South Side (or "Southside") is an area in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, located along the Monongahela River across from Downtown Pittsburgh.  The South Side is officially divided into two neighborhoods, South Side Flats and South Side Slopes. Both the Flats and the Slopes are represented on Pittsburgh City Council by Bruce Kraus. The business district stretches along East Carson Street, which is home to many small shops, restaurants and bars. In 2006, more than 80 bars and pubs operated in the South Side Flats. The neighborhood has an urban fabric with rowhouses.

The South Side is well-connected with public transit. Its proximity and public transit connections also have attracted professionals who work downtown. Pittsburgh Fire Station #24 is located on Mary Street in the neighborhood.

History

The South Side, most of which was originally the village of Birmingham that was annexed to the city in 1872, was settled primarily by German then later Eastern European immigrants who came to Pittsburgh to work in heavy industry. Dr. Nathaniel Bedford planned a large part of Birmingham and named many streets after his friends and family, thus the predominance of streets named after people such as Jane, Sarah, and Carson.

For many years, much of the South Side was dominated by heavy industry and associated service businesses.  The Jones and Laughlin Steel Company was located on the South Side but closed in the 1980s and has since been redeveloped.  The Pittsburgh Terminal Properties building is located on the west end of Carson Street, next to the Liberty Bridge.  When construction finished in 1906, it was the largest warehouse between New York and Chicago.  Connections to river, rail, and road transport made it an ideal facility for merchants who sold goods and needed temporary storage.  It has since been redeveloped into River Walk Corporate Centre and houses a mix of office and service businesses including Paper Products Company and City Center Self Storage.

In more recent years, the South Side has become home to a larger student population. Many students at Duquesne University, University of Pittsburgh, and Carnegie Mellon University either live in the South Side or spend a portion of their nightlife there. A walk over the South Tenth Street Bridge that crosses the Monongahela River takes students to Duquesne University. Due to the large number of college students and young professionals, in addition to the thriving bar scene, South Side has developed into a nightlife destination for young people in Pittsburgh.

Economy
Important streets in South Side are E. Carson Street, Josephine Street, and S. 18th street. The business district is located along E. Carson Street, which runs the length of South Side. The Birmingham Bridge makes South Side easily accessible from Oakland, which is around 2 miles away from South Side. Station Square is about 1.5 miles west of South Side, and Mt. Washington is 2.5 miles away. The average South Side family income in 2003 was $41,353.

East Carson St. has restaurants, bars, and shops that help support the economy of the South Side. The large variety of shopping along E. Carson Street and SouthSide Works is also a factor in the South Side's economy. There are a variety of locally owned stores such as Pittsburgh Jeans Co. and widespread stores such as American Eagle, H&M, and Nine West. The Urban Redevelopment Authority started the SouthSide Works project hoping to create over 6,000 jobs. Today, SouthSide Works has over 10 shopping stores and over 10 restaurants & bars. The restoration of the business district has improved South Sides economy dramatically and house sales have jumped $75,000 in the past 10 years along with vacancy dropping below 10%.

The South Side is also home to a variety of service businesses and reconverted office buildings.  Many businesses locate here because rents are less than in Downtown Pittsburgh.  The Pittsburgh Terminal Properties building has been converted into River Walk Corporate Center.  Tenants are a mix of light industrial (The Paper Company), professional (LDA Architects), and storage for Pittsburgh businesses and residents (City Center Self Storage).

South Side Local Development Company (LDC) helps the economic development in the neighborhood. Under LDC, the Neighborhood Assistance Program was created. The NAP is partners with PNC bank and able to fund programs to create jobs and housing production with their $2.5 million grant. Since 1982, LDC has created over 250 new businesses, renovated over 200 stores, and built over 700 new homes. South Sides redeveloped downtown has increased apartment sales and attracted a lot of nightlife in the neighborhood.

South Side Flats

The Flats has one of the largest Victorian main streets in the United States. The entire length of East Carson Street is designated as a historic district.  Strict rules dictate what the exterior of the buildings can look like. This neighborhood is a prime example of adaptive reuse of historic structures to spur community revitalization.  One of the famous steel mills of Pittsburgh, the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company was located on the South Side but closed in the 1980s and today the land is home to the SouthSide Works shopping and entertainment complex.  In the 1980s, this neighborhood was rapidly declining but historic preservation propelled it to a new and bright future.  Today, the South Side is a desirable city neighborhood and is known for its multitude of bars and restaurants. The South Side is a popular destination for Pittsburgh residents who seek an entertaining nightlife.

The popularity of the neighborhood has costs. Older, lifelong residents often clash with the values of the young urban professionals and students moving in. Also, parking in the South Side is among the tightest in the city, as narrow streets and high density of buildings leave little empty street space. Nuisance crime has also been a growing issue, but in mid-2018, city leaders announced that crime in the South Side bar district dropped by roughly 30 percent from the previous year, possibly because of the addition of new outdoor security cameras and a larger police patrol presence.

South Side Slopes

The South Side Slopes is the very steep neighborhood located just south of what is traditionally thought of as the South Side but is more appropriately the South Side Flats. Sections of the Slopes are so steep that special fire trucks have to be used to navigate the zigzagging maze of narrow streets. Some spots are so steep that public staircases actually serve as the street. These public steps have street signs and houses located along them.

Public steps are not rare in the hilly city of Pittsburgh. The city has over 700 sets of steps providing access to otherwise unreachable neighborhoods.

Gallery

See also
List of Pittsburgh neighborhoods
History of Pittsburgh's South Side

References

External links

Neighborhoods in Pittsburgh

South Side (Pittsburgh)


In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a question in some formal system with a yes-or-no answer. The answer is dependent on the values of the input parameters. Decision problems typically appear in mathematical questions of decidability, that is, the question of the existence of an effective method to determine the existence of some object or its membership in a set. Some of the most important problems in mathematics are undecidable.

Mathematical problems
Decision theory

Decision problem


Ampère's circuital law, discovered by André-Marie Ampère in 1826, relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. It is now one of Maxwell's equations, which form the basis of classical electromagnetism.

Original Ampère's circuital law

The law relates magnetic fields to electric currents that produce them. A scientist can use Ampere's law to determine the magnetic field associated with a given current or current associated with a given magnetic field, if there is no time changing electric field present.
In its original form, Ampère's Circuital Law relates the magnetic field to its electric current source.
The law can be written in two forms, the "integral form" and the "differential form". The forms are equivalent, and related by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem. It can also be written in terms of either the B or H magnetic fields. Again, the two forms are equivalent (see the "proof" section below).

Ampère's circuital law is now known to be a correct law of physics in a magnetostatic situation: The system is static except possibly for continuous steady currents within closed loops. In all other cases the law is incorrect unless Maxwell's correction is included (see below).

Integral form
In SI units (the version in cgs units is in a later section), the "integral form" of the original Ampère's circuital law is:

or equivalently,

where
• is the vector dot product,  is the closed line integral around the closed curve C,  denotes an integral over the surface S enclosed by the curve C (the double integral sign is meant simply to denote that the integral is two-dimensional in nature);
B is the magnetic B-field in teslas, H is the magnetic H-field in ampere per metre;
If,enc is the net free current that penetrates through the surface S, Ienc is the total net current that penetrates through the surface S, including both free and bound current.
Jf is the free current density through the surface S enclosed by the curve C, J is the total current density through the surface S enclosed by the curve C, including both free and bound current;
dℓ is an infinitesimal element (a differential) of the curve C (i.e. a vector with magnitude equal to the length of the infinitesimal line element, and direction given by the tangent to the curve C), dS is the vector area of an infinitesimal element of surface S (that is, a vector with magnitude equal to the area of the infinitesimal surface element, and direction normal to surface S. The direction of the normal must correspond with the orientation of C by the right hand rule);
μ0 is the magnetic constant;

See below for further explanation of the curve C and surface S. There are a number of ambiguities in the above definitions that require clarification and a choice of convention.

First, three of these terms are associated with sign ambiguities: the line integral  could go around the loop in either direction (clockwise or counterclockwise); the vector area dS could point in either of the two directions normal to the surface; and Ienc is the net current passing through the surface S, meaning the current passing through in one direction, minus the current in the other direction—but either direction could be chosen as positive. These ambiguities are resolved by the right-hand rule: With the palm of the right-hand toward the area of integration, and the index-finger pointing along the direction of line-integration, the outstretched thumb points in the direction that must be chosen for the vector area dS. Also the current passing in the same direction as dS must be counted as positive. The right hand grip rule can also be used to determine the signs.

Second, there are infinitely many possible surfaces S that have the curve C as their border. (Imagine a soap film on a wire loop, which can be deformed by moving the wire). Which of those surfaces is to be chosen? If the loop does not lie in a single plane, for example, there is no one obvious choice.  The answer is that it does not matter; it can be proven that any surface with boundary C can be chosen.

