Goodness Gracious Me is a BBC sketch comedy show originally aired on BBC Radio 4 from 1996 to 1998 and later televised on BBC Two from 1998 to 2001. The ensemble cast were four British Indian actors, Sanjeev Bhaskar, Kulvinder Ghir, Meera Syal and Nina Wadia. The show explored British Asian culture, and the conflict and integration between traditional Indian culture and modern British life. Some sketches reversed the roles to view the British from an Indian perspective, and others poked fun at Indian and Asian stereotypes. In the television series, most of the white characters were played by Dave Lamb and Fiona Allen; in the radio series those parts were played by the cast themselves. Some of the white characters were also played by Amanda Holden and Emma Kennedy.

The show's title and theme tune is a bhangra rearrangement of the comedy song of the same name, originally performed by Peter Sellers (portraying an Indian doctor, Ahmed el Kabir) and Sophia Loren, reprising their characters from the 1960 film, The Millionairess. Sellers sang the 1960s song in a stereotypical "cod-Indian" accent. Consequently, the show's original working title was "Peter Sellers is Dead"; this was changed as the cast admired Sellers' other work, as well as the fact that although Sellers' Indian doctor was a parody, the actor still portrayed him as a competent professional. (In her 1996 novel Anita and Me, Syal had referred to British parodies of south Asian speech as "a goodness-gracious-me accent".)

The cast casually drop Punjabi and Hindi slang phrases into their speech, in the manner of many British Asians living in the UK.

The show won Best Entertainment at the Broadcasting Press Guild Award and the Team Award from the Royal Television Society, UK in 1999.

In March 2014, the BBC announced that the show would return with a special episode as part of celebrations of fifty years of BBC Two. An India special was broadcast on BBC Two on 25 August 2015.

Parodies and references in the show
 The Six Million Rupee Man – parodies The Six Million Dollar Man.
 I Know Him Too Well – parodies the song "I Know Him So Well".
 Skipinder: The Punjabi Kangaroo – parodies Skippy the Bush Kangaroo.
 I'm a Punjabi Girl... – parodies Aqua's "Barbie Girl" song.
 Hindi People – parodies Pulp's "Common People".
 Club Nirvana – parodies Wham!'s "Club Tropicana".
 The Marriage Emporium – pays homage to Monty Python's Cheese Shop sketch and "Dead Parrot sketch".
 Fawlty Turrets – pays homage to Fawlty Towers.
 The Delhi Tubbies – fictional Asian equivalent of Teletubbies.
 They Were The Blacked-Up Men – parodies Men in Black.
 The Bhandari Bunch – parodies The Brady Bunch opening sequence.
 Channa's Angels – parodies Charlie's Angels
 Arranged Shag – parodies the arranged marriage
 Not Saving Private Narayan – parodies Saving Private Ryan

Other parodies are based on shows such as Animal Hospital (where members of lower castes take the place of the pets) and Rough Guides (where tourists from India visit and make unpleasant remarks about the United Kingdom).

Going for an English
One of the best known sketches featured the cast "going out for an English" after a few lassis. They continually mispronounce the waiter's name, order the blandest thing on the menu (apart from one of them, who opts for the stronger option of a steak and kidney pie) and ask for 24 plates of chips. The sketch parodies British people "going out for an Indian" after drinking heavily, being rude to the waiter, demanding the spiciest thing available on the menu for show and ordering far too many papadums. This sketch was voted the 6th Greatest Comedy Sketch on a Channel 4 list show.

Recurring characters

 Cheque, Please – A man who, on serial dinner dates, always says something so tactless or offensive that the woman walks out on him, leaving him asking for the "Cheque, please!"
 The competitive mothers – Two women who constantly argue about the respective accomplishments of their sons, becoming more and more exaggerated as they go along. Their discussions always end with one of them using their catchphrase, "Yes, but how big is his danda?" (slang for penis)
 Mr "Everything Comes From India" – A man who insists that just about everything comes from India or was invented by Indians (often to the chagrin of his more knowledgeable son), including William Shakespeare, Cliff Richard (who, in the character's defence, was actually born in India), Leonardo da Vinci, most English words: (veranda, shampoo, conditioner), the British Royal Family (all except Prince Charles, who he claims to be African, because of the size of his ears), Superman (who is apparently Indian as he has two jobs, a bad haircut and, in a reference to Indian railways, can run faster than a train) and the number zero (which is a widely attributed discovery in Indian culture). In one short sketch, he was found in a bookshop, transferring books from the English and Chinese Literature sections to the Indian Literature section. He even claims that Jesus was Indian as he worked for his father, and managed to feed 5,000 people with very small amounts of food. He also claimed that everyone in the Bible was Indian, except God, as he "created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. What kind of Indian doesn't work Sundays?".
 The Coopers (Kapoors) and Robinsons (Rabindranaths) – Two snobbish nouveau riche couples who claim to be entirely English with no Indian blood whatsoever, but often give themselves away by using each other's real names, mispronouncing words or making silly mistakes such as serving guests some Pimm's with sliced courgettes in it. They refuse to acknowledge their real ethnic background under any circumstances, and become very upset whenever anyone refers to them as foreigners.
 Skipinder, The Punjabi Kangaroo – Redubbed footage of the television show about Skippy the Bush Kangaroo (1968–70), with the kangaroo being "voiced over" so that he can talk. Skippy, who now calls himself Skipinder, is always drunk, speaks in a Punjabi accent and frequently insults the other characters.
 The Bhangra Muffins – Two Anglo-Asian teenage boys who are always trying to be "cool" and attract girls, referring to them as ras malai (Indian sweet) but failing miserably. In their sketches, they seem to be having an intelligent discussion, albeit in their own "street" language, but it is then shown that they are doing something nonsensical or are in the wrong place (for example: in one episode they are waiting in the audience of what they think is a taping of The Oprah Winfrey Show, leading to a conversation about the purpose of television and talk shows in society, but then the show starts and they find out they have in fact gone to an opera performance by mistake.) Their catchphrase is "Kiss my chuddies, man!" – chuddies being slang for underwear.
 Chunky Lafunga (lafunga means "hooligan") – A Bollywood superstar (probably based on Bollywood actor Chunky Pandey) who is now trying to make his name in Western cinema, but manages to turn every production he appears in, from an adaptation of a Jane Austen novel to an Australian soap opera, into a Bollywood musical.
 Mrs "I can make it at home for nothing!" – A mother who, when out in restaurants with her family, repeatedly decries various things as wasteful, saying "I can make it at home for nothing!" For some reason she always seems to need "a small aubergine" to be able to do so – in one episode she even appears on Masterchef, describing a series of complicated dishes she intends to cook, yet has only the ubiquitous aubergine in her ingredients. In later episodes she claims to be able to recreate other, non-food experiences for nothing – even reacting to the news that her husband has a mistress with "mistress I can make at home..." followed by flirtatious behaviour. She was inspired by Nina Wadia's mother.
 Meena and Beena, the Minx Twins – Two teenage Anglo-Indian girls who believe themselves to be highly desirable 'Asian babes' and complain about unwanted male attention and shout out rude comments at the men who walk past them, with the camera then pulling back to reveal why the men are there (e.g. in one sketch the girls are shown to have gone to a gay bar, in another they are standing outside a men's public toilet.) During one episode they actually managed to get dates, but insist on leaving because the men fail to offer to buy them a drink. Their catchphrase is: "In your dreams, buddy!" This can be varied, for example, in a Christmas sketch, when acting as Santa's assistants, they say to a little boy, "In your dreams, very small buddy!" Nina Wadia said on the BBC documentary Comedy Connections that Meera Syal was behind the creation of these characters and they are one of Nina's favourites on the series. "West End Girls" by the Pet Shop Boys frequently plays in the background of their scenes.
 Guru Maharishi Yogi (based on Maharishi Mahesh Yogi) – A man who in different sketches is either shown giving completely made up lectures about Hinduism, or going door to door saying silly things to the people who answer. During his symposia, he claims to translate words of wisdom from original Sanskrit, but they are actually random gibberish in English (often containing pop culture references). In one sketch he resorts to handing out flyers for a double-glazing company when a householder does not want to hear him talk about religion. He also has two similarly dubious guru friends, with whom he likes to play board games and football.
 Smita Smitten, Showbiz Kitten (from Series 2, her name becomes "Smeeta Smitten") – A  "showbiz gossip" style TV reporter who claims to be at a big movie premiere or showbiz party, but turns out to be somewhere very ordinary, like queueing outside a video shop or a public bathroom. She is then refused entrance, so to distract the viewers, she finishes by saying "Look, there goes Art Malik!" and running out of the picture. She was once in a chip shop, and Art Malik was there, but she did not recognise him. After making a fool of herself, she tried to get out of the situation by pointing to Art outside the shop, and running after him. Fellow character Chunky Lafunga is the only "celebrity" she has ever managed to interview. In Series 2 she loses her job and resorts to presenting her TV show from different rooms of her mother's house, then in Series 3 produces a variety of pilot shows for a possible new TV series, with disastrous results.
 Uncle Fixer  – A man who shows up to greet different family members in unexpected places, such as at a funeral or during a kidney transplant operation, and then asks why they didn't come to him for help with the arrangements, because "I could have got it for you much cheaper!". He often says "Don't worry" or "Don't insult me!" when people decline his help. He usually destroys what was the topic of conversation i.e. cash from a cash machine and a kidney.
 The Sindi Dolls – Two wealthy young women who act like Valley Girl stereotypes, forever showing off about the number of credit cards they have and how much their fathers have spent on them. They are nearly always seen in an expensive clothes shop, which may or may not be Harvey Nichols and are forever berating and physically assaulting the sales assistants who are attending to them. In series three, they have (reluctantly) got themselves jobs as air stewardesses, and reveal to the flight passengers during the emergency procedure instructions that they only took the jobs because of the glamour factor. In one notable sketch they state their opinion that a friend of theirs should make more effort with her appearance, "leprosy or no leprosy".
 Will I, bollocks! (Ironic Granny) – This sketch follows an old woman who is continually causing trouble for her family, then when she is asked to do something to help with the situation, she replies: "Will I, bollocks!" In the last of her sketches, she collapses at home and her son-in-law, Ravi, offers to perform mouth to mouth resuscitation but when his wife asks him if he will really do it, he says, "Will I, bollocks!"
 The Delhi Students – These sketches are about four Indian young adults who go to England and describe their experiences. They parody the way westerners act when they visit India (in one sketch, they remark on the number of beggars on the streets; they say that you can't eat meat off the street, in reference to a McDonald's burger; and they say that you must drink water from a bottle, as tap water could be dangerous).
 Bhangraman – A parody of superheroes in general, he always saves the day using his "uncanny bhangra powers", which usually consist of bhangra dance moves. While he speaks entirely in Punjabi, every other character understands him perfectly. His battle cry is "chaakde phaate", meaning "raise the floorboards". His supervillain arch rival is the Morris Dancer.
 The Reporter – A reporter constantly tries to do "exposés" on British Asians. He often runs into Mr Ishaq, a Muslim man whom the reporter interviews. The reporter assumes that Mr Ishaq is "up to something", ultimately being disappointed when Mr Ishaq reveals that he is doing something extremely ordinary.
 The Buddhist Exterminator – A Buddhist monk who is often hired in jobs that will force him to kill living beings, as a mouse exterminator, a mafia murderer and even as a surgeon (where he discovered how to kill cancer cells), which conflicts with his religion and prevents him from doing his job, being surprised that people would want him to kill. As an exterminator, he was determined to make the mice reflect upon their actions until they reach Nirvana. He has an "exterminator" friend who would make the mice reincarnate as pebbles, "which are much easier to catch, they don't run about as much." His catchline is: "Kill?! No, no, we mustn't kill".

