrote,
A revision in popular understanding has taken place about slavery's history in New York City, evident in several recent books and an impressive series of shows at the New-York Historical Society. In the 18th century slaves may have constituted a quarter of the New York workforce, making this city one of the colonies' largest slave-holding urban centers.

See also

List of buildings and structures on Broadway in Manhattan
List of National Historic Landmarks in New York City
List of national monuments of the United States
History of slavery in New York
History of slavery in New Jersey
Flatbush African Burial Ground
 Landmark sites in the district
 49 Chambers
 280 Broadway
 New York City Hall
 Surrogate's Courthouse
 Tweed Courthouse

References

Further reading

Blakey, M.L. 1997. The New York African Burial Ground Project: an examination of enslaved lives, a construction of ancestral ties, Briefing prepared for the Sub-commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities Commission on Human Rights, United Nations. Delivered at the Palais des Nations, Geneva Switzerland, August 19.
Blakely, M.L. 1996. "Howard University research reaches a new plateau," Newsletter of the African Burial Ground and Five Points Archaeological Project, 1 (10):3–7.
Epperson, T.W. 1997. "The politics of "race" and cultural identity at the African Burial Ground excavations, New York City," World Archaeological Bulletin, 7:108–117.
Foote, T.W., M. Carey, J. Giesenberg-Haag, J. Grey, K. McKoy, and C. Todd. 1993. "Report on Site-Specific History of Block 154," Written for the African Burial Ground Research Project. New York.
Gathercole, P. and D. Lowenthal, eds. 1994. The Politics of the Past, New York: Routledge.
Gero, J. and M.W. Conkey. 1993a. Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory, Basil Blackwell.
Gero, J. and M.W. Conkey. 1993b. "Tensions, pluralities and engendering archaeology," In Gero, J. and M.W. Coney, ed. Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory, pp. 3–31. Basil Blackwell.
Howson, J.E. 1992. "The Foley Square Project: An 18th century cemetery in New York City," African American Archaeology, Newsletter No. 6, Spring. pp. 3–4.
Jaffe, S.H. 1995. " 'This Infernal Traffic': New York Port and the illegal slave trade." Seaport: New York's History Magazine 29 (3):36–37.
Jamieson, R.W. 1995. "Material culture and social death: African-American burial practices," Historical Archaeology, 29 (4):39–58.
Jill Lepore, New York Burning: Liberty, Slavery and Conspiracy in Eighteenth-Century Manhattan (Knopf, 2005), about the 1741 slave revolt
Perry, W. and R. Paynter. "Epilogue: Artifacts, Ethnicity and the Archaeology of African Americans," In Singleton, T., ed. We Too Are America: Essays in African American Archaeology,  Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia.
Satchel, M. 1997. "Only remember us: skeletons of slaves from a New York grave bear witness," U.S. News and World Report, July 28:51 and 54.
Singleton, T.A. 1995. "The Archaeology of Slavery in North America," in Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 24, pp. 119–140.
Taylor, R. 1992. "Land of the blacks," Newsday (New York), February 6, 1992, p. 60.
Thompson, R.F. 1983. Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy, New York: Vintage.
White, S. 1988. "We dwell in safety and pursue our honest callings: free blacks in New York City, 1783–1810," The Journal of American History, 75 (2):445–470.
Will, G. 1991. "Salvage archaeology in Manhattan offers a perspective about America,"  Hartford Courant.
Wilson, S. 1996. Citations on the New York African Burial Ground 1991–1996, (3rd Ed.) Compiled by the Office of Public Education and Interpretation of the African Burial Ground. New York City.

External links

African Burial Ground National Monument – Official NPS website
Final Reports – Electronic versions of the final reports for the African Burial Ground project
African Burial Ground, Visitor information and walking tour, New York Harbor & Parks
African Burial Ground, Website, General Services Administration
MAAP: Mapping the African American Past, Columbia University
African Burial Ground National Monument presidential proclamation
Announcement of National Monument proclamation, National Park Service

African-American history in New York City
African-American cemeteries in New York City
Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
History of New York City
National Park Service National Monuments in New York City
National Historic Landmarks in Manhattan
Archaeological sites in New York City
Protected areas established in 2006
Tourist attractions in Manhattan
Cemeteries in Manhattan
Five Points, Manhattan
2006 establishments in New York City
Civic Center, Manhattan
Museums in Manhattan
African-American museums in New York City
History museums in New York City
Monuments and memorials in Manhattan
African-American monuments and memorials
Burial grounds of the African diaspora in the Western hemisphere
Slavery memorials in the United States
Maps in art

African Burial Ground National Monument


"The Faery Handbag" is a fantasy novelette by American writer Kelly Link, published in 2004.

Plot summary

The story follows Genevieve, a girl who spends a lot of time with her slightly eccentric grandmother Zofia.  Zofia claims to be from the country Baldeziwurlekistan and also to be the guardian of a community of fairies who now live in her black handbag.  She often tells outlandish tales about the beings in her handbag and blames them for her overdue library books.  Things take a turn for the worse when Genevieve's boyfriend, Jake, snatches Zofia's handbag with the intent of finding out if the stories about it are true.

Reception
"The Fairy Handbag" was the winner of the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Novelette, the 2006 Nebula Award for Best Novelette, and the 2005 Locus Award for Best Novelette. It was also nominated for the 2005 World Fantasy Award for Best Short Story.

References

2004 short stories
Hugo Award for Best Novelette winning works
Nebula Award for Best Novelette-winning works

The Faery Handbag


Jules Verne (February 8, 1828 – March 24, 1905) was a French writer. He was one of the first authors to write science fiction. Some of his books include Journey To The Centre Of The Earth (1864), From the Earth to the Moon (1865), Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870), and Around the World in Eighty Days (1873).

Life
He was born in the city of Nantes, France. His father was a lawyer, and at the beginning, Verne wanted to study law as well. When he was nineteen, he started writing long pieces of literature, but his father wanted him to earn money as a lawyer, not as a writer. In 1847, his father sent him to Paris to start studying law.

In 1848, Jules Verne, on a visit home, fell in love, but the girl's parents did not want her to marry him. Verne was depressed when he heard that the girl had been married to someone else - a rich, older man. In his stories, Jules Verne often writes about women married to people they do not love.

He returned to Paris to find it on the verge of revolution: the French Revolution of 1848 deposed the king, and Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected as the first president of the Republic of France. (A republic is a country which does not have a king or queen, but has a president instead.)

Verne continued to study law until 1851, but all the time he was writing and meeting with other authors and artists.

Finally, in 1852, he decided to give up being a lawyer, and become a full-time professional writer instead. His father was very unhappy with this decision, but Verne was stubborn and strong-minded, so he went ahead with his plans.
Verne went to Paris to try to find success. At first, he did not find any fame. Over time, he became a fan of science, while becoming well known for his writing. His love of science and writing led him to write stories and novels that are now called "science fiction". Many people say Jules Verne was the creator of the science fiction genre.