Differential form
By the Kelvin–Stokes theorem, this equation can also be written in a "differential form". Again, this equation only applies in the case where the electric field is constant in time; see below for the more general form. In SI units, the equation states:

where
 is the curl operator.

Note on free current versus bound current

The electric current that arises in the simplest textbook situations would be classified as "free current." For example, the law can apply to the current that passes through a wire or battery. In contrast, "bound current" arises in the context of bulk materials that can be magnetized and/or polarized. (All materials can to some extent.)

When a material is magnetized (for example, by placing it in an external magnetic field), the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms, but behave as if they were orbiting the nucleus in a particular direction, creating a microscopic current. When the currents from all these atoms are put together, they create the same effect as a macroscopic current, circulating perpetually around the magnetized object. This magnetization current JM is one contribution to "bound current".

The other source of bound current is bound charge. When an electric field is applied, the positive and negative bound charges can separate over atomic distances in polarizable materials, and when the bound charges move, the polarization changes, creating another contribution to the "bound current", the polarization current JP.

The total current density J  due to free and bound charges is then:

with Jf the "free" or "conduction" current density.

All current is fundamentally the same, microscopically. There are often practical reasons for wanting to treat bound current differently from free current. For example, the bound current usually originates over atomic dimensions, and one may wish to take advantage of a simpler theory intended for larger dimensions. The result is that the more microscopic Ampère's law, expressed in terms of B and the microscopic current (which includes free, magnetization and polarization currents), is sometimes put into the equivalent form below in terms of H and the free current only. For a detailed definition of free current and bound current, and the proof that the two formulations are equivalent, see the "proof" section below.

Shortcomings of the original formulation of Ampère's circuital law

Two issues regarding Ampère's law are important. First, there is an issue regarding the continuity equation for electrical charge.  There is a theorem in vector calculus that states the divergence of a curl must always be zero. Hence

and so the original Ampère's law implies that

But in general

which is non-zero for a time-varying charge density. An example occurs in a capacitor circuit where time-varying charge densities exist on the plates.

Second, there is an issue regarding the propagation of electromagnetic waves. For example, in free space, where

Ampère's law implies that

but instead

To treat these situations, the contribution of displacement current must be added to the current term in Ampère's law.

James Clerk Maxwell conceived of displacement current as a polarization current in the dielectric vortex sea, which he used to model the magnetic field with water (hydrodynamically) and with mechanical systems (mechanically). He added this displacement current to Ampère's circuital law at equation (112) in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force .

Displacement current

In free space, the displacement current is related to the time rate of change of electric field.

In a dielectric the above contribution to displacement current is also present, but a major contribution to the displacement current is related to the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate under the applied field, causing an increase in the state of polarization, expressed as the polarization density P.  A changing state of polarization is equivalent to a current.

Both contributions to the displacement current are combined by defining the displacement current as:

where the electric displacement field is defined as:

where ε0 is the electric constant, εr the relative static permittivity, and P is the polarization density. Substituting this form for D in the expression for displacement current, it has two components:

The first term on the right hand side is present everywhere, even in a vacuum. It doesn't involve any actual movement of charge, but it nevertheless has an associated magnetic field, as if it were an actual current. Some authors apply the name displacement current to only this contribution.

The second term on the right hand side is the displacement current as originally conceived by Maxwell, associated with the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material.

Maxwell's original explanation for displacement current focused upon the situation that occurs in dielectric media. In the modern post-aether era, the concept has been extended to apply to situations with no material media present, for example, to the vacuum between the plates of a charging vacuum capacitor. The displacement current is justified today because it serves several requirements of an electromagnetic theory:  correct prediction of magnetic fields in regions where no free current flows; prediction of wave propagation of electromagnetic fields; and conservation of electric charge in cases where charge density is time-varying. For greater discussion see Displacement current.

Extending the original law: the Maxwell–Ampère equation

Ampère's equation was extended by including the polarization current, thereby remedying the limited applicability of the original Ampère's circuital law.

Treating free charges separately from bound charges, Ampère's equation including Maxwell's correction in terms of the H-field is (the H-field is used because it includes the magnetization currents, so JM does not appear explicitly, see H-field and also Note):

(integral form), where H is the magnetic H field (also called "auxiliary magnetic field", "magnetic field intensity", or just "magnetic field", D is the electric displacement field, and Jf is the enclosed conduction current or free current density. In differential form,

On the other hand, treating all charges on the same footing (disregarding whether they are bound or free charges), the generalized Ampère's equation (also called the Maxwell–Ampère equation) is (see the "proof" section below):

in integral form. In differential form,

In both forms J includes magnetization current density as well as conduction and polarization current densities. That is, the current density on the right side of the Ampère–Maxwell equation is:

where current density JD is the displacement current, and J is the current density contribution actually due to movement of charges, both free and bound. Because , the charge continuity issue with Ampère's original formulation is no longer a problem. Because of the term in ε0∂E / ∂t, wave propagation in free space now is possible.

With the addition of the displacement current, Maxwell was able to hypothesize (correctly) that light was a form of electromagnetic wave. See electromagnetic wave equation for a discussion of this important discovery.

Proof of equivalence

{| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left"
!Proof that the formulations of Ampère's law in terms of free current are equivalent to the formulations involving total current.
|-
|In this proof, we will show that the equation

is equivalent to the equation

Note that we're only dealing with the differential forms, not the integral forms, but that is sufficient since the differential and integral forms are equivalent in each case, by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem.

We introduce the polarization density P, which has the following relation to E and D:

Next, we introduce the magnetization density M, which has the following relation to B and H:

and the following relation to the bound current:

where

is called the magnetization current density, and

is the polarization current density. Taking the equation for B:

Consequently, referring to the definition of the bound current:

as was to be shown.
|}

Ampère's law in cgs units
In cgs units, the integral form of the equation, including Maxwell's correction, reads

where c is the speed of light.

The differential form of the equation (again, including Maxwell's correction) is

Related pages

 Biot–Savart law
 Displacement current
 Capacitance
 Ampèrian magnetic dipole model
 Electromagnetic wave equation
 Maxwell's equations

 Faraday's law of induction
 Bound charge
 Electric current
 Vector calculus
 Stokes' theorem

References

Further reading

Other websites
  Simple Nature by Benjamin Crowell   Ampere's law from an online textbook
 MISN-0-138 Ampere's Law  (PDF file) by Kirby Morgan for Project PHYSNET.
 MISN-0-145 The Ampere–Maxwell Equation; Displacement Current  (PDF file) by J.S. Kovacs for Project PHYSNET.
 The Ampère's Law Song (PDF file) by Walter Fox Smith; Main page, with recordings of the song.
A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field  Maxwell's paper of 1864

Laws of physics

Ampère's circuital law


A scribe is an ancient occupation. A scribe's job involved reading and writing, especially during the Renaissance.  Being a scribe meant writing letters, and historical records for  kings, nobility, and temples.  It was an important job when few people could read and write. Later, it changed into being secretaries, clerks: public servants, journalists, accountants and lawyers. Today, there are no scribes, but there are still authors and writers.

Egyptian scribes
The Ancient Egyptian scribe was an important job. Ancient Egypt also had its painters and artisans who decorated tombs, buildings, furniture, statues, and other relics with pictures and hieroglyphics. In Ancient Egypt, only males could be scribes. This was so in many civilisations, because most official positions were exclusively male.

The scribes had to be able to write not only the hieroglyphs, but also the hieratic (priestly) script, and they had to know arithmetic. They used a type of paper called papyrus, made from reeds, and wrote with reed pens and ink.

Related pages
Writing

Other websites
 Catholic Encyclopedia

Ancient Egypt
Writing systems
Writing occupations

Scribe


An interface or shell is what the user uses on an operating system to make the computer do tasks, like writing a document, or loading a web page. There are two types of interfaces, a command line interface (CLI for short) - where people write commands to make the computer perform tasks, or a graphical user interface (GUI for short), where people use their Computer mouse to click on buttons to perform tasks.

Command line interface

See Command line interface.

Command line interfaces ask the user to type in commands in a text-based environment, not allowing images, like the screen image to the right.

For example, if the user wanted the computer to say "Hello World", he or she would:
 have to type in what tells the computer that this is a command (we will use "say")
 then have to tell the computer what to "say" ("Hello World" in quotation marks)
 then press Enter or Return, giving the command to the computer, which is say "Hello World", so the computer prints Hello World.

This is hard to use for most people, mostly because when the user has to do a long command, he or she can miss a letter or two, so the computer shows an error, and he or she has to do it all over again, which can waste hours.

Graphical user interface
See Graphical user interface.

Graphical user interfaces are instead made of not only text, but also images. The first computer to do this was the Apple Lisa (1983).

