Kingdom of Morocco, or simply known as Morocco (Arabic: المملكة المغربية al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyah, lit. "The Western Kingdom"; Berber: ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵖⵔⵉⴱTageldit n Lmaɣrib), is a sovereign country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a rugged mountainous interior, large tracts of desert, and a lengthy coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.

Morocco has a population of over 37 million and an area of 710,850 km2(274,460 sq mi). Its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Laayoune, Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador. A historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Since the foundation of the first Moroccan state by Idris I in 789, the country has been ruled by a series of independent dynasties, reaching its zenith under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasty, spanning parts of Iberia and Northwestern Africa. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, and Morocco remained the only North African country to avoid Ottoman occupation. The Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with an international zone in Tangier, and regained its independence in 1956. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, and European influences.

Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco liberated the territory in 1975, leading to a guerrilla war with the Polisario Front until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock.

Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy and religious affairs. Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister and the president of the Constitutional court.

Morocco's predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken. Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa.

History

Prehistory and antiquity
The Berber Roman client King Ptolemy of Mauretania.

The area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, resembling a savanna more than today's arid landscape. Twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian "Mechta-Afalou" burials and European Cro-Magnon remains. The Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco.

Mitochondrial DNA studies have discovered a close link between Berbers and the Sámi of Scandinavia. This supports theories that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers who repopulated northern Europe after the last ice age.

North Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by the Phoenicians, who established trading colonies and settlements in the early Classical period. Substantial Phoenician settlements were at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador.Mogador was a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC.[page needed]

Ancient Roman ruins of Volubilis.

Morocco later became a realm of the North African civilisation of ancient Carthage as part of its empire. The earliest known independent Moroccan state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania under king Baga. This ancient kingdom (not to be confused with the present state of Mauritania) dates at least to 225 BC.

Mauretania became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire in 33 BC. Emperor Claudius annexed Mauretania directly as a Roman province in 44 AD, under an imperial governor (either aprocurator Augusti, or a legatus Augusti pro praetore).

During the crisis of the 3rd century, parts of Mauretania were reconquered by Berber tribes. Direct Roman rule became confined to a few coastal cities (such as Septum (Ceuta) in Mauretania Tingitana and Cherchell in Mauretania Caesariensis) by the late 3rd century.

Early Islamic era
The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, that started in the middle of the 7th century, was achieved early into the following century. It brought both the Arabic language and Islam to the area. Although part of the larger Islamic Empire, Morocco was initially organized as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan.

The indigenous Berber tribes adopted Islam, but retained their customary laws. They also paid taxes and tribute to the new Muslim administration. The first independent Muslim state in the area of modern Morocco was the Kingdom of Nekor, an emirate in the Rif Mountains. It was founded by Salih I ibn Mansur in 710, as a client state to the Rashidun Caliphate. After the outbreak of the Berber Revolt in 739, the Berbers formed other independent states such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata.

According to medieval legend, Idris ibn Abdallah had fled to Morocco after the Abbasids massacre of his tribe in Iraq. He convinced the Awraba Berber tribes to break their allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and he founded the Idrisid dynasty in 788. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of Muslim learning and a major regional power. The Idrissids were ousted in 927 by the Fatimid Caliphate and their Miknasa allies. After Miknasa broke off relations with the Fatimids in 932, they were removed from power by the Maghrawa of Sijilmasa in 980.

Berber dynasties
The Almohad realm at its greatest extent, c. 1212

From the 11th century onwards, a series of powerful Berber dynasties arose. Under the Almoravid dynasty  and the Almohad dynasty, Morocco dominated the Maghreb, much of present-day Spain and Portugal, and the western Mediterranean region. From the 13th century onwards the country saw a massive migration of Banu Hilal Arab tribes. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Merinids held power in Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads by military campaigns in Algeria and Spain. They were followed by the Wattasids. In the 15th century, the Reconquista ended Muslim rule in central and southern Spain and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco.

Portuguese efforts to control the Atlantic sea trade in the 15th century did not greatly affect the interior of Morocco even though they managed to control some possessions on the Moroccan coast but not venturing further afield inland.

On another note and according to Elizabeth Allo Isichei, "In 1520, there was a famine in Morocco so terrible that for a long time other events were dated by it. It has been suggested that the population of Morocco fell from 5 to under 3 million between the early sixteenth and nineteenth centuries."

Morocco, Safi ceramic vessel Jobbana

Sharifian dynasties
Former Portuguese fortress of Mazagan in El Jadida

In 1549, the region fell to successive Arab dynasties claiming descent from the Islamic prophet, Muhammad: first the Saadi dynasty who ruled from 1549 to 1659, and then the Alaouite Dynasty, who remained in power since the 17th century.

Under the Saadi Dynasty, the country repulsed Ottoman incursions and a Portuguese invasion at the battle of Ksar el Kebir in 1578. The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a large expedition to West Africa inflicted a crushing defeat on the Songhay Empirein 1591. However, managing the territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. After the death of al-Mansur, the country was divided among his sons.

In 1666, Morocco was reunited by the Alaouite Dynasty, who have been the ruling house of Morocco ever since. Morocco was facing aggression from Spain and the Ottoman Empire allies pressing westward. The Alaouites succeeded in stabilizing their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. Against the opposition of local tribes Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727) began to create a unified state. With his Jaysh d'Ahl al-Rif (the Riffian Army) he seized Tangier from the English in 1684 and drove the Spanish from Larache in 1689.

Morocco was the first nation to recognise the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1777. In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships in the Atlantic Ocean were subject to attack by the Barbary pirates. On December 20 1777, Morocco's Sultan Mohammed III declared that American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship, signed in 1786, stands as the U.S's oldest non-broken friendship treaty.

French and Spanish protectorates
Death of Spanish general Margallo during the Melilla War. Le Petit Journal, November 13 1893.

Main articles: French Morocco and Spanish Protectorate in Morocco

As Europe industrialised, North Africa was increasingly prized for its potential for colonisation. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830, not only to protect the border of its Algerian territory, but also because of the strategic position of Morocco on two oceans. In 1860, a dispute over Spain's Ceuta enclave led Spain to declare war. Victorious Spain won a further enclave and an enlarged Ceuta in the settlement. In 1884, Spain created a protectorate in the coastal areas of Morocco.

In 1904, France and Spain carved out zones of influence in Morocco. Recognition by the United Kingdom of France's sphere of influence provoked a strong reaction from the German Empire; and a crisis loomed in 1905. The matter was resolved at the Algeciras Conference in 1906. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 increased tensions between European powers. The 1912 Treaty of Fez made Morocco a protectorate of France, and triggered the 1912 Fez riots. Spain continued to operate its coastal protectorate. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern Saharan zones.

Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco. Some bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land, others organised the exploitation and modernisation of mines and harbours. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco a control which was also made necessary by the continuous wars among Moroccan tribes, part of which had taken sides with the French since the beginning of the conquest. Governor general, Marshall Hubert Lyautey, sincerely admired Moroccan culture and succeeded in imposing a joint Moroccan-French administration, while creating a modern school system. Several divisions of Moroccan soldiers (Goumiers or regular troops and officers) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II, and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after (Regulares). The institution of slavery was abolished in 1925.

Tangier's population included 40,000 Muslims, 31,000 Europeans and 15,000 Jews.

Between 1921 and 1926, a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim, led to the establishment of the Republic of the Rif. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by French and Spanish troops.

In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was founded to press for independence, with discreet US support. That party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.

France's exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year. In March 1956 the French protectorate was ended and Morocco regained its independence from France as the "Kingdom of Morocco". A month later Spain ceded most of its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state but kept its two coastal enclaves (Ceuta and Melilla) on the Mediterranean coast. Sultan Mohammed became king in 1957.

Post-independence
The Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat.

Upon the death of Mohammed V, Hassan II became King of Morocco on 3 March 1961. Morocco held its first general elections in 1963. However, Hassan declared a state of emergency and suspended parliament in 1965. In 1971, there was a failed attempt to depose the king and establish a republic. A truth commission set up in 2005 to investigate human rights abuses during his reign confirmed nearly 10,000 cases, ranging from death in detention to forced exile. Some 592 people were recorded killed during Hassan's rule according to the truth commission.

The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was returned to Morocco in 1969. The Polisario movement was formed in 1973, with the aim of establishing an independent state in the Spanish Sahara. On 6 November 1975 King Hassan asked for volunteers to cross into the Spanish Sahara. Some 350,000 civilians were reported as being involved in the "Green March". A month later, Spain agreed to leave the Spanish Sahara, soon to become Western Sahara, and to transfer it to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control, despite the objections and threats of military intervention by Algeria. Moroccan forces occupied the territory.

Moroccan and Algerian troops soon clashed in Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania divided up Western Sahara. Fighting between the Moroccan military and Polisario forces continued for many years. The prolonged war was a considerable financial drain on Morocco. In 1983, Hassan cancelled planned elections amid political unrest and economic crisis. In 1984, Morocco left the Organisation of African Unity in protest at the SADR's admission to the body. Polisario claimed to have killed more than 5,000 Moroccan soldiers between 1982 and 1985.

Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. Diplomatic relations with Algeria were restored in 1988. In 1991, a UN-monitored ceasefire began in Western Sahara, but the territory's status remains undecided and ceasefire violations are reported. The following decade saw much wrangling over a proposed referendum on the future of the territory but the deadlock was not broken.

Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997 and Morocco's first opposition-led government came to power in 1998.

Protestors in Casablanca demand that authorities honor their promises of political reform.

King Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI. He is a cautious moderniser who has introduced some economic and social liberalisation.

Mohammed VI paid a controversial visit to the Western Sahara in 2002. Morocco unveiled an autonomy blueprint for Western Sahara to the United Nations in 2007. The Polisario rejected the plan and put forward its own proposal. Morocco and the Polisario Front held UN-sponsored talks in New York but failed to come to any agreement. In 2010, security forces stormed a protest camp in the Western Sahara, triggering violent demonstrations in the regional capital El Aaiún.