Verne lived to write. He wrote many stories. These included fiction novels, theater works, and other novels. In 1886, his young nephew, Gaston, who had paranoia, shot Verne in the leg. After that, Verne had a permanent limp in his leg. This may have resulted in his darker writing styles in that time period.

Verne married Aimée du Fraysse de Viane in January 1857 with his father's blessing. In August 1861, their son was born.
He continued to write until his death. On 24th of March 1905, Verne, who was sick with diabetes, died at his home in Amiens, France.

Jules Verne and inventions
Jules Verne wrote about many things which did not exist when he was alive. Some of these things later became real. Verne was far from being a scientist, but his passion for technology and the progress being made at the time served to introduce many of the inventions that were to come and that, over time, have ended up becoming ordinary elements of our every-day life.

Electric submarine
In Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, Captain Nemo and his electric submarine were a modern marvel. Electricity was very new at the time, and had never been used to power an underwater ship.

The news on the radio and television
In an 1889 article, "In the Year 2889," Jules Verne described an alternative to newspapers: "Instead of being printed, the Earth Chronicle is every morning spoken to subscribers, who, from interesting conversations with reporters, statesmen and scientists, learn the news of the day."The first newscast didn't happen until 1920, according to the Associated Press—nearly 30 years after Verne imagined it.

Lunar modules
Jules Verne wrote about "projectiles" in From the Earth to the Moon. These projectiles would carry people to the moon. Verne imagined a big gun which would force the module up to the moon. Today, space modules are sent into space at the top of rockets, which force the module beyond the reach of gravity.

Music players and holographs
In The Carpathian Castle, some villagers are terrified of a certain castle, from which they can hear voices and see shapes. An intrigued visitor decides to see what is happening, and he finds out that they were hearing just recorded sounds and holographic images.

References

1828 births
1905 deaths
Politicians from Pays de la Loire

Jules Verne


The Kansas City Hopewell were the farthest west regional variation of the Hopewell tradition of the Middle Woodland period (100 BCE – 700 CE). Sites were located in Kansas and Missouri around the mouth of the Kansas River where it enters the Missouri River. There are 30 recorded Kansas City Hopewell sites.

The sites are made up of distinctive pottery styles and impressive burial mounds containing stone vault tombs.  It is however uncertain whether this culture developed locally when people adopted Hopewell traits, or if westward migrating Hopewell people brought it all with them.

Hopewell Interaction Sphere
The Hopewell Exchange system began in the Ohio and Illinois river valleys about 300 BCE. The culture is referred to more as a system of interaction among a variety of societies than as a single society or culture. Hopewell trading networks were quite extensive, as has been found by the evidence of goods such as obsidian from the Yellowstone area, copper from Lake Superior, and shells from the Gulf Coast in locations distant from their origins.

Kansas City Hopewell
The Kansas City Hopewell period is divided by archaeologists into three phases based on radiocarbon dates and changes in projectile point styles and ceramic decoration.

The Kansas City Hopewell peoples grew a variety of domesticated plants, including squash and marsh elder. The majority of their diet seems to have come from wild resources such as seeds, nuts, deer, raccoon, and turkey. Their exploitation of the resources of the oak-hickory forest allowed them to establish permanent villages.

The Renner Village Archeological Site in Riverside, Missouri is one of several sites near the junction of Line Creek and the Missouri River. The site contains Hopewell and Middle Mississippian remains. The Trowbridge site near Kansas City is close to the western limit of the Hopewell.  "Hopewell"-style pottery and stone tools, typical of the Illinois and Ohio river valleys, are abundant at the Trowbridge site, and decorated Hopewell style pottery rarely appears further west.

The Cloverdale archaeological site is situated at the mouth of a small valley that opens into the Missouri River Valley, near St.Joseph, Missouri. It is a multi-component site with Kansas City Hopewell (ca. 100 to 500 CE) and Steed Kisker (ca. 1200 CE) occupation. After 500 CE until about 1000 CE, the (Late Woodland period), the Kansas City Hopewell culture changed and evolved into different cultures. The people of this period started to live in small hamlets with two to three families and began to rely on more on agriculture. These groups are the Central Plains Village culture known as the Steed-Kisker Phase.

See also
 Hopewell tradition
 List of Hopewell sites
 Nebo Hill Archeological Site

References

External links

Archaeological cultures of North America
Woodland period

Kansas City Hopewell


Revolutionary Workers Headquarters (RWH) was a U.S. Marxist-Leninist organization that formed out of a split from the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) in 1977. After Mao Zedong, leader of the Communist Party of China, died in 1976, the majority of the RCP's leadership criticized the post-Mao Chinese leadership as "revisionist" and "capitalist-roaders", saying that China was no longer a socialist country.

A sizable minority of the RCP believed China was still a socialist country, and continued to support the post-Mao Chinese Communist Party under new leader Hua Guofeng. They left the RCP to form the RWH. Aside from differences on how to assess the changes in China, the RWH also criticized the RCP for ultra-leftism, or left-idealism in their approach to political work in the U.S. After leaving the RCP, the RWH also did an extensive critique of the RCP's line on the national question, criticizing the RCP for being "white chauvinist".

The RWH published this critique in a lengthy pamphlet titled Build the Black Liberation Movement, which itself was subsequently criticized by Amiri Baraka of the League of Revolutionary Struggle in a pamphlet titled RWH on the BLM: Wrong Again! as having white chauvinist errors.  The RWH made efforts to unite in the early 1980s with the Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist), but then the CP(M-L) dissolved. In 1985, the RWH merged with the Proletarian Unity League and the Organization for Revolutionary Unity to form the Freedom Road Socialist Organization.

During its brief existence, RWH cadre were active in various movements, including the labor movement, struggles of oppressed nationalities, the women's movement, the student movement, the struggle for divestiture from companies doing business in then-apartheid dominated South Africa, and others.  Through its cadres who worked in the Revolutionary Student Brigade, the RWH was directly involved with the founding of the Progressive Student Network.

Initially, RWH activity was almost exclusively found in urban areas of the Midwest and the East; it expanded to the West Coast when it absorbed the Bay Area Communist Union in 1979.

While the RWH was structured according to the principles of democratic centralism, it did not consider itself a communist party per se, but rather a "pre-party organization."