Series

Radio show
 5–26 July 1996 (4 episodes)
11 July – 1 August 1997 (4 episodes)
21 May – 25 June 1998 (6 episodes)

Television show

Series 1 (1998)

Series 2 (1998)

Series 3 (2000)

Specials

Cast and crew

Directors and producers
Gareth Carrivick (director)
Nick Wood (director)
Christine Gernon (director)
Anil Gupta (producer)
Jon Plowman (executive producer)

Cast
Sanjeev Bhaskar
Meera Syal
Kulvinder Ghir
Nina Wadia
Dave Lamb
Sharat Sardana
Amanda Holden (Series 1)
Fiona Allen (Series 2)
Emma Kennedy (Series 3)
Anil Desai
Nitin Sawhney
Parminder Nagra

Writers
Sanjeev Bhaskar
Anil Gupta
Sanjeev Kohli
Richard Pinto
Sharat Sardana
Meera Syal
Nina Wadia
Kulvinder Ghir

See also
 British television programmes with Asian leads
The Kumars at No. 42, another British comedy show about an Indian family
The Real McCoy, a preceding sketch comedy show about British Asians, including the creators of Goodness Gracious Me
Citizen Khan, sitcom about a British-Pakistani family
Brown Nation, Indian-American comedy show
Fresh Off the Boat, sitcom about a Taiwanese-American family
Kim's Convenience, sitcom about a Korean-Canadian family

References

External links

 Comedy Guide

In Conversation with Meera Syal, BAFTA webcast, March 2008

1998 British television series debuts
2015 British television series endings
1990s British television sketch shows
2000s British television sketch shows
2010s British television sketch shows
1996 radio programme debuts
Radio programs about families
BBC television sketch shows
BBC Radio comedy programmes
Asian-British culture
Ethnic humour
British Indian mass media
Radio programs adapted into television shows
Television series based on radio series
Television series about families
English-language television shows
British television series revived after cancellation
BBC Radio 4 programmes
Television shows shot at BBC Elstree Centre
Indian diaspora in fiction

Goodness Gracious Me (TV series)


Colonel Loammi Baldwin (January 10, 1744-October 20, 1807) was a noted American engineer, politician, and a soldier in the American Revolutionary War.

Baldwin is known as the Father of American Civil Engineering. His five sons, Cyrus Baldwin (1773-1854), Benjamin Franklin Baldwin (1777-1821), Loammi Baldwin, Jr. (1780-1834), James Fowle Baldwin (1782-1862), and George Rumford Baldwin (1798-1888) were also well-known engineers.  He surveyed and built the Middlesex Canal, but today he is perhaps best remembered for the Baldwin apple which he discovered when surveying the Middlesex Canal, and then developed at his farm

Military Career in the American Revolution
In 1774 Baldwin enlisted in a regiment, and commanded the Woburn militia at the Battle of Lexington and Concord as a major. At the beginning of the war he enlisted in the 26th Continental Regiment commanded by Colonel Samuel Gerrish. Here he rapidly advanced to be lieutenant-colonel, and on Colonel Gerrish's retirement in August 1775, he was placed in command of the regiment, and was soon commissioned colonel.

Until the end of 1775, Baldwin and his men stayed near Boston, but in April 1776, he was ordered with his command to New York City. On the night of December 25, 1776, in the face of a violent and extremely cold storm of snow and hail, General Washington and his army crossed the Delaware to the New Jersey side, and fought the Battle of Trenton. Baldwin and his regiment participated in both the crossing and the fight.  In 1777, Baldwin resigned from the army because of ill health.

Political career
Baldwin was elected to various public offices between 1780 and 1796. He was appointed high sheriff of Middlesex County in 1780, and was the first to hold office after the adoption of the state constitution. From 1778-1784, he represented Woburn in the Massachusetts General Court (the state legislature). In 1794, he was a candidate for election to the United States House of Representatives, and obtained all the votes cast in Woburn but one.

Engineering career
Baldwin began work with his older sons on the Middlesex Canal in 1794 and after nine years, the canal began service in 1803.  He later worked on Boston's fortifications.  His son Cyrus continued his father's work on the Middlesex Canal as an agent for the canal company.  His son Benjamin worked on the Boston Mill Dam for before an early death at age 43.

References

1744 births
1807 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Politicians from Massachusetts
People with foods named after them
American revolutionaries

Loammi Baldwin


Cordell Hull (October 2, 1871July 23, 1955) was an American politician from Tennessee and the longest-serving U.S. Secretary of State, holding the position for 11 years (1933–1944) in the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt during most of World War II.  Before that appointment, Hull represented Tennessee for two years in the United States Senate and 22 years in the House of Representatives.

Hull received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 for his role in establishing the United Nations, and was referred to by President Roosevelt as the "Father of the United Nations".

Early life and education

Cordell Hull was born in a log cabin in Olympus, Tennessee, which is now part of Pickett County, Tennessee, but was then part of Overton County. He was the third of the five sons of William Paschal Hull (1840–1923) and Mary Elizabeth Hull (née Riley) (1841–1903). His brothers were named Orestes (1868), Sanadius (1870), Wyoming (1875), and Roy (1881).

According to John Gunther, Hull's father had tracked down and killed a man because of a blood feud. His mother was a descendant of Isaac Riley, who was granted  in near Byrdstown in Pickett County, for Revolutionary War service, as well as Samuel Wood who emigrated from Leicestershire, England on the ship Hopewell and fought in the Virginia Militia. Hull's mother's family (Riley-Wood) had numerous ancestors who fought in the Revolutionary War. Hull devoted a section in his memoirs "Cabin on the Hill" to dispelling an old rumor that his father was part Cherokee Indian, and subsequent documented family history has confirmed his ancestry.

Hull attended college from 1889 until 1890. He gave his first speech at the age of 16. At the age of 19, Hull became the elected chairman of the Clay County Democratic Party. Hull studied at National Normal University (later merged with Wilmington College, Ohio) from 1889 until 1890.  In 1891, he graduated from Cumberland School of Law at Cumberland University and was admitted to the bar.

Early career
Hull served in the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1893 until 1897. During the Spanish–American War, he served in Cuba as a captain in the Fourth Regiment of the Tennessee Volunteer Infantry.

From 1913 to 1917, Hull served as a local judge; later he was elected to the United States House of Representatives where he served 11 terms (1917–1931 and 1923–1931) totaling 22 years. As a member of the powerful Ways and Means committee, he fought for low tariffs and claimed authorship of the federal income tax laws of 1923 and 1926 and the inheritance tax of 1926. After his defeat in the congressional election of 1920, he served as chairman of the Democratic National Committee. He was one of several candidates for president at the 1928 Democratic National Convention, which ultimately chose Al Smith as nominee. Hull was influential in advising Albert Gore, Sr. to run for the U.S. Congress in 1938. Hull recorded twenty-five years of combined service in the House and the Senate.

Secretary of State

Hull won election to the Senate in 1930, but resigned from it in 1933 to become Secretary of State. Hull became one of Roosevelt's strongest Southern allies during the 1932 presidential campaign.

Roosevelt named him Secretary of State and appointed him to lead the American delegation to the London Economic Conference, which then collapsed when Roosevelt rejected its main plans. In 1943, Hull served as United States delegate to the Moscow Conference. At all times, his main objective was to enlarge foreign trade and lower tariffs. The more important issue of the American role in World War II was handled by Roosevelt who worked through Sumner Welles, the second-ranking official at the State Department. Hull did not attend the summit meetings that Roosevelt had with Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin. In 1943, Hull finally destroyed Welles's career by threatening to expose his homosexuality.

In a speech in 1937, New York City Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia said that brown-shirted Nazis ought to be featured as the "climax" of a chamber of horrors in the upcoming World's Fair. The Nazi government organ, Der Angriff, called the mayor a "Jewish Ruffian" who had been bribed by Jewish and Communistic agents and was a criminal disguised as an officeholder. In the ensuing exchanges, Hull sent a letter of regret to Berlin for intemperate comments on both sides, but he also explained the principle of freedom of speech. As the response of Nazi propaganda organs rose in pitch to include characterizing American women as "prostitutes," Hull sent a letter of protest to Berlin, which elicited an "explanation" but no apology.

In 1938, Hull engaged in a dialog with Mexican Foreign Minister Eduardo Hay concerning the failure of Mexico to compensate Americans who lost farmlands during agrarian reforms in the late 1920s. He insisted that compensation must be "prompt, adequate and effective". Though the Mexican Constitution guaranteed compensation for expropriation or nationalization, nothing had yet been paid. While Hay admitted Mexico's responsibility, he replied that there is "no rule universally accepted in theory nor carried out in practice which makes obligatory the payment of immediate compensation...." The so-called "Hull formula" has been adopted in many treaties concerning international investment but is still controversial, especially in Latin American countries, which have historically subscribed to the Calvo doctrine, which suggests that compensation is to be decided by the host country and that as long as there is equality between nationals and foreigners and no discrimination, there can be no claim in international law. The tension between the Hull formula and the Calvo doctrine is still important in the law of international investment.

Hull pursued the "Good Neighbor Policy" with Latin American nations, which has been credited with preventing Nazi subterfuge in that region. Hull and Roosevelt also maintained relations with Vichy France, which Hull credited with allowing General Henri Giraud's forces to join allied forces in the North African campaign against Germany and Italy.

