Probabiliti  tina sababaraha kajadian  (dilambangkeun ku ) is defined with respect to a "universe" or sample space  of all possible elementary events in such a way that  must satisfy the Kolmogorov axioms.

Alternatively, a probability can be interpreted as a measure on a σ-algebra of subsets of the sample space, those subsets being the events, such that the méasure of the whole set equals 1.  This property is important, since it gives rise to the natural concept of conditional probability.  Every set  with non-zero probability defines another probability

on the space.  This is usually réad as "probability of  given ".  If the conditional probability of  given  is the same as the probability of , then  and  are said to be independent.

In the case that the sample space is finite or countably infinite, a probability function can also be defined by its values on the elementary events  where .

Kolmogorov axioms

The following three axioms are known as the Kolmogorov axioms, after Andrey Kolmogorov who developed them.

First axiom

 For any set , .

That is, the probability of an event set is represented by a réal number between 0 and 1.

Second axiom

That is, the probability that some elementary event in the entire sample set will occur is 1.  More specifically, there are no elementary events outside the sample set.

This is often overlooked in some mistaken probability calculations; if you cannot precisely define the whole sample set, then the probability of any subset cannot be defined either.

Third axiom

 Any countable sequence of mutually disjoint events  satisfies .

That is, the probability of an event set which is the union of other disjoint subsets is the sum of the probabilities of those subsets.  This is called σ-additivity.  If there is any overlap among the subsets this relation does not hold.

For an algebraic alternative to Kolmogorov's approach, see algebra of random variables.

Lemmas in probability

From the Kolmogorov axioms one can deduce other useful rules for calculating probabilities:

That is, the probability that A or B will happen is the sum of the
probabilities that A will happen and that B will happen, minus the
probability that A and B will happen.  This can be extended to the inclusion-exclusion principle.

That is, the probability that any event will not happen is 1 minus the probability that it will.

Using conditional probability as defined above, it also follows immediately that

That is, the probability that A and B will happen is the probability
that A will happen, times the probability that B will happen given
that A happened; this relationship gives Bayes' theorem. It then follows that A and B are independent if and only if

 .

See also

 frequency probability
 personal probability
 pilihan probabiliti
 statistical regularity

Probability theory

Probability axioms


Multitasking means that a computer can run more than one item of software in the same time frame; switching between several computer programs running on a single CPU. It can also refer to a person who is working on more than one task at the same time (for instance, talking on the telephone while filing papers).

In computing
Computers which can appear to run more than one program even with only one CPU. Computer scientists solve the problem that a CPU can only do one thing at a time by programming it so that it switches rapidly between tasks. This happens so rapidly that it appears that the computer is running more than one program at once. This is called "multiprogramming". This action is often controlled by the operating system (OS) controlling the hardware of the system.

The more things the computer has to do at once, the more time it has to spend deciding which to give more time to, and the less time each one receives. This tends to make the computer perform its tasks more slowly, unless it uses a multi-core processor, acting as multiple CPUs, which is called "multiprocessing".

Related pages
 Multiprocessing
 Multithreading

Computer science

Computer multitasking


The Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammer was a short-recoil, semi-automatic pistol, designed by the American arms designer John Browning.  It was a compact version of the Colt Model 1902 Sporting Model pistol derived from the original Colt M1900. The Colt M1902 Sporting Model and 1903 Pocket Hammer models differ significantly from the military-inspired Colt 1902 Military Model although they fire the same cartridge. Its design is in no way related to the Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless or the FN Model 1903 pistol.

Background
At a glance, this pistol is visually more similar to the later Colt 1911 than to the Colt 1902 Sporting Model from which it evolved, but has  a number of differences -- the lack of any safety as well as the lack of a slide lock, the magazine release is at the bottom of the grip rather than a button on the side, and a wedge retaining the slide. The locking system uses two links vs. the single link of the later M1911. The two links (one near the muzzle, the other under the chamber) unlocked the barrel in a motion identical to that of a parallel ruler. The drawback to this design was the need for a cross-wedge in the slide near the muzzle, for assembly and dis-assembly. If the slide cracked or the wedge came loose, the slide could exit the frame to the rear, injuring the shooter. The design limited the strength of the cartridge that could be used.

It was chambered for the .38 ACP, which is stamped on the slide as "Calibre 38 rimless smokeless". The .38 ACP was a slightly less powerful cartridge than the 9×19mm Parabellum and it is now considered the bare minimum carry caliber for self defense. While using a locked breech, the pistol's locking design was not very strong, and was superseded in 1929 by an M1911A1-pattern pistol chambered in .38 Super.

The .38 ACP (aka .38 Auto) and the .38 Super use cases with identical dimensions, the only difference being the maximum operating pressures of each. It would be unwise to use new, factory .38 Super ammunition in any pistol based on the M1900 series Colts. (1900, 1902, 1903.) .38 Super pistols, on the other hand, can often work well with .38 ACP (or .38 ACP pressure-level) ammunition. They may require a slightly less-powerful recoil spring to function normally.

Initially popular, the sales of the .38 ACP models dropped off with the introduction of the M-1905 in .45, and then the M-1911 caused sales of the .38 to essentially cease. Colt listed it in their annual catalog until existing parts were used up in the early 1920s.

Production of the Model 1903 Pocket Hammer Model, basically just a short-barreled 1902 Sporting Model, began in earnest in 1904 (only one hundred pistols seeing production in 1903) with production varying from about 1,200 to 2,300 each year until 1917 when production curtailed sharply due to World War I. Up to late 1907, rounded stub hammers were used, but Colt, with the interest of the military and apparently the public now set on low profile spur hammers (due to that requirement on the Model 1907 US test pistols, these being modified Model 1905s  with grip safeties), started phasing in low profile spur hammers on all their exposed hammer automatics that they were continuing in production: the 1903 Pocket Hammer Model, the 1902 Military Model, and the 1905 Model .45 ACP. Therefore, the rounded hammer Colt 1903 Pocket Hammers can help date those pistols at a glance to 1903–1907.

Unlike the Sporting Model from which it was derived and the 1902 Military Model, that had milled slide grooves and checkered slides respectively, the 1903 Pocket Hammer featured slide grooves at the rear of the slide. The first pistols featured the milled pattern similar to the 1902 Sporting Models, but Colt transitioned to rear cut slides around the spring of 1905, apparently for all their automatics.  This would indicate that only about 1,700 or so 1903 Pocket Hammers had the rear milled slides, making them the earliest and hardest to find of the type.

Serial numbers of the 1903 Pocket Hammers started at 19999 in 1903 and went backward to 16000 into 1906. After that, serials resumed at 20000 and went up to 47227 ending in 1927 when production discontinued. An approximate  total of 29,237 were produced which just about equaled the production of the Colt 1900 and 1902 .38 automatics.  Prior to World War I, the pistol filled a niche by providing a relatively more powerful cartridge in a lighter and smaller pistol.  However, the Colt 1903/08 Pocket Hammerless in .380 ACP (a lower power cartridge to  the .38 ACP, but suitable to smaller simple blow-back pistols) appeared in 1909. The .380 Pocket Hammerless overwhelmed the Pocket Hammer model's sales but the 1903 persisted, possibly because the .38 ACP was still a more powerful cartridge than the .380 ACP.  However, World War I clearly slowed production and after production surged to 3,200 in 1920 (probably to fill dealer back orders built up during the war), sales became very slow and the 1903 Pocket Hammer faded out of use, while the smaller 1903 .380 and .32 ACP Pocket Hammerless pistols thrived.

Only a scant handful of 1903 Pocket Hammers were used by the military, and then only as secondary arms purchased not pursuant to contract.  However, the Model did see significant sales in Mexico prior to and possibly during the chaos of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) so many of these found their way into military and para-military hands. Additionally, some were purchased for the Philippine Constabulary in the 1920s.

References

Further reading
Goddard, William, The Government Models, Andrew Mobray Inc, 1988,1998,

External links

.38 ACP firearms
Colt semi-automatic pistols
Semi-automatic pistols 1901–1909
Semi-automatic pistols of the United States
Short recoil firearms
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1903

Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammer


Eupen-Malmedy, or the East Cantons is a group of cantons in Belgium.  They are the former Prussian districts of Malmedy and Eupen, together with the Neutral Moresnet.  French-speaking Belgians also once called them the Redeemed Cantons.  These territories were added to Belgium in 1920 by the Versailles Treaty.

Chronology
6 March 1815 : Malmedy part of Prussia (from 1871 Germany).
1918 - 1920 : Under Allied occupation (British to Aug 1919, then Belgian).
28 June 1919 : Given to Belgium by Germany under Treaty of Versailles.
20 September 1920 : Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt-Vith added (fully re-incorporated 1925).
1926 The Belgian government wants to "sell" the East Cantons to the Weimar Republic. France objects strongly.
29 July 1940 -  Feb 1945 : Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt-Vith are added to Germany, together with the Luxembourg village of Bého (renamed Bocholz) and former Neutral Moresnet.
1956 Belgo-German peace treaty. The Federal Republic of Germany recognizes the illegality of the 1940 annexation.
1960-1964 The Belgian language border is fixed and finally divides the East Cantons. Eupen, Sankt Vith and others become German-speaking with special privileges for French speakers, Malmedy and Waimes join Aubel, Welkenraedt, Bleiberg and Baelen as French-speaking with (potential) special privileges for German speakers.
18 July 1966 Belgian law on the language use by local and national government. The "region of the German language" is mentioned. Federal Government services to answer German questions from a member of the general public in German.
1973 The Rat der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft is set up.
1989 New amnesty law, undoing the legal effects of the annexation and its voiding.
1993 The Executive of the Rat der Deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft is recognized as one of the Belgian regional governments in the new federal constitution. The German-speaking area remains a part of the Walloon economic area.
2005 The authority of the Rat is increased by giving it the right of teaching over religious institutions and over its nine communities.