In 2002, Morocco and Spain agreed to a US-brokered resolution over the disputed island of Perejil. Spanish troops had taken the normally uninhabited island after Moroccan soldiers landed on it and set up tents and a flag. There were renewed tensions in 2005 as hundreds of African migrants tried to storm the borders of the Spanish enclaves of Melilla and Ceuta. Morocco deported hundreds of the illegal migrants. In 2006 the Spanish Premier Zapatero visited Spanish enclaves. He was the first Spanish leader in 25 years to make an official visit to the territories. The following year, Spanish King Juan Carlos I visited Ceuta and Melilla, further angering Morocco which demanded control of the enclaves.

During the 2011–12 Moroccan protests, thousands of people rallied in Rabat and other cities calling for political reform and a new constitution curbing the powers of the king. In July 2011, the King won a landslide victory in a referendum on a reformed constitution he had proposed to placate the Arab Spring protests. Despite the reforms made by Mohamed VI demonstrators continued to call for deeper reforms. Hundreds took part in a trade union rally in Casablanca in May 2012. Participants accused the government of failing to deliver on reforms.

Politics
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy. The political powers are shared between the king Muhammad VI (the sixth) and the Head of the Government. The King is the head of state (Person in charge of the country) and the most important person.

The people of Morocco vote for Members of Parliament to speak for them and to help make laws for them. The Council of Ministers defines what must be done. He makes all the important decisions. Today, the Head of Government is Abdelilah Benkirane.

Legislative Branch

Since the constitutional reform of 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of two chambers. The Assembly of Representatives of Morocco (Majlis an-Nuwwâb/Assemblée des Répresentants) has 325 members elected for a five-year term, 295 elected in multi-seat constituencies and 30 in national lists consisting only of women. The Assembly of Councillors (Majlis al-Mustasharin) has 270 members, elected for a nine-year term, elected by local councils (162 seats), professional chambers (91 seats) and wage-earners (27 seats).

The Parliament's powers, though still relatively limited, were expanded under the 1992 and 1996 and even further in the 2011 constitutional revisions and include budgetary matters, approving bills, questioning ministers, and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government's actions. The lower chamber of Parliament may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence.

The latest parliamentary elections were held on November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters.

Geography
Morocco is next to the countries of Algeria to its east and Mauritania to its south. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the north of Morocco, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

Morocco has a diverse geography from fertile plains, to forests, cold mountains, dry lands, and deserts. Most people live in areas close to the coast, or in fertile farms. Morocco has an area of 446,550 km². Morocco also controls most of the Western Sahara which is 266.000 km² big.Morocco has a coast by the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves, Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera), Algeria to the east, and Mauritania to the south. Since Morocco controls most of Western Sahara, its de facto southern boundary is with Mauritania.

The internationally recognised borders of the country lie between latitudes 27° and 36°N, and longitudes 1° and 14°W. Adding the Moroccan Sahara, Morocco lies mostly between 21° and 36°N, and 1° and 17°W (the Ras Nouadhibou peninsula is slightly south of 21° and west of 17°).

The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara desert. Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Mauritania. It is one of only three nations (along with Spain and France) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines.

A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the centre and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people. At 446,550 km2(172,414 sq mi), Morocco is the fifty-seventh largest country in the world (after Uzbekistan). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast, though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994.

Spanish territory in North Africa neighbouring Morocco comprises five enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, the Chafarinas islands, and the disputed islet Perejil. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese. To the north, Morocco is bordered by the Strait of Gibraltar, where international shipping has unimpeded transit passage between the Atlantic and Mediterranean.

The Rif mountains stretch over the region bordering the Mediterranean from the north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the northeast to the south west. Most of the southeast portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south lies the Moroccan Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was liberated by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March). Morocco claims that the Moroccan Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces.

Morocco's capital city is Rabat; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakesh, Meknes, Mohammedia, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Salé, Tangier and Tétouan.[Br.-Bl. "Vegetatio." Vegetatio, vol. 11, no. 5/6, 1963, pp. 405–405., www.jstor.org/stable/20034938.]

Climate
Köppen climate types in Morocco
 Overview:
The country's Mediterranean climate is similar to that of southern California, with lush forests in the northern and central mountain ranges of the country, giving way to dryer conditions and inland deserts further southeast. The Moroccan coastal plains experience remarkably moderate temperatures even in summer, owing to the effect of the cold Canary Current off its Atlantic coast.

In the Rif, Middle and High Atlas Mountains, there exist several different types of climates: Mediterranean along the coastal lowlands, giving way to a humid temperate climate at higher elevations with sufficient moisture to allow for the growth of different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, and Atlantic fir which is a royal conifer tree endemicto Morocco. In the valleys, fertile soils and high precipitation allow for the growth of thick and lush forests. Cloud forests can be found in the west of the Rif Mountains and Middle Atlas Mountains. At higher elevations, the climate becomes alpine in character, and can sustain ski resorts.

Southeast of the Atlas mountains, near the Algerian borders, the climate becomes very dry, with long and hot summers. Extreme heat and low moisture levels are especially pronounced in the lowland regions east of the Atlas range due to the rain shadow effect of the mountain system. The southeastern-most portions of Morocco are very hot, and include portions of the Sahara Desert, where vast swathes of sand dunes and rocky plains are dotted with lush oases.

In contrast to the Sahara region in the south, coastal plains are fertile in the central and northern regions of the country, and comprise the backbone of the country's agriculture, in which 95% of the population live. The direct exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean, the proximity to mainland Europe and the long stretched Rif and Atlas mountains are the factors of the rather European-like climate in the northern half of the country. That makes from Morocco a country of contrasts. Forested areas cover about 12% of the country while arable land accounts for 18%. Approximately 5% of Moroccan land is irrigated for agricultural use.

Landscape of the Erg Chebbi

Atlas Mountains

In general, apart from the southeast regions (pre-Saharan and desert areas), Morocco's climate and geography are very similar to the Iberian peninsula. Thus we have the following climate zones:
 Mediterranean: It dominates the coastal Mediterranean regions of the country, along the (500 km strip), and some parts of the Atlantic coast. Summers are hot to moderately hot and dry, average highs are between 29 °C (84.2 °F) and 32 °C (89.6 °F). Winters are generally mild and wet, daily average temperatures hover around 9 °C (48.2 °F) to 11 °C (51.8 °F), and average low are around 5 °C (41.0 °F) to 8 °C (46.4 °F), typical to the coastal areas of the west Mediterranean. Annual Precipitation in this area vary from 600 to 800 mm in the west to 350–500 mm in the east. Notable cities that fall into this zone are Tangier, Tetouan, Al Hoceima, Nador and Safi.
 Sub-Mediterranean: It influences cities that show Mediterranean characteristics, but remain fairly influenced by other climates owing to their either relative elevation, or direct exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean. We thus have two main influencing climates:

Oceanic: Determined by the cooler summers, where highs rarely go above 27 °C (80.6 °F) and in terms of Essaouira region are almost always around 21 °C (69.8 °F). The medium daily temperatures can get as low as 19 °C (66.2 °F), while winters are chilly to mild and wet. Annual precipitation varies from 400 to 700 mm. Notable cities that fall into this zone are Rabat, Casablanca, Kénitra, Salé and Essaouira.

Continental: Determined by the bigger gap between highs and lows, that results in hotter summers and colder winters, than found in typical Mediterranean zones. In summer, daily highs can get as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) during heat waves, but usually are between 32 °C (89.6 °F) and 36 °C (96.8 °F). However, temperatures drop as the sun sets. Night temperatures usually fall below 20 °C (68.0 °F), and sometimes as low as 10 °C (50.0 °F) in mid-summer. Winters are cooler, and can get below the freezing point multiple times between December and February. Also snow can fall occasionally. Fès for example registered 8 °C (17.6 °F) in winter 2005. Annual precipitation varies between 500 and 900 mm. Notable cities are Fès, Meknès, Chefchaouen, Beni-Mellal and Taza.
 Continental It dominates the mountainous regions of the north and central parts of the country, where summers are hot to very hot, with highs between 32 °C (89.6 °F) and 36 °C (96.8 °F). Winters on the other hand are cold, and lows usually go beyond the freezing point. And when cold damp air comes to Morocco from the northwest, for a few days, temperatures can easily break 10 °C (14.0 °F). It often snows abundantly in this part of the country. Precipitation varies between 400 and 800 mm. Notable cities are Khenifra, Imilchil, Midelt and Azilal.
 Alpine: This type of climate is found in some parts of the Middle Atlas Mountain range and the eastern part of the High Atlas Mountain range. Summers are very warm to moderately hot, and winters are longer, cold and snowy. Precipitation varies between 400 and 1200 mm. In summer highs barely go above 30 °C (86.0 °F), and lows are cool and go well beyond 15 °C (59.0 °F). In winters, highs rarely go above 8 °C (46.4 °F), and lows go well below the freezing point. In this part of country, there are many ski resorts, such as Oukaimeden and Mischliefen. Notable cities are Ifrane, Azrou and Boulmane.
 Semi-arid: This type of climate is found in the south of the country and some parts of the east of the country, where rainfall is lower and annual precipitations are between 200 and 350 mm. However, One usually finds Mediterranean characteristics in those regions, such as the precipitation pattern and thermal attributes. Notable cities are Agadir, Marrakesh and Oujda.
South of Agadir and east of Jerada near the Algerian borders, arid and desert climate starts to prevail.

Note: Due to Morocco's proximity to the Sahara desert and the North Sea of the Atlantic Ocean, two phenomena occur to influence the regional seasonal temperatures, either by raising temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius when sirocco blows from the east creating heatwaves, or by lowering temperatures by 7–8 degrees Celsius when cold damp air blows from the northwest, creating a coldwave or cold spell. However, these phenomena don't last for more than 2 to 5 days on average.

