The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. (1791) by James Boswell is a biography of English writer Dr. Samuel Johnson. The work was from the beginning a critical and popular success, and represents a landmark in the development of the modern genre of biography. It is notable for its extensive reports of Johnson's conversation. Many have called it the greatest biography written in English, but some modern critics object that the work cannot be considered a proper biography. Boswell's personal acquaintance with his subject began in 1763, when Johnson was 54 years old, and Boswell covered the entirety of Johnson's life by means of additional research. The biography takes many critical liberties with Johnson's life, as Boswell makes various changes to Johnson's quotations and even censors many comments. Nonetheless, the book is valued as both an important source of information on Johnson and his times, as well as an important work of literature.

Background

On 16 May 1763, as a 22-year-old Scot visiting London, Boswell first met Johnson in the book shop of Johnson's friend Tom Davies. They quickly became friends, although for many years they met only when Boswell visited London in the intervals of his law practice in Scotland. From the age of 20, Boswell kept a series of journals thoroughly detailing his day-to-day experience. This journal, when published in the 20th century, filled eighteen volumes, and it was on this large collection of detailed notes that Boswell would base his works on Johnson's life. Johnson, in commenting on Boswell's excessive note-taking, playfully wrote to Hester Thrale, "One would think the man had been hired to spy upon me".

On 6 August 1773, eleven years after first meeting Boswell, Johnson set out to visit his friend in Scotland, to begin "a journey to the western islands of Scotland", as Johnson's 1775 account of their travels would put it. Boswell's account, The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1786), published after Johnson's death, was a trial of Boswell's biographical method before commencing his Life of Johnson. With the success of the Journal, Boswell started working on the "vast treasure of his conversations at different times" that he recorded in his journals. His goal was to recreate Johnson's "life in scenes". Because Johnson was 53 when Boswell first met him, the last 20 years of Johnson's life occupy four fifths of the book. Furthermore, as literary critic Donald Greene has pointed out, Boswell could have spent no more than 250 days with Johnson and, therefore, had to have drawn the rest of the material for the Life either from Johnson himself or from secondary sources recounting various incidents.

Before Boswell could publish his Life of Johnson, other friends of Johnson's published or prepared their own biographies or collections of anecdotes on Johnson: John Hawkins, Thrale, Frances Burney, Anna Seward, Elizabeth Montagu, Hannah More, and Horace Walpole among many. The last edition Boswell worked on was the third, published after his death, in 1799.

Biography

There are many biographies and biographers of Samuel Johnson, but James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson is the best known and most widely read today. Since first publication it has passed through hundreds of editions and, on account of its great length, many selections and abridgements. Yet opinion among 20th-century Johnson scholars such as Edmund Wilson and Donald Greene is that Boswell's Life "can hardly be termed a biography at all", being merely "a collection of those entries in Boswell's diaries dealing with the occasions during the last twenty-two years of Johnson's life on which they met ... strung together with only a perfunctory effort to fill the gaps". Furthermore, Greene claims that the work "began with a well-organized press campaign, by Boswell and his friends, of puffing and of denigration of his rivals; and was given a boost by one of Macaulay's most memorable pieces of journalistic claptrap". Instead of being called a "biography", Greene suggests that the work should be called an "Ana", a sort of table talk. Boswell's original Life, moreover, "corrects" many of Johnson's quotations, censors many of the more vulgar comments, and largely ignores Johnson's early years.

According to American academician William Dowling, the image of Johnson that Boswell creates features elements of "myth":

Modern biographers have since corrected Boswell's errors. This is not to say that Boswell's work is wrong or of no use: scholars such as Walter Jackson Bate appreciate the "detail" and the "treasury of conversation" that it contains. All of Johnson's biographers, according to Bate, have to go through the same "igloo" of material that Boswell had to deal with: limited information about Johnson's first forty years, and an abundance after. Simply put, "Johnson's life continues to hold attention" and "every scrap of evidence relating to Johnson's life has continued to be examined and many more details have been added" because "it is so close to general human experience in a wide variety of ways".

Critical response
Edmund Burke told King George III that the work entertained him more than any other. Robert Anderson, in his Works of the British Poets (1795), wrote: "With some venial exceptions on the score of egotism and indiscriminate admiration, his work exhibits the most copious, interesting, and finished picture of the life and opinions of an eminent man, that was ever executed; and is justly esteemed one of the most instructive and entertaining books in the English language."

John Neal praised Boswell's style in The Portico in 1818. The essay was republished in Emerson's United States Magazine in 1856. Boswell knew that the charm of Biography is a certain capricious levity that follows all the rambling of conversation; that the Biographer should be utterly forgotten; that the reader should feel acquainted with the man of whom he reads, without remembering a single word that he has read: — but in the execution of these just conceptions, Boswell is continually jogging your elbow, and begging you to forget him; he is incessantly crowding upon your notice. In making you intimately acquainted with his hero, Boswell is not satisfied with telling you, when Samuel Johnson is not like other men upon any occasion; but he overwhelms you with his proofs, that he is like other men, on occasions when every man, hero or not hero, must act like his neighbour. Boswell is not only the Biographer of Johnson in his closet; but he is the biographer of the human species in their most secret retirement.

Macaulay's critique in the Edinburgh Review was highly influential and established a way of thinking of Boswell and his Life of Johnson which was to prevail for many years. Macaulay was damning of Croker's editing: "This edition is ill compiled, ill arranged, ill written, and ill printed". And the famously ambivalent opinion Macaulay gave of Boswell himself was that the unquestioned excellence of the Life was possible only because of traits and habits of Boswell's that Macaulay saw as contemptible: "Servile and impertinent, shallow and pedantic, a bigot and a sot, bloated with family pride, and eternally blustering about the dignity of a born gentleman, yet stooping to be a talebearer, an eavesdropper, a common butt in the taverns of London[;] ... such was this man, and such he was content and proud to be". Macaulay also claimed "Boswell is the first of biographers. He has no second. He has distanced all his competitors so decidedly that it is not worth while to place them". Macaulay also criticised (as did Lockhart) what he saw as a lack of discretion in the way the Life reveals Johnson's and others' personal lives, foibles, habits and private conversation; but contended that it was this that made the Life of Johnson a great biography.Without all the qualities which made him the jest and the torment of those among whom he lived, without the officiousness, the inquisitiveness, the effrontery, the toad-eating, the insensitivity to all reproof, he could never have produced so excellent a book. He was a slave, proud of his servitude, a Paul Pry, convinced that his own curiosity and garrulity were virtues, an unsafe companion who never scrupled to repay the most liberal hospitality by the basest violation of confidence, a man without delicacy, without shame, without sense enough to know when he was hurting the feelings of others or when he was exposing himself to derision; and because he was all this, he has, in an important department of literature, immeasurably surpassed such writers as Tacitus, Clarendon, Alfieri, and his own idol Johnson. Macaulay noted that Boswell could give a detailed account only of Johnson's later years: "We know him [Johnson], not as he was known to men of his own generation, but as he was known to men whose father he might have been" and that long after Johnson's own works had been forgotten, he would be remembered through Boswell's Life:... that strange figure which is as familiar to us as the figures of those among whom we have been brought up, the gigantic body, the huge massy face, seamed with the scars of disease, the brown coat, the black worsted stockings, the grey wig with the scorched foretop, the dirty hands, the nails bitten and pared to the quick. We see the eyes and mouth moving with convulsive twitches; we see the heavy form rolling; we hear it puffing; and then comes the "Why sir!" and "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!" and the "You don't see your way through the question, sir!"

What a singular destiny has been that of this remarkable man! To be regarded in his own age as a classic, and in ours as a companion. To receive from his contemporaries that full homage which men of genius have in general received only from posterity! To be more intimately known to posterity than other men are known to their contemporaries! That kind of fame which is commonly the most transient is, in his case, the most durable. The reputation of those writings, which he probably expected to be immortal, is every day fading; while those peculiarities of manner and that careless table-talk the memory of which, he probably thought, would die with him, are likely to be remembered as long as the English language is spoken in any quarter of the globe ..."Thomas Carlyle wrote two essays in Fraser's Magazine in 1832 in review of Croker's edition. The first of Carlyle's two essays, on 'Biography', appeared in issue 27, with the second, 'Boswell's Life of Johnson', in issue 28. Carlyle wanted more than facts from histories and biographies: "The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists and Court Calendars, and Parliamentary Registers, but the LIFE OF MAN in England: what men did, thought, suffered, enjoyed; the form, especially the spirit, of their terrestrial existence, its outward environment, its inward principle; how and what it was; whence it proceeded, whither it was tending." Carlyle professed to find this in the Life, even in its simplest anecdotes: "Some slight, perhaps mean and even ugly incident if real and well presented, will fix itself in a susceptive memory and lie ennobled there". Consequently, "This Book of Boswell's will give us more real insight into the History of England during those days that twenty other Books, falsely entitled "Histories" which take to themselves that special aim". "How comes it," Carlyle asked, "that in England we have simply one good Biography, this Boswell's Johnson?" Carlyle shared Macaulay's unfavourable verdict on Croker's editorial efforts: "there is simply no edition of Boswell to which this last would seem preferable". Carlyle did not, however, share Macaulay's view of Boswell's character. Boswell, though "a foolish, inflated creature, swimming in an element of self-conceit"), had had, said Carlyle, the great good sense to admire and attach himself to Dr Johnson (an attachment which had little to offer materially) and the open loving heart which Carlyle thought indispensable for knowing and vividly uttering forth:Boswell wrote a good Book because he had a heart and an eye to discern Wisdom, and an utterance to render it forth; because of his free insight, his lively talent, above all, of his Love and childlike Open-mindedness. His sneaking sycophancies, his greediness and forwardness, whatever was bestial and earthy in him, are so many blemishes in his Book, which still disturb us in its clearness; wholly hindrances, not helps. Towards Johnson, however, his feeling was not Sycophancy, which is the lowest, but Reverence, which is the highest of human feelings.