The following operating systems can use graphical user interfaces:
 Microsoft Windows
 Mac OS X
 Linux distributions, such as Ubuntu
Since the top operating systems (listed above) use graphical user interfaces, they are seen on every computer. Anyone can still use a command line interface on any computer very easily.

Related pages
 Apple Macintosh is the original Macintosh was the first economic computer with a GUI
 Xerox Alto is a very first computer with a GUI—but it wasn't easy to use
 Microsoft Windows

References

Computer terminology

Interface


Independence and Unity Day () is a Slovenian national holiday that occurs on every 26 December to commemorate the official proclamation of the Slovenian independence referendum on 26 December 1990. The referendum took place on 23 December that year. In it, 95% of the voters favoured the establishment of independent and sovereign nation. Between 1991 and 2005, the holiday used to be known simply as Independence Day. The current name was adopted in September 2005, following the proposal of the then-opposition Social Democrats, in order to emphasize the national consensus at the time of the 1990 referendum, which was supported by all political parties represented in the Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia at the time.

Independence and Unity Day is not to be confused with Slovenia's Statehood Day, which is celebrated each year on June 25, in honour of the declaration of Slovenian independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.

Related articles
Public holidays in Slovenia

Slovenia
December observances
Public holidays in Slovenia
Winter events in Slovenia

Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia)


Rodney Sharman (born 24 May 1958) is a Canadian composer and flutist based in Vancouver. His music has been performed in over 30 countries worldwide. He has won several international and national awards, including First Prize in the 1984 CBC Competition for Young Composers. His chamber opera, Elsewhereless, a collaboration with Atom Egoyan, premiered in 1998 and has been staged 35 times internationally.

Biography
Sharman earned degrees from the University of Victoria School of Music (Victoria, B.C.) and the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik (Freiburg, Germany). In May 1991, he earned a PhD from the State University of New York at Buffalo. Sharman studied under Murray Adaskin, Rudolf Komorous, Brian Ferneyhough, Morton Feldman, David Felder, Frederic Rzewski, Louis Andriessen and Lucas Foss.

Sharman was guest composer at the Institute of Sonology (Utrecht, Netherlands) in 1983-84. He taught at Wilfrid Laurier University, the University of British Columbia School of Music, the School for the Contemporary Arts and Faculty of Graduate Liberal Studies, Simon Fraser University. Sharman was the Vancouver Symphony's (VSO) Composer-in-Residence from 1997 to 2000 and its Composer/Music Advisor from 2000 to 2001. He was Composer-in-Residence of the National Youth Orchestra of Canada in 2004, and he was Composer-in-Residence of the Victoria Symphony 2008-2010.

The Canadian Section of the International Society for Contemporary Music (ISCM) elected him President from 1991-95. Canadian League of Composers (CLC) elected Sharman President from 1993-98. He has served on the CLC Council from 1988 to 1999.

In 1990, Sharman was awarded the Kranichsteiner Music Prize at the Darmstadt summer courses in Germany.

Style

Sharman's music is notable for its heavy use of extended techniques and exploration of new timbres. He often writes for uncommon instruments or unusual ensembles. He is also known for his opera transcriptions, cabaret songs, and music for harp.

Selected works
 The Proximity of Mars (1988)
 In Changing Light (1995)
 Elsewhereless (1998)
 Scarlattiana (1999)
 Four Seasons, One Tree (2001)
 The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (2005)
 Departures (2008)

References

External links

 RodneySharman.com
 Personal Web Page, accessed 16 February 2010
Canadian Music Centre, accessed 31 July 2018

1958 births
21st-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
Canadian classical composers
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Pupils of Louis Andriessen
Canadian male classical composers
20th-century Canadian composers
20th-century Canadian male musicians
21st-century Canadian male musicians

Rodney Sharman


Apology of al-Kindi (also spelled al-Kindy) is a medieval theological polemic making a case for Christianity and drawing attention to alleged flaws in Islam.  The word "apology" is a translation of the Arabic word , and it is used in the sense of apologetics.

It is attributed to an Arab Christian referred to as Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi. This Al-Kindi is otherwise unknown, and is clearly different from the Muslim philosopher Abu Yûsuf ibn Ishâq al-Kindī.

The significance of the work lies in its availability to Europe's educated elite from as early as the twelfth century as a source of information about Islam.

Publishing history
The date of composition of the Apology is controversial.
The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Arabic text are seventeenth century.
However, the Arabic manuscripts are predated by a twelfth-century Latin translation made in Spain, where the Arabic text is assumed to have been circulating among Mozarabs.

The translation into Latin was a collaborative work on which a Spaniard Peter of Toledo was the main translator. Professor van Koningsveld has identified various errors in the Latin translation attributable to a limited knowledge of classical Arabic on the part of the translator.
While Peter of Toledo's Arabic appears to have been less than perfect, it was better than his Latin, and a French scholar Peter of Poitiers polished the Latin text. Both men were part of a team recruited by Peter the Venerable, who also commissioned translations of other Arabic texts, including the Qur'an. Peter the Venerable's aim was to convert Muslims to Christianity, and for that reason it can be argued that his interpretation of Islam was inherently negative, but he did manage to set out "a more reasoned approach to Islam…through using its own sources rather than those produced by the hyperactive imagination of some earlier Western Christian writers". After circulating in manuscript, Peter the Venerable's so-called Toledan Collection was published in print in the sixteenth century with a preface by Martin Luther.

Excerpts from the Apology of al-Kindy became available in English through William Muir's translation of 1882. Like its Latin predecessor, Muir's (partial) translation was intended for missionary purposes, as he states in the preface.

The book is extensively quoted in Vincent of Beauvais' Speculum Maius, a major 13th century encyclopaedia.

Contents
The Apology purports to be a record of a dialogue between a Muslim and a Christian. In fact, the book contains two apologies: The Muslim first invites the Christian to embrace Islam. The Christian declines this and in turn invites the Muslim to embrace Christianity. The Christian's answer comprises some six-sevenths of the text.

The two participants are referred to by pseudonyms, according to the text to secure their safety. The Muslim participant, called "Abd-Allah ibn Ismail al-Hashimy" (which translates as "Servant of Allah, son of Ishmael, from the clan Banu Hashim), is described as a cousin of the unnamed Caliph, living in the Caliph's castle and being well versed in Christian theology. He is also described as having a close and trusted Christian friend called "Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi" (which translates as "Servant of Christ, son of Isaac, from the tribe Kindah").

Controversy regarding the dating of the Apology

Views of William Muir
Muir acknowledged difficulties in obtaining a reliable version of the Arabic text, but he defended the authenticity of the work, noting that the Apology was quoted by Abu-Rayhan Biruni around the year 1000 as the Epistle of "Abd al Masîh ibn Ishâc, Al Kindy". Both Muir and van Koningsveld favour a ninth-century date for the Apology.  Muir is more specific about the date, identifying the Caliph, who remains unnamed in the epistles, as Al-Ma'mun, who reigned from 813 to 833.  Muir argues that the epistles were written at his court because of:
 "the manner in which the Caliph is throughout referred to..."
 the "political allusions" contained in the book...
 the "freedom of our Author's treatment of Islam"...

Opposing views
The dating proposed by Muir has also been disputed with it being the object of serious disagreements between orientalists. L. Massignon believes the composition to be later than Muir's suggestion, suggesting the 4th century hijri (10th century CE), arguing that the author borrowed from al-Tabari (d. 310 AH/923 CE) his criticism of the Hanbali al-Barbahari (d. 329 AH/940 CE). Arguing for a parallel between criticisms contained in the letter and in the work of the Muslim heretic Ibn al-Rawandi (d. 298 AH/910 CE), Paul Kraus concludes that the Christian author took these criticisms from al-Rawandi and therefore he argues the letter was composed at the beginning of the 4th AH/10th CE century, agreeing with Massignon.

Scholars continue to argue as to whether the letters derive from actual persons or represent a work of fiction by a single author.

See also
 Latin translations of the 12th century
 Newman, N. A. The Early Christian-Muslim Dialogue: A Collection of Documents from the First Three Islamic Centuries, 632-900 A.D.: Translations with Commentary. Hatfield, PA: Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 1993, pages 355–545.

References

External links
Description and links to various formats of the text
William Montgomery Watt, Muslim-Christian Encounters. Perceptions and Misperceptions, referring to the Apology of Al Kindi

1882 non-fiction books
Books critical of Islam
Books by William Muir
Christian apologetic works
Christianity in the Abbasid Caliphate
Christian texts of the medieval Islamic world

Apology of al-Kindi


The Temple of Amenhotep IV was an ancient monument at Karnak in Luxor, Egypt. The structures were used during the New Kingdom, in the first four years of the 18th Dynasty reign of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten, when he still used the name Amenhotep IV. The edifices may have been constructed at the end of the reign of his father, Amenhotep III, and completed by Akhenaten.