See also

New Communist Movement

Further reading
 Revolutionary Workers Headquarters Online Archive
 Revolutionary Workers Headquarters at the Encyclopedia of Anti-Revisionism Online

References

Political parties established in 1977
Anti-revisionist organizations
Defunct Maoist organizations in the United States
1977 establishments in the United States
1985 disestablishments in the United States
Revolutionary Communist Party, USA

Revolutionary Workers Headquarters


Susan Sutherland Isaacs, CBE (née Fairhurst; 24 May 1885 – 12 October 1948; also known as Ursula Wise) was a Lancashire-born educational psychologist and psychoanalyst. She published studies on the intellectual and social development of children and promoted the nursery school movement. For Isaacs, the best way for children to learn was by developing their independence. She believed that the most effective way to achieve this was through play, and that the role of adults and early educators was to guide children's play.

Early life and education
Isaacs was born in 1885 in Turton, Lancashire, the daughter of William Fairhurst, a journalist and Methodist lay preacher, and his wife, Miriam Sutherland. Her mother died when she was six years old. Shortly afterwards she became alienated from her father after he married the nurse who had attended her mother during her illness. Aged 15, she was removed from Bolton Secondary School by her father because she had converted to atheistic socialism; her father refused to speak to her for 2 years. She stayed at home with her stepmother until she was 22. She was first apprenticed to a photographer and then she began her teaching career as a governess for an English family.

In 1907, Isaacs enrolled to train as a teacher of young children (5 to 7-year-olds) at the University of Manchester. Isaacs then transferred to a degree course and graduated in 1912 with a first class degree in Philosophy. She was awarded a scholarship at the Psychological Laboratory in Newnham College, Cambridge and gained a master's degree in 1913.

Career
Isaacs also trained and practised as a psychoanalyst after analysis by the psychoanalyst John Carl Flugel (1884–1955). She became an associate member of the newly formed British Psychoanalytical Society in 1921, becoming a full member in 1923. She began her own practice that same year. She later underwent brief analysis with Otto Rank and in 1927 she submitted herself to further analysis with Joan Riviere, to get personal experience and understanding of Melanie Klein's new ideas on infancy. Isaacs also helped popularise the works of Klein, as well as the theories of Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud. She was initially enthusiastic for Jean Piaget's theories on the intellectual development of young children, though she later criticised his schemas for stages of cognitive development, which were not based on the observation of the child in their natural environment, unlike her own observations at Malting House School.

Between 1924 and 1927, she was the head of Malting House School in Cambridge, which is an experimental school founded by Geoffrey Pyke. The school fostered the individual development of children. Children were given greater freedom and were supported rather than punished. The teachers were seen as observers of the children who were seen as research workers. Her work had a great influence on early education and made play a central part of a child's education.
Isaacs strongly believed that play was the child's work.

Between 1929 and 1940, she was an 'agony aunt' under the pseudonym of Ursula Wise, replying to readers' problems in several child care journals, notably The Nursery World and Home and School.

In 1933, she became the first Head of the Child Development Department at the Institute of Education, University of London, where she established an advanced course in child development for teachers of young children. Her department had a great influence on the teaching profession and encouraged the profession to consider psychodynamic theory with developmental psychology.

Approach

Isaacs argued that it is important to develop children's skills to think clearly and exercise independent judgement. Developing a child's independence is beneficial to their development as an individual. She saw parents as the primary educators, and institutionalised care for children under the age of seven as potentially damaging. Children learned best through their own play. "For Isaacs, play involves a perpetual form of experiment ... 'at any moment, a new line of inquiry or argument might flash out, a new step in understanding be taken'".

Thus play should be viewed as children's work, and social interaction is an important part of play and learning. The emotional needs of children are also very important and symbolic and fantasy play could be a release for a child's feelings. "What imaginative play does, in the first place is to create practical situations which may often then be pursued for their own sake, and this leads on to actual discovery or to verbal judgment and reasoning". The role of the adults, then, is to guide children's play, but on the whole they should have freedom to explore. Her book Intellectual Growth in Young Children explains her perspective.

However, Isaacs was not in favour of uncontrolled self-expression: rather, she stressed the importance in child development of the internalisation of what she called the "good-strict" parent – one able to control the child's instincts, and prevent their unrestrained force from harming self or other. She also was one of the first to review and challenge Jean Piaget's stages of child development.

During the Controversial discussions of the British Psychoanalytical Society, Isaacs presented an influential position paper of 1943 setting out the Kleinian view of phantasy . There she maintained that "Unconscious phantasies exert a continuous influence throughout life, both in normal and neurotic people", adding that in the analytic situation "the patient's relation to his analyst is almost entirely one of unconscious phantasy". Her statement has however been criticised as a kind of 'pan-instinctualism', over-simplifying the full range and scope of phantasy to a purely instinctual aim".

Marriages
Isaacs embarked upon a series of lectures in infant school education at Darlington Training College; in logic at Manchester University; and psychology at London University. In 1914, she married William Broadhurst Brierley, a botany lecturer. A year later they moved to London where she became tutor to the Workers' Educational Association (WEA) and, from 1916, lectured in psychology at the University of London. In 1922, she divorced Brierley and married Nathan Isaacs (1895–1966), a metals trader who collaborated with his wife in her later work.

Cancer and death
Isaacs developed cancer in 1935 and struggled with ill health for the rest of her life.  She was still able to go on a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1937; and after moving to Cambridge in 1939, she conducted the Cambridge Evacuation Survey which studied the effect of evacuation on children. She was awarded the CBE in 1948.

She died from cancer on 12 October 1948, aged 63. There are several portraits of her in the National Portrait Gallery in London.

Publications
 Introduction to Psychology, Methuen Press, (London, 1921)
 Nursery Years, Routledge, (London, 1929).
 The biological interests of young children, (1929)
 The Intellectual Growth of Young Children, Routledge and Kegan Paul, (London, 1930)
 Behaviour of Young Children, Routledge & Sons (London, 1930)
 The psychological aspects of child development, Evans with the University of London, Institute of Education, (London [1930]) (First published as Section II of the 1935 volume of the Year Book of Education).
 The children we teach: seven to eleven years, University of London, Institute of Education, (London, 1932)
 The Social Development of Young Children: A Study of Beginnings, Routledge and Kegan Paul, (London, 1933).
 Child Guidance. Suggestions for a clinic playroom, Child Guidance Council (London, 1936)
 The Cambridge Evacuation Survey. A wartime study in social welfare and education. Edited by Susan Isaacs with the co-operation of Sibyl Clement Brown & Robert H. Thouless. Written by Georgina Bathurst, Sibyl Clement Brown [and others], etc., Methuen Press (London, 1941).
 Childhood & After. Some essays and clinical studies, Routledge & Kegan Paul (London, 1948).
 Troubles of children and parents, Methuen Press, (London, 1948)
 "The Nature and Function of Phantasy", in Joan Riviere ed., Developments in Psycho-Analysis Hogarth Press (London 1952)

Personal papers
Collections of Isaacs personal papers can be found in the Archives of the Institute of Education, University of London, (Ref: DC/SI)  (online catalogue); the Archives of the British Psychoanalytical Society (Ref PE/ISA)  (online catalogue); and the British and Foreign School Society (BFSS) Archive Centre .