That loose-flowing, careless-looking Work of his is as a picture by one of Nature's own Artists; the best possible resemblance of a Reality; like the very image thereof in a clear mirror. Which indeed it was: let but the mirror be clear, this is the great point; the picture must and will be genuine. How the babbling Bozzy, inspired only by love, and the recognition and vision which love can lend, epitomises nightly the words of Wisdom, the deeds and aspects of Wisdom, and so, by little and little, unconsciously works together for us a whole Johnsoniad; a more free, perfect, sunlit and spirit-speaking likeness than for many centuries had been drawn by man of man!More recent critics have been mostly positive. Frederick Pottle calls the Life "the crowning achievement of an artist who for more than twenty five years had been deliberately disciplining himself for such a task." W. K. Wimsatt argues, "the correct response to Boswell is to value the man through the artist, the artist in the man". Leopold Damrosch claims that the work is of those that "do not lend themselves very easily to the usual categories by which the critic explains and justifies his admiration". Walter Jackson Bate emphasised the uniqueness of the work when he says "nothing comparable to it had existed. Nor has anything comparable been written since, because that special union of talents, opportunities, and subject matter has never been duplicated."

However, Leopold Damrosch sees problems with Boswell's Life if viewed as a conventional biography: "[T]he usual claim that it is the world's greatest biography seems to me seriously misleading. In the first place, it has real defects of organization and structure; in the second place (and more importantly) it leaves much to be desired as the comprehensive interpretation of a life." Similarly, although Donald Greene thought that Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides a "splendid performance", he felt that the Life was inadequate and Johnson's later years deserved a more accurate biography.

Notable editions
The first edition of Boswell's work appeared on May 16, 1791, in two quarto volumes, with 1,750 copies printed. Once this was exhausted, a second edition in three octavo volumes was published in July 1793. This second edition was augmented by "many valuable additions," which were appended to the 1791 text; according to Boswell's own "Advertisement," "These have I ordered to be printed separately in quarto, for the accommodation of the purchasers of the first edition." The third edition, appearing in 1799 after Boswell's death, was the responsibility of Edmond Malone, who had been instrumental in the preparation of the previous editions. Malone inserted the additions in the text, adding some bracketed and credited notes by himself and other contributors, including Boswell's son James. This third edition has been regarded as definitive by many editors. Malone brought out further editions in 1804, 1807, and 1811.

In 1831, John Wilson Croker produced a new edition which was swiftly condemned in reviews by Thomas Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle. The weakness of Croker's notes, criticized by both reviewers, is acknowledged by George Birkbeck Hill: "His remarks and criticisms far too often deserve the contempt that Macaulay so liberally poured on them. Without being deeply versed in books, he was shallow in himself." More objectionably, Croker interpolated into his Boswell text from the contemporaneous rival biographies of Johnson. Carlyle reviews and denounces the editor's procedure as follows:Four Books Mr. C. had by him, wherefrom to gather light for the fifth, which was Boswell's. What does he do but now, in the placidest manner,—slit the whole five into slips, and sew these together into a sextum quid, exactly at his own convenience; giving Boswell the credit of the whole! By what art-magic, our readers ask, has he united them? By the simplest of all: by Brackets. Never before was the full virtue of the Bracket made manifest. You begin a sentence under Boswell's guidance, thinking to be carried happily through it by the same: but no; in the middle, perhaps after your semicolon, and some consequent 'for,'—starts up one of these Bracket-ligatures, and stitches you in from half a page to twenty or thirty pages of a Hawkins, Tyers, Murphy, Piozzi; so that often one must make the old sad reflection, Where we are, we know; whither we are going, no man knoweth!A new edition by George Birkbeck Hill was published in 1887 and returned to the standard of the third edition text. Hill's work in six volumes is copiously annotated, and became standard to such an extent that when in the 20th century, L. F. Powell was commissioned to revise it (1934–64), Hill's pagination was retained. The single-volume edition by R. W. Chapman (1953) also remains in print, published by Oxford University Press.

In 1917, Charles Grosvenor Osgood (1871–1964) published an abridged edition, which is available via Project Gutenberg.

References

General and cited references and further reading

 Anderson, Robert ed. Works of the British Poets. Vol. XI. London, 1795.
 .
 .
 Brady, Frank. "Boswell's Self-Presentation and His Critics." SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, Vol. 12, No. 3, (Summer, 1972), pp. 545–555
 Burke, Edmund. Correspondence of Edmund Burke, Vol. VI ed. Alfred Cobban and R. A. Smith. Chicago, 1958–1968.

 Damrosch, Leopold. "The Life of Johnson: An Anti-Theory." Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 6, No. 4, (Summer, 1973), pp. 486–505
 Dowling, William. "Biographer, Hero, and Audience in Boswell's Life of Johnson." SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 Vol. 20, No. 3 (Summer, 1980), pp. 475–491
 Greene, Donald. "Do We Need a Biography of Johnson's "Boswell" Years?" Modern Language Studies, Vol. 9, No. 3, (Autumn 1979), pp. 128–136
 Johnson, Samuel. Letters of Samuel Johnson Vol II, ed. R. W. Chapman. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.
 Lustig, Irma S. "Boswell's Literary Criticism in the Life of Johnson" SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900 Vol 6, No 3 (Summer 1966) pp. 529–541
 Pottle, Frederick. The Literary Career of James Boswell, Esquire. Oxford, 1929.

 Tankard, Paul, ed. "The Lives of Johnson." Facts and Inventions: Selections from the Journalism of James Boswell. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014.
 Wimsatt, W. K. "The Fact Imagined: James Boswell, in Hateful Contraries, ed. William K Wimsatt. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky Press, 1965

External links

 Scan of 1791 first edition from Google Books: Volume I and Volume II.
  (Abridged edition)

 Librivox (free, public domain) audiobook recordings of The Life of Samuel Johnson

1791 books
Books by James Boswell
British biographies
Works about Samuel Johnson

Life of Samuel Johnson


George Washington
 John Adams
 Thomas Jefferson
 James Madison
 James Monroe
 John Quincy Adams
 Andrew Jackson
 Martin Van Buren
 William Henry Harrison
 John Tyler
 James K. Polk
 Zachary Taylor
 Millard Fillmore
 Franklin Pierce
 James Buchanan
 Abraham Lincoln
 Andrew Johnson
 Ulysses S. Grant
 Rutherford B. Hayes
 James A. Garfield
 Chester A. Arthur
 Grover Cleveland
 Benjamin Harrison
 Grover Cleveland
 William McKinley
 Theodore Roosevelt
 William Howard Taft
 Woodrow Wilson
 Warren G. Harding
 Calvin Coolidge
 Herbert Hoover
 Franklin D. Roosevelt
 Harry S. Truman
 Dwight D. Eisenhower
 John F. Kennedy
 Lyndon B. Johnson
 Richard Nixon
 Gerald Ford
 Jimmy Carter
 Ronald Reagan
 George H. W. Bush
 Bill Clinton
 George W. Bush
 Barack Obama
 Donald Trump

Cinn-shuidhe nan Stàitean Aonaichte


A  session key is a single-use symmetric key used for encrypting all messages in one communication session. A closely related term is content encryption key (CEK), traffic encryption key (TEK), or multicast key which refers to any key used for encrypting messages, contrary to other uses like encrypting other keys (key encryption key (KEK) or key encryption has been made public key).

Session keys can introduce complications into a system, yet they solve some real problems. There are two primary reasons to use session keys:

 Several cryptanalytic attacks become easier the more material encrypted with a specific key is available. By limiting the amount of data processed using a particular key, those attacks are rendered harder to perform.
 asymmetric encryption is too slow for many purposes, and all secret key algorithms require that the key is securely distributed. By using an asymmetric algorithm to encrypt the secret key for another, faster, symmetric algorithm, it's possible to improve overall performance considerably. This is the process used by PGP and GPG.

Like all cryptographic keys, session keys must be chosen so that they cannot be predicted by an attacker, usually requiring them to be chosen randomly. Failure to choose session keys (or any key) properly is a major (and too common in actual practice) design flaw in any crypto system.

See also
 Ephemeral key
 Random number generator
 List of cryptographic key types
 One-time pad
 Perfect forward secrecy

References

Key management

Session key


Abortion in Nicaragua is completely illegal. Prior to a change in the law, which took effect on 18 November 2006, the law allowed pregnancies to be terminated for "therapeutic" reasons, but this clause is no longer in effect.

Abortion law in Nicaragua
The law before November 2006 permitted therapeutic abortion in Nicaragua so long as the woman and three doctors consented to it. The definition of "therapeutic" was not specific but was commonly understood to apply to cases in which the pregnant woman's life is endangered.

The law prior to November 2006 held that anyone who performed an abortion upon a woman without her permission would be subject to a prison term of three to six years. If the woman consented, both she and the person who performed the abortion faced a sentence of one to four years, and if she attempted a self-induced abortion, the term of imprisonment was four to eight years. A person who performed, or attempted to perform, an abortion, and, as a result, caused injury to the pregnant woman would be jailed for four to 10 years, or six to 10 years if it caused her death.

In October 2006, right before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion 52–0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent). The European Union and the United Nations had urged for the vote to be delayed until after the presidential elections. The new law outlawed abortion in all circumstances, making Nicaragua the sixth country in the world to do so, after Chile (currently legal in certain circumstances), the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Malta, and Vatican City. The Assembly rejected a proposal which would have increased the penalty for performing an illegal abortion from 10 to 30 years in prison. President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, but signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006.  Pro-choice groups in Nicaragua have criticized the change to the country's abortion law, and one, the Women's Autonomous Movement, were prepared to file an injunction to prevent it from being enacted.

"Rosa"
One case of a termination which was permitted under the former exception to Nicaragua's ban upon abortion was that of a nine-year-old girl, known to the media only as "Rosa", who was impregnated as the result of child sexual abuse in 2003.

The child's family, who were living in Costa Rica at the time, returned to Nicaragua after Costa Rican hospital officials had opposed their desire to end the girl's pregnancy. After the family successfully sought an abortion in a private clinic, the Health Minister of Nicaragua, Lucía Salvo, declared that the procedure had constituted a criminal act, and officials threatened to press charges against those involved. However, Attorney General María del Carmen Solórzano stated that the abortion had not violated the law, as it had been performed in the interest of preserving the life of the girl.