20th-century establishments in Belgium
Wallonia
Liège (province)

Eupen-Malmedy


In Anatolian mythology, Cybele was the personification of the earth. She was the goddess of nature, fertility, mountains, and wild animals. She is often represented sitting on a throne, flanked by two lions, and wearing a mural crown. In Phrygian myth, she was born a hermaphroditic being named Agdistis, a child of Zeus and Gaia. Cybele had a shepherd consort named Attis, and a priesthood of eunuchs called the Galli. Her cult was adopted by the Greeks and later by the Romans.

Mythology
Zeus let fall in his sleep seed upon the Earth, which in course of time gave birth to an androgynous being, born both male and female, whom they called Agdistis. But the gods, fearing Agdistis, cut off the male organ. The blood fertilized the soil and there grew up from it an almond-tree. A daughter of the river Sangarius picked an almond and laid it in her bosom, where the almond disappeared. She then had a child, a baby boy named Attis.

Cult
Her orgiastic cult dominated the central and north-western districts of Asia Minor, and was introduced into Greece via the island of Samothrake and the Boiotian town of Thebes. Cybele was closely associated with a number of Greek goddesses, firstly Rhea, the Greek mother of the gods (Meter Theon), but sometimes also Demeter (especially in the Samothrakian cult), Aphrodite (on Mount Ida) and Artemis (in Karia). Her main cult followers were the Galli, these were eunuch priests of a feminine nature, who celebrated her festivals with wild dancing, self-laceration, and self-scourging.

Related pages

 Archigallus, the high-priest of Cybele
 Taurobolium, the sacrifice of a bull to Cybele

Greek gods and goddesses
Roman gods and goddesses

Cybele


PV-WAVE (Precision Visuals - Workstation Analysis and Visualization Environment) is an array oriented fourth-generation programming language used by engineers, scientists, researchers, business analysts and software developers to build and deploy visual data analysis applications. In January 2019, PV-Wave parent Rogue Wave Software was acquired by Minneapolis, Minnesota-based application software developer Perforce.

History

PV-WAVE was originally developed by a company called Precision Visuals, based in Boulder, CO. In 1992, the IMSL Numerical Libraries and Precision Visuals merged and the new company was renamed Visual Numerics.

PV-WAVE is closely related to the IDL (programming language), from whose code-base PV-WAVE originated. The shared history of PV-WAVE and IDL began in 1988, when Precision Visuals entered into an agreement with Research Systems, Incorporated (RSI, the original developer of IDL) under which Precision Visuals resold IDL under the name PV-WAVE. In September 1990, Precision Visuals exercised an option in its agreement with RSI to purchase a copy of the IDL source code. Since that time, IDL and PV-WAVE have been on separate development tracks: each product has been enhanced, supported, and maintained separately by its respective company.

In May 2009, Visual Numerics was acquired by Rogue Wave Software.

In January 2019, Rogue Wave Software was acquired by Minneapolis, Minnesota-based application software developer Perforce.

About
Due to their common history, PV-WAVE and IDL share a similar FORTRAN-like syntax, as well as many common commands, functions, and subroutines.

References

External links
PV-WAVE site

Programming languages

PV-Wave


Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of RAM that keeps data that is fed to it without having to be refreshed over and over again.

Both DRAM and SRAM store information in binary by using very small electronic components. Both are volatile (need electric current flowing to keep the negative and positive charged components stay that way).

One difference is that SRAM are also used for specific applications within the PC, where their good points outweigh their bad points compared to DRAM.

Like other semiconductor chips, SRAM chips are made by photolithography.

For SRAM, each bit is composed of between four and six transistors, forming a flip-flop to hold information. This complexity is what makes SRAM bigger and more expensive than DRAM. In DRAM each bit has only one transistor plus a capacitor acting like a miniature rechargeable battery).

Advantages
 SRAM does not need to be refreshed.
 Changing Static RAM is faster than DRAM.

Disadvantages
 SRAM is more expensive than DRAM.
 SRAMs take up more space and electricity.

Other websites
 Uses of SRAM by Intel Corp.

Computer memory

Static random-access memory


Paul Keres (7 January 1916 – 5 June 1975) was an Estonian and Soviet chess grandmaster. From about 1937 to 1962 he was one of the top four players in the world.

Keres narrowly missed a chance at a World Chess Championship match on five occasions.p197 He came equal first in the 1938 AVRO tournament, which led to negotiations for a world championship match with Alexander Alekhine, but the match never took place due to World War II. Instead, he played a 14-game match with ex-World Champion Max Euwe in the Netherlands, December 1939 – January 1940. Keres won a hard-fought struggle by 7.5–6.5 (+6 =3 –5). This was a superb achievement: not only was Euwe a former World Champion, but he had enormous experience at match play, far more than Keres.

Estonia had enjoyed independence after World War I, but was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. Keres came second to Botvinnik in the 1941 Leningrad/Moscow Absolute Championship of the USSR. Soon Estonia was annexed again, this time by the Nazi forces. After the war it was seized again by the Soviet Union.

After the war he took part in the 1948 World Championship match-tournament of five top players, which decided the successor to Alekhine. This was won by Botvinnik, and Keres came equal third with Reshevsky. He was then the runner-up in the Candidates' tournament on four consecutive occasions: 1953, 1956, 1959 and 1962. Keres won the USSR championship three times, in 1947, 1950 and 1951. The latter was probably the strongest-ever Soviet championship; it had ten other players who had played in Candidates' tournaments, three of whom won the world title.

Keres played for the USSR in seven successive Chess Olympiads, wining seven team medals, and five individual board medals. Due to these and other strong results, many commentators consider Keres to be the strongest player never to become World Chess Champion. He was nicknamed "The Crown Prince of Chess".p198

Keres was always a man, and never missed the opportunity to say he was an Estonian, not a Russian. When he played at the annual Hastings tournament in 1954/55, a KGB man sat on a chair outside his room at night. He was there "to prevent the grandmaster being disturbed". Paul's demeanor at the board was always totally calm. From looking at him, you could not tell how much time he had left, or what kind of position he had. He had mastered the art of self-control, and his nickname amongst other players was 'Old Stoneface'.

Botvinnik thought his death was "the greatest loss suffered by chess since the death of Alekhine". In his opinion, Keres failed to reach the top because of "a tendency to fade somewhat at decisive moments in the struggle".p198 A rumour that the Soviets had persuaded him to lose deliberately to Botvinnik in the 1948 World Championship has no evidence to back it up.

Keres memorial tournaments are held in Tallinn every two years.

Games
Paul Keres vs Alexander Alekhine, Margate 1937, Ruy Lopez (C71), 1-0 A good example of the young Keres against the reigning world champion.
Paul Keres vs Edgar Walther, Tel Aviv 1964, King's Indian, Petrosian System (E93), 1-0 Keres with 1.d4 against the King's Indian defence.

References

Other sources
Keres, Paul 1996. Paul Keres: the road to the top. Batsford, London. The years 1929–1950.
Keres, Paul and Nunn J. 1997. Paul Keres: The quest for perfection. Batsford, London. The years 1950–1975.
Varnusz, Egon. 1994. Paul Keres' best games, volume 1: closed games.  Cadogan Chess, London. .
Varnusz, Egon. 1994. Paul Keres' best games, volume II: semi-open games. Cadogan Chess, London. .
Paul Keres: photographs and games. Paide 1995. Complete collection of games, and record of his chess career.
Neishtadt I. 1983. Paul Keres chess master-class. transl. K.P. Neat. Pergamon, Oxford.

1916 births
1975 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Estonian sportspeople
Soviet chess players

Paul Keres


Colonel Baron  was an Imperial Japanese Army officer, equestrian show jumper, and Olympic Gold Medalist at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics. He was a tank unit commander at the Battle of Iwo Jima and was killed in action during the defense of the island.

Family and early life
Nishi was born in the Azabu district of Tokyo. He was the illegitimate third son of Tokujirō Nishi, a danshaku (baron under the kazoku peerage system). His mother was not married to Tokujirō and was forced to leave the house soon after giving birth. His father had various high-level positions in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Imperial Privy Council, leading up to ambassador to China's Qing dynasty during the Boxer Rebellion.

Nishi went to Gakushuin pre-school and, while in elementary school, repeatedly got into fights with students of nearby Bancho elementary school.  In 1912, at the age of 10, he succeeded to the title of Baron upon the death of his father. In 1915, he entered Tokyo First Junior High School (now Hibiya High School) in accordance with the dying wishes of his father; his classmates included Hideo Kobayashi, future pre-eminent literary critic, and Hisatsune Sakomizu, who would be Chief Cabinet Secretary in 1945.

In September 1917, Nishi entered Hiroshima Army Cadet School, a military preparatory school established on Prussian models, and in 1920 took courses at Tokyo Central Cadet Academy. One of his classmates was Masanobu Tsuji, formerly head student of the Nagoya Academy. He completed his studies at Central Cadet School in six months in April 1920, due to the reorganization of the military schools, and began courses at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy.  Midway through his studies, he was attached to the First Cavalry Regiment based in Setagaya, Tokyo.  In 1924, he graduated from the academy, the 13th of the 19 students in his class, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in October. He went on to the First Cavalry after graduating from Army Cavalry School. He was promoted to lieutenant in October 1927.

Uranus and Olympics competition

In 1930, Nishi encountered what would be his favorite horse, Uranus, while in Italy. As the army wouldn't pay for the horse, Nishi bought Uranus with his personal funds. Nishi and Uranus competed in competitions around Europe, doing well. In 1932, when Nishi was a first lieutenant, they participated in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, winning a gold medal in Equestrian at the 1932 Summer Olympics show jumping individual. This remains Japan's only Olympic medal to date in an equestrian event. His victory broke through the general hostility towards Japan that followed from the Mukden Incident and invasion of Manchuria. Westerners, especially Americans, referred to him as Baron Nishi. He was also popular among Japanese Americans, who were ostracized by American society in this period.