Hull also handled formal statements with foreign governments. Notably he sent the Hull note just prior to the Pearl Harbor attack, which was formally titled "Outline of proposed Basis for Agreement Between The United States and Japan." Hull received news of the attack while he was outside his office. The Japanese ambassador Kichisaburō Nomura and Japan's special envoy Saburō Kurusu were waiting to see Hull with a 14-part message from the Japanese government that officially notified of a breakdown in negotiations. The United States had broken Japanese encryption, and Hull knew the message contents. He blasted the diplomats: "In all my fifty years of public service, I have never seen such a document that was more crowded with infamous falsehood and distortion."

Hull chaired the Advisory Committee on Postwar Foreign Policy, which was created in February 1942.

When the Free French Forces of Charles de Gaulle occupied the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, in December 1941, Hull lodged a very strong protest and went as far as referring to the Gaullist naval forces as "the so-called Free French." His request to have the Vichy governor reinstated was met with strong criticism in the American press. The islands remained under the Free French until the end of the war. Hull, who always held de Gaulle in disregard, if not detestation, even before the incident, would never cease trying to maneuver against him during the rest of the war.

Jews and SS St. Louis incident
In 1939, Hull advised Roosevelt to reject the SS St. Louis, a German ocean liner carrying 936 Jews seeking asylum from Germany. Hull's decision sent the Jews back to Europe on the eve of the Holocaust. Some historians estimate that 254 of the passengers were ultimately murdered by the Nazis.

Okay ...there were two conversations on the subject between (Secretary of the Treasury) Morgenthau and Secretary of State Cordell Hull. In the first, 3:17 PM on 5 June 1939, Hull made it clear to Morgenthau that the passengers could not legally be issued U.S. tourist visas as they had no return addresses. Furthermore, Hull made it clear to Morgenthau that the issue at hand was between the Cuban government and the passengers. The U.S., in effect, had no role. In the second conversation at 3:54 PM on June 6, 1939, Morgenthau said they did not know where the ship was and he inquired whether it was "proper to have the Coast Guard look for it". Hull responded by saying that he didn't see any reason why it could not. Hull then informed him that he did not think that Morgenthau would want the search for the ship to get into the newspapers. Morgenthau said "Oh no. No, no. They would just—oh, they might send a plane to do patrol work. There would be nothing in the papers." Hull responded "Oh, that would be all right."

In September 1940, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt maneuvered with another State Department official to bypass Hull's refusal to allow Jewish refugees aboard a Portuguese ship, the SS Quanza, to receive visas to enter the U.S. Through her efforts, the Jewish refugees disembarked on September 11, 1940, in Virginia. In a similar incident, American Jews sought to raise money to prevent the mass murder of Romanian Jews but were blocked by the State Department. "In wartime, in order to send money out of the United States, two government agencies had to sign a simple release—the Treasury Department under Henry Morgenthau and the State Department under Secretary Cordell Hull. Morgenthau signed immediately. The State Department delayed, delayed, and delayed, as more Jews were dying in the Transnistria camps."

In 1940, Jewish representatives in the USA lodged an official complaint against the discriminatory policies the State Department was using against the Jews. The results were fatal: Hull gave strict orders to every USA consulate worldwide forbidding the issuing of visas to Jews ... At the same time a Jewish congressman petitioned Roosevelt, requesting his permission to allow twenty thousand Jewish children from Europe to enter the USA. The President did not respond to the petition.

Establishing the United Nations

Hull was the underlying force and architect in the creation of the United Nations, as recognized by the 1945 Nobel Prize for Peace, an honor for which Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated him. During World War II, Hull and Roosevelt had worked toward the development of a world organization to prevent a third World War. Hull and his staff drafted the "Charter of the United Nations" in mid-1943.

Later years
Hull resigned on November 30, 1944, due to failing health. To this day he remains the longest-serving US Secretary of State, having served for eleven years and nine months in the post. Roosevelt described Hull upon his departure as "the one person in all the world who has done his most to make this great plan for peace (the United Nations) an effective fact". The Norwegian Nobel Committee honored Hull with the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945 in recognition of his efforts for peace and understanding in the Western Hemisphere, his trade agreements, and his work to establish the United Nations.

In January 1948, Hull published his two-volume memoirs, an excerpt from which appeared in The New York Times.

Personal life and death
At the age of 45, in 1917, Hull married a widow, Rose Frances (Witz) Whitney (1875–1954), of an Austrian Jewish family of Staunton, Virginia.  The couple had no children.  Mrs. Hull died at age 79, in Staunton, Virginia, in 1954.  She is buried in Washington D.C. at  Washington National Cathedral.

Hull died on July 23, 1955, at age 83, at his home in Washington, D.C., after a lifelong struggle with familial remitting-relapsing sarcoidosis (often confused with tuberculosis). He is buried in the vault of the Chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea in the Washington National Cathedral.

Legacy
Hull's memory is preserved by Cordell Hull Dam on the Cumberland River near Carthage, Tennessee. The dam impounds Cordell Hull Lake, covering approximately 12,000 acres (49 km2).

His law school, Cumberland School of Law, continues to honor him with a Cordell Hull Speaker's Forum and the Moot Court Room.

Cordell Hull Birthplace State Park, near Byrdstown, Tennessee, was established in 1997 to preserve Hull's birthplace and various personal effects Hull had donated to the citizens of Pickett County, including his Nobel Peace Prize.

A segment of Kentucky highway routes 70, 90, 63, and 163, from Mammoth Cave National Park near Cave City south to the Tennessee State Line near Hestand, is named "Cordell Hull Highway", and is part of that state's scenic byway system.

The Cordell Hull Building, on Capital Hill in Nashville, Tennessee, is a secure 10-story building that contains the offices of the Tennessee Legislature.

The Eisenhower Executive Office Building (formerly the Old Executive Office Building) in Washington, DC, next to the White House, contains the ornately decorated "Cordell Hull Room" on the second floor, which is used for meetings. The room was Cordell Hull's office when he served as U.S. Secretary of State.

The U.S. Postal Service issued a 5-cent commemorative stamp honoring Cordell Hull on October 5, 1963.

Hull is one of the presidential cabinet members who are characters in the musical Annie.

See also
List of United States Cabinet members who have served more than eight years

Citations

General and cited sources

Primary
 Memoirs (Jan. 1948)
 Vol. I, Vol. II
 The Papers of Cordell Hull.

Secondary
 Dallek, Robert (1979). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American foreign policy, 1932-1945. Oxford University Press.
 Pratt, Julius W. (1964). Cordell Hull, 1933–44, 2 vol.
 Biography at U.S. Congress
 .
 O'Sullivan, Christopher D., and Sumner Welles (2008). Postwar Planning and the Quest for a New World Order. Columbia University Press. .
 Gellman, Irwin F. (2002). Secret Affairs: FDR, Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles''. Enigma Books. .
 Robertson, Charles Langner. "The American Secretary of State: A Study of the Office Under Henry L. Stimson And Cordell Hull." (PhD dissertation, Princeton University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1959. 6005044).
 Woolner, David B. (1996). "The Frustrated Idealists: Cordell Hull, Anthony Eden and the Search for Anglo-American Cooperation, 1933– 1938" (PhD dissertation). McGill University.

External links

 The Cordell Hull Foundation, a non-profit NGO, based around furthering international peace and co-operation.
 The Cordell Hull Institute, a U.S. think-tank focusing on furthering debate in international economic development and trade.
 The Cordell Hull Museum, located in Byrdstown, Tennessee, focusing on Hull's life and work.
 Cordell Hull Birthplace State Park

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1871 births
1955 deaths
20th-century American politicians
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
American Nobel laureates
Burials at Washington National Cathedral
Candidates in the 1928 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1940 United States presidential election
Cumberland School of Law alumni
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee
Democratic National Committee chairs
Democratic Party United States senators from Tennessee
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration cabinet members
Democratic Party members of the Tennessee House of Representatives
Military personnel from Tennessee
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
People from Pickett County, Tennessee
Presidents of the American Society of International Law
Tennessee state court judges
United States Secretaries of State
World War II political leaders
Deaths from sarcoidosis

Cordell Hull


A conversation is two or more people talking about something. It is spontaneous, usually unplanned, though the people may have interests in common.

Conversations are one of the basic types of human communication. They can be about any subject, and do not necessarily have any fixed purpose. They allow people with different views of a topic to learn from each other. A conversation may be contrasted with formal presentations. A talk or speech, for example is an oral presentation by one person directed at a group. It is basically a one-way communication.

Conversations do not have to happen in person, they can happen over the telephone or on the Internet.

Banter
Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals. Often banter uses clever put-downs and witty insults. It can contain misunderstandings (often intentional), zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is each line of banter should "top" the one before it. It is a verbal war of wit without any physical contact.

Related pages
 Conversation analysis
 Consensus
 Intensity of preference

References

Other websites
 Advice  on initiating conversations and links to conversational organizations
 Article on developing basic communication skills
 Conversation Cafè, devoted to creating a "culture of conversation."
 Empathic listening skills
 Lifehack howto on Small Talk
 "The art of conversation", Economist, 19th December 2006

Human communication

Conversation


The Raeti ( ; spelling variants: Rhaeti, Rheti or Rhaetii) were a confederation of Alpine tribes, whose language and culture was related to those of the Etruscans. Before the Roman conquest, they inhabited present-day Tyrol in Austria, eastern Switzerland and the Alpine regions of northeastern Italy. After the Roman conquest, the province of Raetia was formed, which included parts of present-day Germany south of the Danube.

The etymology of the name Raeti is uncertain. The Roman province of Raetia was named after these people.

Ancient sources characterise the Raeti as Etruscan people who were displaced from the Po valley by the Gauls and took refuge in the valleys of the Alps. But it is likely that they were predominantly indigenous Alpine people. Their language, the so-called Raetian language, was probably related to Etruscan, but may not have derived from it. At least some of the Raeti tribes (those in northeastern Italy) probably continued to speak the Raetian language as late as the 3rd century AD. Others (those in Switzerland) were probably Celtic-speaking by the era of the Roman emperor Augustus (ruled 30 BC – AD 14).

The Raeti were divided into numerous tribes, but only some of these are clearly identified in the ancient sources.

The Raeti tribes, together with those of their Celtic-speaking neighbours to the north, the Vindelici, were subjugated by the Imperial Roman army in 15 BC and their territories annexed to the Roman empire. The Roman province of Raetia et Vindelicia was named after these two peoples. The Raeti tribes quickly became loyal subjects of the empire and contributed disproportionate numbers of recruits to the imperial Roman army's auxiliary corps.

Name etymology
The origin of the name Raeti is uncertain. It is not even clear if it derives from an endonym (the name that the Raeti used to describe themselves) or from an exonym (a name used by outsiders to describe the Raeti). (Cf. the name "Greeks". This derives from Graeci, a Roman exonym for this people, whose own name for themselves was Hellenes).