See also

References

Sources

External links
 Susan Isaacs papers at the Institute of Education, University of London Archives.
 Archives of the British Psychoanalytical Society.
 British and Foreign School Society (BFSS) Archive Centre .
 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
 Likenesses of Susan Sutherland Isaacs, National portrait gallery.

1885 births
1948 deaths
Developmental psychologists
Isaac, Susan Sutherland
British educational theorists
British psychoanalysts
Schoolteachers from Greater Manchester
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People from Turton
Place of death missing
Academics of the UCL Institute of Education
Analysands of Joan Riviere
Deaths from cancer in England
20th-century English writers
20th-century women writers
British women psychologists
20th-century British psychologists

Susan Sutherland Isaacs


The Plan of Reconstructing the Economy (), commonly known as the Three-Year Plan () was a centralized plan created by the Polish communist government to rebuild Poland after the devastation of the Second World War. The plan was carried out between 1947 and 1949. It succeeded in its primary aim of largely rebuilding Poland from the devastation of the war, as well as in increasing output of Polish industry and agriculture.

Development and goals
Poland suffered heavy losses during World War II. In addition to significant population losses, it suffered catastrophic damage to its infrastructure during the war; the losses in national resources and infrastructure amounted to over 30% percent of pre-war potential. Rebuilding of the economy was also made more difficult by the major territorial changes of Poland after World War II.

The Three-Year Plan was developed and monitored by the Central Planning Office (Centralny Urząd Planowania), a body of the government tasked with creation of economic policy, and in the early years dominated by a more liberal Polish Socialist Party (PPS) faction. Among the economists involved in its development was the then CUP director, Czesław Bobrowski. CUP centralized planning for the entire Polish economy was previously broken into separate bodies working on planning for separate branches.

The plan, significantly influenced by the PPS, was designed to create a balance between the private sector, the public sector and the cooperatives. Instead of ideology, commonly stressed by later communist plans, it concentrated on the realistic problems and ways to address them.

On 21 September 1946 the State National Council (KRN), a Polish communist-dominated unelected Polish parliament accepted the plan for the Polish economy up to 1949. On 2 July 1947 the newly elected Sejm declared that: "The primary goal of the national economy in the years 1947-1949 is to raise the living conditions of working classes to above the pre-war levels."

The plan as described by the above bodies was designed to develop industry and service sectors, foreign trade and ensure the supply of basic consumer items. The plan specified the size of industrial and agricultural production to be achieved in the following years. In 1949 both the industrial and agricultural productions were to be above the pre-war levels. The industrial output was also to be higher than agricultural output. The plan did not involve creation of new industrial centers, only the rebuilding of the old ones (unless they were over 50% destroyed).

Results and assessment
Due to the dedication of substantial resources to industrial rebuilding, and the successful adoption of the Stakhanovite movement (the communist propaganda of that time created a new "hero of the working class", Wincenty Pstrowski), where workers were encouraged to work above their quota, the expected increase in industrial output was reached ahead of schedule. However, the agricultural output did not increase as much as predicted, partially due to bad weather in 1947, partially due to inefficiencies involved in collectivization of farming and finally, partially due to side-effects of the battle for trade, which damaged traditional supply chains. In 1948 industrial production was 30% higher compared to 1939, but agricultural production was 30% lower (compared to the 1934-38 period).

The battle for trade, pushed for by Stalinist hardliners like Hilary Minc, suggested that both the cooperative and private sectors should be eliminated and the public sector should be dominant, assumptions contrary to the foundations of the three-year plan which stated that all three sectors are equal. The battle for trade also resulted in a decrease of the craftmanship sector.

Already in 1949 the stress was moved from consumer goods to producer goods, and light industry development was slowed. The next plan in the Polish communist economy was the Six-Year Plan (1950–1956), much more critically assessed by modern historians and economists, as by 1950 the CUP and Polish government were dominated by Stalinist hardliners, and PPS economists responsible for creation of the Three-Year Plan were no longer influencing government policy. The Six-Year Plan, designed to bring the economy of Poland in line with the Soviet economy, concentrated on heavy industrialization, with projects such as Nowa Huta.

Rebuilding of the Polish economy was also slowed in 1947, as Soviet influence caused the Polish government to reject the American-sponsored Marshall Plan, designed to aid European economies in post-war rebuilding.

With the simultaneous rebuilding of the cities, substantial migration from rural areas to urban centers occurred, increasing urbanization. Warsaw and other ruined cities were cleared of rubble and rebuilt with great speed during those years. In 1939, 60% of Poles worked in agriculture and 13% in industry; in 1949, the figures were 47% and 21%, respectively.

The three-year plan is widely considered a success and the only efficient economic plan in the history of People's Republic of Poland. It succeeded in its primary aim: mostly rebuilding Poland from the devastation of the war, as well as in increasing output of Polish industry and agriculture.

See also
The Fourth and Fifth Plans of USSR which were aimed at rebuilding USSR after World War II
Eastern Bloc economies

Notes

Further reading
Stanley J. Zyzniewski, The Soviet Economic Impact on Poland, American Slavic and East European Review, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 205–225, JSTOR
Werner Stark, The Political Element in the Development of Economic Theory:, Routledge, 1998, , Google Print, p.60-

1947 in Poland
1948 in Poland
1949 in Poland
Economic history of Poland
Economic planning
Polish People's Republic

Three-Year Plan


The Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, also known as the USA Patriot Act is an anti-terrorism law. It was proposed by the Bush Administration soon after the September 11 attacks.  At that time, President Bush had very high approval ratings and it was clear that most Americans wanted him to do something to stop more terrorism.  The bill passed quickly in Congress, mostly before it had even been fully read.  The act made it much easier to control money terrorists had in bank accounts.  It also made it easier for the government to access people's library and phone records.  The act was criticized by many organizations, particularly the American Civil Liberties Union, for being a threat to Americans' civil liberties and rights.

References

United States federal legislation

Patriot Act


Closing Time is a 1994 novel by Joseph Heller, written as a sequel to his popular 1961 novel Catch-22. It takes place in New York City in the 1990s and revisits some characters of the original, including Yossarian, Milo Minderbinder, and Chaplain Tappman.

The book has two stories that are interwoven throughout: that of Yossarian in the last stages of his life, and that of Sammy Singer and Lew Rabinowitz, two men from Coney Island who also fought in World War II (the Sammy Singer character makes a brief appearance in Catch-22 as the tailgunner aboard Yossarian's bomber who kept waking up and fainting when he saw Yossarian trying to attend to the wounds of Snowden).