Location and layout
The temple was constructed outside the boundaries of the Precinct of Amon-Re, to its east. The main temple in the complex was named Gm–p3–itn (Gem-pa-Aten), which means "The Sun Disc is Found in the Estate of the God Aten". The other monuments were named Hwt–bnbn (Hwt benben / "The Mansion of the Benben stone"), Rwd–mnw–n–itn–r–nḥḥ (Rud-menu / "Sturdy are the Monuments of the Sun Disc Forever"), and Tni–mnw–n–itn–r–nḥḥ (Teni–menu / "Exalted are the Monuments of the Sun Disc Forever").

Very little of these buildings remain; they were built quickly, using Talatat blocks, and could therefore easily be demolished and reused as core for later structures.

Gempaaten

The Gem-pa-Aten appears to have had no roof and its offering tables were exposed to direct sunlight. In this building (or associated with it) were red granite and sandstone statues of Akhenaten, red granite offering tables and other statues, including a sphinx inscribed with the name of the deity Aten. It was of a considerable size (130m x 216m), but it was so completely destroyed that even its foundations have been nearly obliterated.

It stood within a mud-brick enclosure, and was orientated to the east, possibly with an entrance to the west. It led to an open court surrounded by square pillars and colossal statues of Akhenaten and Nefertiti.

Hwt benben
Erected to the east, the Hwt benben or Mansion of the Benben was devoted to a solar cult and was closely associated with the Gempaaten.

Teni-menu
The Teni–menu seemed to contain domestic and storage rooms, and may have been a royal residence, although not enough of the structure remains to clarify the use.

The walls of the Teni-menu were reused in the Ninth Pylon of the main Karnak temple.  They have since been identified and reassembled like a giant puzzle and are partly exhibited in the Luxor Museum. The reassembled walls show residential, administrative and royal scenes and solar Jubilee scenes of the first Sed festival, which Akhenaten was probably celebrating at the same time as his father Amenhotep III.

See also
 List of ancient Egyptian sites, including sites of temples

Notes and references

References

Further reading

 Donald Redford, Akhenaten : The Heretic King, Princeton, 1984

External links

Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century BC
Egyptian temples
Atenism
Karnak temple complex
Akhenaten

Temple of Amenhotep IV


AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language for the Amiga computer. Following on from the successful STOS BASIC for the Atari ST, AMOS BASIC was written for the Amiga by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos and published by Europress Software in 1990.

History
AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.

The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages, being speedy enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7 MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed. AMOS could also run MC68000 machine code, loaded into a program's memory banks.

To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and "rainbow" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga's Agnus chip.

After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler (AMOS Compiler), and two other versions of the language: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better integrated development environment, ARexx support, a new user interface API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.

AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.

The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.

Perhaps AMOS BASIC's biggest disadvantage, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware.

Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer.

Software
Software written using AMOS BASIC includes:

 Miggybyte
 Scorched Tanks
 Games by Vulcan Software, amongst which was the Valhalla trilogy
 Amiga version of Ultimate Domain (called Genesia) by Microïds
 Flight of the Amazon Queen, by Interactive Binary Illusions
 Extreme Violence, included on an Amiga Power cover disk
 Jetstrike, a commercial game by Rasputin Software
 Black Dawn, a 1993 game for the Amiga personal computer

References

External links
 Source code for AMOS Professional 68000 ASM from pianetaamiga.it (archived, ZIP)
 Source code for AMOS and STOS 68000 ASM from clickteam.com (archived, ZIP)
 The AMOS Factory (an AMOS support/community site)
 Amigacoding website (contains in-depth info and references for AMOS - Archived version 22 Sep 2015)
 History of STOS and AMOS: how they came to be published in the UK
 Amos Professional group on Facebook (one of the members is AMOS' original developer François Lionet)

BASIC programming language family
Video game development software
Amiga development software
Software using the BSD license
Programming languages created in 1990

AMOS (programming language)


A cookbook, or cookery book, is kind of book that tells people how to prepare food for eating using specific instructions called a recipe. Most cookbooks also have tips on how to eat and present the food as well. They usually list the ingredients needed, time needed to cook, and the instructions. They may give other tips too.

Books
Cooking

Cookbook


Quechua, sometimes written Quichua or Ketchua, is a language spoken by 8 million people in the South American nations of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina and Colombia. It was also the language of the ancient Inca Empire. It's part of the Quechuan languages family.

It is the most-spoken Native American language in South America. It is also the most widely-spoken indigenous language. A quarter of people in Peru speak Quechua. People who speak Quechua as their first language are called Quechua Indians by Spanish-speakers. However, the Quechua refer to themselves as Runa ("the people") and call their language Runa Simi.

Quechua has only three vowel sounds: a, i, and u.

Quechua has given names to many places in Peru, including the Ancash Region.  is the Quechua word for blue, and it is thought that the name refers to the region's blue skies.

Other websites

 A website that teaches Quechua

Languages of South America
Inca civilization

Quechua


A peaking power plant (or peaker) is a power station that only runs during peak hours of demand of electricity. Because of that, the price of electricity it generates is generally higher than the electricity generated by base load power plant, which operates continuously throughout the year. Peak hours may include hot afternoons when air conditioners are working.

Examples of peaking power plants are a hydropower plant, pumped-storage hydro power plant, and gas-fired power plant. Nuclear and solar power are not used in this way.

Related pages
 Load following power plant

Electricity

Peaking power plant


Alacant () province is the fifth largest Spanish province by population with 1,750,000, and the second largest in the Valencian Community. It is on the south-east Mediterranean coast and the capital is the city of Alicante, a sea- port with a university. It is a commercial city with monuments like Sainte Barbra Castle. Other important cities are Elche, 215,000 with palms trees and its important shoe industry; Torrevieja, 100,000, tourist centre with the world-famous Habaneras contest; Orihuela, 75,000, agricultural important center; Benidorm, 67,000, the Mediterranean Manhattan; Alcoi, 60,000; textile center, and Elda, 55,000, shoes industry.

The most important river is the Segura, in the south, which provides the water to Alicante, Elche, Torrevieja, Orihuela and other cities. There are others like Vinalopo, Serpis, Amadorio, Ravine of the Sheeps and Monnegre.

The biggest mountain is Aitana, and other mountains are Mariola, Puig Bell, Maigmo and Gold Head, near Alicante. In the coast there are islands, the most important is Tabarca, and other is the Benidorm island. An important coast success is the Penon of Ifach, in Calpe.

The activities in Alicante province are tourism, industry (shoes, carpets, plays, dolls, textiles) and modern agriculture of regadium (oranges, lemons, tomatoes, almonds, wine). There are two universities: University of Alicante and University of Michael Hernandez.

Province of Alicante


Butön Rinchen Drup (), (1290–1364), 11th Abbot of Shalu Monastery, was a 14th-century Sakya master and Tibetan Buddhist leader. Shalu was the first of the major monasteries to be built by noble families of the Tsang dynasty during Tibet's great revival of Buddhism, and was an important center of the Sakya tradition. Butön was not merely a capable administrator but he is remembered to this very day as a prodigious scholar and writer and is Tibet's most celebrated historian.

Biography
Buton was born in 1290, "to a family associated with a monastery named Sheme Gomne (shad smad sgom gnas) in the Tropu (khro phu) area of Tsang ... [his] father was a prominent Nyingma Lama named Drakton Gyeltsen Pelzang (brag ston rgyal btshan dpal bzang, d.u.). His mother, also a Nyingma master, was called Sonam Bum (bsod nams 'bum, d.u.)."

Buton catalogued all of the Buddhist scriptures at Shalu, some 4,569 religious and philosophical works and formatted them in a logical, coherent order. He wrote the famous book, the History of Buddhism in India and Tibet at Shalu which many Tibetan scholars utilize in their study today.

After his death he strongly influenced the development of esoteric studies and psychic training in Tibet for centuries. The purpose of his works were not to cultivate paranormal magical abilities but to attain philosophical enlightenment, a belief that all earthly phenonoma are a state of the mind. He remains to this day one of the most important Tibetan historians and Buddhist writers in the history of Buddhism and Tibet.

Panchen Sönam Drakpa (1478-1554), the fifteenth abbot of Ganden monastery, became known as an incarnation of the great lama and historian, Bütön Rinchen Drupa.

See also
Zhentong
Drakpa Gyaltsen (1147-1216)
Tulku Dragpa Gyaltsen (1619-1656)

Sources

Further reading

Chandra, Lokesh ed. The Collected Works of Bu-ston 26v. (Śatapiṭaka Series 64)  New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1971.
Rinchen Namgyal, Dratshdpa (Author), Van Der Bogaert, Hans (Translator) A Handful of Flowers: A Brief Biography of Buton Rinchen Drub. Dharamsala: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1996.
Ruegg, David Seyfort. The life of Bu ston Rin po che: With the Tibetan text of the Bu ston rNam thar, Serie orientale Roma XXXIV. Roma: Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1966.
Schaeffar, Kurtis R. "A letter to the editors of the Buddhist canon in fourteenth-century Tibet: the yig mkhan rnams la gdams pa of Bu ston Rin chen grub." in The Journal of the American Oriental Society  01-APR-2004
Obermiller, E. (1931/1932) The History of Buddhism in India and Tibet. the Jewelry of Scripture, by Bu Ston, Translated from Tibetan. Leipzig: Harrassowitz. v.1 v.2.