Countries or regions that share the same climatic characteristics with Morocco are California(USA), Portugal, Spain and Algeria.
 Precipitation:
Annual rainfall in Morocco is different according to regions. The northwestern parts of the country receive between 500 mm and 1200 mm, while the northeastern parts receive between 350 and 600 mm. North Central Morocco receives between 700 mm and up to 3500 mm. The area from Casablanca to Essaouira, on the Atlantic coast, receives between 300 mm and 500 mm. The regions from Essaouira to Agadir receive between 250 mm and 400 mm. Marrakesh region in the central south receives only 250 mm a year. The southeastern regions, basically the driest areas, receive between 100 mm and 200 mm only, and consist basically of arid and desert lands.

Botanically speaking, Morocco enjoys a great variety of vegetation, from lush large forests of conifer and oak trees typical of the western Mediterranean countries (Morocco, Algeria, Italy, Spain, France and Portugal), to shrubs and acacias further south. This is due to the diversity of climate and the precipitation patterns in the country.

Morocco's weather is one of the most pristine in terms of the four-season experience. Most regions have distinct seasons where summer is usually not spoiled by rain and winter turns wet, snowy and humid with mild, cool to cold temperatures, while spring and fall see warm to mild weather characterised by flowers blooming in spring and falling leaves in autumn. This type of weather has affected the Moroccan culture and behaviour and played a part in the social interaction of the population, like many other countries that fall into this type of climate zone.presented in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA. This code was used as the basis for Morocco's internet domain, ma.

The capital of Morocco is Rabat. About 1.2 million people live in Rabat. The biggest city in Morocco is however Casablanca, with nearly 4 million people living there. Both Rabat and Casablanca have large ports and industrial zones. The third biggest city is Marrakesh from which the word "Morocco" is made. Tekken, Vera, et al. "Increasing Pressure, Declining Water and Climate Change in North-Eastern Morocco." Journal of Coastal Conservation, vol. 17, no. 3, 2013, pp. 379–388. www.jstor.org/stable/42657030.

People and culture

The population of Morocco is about 34 million. People from Morocco are called Moroccans. Moroccans are Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African and European.

The official languages of Morocco are Arabic and Berber. French is also very used in companies, universities, and in some TV channels. Morocco was part of the French colonial empire for 44 years. Some people in the north (close to Spain) speak Spanish as well. Spain also occupied parts of Morocco before leaving them in 1956 and in 1975.

Most educated Moroccans do not speak English well, or do not know it at all. In the 21st century English is being taught to students in an increasing number of schools.

Most Moroccans follow Islam as their religion. There are very small numbers of Christians, Jews, and non-believers. Morocco is home to the oldest university in the world, the University of Karaouine.

Military
Mohammed VI, a FREMM multipurpose frigate of the Royal Moroccan Navy.

Compulsory military service in Morocco has been officially suspended since September 2006, and Morocco's reserve obligation lasts until age 50. Morocco's military consists of the Royal Armed Forces this includes the Army (the largest branch), the Navy, the Air Force, the Royal Guard, the Royal Gendarmerie and the Auxiliary Forces. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (with one exception, the 2003 Casablanca bombings which killed 45 people).

The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco's troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1970s.

Foreign relations

Morocco is a member of the United Nations and belongs to the Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN_SAD). Morocco's relationships vary greatly between African, Arab, and Western states. Morocco has had strong ties to the West in order to gain economic and political benefits. France and Spain remain the primary trade partners, as well as the primary creditors and foreign investors in Morocco. From the total foreign investments in Morocco, the European Union invests approximately 73.5%, whereas, the Arab world invests only 19.3%. Many countries from the Persian Gulf and Maghreb regions are getting more involved in large-scale development projects in Morocco.

Morocco claims sovereignty over Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla.

Morocco was the only African state not to be a member of the African Union due to its unilateral withdrawal on November 12 1984 over the admission of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in 1982 by the African Union (then called Organisation of African Unity) as a full member without the organisation of a referendum of self-determination in the disputed territory of Western Sahara. Morocco rejoined the AU on January 30 2017.

A dispute with Spain in 2002 over the tiny island of Perejil revived the issue of the sovereignty of Melilla and Ceuta. These small enclaves on the Mediterranean coast are surrounded by Morocco and have been administered by Spain for centuries.

Morocco has been given the status of major non-NATO ally by the US government. Morocco was the first country in the world to recognise US sovereignty (in 1777).

Morocco is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.

Western Sahara status

Morocco liberated the Moroccan Sahara in 1975. The Polisario Front control the territory east of the Moroccan berm(wall).

Due to the conflict over Western Sahara, the status of the Saguia el-Hamra and Dakhla Oued Dahab regions is disputed. The Western Sahara War saw the Polisario Front, the Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement, battling both Morocco and Mauritania between 1976 and a ceasefire in 1991 that was broken in 2020. A United Nations mission, MINURSO, is tasked with organizing a referendum on whether the territory should become independent or recognised as a part of Morocco.

Part of the territory, the Free Zone, is a mostly uninhabited area that the Polisario Front controls as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Its administrative headquarters are in Tindouf, Algeria. As of 2006, no UN member state has recognised Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara.

In 2006, the government of Morocco has suggested autonomous status for the region, through the Moroccan Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS). The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The proposal was encouraged by Moroccan allies such as the United States, France and Spain. The Security Council has called upon the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.

Divisions
Morocco is divided into 12 regions,. The regions are divided into 62 provinces and 13 prefectures.

As of 2014 the regions are:
 1. Tanger-Tetouan
 2. Oriental
 3. Fez-Meknes
 4. Rabat-Sale-Kenitra
 5. Beni Mellal-Khenifra
 6. Casablanca-Settat
 7. Marrakech-Safi
 8. Draa-Tafilalet
 9. Souss-Massa
 10. Guelmim-Oued Noun
 11. Laayoune-Sakia el Hamra
 12. Dakhla-Oued ed Dahab

Economy
Mining, agriculture, fishing, and tourism are the 4 main parts of Morocco's national economy. Also, Moroccans working in Europe (about 2 million) send billions of Euros of money home to their families every year.

Tourism is becoming very important too. Many Americans and Europens come to see the historical places of Morocco, live the Berber countryside life, or enjoy the warm sun and the long and clean beaches. Marrakesh is the most liked city by tourists.

The currency of Morocco is called the Dirham, its code is MAD.

Related pages
 List of rivers of Morocco
 Morocco Grand Prix
 Morocco at the Olympics
 Morocco national football team

Notes and references

Current monarchies
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
North African countries

Morocco


Sanam Luang is a big field in front of Wat Phra Kaew and the Grand Palace in Bangkok, Thailand. Sanam Luang has another name, Tung Pra Me'ru (meaning cremation field). It was used for cremation of the King and his royal relatives. In 1855, King Rama IV changed the field's name to Sanam luang, announcing that the old name was thought unlucky.

King Rama I used Sanam Luang to officiate ceremonies. Then in King Rama V's era, Sanam Luang was extended and the buildings around it were destroyed. The people used Sanam Luang to perform ceremonies instead of growing rice.

In King Rama VI's era, Sanam Luang was used for horse racing and part of the field was turned into a golf couse.

At present, the Thai people still use Sanam Luang to officiate royal ceremonies for the King, princes and princesses. Sanam Luang is an important national site.

References

Bangkok
Town squares in Asia

Sanam Luang


Tony Kahn is an American radiohost, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn.

Early life
Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California.  His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable.  This happened during a time in American history known as the Red Scare.  The Red Scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists.

Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family.  They went to Mexico during the 1950s.  They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades.  He then went to Columbia University where he got a masters degree -- an advanced academic degree or diploma -- in Slavic studies.

Career
Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio.  He produces and directs a radio show called Morning Stories for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts.  He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's The World.  On The World, Kahn is sometimes the host and sometimes a reporter.  He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting.

References

American radio personalities
American journalists
Columbia University alumni
Writers from Los Angeles
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Tony Kahn


Deposition is the geological process where material is added to a land (or a landform). This can happen in many places, such as a beach or river. Some parts of a shoreline build up and grow out, whereas other parts of the shoreline erode and fall into the sea.

In deposition, wind and water lay down grains of material that have been eroded and transported from another place. Deposition happens when the forces which transport sediments  are weaker than the forces of particle weight and friction. This causes a resistance to movement, and the particles drop down.

Deposition can also refer to the buildup of sediment from organically derived matter or chemical process.

Related pages
Sediment
Sedimentary rock

Geology

Deposition (geology)


In public key infrastructure, a validation authority (VA) is an entity that provides a service used to verify the validity or revocation status of a digital certificate per the mechanisms described in the X.509 standard and  (page 69).

The dominant method used for this purpose is to host a certificate revocation list (CRL) for download via the HTTP or LDAP protocols. To reduce the amount of network traffic required for certificate validation, the OCSP protocol may be used instead.

While a validation authority is capable of responding to a network-based request for a CRL, it lacks the ability to issue or revoke certificates. It must be continuously updated with current CRL information from a certificate authority which issued the certificates contained within the CRL.

While this is a potentially labor-intensive process, the use of a dedicated validation authority allows for dynamic validation of certificates issued by an offline root certificate authority. While the root CA itself will be unavailable to network traffic, certificates issued by it can always be verified via the validation authority and the protocols mentioned above.

The ongoing administrative overhead of maintaining the CRLs hosted by the validation authority is typically minimal, as it is uncommon for root CAs to issue (or revoke) large numbers of certificates.

References

Certificate revocation
Public-key cryptography
Key management
Public key infrastructure
Transport Layer Security

Validation authority


Hampshire is a county in the south of the UK. The county has an area of 1,455 square miles (3,769 km²). At its widest points, the county is about 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The county town is Winchester. About 1.6 million people live in Hampshire.

Ceremonial counties of England

Hampshire


Tanu Roy is an Indian actress and model. A Bengali by birth, she has predominantly appeared in Telugu films apart from some Tamil, Malayalam, Bengali and Kannada films. She is mostly known for her item numbers in films like Mass and Hero. She is known for her role in the Malayalam movie Ee Adutha Kalathu.

