Raymond of Poitiers (c. 1105–29 June 1149) was Prince of Antioch from 1136 to 1149. He was the younger son of William IX, Duke of Aquitaine, and his wife Philippa, Countess of Toulouse, born in the very year that his father the Duke began his infamous liaison with Dangereuse de Chatelherault.

Assuming control
Following the death of Prince Bohemund II of Antioch in 1130, the principality came under the regency first of King Baldwin II (1130–31), then King Fulk (1131–35), and finally Princess Alice (1135–36), Bohemond's widow. The reigning princess was Bohemond II's daughter, Constance (born 1127). Against the wishes of Alice, a marriage was arranged for Constance with Raymond, at the time staying in England, which he left only after the death of Henry I on 1 December 1135.

Upon hearing word that Raymond was going to pass through his lands in order to marry the princess of Antioch, King Roger II of Sicily ordered him arrested. By a series of subterfuges, Raymond passed through southern Italy and only arrived at Antioch after 19 April 1136. Patriarch Ralph of Domfront then convinced Alice that Raymond was there to marry her, whereupon she allowed him to enter Antioch (whose loyal garrison had refused him entry) and the patriarch married him to Constance. Alice then left the city, now under the control of Raymond and Ralph.

The first years of their joint rule were spent in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus, who had come south partly to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. Raymond was forced to pay homage, and even to promise to cede his principality as soon as he was recompensed by a new fief, which John promised to carve out for him in the Muslim territory to the east of Antioch. The expedition of 1138, in which Raymond joined with John, and which was to conquer this territory, proved a failure. The expedition culminated in the unsuccessful Siege of Shaizar. Raymond was not anxious to help the emperor to acquire new territories, when their acquisition only meant for him the loss of Antioch. John Comnenus returned unsuccessful to Constantinople, after demanding from Raymond, without response, the surrender of the citadel of Antioch.

Struggles
There followed a struggle between Raymond and the patriarch. Raymond was annoyed by the homage which he had been forced to pay to the patriarch in 1135 and the dubious validity of the patriarch's election offered a handle for opposition. Eventually Raymond triumphed, and the patriarch was deposed (1139). In 1142, John Comnenus returned to the attack, but Raymond refused to recognize or renew his previous submission, and John, though he ravaged the neighborhood of Antioch, was unable to effect anything against him. When, however Raymond demanded from Manuel, who had succeeded John in 1143, the cession of some of the Cilician towns, he found that he had met his match. Manuel forced him to a humiliating visit to Constantinople, during which he renewed his oath of homage and promised to acknowledge a Greek patriarch.

In 1144, news of the fall of Edessa reached Europe, and Raymond of Poitiers had already sent a delegation including Hugh, Bishop of Jabala, to seek aid from Pope Eugene III.

In the last year of Raymond's life Louis VII and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine (Raymond's niece) visited Antioch during the Second Crusade. Raymond sought to prevent Louis from going south to Jerusalem and to induce him to stay in Antioch and help in the conquest of Aleppo and Caesarea. Raymond was also suspected of having an incestuous affair with his beautiful niece Eleanor. According to John of Salisbury, Louis became suspicious of the attention Raymond lavished on Eleanor, and the long conversations they enjoyed. William of Tyre claims that Raymond seduced Eleanor to get revenge on her husband, who refused to aid him in his wars against the Saracens, and that "contrary to [Eleanor's] royal dignity, she disregarded her marriage vows and was unfaithful to her husband." Most modern historians dismiss such rumours, however, pointing out the closeness of Raymond and his niece during her early childhood, and the effulgent Aquitainian manner of behaviour. Also, as the pious Louis continued to have relations with his wife, it is doubtful that he believed his charge of incest.

Louis hastily left Antioch and Raymond was balked in his plans. In 1149 he was killed in the Battle of Inab during an expedition against Nur ad-Din Zangi. He was beheaded by Shirkuh, the uncle of Saladin, and his head was placed in a silver box and sent to the Caliph Al-Muqtafi of Baghdad as a gift.

Personality and family

Raymond is described by William of Tyre (the main authority for his career) as "a lord of noble descent, of tall and elegant figure, the handsomest of the princes of the earth, a man of charming affability and conversation, open-handed and magnificent beyond measure"; pre-eminent in the use of arms and military experience; litteratorum, licet ipse  esset, cultor ("although he was himself illiterate, he was a cultivator of literature" – he caused the Chanson des chétifs to be composed); a regular churchman and faithful husband; but headstrong, irascible and unreasonable, with too great a passion for gambling (bk. xiv. c. xxi.). For his career see Rey, in the Revue de l'orient latin, vol. iv.

With Constance he had the following children:
Bohemond III
Maria, married emperor Manuel I Komnenos
Philippa
Baldwin

Notes

Sources

1090s births
1149 deaths
12th-century Princes of Antioch
Occitan people
Monarchs killed in action
Christians of the Second Crusade
House of Poitiers
People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars

Raymond of Poitiers


The Electorate are the people or citizens of a state who elect representatives to represent them in a democracy. They're also known as voters. Voters are people who normally votes in an election and they vote for their favorite person that if he/she wins, he/she will lead the people to a more favourable country Voting

Voting

Electorate


An ethernet switch is a device used to build a network connection between the attached computers using Ethernet port of computers(allows computers to talk to each other).It is an example of Packet switching.It differs from an ethernet hub: While a hub will send incoming data packets to all ports, a switch understands the packets' addressing scheme and will send any data packet only to its destination port, thus limiting the number of collisions (data sent at the same time).
Computer hardware
Computer networking

A switch is used in a wired network to connect to other devices using Ethernet cables. The switch allows each connected device to talk to the others. Wireless-only networks do not use switches because devices such as wireless routers and adapters communicate directly with one another.

Although you can use the ports on the back of a router or modem to connect a few Ethernet devices together, switches offer a number of advantages:

Switches allow you to connect dozens of devices.
Switches keep traffic between two devices from getting in the way of your other devices on the same network.
Switches allow you to control who has access to various parts of the network.
Switches allow you to monitor usage.
Switches allow communication (within your network) that's even faster than the Internet.
High-end switches can be tailored to your network needs with pluggable modules.

Ethernet switch


The NBA draft happens every year in June. It is where teams in the National Basketball Association (NBA) choose players who have never played in the NBA before. If a team chooses a player, that player cannot sign a contract to play for any teams other than that team.

Who can be drafted
Players must be at least 19 years old at some point during the year of the draft. If the player's 19th birthday will be the next year, they are too young. If a player is from the United States, it must be at least one year after the graduation of their high school class. Some players who are star players go to college and play college basketball for just one year (because they cannot enter the draft right out of high school), then enter the NBA draft. These players are called "one and dones". Other players enter the draft after two or three years in college, and other players are drafted after playing in college for all four years that they can.

If a player has not played in college for four years, they must enter the NBA draft by declaring themselves eligible.

How the draft works
Teams take turns choosing players. When a team chooses a player, it is called a pick. For example, if a player is chosen second, people will say that he was taken with the second pick in the draft. There are two rounds in the draft. Both rounds have 30 picks, so there are 60 picks in the whole draft. Each team gets one pick per round, but sometimes, a team will pick more than once in a round or not at all. This is because teams can trade draft picks for players, for money, or for other draft picks.

When teams get to pick
The NBA allows teams who had worse records (which means that they won fewer games) the previous season to pick before better teams. This lets bad teams draft good players and become better. The first fourteen teams to pick are the fourteen teams that did not make the playoffs the previous season. (There are thirty teams in the NBA, and sixteen teams qualify for the playoffs every year, so fourteen teams do not.) The teams that do make the playoffs and who get picks 15 through 30 in the first round pick in reverse order of how good their records were (so the best team gets the 30th pick, the second best team gets the 29th pick, and so on). However, the first fourteen picks are given out differently so that teams will not lose games on purpose to get higher picks. These picks are given to teams in a process called the draft lottery.

Draft lottery
Since 1985, all teams that have missed the playoffs have participated in a lottery system to see who gets the first pick. The lottery system has changed a few times since then, but the system that the NBA uses right now uses ping pong balls that have numbers written on them. A machine picks four balls at a time, and every possible combination of numbers is assigned to a team. Teams with worse records get more combinations of numbers, which means that they have a better chance to win. The machine picks three teams, and these teams get the first three picks in the draft. The other eleven teams will pick in order of how bad their records are, so the worst team that was not selected will pick fourth, and so on.