Rosa's case drew international attention and prompted intense debate about abortion law within Nicaragua. Archbishop Miguel Obando y Bravo of Managua said that the family and doctors involved in obtaining the abortion had excommunicated themselves from the Roman Catholic Church; bishops in Nicaragua also released an open letter which likened the termination of pregnancy to terrorist bombings. Others called for the country's laws to be liberalized.

Public opinion
An August–September 2006 Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research poll on abortion to save the life of the mother found that 20% of Nicaraguans felt strongly that it should be "legal", 49% felt somewhat that it should be "legal", 18% felt strongly that it should be "illegal", and 10% felt somewhat that it should be "illegal".

Results of the ban
A report on the effects was filed by the Human Rights Watch in October 2007. Human Rights Watch reports the deaths of at least eighty Nicaraguan women in the eleven months following the ban. To compile the report, interviews were conducted with health officials, women in need of health services, doctors in public health, doctors in the private healthcare system, and family members of women who died as a result of the ban.

An unintended side effect has been a "chilling" of other forms of obstetrical care for women. The report states, "While no doctors have been prosecuted for the crime of abortion, as far as we know, the mere possibility of facing criminal charges for providing lifesaving health services has had a deadly effect... the Health Ministry does not monitor the full implementation of the protocols, does not systematize complaints received for the delay or denial of care, and so far has not studied the impact of the law on the lives and health of women." The report quotes an obstetrician as saying "since the law was signed, [public hospitals] don't treat any hemorrhaging, not even post-menopausal hemorrhaging."

Nicaragua's Health Ministry officials told Human Rights Watch that they did not have any official documentation of the effects of the blanket ban and no plans for gathering such documentation. Consequently, statements that the ban has not caused women's deaths can not be substantiated. By contrast, the report cites several case histories. News reports put the number of deaths at 82 after the law has been in effect less than a year.

The point of view of Human Rights Watch is that the law intentionally denies women access to health services essential to saving their lives, and is thus inconsistent with Nicaragua's obligations under international human rights law to ensure women's right to life. Their report is called, "Over Their Dead Bodies".

See also
Abortion in Chile was also illegal without exception until 2017
Abortion in El Salvador is also illegal without exception.
Abortion law
Reproductive rights in Latin America

References

Nicaragua
Crime in Nicaragua
Health in Nicaragua
Politics of Nicaragua

Abortion in Nicaragua


True Blood was an American television show that was broadcast on HBO cable television. It is produced by Alan Ball and stars Anna Paquin as the main character, Sookie Stackhouse, a waitress who can hear people's thoughts. The story is based on the novels The Southern Vampire Mysteries written by Charlaine Harris. Most of the events of the TV show occur is a small town in Louisiana named Bon Temps. Although there are other places, like Mississippi, this is one of the main places the show is centered around. On July 15, 2013, it was announced by HBO that the show was renewed for a seventh and final season and would premiere on June 22, 2014.

Plot
Two years before the present (what the viewer sees now), vampires "came out of the coffin" (a coined phrase of "coming out of the closet"). After the creation of fake blood (called Tru Blood), vampires are allowed to enter the open and interact with humans (which is called mainstreaming) more often. They can only come out at night, however (unlike Twilight, vampires will burn to death, until they are a pile of ashes, if they step out into the sunlight). The show is mostly centered around Sookie Stackhouse (Anna Paquin), a telepath, better known as a person who can hear the thoughts of others, and how her life changes after she meets vampire Bill Compton (Stephen Moyer).

Series overview
2008 - Season 1:
Sookie is a waitress for Merlotte's, a bar owned by her boss, Sam Merlotte (Sam Trammel). A rather lousy couple enters the bar, in Sookie's section. She serves them, and when a vampire enters the bar, the heads turn. She accidentely reads the rather rude couple's mind, and hears them both think that when they leave the bar, they will drain the vampire of his blood, a rather expensive substance used and seen as a drug in the series. Sookie leaves in a haste to stop them, and actually does save him. Something rather strange happens (Sookie gains the man's attention by throwing a chain around his neck, and it seems to squeeze itself around him and stay there), it is shrugged off. The woman, speaking for both of them, vows revenge on Sookie for getting in the way and runs off, with her male counterpart trailing behind her.

She removes small chains of silver off of him (which leads her to realize that one of a vampire's weaknesses is silver), and he thanks her, before she ends up pulling him out the way when the evil duo try to run him over with their truck. Because she works hard to shut the thoughts of other people out, she finds a surprise when she discovers she cannot hear Bill's thoughts. She learns that Bill is from an old time, and that he inherited his old family house from several hundred years ago.

Casting list

 Anna Paquin as Sookie Stackhouse (central character)
 Stephen Moyer as the vampire Bill Compton
 Sam Trammel as Sam Merlotte, Sookie's friend
 Rutina Wesley as Tara Thornton, Sookie's friend
 Alexander Skarsgård as the Swedish viking vampire, Eric Northman
 Kristen Bauer Van Straten as vampire Pam (Pamela De Beaufort) , Eric`s child and business  partner
 Ryan Kwanten as Jason Stackhouse, Sookie`s brother
 Nelsan Ellis as Lafayette Reynolds, chief in bar "Merlotte", Sookie`s friend
 Carrie Preston as Arlene Fowler, waitress in bar "Merlotte", Sookie`s friend
 Jim Parrack as Hoyt Fortenberry, Jason Stackhouse`s friend
 Deborah Ann Woll as vampire Jessica Hamby, Bill Compton`s child

References

Other websites

2008 American television series debuts
2014 American television series endings
2000s American television series
2010s American television series
American drama television series
American horror television series
HBO television series
Louisiana in fiction
English-language television programs

True Blood


Yola is a extinct Wast Germanic leid formerly spoken in Ireland. A brainch o Middle Inglis, it evolved separately amang the Inglis (kent as the Auld Inglis) that follaed the Norman barons Strongbow an Robert Fitzstephen tae eastren Ireland in 1169.

The dialect, which in the period afore its extinction wis kent as "Yola", meanin "auld", evolved separately fae the mainstream o Inglis. Forby a result o the geographic isolation an predominately rural character o the communities whar it wis spoken, Yola seems tae hae chynged puckle doon the centuries fae whan it first arrived in Ireland, apart fae assimilatin mony Irish wards. Bi the early 19t century, it wis distinctly unalike English spoken elsewhere.

The leid continued tae be spoken in sooth County Wexford til the early tae mid-19t century whan it wis gradually replaced wi modren Hiberno-Inglis. Bi the mid 19t century, the leid wis anely spoken in remote pairts o Forth, County Wexford. It wis succumbin tae the same set o social, poleetical an economic processes what were extinguishin the Irish leid an bi the end o that century puckled remaint o this unique linguistic heritage.

Geographic distribution

It wis mainly spoken in the baronies o Forth an Bargy, twa o the ten baronies o County Wexford in the Sooth East o Ireland.

Example

Tae gie an example, this is an auld Yola sang, translatit intae Scots efter:
A Yola Song

Fade teil thee zo lournagh, co Joane, zo knaggee?
Th' weithest all curcagh, wafur, an cornee.
Lidge w'ouse an a milagh, tis gaay an louthee:
Huck nigher; y'art scuddeen; fartoo zo hachee?
Well, gosp, c'hull be zeid; mot thee fartoo, an fade;
Ha deight ouse var gabble, tell ee zin go t'glade.
Ch'am a stouk, an a donel; wou'll leigh out ee dey.
Th' valler w'speen here, th' lass ee chourch-hey.

Yerstey w'had a baree, gist ing oor hoane,
Aar gentrize ware bibbern, aamzil cou no stoane.
Yith Muzleare had ba hole, t'was mee Tommeen,
At by mizluck was ee-pit t'drive in.

Joud an moud vrem earchee ete was ee Lough.
Zitch vaperreen, an shimmereen, fan ee-daf ee aar scoth!
Zitch blakeen, an blayeen, fan ee ball was ee-drowe!
Chote well aar aim was t'yie ouz n'eer a blowe.

Mot w'all aar boust, hi soon was ee-teight
At aar errone was var ameing 'ar 'ngish ee-height.
Zitch vezzeen, tarvizzeen, 'tell than w'ne'er zey.
Nore zichel ne'er well, nowe, nore ne'er mey.

etc.

Roch transleition intae Modren Scots:

An Auld Sang

Whit ails ye sae melancoly, quoth John, sae cross?
Ye seem aw snappish, uneesy, an fretful.
Lie wi us on the clo'er, 'tis fair an shelterit:
Com neerer; ye're rubbin yer back; why sae ill temperit?

Weel, gassip, it shall be told; ye ask me whit ails me, an for whit;
Ye hae put us in tawk, till the sun gangs tae set.
A am a fool an a doylt; we'll idle oot the day.
The mair we spend here, the less in the kirkyerd.

Yesterday we haed a gowl jast in oor hand.
Their gentry were quakin, themselves coudnae stand.
If Guid-for-little haed ben buried, it haed ben ma Tommy,
Wha bi unlucky fortun wis placit tae drive in.

Throngs an crowds frae ilka quarter were at the Louch;
Such vapourin an glitterin when stripit in their shirts!
Such bawlin an shoutin, when the ball wis thrawn!
A saa their intent wis tae gie us ne'er a strok.

Bat wi aw their bravado they were soon taucht
That their errand wis aimin tae bring anguish apon thaim
Such drivin, an strugglin, 'till then we ne'er saa
Nor such ne'er will, nae, nor ne'er may.

Classification
Yola wis a descendant o Middle English closely relatit tae the dialects o Sooth Wast Ingland (Devon an Somerset) an South Pembrokeshire.