The Roman geographer Pliny the Elder, writing in AD 70, suggests that the people were named after "Raetus", their leader at the time of their supposed "expulsion" from the Po Valley. But according to a theory of "eponym-fabrication" this was a commonplace fabrication in the Greco-Roman world and may be discounted. The most famous illustration of this theory is the legend that the City of Rome derives its name from Romulus, its supposed founder, while if Romulus ever existed at all (which most scholars doubt), then it would be far more likely that he derived his own name from an existing place name Roma, rather than vice versa. The same theory would apply to "Raetus".

It has also been suggested that the name Raeti may be connected with Reitia, a major goddess who was revered in northeast Italy and is attested in a number of inscriptions on votive tablets of the Veneti people. One Raetic votive tablet, from the same region, contains the word reithus, which may refer to this deity.

Origins

The earliest mention of the Raeti in surviving ancient sources is in the Histories of Polybius, written before 146 BC. The Raeti, according to Pliny the Elder, were Etruscans driven into the Alps from the Po Valley by invading Gauls. This account of Raeti origins is supported by the Augustan-era Roman historian Livy. If this historiography is correct, then the displacement from the Po valley would have taken place in the period 600-400 BC, when major migrations of Celtic tribes from Gaul resulted in the Celtisation of that entire region.

But the traditional "migration theory" espoused by classical authors and, until the 1960s, by most modern scholars, is no longer considered the only possible explanation for socio-linguistic change. It is just as likely that the Raeti, if they spoke an Etruscan-like language, were Alpine indigenes who had spoken it as long as, if not longer than, the Etruscans of Etruria - especially if, as most scholars believe, Etruscan represents the pre-Indo-European base language of Italy and the Alps. Alternatively, if the Alpine indigenes previously spoke a language unrelated to Etruscan, they may have adopted Etruscan through processes other than mass immigration e.g. through cultural interchange with the Etruscans of the Po valley, or as a result of "elite-transfer" by an Etruscan elite that acquired political hegemony over the Alpine tribes.

Ethno-linguistic affiliation

The Raeti are believed by many scholars to have spoken, originally at least, the so-called "Raetian language", an extinct tongue known only from a series of inscriptions, written in a variant of the Etruscan alphabet. This tongue is commonly regarded by most philologists to be related to Etruscan, a non-Indo-European language which is best documented in the central Italian regions of Tuscany, northern Latium and western Umbria, and also in northern Italian regions of Emilia-Romagna and Lombardy. The language has been called "Raetian" by linguists because it is assumed to have been spoken by the Raeti. It is possible, although unlikely, that the language dubbed "Raetian" by modern scholars had, in reality, no connection whatever to the people known to ancient Romans as the "Raeti".

Even if "Raetian" was the ancestral language of the Raeti, there is considerable uncertainty as to how widely "Raetian" was spoken among the tribes by the time of Augustus (ruled 30 BC - AD 14). In the Alpine region as a whole, there is evidence that the non-Celtic elements had, by the time of Augustus, been assimilated by the influx of Celtic tribes and had adopted Celtic speech. According to Livy, the "sound" of the Raeti's original Etruscan tongue (sonum linguae) had become corrupted as a result of inhabiting the Alps. This may indicate that at least some of the tribes lost their ancestral Raetic tongue to Celtic. Celticisation also finds support in the Roman practice of twinning the Raeti with their neighbours to the North, the Vindelici, who are regarded by most historians to have been Celtic- speakers. The territories of the two peoples were combined for administrative purposes from an early stage and eventually, under the emperor Claudius (ruled 41-54), as the province of Raetia et Vindelicia. In addition, a pair of joint Raetorum et Vindelicorum auxiliary cohorts were established under Augustus.

Further support for the hypothesis that the northern Raeti tribes converted to Celtic speech before the Roman imperial era is provided by the distribution of "Raetian" inscriptions. These have been found almost exclusively in northeastern Italy: South Tyrol, Trentino, and the Veneto region. None have been found in Switzerland, the other core Raeti region. The Raetic inscriptions indicate that "Raetian" survived as late as the 3rd century AD, suggesting that the Raeti tribes in this region at least may not have converted to Celtic speech. In addition, the abundance of Celtic toponyms and the complete absence of Etruscan place names in the Rhaetian territory, leads to the conclusion that, by the time of Roman conquest, the Rhaetians were completely Celticized.

During the centuries of Roman rule, the Raeti became predominantly Latin-speakers. It has been suggested that a surviving relic of the Raeti's Latin speech is the Romansh language, one of the so-called "Rhaeto-Romance languages". Romansch survives today in a few valleys of Swiss canton Grisons (most of which is today German-speaking). However, a Raetian origin for Romansch is uncertain, as Rhaeto-Romance languages appear most closely related to the Gallo-Romance group, strengthening the argument that at least some of the Raeti had adopted Celtic speech before Latinisation.

Territory

The evidence suggests that the original Roman district of Raetia et Vindelicia, as established under Augustus, had as its eastern border (with the province of Noricum) the river Aenus (Inn) from its confluence with the Danube as far South as, and then by the river Isarcus (Eisack). Its northern border with the "free" German tribes was defined by the course of the upper Danube. On the West, Raetia et Vindelicia included the whole of Lake Constance and the upper Rhine valley and then a long tract westwards along the upper Rhone valley as far as Lake Leman. To the South, its border with the Italian regiones (administrative districts) of Gallia Transpadana and Venetia et Histria was roughly similar to the northern border of present-day Italy.

The Vindelici were, according to Ptolemy, confined to the East of the river Licca (Lech), while West of that river, upper Bavaria was inhabited by Raeti. A contrary view is that the whole region between the Danube and the Alps was occupied by Vindelici, with the Raeti confined to the Alps themselves.

The latter view accords with Strabo, who records that the territory occupied by the Raeti tribes stretched from the upper reaches of the river Rhine in northern Switzerland to as far south as the cities of Como and Verona in northern Italy. The Raeti were bounded in the East by the Celtic Taurisci of Noricum and in the West by the Helvetii.

Tribes
Although the ancient sources concur in ascribing an Etruscan origin to the Raeti, they are less clear as to precisely which tribes attested in the region known as Raetia could be classified as Raeti (and whether such a classification was based on geographical location or language or cultural factors). In addition, there are considerable discrepancies in the names of tribes given by the sources. Some locations of the tribes recorded are uncertain, although most have been established securely by placename and personal-name evidence.

Strabo names the Lepontii, Camunni (who gave their name to the Val Camonica, Lombardy, Italy), Cotuantii and Rucantii as Raeti tribes. Of these, the first two are listed with the same spelling in Augustus' inscription while the latter two are probably the Cosuanetes and the Rucinates respectively in Augustus. However, the inscription text appears to identify the Rucinates as one of the 4 tribes of the Vindelici recorded as conquered. (But it is possible that the Strabo's Rucantii were actually another tribe, the Rugusci, in Augustus).

Against Strabo, Pliny considers the Lepontii as a Celtic tribe akin to the Taurisci and classifies the Camunni as a tribe of the Euganei people of northeast Italy, together with the Trumplini of the neighbouring valley, Val Trompia. However, neither of Pliny's comments is fatal to the identification of the Lepontii and Camunni as Raeti. The Lepontic language has been definitively classified as a distinct Continental Celtic language (e.g. Lejeune 1971, Koch 2008). As for the Euganei, their linguistic classification is uncertain due to scanty evidence. It is possible that their speech was also related to Etruscan, possibly a sub-group of Tyrsenian languages. Alternatively their language may have been Indo-European, akin to that of their close neighbours, the Celts or the Veneti (whose language shares several similarities with Latin and the Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other IE languages, especially Germanic and Celtic).

In addition, it appears that "Raetia et Vindelicia" was also inhabited by a number of non-Raetic tribes. The Breuni and Genauni are classified as Illyrian by Strabo, while a number of tribes in the region have plausible Celtic etymologies: e.g. Caturiges from catu- ("fight" or "warriors") and Nantuates from nantu- ("valley") respectively.

The Tropaeum Alpium inscription contains the names of 45 Alpine tribes. Taking those that inhabited the territories of Raetia et Vindelicia province and Venetia et Histria regio of N. Italy, and eliminating those tribes considered probably Celtic by scholars (Medulli, Ucenni, Caturiges, Brigiani, Sogionti, Ceutrones, Uberi, Nantuates, Sedunes, Veragri), the following list of possible Raeti tribes results:

Roman conquest
The Raeti, together with their probably Celtic neighbours to the North, the Vindelici, were subdued by the Roman emperor Augustus' stepsons and senior military commanders Tiberius and Drusus in a two-pronged campaign in 15 BC.

Until ca. AD 100, the region was garrisoned, on its western edge (at Vindonissa from ca. AD 15), by at least one Roman legion (probably legio XIX until AD 9, when it was destroyed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest). In addition, Roman auxiliary forces and leves armaturae ("light troops", probably a local militia) were stationed there. But these forces were mainly for security against external threats, not internal unrest. Strabo wrote that the Alpine tribes as a whole adapted easily to Roman rule and had not rebelled in the 33 years that had elapsed since the initial conquest.

The Raeti (and the Vindelici) were obliged to pay taxes to Rome. However, their combined territory was initially organised not as a full Roman province but a military district under a Roman equestrian officer, attested as "praefectus of the Raeti, Vindelici and the Poenine Valley". It was apparently not before emperor Claudius (ruled 41-54), that the district became a full province with the official name of Raetia et Vindelicia (abbreviated to simply Raetia in the later 1st century), while the Poenine Valley (Canton Valais, Switz.) was separated to join the province of Alpes Graiae. Raetia was governed by an equestrian procurator.

According to the epigraphic record, the early Julio-Claudian period of the Roman Empire (30 BC - AD 37) saw the formation of at least 10 auxiliary infantry regiments from the Raeti tribes (the cohortes Raetorum). This represents some 5,000 recruits, an enormous levy from sparsely-populated Alpine valleys. It suggests that the Raeti were strongly attracted to a career in the Roman military. (See Alpine regiments of the Roman army).