During his stay in Los Angeles, Nishi became the topic of conversation both for his love of driving convertibles around town and for becoming part of the social circle led by movie legend Charlie Chaplin, movie star couple Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks.

After the Olympics, he was reassigned to the 16th Narashino Cavalry Regiment and promoted to be a cavalry instructor at the regimental school with the rank of captain, which he was promoted to in August 1933.

Nishi and Uranus participated in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany but Nishi fell off his horse mid-course. There is speculation this was intentional and done for the benefit of host country Nazi Germany, with whom Japan would sign the 1940 Tripartite Pact, forming the Axis Powers. The 1936 Show Jumping individual event gold medal was won by Germany.  Following this, Nishi was reposted to the Tokachi Subdivision of the department responsible for supply of military horses. He was promoted to major in March 1939.

War years to Iwo Jima
In this period, Japan was cutting its cavalry forces and forming tank regiments. Nishi was reassigned the regimental commander of the 26th Tank Regiment, based in Mudanjiang,  in northern Manchukuo on defensive duties. He eventually gained the rank of lieutenant colonel in August 1943.

In 1944, the 26th Tank Regiment was reassigned to the defense of Iwo Jima under the command of Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi. On July 18, 1944, while en route from Pusan to Iwo Jima, the ship Nisshu Maru transporting the regiment was struck by torpedoes fired by submarine . While only two soldiers were killed, all 28 of the tanks in the regiment were lost.

Nishi briefly returned to Tokyo to obtain replacement tanks, and eventually received 22 of them.  While there, he borrowed the car of Daijiro Kawasaki, future CEO of Daihyaku Insurance (eventually bought out by Manulife Financial), a close friend and a son of the Kawasaki Heavy Industries zaibatsu. When he had a chance, he visited his horse Uranus, who remained at the Bajikōen Horse Grounds, Setagaya.

Battle of Iwo Jima

On Iwo Jima in 1945, Nishi commanded the 26th Tank Regiment under the Ogasawara Corps (IJA 109th Division). He would walk about the island wearing his Hermès brand riding boots and carrying his favorite crop. The regimental headquarters, which was located near the village of Maruman, was moved to the eastern part of the island when the battle began. Due to the topography of the island, some of the medium Type 97 Chi-Ha and light Type 95 Ha-Go tanks were placed in hull defilade (buried up to their turrets) and used as fortified emplacements, in particular, against the American M4 Shermans.

After extensive air and naval gunfire bombardment, the United States Marine Corps launched an amphibious assault on Iwo Jima starting February 19.  The American forces, who knew that Nishi was an enemy commander, broadcast daily appeals for him to surrender, stating that the world would regret losing "Baron Nishi"; Nishi never responded to those appeals. The American intelligence officer responsible for this attempt was Sy Bartlett of the 315th Bomber Wing out of Guam, who would later write the novel and film screenplay Twelve O'Clock High. In 1966, Bartlett visited Nishi's widow in Tokyo and paid his respects at Yasukuni Shrine.

Death
The circumstances of Nishi's death are unknown and subject to competing theories. One theory is that he found himself in the midst of enemy forces on the morning of March 21 and was killed by machine gun fire while moving to the regimental headquarters. Another is that he and his aide killed themselves with their pistols near Ginmyōsui or Futagoiwa. Yet another is that he was burnt to death by American flamethrowers on March 22, or that he and several subordinates carried out a final assault and were killed in action.

John C. Shively, in his novel The Last Lieutenant, recounts a story told by his uncle in which his platoon fires upon a group of Japanese soldiers during the night. In the morning, a body resembling Nishi's was found wearing riding boots and jodhpurs. Shively's uncle was almost certain that this was the body of Nishi.

Nishi was 42 years old at the time of the battle.

Legacy
Nishi was posthumously promoted to the rank of colonel. His son Yasunori Nishi (currently vice president of the Association of Iwo-Jima), succeeded him as the 3rd Baron Nishi. His hereditary title was abolished during the American occupation of Japan after the war.

Ōno Kaoru states, "Few people comprehended him and only Uranus understood him."

Uranus died one week after Nishi. In 1990, Uranus was commemorated at the War Horse Memorial in the History and Folklore Museum in Honbetsu, Hokkaidō.

In popular culture
In the 2006 film Letters from Iwo Jima, Baron Nishi was played by Korean-Japanese actor Tsuyoshi Ihara. The film portrays Nishi as being close friends with General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, but in reality, the two had some disagreements. Nishi ignored Kuribayashi's prohibition on using precious water to wash tanks, as well as the general's orders to punish soldiers who did so.  Regardless, the popularity (mainly in Japan) of both men as defenders of Iwo Jima grew. An anecdote repeated by Kakehashi Kumiko in the February 2006 issue of Bungei Shunju magazine is that in the final days of the battle, as the number of commanding officers who refused to put their men in caves increased, Nishi agreed that they should go out and fight together.  In the 2006 movie, Nishi uses some of the scarce medical supplies on a wounded US Marine he is questioning.  Ōno Kaoru's biography of Nishi gives credence to this as an actual event. The film also portrays Nishi as having taken his own life after being wounded and blinded during the battle.

References and other works
Translations of Japanese language titles are approximate.
 Shiroyama Saburō, 硫黄島に死す (To die on Iwo Jima), Shinchosha, 1984,
 Ōno Kaoru, オリンポスの使徒「バロン西伝説はなぜ生れたか」 (Disciple of Olympus: Why was the legend of Baron Nishi born?), Bungei Shunju, 1984, ASIN B000J74FDC
 Futabashi Shingo (images by Kisaki Takashi), 風と踊れ! 時代を疾走ぬけた男 バロン西 (Dance with the Wind! Baron Nishi, the man who raced to the end of an era), 2003 comic published by Shueisha
Zaloga, Steven J. Japanese Tanks 1939-45.  (2007) Osprey. .

External links

 , Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles
 Takeichi Nishi stats at DatabaseOlympics

Equestrians at the 1932 Summer Olympics
Equestrians at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic equestrians for Japan
Japanese male equestrians
Olympic gold medalists for Japan
Show jumping riders
Japanese military personnel killed in World War II
1902 births
1945 deaths
Battle of Iwo Jima
Kazoku
People from Minato
Sportspeople from Tokyo
Olympic medalists in equestrian
Medalists at the 1932 Summer Olympics

Takeichi Nishi


Photorespiration, or "'photo-respiration'", is a process in plant metabolism. A sugar has oxygen added to it by the enzyme (RuBisCO), instead of carbon dioxide during normal photosynthesis. This process reduces efficiency of photosynthesis.

Photorespiration can occur when carbon dioxide levels are low, for example, when the stomata are closed to prevent water loss during drought. In most plants, photorespiration increases as temperature increases. Photorespiration produces no ATP and leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen (as ammonia), slowing plant growth.

Plant physiology

Photorespiration


Morden Baptist Church is a Baptist church in the London Borough of Merton, England, UK. The church building is on Crown Lane part of the Morden one-way system. It is affiliated with the Baptist Union of Great Britain.

History

"In 1880s Morden was a place of cornfields and cattle, a country district with three little far sundered groups of houses. Each group of houses had a public house at its centre. Those public houses can still be found - "The Plough", "The George" and "The Crown". On a  Sunday evening in 1885 a little company of "Lovers of Jesus" gathered in one of the shops in what is now London Road, to hold a simple evangelistic service. They met, and sang, and prayed and read the Scriptures. Near Morden one of the iron building firms had a few sample buildings on show. When they abandoned the pitch, they offered an iron chapel for sale and Queens Road Church Wimbledon, London offered to buy it for Morden".

In 1915 the membership was only 16. However the extension of the Northern line and development of Merton Park, Morden and St. Helier Estate resulted in the numbers of church members rising to 84. 1929 saw the fellowship moving across the road from the 'Tin Chapel' to the "new" School Hall. This building still remains, and is now used for sports, playgroup, luncheon club and other activities. From small beginnings above a shop in 1885, who could have foreseen that exactly 50 years later, a new church would be needed (in addition to the School Hall) to accommodate the rapidly growing fellowship. So on 9 March 1935, the new church was formally opened.

As Morden ceased to be a quiet rural parish, and become part of London's suburbia, so the Church grew, developed and changed, Morden centre changed during this period. As the church continued to grow the old buildings proved inadequate to meet those needs. In 1990 a very substantial building scheme was undertaken to provide the current improved facilities, and including an enclosed concourse new offices and a sound-proofed cresh with a view into the main church. The Church now stands with the main entrance facing up Crown Lane part of the Morden one way system.

Leadership
The Current Ministers are Reverend Elaine Youngman and Reverend Darren Powell. There are also 'a board' elected from the congregation for a term of 5 year. Their role is to be the spiritual leaders of the congregation, responsible guiding growth and development of the church both, internally and though links with the community, part of their role is seeking future vision and care of the full-time leaders.

External links
 The church website

Baptist churches in London
Churches in the London Borough of Merton
Morden

Morden Baptist Church


Doo-wop is a genre of music that was developed in African-American communities in The USA. It started in the 1940s. Doo-wop achieved mainstream popularity in the 1950s and early 1960s. Built upon vocal harmony, doo-wop was one of the most mainstream, pop-oriented R&B styles of the time. Singer Bill Kenny (1914–1978) is often called the "Godfather of Doo-wop". He introduced the "top and bottom" format which featured a high tenor singing the lead and a bass singer reciting the lyrics in the middle of the song. Doo-wop features vocal group harmony, nonsense syllables, a simple beat, sometimes little or no instrumentation, and simple music and lyrics.