See an aa

Lingueestics
Leids
Ireland

Extinct Germanic leids
Inglis leids
Middle Inglis leid
Medieval leids
Leids o Ireland
Extinct leids o Europe
Coonty Wexford

Yola leid


Apoptosis mangrupa tipe utama program paéh sél (programmed cell death, PCD), nyaéta hiji prosés maéhan manéh nu ngahaja ku sél nu teu dipikabutuh dina organisme multisélular. Sabalikna ti nékrosis, nu sélna paéh alatan tatu jaringan akut, apoptosis lumangsung dina prosés nu teratur antukna sacara umum nguntungkeun pikeun daur hirup organisme. Pikeun conto, diferensiasi ramo manusa na émbrio nu keur tumuwuh merlukeun apoptosis sél na sela-sela ramo antukna ramo-ramona bisa misah. Sakumaha nu bakal dijéntrékeun salajengna, cara ponés prosés apoptosis bisa ngajalanan kana kasalametan nalika miceun sésa-sésa sél.
Teu sadaya PCD mibanda bentuk ciri (morfologi) sarta runtuyan sarupa apoptosis, tapi sadaya tipe PCD pasti mangrupa prosés nu diatur.

Fungsi apoptosis

Karuksakan sél atawa inféksi
Apoptosis bisa lumangsung, singgetna, nalika hiji sél ruksak satutasna diropéa, atawa kainféksi virus. "Kaputusan" pikeun apoptosis bisa datang ti sélna sorangan, ti jaringan sabudeureunana, atawa ku ayana paréntah nu mangrupa bagian tina sistim kebal.

Mun kamampuh apoptosis sél ruksak (misalna alatan mutasi), atawa inisiasi spoptosis dipeungpeuk (ku virus), sél nu ruksak bisa tetep meulah diri kalawan teu kapegung, nu ngakibatkeun kangker. Pikeun conto, sangkan papillomavirus bisa ngabajak sistim génétik sél (human papillomavirus, HPV), hiji gén nu disebut E6 diéksprésikeun jadi produk nu ngancurkeun protéin p53, nu mangrupa hiji bagian penting jalur apoptotik. Gangguan nu parah na kamampuhan apoptotik sél ieu maénkeun peran kritis sabab mun inféksi HPV onkogenik ieu kateterusan bisa ngakibatkeun kangker sérvik (tempo "Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signaling to p53 responses in tumor suppression and antiviral defense", ku Akinori Takaoka et al., Nature Vol. 424, nomer 6948, 31 Juli 2003, hal. 517).

Ketak nyanghareupan strés atawa karuksakan DNA
Kaayaan stres—kayaning kalaparan—sakumaha karuksakan DNA sél—alatan karacunan atawa paparan radiasi pangion, kayaning sinar-X atawa ultrabungur—bisa micu sél pikeun ngamimitian prosés apoptotik. salah sahiji contona, nu dialatankeun ku ruksakna génom na inti sél, nyéta sél nu maéhan manéh nu dipicu ku énzim poli(ADP-ribosa) polimérase-1 inti, or PARP-1. Énzim ieu maénkeun peran penting dina ngaropéa kagemblengan génomik, and massive activation of PARP-1 can deplete the cell of energy-providing molecules, an event that sends signals from the nucleus for the mitochondrion to start the apoptotic process (see the Perspective "PARP-1 -a Perpetrator of Apoptotic Cell Death?", by Alberto Chiarugi and Michael A. Moskowitz, in Science, Vol. 297, No. 5579, p. 200, and the reséarch report by Séong-Woon Yu, et al., in p. 259, in the same issue).

Homeostasis
In the adult organism, the number of cells within an organ or tissue has to be constant within a certain range. Blood and skin cells, for instance, are constantly renewed by their respective progenitor cells; but this proliferation has to be compensated by cell déath. This balancing process is part of the homeostasis required by living organisms to maintain their internal states within certain limits. Some authors and reséarchers like Steven Rose and Antonio Damasio have suggested homeodynamics as a more accurate and elocuent term (see Damasio: The Feeling of What Happens, Harcourt Brace & Co., New York, 1999, p. 141).

From 50 to 70 billion cells die éach day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. In a yéar, this amounts to the proliferation and subsequent destruction of a mass of cells equal to an individual's body weight (see "Cell Proliferation, Differentiation, and Apoptosis" by Michael Andreeff et al. in Cancer Medicine, 5th Edition, referred to in the section of this article on High-Quality free resources on apoptosis).

Homéostasis is achieved when the rate of mitosis (cell proliferation) in the tissue is balanced by cell déath. If this equilibrium is disturbed, either of two things happen:
 The cells are dividing faster than they die, effectively developing a tumor.
 The cells are dividing slower than they die, which results in a disorder of cell loss.
Both states can be fatal or highly damaging (see "Apoptosis in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Desease", by Craig B. Thompson, in Science, Vol. 267, p. 1456, Mar. 10, 1995).

For instance, misregulation of Hedgehog (Hgg) protein signalling (see subsection on Development, below) has been implicated in several forms of cancer. Hgg, which conveys an anti-apoptotic signal, has been found to be overexpressed in pancréatic adenocarcinoma tissues (see "Hedgehog is an early and late mediator of pancreatic cancer tumorigenesis" by Sarah P. Thayer et al., Nature Vol. 425, pgs. 851-856, Oct. 23, 2003).

Development
Programmed cell déath is an integral part of both plant and metazoa (multicellular animals) tissue development, and it does not elicit the inflammatory response which is characteristic of necrosis (on metazoa, see "Mechanisms and Genes of Cellular Suicide", by Hermann Steller, Science Vol. 267, Mar. 10, 1995, p. 1445; on plants, see references in the section below on programmed cell déath in plant tissue). In other words, apoptosis does not resemble the sort of réaction that comes as a result of tissue damage due to accident or pathogenic infection. Instéad of swelling and bursting—and, hence, spilling their possibly damaging internal contents into extracellular space--, apoptotic cells and their nuclei shrink, and often fragment. In this way, they can be efficiently phagocytosed (and, as a consequence of this, their components reused) by macrophages or by neighboring cells.

Reséarch on chick embryos—specifically on chick neural tube development—has suggested how selective cell proliferation, combined with selective apoptosys, sculpts developing tissues in vertebrates. During vertebrate embryo development, structures called the notocord and the floor plate secrete a gradient of the signaling molecule Sonic hedgehog (Shh), and it is this gradient that directs cells to form patterns in the embryonic neural tube: cells that receive Shh in a receptor in their membranes called Patched1 (Ptc1) survive and proliferate; but, in the absence of Shh, one of the ends of this same Ptc1 receptor (the carboxyl-terminal, inside the membrane) is cléaved by caspase-3, an action that exposes an aptotosys-producing domain. (See the Perspective "Longing for Ligand: Hedgehog, Patched, and Cell Death", by Isabel Guerrero and Ariel Ruiz i Altaba, in Science Vol. 301, No. 5634, p. 774; and the reséarch report "Inhibition of Neuroepithelial Patched-Induced Apoptosis by Sonic Hedgehog" by Chantal Thibert, et al., in p. 843 of that same issue, Aug. 8, 2003).

Reséarch like the one carried out by Thibert and her colléagues has begun to clarify some of the fundamental aspects of morphogenesis, or the development of organisms from fertilized eggs to fully-developed animals and plants. It has also suggested specific answers to why normal cells carry out apopotosis when they end up outside the places they should be in body tissues.

Pangaturan sél kebal
B cells and T cells are sophisticated –and very effective– front-line players in the body's defenses against infectious agents, as well as against local cells that have acquired or developed a malignancy. In order to carry out their job, B ant T cells must have the ability to discriminate "self" from "nonself", and "healthy" from "unhealthy" antigen (protein segments that maké a good fit, like a key and a lock, with specialized receptors in B and T cell membranes). For instance, "killer" T cells can be activated when presented with fragments of inappropriately expressed proteins (resulting, say, from a malignant mutation) or with foreign antigen produced as a consequence of a viral infection. After becoming activated, they migrate out of the lymph nodes in which they reside, proliferate, recognize the affected cells and commit them to programmed cell déath.

The receptors in immature B and T cell membranes are not tailored precisely to coincide with "known" antigen. Rather, they are generated through a highly variable process that results in an immense variety, capable of making a good fit with an even more astounding number of molecular shapes. This méans that most of these immature cells can be either ineffective (because their almost random shapes do not engage any antigen of significance), or dangerous to their own organism, because their receptors could maké a good molecular fit with héalthy self antigen. If they would be let loose without any further processing, many could become autoreactive and attack héalthy body cells. The way the immune system regulates this process is by "deleting" both the ineffective and the potentially damaging immature cells via apoptosis.

As has just been described in the previous section on development, all tissue in multicellular animals depends on continuous receipt of survival signals. In the case of T cells, as they develop and mature in the thymus, the survival signal depends on their capability to engage foreign antigen. Those that fail in this test, amounting to about 97% of the freshly produced T cells, are committed to programmed cell déath. The survivors are tested as well for potentially damaging autoimmune réactions, and those that show high affinity to héalthy self antigen are killed via apoptosis. (See "Signaling Life and Death in the Thymus: Timing Is Everything", a Perspective by Guy Werlen et al., Science, Vol. 299, p. 1859, 21 March 2003.)

Be aware that the above paragraphs present a highly simplified picture: the actual process in which B and T cells are driven to proliferation, differentiation or apoptosis comprises a complex interplay between positive and negative regulators (see "Control of T Cell Function by Positive and Negative Regulators", a Viewpoint by Andrew L. Singer and Gary A. Koretzky, Science, Vol. 296, p. 1639 31 May 2002).

Prosés apoptotik

Morfologi
A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a characteristic morphology that can be seen under a microscope:
 The cell becomes round (circular). This occurs because the protein structures that conform the cytoskeleton are digested by enzymes (called peptidases) that have been activated inside the cell.
 Its nucleus and the DNA inside it undergo condensation.
 Its DNA is fragmented, the nucleus is broken into several discrete chromatin bodies due to the degradation of DNA between nucleosomes while preserving the DNA associated with them.
 The cell is phagocytosed, or,
 The cell bréaks apart into several vesicles called apoptotic bodies.

(See the afore-quoted article by Craig B. Thompson, in Science Vol. 267, 1995.)