As with Catch-22, the topic of death is omnipresent, only in this case from usually age-related illnesses, in particular cancer rather than dying in battle, as with its predecessor. One notable inconsistency in the book is that although Yossarian was 28 in Catch-22, which took place in 1944, in Closing Time Yossarian is 68, and the time of Catch-22 is referred to as "50 years ago". When asked about the inconsistency in an interview with The New York Times, Heller replied, "I know, but I decided to ignore it."

There is a man mentioned by Lew named "Vonnegut", whom he met while in Dresden. This is a reference to Kurt Vonnegut's experiences in the Bombing of Dresden and his book Slaughterhouse-Five. A character named Joey Heller is also mentioned who, like the author, was a bombardier during the Second World War and suffers from Guillain–Barré syndrome.

Plot

References

1994 American novels
American comedy novels
American satirical novels
Catch-22
Novels by Joseph Heller
Novels set in New York City
Sequel novels
Simon & Schuster books

Closing Time (novel)


100 Greatest Britons was a BBC programme broadcast in 2002. The list was the result of a poll. The top ten people on the list were:

 Sir Winston Churchill, (1874–1965), Prime Minister during the Second World War, politician, soldier, author, speaker, artist
 Isambard Kingdom Brunel, (1806–1859), engineer, creator of Great Western Railway and other significant works
 Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997), first wife of HRH Charles, Prince of Wales (1981–1996) and mother of Princes William and Harry of Wales
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882), naturalist, originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection and author of The Origin of Species
 William Shakespeare (1564–1616), English poet and playwright, thought of by many as the greatest of all writers in the English language
 Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science
 Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603), monarch, (reigned 1558–1603)
 John Lennon (1940–1980), musician with The Beatles, philanthropist, peace activist, artist
 Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805), naval commander
 Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Lord Protector

The complete list can be found on the BBC website.

References

BBC
Lists of people

100 Greatest Britons


Joseph John Richards (August 27, 1878 – March 16, 1956) was a composer, conductor, and music educator best known for writing over 300 compositions for circus and school bands. His most successful works were marches, including Crusade for Freedom, Emblem of Unity, and Shield of Liberty.

Richards was born in Cwmafan, Wales, but spent most of his childhood in Pittsburg, Kansas, United States. He began playing alto horn and cornet at the age of ten and became director of the Norton-Jones Circus Band at the age of nineteen. He would later play for and conduct several other circus bands, including the Barnum and Bailey Circus Band and the Ringling Brothers Band before they combined. When not playing for a circus, Richards studied music at Kansas State Teachers College and the American Conservatory of Music.

He began teaching music during World War I, first to Army bands and later to public schoolchildren. He conducted several municipal bands in Florida and Kansas until 1945 when he was selected to succeed Herbert L. Clarke as conductor of the Long Beach, California Municipal Band. He became a member of the American Bandmasters Association in 1936 and was elected president in 1949.

Richards died in Long Beach, California in 1956. He was inducted into the Windjammers' Hall of Fame in 1981.

External links
 Marches composed by Richards

References

1878 births
1956 deaths
American male composers
American composers
American conductors (music)
American male conductors (music)
American bandleaders
Welsh emigrants to the United States

Joseph John Richards


The National Polytechnic University of Armenia () is a technical university located in Yerevan, Armenia. Established as the Karl Marx Institute of Polytechnic in 1933, it provides educational and research programs in various fields of technology and science related to engineering. The university includes a central campus in Yerevan and branch campuses located in Gyumri, Vanadzor and Kapan. Currently there are more than 8,000 students and more than 750 faculty members.

History
The university was founded by the Soviet government in 1933 as the Karl Marx Institute of Polytechnic including 2 faculties with 107 students. With the development of the industrial sector in the Armenian SSR, the university gradually grew. By the 1980s, the university had around 25,000 students.

With the independence of Armenia in 1991, the university name was changed to the State Engineering University of Armenia. In November 2014, the university was renamed as the National Polytechnic University of Armenia by the decision of the government of Armenia.

Campuses
As of 2016, the university has campuses in 3 Armenian cities other than Yerevan:
Gyumri
Vanadzor
Kapan

Faculties and Institutes

As of 2016, the university has the following faculties:
Yerevan:
Faculty of Chemical Technologies and Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Physics
Faculty of Mining and Metallurgy
Institute of Energetics and Electrotechnic
Institute of Mechanical Engineering and Transportation Systems Design
Institute of Information and Communication Technologies and Electronics

The university has a faculty that provides online studies as well.

Gyumri campus:
Faculty of Technologies and sectoral economics
Faculty of Natural sciences and communication systems

The Gyumri campus provides online studies as well.

Vanadzor campus named after Petros Melkonyan:
Faculty of Technologies and sectoral economics
Faculty of Natural sciences and communication systems

The Vanadzor campus provides online studies as well.

Kapan campus:
Faculty of Technologies and sectoral economics
Faculty of Natural sciences and communication systems

International relations
As of 2016, the National Polytechnic University of Armenia has international cooperation with the following universities and institutions:

 China
Jilin University
Shanghai Institute of Electric Power
Huazhong University of Science and Technology
 Finland
Central Ostrobothnia Polytechnic
 France
Ecole Supérieure d'Ingénieurs de Marseille (ESIM)
Paris 12 Val de Marne University
Aix-Marseille University
University of the Mediterranean
Université de Droit, d'Economie et des Sciences
Chamber of commerce (Marseille)
 Germany
Technische Universität Ilmenau
Institute of Optoelectronics (Wesling)
Technische Universität Darmstadt and Stuttgart
 Greece
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
National Technical University of Athens
Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus
 Italy
Sapienza University of Rome
University of Rome Tor Vergata
 Portugal
Technical University of Lisbon
 Russia
Moscow Institute of Energetics
Bauman Moscow State Technical University
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
 Spain
University of Granada
Autonomous University of Barcelona
University of Alicante
 Sweden
Royal Institute of Technology (Stockholm)
Lund University
 Syria
Damascus University
 Ukraine
Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute
Ukrainian State Academy of Light Industry (Kiev)
 United Kingdom
Brunel University London
Queen's University Belfast
University of Huddersfield
 United States
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis
Southern University
Grambling State University and Southern University New Orleans (Louisiana)

Rectors
 Hovhannes Babajanyan, 1934–1936
 Hmayak Ghondakhchyan, 1936–1937
 Ashot Melikjanyan, 1937
 Misak Petrosyan, 1937–1946
 Petros Melkonyan, 1946–1965
 Ashot Aslanyan, 1965–1966
 Artsrun Gasparyan, 1966–1980
 Rafayel Movsisyan, 1980–1988
 Yuri Sargsyan, 1988–2006
 Vostanik Marukhyan, 2006–2011
 Ara Avetisyan, 2011–2014
 Hovhannes Tokmajyan, 2014–2015
 Vostanik Marukhyan, 2015–2020
 Gor Vardanyan, 2021–present

Notable alumni
 Siranush Atoyan (1904–1985), Soviet Armenian architect
 Karen Demirchyan (1932–1999), former speaker of the National Assembly of Armenia
 Gevorg Emin (1919–1998), Armenian poet and writer.
 Robert Kocharyan (born 1954), former president of Armenia.
 Andranik Margaryan (2000–2007), former prime minister of Armenia.
 Levon Mnatsakanyan, former defense minister of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic
 Vartan Oskanian, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia.
 Aram Sargsyan, 9th prime minister of Armenia
 Tigran Torosyan, former speaker of the National Assembly of Armenia.
 Edmund Tsaturyan, member of the National Assembly of Armenia
 Tamar Tumanyan (1907–1989) Soviet Armenian architect
 Hrant Vardanyan, Armenian businessman.