Career
Tanu Roy was born and brought up in Kolkata. She is a commerce graduate. She made her acting debut in 2001 with Puri Jagannadh's Itlu Sravani Subramanyam, after which she played small roles in Anandam and Manasantha Nuvve. She appeared in Avunu Nijame  and Kodi Ramakrishna's Keelugurram. Later, she starred in low budget B movies and did many item numbers in films including Satyam, Mass, No, Viyyalavari Kayyalu  and Pellikani Prasad.

She was seen in two Bengali films; Basho Na, in which she portrayed the role of a young widow, and Moner Majho Tumhi, a remake of Mansantha Nuvve, and in the Kannada films Love Story, which is a remake of the Telugu film Maro Charitra and was earlier titled Prema Charitra. The first Kannada film she shot for, Preethi Maadabaaradu, was shelved in the middle. In Tamil, she starred in the films Indru  and Girivalam, a remake of the Hindi film Humraaz.

Tanu made her debut in Malayalam in the 2012 film Ee Adutha Kaalathu as Tanushree Ghosh and won critical acclaim for her portrayal of Madhuri, the mother of a 10-year-old boy. In Orissa, she played a social activist, who works for the welfare of tribal people in a village.

Her upcoming film is Amar Babu's Ala Jarigindi Oka Roju, which is the Telugu remake of the 2006 British crime comedy flick, Big Nothing. She has also shot for a cameo in Hashim Marrikar's Preview.

She also participated in the Telugu television shows Naacho Rrey  and Humma Humma.

Filmography

References

External links

Indian film actresses
Actresses in Bengali cinema
Actresses in Tamil cinema
Actresses in Kannada cinema
Living people
Actresses in Malayalam cinema
Bengali Hindus
21st-century Indian actresses
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Actresses from Hyderabad, India
Year of birth missing (living people)

Tanu Roy


Aaron Kwok is a popular Hong Kong singer and movie actor. He is one of the "Four Heavenly Kings" of Cantopop. He has been called "Hong Kong's Michael Jackson" for his dancing.

Aaron Kwok is one of Hong Kong and Asia's most important pop stars. Over the last decade or so, Kwok has won over a hundred music awards. As a solo performer, he has played in over 200 concerts around the world.

Biography
After graduating from secondary school, Kwok worked at the King Fook Gold and Jewellery Co. Ltd. His father, who owns a gold retail store, wanted him to gain experience in the business and eventually taking over the family business.

In 1984, Aaron Kwok joined a dancer training course at HK-TVB, where his talent for dancing was shown. There, Kwok performed in PVs and a variety of TV shows. In 1985, Kwok's outstanding performance in a pageant show was spotted. He was transferred to the acting department of the talent training course and became a TV actor, where he played a few roles in Chinese television drama shows.

In the early 1990s, a Taiwanese motorcycle CM gave him instant fame. He burst onto the music scene with his now-famous song Loving You Forever (called 對你愛不完 in the Chinese and original release) and the dance moves for the song. In the next few years, his popularity reached fever-pitch and he was soon ranked alongside the most popular artists of the time.

Over the years, Kwok has also taken part in other mediums such as CMs and acting, especially with director-cinematographer Andrew Lau. Kwok has also done extensive public service and charity work, which is why he was amongst the winners of the Ten Most Outstanding Young Persons Award 2003.

In 2004, a string of concert dates earned Kwok a Hong Kong Dance Award presented by the Hong Kong Dance Alliance. Due to this success, Kwok toured again in 2005, receiving much praise.

At the Taiwan's forty-second Golden Horse Awards ceremony on 13 November 2005, Kwok won Best Leading Actor award for his role in the movie Divergence. It was Kwok's first Golden Horse nomination and beat veteran Hong Kong star Tony Leung to win the honour.

Aaron won the Best Actor Award again at the forty-third Golden Horse Awards on 24 November 2006 for his role in the movie After This Our Exile. He became the second actor in the history of the Golden Horse Awards to win the Best Actor Award year after year. Jackie Chan first achieved this back in the 1990s.

Filmography
 2016 One Night Only - Gao Ye
 2016 Cold War 2 - Sean K. F. Lau
 2016 MBA Partners - Guest star
 2016 The Monkey King 2 - Sun Wu Kong
 2015 Monk Comes Down the Mountain - Zhou Xi Yu
 2015 Port of Call - Detective Chong
 2014 The Monkey King - Bull Demon
 2013 Silent Witness - Tong Tao
 2013 Christmas Rose - Chan Chi-tin
 2013 Conspirators - Chan Tam
 2013 Better and Better - Xie De Fa
 2012 Cold War
 2012 Floating City
 2012 The Monkey King - Bull Demon
 2011 Love in Space
 2011 The Detective 2 - Tam
 2011 Love for Life - Maestro de escuela primaria
 2010 City Under Siege - Sunny
 2010 Empire of Silver - Tercer Maestro
 2009 The Storm Warriors - Striding Cloud
 2009 Murderer - Ling Kwong
 2007 The Detective - Tam
 2006 The Silver Valley
 2006 After This Our Exile - Chow Cheung Sheng
 2005 Divergence - Suen Siu Yan
 2004 Throw Down - Tony
 2004 Heat Team - YT Lee
 2001 Para Para Sakura - Wong Kam Shing
 2000 China Strike Force - Darren Tong
 2000 And I Hate You So - Zhang Yong
 2000 2000 A.D. - Peter Li
 1998 The Storm Riders - Striding Cloud
 1998 Anna Magdalena - Yau Mok Yan (Yau Wing Fu)
 1996 Somebody Up There Likes Me - Ken Wong
 1995 Whatever Will Be, Will Be - Mr. Lam
 1994 The Kung Fu Scholar - Liu Xian Kai
 1993 Future Cops - Ryu
 1993 Legend of the Liquid Sword - Zhu Liu Xiang
 1993 Love is a Fairy Tale - Hung
 1993 The Bare-Footed Kid - Guan Fung Yao
 1993 A Moment of Romance II - Ah Fu
 1993 Millionaire Cop - Ball; Jessy Li
 1992 Game Kids - Zhong
 1992 Gangs '92 - Sam Lam
 1992 Truant Heroes - Ace
 1992 Rhythm of Destiny - Lee Ka Wah
 1992 The Shootout - Wong Ka Fai
 1991 Lee Rock III - Lui Yong Yin
 1991 The Banquet - Younger Brother of Small B Head
 1991 Savior of the Soul - Silver Fox
 1991 The Queen of Gamble - Ah Po
 1991 Lee Rock II - Lui Yong-Yin
 1990 Story of Kennedy Town - Lee Siu Wai
 1989 Close Escape - Ben Kwok

1965 births
Living people
Hong Kong actors
Hong Kong singers
C-pop singers

Aaron Kwok


The Prime minister Secretariat National Security Council is a consultative body that is chaired by the President of Pakistan and Prime Minister of Pakistan. It is a principal forum that is mandated for considering national security and foreign policy matters with the senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials. The National Security Council was created by then-President and former Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan) General Pervez Musharraf in April 2004 under the National Security Council Act.  The function of the Council has been to advise and assist the President and Prime minister on national security and foreign policies.

Functions
The Council serves as a forum for consultation for the president and the federal government on matters of national security including the sovereignty, integrity, defence, and security of the State and crisis management in general. It may also formulate recommendations to the president and the federal government in such matters.

2004 establishments in Asia
2000s establishments in Pakistan
Organizations based in Pakistan

National Security Council (Pakistan)


Ground squirrels are marmots. These are small rodents, squirrels which live on and in the ground.

Most of them live in the mountains, like the Sierra Nevada, or the Alps. Marmots make holes in the ground. They live in burrows, underground. They hibernate, that is they sleep through the winter. Marmots are very social animals. They group together easily. They also like to communicate with each other, with whistles, especially when they sense danger.

They vary in size and habits. Most are able to rise up on their hind legs and stand fully erect comfortably for long periods. This way they watch for predators. They tend to live together more than other squirrels, and many live in colonies with complex social structures. Most Marmotini are rather short-tailed and large squirrels. The Alpine marmot (Marmota marmota) is the largest living member of the Sciuridae, at 53–73 cm in length and weighing 5–8 kg.

Many historians suggest that marmots, rather than rats, were the carriers of bubonic plague epidemics in the Middle Ages.

Related pages
Chipmonk
Groundhog
Prairie dog

Other websites

Squirrels

Ground squirrel


British Rail reserved the TOPS Class 97 designation for departmental locomotives. These were used for special or engineering duties.  They were therefore of several different classes, lumped together for numbering purposes. Some locomotives were converted from redundant engines, whilst others were purpose built. In 2008, Network Rail once again used Class 97 for signalling test locomotives (Class 97/3).

British Rail locomotives

British Rail Class 97


Macduff is a character in the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare. He is the Thane of Fife. He plays an important part in the story. He suspects Macbeth of having killed Duncan, the King of Scotland. Macduff eventually kills Macbeth in the final act. He is both the antagonist and the hero of the story.

Characters in Shakespeare's plays

Macduff (Shakespeare)


The Sacred Mountain of Belmonte (Italian: Sacro Monte di Belmonte) is a Roman Catholic devotional complex in the comune of Valperga, in the Metropolitan City of Turin (Piedmont, northern Italy). It is one of the nine Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy, included in UNESCO World Heritage list.

Description
It was built in 1712 at the initiative of the Friar Minor Michelangelo da Montiglio. After interruptions, building work on the chapel was resumed in 1759 and in 1825.

The complex is located in Canavese and is dedicated to the Mysteries of the Rosary; it comprises a church (Sanctuary) and several chapels. The chapels are built at set intervals: the details of their construction, the shapes and the embellishment used are often identical, which suggest that they are the work of a single anonymous architect.