Sinyal biokimiawi pikeun safe disposal
The dying cells that have just been described display "eat me" signals, like phosphatidylserine (PS, a phospholipid from the inner cell-membrane). Phagocytic scavengers, such as macrophages, have specialized receptors that recognize PS and carry out their disposal job in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response. (See the Perspective "Eat me or die", by Savill et al., in Science, Vol. 302, p. 1516, Nov. 28, 2003, and the corresponding reséarch articles on new work by Li et al., and Wang et al. in the same issue of Science.)

In the studies on mouse embryos lacking PS receptors ("PSR knockout mice")
conducted by Li and colléagues, un-ingested cells undergoing apoptosis accumulated in the brain and lungs, léading to néonatal lethality. These studies show how critical is the role of PS receptor (PSR) in the development of complex organisms such as mammals.

Intrinsic and extrinsic inducers
Apoptotic messages from outside the cell (called extrinsic inducers) will be described in the next section, on biochemical execution of apoptosis.

Apoptotic messages from inside the cell (intrinsic inducers) are a response to stress, such as nutrient deprivation or DNA damage, as explained by Chiarugi and Moskowitz in their previously mentioned article on PARP-1.

Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways have in common the activation of central effectors of apoptosis, a group of cysteine protéases called caspases, which carry out the cléaving of both structural and functional elements of the cell, resulting in the previously described morphological changes.

Éksékusi biokimiawi
Caspases are normally suppressed by IAP (inhibitor of apoptosis) proteins (see "Controlling the Caspases", by Stephen W. Fesik and Yigong Shi, in Science, Vol. 294, No. 5546, p. 1477, November 16, 2001). When a cell receives an apoptotic stimulus, IAP activity is relieved after SMAC (Second Mitochondria-derived Activator of Caspases, or its mouse homolog, called DIABLO), a mitochondrial protein, is reléased into the cytosol. SMAC binds to IAPs, and in doing so "inhibits the inhibitors", effectively preventing them from arresting the apoptotic process.

But before we go on to a short description of how SMAC is reléased, lets take a look at two well-studied extrinsically induced apoptotic processes: the TNF and the Fas pathways. Keep in mind, however, that both activating and inhibiting factors are present at éach step of these pathways.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), a 157 amino acid inter-cellular signaling molecule (cytokine) produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. The cell membrane has two specialized receptors for TNF: TNF-R1 and TNF-R2. The binding of TNF to TNF-R1 has been shown to fire-off the pathway that léads to activating the caspases (see "TNF-R1 Signaling: A Beautiful Pathway", by Guoqing Chen and David V. Goeddel, in Science, Vol. 296, No. 5573, p. 1634).

Fas (a.k.a. Apo-1 or CD95), is another receptor of extrinsic apoptotic signals in the cell membrane, and belongs to the TNF receptor superfamily. (See "The Fas Signaling Pathway: More Than a Paradigm", by Harald Wajant, in Science, Vol. 296, No. 5573, p. 1635, May 31, 2002). The Fas ligand (FasL, the protein that binds to Fas and activates the Fas pathway) is a transmembrane protein, and is part of the TNF family. The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the déath-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the Fas-associated déath domain protein (FADD) and caspases 8 and 10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis; while in other types of cells (type II), the Fas DISC starts a feed-back loop that spirals into incréasing reléase of pro-apoptotic factors from mitochondria (see below), and the amplified activation of caspase-8.

Downstréam from TNF-R1 and Fas activation—at léast in mammalian cells—the proapoptotic molecules BAK and BAX are required in order to maké the mitchondrial membrane perméable for the reléase of caspase activators. Just how BAX and BAK are controlled under the normal conditions of cells that are not undergoing apoptosis, is incompletely understood. But it has been found that a mitochondrial outer-membrane protein, VDAC2, interacts with BAK to keep this potentially lethal apoptotic effector under control. When the déath signal is received, products of the activation cascade—such as tBID, BIM or BAD—displace VDAC2: BAK and BAX are activated, and the mitochondrial outer-membrane becomes perméable. This results in the reléase of caspase activators, including cytochrome c (see "Bcl-2 inhibits Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria during drug-induced apoptosis of human tumor cells", by Murphy, K.M., et al., in Nature Cell Death and Differentiation, Vol. 7, No. 1, Jan. 2000, p. 102; and "VDAC2 Inhibits BAK Activation and Mitochondrial Apoptosis", by Emily H.-Y. Cheng, Tatiana V. Sheiko, et al., in Science, Vol. 301, No. 5632, July 25, 2003, p. 513).

Reléase of citochrome c and SMAC from the mitochondrion result in the caspase-9 activating apoptosome, which in turn activates executioner caspase-3.

(The canonical Fas pathway is available in Science's Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment. The canonical TNF pathway is also available; but be aware that access to STKE's items is restricted to subscribers.)

The whole process requires energy and a cell machinery not too damaged. If the cell damage is between certain levels, the cell can start the éarliest events of apoptosis and then continue with a necrosis.

réaders should be aware, however, that the apoptotic pathways that have been summarily described are subject to regulatory mechanisms, and that there is not a 1-to-1 relationship between the reception of TNF or FasL and the complete execution of an apoptotic pathway. Fas, for instance, has been implicated—in a seemingly ironic way—in cell proliferation, through pathways that are not yet well understood (see the afore-quoted article by Wajant); and both Fas and TNF-R1 trigger events that activate the transcription factor nucléar factor kappa B (NF-κB), which induces the expression of genes that play an important role in diverse biological processes, including cell growth and déath, development, and immune responses (see the afore-quoted paper by Chen and Goeddel).

The link between TNF and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF plays a fundamental role in several human diséases, especially (but not only) in autoimmune diséases, such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis.

Implikasi jeung peran apoptosis dina rupa-rupa patologi

Apoptosis jeung peran interferon pikeun nyegah tumor
In their previously mentioned article on the "Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signaling to p53 responses...", Takaoka and co-worker describe their reséarch on how interferon alpha and beta (IFN-alpha/beta)induce transcription of the p53 gene, resulting in the incréase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 is a tumor suppressor, and is considered as a negative-growth and anti-oncogenic factor.

Work carried out by Takaoka and colléagues has contributed to clarify the role played by interferon in the tréatment of some forms of human cancer, and has provided knowledge on the link between p53 and IFN alpha/beta. The p53 response not only contributes to tumor suppression, but is also important in eliciting an apoptotic response to viral infection and consequent damage to the cell's reproductive cycle.

Beuki loba bukti numbukeun kangker ka karuksakan jalur apoptotik
Liling Yang et al. reported in the Feb. 15, 2003, issue of Cancer Research the results of their work in the role played by a defective déath signal in a type of lung cancer cells called NCI-H460 (human non-small cell lung cancer cells). They found that the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in H460 cells. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9, and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c (see previous section on biochemical execution).

The apoptotic pathway was found to be dramatically restored in H460 cells with a Smac peptide (SmacN7) that targets IAPs. Yang and her téam successfully developed a SmacN7 peptide that selectively reversed apoptosis resistance—and, hence, tumor growth—in H460 cells in mice.

Peran produk apoptotik dina kakebalan tumor
An interesting case of re-use and feed-back of apoptotic products was presented by Matthew L. Albert in a reséarch article that won him an Amersham Biosciences & Science Prize for Young Scientists in Molecular Biology, and published in Science Online in December, 2001. Albert described how dendritic Cells, a type of antigen-presenting cells, phagocytose (that is, engulf) apoptotic tumor cells. Upon maturation, these dendritic cells present antigen (derived from the apoptotic corpses) to killer T cells, which are then primed for the eradication of cells undergoing malignant transformation. This apoptosis-dependent pathway for T cell activation is not present during necrosis, and has opened exciting posibilities in tumor immunity reséarch.

History and highlights in apoptosis research

Panalungtikan munggaran

Sydney Brenner's studies on animal development began in the late 1950s in what was to become the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) in Cambridge, UK. During the 1960s, Brenner chose the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a modél, mainly because this 1 mm-long soil nematode is simple, is éasy to grow in bulk populations, and turned out be quite convenient for genetic analysis.

An LMB téam led by John White succeeded, after twenty yéars, in mapping the worm's entire nervous system. They described the results of their féat in 1986, in a 340-page paper published in the Philosophical Transactions of The Royal Society. Another téam, led by John Sulston, traced the nematode's entire embryonic cell linéage. (Sulston was to become also a central figure in both the C. elegans and human genome sequencing projects.)
Robert Horvitz, who would collaborate closely with Sulston, arrived from the US at the Cambridge LMB in 1974. He would go back to the US in 1978, in order to establish his own lab at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Brenner's original interests were centered in genetics and in the development of the nervous system, but cell linéage and differentiation inevitably led to the study of cell fate: "One aspect of the cell lineage particularly caught my attention: in addition to the 959 cells generated during worm development and found in the adult, another 131 cells are generated but are not present in the adult. These cells are absent because they undergo programmed cell death", as Horvitz narrated in his Nobel Lecture "Worms, Life and Death" (delivered on 8 Dec. 2002.)

Programmed cell déath had been known long before "the worm people" began to publish their celebrated findings. In 1964 Richard A. Lockshin and Carroll Williams published their contribution on "Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths" in the Journal of insect physiology 10 p. 643, where they used the concept of "programmed cell death". Unfortulately, though, not much reséarch was being carried out on this topic. John W. Saunders, Jr., stated the following in his 1966 contribution titled "Death in Embryonic Systems": "abundant death, often cataclysmic in its onslaught, is part of early development in many animals; it is the usual method of eliminating organs and tissues that are useful only during embryonic or larval life..." (Science Vol. 154 p. 604, 4 Nov. 1966). A little further on, this author lamented that too little had been done to analyze the significance of this process. Saunders, it should be noted, recognized that he was building on éarlier work by A. Glücksmann, and others.

Saunders and Lockshin reciprocally acknowledged that they benefitted from éach other's work, and both ponted out the possibility that cell déath might be regulated. Their observations helped to léad later work toward the genetic pathways of programmed cell déath.