Milestones
1933 February 27 - According to the Resolution of the Government of Soviet Armenia, the two Yerevan Institutes of Civil Engineering and Chemical Technology were merged and 1933.
1933 March 1 - Yerevan Polytechnic Institute (YPI) was established with two faculties: Faculty of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Chemical Technology.
1933 March 14 - In commemoration of 50 years after Karl Marx's death, the institute was renamed to Yerevan Karl Marx Polytechnic Institute.
1939 - Industrial Correspondence Education Institute joined YPI, becoming its Department of Correspondence Education.
1942 September 1 - The faculty of Electrical Engineering was founded.
1944 September 1 - The faculty of Mechanical Engineering was founded.
1946 Autumn - The first Students' Scientific Conference of the institute took place.
1947 - The Students' Scientific Association of YPI was established.
1953 - The Faculty of Mining was founded.
1956 - The library reading hall of YPI with 45 thousand books was opened.
1957 May 1 - The first issue of the newspaper §Polytechnic¦ was published.
1959 - Leninakan (Gyumri) and Kirovakan (Vanadzor) Branches of YPI were founded.
1961 - The Faculty of Automatics and Computing Technics was founded.
1964 - The chamber music band of YPI was created.
1966 - The Faculty of Automatics and Computing Technics was renamed into the Faculty of Technical Cybernetics.
1972 - The Faculty of Radioelectronics was separated from the Faculty of Technical Cybernetics.
1972 - The Faculty of Power Engineering was founded.
1972 - The Branch of the Faculty of Radio-electronics was founded in Dilijan.
1974 - The Faculty of Social Specialities was established.
1978 - The Faculty of Computing Technics was founded based on the faculties of Technical Cybernetics and Radio Engineering.
1978 - The Faculty of Radioelectronics was renamed into the Faculty of Radio Engineering.
1985 - The Faculty of Transportation was organized with the units separated from the faculties of Machine Building and Mechanical Engineering.
1991 - The Stepanakert Branch of YPI was founded in Artsakh. Later in 1993, on its base the Artsakh University was established.
1991 November 29 - By the Order No 4 of the RA President, YPI was reorganized into State Engineering University of Armenia (SEUA).
1991 December 9 - The Resolution No 670 of the RA Government on the establishment of SEUA was adopted, which approved the guidelines of reformations in accordance with the SEUA Master Plan.
1992 - The Department of Mathematics was founded by the merger of three Mathematics chairs.
1992 - The Department of Social and Political Disciplines was founded, reorganized in 1994 into the Department of Social-Political Disciplines and General Economics.
1994 - The Department of Mechanics and Machine Science was created.
1994 - The Alumni Association and the Student Council of SEUA were established.
1996 - SEUA became a member of the Association of European Universities (AEU).
2001 June - The SEUA Interdepartmental Chair of Microelectronic Circuits and Systems was established based on the Armenian Branch of Leda Systems Co.
2001 July - The Student Career Service Center was founded.
2003 October - The 70th anniversary of establishing YPI-SEUA was celebrated. The president and the prime minister of RA participated in the celebration ceremonies.
2004 September - The university's historical classroom No 1301 was overhauled and now it serves as an assembly hall for Academic Council sittings and other solemn events.
2005 September - By the resolution of RA Government the traditional name "Polytechnic" was returned to the university as an acronym.
2005 December - The first session of the SEUA new Council was convened, and president of NAS RA Fadey Sargsyan was elected as a chairman of the council.
2006 May - The SEUA Alumni Union reorganized into Alumni Association, and the prime minister of RA A.Margaryan was elected as a president of the association.

See also
American University of Armenia
Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture
Armenian State Pedagogical University
Eurasia International University
Russian-Armenian (Slavonic) University
Yerevan State University
Yerevan State Linguistic University
Yerevan State Medical University
Yerevan State Musical Conservatory

References

External links
National Polytechnic University of Armenia, official site
National Polytechnic University of Armenia, Gyumri campus
National Polytechnic University of Armenia, Vanadzor campus
National Polytechnic University of Armenia, Kapan campus

Universities and colleges established in 1933
Universities and institutes established in the Soviet Union
1933 establishments in the Soviet Union
National Polytechnic University of Armenia
Education in Yerevan


Robert H. Peters (October 6, 1937 – December 14, 2021) was a Canadian men's ice hockey coach. He was the head coach of the Bemidji State University ice hockey team from 1967 to 2001. With 702 wins, he ranks fifth all-time in career wins by a men's college ice hockey coach.

Coaching history
Peters entered the college hockey head coaching ranks in 1964 as bench boss at the University of North Dakota. During his initial campaign, Peters, the eventual Western Collegiate Hockey Association Coach of the Year, led the Fighting Sioux to a WCHA title and a third-place finish at the NCAA Championships. He coached in Grand Forks for two seasons, leading the Sioux to a 42–20–1 mark before making a career decision that would change the face of collegiate hockey.

Peters left the Division I powerhouse in 1966 and took over at Bemidji State University. Within two seasons Peters led BSU to its first national championship and set the foundation for what would become one of the most dominant programs in college hockey.

Thirty-five years later, Peters retired from coaching with one of the most impressive lists of achievements in the history of collegiate sports: 744 victories as a head coach, 702 coming at Bemidji State alone, to make Peters the first coach to win 700 or more games at a single school; 13 small-college national championships; and still-standing national collegiate records for most wins in an unbeaten season (31–0–0 in 1983–'84) and longest unbeaten streak (43 games from Nov. 8, 1983 to Jan. 1, 1985).

Peters, the only coach to lead a team to a national championship game in three divisions of college hockey and the only coach to reach the Final Four in all four divisions (Division I, II, III and NAIA), developed five NHL players and numerous Olympians and All-Americans.