See also
 Alpine regiments of the Roman army
 Raetia
 Raetic language

Notes

References

Ancient
 Dio Cassius Roman History (ca. 130 AD)
 Livy Ab urbe condita (ca. 20 AD)
 Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia (ca. 70 AD)
 Polybius The Histories (Polybius) (ca. 160 BC)
 Strabo Geographica (ca. 20 AD)

Modern
 A. Baruffi, Spirit of Rhaetia: The Call of the Holy Mountains (LiteraryJoint, Philadelphia, PA, 2020),
 Alfoldy, Geza (1974): Noricum
 Cambridge Ancient History (1996): Vol X, The Augustan Empire
 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica (online)
 Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome
 Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames (online)
 Holder, Paul (1980): Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army

 Ó Hógain, Dáithi (2006) The Celts
 Marchesini, Simona and Roncador, Rosa (2015): Monumanta Linguae Raeticae (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317717346_Monumenta_Linguae_Raeticae)
 Zavaroni, Adolfo (2001): Le Iscrizioni Retiche ("Raetic Inscriptions") (online)

External links
 Raetic inscriptions Adolfo Zavaroni

Ancient peoples of Italy
Ancient Switzerland
Historical ethnic groups of Europe
History of Vorarlberg
Tribes conquered by Rome

Rhaetian people


Istilah set-top box (STB) nerangkeun hiji parangkat nu ngahubung kana televisi jeung sababaraha sumber sinyal luar, tur ngarobah sinyal éta jadi content nu saterusna ditembongkeun dina layar. Sumber sinyalna bisa tina kabel ethernet (tempo triple play), satellite dish,  kabel koaksial (tempo televisi kabel), jalur telepon (kaasup koneksi DSL), Broadband over Power Line, atawa anténa VHF jeung UHF biasa. Content, dina kontéks ieu, bisa ngandung harti sababaraha atawa sakabéhna mangrupa video, audio, Internet kaca loka, gameinteraktif, atawa kamungkinan-kamungkinan lianna. Set-top box teu perlu mibanda tuner sorangan. A box connected to a television (or VCR) set's SCART connector is fed with the baseband television signal from the set's tuner, and can ask the television to display the returned processed signal instéad. This féature is used for decoding Pay TV in Europe, and in the past was used for decoding teletext, before decoders became built-in. The outgoing signal can be of the same nature as the incoming signal, or RGB component video, or even an "insert" over the original signal, thanks to the "fast switching" féature of SCART. In case of Pay TV, this solution avoids the hassles associated with having a second remote control.

Before cable-réady TV sets, a set-top box known as a cable converter box was used to receive analog cable TV channels and convert them to vidéo that could be seen on a regular TV (channel 3 or 4 in North America, or channel 36 or 37 in the United Kingdom). Nowadays, cable converter boxes are used to descramble premium cable channels and to receive digital cable channels.

Televisi digital

In the United Kingdom, digital set-top boxes (often referred to as digiboxes, after Sky Digital's trademark for their unit) are usually for digital terrestrial television through services such as Freeview, a service operated by the Freeview Consortium, or through digital satellite with BSkyB and also with digital cable. They are used to access television as well as audio and interactive services through the "Red Button" promoted by broadcasters such as the BBC with BBCi or Sky with Sky Active.

Special digital set-top box are available for receiving digital TV broadcasts on TV sets do not have a built in digital tuner.  In the case of direct broadcast satellite (mini-dish) systems such as SES Astra, Dish Network, or DirecTV, the set-top box is an integrated receiver/decoder (IRD).

In IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on an IP network, and decoding the vidéo streaming media.

Tempo oge
ATSC
Tuner ATSC
Audio
Konéktivitas: RS-232, USB, Bluetooth jeung Wi-Fi
Digital television adapter (DTA)
DVB
Free-to-air
Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting
IPTV
MHP
Polarisasi
QPSK
Satellite dish
Symbol rate

Téhnologi televisi
Éléktronika konsumén
Satelit
Televisi kabel

Set-top box


All My Lenins (), is a historical 1997 comedy film by Hardi Volmer. The topics are Russian Bolsheviks' coup d'état plans, World War I and Russian Revolution (1917).

Plot
In 1908, the young Estonian politician Aleksander Kesküla (Üllar Saaremäe) has escaped from Estonia, then part of the czarist Russian empire, to Switzerland. Kesküla is strongly concerned about the national oppression in the Russian empire. It is also the point of view of the famous Russian exile and bolshevik, Vladimir Lenin. (This role was played by Viktor Sukhorukov). Lenin believes czarist Russia to be "the prison of nations". Kesküla takes his last exams at the University of Bern. When World War I bursts into flame, Lenin views the Russian and German bourgeoisies to both have caused the war and so he begins to agitate "to end war even if Russia will be defeated."

Kesküla sees his great historical chance and intends to use Lenin's leftist radicals in forwarding the revolution of the Russian empire.  He elaborates mania grandiosa type plans in order to exterminate Russia forever and build upon the ruins of the great empire Gross-Estland (Great Estonia).  The empire would incorporate all former Finnic territories, including Saint Petersburg.  At first, he acts between Lenin and the German government to use German money to ignite revolutionary flames in Russia.  Kesküla and the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs make a deal to support Lenin financially: to pay for the brochures, leaflets and books of the Bolshevik Party. Lenin accepts German help but cannot really imagine in which he implicates himself.

The Germans place their super-spy Müller (Andrus Vaarik) as the coordinator of the project. Kesküla and Müller educate five Russian men as Lenin's counterparts (doppelgängers). They want to be sure they can replace the real Lenin any moment something happens to him, and so they insure their rear. Thus develops the philosophical concept: counterparts are funny but dangerous. They could replace you any moment that anybody notices you seem to be an inconvenient character (like real Lenin was).

Historical accuracy
The authors (plot has written by Toomas Kall, idea elaborated by Hardi Volmer and Ott Sandrak) called their film pseudo-historical. However, the film contains numerous historical accuracies. In fall 1914, the German ambassador in Switzerland freiherr Gisbert von Romberg (Linnar Priimägi) informed his government about "an Estonian, Alexander Kesküla, who did proposal to use Lenin in our plans against Russia". German intelligence clarified about Kesküla's past and found out he had real access to the inner bolshevik circles and to Lenin himself (as in film). Moreover, Kesküla had former experience to initiate rebels in Russia with the help of the foreign hands: in 1905, in Tallinn, Tartu and Riga he got money from Japanese spy Motohirto Akashi and acted in his interests.

First German reaction to Kesküla's proposal was sceptical: for the experts of German Foreign Ministry the bolsheviks were quite marginal party and they had no power to change the moods and minds in Russian state (as in film). But the situation changed soon. In December 1914 Kesküla received 10 000 Reichsmarks from Germans with approval to spread it for the bolshevik's needs. From this period has remained an interesting characteristics to Kesküla: "He was a real Estonian patriot and hoped that revolution-enervated Russia leaves from his homeland and gives her independence."

Although Kesküla informed the German government about Lenin, the most intense and organized setting on revolution in Russia happened with leading of Jewish businessman and politician Alexander Parvus who operated with millions of Reichsmarks of the German money. All My Lenins does not even mention Parvus and make Aleksander Kesküla the only Lenin-educating hero. "The school of Lenin's doppelgängers in Zürich" is also masterminded fiction. There were never Lenin-Monk, Lenin-Beggar, Lenin-Electrician and Lenin-Criminal.

Reaction and critics
All My Lenins was made by Faama Film company in cooperation with Lenfilm.

Cast

References

External links
"Minu Leninid" in the home page of Estonian Television.

Estonian comedy films
Films about communism
Cultural depictions of Vladimir Lenin

All My Lenins


The internal pudendal artery goes in the pelvis and in the perineum (the area between the legs of a person). It is an important blood vessel for the perineum. The artery is different in women and in men. It has a lot of branches. Branches are smaller arteries which start from the "parent" artery. In men, it has branches going to muscles, the penis and the urethra (the tube which urine passes through). In women, it has branches going to the labia and the clitoris.

References

Blood vessels

Internal pudendal artery


Instant payment notification (IPN) is a method for online retailers to automatically track purchases and other server-to-server communication in real time.  This allows E-commerce systems the opportunity to store payment transactions, order information and other sales internally.  IPN messages can represent payment success or failures, order transaction status changes, accounting ledger information and many others depending on the payment gateway.

The payments industry is an evolving market, technology like IPN and instant payment are now used in the retail market and in the domestic sphere, but they are expected to evolve into the corporate, business-to-business (B2B) segment and cross-border space.

How it Works
IPN is used by merchant to automate backend functions related to: the end user account creation, order tracking, customer and merchant notifications related to acquired services.
When an E-commerce system requests a resource from a payment gateway, like a new invoice or bill for goods, the request must contain a URL endpoint representing a script or program to handle returning notifications.  IPN messages are then sent to the retailer's E-commerce system by HTTP POST as the resource is updated by the gateway.

The IPN handler usually performs standard actions like validating the message, updating inventory levels in the E-commerce system, notifying customers of successful or failed payments, etc.  Depending on the retailer's business requirements and the level of sophistication of the E-commerce software, some or all of the IPN messages can be handled or ignored.

Server-side scripting languages such as PHP and ASP that power most E-commerce systems are event driven and make no distinction between a user-generated event or a machine-generated event.  Utilizing this fact, IPN messages facilitate the coordination of the order state changes between the ecommerce system and the payment gateway handling the order.

See also

 Mobile commerce
 Comparison of shopping cart software
 Digital economy
 Electronic bill payment
 Electronic money
 E-commerce credit card payment system
 Comparison of free software e-commerce web application frameworks
 Non-store retailing
 Online marketplace
 Paid content
 Payments as a service
 Instant payment

References

Banking technology
Payment networks
Payment systems

Instant payment notification


Argos Comunicación is a television and film production company owned by Epigmenio Ibarra based in Mexico City.

Profile
The company started as the telenovela-production unit for TV Azteca with Nada personal and has since then produced many telenovelas for this network. It also co-produced Sexo, pudor y lágrimas in 1999 directed by Antonio Serrano who has directed five telenovelas and another film (Lucía, Lucía) with Argos. In 2001, Argos signed a contract with Telemundo to produce telenovels for this network and has since then produced nine, including Gitanas. Argos also owns an acting school, CasAzul, a music unit, Argos Música, and a theater production unit, Argos Teatro. Most of the content produced by Argos is filmed in the majestic Estudios Churubusco that were used to produce all the films during the Mexican gold film era.

As of December 31, 2006, Argos will no longer be co-producing any new projects with Telemundo. Argos has made a deal with TV Azteca to start production of new content. They have Casablanca in pre-production which is slated to start sometime in February 2007. Argos will finish up the production of Marina and a few episodes of Decisiones with Telemundo. Also for 2007, Argos is producing a mini-series for HBO Latin America starring Ana de la Reguera.

Units
 Argos Comunicación, Argos Cine – Film
 Argos Música
 Argos Teatro
 CasAzul – Acting school

Zoom TV
 Zoom.tv (www.zoom.tv)
It started out as a website with original content, a reality show with fixed cameras in a real house called Inquilino. Visitors to this website were able to go into a chat room and talk live to the renters living in the house. It also had an internet radio station where Osvaldo Benavides hosted a weekend show.