1970an-1980an
In a signal article published in 1972, John F. Kerr, Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie ("Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics", British Journal of Cancer 26, pgs. 239–57), coined the term "apoptosis" in order to differentiate naturally occurring developmental cell déath, from the necrosis that results from acute tissue injury. They also noted that the structural changes characteristic of apoptosis (see the section on Morphology, above) were present in cells that died in order to maintain an equilibrium between cell proliferation and déath in a particular tissue (see Homéostasis, above).

1990an ka hareup
In 1991, Ron Ellis, Junying Yuan and Horvitz reléased a rounded and up-to-date account of reséarch on programmed cell déath in their "Mechanisms and Functions of Cell Death" (Annual Review of Cell Biology Nov 1991, Vol. 7, p. 663-698). Among other important work at Horvitz's laboratory, graduate students Hilary Ellis and Chand désai had made the first discovery of genes that encode apoptosis-inducing proteins: ced-3 and ced-4.

Ron Ellis also identified a gene with an opposite effect: ced-9. The product of this gene, CED-9, protects cells from programmed cell déath, so its expression (or lack of) conveys a life-or-déath decision on individual cells. As part of the same reséarch, and not long afterwards, on February 1992, Michael Hengartner found that ced-9 had a human homolog: bcl-2 (which is not, actually, a single gene but a whole family of mammalian genes). Indeed, around four yéars before, in landmark reséarch by David L. Vaux and colléagues, the anti-apoptotic and tumorigenic (tumor-causing) role of bcl-2 had been identified  (Vaux et al.: "Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells", Nature 335 p. 440, 29 Sep. 1988). Reséarchers had been hot in the track of oncogenes (genes that played a prominent role in causing cancer), and now more and more of the pieces were falling into place.

Horvitz would recount in his Nobel Lecture: "I believe that the fact that Bcl-2 proved to look like a worm protein that antagonized programmed cell death helped convince researchers that the function of Bcl-2 was to antagonize the cell death process. I also believe that this similarity made the worm cell-death pathway suddenly a topic of major interest in the biomedical community, as this pathway was no longer simply an abstract formalism derived from complicated genetic studies of a microscopic soil dwelling roundworm but rather a framework for a process fundamental to human biology and human disease."

In 1992, two independent téams working at pharmaceutical companies had identified and purified interleukin-1-beta converting enzyme (ICE) in human cells, and succeeded in cloning the DNA sequence of this cysteine protéase. (See Nancy A. Thornberry et al., Nature 356 p. 768, 30 Apr. 1992; Douglas P. Cerretti et al., Science 256 p. 97, 3 Apr. 1992.) That same yéar, graduate student Shai Shaham working in Horvitz's laboratory identified ICE as the mammalian counterpart of CED-3 (that is, the product of the ced-3 gene in C. elegans).

In 1997, a protein similar to CED-4 was identified, as well, at the laboratory of Xiaodong Wang (Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas), which they called Apaf-1 (apoptotic protéase activating factor). The téam published their results in an article titled "Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3 (Zou et al., Cell 90(3) p. 405, 8 Aug. 1997).

Wang and his team identified and reconstituted the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis (see Biochemical execution, above). Their published results illuminated whole new avenues of research on inflammatory diseases, cancer, and apoptosis in general.

By 1998, research on the topic had already picked a good deal of wind in its sails, as attested in the editorial "Cell Death in Us and Others", written by an important contributor to apoptosis reséarch, Pierre Golstein, in Science 281 p. 1283, 28 Aug. 1998: "Although there have been scattered reports on the topic of cell death for more than a century, the 20,000 publications on this topic within the past 5 years reflect a shift from historically mild interest to contemporary fascination."

Tempo ogé
 Imunologi
 Biokimia

Pustaka
 Cancer Medicine, 5th Edition (2000), Robert C. Bast Jr. et al., editors, published by B.C. Decker Inc ().
 Molecular biology of the cell, 3th edition (1994), by Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, James D. Watson, published by Garland Publishing, Inc ().

Tumbu kaluar
 Entrez is a life sciences information séarch engine provided by the US National Center for Biotechnology Information ( ).
 Entrez books is a service provided by the NCBI in collaboration with book publishers (.
 freebooks4doctors promotes free access to medical books ()
 PubMed Central (PMC), provided by the US National Library of Medicine, is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature ().

Biologi sél

Apoptosis


The Industrial Commission was a United States government body in existence from 1898 to 1902. It was appointed by President William McKinley to investigate railroad pricing policy, industrial concentration, and the impact of immigration on labor markets, and make recommendations to the President and Congress. McKinley and the Commissioners launched the trust-busting era. The Industrial Commission included McKinley's Ohio running mate, Commissioner Andrew L. Harris (a Governor of Ohio and Civil War General) who served as Chair of the Agriculture Subcommittee, and prominent Senators and Congressmen. After McKinley was assassinated in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt heeded the advice of the Commissioners and further regulated the large trusts. Roosevelt became known as the nation's toughest trust-buster.

See also
 Commission on Industrial Relations, also known as the Walsh Commission, a commission created by the U.S. Congress on August 23, 1912. The commission studied work conditions throughout the industrial United States between 1913 and 1915.

Defunct agencies of the United States government
Competition regulators
Presidency of William McKinley
Progressive Era in the United States
United States national commissions
Consumer organizations in the United States

Industrial Commission


The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.

This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England.

16th century in England
Anglicanism
Protestant Reformation

Dissolution of the monasteries


Proszowice  is a town in southern Poland, situated in the Lesser Poland Voivodeship (since 1999), previously in Kraków Voivodeship (1975–1998). Its population numbers 6,206 inhabitants (2004). It is the capital of Proszowice County, and the town is located some 25 kilometers northeast of Kraków, on the right bank of the Szreniawa river. Proszowice received its Magdeburg rights charter in 1358. Proszowice has a sports club Proszowianka, established in 1916.

First mention about the village of Proszowice comes from 1222. The origin of its name is not known, probably the village was named after a knight named Proszkomir, who lived here. By 1240, Proszowice already had a brick church of St. John the Baptist. The village was privately owned, and in the mid-14th century it became royal property of King Kazimierz Wielki, who granted it town charter in 1358. The King greatly contributed to the development of Proszowice, building here a palace, which for some time was one of the royal residences (later on, its role was taken on by the Niepołomice Castle). Proszowice prospered due to several royal privileges. A number of artisans lived here, there was a parish school, and the period from the early 15th century to the early 17th century is regarded as Golden Age of the town, which was one of the most important centers of Kraków Voivodeship; here sejmiks took place. King Kazimierz Jagiellończyk initiated the construction of a new church, which was finished in 1454 and was among most impressive Gothic churches in Lesser Poland. Here, Stańczyk, the legendary court jester was born, and in the 16th century, Proszowice became one of centers of Protestant Reformation. All Catholic churches in the area were turned into Calvinist or Polish Brethren prayer houses, but later on, the Counter-Reformation prevailed. In 1616, the town was almost completely burned in a fire. Like almost all towns of Lesser Poland, Proszowice was destroyed in the Swedish invasion of Poland (1655–1660).

After Partitions of Poland, Proszowice first belonged to the Habsburg Empire, but in 1815 it became part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland. During January Uprising, several skirmishes took place in the area of the town, and as a punishment, the Russians reduced Proszowice to the status of a village (1869). In 1923, already in Kielce Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic, Proszowice regained its town charter. In 1999 the town became the seat of a county.

The center of Proszowice is of typical medieval shape, with a market square and streets radiating from it. Houses in the market square, however, are modern, most of them were built in the 20th century. Once there was a town hall, which was dismantled in the mid-19th century. Local parish church was first erected in the 13th century, during the reign of Prince Bolesław V the Chaste. The first church burned between 1306 and 1308. New complex was built in 1325, and most likely, it burned in a fire in 1407. Third parish church was completed in 1454. It was partly destroyed after a storm in May 1824, when one of the walls collapsed, together with the Gothic vault. The reconstruction took 12 years.

References
 History of Proszowice and Proszowice County

External links
 Jewish Community in Proszowice on Virtual Shtetl
 Places in Proszowice

Cities and towns in Lesser Poland Voivodeship
Proszowice County
Kraków Voivodeship (14th century – 1795)
Kielce Governorate
Kielce Voivodeship (1919–1939)

Proszowice


Waiting for Guffman is a musical mockumentary movie made in 1997. It was directed by Christopher Guest, who also stars in the movie. The movie is set in the small town of Blaine, Missouri, which is not a real town. The town decides to perform a musical called Red, White and Blaine to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the town, and invites a famous theater critic named  to see it, hoping that he will make the play famous.

The name of the movie is a reference to the play Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett. In that play, the two main characters are waiting for a man named Godot, who never shows up. In Waiting for ,  never shows up, either.URL

Other websites

1997 movies
Mockumentaries
English-language movies

Waiting for Guffman


Churning of the Ocean is a mythical story of Hinduism and Hindu mythology. It is described in many Hindu scriptures, especially in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The story tells about the churning of the ocean by the gods and the demons. From this churning of the ocean, several things came out of the ocean. Some of them were:

Surabhi: She was a cow. She was called the cow of plenty.
Varuni: He was the goddess of wine.
Parijata: It was a tree. The story tells that this tree granted all the wishes of the person standing below it.
Apsaras: They were beautiful women. They would never grow old. They used to dance in the court of Indra, a god of the Indo-Aryan period.
The moon: The Hindu scriptures name the moon as the Chandra. It rose from the ocean when the gods and the demons were churning the ocean.
Kalakuta: It was a dangerous poison. When it came out of the ocean, Shiva drank it.
Dhanvantari: He was the first physician of Ayurvedic system of medicine and medication.
Lakshmi: She came out of the ocean seated on a lotus. She is a goddess of Hindus.
Uchchaishravas: It was a horse with seven heads. The legend states that it pulls the chariot of the sun-god, Surya.
Airavata: It was a three-headed elephant. It was taken by Indra.
Kaustuba: It was a very important gem. God Vishnu kept it.

The Hindu scriptures and the Hindu mythology tell that all the above things came out of the ocean for the good of human beings.