A 1960 graduate of the University of North Dakota, Peters spent his collegiate days at goaltender for the Fighting Sioux. He coached at the high school level for one season before rejoining the UND staff as an assistant coach.

CHA commissioner
Retired from coaching, Peters remained heavily involved in the sport of college hockey. In 2001 he became the commissioner of the College Hockey America (CHA) conference.

In addition to appointing Peters CHA Commissioner, the athletic directors of the league's member institutions approved the recommendation by the coaches to name the regular-season championship trophy in honor of Peters as the R.H. "Bob" Peters Cup.

Contributions to college hockey
Peters' influence on college hockey also has stretched outside the arena. He has proven his administrative skills at Bemidji State by serving as athletic director and head hockey coach, and he lent service to several committees. Under Peters' guidance, BSU hockey progressed from NAIA to NCAA Division III to NCAA Division II, and in 1999, BSU elevated its hockey program to Division I. He served on championship committees for the NAIA and NCAA for over 20 years, and in 2001 was named a Hobey Baker Legend of Hockey.

Personal life
Peters died in Bemidji, Minnesota on December 14, 2021, at the age of 84.

Career statistics

Head coaching record

See also
 List of college men's ice hockey coaches with 400 wins

External links

1937 births
2021 deaths
Ice hockey coaches
Canadian ice hockey coaches
North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's ice hockey players
North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's ice hockey coaches
Bemidji State Beavers men's ice hockey coaches
Ice hockey people from Ontario
People from Fort Frances

Bob Peters


Ilya Muromets (), also known as The Sword and the Dragon (US) and The Epic Hero and the Beast (UK), is a 1956 Soviet fantasy film by noted fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko and produced at Mosfilm. It is based on the old Russian oral epic poems about the knight Ilya Muromets.

Plot

In medieval Russia, the aging giant bogatyr Svyatogor gives his sword to some traveling pilgrims to be passed on to a new bogatyr. Svyatogor and his horse become a mountain as he dies. Meanwhile, Asiatic pagans known as the Tugars are ravaging and pillaging the land. They raid the village where the bearded and robust Ilya Muromets lives and capture his future wife Vassilisa. Ilya is unable to defend her because his legs haven't worked since childhood. A man called Mishatychka caught by the Tugars pleads to serve them if they spare him, and promises to be a double agent for them.  The pilgrims with Svyatogor's sword come upon the house of Ilya Muromets and cure his ailment with a magical potion and a magical song.  They also give him the sword. Later on, he decides to leave his family to go on an epic journey in order to defend Kiev from the Tugars. For this purpose he is given a foal by a neighbour (Mikula Selyaninovich) which magically grows into a steed in three days. He passes by some woods and is confronted by a forest-dwelling monster known as Nightingale the Robber who blows wind so hard it parts the forest backward; Ilya defeats him by throwing a cudgel at him.

Meanwhile, in the capital Kiev, a peasant named Razumey stands trial before Knyaz Vladimir the Fair Sun, for cutting trees without permission. Upon hearing that Razumey's purpose was designing and building weapons to use against the enemy, Vladimir releases him and provides him with wood to continue the work.

Ilya arrives in Kiev and presents the forest monster to Knyaz Vladimir, who is impressed with his deeds.  Ilya becomes part of a bogatyr brotherhood with two other bogatyrs Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. A Tugar envoy arrives in the city, Idolishche Poganoye, a huge zeppelin-like man on a massive moving platform, who warns the Knyaz to give a tribute for twelve years in advance and they will be spared.  Ilya replies by insulting the ambassador, and, when he throws a sword at Ilya, throwing it back into the ambassador's stomach, cutting him down while the envoy runs off. Ilya leaves Kiev and finds Vassilisa captured by three Tugars and releases her. After a while Ilya departs from the pregnant Vassilisa to fight the Turgars. Upon leaving he expresses his wish for her to bear a son, to be called Sokolnichek (Little Falcon), who will become a heroic warrior.

Unfortunately Vassilisa is abducted again by the Tugars. Mishatychka has become an important adviser to the knyaz and he tricks the knyaz into believing that Ilya is disloyal to him. Ilya is imprisoned in the castle's dungeons where he will eventually spend ten years deprived of food by Mishatychka.  Disgusted, Nikitich and Popovich leave the knyaz's court. Mishatychka attempts to send the dungeon key to Kalin, but instead, it falls into Razumey's hands. Vassilisa has born a son, Sokolnichek, while in captivity of Tsar Kalin, the Tugar Khan. Kalin adopts Sokolnichek as his own son and has him trained as a mighty Tugar warrior. The huge Tugar army sets up camp outside the city of Kiev, demanding an enormous ransom (700 carts of gold) to be given to Kalin in order for the city to be spared. Ilya is released, having survived on food provided by a magic table cloth that Vassilisa had woven previously. Mishatychka the traitor is rooted out and ordered to be boiled in pitch, while Vladimir calls out for all the Rus' warriors to assemble for a battle the Tugar hordes. Nikitich and Popovich, hearing of Ilya's release, hurry back into Kiev. Due to the reinforcements being slow to arrive, Ilya hatches a plan to trick Kalin by using torn sacks and broken carts to create the impression that all of the gold being paid as tribute fell out during transport, and then make Kalin think his own warriors tried to keep the treasure for themselves. After the warriors give Kalin the treasure (their own jewelry), the king demands to give him Ilya as well. Ilya sends people to Kiev, and they naturally come back empty handed. Kalin then promises to depart if Ilya is delivered. Ilya reveals himself to Kalin who feels insulted by this deception, captures Ilya and decides to attack Kiev anyway; Ilya escapes and goes back to Kiev. With all the aforementioned manipulations, enough time has passed for the Rus' armies to arrive.

Sokolnichek is now a strong Tugar warrior who is sent to fight Ilya. While they duel, Ilya sees the ring on his son's finger and reveals his true heritage to him.  Abashed, he joins his father's side and goes to free Vassilisa, together with all the Russians held captive by Kalin. Nikitich and Popovich each lead one army with Ilya leading the center army toward the Tugar hordes and Vladimir with his personal guard stands ready as reserve. The Khan orders a massive pyramid to be made out of human bodies so that he can survey the forthcoming battle. An arrow is shot from inside Kiev by a large ballista designed and operated by Razumey, causing Kalin to tumble down. Angry, Kalin orders to release the three-headed dragon, Zmey Gorynych, to help in the fight. Another arrow from the ballista hits the dragon in the wing, forcing it to fight on the ground. More of the Russian soldiers land from ships from a nearby river and fight the fire-breathing dragon, eventually slaying it. The Tugar hordes are routed and Kalin captured. The victorious Ilya is finally reunited with Vassilisa and offered a place at the court and a title by Vladimir, but declines in order to be with his wife and go on other journeys. He gives the title and his sword to his son, who continues the heroic lineage.