External links
rgyal mtshan dpal bzang ( b. 13th cent. )
TBRC P155 Bu ston Rin chen grub
TBRC Outline of the Collected Works of Bu ston Rin chen grub
Buddhism Dictionary: Butön rin-chen-grup
Butön Rinchen Drup, Rigpa Wiki

Sakya lamas
Tibetan Buddhism writers
Tibetan historians
Tibetan Buddhist monks
Tibetan Buddhists from Tibet
13th-century Tibetan people
14th-century Tibetan people
13th-century lamas
14th-century lamas

Buton Rinchen Drub


Outer space, commonly shortened to space, is the near-vacuum between celestial bodies. It is where all of the planets, stars, galaxies and other objects are found. It is the expanse that exists beyond Earth and its atmosphere.

On Earth, space begins at the Kármán line (100 km above sea level). This is where Earth's atmosphere is said to stop and outer space begins.  This is not a natural boundary but is a convention used by scientists and diplomats.

However, the space near Earth is quite crowded by astronomical standards. A list of spaces goes like this:
Geospace is the region of outer space near Earth: it includes the upper region of the atmosphere and the magnetosphere.  The Van Allen radiation belt lies within the geospace. The space inside the magnetosphere is protected from radiation from the Sun. It has a low level of electrically charged particles.
Interplanetary space is the space around the Sun and planets of the Solar System. It has  the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles from the Sun. This stream creates a very thin atmosphere (the Heliosphere) for billions of miles or kilometers into space. Interplanetary space has the magnetic field generated by the Sun. Planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and the Earth also have Magnetospheres.  These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of magnetic particles such as the Van Allen radiation belt. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually stripped off by the solar wind.
Interstellar space is the physical space in a galaxy not occupied by stars or their planetary systems. It continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void. Most of the mass in this space is made up of single hydrogen atoms, fewer helium atoms and a few heavier atoms formed in stars. Supernovae blow some of their atoms huge distances. A number of molecules and tiny 0.1 μm dust particles do exist in interstellar space. About four new types of molecule are discovered each year. Large regions of higher density matter known as molecular clouds allow chemical reactions to occur. This includes organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions.
Intergalactic space does have 'cosmic voids' between the large-scale structures of the universe.

Exploration

Exploring space by direct travel is difficult, and more or less impossible beyond the near planets. Space contains no air beyond the Earth. It takes three days of travelling to reach the Moon and, depending on speed, it would take a very long time to reach the closest star (Proxima Centauri). Manned spacecraft are designed to keep air inside them and to protect astronauts from extreme temperatures. It is widely thought that people will not be able to travel to nearby stars. A serious problem for humans is the great times taken for interstellar flights, and the danger of radiation to human life.

We gain most of our information about the items in space from different kinds of telescopes. Some of them are space telescopes, put in outer space for a better view. Space probes also explore planets, comets and other space objects that are not too distant.

Related pages
 Space-time
 Black hole
 Galaxy
 Universe
 Astronomy

References

Astrophysics
Space

Outer space


St Edith's Church, Shocklach, stands at the end of an isolated lane running toward the River Dee about  to the north of the village of Shocklach, Cheshire, England.  It is a small Norman church, and is one of the oldest ecclesiastical buildings in Cheshire.   The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building and its simple Norman work is considered to be unique in Cheshire.  It is an active Anglican parish church in the diocese of Chester, the archdeaconry of Chester and the deanery of Malpas.  Its benefice is combined with that of St Mary, Tilston.

History

The church was built probably about 1150 by Thomas de Shocklach. As the church is dedicated to Saint Edith of Wilton, an Anglo-Saxon saint, it is thought that an earlier church may have stood on the site.  The chancel and chancel arch date from the early 14th century.  In the 17th century the west wall of the nave was restored and altered to provide a small baptistry between two buttresses.  The ceiling was added in 1813 and the belfry was built in 1815.  Victorian restoration was carried out in 1878 when a new wooden floor was inserted, raising its level by some  to .  The churchyard was extended in 1905, and again in 1922.  In 1926 the vestry was rebuilt to the north of the chancel.  During a restoration in 1974 a semicircular window was added to the west wall. To celebrate the 2000 Millennium, a new stained glass window designed by the pupils of Shocklach Primary School was installed in the north wall of the nave.

Architecture

Exterior

St Edith's is constructed in blocks of red sandstone with a grey slate roof.  Its plan is simple and consists of a nave with a small baptistry at the west end, and a chancel with a vestry to its north.  On the south side is a Norman doorway in fine condition.  It has a round arch of three orders, the outer and inner ones being decorated with chevrons, the middle one with cables.  It rests on square piers with weathered corbel heads.  Raymond Richards considered the doorway to be one of the best Norman examples in the county.  The door is of oak with iron studs. A north door has been blocked and converted into a window.  The east window has three lights and contains simple tracery. It is thought that this may have been moved from another church or re-fitted because its top has been truncated. At the west end of the church is a simple open bellcote containing two bells, and on the gable at the east end is a cross finial. On the outside of the north wall is a weathered carving.  It is not known what this represents, but "it is typical of restoration after the Civil War".

Interior

The nave has a curved plaster ceiling with plaster rosettes.  The round chancel arch is medieval. The chancel has an arch-braced wooden roof. The pews are dated 1697, the altar rails are from the late 18th century and the two sanctuary chairs are also early. The font is unusual in that it has seven sides.  The communion rail is from the 18th century.  The oak pulpit is plain and is dated 1687 with brass nails.  On the west wall of the nave are the royal arms of George III dated 1760 and a hatchment to the Purleston family.  A pane of glass, formerly from the east window is preserved in a frame to the left of the organ.  On it is scratched "I, Robert Aldersey, was here on 1st day of October 1756 along with John Massie and Mr Derbyshire. The roads were so bad that we were in danger of our lives".  The parish registers date from 1538 and the churchwardens' accounts from 1725.

Incorporated into the north wall at its west end is a carved stone, measuring about  square.  It is weathered but shows the figure of a person on horseback.  The date of the carving and what is depicted has been a subject of speculation.  The parish leaflet states it "seems to show a military figure on horseback", although it has been suggested that it shows the Flight into Egypt.  The citation in the grading citation identifies it as a "mounted knight" and dates it possibly to the 17th century.  A very different but possible explanation has been given by Dan Robinson, curator of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester.  He notes that the carving depicts a single rider on a single horse, but that the horse appears to have more than four legs, possibly depicting Sleipnir, the eight-legged mount of Odin.  If so, the carving would be of Viking origin.

External features
In the churchyard is part of a medieval red sandstone cross. The square base has four steps and on it rests an octagonal shaft which was replaced or recut in 1896.  The head of the cross is missing.  It is a Grade II listed building, and a scheduled monument.  The churchyard also contains the war grave of a Royal Field Artillery soldier of World War I.  The hay meadows belonging to the church are a Site of Biological Importance.  Outside the churchyard is a restored stable dating from about 1700.

See also

Grade I listed buildings in Cheshire West and Chester
Grade I listed churches in Cheshire
Norman architecture in Cheshire
Listed buildings in Church Shocklach

References

External links

The mysteries of St Edith's Church, Shocklach
Photographs by Craig Thornber

Church of England church buildings in Cheshire
Grade I listed churches in Cheshire
English churches with Norman architecture
Diocese of Chester
Scheduled monuments in Cheshire

St Edith's Church, Shocklach


In mathematics, Tannaka–Krein duality theory concerns the interaction of a compact topological group and its category of linear representations. It is a natural extension of Pontryagin duality, between compact and discrete commutative topological groups, to groups that are compact but noncommutative. The theory is named after Tadao Tannaka and Mark Grigorievich Krein. In contrast to the case of commutative groups considered by Lev Pontryagin, the notion dual to a noncommutative compact group is not a group, but a category of representations Π(G) with some additional structure, formed by the finite-dimensional representations of G.

Duality theorems of Tannaka and Krein describe the converse passage from the category Π(G) back to the group G, allowing one to recover the group from its category of representations. Moreover, they in effect completely characterize all categories that can arise from a group in this fashion. Alexander Grothendieck later showed that by a similar process, Tannaka duality can be extended to the case of algebraic groups via Tannakian formalism. Meanwhile, the original theory of Tannaka and Krein continued to be developed and refined by mathematical physicists. A generalization of Tannaka–Krein theory provides the natural framework for studying representations of quantum groups, and is currently being extended to quantum supergroups, quantum groupoids and their dual Hopf algebroids.