External links

Sacro Monte di Belmonte
Official web site for European Sacred Mounts

Belmonte
Canavese
Buildings and structures in the Metropolitan City of Turin
Tourist attractions in Piedmont
World Heritage Sites in Italy

Sacro Monte di Belmonte


Walid Eido (in Arabic: وليد عيدو) (Beirut, 1942 - Beirut, June 13, 2007) was a Lebanese man who worked for the Lebanese Parliament, a government building in Beirut. He died with his son on June 13, 2007, with eight other people, when a bomb blew up just outside a famous amusement park. This was at the waterside of north Beirut.

His early life
Walid Eido was Sunni Muslim. He was born in the Bachoura area of Beirut. He finished his studies at the Lebanese University in 1966. In the late 1990s, he worked for the Lebanese law of north Lebanon, but, in the year 2000, he quit to go into political life with Mr. Rafic Hariri and to be in the Lebanese parliament. Later on, he worked for the Lebanese Parliament. He used to belong to Al-Murabitun militant group at the time of the Lebanese civil war, he left the Murabitun when this group starts to expand and take bad members in.

Personal life
Eido was married with three sons named Khaled, Zaher and Mazen. Eido was a good swimmer and the bomb exploded outside his favorite Beirut beach resort, Sporting Club.

1942 births
2007 deaths
Assassinated Lebanese people
Lebanese Muslims
Lebanese politicians
People from Beirut

Walid Eido


Heroes of Newerth is a Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) game based on Defense of the Ancients.  The game is created by S2 games. It is available on multiple operating systems such as Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. It is currently in free to play with over 120,000 registered users. The pre-order sales began on August 22, 2009.

The game consists of two teams that battle against each other. The teams, the Hellbourne and the Legion, offer players a wide variety of unique heroes that the player controls in the game. The heroes of each team are categorized as: Intelligence, Strength, and Agility.

Many of the heroes and items in the initial version of the game were taken directly from Defense of the Ancients. However, there are a now lots of heroes and items that are designed and created by S2 Games.

2009 video games
Windows games
Real-time strategy video games

Heroes of Newerth


William John Thomas Mitchell (nacido 24 de marzo de  1942) — conocido como W.J.T. Mitchell — es profesor de Inglés e Historia de Arte en la Universidad de Chicago. También es editor de Critical Inquiry, y contribuye a la revista October.

Sus monografías, Iconology (1986) y Picture Theory (1994), se enfocan en la teoría de los medios de comunicación y la cultura visual. Basándose en las ideas de Sigmund Freud y de Karl Marx, intenta demostrar que, esencialmente,  tenemos que considerar las imágenes como cosas vivientes.  Su colección de ensayos What Do Pictures Want? (2005) ganó por parte de la Asociación de Lengua Moderna el premio James Russell Lowell en 2005. En una entrevista reciente Mitchell localiza su interés en la cultura visual en las primeras obras de William Blake, y su entonces incipiente interés en desarrollar una ciencia de las imágenes. En la misma entrevista habla de su deseo actual en repensar la cultura visual como forma de vida y a la luz de los medios digitales.

Obras

Libros
 UImage Science: Iconology, Visual Culture and Media Aesthetics. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 2015. ISBN 978-0-226-23133-4
 Cloning Terror: The War of Images, 9/11 to the Present. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 2011. ISBN 978-0-226-53259-2
 With Mark B. N. Hansen. Critical Terms for Media Studies. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 2010. ISBN 978-0-226-53254-7
 What Do Pictures Want?: The Lives and Loves of Images. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 2005. ISBN 978-0-226-53245-5
 The Last Dinosaur Book: The Life and Times of a Cultural Icon. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 1998. ISBN 978-0-226-53204-2
 Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1994. ISBN 978-0-226-53232-5
 Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1986. pbk. ISBN 978-0-226-53229-5
 Against Theory: Literary Studies and the New Pragmatism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1985. pbk. ISBN 978-0-226-53227-1
 The Politics of Interpretation. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983. ISBN 978-0-226-53219-6
 On Narrative. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1981. ISBN 978-0-226-53217-2 review:  from American Anthropologist
 The Language of Images. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980. pbk. ISBN 978-0-226-53215-8
 Blake's Composite Art: A Study of the Illuminated Poetry. Princeton: Princeton UP. 232 pp. 112 plates, 1978.

Ensayos y trabajos cortos
 Bhabha, Homi, and W. J. T. Mitchell. "Edward Said: Continuing the Conversation." Critical Inquiry 31, no. 2 (Winter, 2005): 365-529.
 Mitchell, W. J. T. "Edward Said: Continuing the Conversation." Critical Inquiry 31, no. 2 (Winter, 2005): 365-370.
 "Secular Divination: Edward Said's Humanism." Critical Inquiry 31, no. 2 (Winter, 2005): 462-471.
 "The Future of Criticism-A Critical Inquiry Symposium." Critical Inquiry 30, no. 2 (Winter, 2004): 324-483.
 "Romanticism and the Life of Things: Fossils, Totems, and Images." in Things., Edited by Bill Brown. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago P, 2004.
 "The Commitment to Form; Or, Still Crazy After all these Years." PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 118, no. 2 (Mar, 2003): 321-325.
 "Remembering Edward Said." Chronicle of Higher Education 50, no. 7 (Oct 10, 2003): B10-B11.
 "The Serpent in the Wilderness: Space, Place, and Landscape in the Eighteenth Century." in Acts of Narrative., Edited by Carol Jacobs, Henry Sussman. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 2003.
 "The Work of Art in the Age of Biocybernetic Reproduction." Modernism/Modernity 10, no. 3 (Sept, 2003): 481-500.
 "Showing Seeing: A Critique of Visual Culture". In: Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), Art History, Aesthetics, Visual Studies. Clark Art Institute and Yale University Press, 2002: 231-250.
 "911: Criticism and Crisis." Critical Inquiry 28, no. 2 (Winter, 2002): 567-572.
 "The Surplus Value of Images." Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 35, no. 3 (Sept, 2002): 1-23.
 "Romanticism and the Life of Things: Fossils, Totems, and Images." Critical Inquiry 28, no. 1 (Autumn, 2001): 167-184.
 "Seeing Disability." Public Culture 13, no. 3 [35] (Fall, 2001): 391-397.
 "Holy Landscape: Israel, Palestine, and the American Wilderness." Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter, 2000): 193-223.
 "La Plus-Value Des Images." Etudes Littéraires 32-33, no. 3-1 (Autumn-2001 Winter, 2000): 201-225.
 "The Panic of the Visual: A Conversation with Edward W. Said." in Edward Said and the Work of the Critic: Speaking Truth to Power., Edited by Paul A. Bové. Durham, NC: Duke UP, 2000.
 "The Panic of the Visual: A Conversation with Edward W. Said." Boundary 2: An International Journal of Literature and Culture 25, no. 2 (Summer, 1998): 11-33.
 "The Romantic Education of W. J. T. Mitchell." in U of Maryland, College Park, MD Pagination: 34 Paragraphs., Edited by Wang, Orrin N. C. (ed.), The Last Formalist, or W.J.T.Mitchell as Romantic Dinosaur1997.
 "The Violence of Public Art: Do the Right Thing." in Spike Lee's do the Right Thing., Edited by Mark A. Reid. Cambridge, England: Cambridge UP, 1997.
 "Chaosthetics: Blake's Sense of Form." Huntington Library Quarterly: Studies in English and American History and Literature 58, no. 3-4 (1996): 441-458.
 "Visible Language: Blake's Wond'Rous Art of Writing." in William Blake., Edited by David Punter. New York: St. Martin's, 1996.
 "What do Pictures really Want?" October 77, (Summer, 1996): 71-82.
 "Why Comparisons are Odious." World Literature Today: A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma 70, no. 2 (Spring, 1996): 321-324.
 Amrine, Frederick, Martha Banta, Antoine Compagnon, Heather Dubrow, James D. Fernández, Sue Houchins, and W. J. T. Mitchell, et al. "The Status of Evidence: A Roundtable." PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 111, no. 1 (Jan, 1996): 21-31.
 "Postcolonial Culture, Postimperial Criticism." in The Post-Colonial Studies Reader., Edited by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. London: Routledge, 1995.
 "Narrative, Memory, and Slavery." in Cultural Artifacts and the Production of Meaning: The Page, the Image, and the Body., Edited by Margaret J. M. Ezell, Katherine O'Brien O'Keeffe. Ann Arbor, MI: U of Michigan P, 1994.
 "Ekphrasis and the Other." South Atlantic Quarterly 91, no. 3 (Summer, 1992): 695-719.
 "Postcolonial Culture, Postimperial Criticism." Transition 56, (1992): 11-19.
 "Iconology and Ideology: Panofsky, Althusser, and the Scene of Recognition." in Image and Ideology in Modern/Postmodern Discourse., Edited by David B. Downing, Susan Bazargan. Albany: State U of New York P, 1991.
 "Against Comparison: Teaching Literature and the Visual Arts." in Teaching Literature and Other Arts., Edited by Jean-Pierre Barricelli, Joseph Gibaldi and Estella Lauter. New York: Mod. Lang. Assn. of Amer., 1990.
 "Influence, Autobiography, and Literary History: Rousseau's Confessions and Wordsworth's the Prelude." ELH 57, no. 3 (Fall, 1990): 643-664.
 "Essays Toward a New Art History." Critical Inquiry 15, no. 2 (Winter, 1989): 226-406.
 "Image and Text in Songs." in Approaches to Teaching Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience., Edited by Robert F. Gleckner, Mark L. Greenberg. New York: Mod. Lang. Assn. of Amer., 1989.
 "Space, Ideology, and Literary Representation." Poetics Today 10, no. 1 (Spring, 1989): 91-102.
 "Tableau and Taboo: The Resistance to Vision in Literary Discourse." CEA Critic: An Official Journal of the College English Association 51, no. 1 (Fall, 1988): 4-10.
 "Wittgenstein's Imagery and what it Tells Us." New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 19, no. 2 (Winter, 1988): 361-370.
 "How Good is Nelson Goodman?" Poetics Today 7, no. 1 (1986): 111-115.
 "Visible Language: Blake's Wond'Rous Art of Writing." in Romanticism and Contemporary Criticism., Edited by Morris Eaves, Michael Fischer. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1986.
 "The Politics of Genre: Space and Time in Lessing's Laocoon." Representations 6, (Spring, 1984): 98-115.
 "What is an Image?" New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 15, no. 3 (Spring, 1984): 503-537.
 "Metamorphoses of the Vortex: Hogarth, Turner, and Blake." in Articulate Images: The Sister Arts from Hogarth to Tennyson., Edited by Richard Wendorf. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1983.
 "Critical Inquiry and the Ideology of Pluralism." Critical Inquiry 8, no. 4 (Summer, 1982): 609-618.
 "Dangerous Blake." Studies in Romanticism 21, no. 3 (Fall, 1982): 410-416.
 "How Original was Blake?" Blake: An Illustrated Quarterly 14, (-1981, 1980): 116-120.
 "The Language of Images." Critical Inquiry 6, no. 3 (Spring, 1980): 359-567.
 "On Narrative." Critical Inquiry 7, no. 1 (Fall, 1980): 1-236.
 "Spatial Form in Literature: Toward a General Theory." Critical Inquiry: A Voice for Reasoned Inquiry into Significant Creations of the Human Spirit 6, (1980): 539-567.
 "Spatial Form in Literature: Toward a General Theory." Critical Inquiry 6, no. 3 (Spring, 1980): 539-567.
 "Critical Inquiry After Sheldon Sacks." Bulletin of the Midwest Modern Language Association 12, no. 1 (Spring, 1979): 32-36.
 "On Sheldon Sacks." Critical Inquiry 6, no. 2 (Winter, 1979): 181-229.
 "Style as Epistemology: Blake and the Movement Toward Abstraction in Romantic Art." Studies in Romanticism 16, (1977): 145-164.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Gerald Graff. "Intellectual Politics and the Malaise of the Seventies." Salmagundi 47-48, (1980): 67-77.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Paul Hernadi. "On Narrative."
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Winfried Menninghaus. "Angelus Novus: Perspectives on Walter Benjamin." Critical Inquiry 25, no. 2 (Winter, 1999).
 Mitchell, W. J. T., Louis A. Renza, and (reply). "Going Too Far with the Sister Arts." in Space, Time, Image, Sign: Essays on Literature and the Visual Arts., Edited by James A. W. Heffernan. New York: Peter Lang, 1987.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Gabriele Schabacher. "Der Mehrwert Von Bildern." in Die Addresse Des Mediums., Edited by Stefan Andriopoulos, Gabriele Schabacher, Eckhard Schumacher, Bernhard Dotzler, Erhard Schüttpelz and Georg Stanitzek. Cologne, Germany: DuMont, 2001.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Nadine Strossen. "A Resounding Rock in Flight." Chronicle of Higher Education 47, no. 12 (Nov 17, 2000): B4.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., and Ilse Utz. "Postkoloniale Kultur, Postimperiale Kritik." Neue Rundschau 107, no. 1 (1996): 20-25.
 Mitchell, W. J. T., Orrin N. C. Wang, and (interview and gloss). "An Interview with Orrin N. C. Wang." in U of Maryland, College Park, MD Pagination: 22 Paragraphs., Edited by Wang, Orrin N. C. (ed.), The Last Formalist, or W.J.T.Mitchell as Romantic Dinosaur1997.
 Surette, Leon, and W. J. T. Mitchell. "Rational Form in Literature." Critical Inquiry 7, no. 3 (Spring, 1981): 612-621.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 W.J.T. La página de Casa de Mitchell