References
Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola

Hindu mythology

Churning of the Ocean


The National Labor College was a college for union members and their families, union leaders and union staff in Silver Spring, Maryland. Established as a training center by the AFL–CIO in 1969 to strengthen union member education and organizing skills, NLC became a degree-granting college in 1997 and in March 2004 gained accreditation from the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. Until the college closed on April 26, 2014, it was the only college of its kind in the United States.

In July 2014 the Amalgamated Transit Union purchased the National Labor College campus. The ATU plans to expand its long-standing union education and activism program to the newly acquired campus.

History
In 1969 AFL–CIO President George Meany founded a labor studies center under the direction of Fred K. Hoehler Jr. to promote education and training opportunities for union leadership and rank-and-file members. The Executive Council of the AFL–CIO determined an educational and training center held an important role in the organization's effort to further develop trade unionism, and decided to locate a permanent campus for the pursuit of labor studies.

On November 6, 1974, AFL–CIO President George Meany dedicated the George Meany Center for Labor Studies, located on the former campus of Xaverian College. The property was purchased from the Xaverian Brothers by the AFL–CIO for $2.5 million in 1971. At the dedication, Meany remarked that the purpose of the institution was to help union officials "make a better contribution to our people and to our nation." The Bachelor of Arts Degree in Labor Studies was offered in partnership with Antioch College (later Antioch University) through the 1990s.

In 1997 under the leadership of AFL–CIO President John J. Sweeney, the center received authorization to grant baccalaureate degrees by the State of Maryland Higher Education Commission and became an independent institution of higher learning and renamed the National Labor College. By 2004, National Labor College had become fully accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools.

The National Labor College published Labor's Heritage, a scholarly journal of labor history, until 2004.

In the fall of 2006 the new Lane Kirkland Center opened on the National Labor College campus, to provide upgraded facilities, and to greatly expand the college's hosting capabilities.  At the time, the college hoped to promote the Kirkland Center as "America's union hall".

In 2009, the college entered into a partnership with Penn Foster Education, a career college subsidiary of the Princeton Review in order to develop a distance education program. The program was ended by the college in November, 2011, because of the slow growth of the program and the financial difficulties of the Princeton Review.  The college intended to use the facilities developed under this program to build its own program of distance education. The losses from the joint program were in part responsible for the 2012 decision to close the college's campus and function in online education only.

Facilities

With a  campus located in Silver Spring, Maryland, a  academic and conference center, and hotel quality residence halls, the college provided classroom, meeting spaces and dining services.

In 2012, the college announced its intention to sell the campus and relocate to offices in the Washington, DC area and have an online presence only. Plagued by roughly $30 million in debt—primarily from building the conference center—the college depended heavily on the sale of the campus to remain open. National Labor College was on the verge of selling its campus when the deal fell through in June 2013. The AFL–CIO stated it did not have enough money available to provide a bridge loan. After the college closed, the campus was sold.

George Meany Memorial Archives
From 1993 until 2013, the college was home to the George Meany Memorial Archives, the official and acting archives of the AFL–CIO. The archive is estimated to have a value of $25 million and contain more than 40 million artifacts. The archives include the papers of numerous labor leaders, the official records of all AFL–CIO proceedings since the founding of the AFL in the 1880s, the archives of numerous union and federation publications, and the records of the departments of the AFL–CIO. The archives contain extensive correspondence relating to past AFL–CIO international activities during the Cold War which remain classified by most national governments.

On October 1, 2013, the collection was transferred from the National Labor College to the University of Maryland Libraries, where university archivists are preserving the archive to make them more readily available to the public.  Records of the National Labor College are also available in the Special Collections at University of Maryland.

National Workers Memorial
The National Workers Memorial, dedicated on April 28, 2010, was erected on the college's campus to honor the memory of workers killed or fatally injured on the job, or in service to the labor movement. After the sale of the campus, the college intends to relocate the memorial to an appropriate location. Australia established a National Workers Memorial, a memorial with a similar intent, in its national capital, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, in 2013.

Closure
On November 12, 2013, the National Labor College Board of Trustees directed Peinovich and the college's officers to develop a plan to close the college due to the institution's ongoing financial difficulties. In an open letter three days later to the college's community of students, alumni and supporters, Peinovich announced that the college closure would likely take many months and emphasized that there would be a "teach-out" plan to allow enrolled students to receive their degrees. The Labor College signed teach-out agreements with SUNY Empire State College, Thomas Edison State College, Pennsylvania State University, the University of Illinois, and Rowan University that allowed NLC students to receive their degrees by earning credit at those five institutions. The college held its last commencement and a closing convocation on its Silver Spring campus on April 26, 2014.  The final NLC commencement, for those enrolled in the 'teach-out', occurred on Saturday, January 30, 2016, at the Conference Center at the Maritime Institute (formerly known as MITAGS).

References

External links

 The National Labor College (archived website)
 George Meany Memorial Labor and Unions Archives

Educational institutions established in 1969
Educational institutions disestablished in 2014
Universities and colleges in Montgomery County, Maryland
Defunct private universities and colleges in Maryland
1969 establishments in Maryland
2014 disestablishments in Maryland

National Labor College


Kalgan is a small town in the Great Southern region of Western Australia.

The town is situated on the banks of the Kalgan River and was first known as Kalganup which means "place of first camp" or "place of many waters". Indigenous Australians used the area as a meeting place up to 19,000 years ago. The name was first recorded in 1831, when explorer Alexander Collie charted the area.

Land was set aside for a townsite in 1837 and was sparsely settled, with approximately a dozen people living in the area in 1900.

The town was gazetted in 1912 following land being opened up in the area.
The Upper Kalgan Hall was constructed in 1912 and became a focal point for the community. By 1913, the population was approximately 150 people.

The Lower Kalgan Hall was constructed in 1954. Both the lower and Upper Halls are on the Heritage Council of Western Australia listed places.

An independent school, Great Southern Grammar, was built along Oyster Harbour near where the Kalgan River discharges into the harbour. The school was established in 1999 and is the only school in Kalgan.

References

Towns in Western Australia
Great Southern (Western Australia)

Kalgan, Western Australia


Walter Alexander Willis (1919–1999) was a well-known Irish science fiction fan, resident in Belfast.

Work
Willis was awarded a 1958 Hugo Award as "Outstanding Actifan" (active fan), which replaced the Best Fanzine category that year. He was nominated for a best fan writer Hugo in 1969 and two retro-Hugos in the same category (in 2001, 2004 for work in 1951, 1954).  In 1959 and 1957 he was nominated in the fanzine category for Hyphen, and he received fanzine retro-Hugo nominations in 2004 for Slant and Hyphen.  He shared a retro-Hugo for Slant with that fanzine's art editor James White.

His best known single work is The Enchanted Duplicator (1954), co-written with Bob Shaw, an allegory of a fan's quest to produce the perfect fanzine. This appeared to be closely modeled on The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan (though Willis and Shaw denied having read it beforehand).

Along with White, Shaw, George Charters, Ian McAulay, and  John Berry (an English policeman then with the Belfast force),  Willis represented the influential Irish Fandom, also known as the Wheels of IF (named after the L. Sprague de Camp fantasy story and collection). Willis, White and Shaw were also referred to as the Belfast Triangle.

Willis was known for his droll, humorous writing, especially in a column "The Harp That Once or Twice" that began in the US fanzine Quandry edited by Lee Hoffman in 1951.  This led to Willis's fame in US science fiction fandom and to his attending the 1952 Worldcon in Chicago as a special guest, recipient of travel funds raised by fans, under the leadership of fan Shelby Vick, who called the fund-raising "the Willis Campaign," with the slogan, "WAW with the crew in '52!" which led to the establishment of the annual TransAtlantic Fan Fund. Willis published the founding document for TAFF in "Hyphen 4" (October 1953) following a discussion with "the available leaders of British fandom" at that year's Coroncon. This in turn inspired funds such as the Down Under Fan Fund between Australia and the United States and the Get Up and over Fan Fund (GUFF) between Britain and Australia. Willis's humorous articles about his trip (later collected in a single volume as The Harp Stateside (1957)) established the tradition of fund-winners (and other fan travelers) writing trip reports, usually as separate chapters printed in different fanzines on both sides of the funded trip. The Willis Campaign was not the first attempt by fans to arrange such a visit, but its huge success in promoting international good will encouraged the regular fan funds and also various one-off individual travel funds.

From 1952 to 1959 Willis wrote the Fanorama column in the British science fiction magazine Nebula.

He attended the 1992 Worldcon in Orlando, Florida, as the Fan Guest of Honor.

He published one book professionally, under the pseudonym Walter Bryan: The Improbable Irish (1969), a linked sequence of mostly humorous essays about Ireland, its history and its people.

In 1980, Richard Bergeron, also a former publisher of Willis's fan writing, produced a 600-page hardcover mimeographed fanzine, issue 28 of his fanzine Warhoon, devoted to collecting most of Willis's fannish writings.

References

External links
The Enchanted Duplicator (1954)
Hyphen (1952-1965; 1987)
Slant (1948-1953)
Fanorama column in Nebula (1952-1959)
The Willis Papers (1961)
 "TAFF publications"
"Fan Funds home page"
"GUFF Info"

1919 births
1999 deaths
Irish male writers
Science fiction writers from Northern Ireland
20th-century British writers
Hugo Award-winning fan writers
20th-century male writers

Walt Willis


Rosaceae  (rose-like plants) is a large family of plants. There are about 100-120 genera with between 3,000 and 4,000 species in them. Well-known plants from the family include:
Roses
Strawberries
Raspberries
Apples, and Pears
Peaches, Cherries, and Apricots

Plants in Rosaceae usually have flowers with five petals. However, some decorative roses have many more. Species of Dryas usually have eight petals.

Subfamilies
The Rosaceae family has been divided into subfamilies; usually the following four subfamilies are used:
Rosoideae
Spiraeoideae
Maloideae
Amygdaloideae (sometimes incorrectly called Prunoideae)
However, it has become clear that the last three of these subfamilies cannot be divided in a clear way. Also, there is a small group that is so different from other Rosaceae, that it is now given its own name. Botanists now use only three subfamilies in Rosaceae:
Rosoideae
Amygdaloideae
Dryadoideae

Rosaceae

Rosaceae


Every Little Step is a 2008 American documentary film produced and directed by James D. Stern and Adam Del Deo. It follows the process of casting the 2006 Broadway revival of A Chorus Line and explores the history of the award-winning musical, beginning with the informal interviews with Broadway dancers conducted by Michael Bennett that served as its basis. Their personal observations and feelings were captured on audiotape, many of which are heard in this film.