The idea of Tannaka–Krein duality: category of representations of a group
In Pontryagin duality theory for locally compact commutative groups, the dual object to a group G is its character group  which consists of its one-dimensional unitary representations. If we allow the group G to be noncommutative, the most direct analogue of the character group is the set of equivalence classes of irreducible unitary representations of G. The analogue of the product of characters is the tensor product of representations. However, irreducible representations of G in general fail to form a group, or even a monoid, because a tensor product of irreducible representations is not necessarily irreducible. It turns out that one needs to consider the set  of all finite-dimensional representations, and treat it as a monoidal category, where the product is the usual tensor product of representations, and the dual object is given by the operation of the contragredient representation.

A representation of the category  is a monoidal natural transformation from the identity functor  to itself. In other words, it is a non-zero function  that associates with any  an endomorphism of the space of T and satisfies the conditions of compatibility with tensor products, , and with arbitrary intertwining operators , namely, . The collection  of all representations of the category  can be endowed with multiplication  and topology, in which convergence is defined pointwise, i.e., a sequence  converges to some  if and only if  converges to  for all . It can be shown that the set  thus becomes a compact (topological) group.

Theorems of Tannaka and Krein
Tannaka's theorem provides a way to reconstruct the compact group G from its category of representations Π(G).

Let G be a compact group and let F: Π(G) → VectC be the forgetful functor from finite-dimensional complex representations of G to complex finite-dimensional vector spaces. One puts a topology on the natural transformations τ: F → F by setting it to be the coarsest topology possible such that each of the projections End(F) → End(V) given by  (taking a natural transformation  to its component  at ) is a continuous function. We say that a natural transformation is tensor-preserving if it is the identity map on the trivial representation of G, and if it preserves tensor products in the sense that . We also say that τ is self-conjugate if  where the bar denotes complex conjugation. Then the set  of all tensor-preserving, self-conjugate natural transformations of F is a closed subset of End(F), which is in fact a (compact) group whenever G is a (compact) group. Every element x of G gives rise to a tensor-preserving self-conjugate natural transformation via multiplication by x on each representation, and hence one has a map . Tannaka's theorem then says that this map is an isomorphism.

Krein's theorem answers the following question: which categories can arise as a dual object to a compact group?

Let Π be a category of finite-dimensional vector spaces, endowed with operations of tensor product and involution. The following conditions are necessary and sufficient in order for Π to be a dual object to a compact group G.
 1. There exists an object  with the property that  for all objects A of Π (which will necessarily be unique up to isomorphism).
 2. Every object A of Π can be decomposed into a sum of minimal objects.
 3. If A and B are two minimal objects then the space of homomorphisms HomΠ(A, B) is either one-dimensional (when they are isomorphic) or is equal to zero.

If all these conditions are satisfied then the category Π = Π(G), where G is the group of the representations of Π.

Generalization
Interest in Tannaka–Krein duality theory was reawakened in the 1980s with the discovery of quantum groups in the work of Drinfeld and Jimbo. One of the main approaches to the study of a quantum group proceeds through its finite-dimensional representations, which form a category akin to the symmetric monoidal categories Π(G), but of more general type, braided monoidal category. It turned out that a good duality theory of Tannaka–Krein type also exists in this case and plays an important role in the theory of quantum groups by providing a natural setting in which both the quantum groups and their representations can be studied. Shortly afterwards different examples of braided monoidal categories were found in rational conformal field theory. Tannaka–Krein philosophy suggests that braided monoidal categories arising from conformal field theory can also be obtained from quantum groups, and in a series of papers, Kazhdan and Lusztig proved that it was indeed so.  On the other hand, braided monoidal categories arising from certain quantum groups were applied by Reshetikhin and Turaev to construction of new invariants of knots.

Doplicher–Roberts theorem
The Doplicher–Roberts theorem (due to Sergio Doplicher and John E. Roberts) characterises Rep(G) in terms of category theory, as a type of subcategory of the category of Hilbert spaces. Such subcategories of compact group unitary representations on Hilbert spaces are:
 a strict symmetric monoidal C*-category with conjugates
 a subcategory having subobjects and direct sums, such that the C*-algebra of endomorphisms of the monoidal unit contains only scalars.

See also
 Gelfand–Naimark theorem

Notes

External links

Monoidal categories
Unitary representation theory
Harmonic analysis
Topological groups
Duality theories

Tannaka–Krein duality


Carlos Páez Vilaró (1 November 1923 – 24 February 2014) was a Uruguayan abstract artist, painter, potter, sculptor, muralist, writer, composer and constructor.

Life and work
Carlos Páez Vilaró was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1923. He took up drawing in 1939 and relocated to Buenos Aires, where he worked as a printing apprentice in the industrial Barracas section of the Argentine capital. Returning to Montevideo in the late 1940s, he developed an interest in Afro-Uruguayan culture. Settling in Montevideo's primarily black neighbourhood of "Mediomundo" ("Half-World"), he studied the Candombé and Comparsa dances characteristic to the culture.

He composed numerous musical pieces in the two genres and conducted an orchestra. His group's congas and bongos were decorated with their leader's own thematic drawings, as well. His interest in the culture later led him to Brazil, home to the western hemisphere's largest population of African descent. Páez Vilaró was invited to exhibit some of this work by the Director of the Modern Art Museum of Paris, Jean Cassou, in 1956. He traveled to Dakar, Senegal, later that year – his first visit to Africa.

He was one of the "Grupo de los 8", a movement of Uruguayan artists formed in 1958 together with Oscar García Reino, Miguel Ángel Pareja, Raúl Pavlovsky, Lincoln Presno, Américo Sposito, Alfredo Testoni and Julio Verdie in order to promote new tendencies in painting. In 1960 they were invited by art critic Rafael Squirru to join the international exhibition at the Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art (of which he was creator and first director) with artists such as Willem de Kooning, Roger Hilton and Lucio Fontana. The experimental tendencies of the Grupo de los 8 have since gained a place of unquestionable relevance not only in the panorama of Uruguayan art but also at an international level, some of their works forming part of museums and collections worldwide.

Increasingly well-known, Páez Vilaró was commissioned in 1959 to create a mural for a tunnel connecting a new annex to the Organization of American States' Washington, DC headquarters, the Pan American Union building. Originally intended to be no more than  in length, the completed mural (Roots of Peace) measured  long and nearly  high when unveiled in 1960. Extensive damage from humidity prompted the artist to repaint the mural in 1975.

He purchased a sea-front property on eastern Uruguay's scenic, then-desolate Punta Ballena in 1958, building a small, wooden lodge that over time became "Casapueblo" ("House-Village"). The sprawling compound, a whitewashed cement citadel reminiscent of Mykonos, was built in stages by the artist to resemble the mud nests created by the region's native hornero birds, and became his home, atelier and museum. Though he resided in Casapueblo - his "livable sculpture" - by 1968, Páez Vilaró continued to add on to the structure, at times creating a room for a particular guest. He later opened a section of Casapueblo to tourism as a hotel.

Páez Vilaró remained active in European and African culture, as well. He remained close with numerous friends from his days in Paris in the late 1950s, particularly Brigitte Bardot and Pablo Picasso, and in 1967, established a film production company ("Dahlia") with the help of European industrialists Gerard Leclery and Gunther Sachs. He traveled in numerous West African nations to make a documentary, Batouk, with director Jean-Jacques Manigot and poet Aimé Césaire.

The artist's first marriage, to Madelón Rodríguez Gómez, though brief, produced three children. One of them, Carlos "Carlitos" Páez Rodríguez, would later join the Stella Maris College "Old Christians" Rugby team; on 13 October 1972, Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 carrying the team crashed in the forbidding Andes range, between Chile and Mendoza Province, Argentina. Páez Vilaró joined the search and rescue mission for the 45 passengers, of which 16 survived, including his son, with whom he was reunited shortly after their 23 December rescue.

Páez Vilaró experienced difficulties in other areas of his life. He met Annette Deussen, an Argentine tourist, in 1976, and she had his child in 1984. Deussen was married to another man at the time, and the marriage dissolved in 1986; she and Páez Vilaró married in 1989. Her former spouse, however, continued his legal fight for the child for over a decade, even after Páez Vilaró's paternity was established by tests. The matter was ultimately resolved in the Páez Vilarós' favor in 1999.

He continued to create murals and sculptures for various government offices, corporate headquarters, private homes, and other buildings. He created 12 murals in Argentina, 16 in Brazil, 4 in Chad, 3 in Chile, 4 in Gabon, 11 in the United States, and 30 in his native Uruguay, as well as a scattering of works elsewhere in Africa and in the Polynesian islands. He also designed a non-denominational chapel for a cemetery without crosses or headstones in San Isidro, Buenos Aires and rebuilt an abandoned house in nearby Tigre in 1989 in the manner of Casapueblo; he considered the San Isidro chapel his "greatest work".   In his last years the artist divided his time between Casapueblo and "Bengala," his Tigre residence.