Success from the NBA Draft

Many star NBA players who helped their teams a lot were selected early in the NBA Draft. For example, with the first pick in the 1997 NBA draft, the San Antonio Spurs chose Tim Duncan. Duncan would help the San Antonio Spurs win several NBA Championships. Other star players who were chosen with the first pick are Shaquille O'Neal (chosen by the Orlando Magic in 1992), Dwight Howard (chosen by the Magic in 2004), and LeBron James (chosen by the Cleveland Cavaliers in 2003). However, not all players who have been chosen with the first pick have gone on to become star players. Some players have not had as much success as the teams who drafted them expected, and have been called "draft busts". A few players chosen with the first pick who have been called "draft busts" include Joe Smith (chosen by the Los Angeles Clippers in 1995), Michael Olowokandi (chosen by the Clippers in 1998), and Kwame Brown (chosen by the Washington Wizards in 2001.) On the other hand, some very successful players have been chosen very late in the draft, and have been called "draft steals". One such player is Manu Ginóbili, Duncan's longtime teammate with the Spurs, who was chosen with the next-to-last pick in the 1999 draft.

References

Draft

NBA draft


Henry Ray Clark (1936 – July 29, 2006) was a folk artist born in Bartlett, Texas, and moved to Houston, where he became a criminal with the street name of "The Magnificent Pretty Boy". After a series of drug-dealing convictions he was found guilty of an assault, his third strike in the Texas Three Strikes Law, which sentenced him to 25 years in Huntsville State Prison. While in prison he developed a characteristic drawing style involving detailed patterning and line work, and was discovered at a prison art show by William Steen, who sold Clark's work to national and international buyers. Clark died on July 29, 2006, the victim of a robbery and murder in his home.

Life
Born in 1936 in the small town of Bartlett, Texas, Clark's family moved to Houston. Young Henry dropped out of school after the sixth grade to "go up on the streets." According to Henry, as a young teenager he was schooled by his uncle in the ways of street hustling and gambling. Henry Ray Clark was a compelling figure in both appearance and personality. Handsome, with deep blue eyes, he came to be known on the streets of Houston as "Pretty Boy" and then "The Magnificent Pretty Boy", either by his own naming or by one of the many women who knew him. Clark's life of drug dealing, pimping, and other hustles always left him feeling on the verge of the next last score that would set him up for life. In 1977, following a series of drug-dealing convictions, he was found guilty of assault (he shot at a man who tried to run off with Clark's gambling take) and sentenced under Texas' "Three Strikes" Law to 25 years in Huntsville State Prison. There, Clark was introduced to the prison arts programs and began to draw. Clark found that drawing provided him with a release from the confinement of prison. Using ballpoint pens and salvaged manila envelopes, he created images of far-off galactic worlds inhabited by powerful beings. On July 13, 2006, Clark, aged 69, was shot in the arm and abdomen by two home invaders; he remained in a coma and on life support at Ben Taub Hospital until his death on July 29.

Works
Drawing in colored ballpoint pen on any scrap of paper he could get his hands on, preferably manila envelopes, Clark drew clocks and figures; he drew the planets he said he visited in a spaceship in his dreams. Art and dreaming — tools to engineer a temporary escape from state prison. Discovered by William Steen in a prison art show, Clark found an enthusiastic reception in the wider world. After winning a prize in the "Texas Department of Corrections Art Show," he was exhibited in "Living Folk" at Hirschl & Adler Folk Gallery in New York in 1990; "Passionate Visions of the American South," New Orleans Museum of Art, 1993, and "Spirited Journeys: Self-Taught Texas Artists of the Twentieth Century," 1997. Clark said his work comes to him naturally: "I sit down and, watch a football game or watch my soap operas every day. While I'm watching, this my hand be real busy. Every once in a while, I glance down, I don't know where it come from, but it's beautiful precise control." Looking further into specific works from Clark, a well-known piece titled "I am The Day Star," contains psychedelic patterns and shapes that complement his dreamlike style. With patterns that hint towards his cultural roots and colors that accommodate dreamlike visions, this work captures the uniqueness that separates prison art from any other. His artwork seems to capture the polarities in his life, from reality to fantasy and from the influences that come from the confines of a prison cell. Another work that embodies these traits is titled "The Magnificent Pretty Boy." This piece, along with "I am The Day Star" captures mesmerizing patterns of exuberant creative fluidity.

Prison art
Clark spent a majority of his life behind bars. In 1977, he was convicted of murder relating to a gambling confrontation. While serving time in prison, Clark found art to utilize his time behind bars. He would make art only when incarcerated, but his drawings would go far beyond the confined walls in his cell. "I have my own private galaxy out there, and it has nothing to do with you-all's world". Clark was heavily known to include his personal experiences and cultural roots into his works. For example, it was known for him to include his dreams and visions into his drawings. Prison art was a popular form of artistic expression in contemporary American prisons, and therefore, traditions are handed down cellmate to cellmate. The exposure to materials in the confines of prison are slim. Soap carving is a common form of art, along with the usage of wrappers and recycled paper. Micheal Harms was known nationwide for his soap carvings and extensive tiny carvings. For Clark, his drawing and creating would be done on anything he could find, including manilla envelopes, prison forms and the backs of letters. His art received great attention from a prison art show then was soon receiving special recognition from the public after attending the show. A few short years after being out of jail for his first offense, Clark was charged for possession of narcotics and was sentenced 30 years. After he was released on parole, in 1994, he opened a fast food stand called the Magnificent Burger, although he was arrested shortly after because of failure to report to his parole officer. He also practiced writing poetry alongside his drawing artworks which were often rare for the public eye and only addressed to important people in his life.

References

1936 births
2006 deaths
American folk art
Folk artists
Criminals from Texas
Artists from Texas
African-American artists
American artists
People from Bartlett, Texas
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people
Ballpoint pen art

Henry Ray Clark


The Bretton Woods system was the first system used to control the value of money between different countries. It meant that each country had to have a monetary policy that kept the exchange rate of its currency within a fixed value—plus or minus one percent—in terms of gold.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created to fight against temporary imbalances of payments. The Bretton Woods system was the first monetary order that organized monetary relations among independent nation-states.

It set out the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states.

Plans to rebuild the international economic system after the end of World War II started before the war ended. 730 delegates from all 44 Allies of World War II came to Bretton Woods, New Hampshire for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The delegates discussed and then signed the Bretton Woods Agreements during the first three weeks of July 1944.

The planners at Bretton Woods set up a system of rules, institutions, and procedures to regulate the international monetary system. They started the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (now one of five institutions in the World Bank Group) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These organizations became active in 1946 after enough countries had ratified the agreement.

Until the early 1970s, the Bretton Woods system worked. It controlled conflict and achieved the common goals of the leading states that had created it, especially the United States. But in 1971, In the face of increasing strain, the United States decided not to allow the conversion of dollars to gold and the system collapsed.

Other websites
 The Gold Battles Within the Cold War (PDF)  by Francis J. Gavin (2002)
 International Financial Stability (PDF)  by Michael Dooley, PhD, David Folkerts-Landau and Peter Garber, Deutsche Bank (October 2005)
 "Bretton Woods System", prepared for the Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy by Dr.B.Cohen
 Bretton Woods Agreement  by Addison Wiggin Author of Empire of Debt

Economic systems
Economic history

Bretton Woods system


Presociality is a term which applies to animal behaviour. Presocial animals have close family relationships, more than just sexual interactions with members of the same species. However, they do not form the extreme colonies of eusocial insects, such as ants.

Presocial animals can live together and take care of their young. They may have some division of labor, but they do not have all the three essential traits of eusocial animals, which are:
There are many generations that are alive at the same time.
There is extreme division of labour. Some animals may be specialised for a certain function. Some animals may be sterile.
The older animals cooperate to care for the young.

Presocial behavior is much more common in the animal kingdom than complete eusociality. Examples include canines that live in packs, numerous insects, especially hymenoptera, humans, many birds, chimpanzees, and many other animals that display social behavior.