Cast
 Boris Andreyev – Ilya Muromets
 Ninel Myshkova – Vassilisa
 Shukur Burkhanov – Tsar Kalin
 Andrey Abrikosov – Prince Vladimir
 Natalya Medvedeva – Princess Apraksia
 Aleksander Shvorin – Sokolnichek (20 years)
 Sergey Martinson – Mishatychka
 Sergei Stolyarov – Alyosha Popovich
 Iya Arepina – Alyonushka
 Mikhail Pugovkin – Razumey
 Muratbek Ryskulov – Nevryui

Monsters besides Nightingale the Robber and the dragon Zmey Gorynych, are Idolishche Poganoye and Likho the One-Eyed.

Production
Roger Corman re-edited the film in the early 1960s for US release, changing many names: Nightingale the Robber was changed to Wind Demon, Svyatogor became Invincor, Gorynych the Serpent was renamed Zuma the Fire Dragon, Dobrynya became Durbar, and the Khan was changed to Khalin. This version also included narration by Mike Wallace and Shukur Burkhanov (Khalin) was dubbed by well-known voice actor Paul Frees.

In popular culture
Corman's edit was featured on an episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 as The Sword and the Dragon. The MST3K crew mistook the film's nation of origin to be Finland, and filled the episode with jokes about the Finnish.

Comic book adaptation
 Dell Four Color #1118 (June 1960)

See also
Alexander Nevsky - The 1938 Sergei Eisenstein featuring music by Sergei Prokofiev
Vasilisa the Beautiful (1939)

References

External links

 Movie Ilya Muromets(1956.) at YouTube Cinema Concern Mosfilm channel

 Ilya Muromets online at official Mosfilm site

 Review of Krupnyy Plan DVD
 MST3K episode on ShoutFactoryTV

1956 films
1950s fantasy films
Films based on Russian folklore
Films based on Slavic mythology
Mosfilm films
Sword and sorcery films
Films directed by Aleksandr Ptushko
1950s Russian-language films
Films about dragons
Russian children's fantasy films
Films adapted into comics
Cultural depictions of Vladimir the Great
Kievan Rus' in fiction
Films about giants
Films based on fairy tales
Soviet epic films
Soviet war films
Soviet children's films

Ilya Muromets (film)


Thomas Andrews  (7 February 1873 - 15 April 1912) was an Irish businessman. He designed the RMS Titanic. He was married and had a girl who was born in 1908. He died during the sinking of the Titanic in 1912. In the movie Titanic by James Cameron, he was portrayed by actor Victor Garber.

Mr. Thomas Andrews was enrolled into the Royal Belfast at age 11 and left at the age of 16 so that he could go and work for Harland and Wolf as a premium apprentice. At the end of his Apprentice he would be guaranteed a position at the shipyard. Mr. Andrews was made manager of the construction works in 1901; in 1901 he was awarded with the honor of being Manager Director. Andrews as a child had a rich home, good family and his parents were able to support him and his family very well.  His father was a distinguished local politician and his mother Eliza was Lord William parries sister, his uncle was a high court judge and his brother who was to become Northern Irelands Prime Minister.  Mr. Andrews was a first class passenger of the titanic and was born on February 7th 1873 and died on April 15th 1912 at sea. Mr. Andrews died while the ship was sinking; One of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic is that he was last seen staring at the painting in the first class smoking room, making no attempt to save himself.  But this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact did leave the ship in boat n. 15 at approximately 1:40 a.m.

There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment. It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then he continued assisting with the evacuation. Another reported sighting was of Andrews frantically throwing deck chairs into the ocean for passengers to use as floating devices. Andrews was then seen making his way to the bridge while carrying a lifebelt, possibly the same lifebelt Andrews had draped over a chair in the Smoke Room. Andrews was last seen leaving the ship at the last moment; his body was never recovered.

Newspaper accounts of the disaster labeled Andrews a hero. Mary Sloan, a stewardess on the ship, whom Andrews persuaded to enter a lifeboat, later wrote in a letter: "Mr. Andrews met his fate like a true hero, realizing the great danger, and gave up his life to save the women and children of the Titanic.

In January 1914 The Thomas Andrews Jr. Memorial Hall was opened in honor of the Very loved Thomas Andrews.

References

Irish businesspeople
Victims of the RMS Titanic
People from County Down
1873 births
1912 deaths

Thomas Andrews


The FSB (ФСБ) is an organisation in Russia that takes care of security of the country. It is the organisation that came after the KGB, relating to internal affairs inside the country.  It is usually simply called the FSB in English-language sources.

Its main responsibilities are within the country. It does counter-intelligence, internal and border security, counter-terrorism, and surveillance. It also investigates some other types of serious crimes. Its headquarters are in Lubyanka Square, Moscow's centre, in the main building of the former KGB. The Director of the FSB since 2008 is army general Aleksandr Bortnikov.

Notes

Other websites
 Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, official homepage in Russian
 Poison pins, rocks and fake logs: the secret arsenal of a long, silent war by Jeremy Page, The Times, March 02, 2006

Russian intelligence agencies
National security

Federal Security Service


Friedemann Mattern (born 28 July 1955) is a German scientist.

After studying computer science with a minor in communication sciences at the University of Bonn, Mattern became a VLSI design and parallelism researcher at Kaiserslautern University of Technology.
He got his doctorate degree in 1989 after writing a dissertation on distributed algorithms. In 1991 Mattern was offered a teaching position at Saarland University in Saarbrücken; in 1994 he moved to the Department of Computer Science of the Technische Universität Darmstadt. In 1999 Mattern responded to ETH Zurich's call for the establishment of a Ubiquitous Computing research group. Since fall 2002, he has been on the Institute for Pervasive Computing Founding Board.  Currently he is in charge of the Distributed Systems program at ETH Zurich. Mattern is also a co-founder of the common M-Lab Competency Center at ETH Zurich and the University of St. Gallen.

Together with Colin Fidge, he developed the vector clock algorithm, which allows one to generate a partial ordering of events in a distributed system and to detect causality violations.

Publications
Distributed Algorithms for Termination Detection
Virtual Time and Global States of Distributed Systems
Detecting Causal Relationships in Distributed Computations: In Search of the Holy Grail
Social, Economic, and Ethical Implications of Ambient Intelligence and Ubiquitous Computing
Vom Verschwinden des Computers - Die Vision des Ubiquitous Computing
Das Internet der Dinge: Ubiquitous Computing und RFID in der Praxis. Visionen, Technologien, Anwendungen, Handlungsanleitungen ( 2005, Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York, ) (as editor alongside Elgar Fleisch)

References

German computer scientists
1955 births
Living people
Academic staff of Technische Universität Darmstadt
Academic staff of ETH Zurich

Friedemann Mattern