On 24 February 2014, Páez Vilaró died at the age of 90 at his home Casapueblo, in Punta Ballena.

His son stated in reaction to his father's death: "I hope he rests in peace. I've never seen a guy who works that much, and I mean it. He worked up until yesterday."

References

External links

Carlos' cats

Uruguayan muralists
Uruguayan painters
Uruguayan male artists
Uruguayan potters
Artists from Montevideo
1923 births
2014 deaths
Uruguayan people of Catalan descent
Burials at the Cementerio del Norte, Montevideo
Male painters
Uruguayan expatriates in Argentina

Carlos Páez Vilaró


The macaroni penguin is a crested penguins that gets their names from their crest. Macaroni penguins are known for their black faces and the orange-yellow crests that create a band across their foreheads.
Macaroni penguins live on islands on the edge of Antarctica, as well as on islands that lie south of Africa and the Americas. They make their nests on cliffs and hillsides.

It is very closely related to the royal penguin, and some consider the two to be a single species.

Size
Macaroni penguins weigh 10 pounds and are a little over 2 feet tall. As predators, Macaroni penguins eat fish, squid, and krill, but they mostly eat krill as their food. Mothers and fathers of their chicks will feed their young by regurgitating the food into their mouth. Penguins get their food by diving into the ocean and chasing after their food. Penguins can survive up to 40 days without food. When penguins go hunting for their food, they swim from  down in the water. Sometimes when they are hunting at night, they swim up to . But that is really rare. They usually swim for 2 minutes before coming up for air. Macaroni penguin chicks do not get any food until they are a week old.

Macaroni penguins usually live on bumpy or flat ground. They don't really live in places with many plants, but some penguins make their nests around grass. Macaroni penguins generally live by the water because they eat seafood.

Macaroni penguins have many different ways of communicating. They might make noisy, shrieking sounds or they might bobble their heads. Sometimes, they even flap their wings. They make their head feathers wave when they are excited.

Penguins use their feet and tail to help them swim. They can swim up to 15 miles per hour. Swimming that fast helps them get away from predators that might eat them. Penguins spend a lot of their time swimming. Penguins are slow on land because they waddle their feet instead of walking. They sway their body from side to side while they waddle their feet. Sometimes, they also slide down hills on their belly which is much faster than waddling. Sliding helps them get to places faster.

References

Penguins

Macaroni penguin


Johannes Wilhelm "Hans" Geiger (30 September 1882 – 24 September 1945) was a German physicist. He is perhaps best known as the co-inventor of the detector component of the Geiger counter and for the Geiger–Marsden experiment which discovered the atomic nucleus. Geiger was born at Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany. He was one of five children born to the Indologist Wilhelm Ludwig Geiger, who was professor at the University of Erlangen.

In 1902, Geiger started studying physics and mathematics at the University of Erlangen and was awarded a doctorate in 1906. In 1907 he began work with Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester and in 1909, along with Ernest Marsden, conducted the famous Geiger–Marsden experiment called the "gold foil experiment". Rutherford and Geiger created the Rutherford-Geiger tube, later to become the Geiger tube.

In 1911 Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall discovered the Geiger–Nuttall law (or rule) and performed experiments that led to Rutherford's atomic model. In 1928 Geiger and his student Walther Müller created an improved version of the Geiger tube, the Geiger–Müller tube. Geiger also worked with James Chadwick. In 1912 he became leader of the Physical-Technical Reichsanstalt in Berlin, 1925 professor in Kiel, 1929 in Tübingen, and from 1936 in Berlin.

He was a member of the Uranium Club. Geiger never expressed himself in public about the Nazis. There are reports both about him helping, and rejecting, Jewish colleagues. Geiger died in Potsdam, Germany a few months after World War II ended in Europe. He had four siblings: three sisters and one brother that were all younger than him. His brother, Rudolf Geiger, was very interested in meteorology and climatology. His Famous quote is: "When The Imposter Is SO INCREDIBLY SUS!!!!!!!!!!!"

References

1882 births
1945 deaths
German academics
German inventors
German physicists
Nuclear physicists
People from Rhineland-Palatinate
Academics of the University of Manchester

Hans Geiger


The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen is a 2003 steampunk/adventure novel by Kevin J. Anderson. It is a novelization of the script of the movie of the same name, written by James Dale Robinson, which itself was based on the comic by Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill.

Background
In late 2002, Anderson had just finished working on his novel Captain Nemo: The Fantastic History of a Dark Genius, set in a world where Jules Verne had drawn inspiration for his works from (fictional) real-life events, individuals, and technological developments. Anderson was just beginning to work on the book that would become The Martian War, a similar premise but with H.G. Wells. Anderson had done media tie-in work before (for franchises such as Star Wars, The X-Files, and StarCraft) and was a long-time fan of Alan Moore's work, including the original League comic. It was on the basis of that experience that Pocket Books approached him to write the novelization.

Writing process
Anderson has called the original movie script "very airy" and noted that "some characters have been added or deleted, some character traits have been changed (unfortunately, in my opinion, because of political correctness)", while still praising the work of Robinson. Anderson turned the 120-page script into the final 288-page book by expanding scenes deleted from the final movie, expanding characterization and background information, and "wherever possible and appropriate [going] back to Moore's original graphic novel for that material and [using] what I can".

Differences from the sources
Although differing somewhat from the movie script, and drawing on the original comic, Anderson still noted that "and of course another drawback is that I have to stick to the script exactly as it is, even if I might have different ideas"; as such, the end result is much closer to the film than the comic or a third, independent story.

Differences from the movie
 A scene featuring the Fantom's attack on the German Zeppelin works, including the capture of Karl Draper, a character cut from the movie.
 The subplot revolving around Draper and his daughter, Eva, is included in the novel.
 When the Fantom's men attack Quartermain/Quatermain's club, the bartender has several lines of dialogue, a couple of them taken from an elderly hunter who fights alongside Allen and survives the shootout in the club (although his fate after the bombing is unclear) in the film but is shot dead by an assassin in the book.
 There is an actual meeting of European leaders in Venice, as opposed to the 'meeting' being a ruse in the film, thus closing one of the plot holes from the film script.
 M's true identity is revealed earlier than in the movie.
 The book ends with the League assembled outside of the Fantom's Mongolian fortress, not at Quatermain's funeral in Africa.

Additions to the movie
 Several characters, including Sawyer and a British constable in the opening chapter, explicitly connect the Fantom with the Phantom from The Phantom of the Opera. After the Fantom's real identity is revealed, the Phantom is explained as being his model.
 The Fantom's aide is identified as Lieutenant Dante.
 In Nairobi, Nigel (in guise as Quatermain) remarks on how "the press" always misspells the name as Quartermain (a common mistake in the reviews and press for the movie), and also mentions Quatermain's discovery of King Solomon's Mines and encounter with Ayesha. Quatermain later compares Mina to Ayesha, and also mentions the Lost City of Gold and Umslopogaas.
 When he is first introduced, Quatermain is reading an H. G. Wells story from Strand Magazine.
 When being led into the League's headquarters deep underground, Quatermain jokes about whether the architect discovered a "passage to the center of the earth".
 Sir Richard Burton is implied to be a member of a previous League.
 The other members of the League express confusion at Nemo's car, and he explains how it is based on Henry Ford and Karl Benz.
 Gray says that he is no longer on speaking terms with Oscar Wilde (presumably due to the latter's portrayal of him).
 Nemo notices that Gray's library is filled with books by the Marquis de Sade and illustrated guides to sadomasochism.
 Sawyer mentions his Aunt Polly and Injun Joe, and that he once worked as a detective.
 Gray offers Mina a nightcap of amontillado from a cask he found in a walled-up room in the basement of a villa.
 Ishmael compares the damage to the Nautilus in Venice to the damage it received in fighting the giant squid, and Nemo mentions their adventures "under the polar icecaps, through the Suez Canal, finding Atlantis, undersea volcanoes..." all being references to Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.
 The man who becomes first mate after Ishmael is named as Patel.
 In his confession recording, the Fantom compares the League negatively to Sexton Blake, Robur the Conqueror, and Frankenstein's monster.
 Sawyer specifically identifies his childhood friend killed by the Fantom as being Huckleberry Finn.
 M's fortress is stated as being made by a tsar allied with a band of Cossacks who planned to conquer all of Europe and Asia.
 When seeing the captive families of M's scientists, Nemo thinks back to his dead wife and son.
 When M's true identity is revealed, mention is made of Sherlock Holmes and the fight at Reichenbach Falls.
 The enemy invisible man from the end fight is identified as M's henchman from the beginning of the film/book, Sanderson Reed.