The concept of presociality can be further divided:
Subsocial: parents interact with young. This applies to all mammals without exception, almost all birds, many reptiles and fish, and quite a few insects.
Parasocial: individuals of the same generation live in a single, cooperative dwelling and interact with each other
Communal: each individual care exclusively for her or his own young
Quasisocial: individuals care cooperatively for all brood; however, all members of the colony are reproductive
Semisocial: a few individuals reproduce, yet the arrangement is not quite eusocial. For example, adult generations might not overlap, the reproductive dominance might be temporary.

Among the Vespid wasps, the pressures of predators and parasites selected subsocial behaviour. It is easier to guard the eggs and grubs when the mother wasp stays in her nest to watch over her larva. More so if other adults stay with her. Then the other adults need to collect more food than just for themselves. And so on. It becomes less likely that parasites will be successful in preying on the nest.

Related pages
Eusociality
Collective animal behaviour

References

Zoology

Presociality


Pattern bargaining is a process in labour relations, where a trade union gains a new and superior entitlement from one employer and then uses that agreement as a precedent to demand the same entitlement or a superior one from other employers.

In the United States, pattern bargaining was pioneered by unions such as the United Auto Workers and the Teamsters. The first step of the bargaining process is the identification of a target employer that is most likely to agree to a favourable employment contract. For the selected company, this provides an opportunity to influence the contract for the industry, while the downside is the risk of a labour disruption if negotiations stall or fail. Once this contract has been successfully negotiated and ratified by the unionized workers, the union declares it a "pattern agreement" and presents it to the other employers as a take-it-or-leave-it offer.

In Australia, pattern bargaining was specifically outlawed under the now-repealed WorkChoices legislation. The law was repealed by the Labor Party after their victory in the 2007 election, but Labor's Fair Work Act, which came into force on 1 July 2010, still outlaws pattern bargaining.

References
 Marshall, Robert, and Antonio Merlo. 1996. Pattern bargaining. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Research Department Staff Report 220.

Trade unions
Negotiation
Industrial agreements

Pattern bargaining


Awal is the old name of Bahrain, an island country in the Persian Gulf. The name Awal was used for eight centuries. Awal is from the name of a god that was worshiped by people of the islands before Islam. Awal looked like the head of an ox. The god Awal is very similar to the god Nandi of the Hindus.

History of Bahrain

Awal


Morris Hillquit (August 1, 1869 – October 8, 1933) was a founder and leader of the Socialist Party of America and prominent labor lawyer in New York City's Lower East Side. Together with Eugene V. Debs and Congressman Victor L. Berger, Hillquit was one of the leading public faces of American socialism during the first two decades of the 20th century.

In November 1917, running on an anti-war platform, Hillquit garnered more than 100,000 votes as the Socialist candidate for mayor of New York City. Hillquit again ran for mayor of New York in 1932. He also stood as a candidate for United States Congress five times over the course of his life.

Early years
Hillquit was born Moishe Hillkowitz on August 1, 1869, in Riga, Russian Empire, the second son of German-speaking ethnic Jewish factory owners. From the time he was age 13, young Moishe attended a non-Jewish secular school, the Russian language Alexander Gymnasium. At age 15, in 1884, Moishe's father, Benjamin Hillkowitz, lost his factory in Riga and decided to leave for America to improve the family's financial situation. Together with his oldest son he set out for New York City, where he procured a two-room apartment in a tenement house.

In 1886, Benjamin sent for the rest of the family and they joined him in New York. The family remained poor, living in a tenement in a predominately Jewish area of the Lower East Side. Then he worked on various short-term jobs in the New York city textile industry and as a picture frame maker in a factory. Morris later remembered his family as "frightfully poor," with his older brother and sisters working to help support the family.

Hillquit felt compelled to get a job to help alleviate the family's difficult financial situation. Since his English was poor and his body frail, employment options were limited. He joined other young intellectual émigrés from Tsarist Russia as a shirt-maker, repetitiously stitching cuffs of garments. In his posthumously-published memoirs, Hillquit recalled that cuff-making was "the simplest part and required least skill and training," involving the simple stitching of square pieces of cut cloth. The young Hillquit never progressed past that entry-level task as a shirtmaker.

First political activity
Hillquit's biographer Norma Fain Pratt remarks that Moishe was quickly drawn to the socialist movement in America:
Almost as soon as he settled in New York, Hillquit was drawn into East Side Jewish radical circles. He was then a small (5'4"), slightly built, frail adolescent with dark hair, dark oval-shaped eyes, and a gentle charming manner. He was immediately attracted to other young Jewish immigrants, mostly former students, now shop workers, who considered themselves intellectuals — a new radical intelligentsia ... For the most part their radicalism was rooted in their experiences in the European socialist and anarchist movements. But emigration and economic hardships in the United States also contributed to their further radicalization. As foreigners in America they were situated far enough outside the society to observe its failings. As frustrated but literate people, they were ambitious enough to participate in it. The young intellectuals were interested in finding alternatives to their present circumstances; their solution was to transform them.

On his 18th birthday in August 1887, the future Hillquit joined the Socialist Labor Party of America, brought into the ranks by a fellow garment worker and Russian language socialist newspaper editor, Louis Miller. Moishe became a member of Section New York's Branch 17, a Russian-speaking unit established by Jewish émigrés from tsarist Russia not long before his joining.

Within a year or so of joining the SLP, biographer Pratt notes, Moishe became one of the party's leading crusaders against anarchism, publishing a lengthy article "Sotzializm un anarchizm" in the Arbeter Zeitung [Workers' News], a Yiddish newspaper that he helped to establish. Hillkowitz contrasted the individualism of anarchism with the communalism of socialism in the piece. During that time the 19-year-old Hillkowitz worked as the business manager of the Arbeter zeitung, a paper that was jointly founded with Abraham Cahan, Louis Miller, and Morris Winchevsky in an effort to reach the city's Yiddish-speaking immigrant working class about socialism in their own idiom. Hillkowitz, ironically, was not fluent in Yiddish, having been raised with the German and Russian languages.

He helped to found the United Hebrew Trades, a garment workers' union formed in 1888, while writing for the Arbeiter Zeitung. He graduated from New York University Law School in 1893. He was admitted to the New York State Bar Association in November of that same year.

Early socialist movement

Hillquit led the departure of a dissident faction from Daniel De Leon's Socialist Labor Party in 1899 and was a delegate to the group's convention at Rochester, New York in 1900. He was a strong supporter of unity with the Chicago-based Social Democratic Party of Victor Berger and Eugene V. Debs. In August 1901 the two groups managed to bury their differences and come together to form the Socialist Party of America (SPA) at a convention in Indianapolis, which Hillquit also attended.

Morris Hillquit remained one of the paramount political leaders of the Socialist Party for the rest of his life.

Hillquit was a pioneer historian of the American radical movement, publishing a broad scholarly survey in 1903 entitled History of Socialism in the United States. The book would be issued in five English-language editions during Hillquit's lifetime and would be translated into a number of the primary languages of the American socialist movement, including German, Russian, Yiddish, Finnish, and Polish.

In 1904, Hillquit attended the International Socialist Congress at Amsterdam and was involved with the proposed Anti-Immigration Resolution, which opposed any legislation that forbade or hindered the immigration of foreign workingmen, some forced by misery to migrate. The resolution read:
In further consideration of the fact that WORKINGMEN OF BACKWARD RACES (CHINESE, NEGROES, ETC.) are often imported by capitalists in order to keep down the native workingmen by means of cheap labor, and that his cheap labor, which constitutes a willing object for exploitation, live in an ill-concealed state of slavery, — the Congress declares that the Social Democracy is bound to combat with all its energy the application of this means, which serves to destroy the organizations of Labor, and thereby to hamper the progress and the eventual realization of Socialism.

Hillquit ran for U.S. Congress on the Socialist ticket in the New York 9th Congressional District in 1906 and 1908. In the latter campaign, Hillquit garnered 21.23% of the vote in a losing effort against a Democratic incumbent.