Zoom TV was the precursor of what Argos' dubbed as "la tercera mirada" (the third look), a new television station, that would compete directly with the giant Televisa and TV Azteca (whom they had just broke ties with). It was in January 2002 when this new TV station would emerge, but legal issues prevented Argos from tubing and this venture as well as the website disappeared.

The programming was to be color-coded based on the content it was showing. For example, red was to be for adults only, while yellow was for the whole family. CEO of Argos, Epigmenio Ibarra does not lose hope that some day, he will have an output in his homeland Mexico, but for now he will only work as a content generator.

Film
 Cronica de Una Muerte Anunciada (2010)
 Fuera del cielo (2007)
 Lucía, Lucía (2003)
 Ladies' Night (2003)
 La habitación azul (2002)
 Vivir mata (2001)
 Nocturno chilango
 Sexo, pudor y lágrimas (1999)

Telenovelas
Falsa Identidad (2018)
 Ingobernable (2017)
  Enemigo Íntimo (2017)
 El Chema (2016)
 La Doña (2016)
 Vuelve Temprano (2016)
 Los Miserables (2014)
 Señora Acero (2014)
 La Impostora (2014)
 Camelia la Texana (2014)
 Fortuna (2013)
 El Señor de los Cielos (2013)
 La Patrona (2013)
 Rosa Diamante (2012)
 Último Año (2012)
 Infames (2012)
 El 8vo Mandamiento (2011)
 Bienvenida Realidad (2011)
 El Sexo Debil (2011)
 Las Aparicio (2010)
 Deseo Prohibido (2008)
 Vivir sin ti ↔ Vivir por ti (2008)
 Mientras Haya Vida (2007)
 Marina (2006)
 Corazón partido (2005)
 Los Plateados (2005)
 Gitanas (2004)
 Ladrón de corazones (2003)
 El alma herida (2003)
 Daniela (2002)
 Cara o cruz (2001)
 Todo por amor (2000)
 La vida en el espejo (1999)
 El amor de mi vida (1998)
 Demasiado corazón (1998)
 Tentaciones (1998)
 Mirada de mujer (1997)
 Nada personal (1996)

Mini-Series
 Capadocia (2007)
 Zapata: Amor en Rebeldía (2003)
 Feliz Navidad Mamá (2002)
 La Virgen de Guadalupe (2002)

Comedy
 Amor a las Carreras (2001)

Entertainment
 A dónde estás corazón (2001)
 Momento de decisión
 Se vale soñar

References

External links
  Interview with Epigmenio Ibarra
  Interview with Epigmenio Ibarra on todito.com
  Argos Comunicación Webpage

Companies based in Mexico City
Film production companies of Mexico
Mass media in Mexico City

Argos Comunicación


Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone GCVO GBE GStJ (Alice Mary Victoria Augusta Pauline; née Princess Alice of Albany; 25 February 1883 – 3 January 1981) was a member of the British Royal Family.

Alice was the longest-lived Princess of the British Royal Family and the last surviving grandchild of Queen Victoria. She was by birth a Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and a "Duchess in Saxony", as well as a Princess of Teck by marriage.
in 1917 she was ordered to give up all German titles by her cousin George V. Alice was godmother to Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, the granddaughter of her first cousin, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. Princess Alice was the last grandchild of Queen Victoria to die, in January 1981, almost 115 years after the death of Prince Sigismund of Prussia, the first grandchild of Queen Victoria to die. He died in June 1866.

Early life
Princess Alice was born 25 February 1883 at Windsor Castle. Her father was Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, the youngest son of Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort. Her mother was Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont. She had one brother, Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany (1884–1954) who was reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1900–1918).  As the granddaughter of the Sovereign through the male line, she was a Princess of the United Kingdom and a Royal Highness. As the daughter of the Duke of Albany, she was, therefore, styled Her Royal Highness Princess Alice of Albany.

Marriage and issue
 On 10 February 1904, at St George's Chapel, Windsor, Princess Alice of Albany married her second cousin once-removed, Prince Alexander of Teck, the brother of Queen Mary. After their marriage, Princess Alice was styled HRH Princess Alexander of Teck.

Prince and Princess Alexander of Teck had three children:

Princess Alice was one of the carriers of the gene for haemophilia which arose with Queen Victoria. Princess Alice inherited the gene from her father who himself was a sufferer. Her eldest son, Rupert, inherited the disease from her; this led to his early death following an automobile accident.

1917
When the British Royal Family abandoned all German titles by Letters Patent issued by King George V in June 1917, Prince Alexander of Teck gave up the title "Prince of Teck" in the Kingdom of Württemberg and the style Serene Highness, and took the surname Cambridge,.  For a short time he was known as Sir Alexander Cambridge, then the Earl of Athlone.  Their two surviving children also lost their Württemberg princely titles.

Princess Alice gave up her titles of Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duchess of Saxony, but her brother Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who held a commission in the German Army, did not and was stripped of his British titles instead. Alice stayed, a Princess of Great Britain and Ireland and a Royal Highness in her own right, as granddaughter of Queen Victoria in the male line. From June 1917 until her death, she was styled Her Royal Highness Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone.

South Africa
The Earl was appointed Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and served from 1924-31: Princess Alice accompanied him and was the Vicereine during that period. Lord and Lady Athlone had a coastal beach house constructed at Muizenberg, which still stands today and is one of South Africa's national monuments. The Cape Town Suburb of Athlone was named in honour of the Governor-General and it and the beach house are the only physical reminder of the Athlones' residence at the Cape.

World War II and Canada
On the sudden death of the very popular John Buchan in 1940 Canada was without a Governor General in time of war. For a long time Canadian governments had intended appointing only Canadians as governors general — Australia had long since done so with the appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs as its governor general.  But wartime did not seem the right time for such a move.  As the Royal Family had got a lot of public support during the Royal Tour of 1939, Lord Athlone seemed a very good candidate.  He was Queen Mary's brother (and thus the King's uncle) and a former governor general of another of His Majesty's Dominions and Mackenzie King advised the King to appoint him.

Princess Alice accompanied her husband to Canada where he was Governor General from 1940–1946.

It does not appear that the Athlones left any lasting mark in Canada, or indeed conducted any public works, delivered any speeches or performed any works of lasting value, though photos of the Earl with Roosevelt, Churchill and Mackenzie King on the ramparts of the Citadel during the Quebec Conference were amply published at the time.

Post-World War II
At the end of World War II, the American Military Government in Bavaria, under the command of General George S. Patton, arrested and imprisoned Alice's brother, Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, (who was a member of the Reichstag from 1937 to 1945), because of his Nazi sympathies. Alice, came to Germany with her husband to plead with for his release. They would not yield, and in 1946, he was sentenced by a de-nazification court, heavily fined and almost bankrupted.

Royal duties
In her lifetime, Princess Alice carried out many Royal duties. Apart from her normal duties as Vicereine of South Africa and then Canada, she attended the Coronations of four monarchs: Edward VII, George V, George VI, and Elizabeth II. She was also the Colonel-in-Chief of two British Army units and one Rhodesian Army unit. During the Second World War, she was Honorary Air Commandant of the Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division. In 1950, she became the first Chancellor of the University of the West Indies (then the University College of the West Indies). From the 1930s-60s she was Chair of the Council (governing body) of Royal Holloway College, University of London.

Later life
The Earl of Athlone died in 1957 at Kensington Palace in London. Princess Alice lived on there until 1981, when she died at age 97 years and 313 days. At her death, she was the longest-lived British Princess of the Blood Royal and the last surviving grandchild of Queen Victoria .

Her funeral took place in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle, attended by all members of the Royal Family. She is buried alongside her husband and son in the private British Royal Burial Grounds at Frogmore, directly behind the mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, in Windsor Great Park. Her daughter and son-in-law are also buried close by.

She lived through six reigns:- Victoria (grandmother), Edward VII (uncle), George V (cousin and brother-in-law), Edward VIII (nephew), George VI (nephew) and Elizabeth II (grand-niece).

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles
25 February 1883 – 10 February 1904: Her Royal Highness Princess Alice of Albany
10 February 1904 – 14 July 1917: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexander of Teck
14 July 1917 – 14 July 1917: Her Royal Highness Princess Alice, The Honourable Lady Cambridge
14 July 1917 – 3 January 1981: Her Royal Highness Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone

Honours
 GCVO: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
 GBE: Dame Grand Cross of the British Empire
 VA: Lady of the Order of Victoria and Albert
 Royal Family Order of King Edward VII
 Royal Family Order of King George V
 Royal Family Order of King George VI
 Royal Family Order of Queen Elizabeth II

Arms
As a granddaughter of Queen Victoria in the male line, Princess Alice was entitled to use the Royal Arms, with a 5-point label as a difference, the central point bearing a cross gules, the others hearts gules.

Until George V's warrant of 1917, her arms, like all those of Prince Albert's British royal descendants, bore an inescutcheon for Saxony.

Other websites

regiments.org listing of honours and military titles
A YouTube video of HRH Princess Alice speaking informally about Queen Victoria, her paternal grandmother - circa 1977

References

1883 births
1981 deaths
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Governors General of Canada
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
House of Windsor
Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
People with foods named after them
Royalty from Berkshire
South Africa

Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone


William Reid Priddy (born October 1, 1977), known as Reid Priddy, is an American volleyball player on the United States men's national volleyball team and Italian club Cucine Lube Civitanova. He has also played on the AVP tour from 2000 to 2006.

As of 2009, Priddy has resumed playing on the AVP Tour.

High school and personal life
Priddy was born in Richmond, Virginia to Ken and Sharon Priddy. He started playing volleyball after his family moved from Richmond to Florida, where he tried it in a summer-school P.E. class.

Priddy graduated in 1996 from Mountain Pointe High School in Phoenix, Arizona. His first year of varsity volleyball was in Arizona in 1994. Priddy played the setter position for the Pride and helped lead the team as a junior to the school's first state championship in 1995.

Priddy has been married to Lindsay Pierce since March 10, 2007.

College
Priddy graduated from Loyola Marymount University with a degree in communication studies in 2000. He was also recruited by Cal State Northridge, USC and UC Santa Barbara. He appeared in 18 matches (42 games). Posted 150 kills, 70 digs and 12 service aces as a freshman. He led the Lions with 391 kills and in matches with 10-or-more kills (17) and was second on the team in kills per game (4.83), digs (178) and digs per game (2.20) in 1998. In 1999, he led the team in kills (435), kills per game (5.80) and service aces (35) as a senior

Career
Priddy played with the national team at the Pan American Games in 1999. In 2000, he also debuted playing in Italy, for Volley Forlì. In 2001, Priddy led the team in kills (258) and digs (184), and was second on the team in blocks (41) and tied for third in service aces (14), participating in the Japan Tour, Volleyball World League, World Championship Qualifier, NORCECA Zone Championships, and the Jeep America's Cup. That year he also played for the Vienna Hotvolleys club in Austria.