Additional connections with the comic
 M names the original invisible man as Dr. Hawley Griffin.
 Skinner asks Mina if she is "still upset about that little incident at Miss Rosa Coote's Correctional Academy for Wayward Gentlewomen", with Mina then giving a quick overview of the event.
 Skinner often finishes sentences with "Aheheh", as Griffin did in the comic.
 Quatermain shows anger at Mina acting as if she is the League's head, a reference to her holding that role in the comic.
 Hyde is said to be captured in the Rue Morgue, and Inspector Dupin is mentioned.
 Quatermain's rifle is specifically said to be an elephant gun.
 In M's fortress, Nemo and Hyde's rescue of the captive families and fighting M's men is reminiscent of their work against Fu Manchu and Moriarty's strongholds in the comic.
 In the flashback to Reichenbach Falls after M's reveal, dialog from the same scene in the comic is quoted verbatim. The scene itself is based on the events of the Sherlock Holmes story "The Final Problem".
 In the end of the novel, Campion Bond arrives, and mentions the astronomer Ogilvy's discovery of flashes on Mars and theory that it is an approaching invasion fleet (a reference to The War of the Worlds, the end of the first comic, and the plot of the second volume).

References

External links
Official page
Bookgasm review

2003 American novels
American alternate history novels
DC Comics novels
Crossover novels
Novel
Novels based on films
Novels by Kevin J. Anderson
American steampunk novels
Novels about writers

The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (novel)


Richard Warren Joseph Hayman (March 27, 1920 – February 5, 2014) was an American musician who was the chief music arranger of the Boston Pops Orchestra for over 50 years, and served as a pops conductor for orchestras including the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, the St. Louis Symphony and the Grand Rapids Symphony in Grand Rapids, Michigan.

He toured and recorded as a harmonica player and made dozens of recordings for Mercury Records as "Richard Hayman and His Orchestra." His biggest hit was a single, "Ruby," from the 1952 film Ruby Gentry, starring Jennifer Jones and Charlton Heston. Hayman's arrangement featured himself as harmonica soloist. Over a lengthy career, he created musical arrangements for more than 50 artists and entertainers including Barbra Streisand, Bob Hope, Liza Minnelli and Olivia Newton-John.

Career
A native of Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, Hayman's career in music began in his teen years as a player and arranger for the Borrah Minnevitch Harmonica Rascals. In the 1940s, he became an arranger for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios doing arrangements (often uncredited) for such MGM films as Girl Crazy, Meet Me in St. Louis and Thousands Cheer. From 1945 to 1950, he was musical director for the Vaughn Monroe Orchestra.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Hayman recorded a series of albums for Mercury Records. His 1957 outing Havana In Hi-Fi, was first in the label's pop music stereo LP series (SR 60000).

Hayman is most famous for having been the principal arranger at the Boston Pops Orchestra for over 30 years where his award-winning arrangements are still used today. He occasionally guest-conducted there, and when Arthur Fiedler had a time conflict with his job as pops conductor for the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, he recommended Hayman for the post.

Hayman was also closely affiliated with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra for over 30 years. Known for his sequined jackets, harmonica solos, and corny jokes, he became its Principal Pops Conductor in 1976, leading both the Pops at Powell and Queeny Park concerts. Queeny Pops, with concertgoers seated at tables in the acoustically atrocious but centrally located (in the suburbs of west St. Louis County) Greensfelder Field House, was a hit for many years, and made it possible for the SLSO to offer its musicians a full 52-week annual contract.

That ended when a financial crunch in 2001, coinciding with a realization that the SLSO's pops concerts had not changed with the times, led to the cancellation of the Queeny Pops series and a marked reduction in overall pops concerts by the orchestra.

In 1985, he was appointed Principal Pops Conductor of the Grand Rapids Symphony, serving more than 21 seasons until his retirement in 2006 after which he was named Pops Conductor Laureate. Hayman founded and conducted the Florida Sunshine Pops orchestra in Boca Raton and continued to make guest conducting appearances in the United States and Europe.

His biggest hit was the 1953 single "Ruby". Hayman took the theme for the motion picture Ruby Gentry, and through his specially stylized arrangement, utilizing a harmonica as the solo instrument with a large, quasi-symphonic orchestra, the song zoomed to the top of the hit parade all over the world and brought about a renewed interest in the harmonica. It should also be mentioned that the flip side of the 45rpm and 78rpm single hit "Ruby" was the hit "Dansero" which also became an international hit.

He continued to chart into the early 1960s with titles such as "Night Train".

Hayman's last event with the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra, where he held the title of Pops Conductor Emeritus, took place on June 27, 2010, to honor his 90th birthday. The St. Louis Metro Singers, who performed with him at many Pops concerts, were also on stage at the event.

Hayman is also noted for albums now regarded as Exotica.

Death
Hayman died at a hospice in New York on February 5, 2014. He was 93.

Discography

As conductor

As arranger

References

Notes

Inline citations

External links

[ Richard Hayman] at AllMusic

1920 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American composers
21st-century American conductors (music)
American harmonica players
American male composers
American male conductors (music)
American music arrangers
Easy listening musicians

Richard Hayman


Lawrencium is a chemical element. It is also named eka-lutetium by some people. It has the symbol Lr. It has the atomic number 103. It is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. It has to be made. Lawrencium is made from californium. The isotope that has the longest half-life (262Lr) has a half life of about 3.6 hours.

No uses for lawrencium are known. What lawrencium looks like is not known because not enough has been made to see it with human eyesight.

Is a Block-D Group3 Period 7 element. Discovered by Albert Ghiorso and co-workers in 1961, in California. Named after Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron, a research instrument with which several new elements have been found/made.

Related pages
 Periodic table
 List of common elements

Transition metals
Synthetic elements

Lawrencium


Impression management is an idea spoken about in the discipline of sociology. It is about the experience in everyday life where people control the way that they appear to others. People do this by selecting certain gestures, speech patterns, feminine or masculine expressions, as well as certain expressions of class and cultural interest. This so that people can give a particular image to others about who they want to be and how they want to be seen.

Examples
When gesturing a person might use reserved and minimal movements in a professional setting, whilst they may smile widely and wave about when with friends. A person might also change their speech pattern in a professional setting in order to sound more educated or refined, and may speak more casually or use swear words when in a casual setting.

Males and females also often control how they are perceived in terms of masculinity or femininity. Boys and men might sometimes make their voices sound deeper or speak in short sentences to reflect an old stereotype that males are unfeeling and unconcerned with self-expression. Females on the other hand might feel the need to speak in line with the speech patterns of their peers, and this may include tacking on culturally specific phrases like "or whatever" and "that's hot/cute" to indicate they identify with the female gender and traditional interests. These of course are very simple ideas about what it means to be a man or woman. In contemporary life the border between male and female is sometimes becoming less strict. In Western societies psychologists support that people who show alternative gender expression are still medically normal.

People also talk about what kind of music they are interested in, what kind of movies they like to watch, and what kind of places they like to visit in order to give people an idea of where they stand in relation to class and culture. A common distinction in contemporary youth culture is the listening to so called "indie" alternative or independent music as opposed to pop or popular music. Similarly someone might say they like watching highbrow French films or award winning films, as opposed to something more mass culture, like a Disney movie.

Sociology

he:אינטראקציה סימבולית

Impression management


Atonement is a 2007 British romantic drama war movie. It is set in the 1930s and 1940s. It was directed by Joe Wright. It is based on 2001 novel Atonement by Ian McEwan. It stars James McAvoy as Robbie Turner and Keira Knightley as Cecilia Tallis. Her younger sister Briony Tallis is played by Saoirse Ronan at age 13, Romola Garai at age 18 and Vanessa Redgrave at age 77.

Other websites

2000s mystery movies
2007 romantic drama movies
2000s war movies
Academy Award winning movies
BAFTA Award winning movies
British romantic drama movies
British war movies
French romance movies
French drama movies
American romantic drama movies
2000s English-language movies
2000s epic movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in the 1930s
Movies set in the 1940s
World War II movies
Movies directed by Joe Wright

Atonement (movie)


In the Book of Genesis, Eve is the world's first woman created by God to be a wife to Adam.  Eve is placed in the Garden of Eden and allowed to eat any fruit except the fruit of The Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil because if she eats it she will die. A snake convinces her to eat it anyway. She then gives it to her husband who also eats it.  They then realize they are naked. An angel is then sent to banish her and Adam from the garden so that they can't eat the fruit of The Tree of Life and live forever.   God gives them clothes and says that Eve will become the mother of all humans and be very respected but that her husband will rule over her. Eve gives birth to a son and she names him Cain. She then gives birth to a second son named Abel. Cain kills Abel and is exiled. Eve gives birth to a son named Seth (son of Adam) and also has daughters.
Old Testament people

Eve (Bible)