Battle with syndicalist left wing

After the campaign, Hillquit turned his attention to inner-party affairs, which brought him into conflict with the SPA's syndicalist Left Wing. His biographer notes at least four serious points of departure between Hillquit and the Industrial Workers of the World wing of the party: a disbelief in the stability and the efficacy of industrial unions, a distaste for the strike-oriented tactics of the IWW as opposed to collective bargaining, a belief in the separation of functions between the political and labor wings of the workers' movement, as opposed to the IWW's desire to make industrial organization primary, and the radical tone of IWW propaganda, which Hillquit believed alienated much of society from the socialist movement and marginalized the left. His biographer declares:
"His leadership fanned the fires of Party disagreement and although [Hillquit] was not alone in causing the break in 1913 with an important segment of its left wing, he certainly made a major contribution towards this unfortunate rupture."

In 1911, IWW leader William "Big Bill" Haywood was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Socialist Party, on which Hillquit also served. The syndicalist and the electoral socialist squared off in a lively public debate in New York City's Cooper Union on Jan. 11, 1912. Haywood declared that Hillquit and the socialists ought to try "a little sabotage in the right place at the proper time" and attacked Hillquit for having abandoned the class struggle by helping the New York garment workers negotiate an industrial agreement with their employers. Hillquit replied that he had no new message rather than to reiterate a belief in a two-sided workers movement, with separate and equal political and trade union arms. "A mere change of structural forms would not revolutionize the American labor movement as claimed by our extreme industrialists," he declared.

Hillquit's battle against the syndicalist left of the party continued at the 1912 National Convention, held in May in Indianapolis. Hillquit's biographer notes that
"As chairman of the Committee on Constitution he more than likely authored the amendment to the Party's Article II, Section 6, which provided for the expulsion from the Party of 'any member of the party who opposes political action or advocates crime, sabotage, or other methods of violence as a weapon of the working class to aid in its emancipation ... '" He voiced his justification for the anti-sabotage amendment by reassuring the convention that 'if there is one thing in this country that can now check or disrupt the Socialist movement, it is not the capitalist class; it is not the Catholic Church; it is our own injudicious friends from within.'"

The issue of "syndicalism vs. socialism" was bitterly fought over the next two years, consummated by "Big Bill" Haywood's recall from the SP's NEC and the departure of a broad section of the left wing from the organization. The radical wing never forgave Hillquit for his anti-IWW orientation and made him a major whipping boy in the big split that was to come.

War years
As a staunch internationalist and antimilitarist, Hillquit represented the ideological center of the Socialist Party during the years of World War I, which controlled the organization in coalition with the more pragmatist right wing exemplified by such locally oriented leaders, politicians, and journalists as Victor Berger, Daniel Hoan, John Spargo, and Charles Edward Russell. He was elected to the SP's governing National Executive Committee on multiple occasions and was a frequent speaker at national conventions of the party. Due to his foreign birth, however, Hillquit was not constitutionally eligible to serve as president or vice president of the United States and thus never was a candidate of the party for national office.

Hillquit was a principal co-author of the resolution against the US' entry into World War I, which was passed overwhelmingly both by an emergency Socialist Party convention held just after the April 6th, 1917 declaration of war and by a subsequent membership vote. Despite official repression, popular patriotic pressure and vigilante action against the SP of A's organization, members and press, Hillquit never wavered on the issue of intervention, staunchly backing Debs, Berger, Kate Richards O'Hare and other socialists charged under the Espionage Act for opposing the war effort.

On January 26, 1916, Hillquit was part of a three-person delegation to Woodrow Wilson to advocate part of the Socialist Party's peace program, which proposed that "the President of the United States convoke a congress of neutral nations, which shall offer mediation to the belligerents and remain in permanent session until the termination of the war." A resolution had been offered in the House of Representatives by Meyer London of New York, the party's lone representative, and Wilson received Hillquit, London, and socialist trade unionist James H. Maurer at the White House, along with various other delegations. Hillquit later recalled that Wilson was at first "inclined to give us a short and perfunctory hearing" but as the Socialists made their case to him, the session "developed into a serious and confidential conversation." Wilson told the group that he had already considered a similar plan but chose not to put it into effect because he was not sure of its reception by other neutral nations. "The fact is," Wilson claimed, "that the United States is the only important country that may be said to be neutral and disinterested. Practically all other neutral countries are in one way or another tied up with some belligerent power and dependent on it."

Beginning in June 1917, Hillquit served as chief defense lawyer in a series of high-profile cases on behalf of various socialist magazines and newspapers. The Wilson administration, headed in the matter by Postmaster General Albert Burleson, began to systematically ban specific issues or entire publications from the mail, or to force publications into financial peril by denying them access to low cost periodical rates. Hillquit argued cases on behalf of a number of important radical publications, including Max Eastman's radical artistic and literary magazine, The Masses; the two socialist dailies — the New York Call and the Milwaukee Leader; the SP's official weekly, The American Socialist; the popular monthly Pearson's Magazine; and the Yiddish language The Jewish Daily Forward. In each case, Hillquit argued that the socialist press was truly "American" and that a socialist definition of "patriotism" included the freedoms of press and speech and the right to criticize in a democratic society. Hillquit was unsuccessful in winning access to the mails for the papers he represented, but he did manage to keep the proprietors of The Masses out of prison.

First mayoral campaign
In the summer of 1917, with nationalism and pro-war sentiment sweeping the nation, Hillquit ran for Mayor of New York City. Hillquit's campaign was based on an anti-war platform and commitment to economical public services and drew the diverse support both of committed socialists, pacifists and other anti-war activists, and pro-war liberals endorsing his campaign as a protest against the government's "sedition" policy, which effectively served to curb freedoms of speech and press. Hillquit seems to have been largely immune from attack by the Socialist Party's left wing or other radicals during the high-profile campaign, which ended with Hillquit collecting an impressive 22% of the citywide vote. That campaign, combined with the ongoing electoral success of Congressman Meyer London (elected as a Socialist in 1914, 1916, and 1920) marked the high point for Socialist Party politics in New York City.

As a member of the SP's National Executive Committee Hillquit worked closely with National Secretary Adolph Germer and James Oneal to defend the party from what in modern parlance might be described as an "unfriendly takeover" by its revolutionary socialist left wing. However, due to ill health Hillquit did not participate in the pivotal 1919 Emergency National Convention at Chicago, which formalized the split of the left wing from the Socialist Party to form the Communist Labor Party of America and the Communist Party of America. Instead, Hillquit was ensconced in a sanitorium in upstate New York, recovering from another bout of tuberculosis, and was informed about the events of the convention after the fact.

Later career

In 1920 Hillquit served as the lead attorney in the unsuccessful defense of the five democratically elected Socialist assemblymen expelled from the New York State Assembly. Hillquit's efforts to see Assemblymen Orr, Claessens, Waldman, DeWitt, and Solomon restored to office was ultimately unsuccessful.

From 1922 through the election of 1924, Hillquit was a leading advocate of Socialist Party participation in the Conference for Progressive Political Action (CPPA).

As a celebrated leader of American Marxism and acculturated Jew, Hillquit never became closely associated with the specifically Jewish left wing, but he played a role in the Jewish trade union movement, being for a time the lawyer of the ILGWU. He also never became a Jewish nationalist of any kind; quite the contrary, he was ideologically disposed against it, but in 1926 he confessed, "Zionism makes a strong emotional appeal to me, chiefly as a manifestation of awakening national self respect of the Jewish people." He quickly added however that Zionism, like all other national movements, must guard itself against the dangers of degeneration into jingoism—"If it ever developed in that direction, it will forfeit all claims to Socialist sympathy."

In 1932, shortly before his death from tuberculosis, Hillquit received over one-eighth of the vote in his second campaign for Mayor of New York City. That proved to be Hillquit's final electoral run; during his life, he had been twice a candidate for mayor of New York City and on five times a nominee for the United States Congress.

Death
He died of tuberculosis "a few minutes past midnight on October 8th" of 1933. He was age 64 at the time of his death.

Legacy

Hillquit was first and foremost an orator, delivering a torrent of public talks on socialist themes to various audiences throughout his life. In his memoirs, Hillquit conservatively estimates the total number of such speeches to have been "at least 2,000." He often appeared in public debates taking up the socialist banner. He wrote frequently for popular magazines and the party press but fairly infrequently for publication in leaflet or pamphlet form.