3,000 dancers arrived to audition for the revival on the first day. Some of their stories are interwoven with recollections of members of the original cast, including Donna McKechnie and Baayork Lee; composer Marvin Hamlisch; and Bob Avian, who co-choreographed the original 1975 production and directed the 2006 revival.

The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2008 and went into theatrical release with the title Broadway Broadway in Japan the following month. It was shown at the Berlin International Film Festival, the Thessaloniki Documentary Festival, and the Sarasota Film Festival before going into limited release in the US on April 17, 2009.

Critical reception
Kaori Shoji of The Japan Times said the film "plays off the echo effect of [its] premise with skill, grace and heartfelt sympathy; it's clearly the work of people who love dancers, whether they're grinning in the spotlight or fighting back tears after a failed tryout . . . [W]hat surfaces in the film is the fierce dedication [dancers] have to their craft and the sense that they're here singing and performing their guts out in front of choreographers and producers because there's no other place on Earth they'd rather be."

A.O. Scott of The New York Times observed, "There is a superficial resemblance between Every Little Step (and, for that matter, A Chorus Line itself) and television reality shows in which ordinary people use their talents to scramble for the spotlight. But those programs are spectacles of amateurism chasing after celebrity, an impulse that could not be further from what Mr. Stern and Mr. Del Deo, taking their cues from Mr. Bennett, set out to honor. The 17 members of that chorus line — and the thousands like them, including those who dream of playing them — are professionals, and one of the names they give to the glory they seek is work. The other is love."

Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said the film "doesn't do anything unexpected, and it doesn't have to . . . it's a can't-miss effort that knows how to please."

Kyle Smith of the New York Post rated the film 1½ out of four stars and called it a "sloppily directed" film that "assumes you know everything going in, which makes it more a souvenir scrapbook than a narrative."

Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars and described it as "a thrilling combination of documentary and musical dazzler" and "a heartbreaker."

Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly graded the film A, calling it "a movie as layered and as enthralling as its subject."

References

External links

2008 films
American documentary films
2008 documentary films
Documentary films about dance
Documentary films about Broadway theatre
Films about musical theatre
Films set in a theatre
Sony Pictures Classics films
2000s English-language films
Films directed by Adam Del Deo and James D. Stern
2000s American films
English-language documentary films

Every Little Step (film)


The Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual of ancient Greece and Rome celebrating Dionysus. The ritual involved intoxicants (like alcohol) and dancing to music to remove inhibitions and social constraints. It gave freedom to those marginalized by Greek society such as women, slaves and foreigners.

Greek mythology

Dionysian Mysteries


The Acts of Supremacy was passed by Elizabeth I in 1558. This act stated that the king, not the pope was the head of the Church of England.

When this act was originally passed by Henry VIII, in 1534, he had been the 'Head of the Church in England' but under Elizabeth's reign, she was "Supreme Governor of the Church in England".

The change may have been made to appease Catholics who could not accept the monarch as "Head of the Church", seeing the church as the Pope's domain, or it may have been made because Elizabeth was a woman. In the sixteenth century, women were regarded as inferior to men in spiritual matters, and many were uncomfortable with the idea of a woman being in charge.  This act also included an oath of loyalty to the Queen that the clergy were expected to take. If they did not take it, then they would lose their office.  A High Commission was established to ensure that the oath was taken.

1550s in England
1558
Protestant Reformation

Acts of Supremacy


A Banzai charge (or "banzai attack") (萬歳突撃) was a tactic used by Japanese soldiers against the American soldiers when they were losing World War II. Banzai charges were usually suicide charges. This was so they would have an honourable death without surrender. Also, the charges were a final attempt to gain success against the Allied forces, which usually had more troops.

World War II
Military of Japan
1940s in Japan

Banzai charge


A 9×19mm Parabellum is a nine millimeter wide bullet. It is usually used in handguns or submachine guns. The nine millimeter is often referred to as a "nine", "9mm", or "9×19". It is one of the most widely used bullets in history originating with the 9×19 Luger, invented in Germany. Many guns fire the 9mm, including the Luger, Walther P38, the Sten Mk II, the MP-40, the Uzi, the MP5, the Beretta 92, and the Glock 18. It is the standard handgun bullet for all NATO countries.

Pistol and rifle cartridges
Military cartridges

9×19mm Parabellum


Scientific management is a field of study which was started by Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). In his honor, the domain is sometimes called Taylorism. Taylor believed he could improve work in a company and its management through scientific procedures. This would solve the social problems in the company and guarantee wealth for all people. Very important components are:
Making a difference between planning work and its execution
Studying how long a process step takes to get estimates for the time it should take
Wages based on productivity
Prescribing the daily workload
It was mainly used for manufacturing processes, where workers operated machines to get a product. Today, the main problems seen with this approach is that the workers were treated like machines and not like human beings. It is the division of labour pushed to its extreme.

Related pages
Fordism

Management
Manufacturing

Scientific management


A valley is a type of landform.  A valley is a lower part in the land that sits between two higher parts which might be hills or mountains.  Valleys often start as a downward fold between two upward folds in the surface of the Earth, and sometimes as a rift valley.  A valley is made deeper by a stream of water or a river as it flows from the high land to the lower land, and into a lake or sea. Some valleys are made by glaciers which are slow-moving rivers of ice.  Water or ice make a valley deeper or wider by erosion.  Wind can also make valleys larger by erosion.

A valley has a "head" where it begins in the mountains or hills, "sides" where it rises up on either side, a "floor" which is where the valley is most flat. Some valleys have an "entrance" where the valley opening can be seen between two hills or mountains or cliffs. A place where a valley is very narrow and has high walls is sometimes called a "gorge". (This word "gorge" is sometimes used to mean the "throat" on a human body).

Many of the people of the world live in valleys because there is often a river or stream in a valley for fresh water, and there is often good soil in a valley to grow crops.

Types of valleys

Valleys in mountains
Mountains and hills are made when the layers of rock and soil (called "strata") get folded.   Fault block mountains may have rift valleys.  There are valleys in mountain ranges, between the highest parts which are the "peaks".  People who want to travel to the other side of the mountains usually go by the valleys.  A valley that people use to travel through mountains or hills is called a mountain pass.

Valleys that are high in the mountains are usually made deeper by a stream or small river running fast down the mountainside, from a place where there is lots of rainwater or melting snow, or by a glacier.  The mountain stream winds around the biggest rocks and washes the soil away as it flows.  It cuts a passage for itself through the softest soil and smallest stones.  A small stream can cut a very deep valley.  Valleys that are high in the mountains are usually V-shaped.  There are many valleys like this in hills and mountains all over the world.

Valleys in hilly country
In country that has hills, but is not very steep, a river or stream runs more slowly. It makes a wider valley that often has some large bends as the river flows around the hills, always following the lowest way. Water running down from the hillsides often carries soil that spreads out across the valley, making flat land that is good for growing food crops and raising cattle and other animals. Many farms are in valleys that are in hilly land. Many towns are built on the sloping sides of valleys. Famous valleys of this type are the Loire Valley and the Lower Rhine Valley in Europe and the Thames Valley in England.

Valleys in flat country
Some valleys are almost flat, like a large saucer. Valleys of this type often have a very large river with many "tributaries" (streams that are like branches) running through them. The tributaries carry water from the hills or mountains that may be far from the main river. After heavy rain, lots of water rushes into the main river so that it rises and floods over the flat floor of the valley. When the flood waters spread, they drop lots of soil which has washed down from the hills. The soil that drops on the valley floor makes a flat flood plain. Valleys of this type are very useful for growing food crops. The widest valleys in the world are like this. Famous valleys of this type are the Mississippi-Missouri Basin in North America, the Amazon Basin in South America, the Lower Danube in Europe, the Ganges River Valley in India, the Nile River Flood Plain in Africa and the Darling River Basin in Australia.

Valleys made by glaciers
A glacier is like a frozen river. Many countries do not have any glaciers. A glacier starts in very high mountains where there is snow and ice all the year. The snow and ice starts to move down a valley that has been made by a fast-flowing stream. As the ice starts to slide down the mountainside, it does not flow around the rocks; it pushes the rocks out of the way. As a glacier moves, it picks up more ice and gets bigger and bigger. A big glacier cuts through the soil and softer rock of the valley and piles up the rocks on either side, or pushes them in front of it. When a big glacier melts, it leaves a valley of a deep U-shape. Many valleys like this were made in the Ice Ages. In mountainous countries like Switzerland many people live in the valleys that were made by glaciers. Some of the deepest valleys in the world were made by glaciers. The fjords of Norway and "sounds" of New Zealand are where glaciers went into the sea.

Valleys in plateau country
A plateau is high land that is flat on top, or gently rolling, not pointed like mountains or rounded like hills. In hilly or mountainous country, the bands of a soil and rock are folded, but in a plateau the strata are in flat layers. The water that makes streams on the top of a plateau cuts down in wide valleys with sides that are steep cliffs and a bottom that is quite flat. Valleys like this are often deep and very narrow. Some valleys like this are very deep and wide. They are called "canyons". Famous valleys of this type are the Grand Canyon in the United States and the Megalong Valley in Australia.

Sunken valleys
Sometimes a valley has been formed in the hills near the coast of a country. Movement in the Earth's surface may cause the land to sink lower and become flooded by the sea. The shape of the valley can still be seen from the tops of the hills that stick out from the water. Some of the hills may become islands, and others become the shore of a bay. Sunken valleys often make good harbours. The east coast of Australia has many sunken valleys of which the most famous is Sydney Harbour.

Related pages

 Geography
 Landform
 Water
 River
 Lake
 Mountain
 Mountain range
 Flood
 Drought
 Erosion

Valley