The first record to use the syllables "doo-wop" was the 1955 hit "When You Dance" by the Turbans. The term "doo-wop" first appeared in print in 1961. During the late 1950s many Italian-American groups added to the doo-wop scene. The peak of doo-wop was in 1961. Doo-wop's influence continued in soul, pop, and rock groups of the 1960s. At various times in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, the genre has seen revivals. Doo-wop was a precursor to many of the afro-American musical styles seen today. An evolution of jazz and blues, doo-wop also influenced many of the major Rock and Roll groups that defined the later decades of the 20th century. Doo-wop is iconic for it's swing-like beats and using the off-beat to keep time. Doo-wop laid the foundation for many musical innovations, for example, R&B.

It has had a revival recently as Meghan Trainor usually makes songs with in the genre.

References

Music genres
R&B music

Doo-wop


David Alan Adkisson (July 22, 1958 – February 10, 1984) was an American professional wrestler, better known by the ring name David Von Erich. A member of the Von Erich Family, Von Erich is best known for his appearances with World Class Championship Wrestling, the Dallas, Texas-based professional wrestling promotion owned by his father, Fritz Von Erich.

Early life
David was named after his mother Doris' brother David, who had died only months before David Von Erich was born in 1958. Doris' brother David (real name Eugene David Smith) had died of a brain tumor at 14.

David, along with brothers Kevin and Kerry, loved to hunt and fish with their father; Fritz. Hunting on the Von Erich ranch was quite an event. Many of their relatives and friends would join in and sometimes the hunting group would be 20 or more. WCCW Referee David Manning and WCCW Announcer Bill Mercer were quite often among the group.
David's first love in life was raising horses, which turned out to be very profitable for him. He raised and sold quarter horses and horses for show and made his own fortune that way, apart from the family business of wrestling.

Adkisson was a high school basketball star and a football player at Lake Dallas High School. He won a scholarship to North Texas State University to play basketball and football. David dropped out to pursue a wrestling career that he had started in June 1977, adopting the name David Von Erich.

Professional wrestling career

Early career (1977–1981)
He was considered a breakout star of his family, as his fiery temper produced memorable interviews. His first major match was on August 15, 1977, when he wrestled NWA World Heavyweight Champion Harley Race to a 30-minute draw. David made his first appearance in Missouri in early 1979 and was an instant hit with the fans and the promoters. Due to his popularity at the time, on May 27, 1979, David wrestled NWA champion Race in Missouri in a non-title match and defeated him with the Iron Claw.

In November 1979, David made his first and only appearance in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), competing on a card against Davey O'Hannon at Madison Square Garden.

Championship Wrestling from Florida (1981–1982)

In late-1981, David left Texas and struck out on his own, heading to Florida and competing as a heel for Championship Wrestling from Florida. In Florida, David was managed by J. J. Dillon and was in the same stable as Kendo Nagasaki and Jimmy Garvin. David's mentor in Florida was Dory Funk Jr. and during that time David teamed with Dory or his brother Terry Funk in addition to singles competition. Memorable opponents included Barry Windham, Mr. Wrestling II, Eric Embry, Sweet Brown Sugar, and Butch Reed. By July 1982, David was back in Texas.

World Class Championship Wrestling (1982–1984)

Feud with Gorgeous Jimmy Garvin (1983)
During his stay in Florida, David met and became great friends with Jimmy Garvin, convincing Garvin to come to World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) in Texas in early 1983 and they created an angle for a feud between them, which culminated with David winning the held-up NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship at The Tarrant County Convention Center on July 4, 1983.  As a result of David's victory, Garvin and his valet Sunshine were forced to serve as David's valets for a day, with the results of the day being broadcast on the WCCW weekly show. The whole angle was conceived by David and Jimmy. They traded the Texas title back and forth several times, then that belt was held up several times and when the feud reached its climax on July 4, 1983; it was time for both men to move on to the next part in their career (David continuing the Von Erich feud with The Freebirds and Garvin starting a feud with Chris Adams).

Feud with The Freebirds (1982–1984)

In the fall of 1982, David was also working behind the scenes in WCCW and helped create several angles. He invited the Fabulous Freebirds to come to WCCW. Michael Hayes made his debut at the Sportatorium on Saturday, October 16, 1982, and Terry Gordy made his debut at the Sportatorium two weeks later, on October 30, 1982. Buddy Roberts did not show up. The Freebirds were initially booked as faces in the run-up to the Christmas spectacular "Wrestling Star Wars" card at Reunion Arena on December 25, 1982.

In the final match to crown the first-ever Six-Man Champions, David took Buddy Roberts' place in the Freebirds against Tom Sharpe, Mike Sharpe & Ben Steel. It was David who won that match and the title, but in a ringside interview right after the bout, David gave his third of the title to Buddy Roberts. Later that evening, David's brother Kerry battled NWA World Champion Ric Flair in a Steel Cage with Michael Hayes and David Manning as the referees. During the match, Hayes knocked out Flair and attempted to hand the pin (and World Title) to Von Erich, but turned on Kerry when he refused the tainted victory and as Kerry tried to leave the cage, Gordy slammed the cage door on Kerry's head. Thus the Von Erich/Freebird feud was born.

David took part in many matches against the Freebirds in 1983 and early 1984. Notable bouts include David vs Terry Gordy in a Handcuff Match on April 1, 1983, at "Wrestling Star Wars", David, Kevin & Kerry defeating the Freebirds on July 4, 1983, in Ft. Worth at "Star Wars" and what would be David's next-to-last match was against Terry Gordy on February 3, 1984. On the same day, David defeated Hayes to win the NWA United National Championship, his last title ever. This title is now part of All Japan Pro Wrestling's Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship.

Feud with Ric Flair (1983–1984)
David won the NWA Missouri Heavyweight Championship from Ric Flair on September 16, 1983, holding the championship until losing it to Harley Race on January 6, 1984. Many within the industry believe that David's reign with the belt was his final step to winning the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, as the NWA Championship Committee supposedly voted in January 1984 for David to win it from Ric Flair in March or April of that year. An angle between David and Ric Flair was started when David battled Flair at Reunion Arena on December 25, 1983, and Flair retained the NWA World Championship. Immediately afterward, on December 31, 1983, on the NWA television broadcast, Ric Flair did an interview where he commented on how Mike Von Erich was not a good wrestler and he could beat Mike in 60 seconds with one hand tied behind his back.

In an interview in Ft. Worth on January 9, 1984, David did possibly his most intense interview ever, telling Flair that he had heard Flair's comments about Mike and that he had a proposition. Mike would wrestle Flair in a "10 Minute Challenge Match" and if Flair beat Mike in that 10 minutes, David would never again ask for another shot at the NWA World title, but if Flair did not beat Mike in those 10 minutes, David would get to name the place, the time and every stipulation for his match against Ric Flair. The "10 Minute Challenge match" between Ric Flair and Mike Von Erich was held at WCCW Wrestling Star Wars at the Tarrant County Convention Center in Ft. Worth, Texas, on January 30, 1984. Flair was unable to pin Mike in the 10 minutes and as a result, David won the challenge. A week later on February 6, 1984, in Ft. Worth, in what would turn out to be his last interview, David Von Erich expressed his happiness over Mike lasting 10 minutes with Ric Flair and said that now he (David) would get to name every single stipulation in David's return match with Flair. The big match was to be held sometime in about April 1984, after David was to return to Texas at the end of February and he and Flair would have a chance to build the match up even more. His last match was defeating Kamala by DQ in Ardmore, Oklahoma on February 7.

Personal life
David's first marriage was with Candy L. McLeod. The couple were wed on June 26, 1978, in Denton, Texas. Together they had a daughter, Natosha Zoeanna Adkisson (October 19, 1978 – December 29 1978). Natosha died of SIDS at 13 weeks old. Shortly after, David separated from his wife and they were officially divorced on July 12, 1979. David married for the second time on June 8, 1982, to Patricia A. Matter, known as Tricia. The couple remained married until David's death. Tricia was interviewed for the June 1984 edition of The Wrestler magazine, which was a tribute to David. She spoke of how she loved the fans, and thanked them for their support. Tricia has remained out of the public eye since that interview.

Death
Von Erich died during a tour with All Japan Pro Wrestling on February 10, 1984, before defending the United National championship belt he had won in Texas seven days earlier. One theory of his death is that it was a painkiller overdose, perhaps hydrocodone. Ric Flair mentions in his autobiography that Bruiser Brody (Von Erich's long-time friend) removed the evidence. The Von Erichs, however, claimed it was caused by ruptured intestines resulting from acute enteritis, which is the documented cause of death listed on the Consular Report of Death provided by the U.S. embassy in Japan. In the documentary Heroes of World Class: The Story of the Von Erichs and The Triumph and Tragedy of World Class Championship Wrestling, Kevin Von Erich and former referee David Manning both attested to a heart attack theory. According to friend and former promoter Wild Bill Irwin, David is believed to have suffered from bulimia, which Irwin alludes to in a 2017 Wrestling Shoot Podcast on the "Booking The Territory" YouTube channel.