Despite the fact that Hillquit was not a prolific pamphleteer, he did author a number of substantial books, including a serious academic history of socialism, History of Socialism in the United States (1903, revised 1910 — translated into Russian, German, and Yiddish); works of popularization, such as Socialism in Theory and Practice (1909) and Socialism Summed Up (1912); a short theoretical piece, From Marx to Lenin (1921), as well as a posthumously published memoir, Loose Leaves from a Busy Life (1934).

Hillquit's papers are housed at the State Historical Society of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin and are available on microfilm.

One of the buildings of the East River Housing Corporation, a housing cooperative started by the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union in Cooperative Village on the Lower East Side, was named in Hillquit's honor.

Works

Books and pamphlets
 The People July 16, 1899, issue
 History of Socialism in the United States. [1903] New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Revised and Expanded (5th) edition, 1910.
 Recent Progress of the Socialist and Labor Movements in the United States: Report of Morris Hillquit, Representative of the Socialist Party at the International Socialist Bureau, to the International Socialist Congress, Held at Stuttgart, Germany, August 18, 1907. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1907.
 Socialism in Theory and Practice. New York: Macmillan, 1909.
 Socialism Summed Up. New York: H.K. Fly, 1912.
 Socialism: Promise or Menace? With John A. Ryan. New York: Macmillan, 1914. —Debate with Father John Ryan, a leading Catholic social justice theorist.
 The Double Edge of Labor's Sword, With Samuel Gompers and Max S. Hayes. Chicago: Socialist Party, National Office, 1914.
 The Immediate Issue. New York: The Socialist, 1919.
 Socialism on Trial. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1920.
 From Marx to Lenin. New York: Hanford Press, 1921.
 Loose Leaves from a Busy Life. New York: Macmillan, 1934. —Posthumously-published memoirs.
 Hugo Lindemann & Morris Hillquit, Vorläufer des neueren Sozialismus, (Berlin: Dietz, 1922).

Articles and leaflets

 "Farewell to DeLeon," The People [dissident edition, New York], vol. 9, no. 30 (Oct. 22, 1899), pg. 2.
 "The Soldier of the Revolution," The Comrade [New York], vol. 1, no. 1 (October 1901), pp. 16–18. —Short biography of Wilhelm Liebknecht.
 "Moderation, Comrades!" The Socialist [Toledo, Ohio], whole no. 241 (May 6, 1905), pg. 5.
 "The Labor Movement Here and Abroad." Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
 "The Civic Federation and Labor." Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
 "Who are the Peacemakers?"  With William Harrison Short. Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
 "Government by the Few."  Chicago: National Office, Socialist Party, 1911.
 "The 'Collapse' of the International," The American Socialist [Chicago], v. 1, no. 42, whole no. 130 (May 1, 1915), pg. 3.
 "America's Possible Contribution to a Constructive Peace," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 61 (Sept. 1915), pp. 239–242. In JSTOR.
 "Keynote Address to the 1917 Emergency National Convention of the Socialist Party," The World [Oakland, CA], whole no. 578 (April 20, 1917), pg. 6.
 "As to Treason," New York Call, vol. 10, no. 116 (April 26, 1917), pg. 6.
 "Out-Scheidemanning Scheidemann," New York Call, vol. 10, no. 139 (May 19, 1917), pg. 2.
 "The Right of Criticism: Address in Defense of The Call Before Assistant Postmaster General Dockery, Washington, DC -- October 15, 1917." The New York Call, vol. 10, no. 294 (Oct. 21, 1917), pp. 8, 5.
 "The Socialist Task and Outlook," New York Call, vol. 10, no. 141 (May 21, 1919), pg. 8. —So-called "Clear the Decks" article.
 "Socialist Russia Against the Capitalist World," New York Call, vol. 12, no. 312 (Nov. 7, 1919), pg. 8.
 "Radicalism in America," The Socialist World [Chicago], vol. 1, no. 4 (Oct. 15, 1920), pp. 18–19.
 "Moscow and London," The Socialist World [Chicago], vol. 4, no. 7 (July 1923), pp. 6–7.
 The Story of the British Labor Party. Chicago: Socialist Party, n.d. [1923]. First published in The Socialist World [Chicago], vol. 4, no. 9 (September 1923), pp. 3–4.
 "Ferdinand Lassalle (A May Day Reflection)," The Socialist World [Chicago], vol. 6, no. 5 (May 1925), pp. 9–10.
 "A Tribute to Debs," The New Leader [New York], Oct. 23, 1926, pg. 1.
 "Marxism Essentially Evolutionary," Current History, vol. 29, October 1928.

Footnotes

Further reading
 Melech Epstein, Profiles of Eleven: Profiles of Eleven Men Who Guided the Destiny of an Immigrant Society and Stimulated Social Consciousness Among the American People. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965.
 Anthony V. Esposito, The Ideology of the Socialist Party of America, 1901–1917. New York: Garland Publishing, 1997.
 Richard W. Fox, "The Paradox of 'Progressive' Socialism: The Case of Morris Hillquit, 1901-1914," American Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 2 (May 1974), pp. 127–140. In JSTOR.
 Frederick C. Giffin, "Morris Hillquit and the War Issue in the New York Mayoralty Campaign of 1917," International Social Science Review, vol. 74, no. 3-4 (1999), pp. 115–128. In JSTOR
 Robert Hyfler, Prophets of the Left: American Socialist Thought in the Twentieth Century. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1984.
 Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.
 Morris Iversen, Morris Hillquit: American Social Democrat: A Study of the American Left from Haymarket to the New Deal. PhD dissertation. Iowa State University, 1951.
 Mark E. Kann, "Challenging Lockean Liberalism in America: The Case of Debs and Hillquit," Political Theory, vol. 8, no. 2 (May 1980), pp. 203–222. In JSTOR.
 Ira Kipnis, The American Socialist Movement, 1897–1912. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952.
 Sally M. Miller, "Americans and the Second International," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 120, no. 5 (Oct. 15, 1976), pp. 372–387, In JSTOR.
 Norma Fain Pratt, Morris Hillquit: A Political History of an American Jewish Socialist. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.
 Howard Quint, The Forging of American Socialism: Origins of the Modern Movement. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1953; 2nd edition (with minor revisions) Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964.
 Nick Salvatore, Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1982.
 David A. Shannon, The Socialist Party of America: A History. New York: Macmillan, 1950.
 Socialist Party of America, The City for the People! Municipal Platform of the Socialist Party, Mayoralty Election, 1932: For Mayor, Morris Hillquit. New York: Socialist Party, 1932.
 Zosa Szajkowski, "The Jews and New York City's Mayoralty Election of 1917," Jewish Social Studies, vol. 32, no. 4 (Oct. 1970), pp. 286–306. In JSTOR.
 James Weinstein, The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912–1925  New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967.
 David Rolland Wright, The Speaking of Morris Hillquit in Opposition to World War I. PhD dissertation. Ohio University, 1971.

1869 births
1933 deaths
Politicians from Riga
People from Kreis Riga
Latvian Jews
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
American people of Latvian-Jewish descent
Jewish American people in New York (state) politics
Members of the Socialist Labor Party of America
Socialist Party of America politicians from New York (state)
Members of the Executive of the Labour and Socialist International
20th-century American lawyers
Activists from New York City
American anti–World War I activists
American labor lawyers
American Marxists
American newspaper founders
American political activists
American Zionists
Jewish socialists
Lawyers from New York City
Politicians from New York City
Yiddish-language writers
Trade unionists from New York (state)
American political party founders
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in New York (state)

Morris Hillquit


Pieter Fransz de Grebber (c.1600–1652/3) was a Dutch Golden Age painter.

Life
De Grebber was born in Haarlem, the oldest son of Frans Pietersz de Grebber (1573–1643), a painter and embroiderer in Haarlem, and the brother of the painters Maria and Albert. He learned to paint from his father and from Hendrick Goltzius. He was descended from a Catholic and artistic family, the De Grebbers, originally from Waterland, and his sister Maria later became the mother-in-law of Gabriel Metsu. He was a friend of the priest and musicologist Jan Albertszoon Ban, and had a poem set to music by the Haarlem composer Cornelis Padbrué. In 1632 he became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke, but he had already been active as a painter for 10 years. His pupils were Gerbrand Ban, Nicolaes Pietersz Berchem, Egbert van Heemskerck, and Dirck Helmbreeker.