Priddy rejoined the US team in late July 2002. He led the team in total points (70), kills (60) and blocks (eight) in six matches at the FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship, and finished the season first on the team in points per game (2.98) and sixth in total points (173), had 92 kills, 66 digs, 21 blocks and 10 service aces.  He also participated for the national team in the Bulgaria Tour, Greece Tour, and Florida Tour.

Priddy served as the team captain at the 2003 Pan American Games where the team placed fourth. Although battling an abdominal injury for much of the season, he still finished third on the team in kills (224) and fourth on the squad in service aces (17).  He also participated in the Colorado/Nebraska Tour, Canada Tour, NORCECA Zone Championships (gold medal), and the World Cup (fourth place).

Team USA qualified for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece, by winning the NORCECA Olympic Qualifying Tournament in Caguas, Puerto Rico. The team finished fourth overall at the Olympics. He also participated in the Japan Tour, Houston Series, USA Global Challenge (gold medal), and the Serbia and Montenegro Tour (silver medal). That year, he moved to Callipo Vibo Valentia club of southern Italy.

In 2005, he made his indoor season debut in Japan at the World Grand Champions Cup as the Team USA claimed the silver medal with a record of 4-1. He played in each of the final four matches (eight out of 13 sets) and scored 27 points on 23 kills, two blocks and two service aces. In 2005–2006 he played at club level in South Korea for Daejeon Samsung Bluefangs. The following year, Priddy led his team in scoring in seven out of 12 World League matches, including 21 points against Serbia & Montenegro, and was one of the World League leaders in scoring and hitting. The U.S. team went undefeated (4-0) at the Inaugural Pan American Cup in June. Priddy obtained the high score in the first (18), third (23) and fifth (16) matches in Argentina. At club level, in 2006–2007 he was hired by Olympiacos Piraeus in Greece, after which he moved to Russia club VC Lokomotiv Novosibirsk, where he remained until 2010.

In 2008, Priddy was part of the team which won the gold medal in the 2008 Summer Olympics defeating Brazil in final. After leaving Lokomotiv, in 2010–2012 Priddy played for Russian club  VC Zenit-Kazan and then for Halkbank Ankara in Turkey (2012–2013). He returned to play for European clubs only in January 2016, when he was called to replace injured Simone Parodi by Lube Cucine Civitanova.

At the 2016 Olympics, during the bronze medal game, he came off the bench and helped rally the team to a 3-2 victory.

AVP Beach Volleyball Tour
 2001: Finished 13th twice, 17th three times, 25th twice, and 33rd once in 8 AVP tournaments.
 2002:Finished 25th and 57th in 2 AVP tournaments.
 2005: Finished ninth three times in 10 AVP tournaments.
 2006: Finished ninth three times in 3 AVP tournaments.
 2017: Finished third in Manhattan Beach Open [AVP.com]
 2019: Won Manhattan Beach Open [AVP.com]

Sporting achievements

Clubs

CEV Champions League
  2014/2015 – with Cucine Lube Civitanova

Awards

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Olympiacos SFP (men's volleyball) players
Loyola Marymount Lions men's volleyball players
American men's volleyball players
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in volleyball
Sportspeople from Richmond, Virginia
Volleyball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Volleyball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Volleyball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Volleyball players at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
VC Zenit Kazan players
Volley Lube players
Halkbank volleyball players
Daejeon Samsung Bluefangs players
Expatriate volleyball players in South Korea
Volleyball players at the 2003 Pan American Games
Pan American Games competitors for the United States
Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in volleyball
American expatriate sportspeople in Greece
American expatriate sportspeople in Italy
American expatriate sportspeople in Russia
American expatriate sportspeople in South Korea
American expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Expatriate volleyball players in Greece
Expatriate volleyball players in Italy
Expatriate volleyball players in Russia
Expatriate volleyball players in Turkey
Outside hitters

Reid Priddy


Siemomysł - (about 900~ to 950~) leader of Polan tribe,duke of Poland,  father of Mieszko I.

How we know about him
In the Gallus Anonymous  Chronicle we can read about him as a Duke of Polans before Mieszko I. He is also mentioned in many other chronicles.

What we know about him
We don't know a lot about him. Perhaps he caused the wkrzanie uprising in germany. He centralized the country a lot, beacause before baptism of Poland, this country was quite centralized as a Pagan country. He probably also conquered Goplans and Mazovians.

Sources
http://www.staropolska.pl/ang/middleages/Sec_prose/Gall.php3

963 deaths
890s births
Kings of Poland
Piast dynasty
Polish dukes

Siemomysł


Viruses are the ultimate expression of parasitism. They not only take nutrition from the host cell but also direct it metabolic machinery to synthesize new virus particles. viral chemotherapy was considered impossible, as it would require interference with cellular metabolism in the host.

Classification
1. Anti-Herpes virus : idoxurudine, trifluridine, Acyclovir, valacyclovir, Famciclovir, Ganciclovir, Valganciclovir, Cidofovir, Foscarnet, Fomivirsen

2. Anti-Influenza virus: Amantadine, rimantadine, Oseltamivir, Zanamivir

3. Anti-Hepatitis virus/nonselective antiviral drugs Primarily for hepatitis B: Lamivudine, Adefovir dipivoxil, Tenofovir Primarily for hepatitis C: Ribavirin, Interferon α

4. Anti retrovirus:

(A) neucleoside rivers transcriptas inhibitor: Zidovudine

Didanosine, Stavudine, lamivudine, Abacavir, Emtricitabine, Tenofovir

(B) nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs): Nevirapine, Efavirenz, Delavirdine

(C) Protease inhibitors: Ritonavir, Atazanavir, Indinavir, Nelfinavir, Saquinavir, Amprenavir

(D) Entry (Fusion) inhibitor: Enfuvirtide

(E) CCR5 receptor inhibitor: Maraviroc

(F) Integrase inhibitor: Raltegravir

Acyclovir
This deoxiguanosine analogue antiviral drug requires a virus specific enzyme for conversion to the active metabolite that inhibits DNA synthesis and viral replication.

Acyclovir is  taken by the virus infected cells. Because of selective generation of the active inhibitor in the virus infected cell and its greater inhibitory effect on viral DNA synthesis, acyclovir has low toxicity for host cells: a several hundred-fold chemotherapeutic index has been noted.

Pharmacokinetics
Only about 20% of an oral dose of acyclovir is absorbed. It is little plasma protein bound and is widely distributed attaining CSF concentration that is 50% of plasma concentration. After topical application, it penetrates cornea well. Acyclovir is primarily excreted unchanged in urine, both by glomerular filtration and tubular secretion; plasma t½ is 2–3 hours.

Use

 Acyclovir is very usefull in patients with normal as well as deficient immune status.

 genital Herpes simplex generally caused by type 2 virus can be treated by topical, oral or parenteral acyclovir depending on stage & severity of disease.

 Primary disease: Topical treatment has low efficacy; 5% ointment is applied locally 6 times a day for 10 days. This is useful if started early and in mild cases. Late and more severe cases should receive oral therapy (1 g/day in 5 divided doses or 400 mg TDS for 10 days) in addition to local therapy. Both local and oral therapies afford symptomatic relief and rapid healing of lesions, but do not prevent recurrences

 Mucocutaneous H. simplex It is a type-1 virus disease, remains localized to lips and gums; does not usually require specific treatment, but acyclovir skin cream may provide some relief. Spreading lesions may be treated with 10 day oral acyclovir. The disease often gets disseminated in immunocompromised individuals and may be treated with oral or i.v. acyclovir (15 mg/kg/day) for 7 days, but recurrences are not prevented.

 H. simplex encephalitis (type-1 virus): Acyclovir 10 to 20 mg/kg/8 hr i.v. for >10 day is the drug of choice. Treatment is effective only if started early: delay precludes salutary effect on mortality and neurological complications.

Side effects

 topical: Stinging & burning sensation after each application.
 oral: The drug is used  for headache, nausea, malaise and some CNS effects.
 Intravenous: Rashes, sweating, emesis and fall in BP occur only in few patients. Dose-dependent decrease in g.f.r. is the most important toxicity; occurs especially in those with kidney disease; normalises on discontinuation of the drug

Amantadine
Chemically, it is a unique tricyclic amine unrelated to any nucleic acid precursor, but inhibits replication of influenza A virus. the activity of amantadine is strain specific, influenza b is not affected. H5N1 and H1N1 strains of Influenza A are resistant in most areas. it appears to act an early step (possibly uncoating) as well as at a late step (viral assembly) in viral replication. protein designated M2 which acts as an Ion channel has been identify as one of is targets of action. Resistance to amantadine develops by mutation causing amino acid substitutions in the M2 protein.

Uses

 Prophylaxis of influenza A2 during an epidemic or seasonal influenza, especially in high risk patients. Influenza season and epidemics generally last ~ 2 months, and only this period needs to be covered by prophylaxis.

 when the Epidemic causing strain of virus is known to be sensitive to amantadine, should prophylactic use be considered.

 However, amantadine is no longer recommended in united kingdom, either for prophylaxis or for treatment of influenza.

 Treatment of influenzal (A2) illness: a modest therapeutic effect (reduction in fever, congestion, cough and quicker recovery) occurs if the drug is given immediately after the symptoms appear. A 5 day treatment is advised.

Adverse effects
Nausea, Anorexia, Insomnia, Dizziness, Nightmares, Lack of mental concentration, Rarely Hallucinations have been reported. Ankle edema occurs due to local vasoconstriction.

Interferon α
α Interferons (IFNs)are low molecular weight glycoprotein cytokines produced by host cells in response to viral infections, TNFα, IL-1 and some other inducers.

They have nonspecific antiviral activity as well as other complex effects on immunity and cell proliferation. interferons binds to a very specific cell surface receptors and affect its replication at multiple steps,  viral penetration, synthesis of viral mRNA, assembly of viral particles and their release, but the most widespread effect is direct or indirect suppression of viral protein synthesis, i.e. inhibition of translation. interfeorn receptor like JAK STAT tyrosine protein kinase receptors which on activation phosphorylate cellular proteins. These then migrate to the nucleus and induce transcription of 'interferon-inducedproteins' which exert antiviral effects

Uses

 Chronic hepatitis B: IFNα2Α 2.5−5 ΜU/m2 or IFNα2Β 5−10 ΜU given 3 times per week for 4–6 months causes disappearance of HBVDNA from plasma and improvement in liver function tests/histology in nearly half of the patients. High doses (10 MU) injected thrice weekly for 6 months often produce prolonged remission, but relapses do occur. The pegIFNs 180 μg s.c. weekly for 24 to 48 weeks produce better and more sustained responses.