Championships and accomplishments
All Japan Pro Wrestling
All Asia Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Kevin Von Erich

Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida Television Championship (1 time)
NWA North American Tag Team Championship (Florida version) (1 time) – with Dory Funk Jr.
NWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (Florida version) (1 time)

NWA Big Time Wrestling / World Class Championship Wrestling
NWA American Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Kevin Von Erich
NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship (8 times)
NWA Texas Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Kevin Von Erich
NWA United National Championship (1 time)
NWA World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (Texas version) (2 times) – with Kevin Von Erich and Kerry Von Erich
NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Kevin Von Erich

NWA Western States Sports
NWA Western States Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Kevin Von Erich

Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Stanley Weston Award (1984)
PWI ranked him #58 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003
PWI ranked him #23 of the top 100 tag teams of the "PWI Years" with Mike, Kevin, and Kerry Von Erich in 2003

St. Louis Wrestling Club
NWA Missouri Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

St. Louis Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2016

World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2009)

See also

 Von Erich Family
 List of premature professional wrestling deaths

References

External links

1958 births
1984 deaths
20th-century professional wrestlers
American male professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Texas
Sportspeople from Dallas
Von Erich family
WWE Hall of Fame inductees
People from Lake Dallas, Texas
Sportspeople from Denton County, Texas
All Asia Tag Team Champions
NWA Florida Television Champions
NWA North American Tag Team Champions (Florida version)
NWA Southern Heavyweight Champions (Florida version)
NWA United National Champions
NWA Texas Heavyweight Champions
WCWA World Six-Man Tag Team Champions
WCWA World Tag Team Champions

David Von Erich


John J. Hiemenga (January 22, 1877 - 1974) was a Dutch-American pastor and educator and first President of Calvin College from 1919-1925.

Born Jan Hiemenga to Jan Hiemenga Sr. and Romkje Zoodsma in Arum, Friesland, the Netherlands, he emigrated with his family to Borculo, Michigan in 1889. Hiemenga graduated from Calvin Theological Seminary in 1905 and served as the pastor of six Christian Reformed congregations in Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and Indiana during his 42 years in the active ministry. Active in establishing Christian schools in Passaic, NJ and Grand Rapids, MI, he was appointed the first president of Calvin College.

In the fall of 1920, Grand Rapids Christian High School, which Hiemenga had helped organize, assumed responsibility for teaching the high school and began a full, four-year program. As a result, enrollment in the college preparatory department dropped from 340 to 11 during Hiemenga's tenure. To offset some of this decline, enrollment in the college curriculum increased from 94 to 273. At the same time, Hiemenga oversaw development of a teacher training (normal) program in compliance with newly enacted state law.

In addition, he solicited funds for debt reduction and construction of a dormitory in 1924. Hiemenga returned to the parish ministry in 1925. He retired from active ministry in 1947. In addition to his Calvin diplomas, Hiemenga earned A.B. and A.M. degrees from Columbia University and a B.D. degree from the Baptist Seminary in Rochester, NY. He was appointed an Officer of the House of Orange Nassau for his work on behalf of relief to the Dutch people during World War I.

Hiemenga has also been noted as an expert on Dutch-American dialects, especially in Western Michigan and New Jersey.

Hiemenga married Dena Fles (d. 1915); they had one daughter, Hermine Venema. In 1916 he married Wilhelmina Hoodeman (1898-1987), they had two daughters, Ruth Himes and Mae Westra.

Notes

1877 births
1974 deaths
American people of Frisian descent
Dutch emigrants to the United States
People from Wûnseradiel
Presidents of Calvin University

John Hiemenga


GVSU Fieldhouse Arena is a 4,200-seat indoor arena located in Allendale, Michigan, a suburb of Grand Rapids, on the campus of Grand Valley State University.  It was built in the early 1980s as the home of the Grand Valley State University Lakers basketball and volleyball teams, as it remains to this day. The current fieldhouse replaced the former one when the roof of the "Dome" over the arena became unstable and was condemned.

The  fieldhouse was created as a multipurpose facility; in addition to intercollegiate events, it is also used for intramural sports, trade shows, meetings, conventions, commencement ceremonies and concerts.  The arena seats up to 5,900 for concerts; the arena floor measures .  It is located in the northwest part of campus along with most all other athletics facilities.

Laker Nation
Laker Nation, Grand Valley's student section for all sports, typically has a large attendance present at sporting events held in the GVSU Fieldhouse Arena.

Notable performances
(Former and present fieldhouse)
Aerosmith
REO Speedwagon
Santana
the Eagles
Frank Zappa
Hoodie Allen
Hillary Clinton
Peter Frampton
Ted Nugent
Bill Cosby
Hellogoodbye
The Black Eyed Peas
Motion City Soundtrack
Steve Aoki
Dan + Shay
All Time Low
INXS
Chris Rock
Yung Gravy

References

External links
Grand Valley State University Fieldhouse

Sports venues in Michigan
Grand Valley State University
Indoor arenas in Michigan
College basketball venues in the United States
Allendale, Michigan
Sports venues in Ottawa County, Michigan
Convention centers in Michigan
Basketball venues in Michigan
1980s establishments in Michigan
College volleyball venues in the United States

GVSU Fieldhouse


Rupert's Land is a historical territory. Most of it is in Canada today, but some is in the United States. Originally, the Hudson's Bay Company owned it. It is named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine.  who was the first head of the company. Charles II of England issued the lease, which gave the company a monoply over all fur trading along the rivers of the territory. In 1821, the company united with the North West Company from Montreal. North-Western Territory was added to the sphere of influence of the company. In 1869, the company sold its rights to both territories to the Canadian Dominion, which was the predecessor of modern-day Canada. In 1870, the Manitoba Act created the Canadian province Manitoba. Rupert's land was split: Parts of it were added to Saskatchewan, Alberta, Ontario and Quebec. In 1818, the border between Canada and the US was defined along the 49th latitude.  This means that part  of Rupert's land today make up the states Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana and South Dakota. In addition, Rupert's land is an ecclesiastical province of the Anglican Church of Canada. It is also the name of an Anglican diocese in Manitoba.

Historical territories of Canada
British North America

Rupert's Land


Dagobah is a feectional planet in the Star Wars films, The Empire Strikes Back an Return of the Jedi. It an aa appears in a deletit scene frae Revenge of the Sith. Yoda went into exile on Dagobah efter a lichtsaber battle wi Darth Sidious.

Star Wars planets

Dagobah


Tucson is a city in Arizona, United States. It is the seat of Pima County. It is 118 miles (188 km) southeast of Phoenix and 60 miles (98 km) north of the Mexican border. It is where the shooting of senator Gabrielle Giffords took place. Arizona has many deserts. It is visited by many people to escape cold weather. Tucson has a population of 542,629 as of 2020 and is the second most populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix. The city has a mean elevation of 2,400 feet. The climate of Tucson is an arid desert climate with very hot summers and mild winters. The monsoon occurs in mid June and ends around late September in the Tucson area.

References

Other websites
 Official government website

Tucson
County seats in Arizona

Tucson, Arizona


Hermes is the messenger of the gods. He is the god of travellers and shepherds in Greek mythology. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and is often shown with his caduceus.

Hermes is the son of Zeus and Maia. He was born on Mount Cyllene. The story of his birth was told in the Homeric Hymn, which means Hymn to Hermes. It said that Maia was a nymph.

Hermes was very clever and on his first day invented the lyre, by using the shell of a tortoise. He carries a golden sword. One of the myths about Hermes is that he once stole his brother's oxen, and burned them as a sacrifice.

Children
 Tyche was a daughter with Aphrodite.
 Hermaphroditus was a son with Aphrodite.

Related pages
 Turms - Etruscan mythology version of Hermes
 Mercury - Roman mythology version of Hermes

Other websites

Twelve Olympians

Hermes


Wycliffe's Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English, that were made under the guidance of John Wycliffe.  They appeared over a period from about 1382 to 1395. Although unauthorized, the work was popular.  Wycliffite Bible texts are the most common manuscript literature in Middle English.  More than 250 manuscripts of the Wycliffite Bible survive.

These Bible translations were the chief inspiration and chief cause of the Lollard movement, a pre-Reformation movement that rejected many of the distinctive teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church started a campaign to suppress it. In the early 15th century, Henry IV, Archbishop Thomas Arundel, and Henry Knighton put into law some of the severest religious censorship laws in Europe at that time. Manuscripts of the Wycliffe Bible, if inscribed with a date before 1409 (the date of the ban) circulated freely and were widely used by clergy and laity.

Wycliffe's Bible was edited later in stages to bring it closer to spoken English of the day. His translation followed the Latin word order very closely, which is different from English word order:

Latin Vulgate: Dixitque Deus fiat lux et facta est lux
Early Wycliffe: And God seide, Be maad liȝt; and maad is liȝt
Later Wycliffe: And God seide, Liȝt be maad; and liȝt was maad
Douay-Reims (1609): And God said: Be light made. And light was made

Wyclif's Bible was followed later by William Tyndale, who translated the Bible into a more modern form of English, and used Greek manuscript sources for the first time. He was pursued for many years by Thomas More, whose agents finally caught him near Brussels in 1535. He was arrested, tried, convicted and executed by garrotte. His body was burnt at the stake.

Related pages
John Wycliffe
Tyndale Bible

References

Other websites

Studylight version of The Wycliffe Bible (1395) Searchable by phrase or chapter/verse reference.

Bible versions

Wycliffe's Bible


Telfer Stokes (born 1940) is a Scottish artist and publisher.

The son of Margaret Mellis and Adrian Stokes, he was born in St Ives and studied at the Slade School of Fine Art. He pursued postgraduate studies at the Brooklyn Museum Art School after being awarded a Beckmann Fellowship. He taught at Reading Art School and the Bath Academy in Corsham and exhibited his paintings in London, including a show at the Serpentine Gallery. In 1971, Stokes founded publishing firm Weproductions, which produced artist's books; from 1974, he operated in partnership with Helen Douglas. In 2002, Stokes moved to East Anglia to care for his mother. He redirected his focus to sculpture, which he exhibited at the Kettle's Yard open house in 2008 and at shows in various galleries.

References

1940 births
Living people
Book artists
20th-century English painters
English sculptors
People from St Ives, Cornwall

Telfer Stokes


Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) wis an African-American in the 19t century. He wis born a slave in Maryland, but learnit tae read an escapit tae the North in the 1830s.  He suin became an abolitionist (someone who wants tae end sclavery), an workit wi ither abolitionists such as William Lloyd Garrison. He wis the maist powerful speaker for abolitionism. Frederick an aa publishit his ain newspaper "North Star".