In 1618, father and son went to Antwerp and negotiated with Peter Paul Rubens over the sale of his painting Daniel in the Lions Pit. It was then handed - via the English ambassador in the Republic, Sir Dudley Carleton -  to king Charles I. Pieter got important commissions not only in Haarlem, but also from the stadholder Frederik Hendrik. As such, he worked on the decoration of the Huis Honselaarsdijk in Naaldwijk and at the Paleis Noordeinde in Huis ten Bosch in the Hague. He painted altar pieces for churches in Flanders and hidden Catholic churches in the Republic. He may also have worked for Danish clients.

Pieter remained single and lived from 1634 until his death at the Haarlem Béguinage.

Work
Besides history paintings, Pieter de Grebber also painted a number of portraits; furthermore many drawings and a few etchings by him have survived. From different influences, such as the Utrecht Caravaggistism, Rubens and also Rembrandt, he came up with a very personal style. He was, together with Salomon de Bray, the forerunner and first peak of the "Haarlem classicism" school, producing paintings characterized by a well-organized clarity and light tints.

In 1649, De Grebber wrote the treatise "Regulen welcke by een goet Schilder en Teyckenaar geobserveert en achtervolght moeten werden" (Rules which a good Painter and Master of Drawing should observe). In this document he explains the most important eleven rules which he believes classicist painters should be careful to observe. Although the Classicists did not swear by such rules, these were nevertheless always tightly observed. Almost all of these rules are taken from Karel van Mander's own Mannerist Schilder-boeck, in which history painting was presented as the highest of the hierarchy of genres.

References

Bijlage Vrij Nederland, September 1999 (Available free of charge in museum Boijmans Van Beuningen during the exhibition "Dutch Classicism - the other face of the Golden Century").

External links

Works at WGA
Biography at lib-art.com
Works and literature at PubHist
Vermeer and The Delft School, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which has material on Pieter de Grebber

1600s births
1652 deaths
Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch male painters
Painters from Haarlem
History painters

Pieter de Grebber


The 1870s in Swedish football, starting January 1870 and ending December 1879:

Events
Early 1870s: Various forms of football are introduced in Sweden. The development of football is centered around Gothenburg—which has an extensive trade and workforce exchange with England—and southern Sweden, mainly the cities of Malmö, Landskrona and Halmstad—which are influenced by the close by neighbour Denmark, one of the early football nations.
24 May or 28 May 1874: One of the earliest mentions of football in Sweden occurs this day when the Gothenburg newspaper Göteborgs-Posten publishes an article on a gymnastics society—without mentioning any name—that has been founded in the city, also telling that the society has played "a few football player games, which seemed to be of a very animated nature" on Heden, a public space in the centre of Gothenburg. No information on the type of football played, or the society's whereabouts during the next years, has been found.
1875: Göteborgs BK is founded, the first Swedish football club whose name is known. It is however most likely that the club used the Swedish football rules and not the association football rules. It is unknown for how long the club existed, but sources mention it as still active in the late 1880s. Göteborgs BK was probably one of the clubs that standardised the rules for Swedish football in 1885.
1879: Stockholms BK is founded as the first club from Stockholm playing the Swedish code. One source mentions the club playing a match on Gotland in 1878, but that seems unlikely as most sources gives 1879 as the year of foundation. A club with the same name regularly plays in the national league system during the 1920s, but it is unknown if that is the same club.
1879: Lars Mauritz Törngren, one of the most prominent Ling gymnastics ideologists, publishes the book  ("Athletic games. Instruction for the school service") in which he mentions football as "somewhat known in Sweden", but neglects to mention the sport further due to its perceived violent and brutal nature.

Notes

References
Print

Online

1870s
1870 in association football
1871 in association football
1872 in association football
1873 in association football
1874 in association football
1875 in association football
1876 in association football
1877 in association football
1878 in association football
1879 in association football
Football

1870s in Swedish football


Onan (, Modern Onan, Tiberian 'Ônān ; "Strong") is a person in the Bible. He is in the Book of Genesis, chapter 38. He was the second son of Judah. Like his older brother, Er, Onan was killed by Yahweh. Onan's death was because he was "evil in the sight of the Lord" for being unwilling to father a child by his widowed sister-in-law.

Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people

Onan


Neodymium is a chemical element that has the symbol Nd on the periodic table. It has the atomic number 60 which means it has 60 protons in an atom. Neodymium can be combined with other elements like iron and boron to create the very strong neodymium magnet, these magnets can lift up to 1000 times their own weight. Neodymium is a metal that forms a coating of oxide around itself when it is placed in air. It is usually used as neodymium magnets for hard disk drives.

Properties
Though neodymium is called a rare earth metal, it is quite common, as common as nickel, cobalt or copper. Like every metal, neodymium is very shiny. It is a solid that melts at 1,024 degrees Celsius, or 1,875 degrees Fahrenheit. Neodymium is in a group of other elements called lanthanides, which are like each other in how they behave. When neodymium is dropped into water, it slowly changes into neodymium hydroxide, if the water or the neodymium itself is hot enough, the change is much faster, and the neodymium may explode. In the air, if the neodymium is hot enough, it can catch fire. Like every other metal, neodymium usually wants to get rid of its electrons, so the compounds it forms are usually with elements that want electrons, as oxygen does.

Uses

The neodymium magnets used to make hard disk drives do not weaken over time: they are permanent magnets. They can also be used in microphones or speakers. Electric guitars may use these magnets inside their pickups.

Lanthanides

Neodymium


The pyroxenes are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. They share a common structure consisting of single chains of silica crystals with the general formula XY(Si,Al)2O6 where X and
Y represents metal ions.
Although aluminium substitutes extensively for silicon in silicates such as feldspars and amphiboles, the substitution occurs only to a limited extent in most pyroxenes.

Pyroxenite is an igneous rock made up of minerals from the pyroxene group.

Minerals
Igneous rocks

Pyroxene


Catherine Howard (c. 1521 –  13 February 1542) was Queen consort of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII of England.

Childhood
Catherine Howard (also spelled "Katheryn") was born in about 1521, but the exact date is unknown.  She was the tenth child of Lord Edmund Howard and Joyce Culpepper. Her father was the second son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was a cousin to Anne Boleyn, who was the second wife of Henry VIII.

Catherine's family was poor so they sent her to live with her step-grandmother, Agnes Tilney. Agnes Tilney, the Duchess of Norfolk, had a large household, but it was not very strict. Catherine could read and write, but she was the least-educated of Henry VIII's wives.

Arrival at court

Catherine became a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne of Cleves in 1539 or 1540, when she was about 18 years old. Anne of Cleves was the fourth wife of Henry VIII.  The king did not like Anne, and said she was not as pretty as he had hoped for and also called her a Flanders mare (horse). He soon fell in love with Catherine.

In July 1540, after Henry had annulled his marriage with Anne of Cleves, Henry and Catherine got married at Oatlands Palace, which is in Surrey.

Marriage
Henry VIII loved his young bride and gave her lots of rich presents, such as jewels and expensive clothes. He called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'. Her motto was "Non autre volonté que la sienne" (French) or "No other wish but his". However, Catherine was not happy in her marriage. Her husband was very fat (he was about  at the time), much older than she was, and had an ulcer on his legs. She started becoming acquainted with a man named Thomas Culpepper.

Downfall

Rumors that Catherine was unfaithful began to be repeated at court. Then Francis Dereham told
people about the affair which he had had with Catherine, and officials started to ask questions about what she was doing in private. Many of Catherine's ladies-in-waiting, who had also lived with her in Lambeth, were brought forward to bring evidence against Catherine.  Soon, her past was uncovered, and more scandal was brought to her name; enough to have her charged with treason.  Catherine then, in 1541, was arrested and charged with high treason. Henry was heartbroken and very upset. He drew his sword and threatened to kill Katherine himself. At last, he made up his mind that Catherine was to be executed, just like her cousin, Anne Boleyn.