 Chronic hepatitis C: IFNα2Β 3ΜU 3 times weekly for 6–12 months has produced remission in 50–70% patients. Viral RNA becomes undetectable and liver function tests return to normal. Histology improves if response is sustained. However, relapses occur in majority of patients. PegIFNs 180 μg/week are more effective and induce longer lasting remissions. Combination therapy with IFN/pegIFN + ribavirin is particularly indicated in patients who do not respond to IFN alone.

 AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma: IFN is used to treat AIDS related Kaposi's sarcoma, but not to treat HIV as such. However, interferon accentuates haematological toxicity of zidovudine.

 Condyloma acuminata: caused by papilloma virus is usually treated with topical podophyllin. Intralesional interferon injection may be used in refractory cases.

Adverse effects

 Flu-like symptoms—fatigue, aches and pains, malaise, fever, dizziness, anorexia, nausea, taste and visual disturbances develop few hours after each injection, but become milder later.

 neurotoxicity - numbness, neuropathy, altered behaviour, mental depression, tremor, sleepiness, very rarely convulsions

Antiviral drugs are a type of drug used for treating viral infection. Most antivirals are used for specific viral infections, while a broad-spectrum antiviral works against a wide range of viruses. Unlike most antibiotics, antiviral drugs do not destroy their target pathogen (something that causes disease); instead they stop their development.

Antiviral drugs are a type of antimicrobials, a larger group which also includes antibiotic (also called antibacterial), antifungal and antiparasitic drugs, or antiviral drugs based on monoclonal antibodies. Most antivirals do not cause much damage to the body, and can be used to treat infections. They are different from viricides, which are not medicine but deactivate or destroy virus particles inside or outside the body. Natural antivirals are made by some plants such as eucalyptus and Australian tea trees.

References
all drugs mechanism of action by uvmedicine.store

Related pages
Antibiotics
Drugs

Antiviral drug


Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour is het volkslied van Dominica vanaf 1967. De tekst is gemaakt door Wilfred Oscar Morgan Pond en de muziek door Lemuel McPherson Christian.

Isle of beauty, isle of splendor,
Isle to all so sweet and fair,
All must surely gaze in wonder
At thy gifts so rich and rare.
Rivers, valleys, hills and mountains,
All these gifts we do extol.
Healthy land, so like all fountains,
Giving cheer that warms the soul.

Dominica, God hath blest thee
With a clime benign and bright,
Pastures green and flowers of beauty
Filling all with pure delight,
And a people strong and healthy,
Full of godly, rev'rent fear.
May we ever seek to praise Thee
For these gifts so rich and rare.

Come ye forward, sons and daughters
Of this gem beyond compare.
Strive for honour, sons and daughters,
Do the right, be firm, be fair.
Toil with hearts and hands and voices.
We must prosper! Sound the call,
In which ev'ryone rejoices,
"All for Each and Each for All."

Symbool van Dominica
Volkslied uit Noord-Amerika

Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour


Chien-Shiung Wu (; May 31, 1912 – February 16, 1997) was a Chinese-American particle and experimental physicist.

Early life
Wu was born in May 1912 in Liuhe, a small town near Shanghai. Wu Zhongyi, her father, participated in the 1911 revolution against the Chinese Manchu dynasty. He was the founder of an all girls' school in China. Educating girls wasn't seen as important at that time. Wu went to that school until she was nine. After that, she went to the Soochow Girls' School. She graduated in 1930. She was the best student in her class.

Studies
Wu went to college at Nanjing University. She studied physics there. She graduated in 1934. She spent one year teaching in a university. A year later, she went to study X-ray crystallography, which is the study of crystals. She did so at the National Academy of Sciences in Shanghai. A woman scientist who she worked with told her to go to study in the United States. She said this because China didn't have a very good physics program. With the help of her rich uncle, she sailed to America in 1936.

Work
Wu started working on nuclear physics with a particle physicist named Ernest Livermore. She helped Emilio Segre. He won a Nobel Prize years later. During the same time, Japan invaded China. She didn't hear from her family for years. She kept working.

Wu also studied the electromagnetic energy a particle gives off when it slows down. She also studied what happens when a uranium nucleus splits. For her work, she got a PhD in 1940. She became known as an expert on fission, which is the splitting of atoms.

She studied theories about atoms developed by Enrico Fermi. She ended up confirming one of his theories.

Wu continued with her work in physics in her later career. She faced a difficult hypothesis involving beta decay in 1963. Beta Decay was discovered by Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann.

Disproving Parity
Chien-Shiung Wu helped overthrow the law of conservation of parity along with Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Wing Yang. For 30 years, parity was a universal law. The theory states that parity was when an event and its reflection were the same. Scientist believed that the conservation of parity applied to all events. Chien-Shiung Wu helped to disprove this theory. She found this when studying the electrons at a low temperature. Wu did most of the work. The Nobel Prize committee did not acknowledge her. They did recognize her two male partners who won the award.

Achievements
Many considered Wu's work on Fermi's theory worthy of a Nobel prize. Her work was important but did not qualify for the prize. The two scientist she worked with on the theory about parity won a prize and she did not. People believed her work was not original.

She became the first woman to be the president of the American Physical Society. She was the first woman to receive the Comstock Award from the National Academy of Sciences. She was also the first woman to receive the Research Corporation Award. She received honorary degrees from over a dozen universities. Yale, Princeton and Harvard were some of the universities that recognized her work. Princeton gave her an honorary doctorate of science. She became the first woman to ever receive that.

Personal life
Wu married Luke Yuan in 1942. She taught at Smith College in Massachusetts. After that, she taught at Princeton. In 1944, she was recruited to do top-secret work on radiation detectors for the atomic bomb project called the Manhattan Project at Columbia University. She worked in a secret facility.

After World War II, Wu heard back from her family. They had all survived.

Wu retired in 1981. She died of a stroke on February 16, 1997, in New York. She was 86 years old. Her ashes were buried in the courtyard of her father's school.

Wu was an inspiration and a trailblazer. She didn't let racism or sexism put her down. She kept working hard. She made some amazing discoveries. Her work wasn't credited with a Nobel Prize but she made a huge impact on the world's knowledge of fission and quantum physics.

Related pages
List of women scientists from Asia

References

Cao, Tian Yu. "Wu, Chien-shiung." World Book Student, World Book, 2017, www.worldbookonline.com/student/article?id=ar611370. Accessed 28 Mar. 2017.
"Chien-Shiung Wu." Asian American Reference Library, edited by Helen Zia, et al., 2nd ed., UXL, 2004. Student Resources in Context, link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/EJ2131100035/SUIC?u=palo88030&xid=894bcb8b. Accessed 28 Mar. 2017.

American nuclear physicists
Scientists from New York City
Scientists from Berkeley, California
Chinese physicists
1912 births
1997 deaths

Chien-Shiung Wu


Arthur Meier Schlesinger, Jr., born Arthur Bancroft Schlesinger (October 15, 1917 – February 28, 2007), was an American historian and social critic. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize. His work explored the liberalism of American political leaders, especially that of Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and Robert F. Kennedy. He served as Special Assistant and Court Historian to the President in John F. Kennedy's administration. He wrote a lot about the Kennedy administration. These writings have the title A Thousand Days.

When the United States thought about invading Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, he was one of only two people who opposed the invasion. The other was William Fulbright. Schlesinger sat silent, except for a private memorandum to the president. He did this, because he did not want to undermine the President's desire for a unanimous decision.

When it had become clear the invasion had failed, Schlesinger later wrote: "In the months after the Bay of Pigs, I bitterly reproached myself for having kept so silent during those crucial discussions in the cabinet room ... I can only explain my failure to do more than raise a few timid questions by reporting that one's impulse to blow the whistle on this nonsense was simply undone by the circumstances of the discussion."

Schlesinger contributed many things to liberal theory. He was mostly for the kind of liberalism Kennedy did. He was admired for his wit, scholarship, and devotion to delineating the history and nature of liberalism. Since 1990 he had been a critic of multiculturalism.

He popularized the term "imperial presidency" during the Nixon administration by writing the book The Imperial Presidency.

References

1917 births
2007 deaths
American historians
Pulitzer Prize winners

Arthur Schlesinger Jr


Limescale is the hard, off-white, chalky deposit found in kettles, hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems.

It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where "hard water" has evaporated. In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean, limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components.

The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate. Hard water contains calcium (and often magnesium) bicarbonate or similar ions.  Calcium salts, such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water. Thus, heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se. However, there is an equilibrium atween dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate:

Ca2+ + 2HCO3− ⇋ Ca2+ + CO32− + CO2 + H2O

where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate, not the calcium. Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water.

There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide atween dissolved in water (dis) and the gaseous state (g):
CO2(dis) ⇋ CO2(g)

The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises. When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed, CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right, increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate. As the concentration of carbonate increases, calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt: Ca2+ + CO32− ⇋ CaCO3.

As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated, CO2 gas is removed, carbonate concentration increases, and more calcium carbonate precipitates.

Descaling agents are used to remove scale. Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening.

References

Limestane
Watter

Limescale


Greater Caucasus (; ; , sometimes translated as "Caucasus Major", "Big Caucasus" or "Large Caucasus") is the major mountain range of the Caucasus Mountains.

The range stretches for about  from west-northwest to east-southeast, between the Taman Peninsula of the Black Sea to the Absheron Peninsula of the Caspian Sea: from the Western Caucasus near Sochi on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea and reaching nearly to Baku on the Caspian.

The range is traditionally separated into three parts:
Western Caucasus, from the Black Sea to Mount Elbrus
Central Caucasus, from Mount Elbrus to Mount Kazbek
Eastern Caucasus, from Mount Kazbek to the Caspian Sea

In the wetter Western Caucasus, the mountains are heavily forested (deciduous forest up to , coniferous forest up to  and alpine meadows above the tree line). In the drier Eastern Caucasus, the mountains are mostly treeless.

Mountain ranges of Asia
Caucasus
Mountains of Russia
Geography of Azerbaijan
Geography of Georgia (country)

Greater Caucasus


Windows Mail is an email client included with Windows Vista. It will not be included with any future releases of Windows because of the new Windows Live Mail. It replaced the popular Microsoft Outlook Express email client that was included in Windows 98, ME, 2000 & XP. Unlike Outlook Express, Windows Mail is not included with Windows Internet Explorer.

Microsoft software
E-mail

Windows Mail