Nacidos en Anaheim
Beca Guggenheim
Alumnado de la Universidad Johns Hopkins
Alumnado de la Universidad Estatal de Míchigan
Profesores de la Universidad de Chicago
Premio Gordon J. Laing

W. J. T. Mitchell


Vivian Roberta Jones (or Vivian Vance; July 26, 1909 – August 17, 1979) was an American actress and musician. She was in lots of notable television series and movies. She played Ethel Mertz in the American sitcom I Love Lucy. She also played Vivian Bagley in The Lucy Show. She also had many stage performances in her career.

Vance was born in Cherryvale, Kansas. She died in Belvedere, California due to bone cancer at age seventy.

1909 births
1979 deaths
American television actors
American movie actors
American stage actors
Actors from Kansas
Cancer deaths in California
Deaths from bone cancer

Vivian Vance


Richard Caruthers "Rich" Little (born November 26, 1938) is an American-Canadian comedian, movie, voice, radio, and stage actor. He is known for his impersonations of celebrities and as the first actor to provide the voice for The Pink Panther in Pink Panther. He has won a Juno Award.

Little was born on November 26, 1938 in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

He was married to Jeanne Worden from 1971 until they divorced in 1989.  He had a daughter in 1988, Lyndsay Cottrell from a previous relationship. Then he was married to Jeannette Markey from 1994 until they divorced in 1997. Then he was married to Marie Marotta from 2003 until her death in 2010. He has now been married to Catherine Brown since 2012.

He now lives in Las Vegas, Nevada. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 2008.

References

Other websites

 Official website

1938 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
American stage actors
American radio actors
Comedians from Las Vegas
American television personalities
American radio personalities
Canadian movie actors
Canadian television actors
Canadian stage actors
Canadian voice actors
Actors from Ottawa
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Actors from Las Vegas

Rich Little


Sweet Hearts Dance is a 1988 American comedy drama movie directed by Robert Greenwald. It was written by Ernest Thompson. It is about two small-town couples, one married for several years and the other at the beginning of their relationship. It stars Don Johnson, Susan Sarandon, Jeff Daniels, and Elizabeth Perkins.

It was filmed in Hyde Park, Vermont. The mayor of Burlington and future United States senator Bernie Sanders had a cameo appearance in the movie. It was released on September 23, 1988 to mixed reviews. Critic Roger Ebert gave the movie two out of four stars.

Other websites

1988 comedy-drama movies
American comedy-drama movies

Sweet Hearts Dance


The Tigris is a river in the Middle East. It is the eastern of two rivers that define Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia literally means (the land) between the rivers. The other river is called Euphrates. The source of the river is in the Taurus mountains in Turkey. From there, it flows through Northern Kurdistan in Turkey and forms part of the border between Turkey and Syria. The remainder is in Iraq.

The river is 1,900 kilometres (1,181 miles) long. It comes together with the Euphrates in the Shatt-al-Arab (which is called Arvand Rud in Persian). The Shatt-al-Arab flows into the Persian Gulf. The river had an important role in the development of civilization, as early farmers used water from the river to water their crops and produce more food.

Rivers of Iraq
Rivers of Turkey
Rivers of Syria
Mesopotamia

Tigris


A snow angel is a design made in snow that looks like an angel. It is made by lying on one's back and moving one's arms up and down, and one's legs from side to side, to make the shape of an angel. Snow angels are often made by children.

Snow
Leisure

Snow angel


Albert Isidore Meltzer (7 January 1920 – 7 May 1996) was an English anarcho-communist activist and writer.

Early life
Meltzer was born in Hackney, London, of Jewish ancestry, and educated at The Latymer School, Edmonton. He was attracted to anarchism at the age of fifteen as a direct result of taking boxing lessons where he met Billy Campbell, a seaman, boxer and anarchist.

As the Spanish Revolution turned into the Spanish Civil War, Meltzer became active organising solidarity appeals. He involved himself with smuggling arms from Hamburg to the CNT in Spain and acted as a contact for the Spanish anarchist intelligence services in Britain. At this time he had a part as an extra in Leslie Howard's film Pimpernel Smith, as Howard wanted more authentic actors playing the anarchists. In the Second World War he registered as a conscientious objector on 9 March 1940, but later renounced his objection, enlisting in the Pioneer Corps in 1945. He took part in a mutiny in Cairo in late 1946.

Views
Meltzer believed that the only true type of anarchism was communistic. He opposed the individualist anarchism of people such as Benjamin Tucker, believing that the private police that some individualists support would constitute a government.

Activism
Albert Meltzer was a contributor in the 1950s to the long-running anarchist paper Freedom before leaving in 1965 to start his own venture Wooden Shoe Press. Soon Meltzer was to be involved in a long and bitter dispute with fellow anarchist and former comrade at Freedom Press Vernon Richards which entangled many of their associates and the organisations with which they were involved and continued after both their deaths. Although the feud started in a dispute arising from the possibility of Wooden Shoe moving into Freedom premises, there were also political differences. Meltzer advocated a more firebrand and proletarian variety of anarchism than Richards and often denounced him and the Freedom collective as "liberals".

Meltzer was a co-founder of the anarchist newspaper Black Flag and was a prolific writer on anarchist topics. Amongst his books were Anarchism, Arguments For and Against (originally published by Cienfuegos Press), The Floodgates of Anarchy (co-written with Stuart Christie) and his autobiography, I Couldn't Paint Golden Angels, published by AK Press shortly before his death.

Meltzer also was involved in the founding of the Anarchist Black Cross. The imprisonment of Stuart Christie, jailed in 1964 for his part in a plot to assassinate Francisco Franco, led to the spotlight being placed on anarchist resistance and the fate of other anarchist prisoners. Meltzer campaigned for Christie's release and when he was freed in 1967 Christie joined with Albert to launch the Anarchist Black Cross, to call for solidarity with those anarchists left behind in prison. This solidarity gave practical help, such as food and medicine, to the prisoners, and helped force the Spanish state to apply its own parole rules. One of the first prisoners the Anarchist Black Cross helped free was Miguel Garcia, a veteran of the Spanish anarchist resistance, as well as wartime resistance in France. After serving 20 years in Spanish jails he moved to London to work with the Anarchist Black Cross. At the time, Albert was a printworker—a copytaker with the conservative The Daily Telegraph—and managed to get Garcia work in the trade.