Death

In February 1542, Catherine was told that she was to die. She was being kept a prisoner at Syon Abbey. She was so fearful she grew filled with hysteria, crying as if she was a madwoman. She asked to see the executioner's block so she might know how to put her head on it. She practiced laying her head on the block all night long before her execution.

There is a popular story that before Catherine died, she said, "I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpepper." This story is not true. Instead, she cried out "God have mercy on my soul. Good people, I beg of you, pray for me."

The executioner chopped her head off with one blow. She was buried in St. Peter Ad Vincula, the parish church of the Tower of London.

References

1521 births
1542 deaths
Executed English people
People executed by decapitation
House of Tudor
Kings and Queens consort of England

Catherine Howard


Upminster is a place in the east London Borough of Havering, England. It is the eastern end of the London Underground system, on the District line which is green. It is also a station on the c2c line, but Oyster cards  and travel cards are not valid beyond Upminster. Nearby places include Hornchurch, Upminster Bridge and Cranham.

Saint Laurence Church in Upminster is where William Derham measured the speed of sound.

Areas of London
London Borough of Havering

Upminster


Japanese mythology is a system of beliefs that includes Shinto and Buddhist traditions. The Shinto religion alone has many kami (Japanese for "gods" or "spirits").

Most Japanese myths, as generally known today, are based on the Kojiki, Nihonshoki and some other books. The Kojiki or "Record of Ancient Things" is the oldest known book of myths, legends, and history of Japan. The Shintoshu explains origins of Japanese gods and goddesses from a Buddhist point of view while the Hotsuma Tsutae has a very different version of mythology.

One notable thing of Japanese mythology is that it explains birth of Amaterasu, the origin of the Imperial family, and assigned them divinity. The Japanese word for the Emperor of Japan, tennō (天皇), means "heavenly emperor".

Related pages
 Izanagi
 Shinto
 Shinto shrine
 Kami
 Takamagahara
 Japanese divinities

Japanese mythology
Shinto

Japanese mythology


Sheldon Kennedy (born June 15, 1969) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey player.  He played for the Detroit Red Wings, Boston Bruins and Calgary Flames in the National Hockey League (NHL).  Kennedy was drafted by the Red Wings in the fourth round of the 1988 NHL Entry Draft while playing with the Swift Current Broncos of the Western Hockey League (WHL). In the WHL, Kennedy helped the Broncos capture the 1989 Memorial Cup, and was named to the tournament all-star team. Kennedy represented Canada internationally at the World Junior Championships in 1988 and 1989. He helped Canada win a gold medal at the 1988 tournament.

Kennedy is best known for coming forward as a victim of sexual abuse at the hands of his coach, Graham James. In 1998, Kennedy roller bladed across Canada to raise awareness and funds for sexual abuse victims. Currently, Kennedy serves as a spokesperson for violence and abuse prevention programs with the Canadian Red Cross.

Playing career

Junior
Kennedy started playing junior hockey with the Winnipeg South Blues of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League (MJHL) in 1985. After being noticed by Graham James at a hockey camp, Kennedy joined the Swift Current Broncos of the Western Hockey League (WHL) for the 1986–87 season.  Kennedy spent his entire WHL career with the Broncos, helping the team capture the 1989 Memorial Cup. For his play during the tournament, Kennedy was named to the Memorial Cup All-Star Team. He was also named to the WHL's Eastern Conference Second All-Star Team.

Professional
Kennedy was selected by the Detroit Red Wings in the fourth round (80th overall) of the 1988 National Hockey League (NHL) Entry Draft.  His first professional season was split between the Red Wings in the NHL and their minor league affiliate Adirondack Red Wings of the American Hockey League (AHL). At the NHL level, Kennedy scored two goals and added seven assists in 20 games.  Kennedy spent the next four seasons bouncing between the AHL and NHL within the Red Wings organization. The Winnipeg Jets acquired Kennedy from the Red Wings after the 1993–94 season.  The NHL lockout meant that Kennedy did not actually play for the Jets before being picked up on waivers by the Calgary Flames.  Kennedy spent two seasons in Calgary, then the Flames decided not to renew his contract in 1996, shortly after his sexual abuse revelation.  He signed as a free agent with the Boston Bruins for the 1996–97 season but also spent time with the Providence Bruins, Boston's AHL affiliate.  The 1996–97 season was Kennedy's last campaign in the NHL but he later resurfaced in the 1998–99 season with the Manitoba Moose of the now-defunct International Hockey League.  Kennedy also played for EV Landshut of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga in Germany during the 1998–99 season.

Personal
A television movie about his life and campaign, The Sheldon Kennedy Story, aired on CTV in 1999. Jonathan Scarfe starred as Kennedy. In 2006 he released his autobiography, Why I Didn't Say Anything - The Sheldon Kennedy Story. In the book he revealed that nightmares of James still continue to plague him. He also wrote frankly about his battles with cocaine addiction.

Awards and achievements

Junior hockey

References

Other websites

Kennedy's publishing profile

1969 births
Adirondack Red Wings players
American Hockey League players
Canadian autobiographers
Boston Bruins players
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey people from Brandon, Manitoba
Living people
Moose Jaw Warriors players
Providence Bruins players
Saint John Flames players
Swift Current Broncos players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players

Sheldon Kennedy


is a region to the east of the River Conwy in north Wales. It started as a minor kingdom then became a medieval cantref, and was usually part of the Kingdom of Gwynedd (later the region became part of Denbighshire, then Clwyd, and is now in Conwy county borough).

Kingdom: history and archaeology
Rhos is identified as a small kingdom during the sub-Roman and early medieval periods in an Old Welsh genealogical document 'Ancestry of the Kings and Princes of Wales' listing thirteen of its kings (including two who are known to have ruled the wider region of Gwynedd).

The most famous monarch was perhaps Cynlas Goch, the son of Owain Ddantgwyn, who lived in the early 6th century and was denounced by the monk, Gildas. He wrote (in Latin) that Cynlas was the "guider of the chariot which is the receptacle of the bear". The latter may refer to a "Fort of the Bear", possibly  Dinerth, the name of a hillfort on Bryn Euryn in Llandrillo-yn-Rhos. The road that runs below the western side of the hill is still called Dinerth Road and Dinarth Hall is nearby.

The Gwynedd Archaeological Trust have undertaken a trial excavation of this hillfort and set up related information boards in Colwyn Bay Library. Their investigations revealed a massive defensive stone wall, well built and faced with good-quality limestone blocks originally rising to about ten feet high. The ramparts were eleven and a half feet thick. These defences are unlike those of Iron Age hillforts but comparable with similar medieval fortifications, so may represent a possible stronghold of the Kings of Rhos.

Administrative unit
By the 11th century, Rhos was part of Gwynedd Is Conwy (Gwynedd "below" the River Conwy) as an administrative unit known as a cantref. Along with its three adjoining cantrefi, the area was known as Y Berfeddwlad or the 'Middle Country' lying between Gwynedd and Powys and often changing hands between those two powerful kingdoms. With the loss of Welsh independence in 1283, Rhos became part of the lordship of Denbigh, as granted to the English Earl of Lincoln. The cantrefi were abolished in 1536 with the creation of Denbighshire, but the name of Rhos survives today in places such as Llandrillo-yn-Rhos (Rhos-on-Sea), Llanelian-yn-Rhos, and Penmaen Rhos.

Commotes
Creuddyn was a historic commote of Rhos, then later of Caernarfonshire.

See also
Roose Hundred

References

External links

Cantrefs
Commotes of Gwynedd
History of Conwy County Borough
Kingdoms of Wales
States and territories established in the 5th century
5th century in Wales

Rhos (North Wales)


Ichthyology is the scientific study of fish.
The term Ichthyology which is derieved from following two Greek word 'Ichthyus' means fish and 'logos' means knowledge.
It includes hagfish and lampreys (jawless fish), cartilagenous fish (such as sharks, skates and rays) (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Osteichthyes).

A person who studies fish is called an ichthyologist.