He wrote twa beuks, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass an My Bondage and My Freedom.  Douglass spent several years in England an Ireland.  Durin the Civil War, Douglass wis the maist famous black man in the kintra, an met Abraham Lincoln.  Efter the War, he servit as ambassador tae Haiti an an advocate for equal rights for African-Americans.

1818 births
1895 daiths

19t-century African-American activists
19t-century American businessfowk
19t-century American diplomats
19t-century American jurnalists
19t-century American non-feection writers
19t-century American newspaper eeditors
19t-century American newspaper foonders
19t-century American newspaper publishers (fowk)
19t-century American politeecians
19t-century Christians
19t-century male writers
Activists for African-American ceevil richts
Activists frae Washington, D.C.
African-American aboleetionists
African-American businessfowk
African-American Christians
African-American diplomats
African-American feminists
African-American non-feection writers
African-American politeecians
African-American publishers (fowk)
African-American suffragists
African-American Unitit States vice presidential candidates
African-American writers
Ambassadors o the Unitit States tae Haiti
Ambassadors o the Unitit States tae the Dominican Republic
American autobiographers
American civil rights activists
American male jurnalists
American male writers
American memoirists
American sclaves
American suffragists
Buirials at Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester)
Proponents o Christian feminism
Frederick Douglass
History o Maryland
Jurnalists frae Maryland
Jurnalists frae Upstate New York
Jurnalists frae Washington, D.C.
Public orators
Male feminists
Maryland Republicans
New York (state) Republicans
Activists frae Rochester, New York
Fowk frae Talbot Coonty, Maryland
American social reformers
Unitit States Marshals
Candidates in the 1888 Unitit States presidential election
1872 Unitit States vice-presidential candidates
Washington, D.C. Republicans
Writers frae Baltimore
Writers frae Rochester, New York
Writers frae Washington, D.C.
19t-century African-American fowk
Fugitive American sclaves
African-American memoirists
African-American Unitit States presidential candidates

Frederick Douglass


His Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office (HMNAO), now part of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, was established in 1832 on the site of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (ROG), where The Nautical Almanac had been published since 1767. HMNAO produces astronomical data for a wide range of users, such as astronomers, mariners, aviators, surveyors, the military, Police, lawyers, religious groups, architects, schools, diary and calendar manufacturers, photographers and film crews.

In 1937, it became part of ROG and moved with it, when it moved away from Greenwich (and was renamed the Royal Greenwich Observatory) first to Herstmonceux Castle, near Hailsham in East Sussex in 1948, then to Cambridge in 1990. When the RGO closed in 1998 HMNAO was transferred to the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, near Abingdon in Oxfordshire. In December 2006, HMNAO was transferred to the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, which is based in Taunton in Somerset.

Leaders of HMNAO

Superintendents of the Nautical Almanac
Thomas Young (1818–1829) physicist and polymath
John Pond (1829–1831) Astronomer Royal
W. S. Stratford (1831–1853) set up a central bureaucracy to replace the system of home-based human computers
John Russell Hind (1853–1891) discovered a number of asteroids in the earlier part of his career
A. M. W. Downing (1891–1910)
Philip Herbert Cowell (1910–1930) best remembered for his work with Andrew Crommelin on the calculation of the orbit of Halley's Comet by numerical integration, in preparation for its return in 1910
Leslie Comrie (1930–1936) a pioneer of numerical computation
Donald Sadler (1936–1970)
George A. Wilkins (1970–1989)
Bernard D. Yallop (1989–1996)

Heads of HM Nautical Almanac Office
Andrew T. Sinclair (1996–1998)
Patrick T. Wallace (1998–2006)
Stephen A. Bell (2006–present)

Publications
The Astronomical Almanac (jointly with the United States Naval Observatory)
The Nautical Almanac (jointly with the USNO)
Astronomical Phenomena (jointly with the USNO)
The Star Almanac
The UK Air Almanac
Rapid Sight Reduction Tables for Navigation
Planetary and Lunar Coordinates

External links
HMNAO website
HMNAO on gov.uk
List of Superintendents and Heads of HMNAO

Almanacs
Government agencies established in 1832
Organisations based in Taunton
Maritime organizations
1832 establishments in the United Kingdom
Royal Navy
Admiralty departments
Royal Observatory, Greenwich

HM Nautical Almanac Office


A battle axe (also battle-axe, battle ax, or battle-ax) is an axe specifically designed for combat. Battle axes were specialized versions of utility axes. Many were suitable for use in one hand, while others were larger and were deployed two-handed.

Axes designed for warfare ranged in weight from just over , and in length from just over  to upwards of , as in the case of the Danish axe or the sparth axe. Cleaving weapons longer than  would arguably fall into the category of polearms.

Overview

Through the course of human history, commonplace objects have been pressed into service as weapons. Axes, by virtue of their ubiquity, are no exception. Besides axes designed for combat, there were many battle axes that doubled as tools. Axes could be modified into deadly projectiles as well (see the francisca for an example). Axes were often cheaper than swords and considerably more available.

Battle axes generally weigh far less than modern splitting axes, especially mauls, because they were designed to cut legs and arms rather than wood; consequently, slightly narrow slicing blades are the norm. This facilitates deep, devastating wounds. Moreover, a lighter weapon is much quicker to bring to bear in combat and manipulate for repeated strikes against an adversary.

The crescent-shaped heads of European battle axes of the Roman and post-Roman periods were usually made of wrought iron with a carbon steel edge or, as time elapsed across the many centuries of the medieval era, steel. The hardwood handles of military axes came to be reinforced with metal bands called langets, so that an enemy warrior could not cut the shaft. Some later specimens had all-metal handles.

Battle axes are particularly associated in Western popular imagination with the Vikings. Certainly, Scandinavian foot soldiers and maritime marauders employed them as a stock weapon during their heyday, which extended from the beginning of the 8th century to the end of the 11th century. They produced several varieties, including specialized throwing axes (see francisca) and "bearded" axes or "skeggox" (so named for their trailing lower blade edge which increased cleaving power and could be used to catch the edge of an opponent's shield and pull it down, leaving the shield-bearer vulnerable to a follow-up blow).  Viking axes may have been wielded with one hand or two, depending on the length of the plain wooden haft. See Viking Age arms and armor.

History

Europe

Prehistory and the Ancient Mediterranean

Stone hand axes were in use in the Paleolithic period for hundreds of thousands of years. The first hafted stone axes appear to have been produced about 6000 BCE during the Mesolithic period. Technological development continued in the Neolithic period with the much wider usage of hard stones in addition to flint and chert and the widespread use of polishing to improve axe properties. The axes proved critical in wood working and became cult objects (for example, the entry for the Battle-axe people of Scandinavia, treated their axes as high-status cultural objects). Such stone axes were made from a wide variety of tough rocks such as picrite and other igneous or metamorphic rocks, and were widespread in the Neolithic period. Many axe heads found were probably used primarily as mauls to split wood beams, and as sledgehammers for construction purposes (such hammering stakes into the ground, for example).

Narrow axe heads made of cast metals were subsequently manufactured by artisans in the Middle East and then Europe during the Copper Age and the Bronze Age. The earliest specimens were socket-less.

More specifically, bronze battle-axe heads are attested in the archaeological record from ancient China and the New Kingdom of ancient Egypt. Some of them were suited for practical use as infantry weapons while others were clearly intended to be brandished as symbols of status and authority, judging by the quality of their decoration.

The epsilon axe was widely used during the Bronze Age by irregular infantry unable to afford better weapons. Its use was limited to Europe and the Middle East.

In the eastern Mediterranean Basin during the Iron Age, the double-bladed labrys axe was prevalent, and a hafted, single-bitted axe made of bronze or later iron was sometimes used as a weapon of war by the heavy infantry of ancient Greece, especially when confronted with thickly-armored opponents. The sagaris—described as either single bitted or double bitted—became associated by the Greeks with the mythological Amazons, though these were generally ceremonial axes rather than practical implements.

The Barbarian tribes that the Romans encountered north of the Alps did include iron war axes in their armories, alongside swords and spears. The Cantabri from the Iberian peninsula also used battle axes.

The Middle Ages

Battle axes were very common in Europe in the Migration Period and the subsequent Viking Age, and they famously figure on the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry, which depicts Norman mounted knights pitted against Anglo-Saxon infantrymen. They continued to be employed throughout the rest of the Middle Ages, with significant combatants being noted axe wielders in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries.

King Stephen of England famously used a 'Dane axe' at the Battle of Lincoln 1141. One account says that he used it after his sword broke. Another says he used his sword only after his axe broke.

Richard the Lionheart was often recorded in Victorian times wielding a large war axe, though references are sometimes wildly exaggerated as befitted a national hero: "Long and long after he was quiet in his grave, his terrible battle-axe, with twenty English pounds of English steel in its mighty head..." – A Child's History of England by Charles Dickens. Richard is, however, recorded as using a Danish Axe at the relief of Jaffa. Geoffrey of Lusignan is another famous crusader associated with the axe.

Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland, used an axe to defeat Henry de Bohun in single combat at the start of the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Given that Bruce was wielding the axe on horseback, it is likely that it was a one handed horseman's axe. They enjoyed a sustained revival among heavily armored equestrian combatants in the 15th century.

In the 14th century, the use of axes is increasingly noted by Froissart in his Chronicle, which records the engagements between the kingdoms of France and England and the rise of professional and mercenary armies in the 14th century. King John II is recorded as using one at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and Sir James Douglas at the Battle of Otterburn in 1388. Bretons were apparently noted axe users, with noted mercenaries Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson both wielding axes in battle. In these instances the type of battle axe - whether a Danish axe, or the proto-pollaxe - is not recorded.