Meltzer also helped to found the Kate Sharpley Library. He was involved in producing the library's publications, and helped shape its philosophy.

He joined the anarcho-syndicalist Direct Action Movement in the early 80s and was a member of it, and its successor organisation the Solidarity Federation until his death. He was originally a member of the Central London Direct Action Movement branch, but when that wound up he joined the Deptford branch, as he lived in Lewisham.  He died after a stroke at the 1996 Solidarity Federation Conference in Weston-super-Mare. His biography I Couldn't Paint Golden Angels: Sixty Years of Commonplace Life and Anarchist Agitation was published in 1996, with illustrations by Chris Pig.

Acting on behalf of – and with – the boy's natural father, in 1983 he was charged with harbouring an 8-year-old boy who had been kidnapped by his birth mother from his adoptive mother on the way to school. He was acquitted. The birth mother was under the mistaken belief that she could not be convicted of kidnapping her natural child, the law having changed weeks earlier.  She was later acquitted because she was under the mistaken belief that her son was being abused.  Reporting of the case in City Limits described Meltzer as a 'gentle and generous soul who is one of the leading figures in British anarchism'.  Police examination of seized diaries and address books led them to interview a doctor specialising in diseases of the gums, something Meltzer himself attributed to his poor handwriting and the similarity of the words gun and gum.

Notes and references

External links

Anarchist Archives entry on Meltzer link checked 16 June 2009
Articles by or about Meltzer collected on libcom.org link checked 16 June 2009
Albert Meltzer page at the Kate Sharpley Library link checked 16 June 2009
I Couldn't Paint Golden Angels: Sixty Years of Commonplace Life and Anarchist Agitation - Published by AK Press
Stuart Christie "Albert Meltzer, anarchist" Obituary by longtime comrade and co-author of Meltzer. Originally appeared in Black Flag no. 208, June 1996. An edited version also appeared in The Guardian link checked 16 June 2009
Aileen O'Carroll An obituary for Meltzer link checked 16 June 2009
John Patten "Albert Meltzer 1920–1996: a tribute", Kate Sharpley Library, originally appeared Freedom v. 63 No. 16, 10 August 2002. link checked 16 June 2009
Nicolas Walter "Obituary: Albert Meltzer"  Obituary by longtime associate of Freedom Press, The Independent Friday, 10 May 1996 (Note legal notice) link checked 16 June 2009
Ros Wynne-Jones "After the anarchy, the comedy" The Independent Sunday, 26 May 1996. Report on funeral and feud. link checked 16 June 2009
Donald Rooum "Freedom, Freedom Press and Freedom Bookshop: A short history of Freedom Press" Information for Social Change Number 27 Summer 2008, pp. 29–36 ISSN 1364-694X includes an account of the feud with Vernon Richards from an associate of Richards. link checked 16 June 2009.

1920 births
1996 deaths
20th-century English historians
20th-century English non-fiction writers
Anarchist theorists
Anarchist writers
Anarcho-communists
Anarcho-syndicalists
British Army personnel of World War II
English anarchists
English communists
English conscientious objectors
English Jews
English male non-fiction writers
Proletarian literature
English mutineers
Historians of anarchism
Jewish anarchists
British Jewish writers
People acquitted of kidnapping
People educated at The Latymer School
People from the London Borough of Hackney
Royal Pioneer Corps soldiers

Albert Meltzer


Edward "Ed" Rosenthal (born December 2, 1944) is an American horticulturist, author, publisher, and Cannabis grower known for his advocacy for the legalization of marijuana use.  He served as a columnist for High Times Magazine during the 1980s and 1990s. He was arrested in 2002 for cultivation of cannabis by federal authorities, who do not recognize the authority of states to regulate the use of medical marijuana.  He was convicted in federal court, but the conviction was overturned on appeal. Rosenthal was subsequently convicted again, but was not re-sentenced, since his original sentence had been completed.

Rosenthal has been active in promoting and developing policies of civil regulation for medicinal marijuana. With the passage of California's pioneering Proposition 215 in 1996, which authorizes medicinal use of marijuana, he worked with the state and local governments to implement the delivery of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis to patients with a doctor's recommendation to use marijuana.

Rosenthal is also the author of numerous books about the cultivation of marijuana.

Legal battles
In 2002, federal agents arrested Rosenthal, who previously had been deputized by the City of Oakland to grow marijuana for medical use. He was convicted, and some of the jurors denounced their own verdict after they learned Rosenthal was acting as an agent of the City of Oakland, a fact that had been withheld from them during the trial. In a surprise setback for the federal government, Rosenthal was sentenced by U.S. District Court Judge Charles Breyer to only one day in prison; time already served. In 2006, the 9th Circuit Appeals Court subsequently overturned Rosenthal's conviction.  Months later, the U.S. Attorney's office re-indicted him. Although the judge had promised to sentence Rosenthal to no additional prison time, a new trial commenced on 14 May 2007.

On 31 May 2007, it was announced that Rosenthal had been convicted again on three of the five charges against him: one conspiracy count; one count of cultivation, intending to distribute and distributing marijuana; and one count of using a commercial building as a site for growing and distributing marijuana.  He was acquitted of growing and distributing marijuana at the Harm Reduction Center medical-marijuana club in San Francisco.  The jury deadlocked on whether he had conspired to grow and distribute marijuana at the Harm Reduction Center.  Judge Breyer once again prohibited Rosenthal's lawyers from arguing before the jury that his work was sanctioned by Oakland government officials, a main point of contention for the jurors of the previous trial.  Ed Rosenthal did not receive any additional jail time and planned to appeal.

Advocacy

Rosenthal's public battles in the court have focused attention on the question of whether marijuana laws have become more harmful to society than the behavior they were intended to regulate. Recent polls show that as many as 80% of Americans support legal access to medical marijuana. The Federal Government does not recognize the legitimacy of medical marijuana initiatives passed by individual states, but  under the Cole Memorandum, will not be enforcing federal laws against states that have legalized the recreational use such as California, Colorado, Oregon, Maine, Nevada, Massachusetts and Washington.

See also
Cannabis in California
Cannabis in the United States

References

External links

  Green Aid, details on Ed Rosenthal's legal battles
  Ed Rosenthal Official Website

American cannabis activists
American columnists
American instructional writers
American publishers (people)
American tax resisters
Writers from Oakland, California
Youngstown State University people
1944 births
Living people
American horticulturists
Writers from the Bronx
American businesspeople convicted of crimes
Journalists from New York City
Activists from New York (state)
Oaksterdam University faculty
Yippies

Ed Rosenthal


A manifold is a concept from mathematics.  Making a manifold is like making a flat map of a sphere (the Earth).

The Earth is a sphere, a three dimensional object of geometry. Yet, maps (two-dimensional representations) can be made of the Earth. At the edges of a certain map, the map needs to be changed. That way it is possible to make a two dimensional image of the whole surface of the Earth. There need to be rules, on how to change the maps, and some areas (near the edges of the map) will be on more than one map. It is not possible to make one map only, which would have no edges. This map would either have edges (and overlapping areas), or there would be some places where the paper was torn. Tearing and overlapping isn't allowed.

Other shapes can be manifolds too. For example, a hyperbolic plane is a shape that looks like a saddle or leaf of lettuce. If you try to press it down onto a piece of paper, it will have wrinkles, and it will go on forever past the edges of the paper. But you can make a map of part of it by squishing the edges, just like with the Earth you can make a map by taking part of it and stretching the edges.

Each manifold has a dimension. This is the number of dimensions of the maps, in the example above. It is the same for all maps.

Differential geometry
Topology

Manifold


In economics two or more goods can be classified by looking at the demand curve when the price of one of these goods changes. That way they will either be classified as substitutes or complementary goods. Two goods are substitutes if the demand of one good increases and the price of the other good increases. In this case, consumers will replace one good with the other.

Classic examples of substitute goods include margarine and butter, or tea and coffee. Substitute goods not only occur on the consumer side of the market but also the producer side. Substitutable producer goods would include: petroleum and natural gas (used for heating or electricity). The fact that one good is substitutable for another has immediate economic consequences: insofar as one good can be substituted for another, the demand for the two kinds of good will be bound together by the fact that customers can trade off one good for the other if they get an advantage by to do so.

Perfect substitutes can replace each other, without trade-off in costs, or quality. For imperfect substitutes, the customer has to make a trade-off, either in price, or in quality. Artificial leather is much cheaper than real leather, and can replace it in many situations - artificial and real leather are substitute goods. Real leather is much more durable, and has a different look and feel. When these factors are important, the two are not interchangeable. For this reason artificial and real leather are imperfect substitutes.

Microeconomics
Goods

Substitute good


A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that indicates a reciprocal relationship. A reciprocal pronoun can be used for one of the participants of a reciprocal construction, i.e. a clause in which two participants are in a mutual relationship. The reciprocal pronouns of English are one another and each other, and they form the category of anaphors along with reflexive pronouns (myself, yourselves, themselves, etc.).

Defining properties

Semantics of reciprocal relation

Reflexive pronouns are used similarly to reciprocal pronouns in the sense that they typically refer back to the subject of the sentence.

 (1) John and Mary like themselves.
 (2) John and Mary like each other.

The main difference between reflexives, as in example (1), and reciprocal pronouns, as in example (2), is that reflexives are used when the subject acts upon itself, while reciprocals are used when members of a group perform the same action relative to one another. Reciprocal pronouns exist in many languages. They are associated with plural noun phrases and indicate a reciprocal relationship between the members of the plural noun phrase. This means that some member (x) of the plural subject is acting on another member (y) of the subject, and that member (y) is also acting on (x), and that both x and y are members of the group denoted by the antecedent subject.

Below are examples of reciprocal pronouns and how their relationship to their antecedents contrasts to cases of reflexive pronoun relationships, and regular transitive relationships, and how they behave in relation to direct object pronouns in the same situation.  Let R denote a Relation, and let the variables (for example, (x, y) ) stand for the arguments introduced by R.