Most medieval European battle axes had a socketed head (meaning that the thicker, butt-end of the blade contained an opening into which a wooden haft was inserted), and some included langets—long strips of metal affixed to the faces of the haft to prevent it from being damaged during combat. Occasionally the cheeks of the axehead bore engraved, etched, punched, or inlaid decorative patterns. Late-period battle axes tended to be of all-metal construction.

Such medieval polearms as the halberd and the pollaxe were variants of the basic battle-axe form.

Steel plate-armor covering almost all of a knight's body, and incorporating features specifically designed to defeat axe and sword blades, become more common in the late 14th and early 15th century. Its development led to a generation of hafted weapons with points that concentrated impact, either to penetrate steel plate or to damage the joints of articulated plate. Increasingly daggers called misericords were carried which enabled a sharp point to be thrust though gaps in armour if an opponent was disabled or being grappled with. Swords styles became more diverse – from the two-handed zweihänders to more narrow thrusting instruments with sharply pointed tips, capable of penetrating any "chinks in the armour" of a fully encased opponent: for example, the estoc.

The newly invented flanged mace, for example, was no crude bludgeon like its predecessors. The vertical flanges projecting at regular intervals from its head could fracture plate armor and smash into underlying body tissue—yet it was a much cheaper weapon to make than a sword, whose blade was inclined in any case to glance harmlessly off the smooth, curved plates of a well-designed suit of armor if used in a chopping manner.

A sharp, sometimes curved pick was often fitted to the rear of the battle axe's blade to provide the user with a secondary weapon of penetration. A stabbing spike could be added, too, as a finial. Similarly, the war hammer evolved in late-medieval times with fluted or spiked heads, which would help a strike to "bite" into the armour and deliver its energy through to the wearer, rather than glance off the armor's surface. Strikes from these armour penetrating picks were not always fatal. There are many accounts of plate armored knights being struck with said weapons and while the armour was damaged, the individual underneath survived and in some cases completely unharmed.

It eventually became common for these various kinds of impact weapons to be made entirely from metal, thus doing away with reinforced wooden shafts.

A useful visual guide to high-medieval battle axes, contemporary with their employment, are the scenes of warfare depicted in the Maciejowski Bible (Morgan Bible) of c. 1250.

Battle axes also came to figure as heraldic devices on the coats of arms of several English and mainland European families.

Post-medieval axes

Battle axes were eventually phased out at the end of the 16th century as military tactics began to revolve increasingly around the use of gunpowder. However, as late as the 1640s, Prince Rupert—a Royalist general and cavalry commander during the English Civil War—is pictured carrying a battle axe, and this was not merely a decorative symbol of authority: the "short pole-axe" was adopted by Royalist cavalry officers to penetrate Roundhead troopers' helmets and cuirasses in close-quarters fighting, and it was also used by their opponents: Sir Bevil Grenville was slain by a Parliamentarian pole-axe at the Battle of Lansdowne, and Sir Richard Bulstrode was wounded by one at the Battle of Edgehill.

In Scandinavia, however, the battle axe continued in use alongside the halberd, crossbow and pole-axe until the start of the 18th century. The nature of Norwegian terrain in particular made pike and shot tactics impracticable in many cases. A law instituted in 1604 required all farmers to own weaponry to serve in the militia. The Norwegian peasant militia battle axe, much more wieldy than the pike or halberd and yet effective against mounted enemies, was a popular choice. Many such weapons were ornately decorated, and yet their functionality shows in the way that the axe head was mounted tilting upwards slightly, with a significant forward curve in the shaft, with the intent of making them more effective against armoured opponents by concentrating force onto a narrower spot.

During Napoleonic times, and later on in the 19th century, farriers in army service carried long and heavy axes as part of their kit. Although these could be used in an emergency for fighting, their primary use was logistical: the branded hooves of deceased military horses needed to be removed in order to prove that they had indeed died (and had not been stolen). Napoleon's Pioneer Corps also carried axes that were used for clearing vegetation—a practice employed by similar units in other armies.

Middle East
The tabarzin (, lit. "saddle axe" or "saddle hatchet") is the traditional battle axe of Persia. It bears one or two crescent-shaped blades. The long form of the tabar was about seven feet long, while a shorter version was about three feet long. What made the Persian axe unique is the very thin handle, which is very light and always metallic. The tabar became one of the main weapons throughout the Middle East, and was always carried at a soldier's waist not only in Persia but Egypt, and the Arab world from the time of the Crusades. Mamluk bodyguards were known as tabardiyya after the weapon. The tabarzin is sometimes carried as a symbolic weapon by wandering dervishes (Muslim ascetic worshippers).

Asia

China

Different types of battleaxes may be found in ancient China. In Chinese mythology, Xingtian (), a deity, uses a battle axe against other gods. The qi () and yue () are heavy axes. They were common in Zhou dynasty but fell out of favor with users due to the lack of mobility. The eventually became used only for ceremonial purposes and such battleaxes made of bronze and jade have been found. The dagger axe (ge) is another form used in ancient times.

Chinese battleaxes can be divided in three subgroups: Fu (), Yue () and Ge (). The distinction between a Yue and a Fu is that a Yue is, as a general rule, broader than a Fu. In the Shang dynasty the Yue was also a symbol of power, the bigger the Yue, the greater the power. There are a few rare examples of Yue with a round blade and a hole in the middle.

The Chinese Fu appeared in the Stone Age as a tool. In the Shang dynasty (–) the Fu began to be made from bronze, and began to be used as a weapon. However, the prominence of the Fu waned on the battlefield as the Zhou dynasty came to power. In the Warring States era iron axes started to appear. Up until the Han and Jin dynasty, after having lost its importance on the battle-field, the Fu once again appeared as the cavalry was used more often.
In the Sui and Tang dynasties there is evidence of the subdivision of the Fu. During the Song dynasty axes were popularized and many types of axes began to exist. The types include Phoenix Head Axes ( ), Invincible Axe ( ), Opening Mountain Axe ( ), Emei Axe ( ) and Chisel Head Axes ( ).
A well known novel from the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) knows as the Outlaws of the Marsh (or the Water Margin - Shui Hu Zhuan ) features a character known as Li Kui, the Black Whirlwind who wields two axes and fights naked.

In the Yuan and Ming dynasties, axes retained their use in the army. In the Qing dynasty new types of axes emerge among the Eight Banners Army with straight edges. The Green Standard Army among the Eight Banners used double axes weighing  each, with a length of .

In modern Chinese wushu and Chinese opera there are many depictions of the axe. Many of these axes look thick and heavy, however, the axe heads are hollow.

Indian Subcontinent
The battle axe of ancient India was known as a parashu (or farasa in some dialects). Made from iron, bamboo, wood, or wootz steel, it usually measures  though some are as long as . A typical parashu could have a single edge or double edge, with a hole for fixing a shaft. The haft is often tied with a leather sheet to provide a good grip. The cutting edge is invariably broad and the length of the haft could be about three to four feet. The parashu is often depicted in religious art as one of the weapons of Hindu deities such as Shiva and Durga. The sixth avatar of Lord Vishnu, Parashurama, is named after the weapon. Parashu are still used as domestic tools in Indian households, particularly in the villages, as well as being carried by certain sects of eremitic sadhu.

Philippines

The panabas is the 19th-century battle axe as well as the chopping tool favored by the Moro tribes of Mindanao. It ranges in size from  and usually  long and can be held with one or two hands. Hilts were often wrapped in rattan bindings or had metal collars. Due to its clean cutting capabilities it was also sometimes used as an execution weapon. It is said that the Moro warriors wielding panabas would follow the main group of warriors up front and would immediately charge in on any American survivors of the first wave of attack during the Philippine–American War.

Sri Lanka
The keteriya was a type of battle axe that was used in ancient Sri Lanka. A keteriya consisted of a single edge and a short handle made of wood. This would allow the user to wield it with a single hand.

Vietnam

The battle axe is one of the most common type of weapons found in Vietnamese ancient cultures, particularly the Dong Son culture.

See also
 Bardiche
 Fasces
 Norwegian battle axe
 Ono (axe) Japanese
 Sovnya
 Tomahawk
 Viking Age arms and armour

References

External links

Axes
Blade weapons

Battle axe


The topped lavender, also known as French lavender, is a perennial shrub, that usually grows up to 30-100 centimetres. The leafs are 1-4 centimetres long, in a greyish tomentose tone. The flowers are pinkish, produced on spikes 2-3 centimetres long; each flower is subtended by a bract that is 4-8 millimetres long. At the top of the spike there are many other white or lavender bracts. Many subspecies exist in Spain and other countries nearby.

Taxonomy
 L stoechas ssp. caesia Borja et Rivas Gadoy

Lamiaceae

French lavender


The United States Senate Library is the official library of the United States Senate. While the Library informally began in 1792, it was officially established in 1871 and today holds an estimated 220,000 volumes.

The United States Senate Librarian manages the Senate Library, which is under the supervision of the Office of the Secretary of the United States Senate. Meghan Dunn has been the Senate Librarian since 2022. The Library is located in the Russell Senate Office Building in SR-B15, and its website and catalog are restricted to Senate staff.

History
The Senate Library was founded during the 2nd Congress (1791–1792) after a resolution directing the Secretary to "procure and deposit in his office, the laws of several states" for use by senators. In the early years leading to the library officially becoming established, the library suffered two fires. The first fire occurred during the burning of Washington in 1814 when the British attacked Washington during the War of 1812 and sacked Capitol Hill.

To replace the collection, Thomas Jefferson offered his private library at whatever price they were able to pay, installments welcome. Jefferson's 6,487 volumes formed the heart of the new Library of Congress collection. The second fire occurred in 1851 and destroyed all but 20,000 volumes in the Library of Congress collection. The damage to the Library of Congress collections prompted the Senate to preserve its records by designating space in the Capitol for the Senate Library. The Senate decided to procure and install steel shelving to replace wooden shelving to fireproof their collection from future damage.

Secretaries oversaw the early collection of the library which included printed bills and resolutions, committee reports and other Senate documents. William Hickey, Chief Clerk of the Senate (1855–1866), had been collecting 10 copies of every Senate document since 1824. Starting to accumulate a vast collection, Hickey lobbied for a library to manage and preserve all of these documents for use by the Senate. Despite various attempts to establish a library, it was not until February 11, 1870, that the Senate designated three rooms (S-331, S-332, and S-333) in the Library of Congress for the Senate Library.

In 1871, George S. Wagner was appointed the first Senate Librarian. Wagner had the task of organizing Hickey's collection for better access and for preservation purposes (many of the materials were in fragile condition). By 1890, the collection was exceeding 98,000 volumes and was outgrowing the space in the library. Many rare documents and manuscripts were in a basement storage under poor conditions. Some of the materials in this suffering storage place were signed by George Washington. In 1902, the library was appropriated funds to build steel storage shelves. The new storage space was housed in the Senate attic (S-410 and S-419).

In 1999, the Senate Library moved from the Capitol to the Russell Senate Office Building. The library now resides in SR-B15.

Mission, materials, and services
The Library serves present and former senators, member and committee staff, Senate leadership, and Senate officers. The mission of the Senate Library has changed over time, as a focus has changed from the collection and storage of Senate documents to providing legislative, historic, legal, business and general reference materials. The Senate Library aims to carry out its mission in an accurate, prompt, and nonpartisan manner.

The Library's book collection comprises hundreds of thousands of volumes on history, geography, biography, politics and law and has material dating back to the early 19th century. Many were signed by the author or previous owner. The Senate Library receives the United States Congressional Serial Set, which contains over 15,000 congressional reports and documents since 1817.  The Library added a legislative status database in 1975. Calls for this service have peaked at 80,000 per year. Today, the library serves as many people in one day as it did in one month in 1964, nearly 60,000 inquiries per year, based primarily on the growth in Senate staff from 2,000 in 1964 to more than 7,000 today.

The Senate Library has a reading room, study carrels, computers, and a scanning and microform center. The Library's microfilm collection includes over one million microform and over 6,000 microfilm reels. Library tours and scheduled throughout the year and personalized tours can be made by request. The Library makes deliveries twice daily to offices with requested information.

The authorized library staff is 22 people, including the Librarian and 13 other professionals.

See also
National Technical Reports Library

References

Notes
 Faust, L. UNUM: Newsletter of the Office of the Secretary of the Senate, January/February 1999, Vol 3, Issue 1.
THE 125TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE SENATE LIBRARY (Senate - September 19, 1996), Congressional Record, Library of Congress
A Brief Construction History of the Capital (The Architect of the Capital)
 United States Senate Library, S. Pub. 109-21.

Archives in the United States
Agencies of the United States Congress
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
United States Capitol grounds
United States
Libraries in Washington, D.C.

United States Senate Library


Copper(I) chloride, also known as cuprous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is CuCl. It contains copper in its +1 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.

Properties
Copper(I) chloride is white when pure. It does not dissolve in water. It is green when in air because of conversion to copper(II) chloride. It can react with Lewis bases, a group of chemicals. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid easily. It dissolves in solutions that have ammonia in them. It absorbs carbon monoxide. It easily disproportionates into copper and copper(II) chloride. It reacts with ammonia and acetylene to make copper(I) acetylide, a reddish explosive.

Preparation
It can be made by reduction of copper(II) chloride. It was made at first by reacting copper with mercury(II) chloride. It can be made by heating copper(II) chloride very hot. Some chlorine is released, and copper(I) chloride is left behind.

Uses
Copper(I) chloride is used to make a fungicide, which is used to kill fungi. It is also used to make many organic compounds.

Related pages
Copper(I) oxide
Copper sulfate

Chlorine compounds

Copper(I) chloride


The Vostok rocket was developed by the Soviet Union to as their main launch vehicle for space flights. It was based on the R-7, an ICBM designed by Sergei Korolev and first launched in 1957. An R-7 rocket was used to carry Sputnik 1 into space on October 4, 1957. It was a single rocket with 4 booster engines attached to the sides, which acted like a multi stage rocket. The Vostok was an R-7 with an extra upper stage rocket, called Blok-E. This upper stage would fire as the lower stages ran out of fuel (a mix of kerosene and liquid oxygen.

The Vostok was the first rocket with enough power to reach a solar orbit, with Lunar 1, launched on January 2, 1959. Luna 2 was the first rocket to reach the Moon, launched September 14, 1959. Luna 3, launched October 4, 1959, was able to take photographs of the far side of the Moon.

A Vostok rocket carried the Vostok 1 spacecraft, carrying Yuri Gagarin, the first person to go into space on April 12, 1961. Vostok 6 carried Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space on June 16, 1963.

References

Soviet spacecraft

Vostok (rocket family)


Capraia, is an island of Italy, part of the Tuscan Archipelago, off the northwest coast, belonging to the Province of Livorno. It is 62 km from the city of Livorno by sea, and 32 km northwest of the island of Elba. It is of volcanic origin, has an area of 19 km² and its highest point is 466 m above sea level. As of 31 December 2004, the comune (municipality) of Capraia Isola had a population of 366

The island produces wine, and is a centre of the anchovy fishery. It became Genoese in 1527 and was strongly fortified. In 1796 it was occupied for a short time by Horatio Nelson. Part of the island was formerly occupied by an agricultural penal colony, but it was shut down in 1986. Most of the island has been made into a national park. About 40 km to the north is the island of Gorgona, which is also famous for its anchovies.

Other websites
 Tourist information
 News

Islands of Italy
Province of Livorno

Capraia


The National Library of the Czech Republic () is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture. The library's main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in the centre of Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař. The National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, housing around 6 million documents. The library currently has around 20,000 registered readers. Although comprising mostly Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India. The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague.

History
In the 13th century, the Studium generale school was founded in the Dominican monastery in Prague's Old Town. This school, including its library, merged with the university in the 14th century.

In 1556, monks of the Jesuit Order erected a boarding school, named Clementinum, on the remains of the Dominican monastery. From 1622 on, the Jesuits also administered the Charles University, and all their libraries were accommodated in the Clementinum.

After the suppression of the Jesuits, the university became a state institution in 1773, and in 1777 its library was declared "Imperial-Royal Public and University Library" by Maria Theresa. Even after the splitting of the university into a Czech and a German university in 1882, the library remained as a joint institution.

In 1918, the Public and University Library was taken over by the government of the newly founded Czechoslovakia. In 1924, the Slavonic Library (Slovanská knihovna) was founded, and moved to the Clementinum in 1929; it is still an autonomous part of the National Library. In 1935, the library was renamed "National and University Library" (Národní a univerzitní knihovna). In the same year, a law on the legal deposit copy duty was introduced – a practice dating back to 1781, when Prague printers had to hand in legal deposit copies of their prints to the library.

Although Czech universities and colleges were closed after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, the library remained open under the name of "Municipal and University Library" (Zemská a univerzitní knihovna).

In 1958, all large Prague libraries were merged into the single centralized State Library of the Czechoslovak Republic (Státní knihovna CSR).

In 1990, the hitherto last renaming of the library resulted in its current name: National Library of the Czech Republic. A new storage building, the Central Depository in Hostivař, was inaugurated in 1996.

Collections
The most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde.

Digitisation
The National Library of the Czech Republic began with their digitisation efforts in 1992 in collaboration with the Czech company AiP Beroun. In these efforts, the National Library conducted pioneer work on a global scale in the creation of digitization standards. Later, it got involved in a number of European projects, in which it came to additional developments particularly standards regarding manuscripts and old prints. It also supported several pilot projects at the time of their creation and the first years of the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme (with the programme's first pilot project being from the National Library of the Czech Republic in 1993).

The library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts. In its first 13 years since 1992, the project accomplished the digitisation of 1,700 documents and made them publicly available.

The National Library makes its digital content available in the digital libraries Manuscriptorium (http://www.manuscriptorium.com/en) and Kramerius (http://kramerius5.nkp.cz). Manuscriptorium comprises more than 111,000 manuscripts and old prints, with almost 84,000 of them contributed by the National Library and the remainder from 138 partners from 24 countries. Since 2008, when Europeana, the European Union's digital platform for cultural heritage, came into existence, Manuscriptorium contributes manuscripts and old prints digitised by libraries all over the Czech Republic and by other partners to the Europeana platform and several other specialised portals, including professional academic Resource Discovery services, e.g. of EBSCO, ProQuest and ExLibris.

In a collaborative project with Google, additional old prints and early 19th century books from the Slavonic Library have been digitised, with altogether more than 177,000 books digitised by Google (as of October 2018). These books are accessible through the Google Books digital library as well as through the National Library's Catalogue of Old Prints and the Catalogue of the Slavonic Library, and the old prints gradually also through Manuscriptorium.

The Kramerius digital library contains digitised documents published after the year 1800. So far, more than 2,000 periodical series have been digitised. The number of digitized books continues to grow, especially after mass digitization of modern prints in context of the National Digital Library project.

Proposed new building

In 2006, the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new library building on Letna plain, between Hradčanská metro station and Sparta Prague's football ground, Letná stadium. In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, with a projected completion date of 2011. Later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus. Plans for the building had still not been decided in February 2008, with the matter being referred to the Office for the Protection of Competition in order to determine if the tender had been won fairly. Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, following a ruling from the European Commission that the tender process had not been carried out legally.

Incidents
The library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water. Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building. There was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event.

See also
 List of national and state libraries

References

External links

1777 establishments in Europe
Organizations established in 1777
Czech Republic
Libraries in the Czech Republic
Buildings and structures in Prague
Culture in Prague
History of Prague
Libraries established in 1777

National Library of the Czech Republic