Therefore, we can look at a reciprocal relationship using this notation, using the verb see as the relation:
see(Anne, Betty) and see(Betty, Anne).

Syntax of reciprocals as anaphors

Within the theory of generative grammar, and within phrase-structure grammar, binding theory explains how anaphors share a relationship with their referents.

Binding Principle A of this theory states:
X binds Y if and only if X c-commands Y, and X and Y are coindexed,
Anaphors must be locally bound within the binding domain of the clause containing the DP determiner phrase.

In the traditional binding theory, the category of anaphor includes both reflexive and reciprocal pronouns of English, which is a problem, since they are distributed differently.

The differences in the distribution of reflexives and reciprocals are illustrated below using X-bar theory tree diagrams.

Distribution of reciprocals: Lebeaux (1983)

Although both reciprocal and reflexive pronouns are classified as anaphors, they differ in distribution.  For example, reciprocal pronouns can appear in the subject position of noun phrases, whereas reflexives cannot.

 (3) a.  John and Mary like each other's parents.
     b. *John and Mary like themselves' parents.

 (4) a.  All of the students would know if each other had the answers.
     b. *All of the students would know if themselves had the answers.

In example (4b) with the reflexive anaphor, the embedded clause's complementizer phrase (CP) beginning with the word "if", cannot introduce a subject noun phrase.

Although in many cases, either a reflexive or a reciprocal pronoun could appear in the same structural position, in some cases, the asymmetry occurs when a reciprocal may be bound to its antecedent, but a reflexive may not.

The following examples from Lebeaux (1983) show that in some sentences, either type of anaphor could be used:

 (5) a. John and Mary like themselves.
     b. John and Mary like each other.

Both the reflexive pronoun in (5a) and the reciprocal pronoun in (5b) can be locally bound (its antecedent is in the same clause, the clause is the binding domain), which would follow binding theory's binding principle A: that an anaphor must be bound in its binding domain).
A case in which we can see the differences in the distribution of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns is in the subject position of embedded clauses: reflexives cannot occur in this position (6a), but reciprocals can (6b).

 (6) a. *John and Mary think that themselves will win.
     b.  John and Mary think that each other will win.

As we can see in the X-bar theory tree diagram of (6b), the reciprocal pronoun is in the subject position of the embedded clause, which is introduced by complementizer "that".  It is not possible for a reflexive pronoun to occur in this position as shown by the ungrammaticality of (6a).

In this case, the reciprocal pronoun is not necessarily the ideal construction, but the reflexive is not a possible grammatical sentence. This suggests that while reflexives require a proper binder, reciprocals may appear in positions that are not governed this way, and can even be in a different clause than the antecedent.

The differences can be summarized as follows:

Reciprocals are subject to binding theory;
Reflexives are subject to binding theory, and must be properly governed.

Variation in the realization of reciprocals
Syntactically, reciprocals can be realized as free or bound pronouns, as NP arguments or as verbal affixes.

Free pronoun

Person-marked free pronoun
These have a similar pattern to personal pronouns, as they are morphemes independent from the verb (and not clitics, or inflection markers). They possess person features : the reciprocal pronoun surfaces differently when its antecedent is first-, second- or third-person. These are common in the Chadic language Hausa:

Person-unmarked free pronoun
Person-unmarked free pronouns occur in languages that do not have distinct forms for all persons. This is commonly found in German.  Unlike person-marked pronouns, person-unmarked free pronouns cannot occur in contexts where the pronoun is modifying the noun (i.e. each other's parents), and in contexts where there is a non-subject antecedent (i.e. introduced them to one another).

Bound pronoun

Pronominal affix
Reciprocal pronouns can be affixed to either the verb, or to the auxiliary base, as in Warlpiri:

Pronominal clitic
Reciprocal pronominal clitics are commonly found in the Romance languages.  These are seen in French and Spanish as se and Italian si. In finite clauses, they are preverbal in French, Italian, and Spanish. In nonfinite clauses and infinitive constructions, the clitic follows the verb in Spanish and Italian, but not in French.

In the Australian language Wanyi, reciprocal pronominal clitics differentiate between person and number, and can attach to other elements, not restricted to attaching to just the verb.

NP argument

English each other versus each…the other

Examining the semantic relations of reciprocity, we see further differences within reciprocal relationships, such as those between each other and each...the other relations. In general, if it is possible to divide a set (a sentence) into subsets where each subset is an each…the other relationship, then the whole set of events can be described by an each other sentence.
Each other constructions characterize an entire set of individuals (as indicated by the plural antecedent), but allow for some vagueness in their interpretation. In contrast, each...the other constructions characterize each member of a set.  Therefore, we can see that each other does not force a strict distributional interpretation. If we separate each and other, we can get different interpretations.

 (7) a. The men are hugging each other.
     b. Each of the men is hugging  the others.

In (7a) every member of the set the men must be in some reciprocal relationship of hugging at some unspecified point during the time frame of the hugging event. In (7b), we infer that each of the men hugged every other man in the group of men who participated in the hugging event.

In examining the scope of reciprocal pronouns, we can see that in English, the antecedent must be plural and must receive at least a (weakly) distributed interpretation.  In viewing each other as one pronoun, each is not assigned scope as a quantifier, thus allowing for a weaker distribution.  The distributivity of the above example (7b) is not enforced down to the level of all individuals, as opposed to (7a), in which each as a separate entity and a quantifier enforces strict distributivity.

English each other versus one another
The other reciprocal pronoun in English is one another. I can be treated exactly the same way as each other. The only difference between the two is the number of antecedent nouns it can encompass. Each other can be used to demonstrate a relationship or action between two subjects, whereas one another can be used to demonstrate a relationship or action between two or more subjects.

 (8) a.  There are two men, they hugged each other.
     b. *There are three men, they hugged each other.
     c.  There are three men, they hugged one another.

 (9) a. *John, Mary, and Paul see each other.
     b.  John, Mary and Paul see one another.

Dutch elkaar versus mekaar
The reciprocal pronouns in Dutch are elkaar and mekaar. While elkaar is a single morpheme that is equivalent to the English reciprocal pronoun each other, mekaar is equivalent to the English reciprocal pronoun one another. The difference between the two Dutch reciprocal pronouns is in terms of their use and frequency of use. Mekaar is used less often, mainly in colloquial speech and in children's speech. Similar to English, Dutch elkaar requires the antecedent to be in the same clause:

Verbal affix: Chichewa

In English, the reciprocal each other is a noun phrase that takes an argument position of a syntactic predicate, whereas in Chichewa, the reciprocal is an intransitive verbal affix -an. However, the meaning of the reciprocal is the same in both languages. The reciprocals each other and -an both require a group antecedent. The English example in (11a) is interpreted relative to members of the group denoted by the reciprocal antecedent the boys.  The same holds of the Chichewa example in (11b): the Chichewa reciprocal likewise requires a group antecedent.

(11) a. The boys are hitting each other.

See also
 Reciprocal construction
 Syntax

References

RECIP:reciprocal pronoun

Grammar
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Transitivity and valency

Reciprocal pronoun


Windows Server 2012, codenamed "Windows Server 8", is the sixth release of Windows Server. It is the server version of Windows 8 and succeeds Windows Server 2008 R2. Two pre-release versions, a developer preview and a beta version, were released during development. The software was generally available to customers starting on September 4, 2012.It's mainstream support ended on October 9, 2018 and extended support ended on October 10, 2023. Windows Server 2012 is eligible for the paid Extended Security Updates (ESU) program (free for Azure Virtual Desktop users). It allows to purchase Security Updates for 3 years, in early installments. Security Updates are available for the operating system until October 13, 2026.

Unlike its predecessor, Windows Server 2012 has no support for Itanium-based computers, and has four editions. Various features were added or improved over Windows Server 2008 R2 (with many placing an emphasis on cloud computing), such as an updated version of Hyper-V, an IP address management role, a new version of Windows Task Manager, and ReFS, a new file system. Windows Server 2012 received generally good reviews in spite of having included the same controversial Metro-based user interface seen in Windows 8.

The successor to Windows Server 2012, called Windows Server 2012 R2, was released  along with Windows 8.1 in October 2013. A service pack, formally designated Windows Server 2012 R2 Update, was released in April 2014.

History
Windows Server 2012, codenamed "Windows Server 8", is the sixth release of Windows Server family of operating systems developed concurrently with Windows 8. It was not until April 17, 2012 that the company announced that the final product name would be "Windows Server 2012".

Microsoft introduced Windows Server 2012 and its developer preview in the BUILD 2011 conference on September 9, 2011. However, unlike Windows 8, the developer preview of Windows Server 2012 was only made available to MSDN subscribers. It included a graphical user interface (GUI) based on Metro design language and a new Server Manager, a graphical application used for server management. On February 16, 2012, Microsoft released an update for developer preview build that extended its expiry date from April 8, 2012 to January 15, 2013.

Before Windows Server 2012 was finalized, two test builds were made public. A public beta version of Windows Server 2012 was released along with the Windows 8 Consumer Preview on February 29, 2012. The release candidate of Windows Server 2012 was released on May 31, 2012, along with the Windows 8 Release Preview.

The product was released to manufacturing on August 1, 2012 and became generally available on September 4, 2012. However, not all editions of Windows Server 2012 were released at the same time. Windows Server 2012 Essentials was released to manufacturing on October 9, 2012 and was made generally available on November 1, 2012. As of September 23, 2012, all students subscribed to DreamSpark program can download Windows Server 2012 Standard or Datacenter free of charge.

References

Further reading

Other websites

 Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows Server 2012 on TechNet
 Windows Server 2012 R2 on MSDN
 Windows Server 2012 on MSDN
 Tutorials and Lab Manual Articles of Windows Server 2012 R2

Pages created with the Article Wizard
Microsoft operating systems

Windows Server 2012