References

Branches of zoology
Fish

Ichthyology


Natalia Oreiro (born May 18, 1977 in Montevideo,Uruguay) is a Latin Grammy-nominated Uruguayan singer and actress.  She has been in both soap operas and movies.  She is best known for her participation in the soap opera, Muñeca Brava (1998-1999), which was an every-afternoon-smash-hit during its run in Argentina. Her most recent soap opera, Sos mi vida (2006), was shown in more than 40 countries.

Life
Natalia Oreiro was born in Montevideo, Uruguay on May 19, 1977. She is daughter of Carlos Oreiro Poggio and the painter Mabel Iglesias Bourié. She studied drama when she was eight years old than she appeared in advertisements at twelve years old such as Coca-Cola, Pepsi and Johnson & Johnson.

When she was fifteen years old, she joined Latin America's show El Show de Xuxa and won the competition. At the age of 16 she moved to Argentina to work there. She worked as an MTV VJ and in 1995, she landed a role in the soap opera Dulce Ana. After that she st in the TV series 90-60-90 modelos (1996) and Ricos y famosos (1997). In Ricos y famosos, Oreiro played fictional character Valeria.

In 1998, Natalia Oreiro starred in her first movie  Un Argentino en New York with Guillermo Francella. Un Argentino en New York was watched by 1.634.702 people in Argentina. After the movie, she released three studio albums (Natalia Oreiro, Tu Veneno, Turmalina) and she starred many TV series and movies.

Music

Natalia Oreiro
In 1998, Natalia Oreiro released single "Que Sí, Que Sí" from Un Argentino en New York. Than she launched her first studio album Natalia Oreiro (1998). "Cambio Dolor" was first single from her debut album and became the opening theme for the prime time show Muñeca Brava (1998-1999).

Album was ranked eighty-first in list of "Worldbeat Global Album Chart" and sold over 140,000 copies therefore received a double platinum disc in Argentina and gold disc in countries like Greece, Slovenia and Israel.

Tu Veneno
In 2000, her second studio album, Tu Veneno (Your Poison) was released and was presentation in "Gala de la Hispanidad", "Gala de Murcia" (both in Spain) and "Festival de la Calle 8" in Miami. She was nominated for Latin Grammy Awards,  but lost to Christina Aguilera's Mi Reflejo. Oreiro was first Uruguayan nominated for a Grammy. She was crowned Queen of that event at Viña del Mar Festival 2000 in Chile. 3rd music video of album "Cómo Te Olvido" (2001) was directed by Tudor Giurgiu in Dracula's Castle, Romania.

Turmalina
Oreiro's next and last album, Turmalina, was released in 2002 and centered around a superhero character named Turmalina who is created by  Oreiro. Turmalina was produced by Latin maker Kike Santander. The album was recorded in USA. "Que Digan Lo Que Quieran" (Should they say whatever they want) was first single from Turmalina. "Cuesta Arriba, Cuesta Abajo" became the opening theme for soap opera Kahorra. Natalia made contributions with singer/songwriter Jaime Roos and Falta y Resto for the official Uruguayan 2002 FIFA World Cup song "Pasión Celeste".

Discography
 1998: Natalia Oreiro
 2000: Tu Veneno
 2002: Turmalina

Artistic career

Soap operas
 Inconquistable corazón (Canal 9, 1994-1995) as Victoria
 Dulce Ana (Canal 9, 1995) as Verónica Iturbe-Montalbán
 90-60-90 modelos (Canal 9, 1996-1997) as Lucía Peralta
 Ricos y famosos (Canal 9, 1997-1998) as Valeria García Méndez de Salerno
 Muñeca brava (Telefe, 1998-1998) as Milagros 'Mili' Esposito-Di Carlo de Miranda (Cholito/Carlitos)/young Rosario
 Kachorra (Telefe, 2002) as Antonia Guerrero (Kachorra) alias Rosario Achával/Piojo
 El deseo (Telefe, 2004) as Carmen
 Sos mi vida (Canal 13, 2006)as Esperanza Muñoz - La Monita

Filmography
 Un Argentino en New York (1998) as Verónica 'Vero' De Ricci
 Cleopatra (movie) (2003) as Sandra
 La guerra de los gimnasios (2004)
 Las vidas posibles (2005) as Marcia
 La Peli (2006) - (2007) as journalist
 Rambleras (2007)

References

Other websites

 Official website

1977 births
Living people
Actors from Montevideo
Latin singers
Musicians from Montevideo

Natalia Oreiro


Electric potential is electric potential energy (EPE) per unit of charge.  (The unit of energy is the joule and the unit of charge is the coulomb.)  Electric potential tells what the electric potential energy of a charged object will be for every coulomb of charge it has, or how many joules of energy there will be per coulomb.  The unit for electric potential, joule per coulomb, it is named the volt in memory of Alessandro Volta. One volt equals one joule per coulomb.

Introduction
A good analogy is water in a mill pond.  In a pond, water has gravitational potential energy because of how high it is above sea level.  When the water goes over a fall, it loses energy.  There might be a pond in the hills with 100 liters of water and 1000 joules of energy in the pond, and so there are 10 joules of energy per liter.  Another pond might have 100 liters of water but yet only 500 joules of energy because the pond is in a lower valley.  This pond has 5 joules per liter.  Similarly, we could have 100 coulombs of charge with 1000 joules of electric potential energy stored somewhere, maybe in an electric circuit.  The electric potential would be 10 joules of energy per coulomb.  In another place, maybe another place in the same electric circuit, there might be an electric potential of 5 joules per coulomb.

Just like a mass falls from a place where it has a higher potential energy, an airplane or someplace in the universe, to where it has a lower potential energy, the ground or a different place in the universe, so do charges.  Charges will always go to where they have lower electric potential  or potential.  This going is also called "falling".  A group of charges or a charged object will fall from where there is an electric potential of 10 joules per coulomb to where there is an electric potential of 5 joules per coulomb, or from a place with an electric potential of 10 volts to one with an electric potential of 5 volts.  If there are 20 coulombs of charge on an object, it will fall from having an electric potential energy (EPE) of 200 joules (20 c x (10 j/c) = 200 joules) at the place with an electric potential of 10 volts to an electric potential energy of 100 joules (20 c x (5 j/c) = 100 joules) at the place with an electric potential of 5 volts.

Gravity
While this concept is also valid for gravity, it is not used.  It is almost always more useful to think of and use the total gravitational potential energy, GPE, of an object and not use the GPE per kilogram.  In electricity, it is very often more useful to use electric potential, the EPE per charge, instead of using the total electric potential energy.

Electric potential energy
Electric potential is not the same as electric potential energy.  It is electric potential energy per unit charge.   Electric potential is not the same as electric potential difference.  Electric potential difference is also called voltage (see the voltage page).

Remarks
Please note that the volt and voltage are two different things.  The volt is a unit by which we measure something. Both electric potential and voltage are things we measure, and the volt is the unit of measure for both. Yes, a little confusing, but that is the way it is. The symbol for the unit volt is written with a V (9 volts or 9 V). When voltage is used in a formula, the symbol for voltage is a lowercase v. ( e.g. voltage = current x resistance or v = ir) This distinguishes the difference between volts (V) and voltage (v) when there is only a single letter symbol to go by. Electrical engineers use the symbol 'e' for voltage (e.g. e=ir) to distinguish the difference more clearly.

Electricity

Electric potential


The relational theory of space is a metaphysical theory according to which space is composed of relations between objects, with the implication that it cannot exist in the absence of matter. Its opposite is the container theory. A relativistic physical theory implies a relational metaphysics, but not the other way round: even if space is composed of nothing but relations between observers and events, it would be conceptually possible for all observers to agree on their measurements, whereas relativity implies they will disagree. Newtonian physics can be cast in relational terms, but Newton insisted, for philosophical reasons, on absolute (container) space. The subject was famously debated by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and a supporter of Newton's in the Leibniz–Clarke correspondence.

An absolute approach can also be applied to time, with, for instance, the implication that there might have been vast epochs of time before the first event.

See also
 René Descartes
 Philosophy of space and time
 Spacetime

References

Metaphysical theories
Philosophy of physics
Space

Relational space


Marmaduke Grove Vallejo (; July 6, 1878 – May 15, 1954), was a Chilean Air Force officer, political figure and member of the Government Junta of the Socialist Republic of Chile in 1932.

Early life
Grove was born in Copiapó, Chile, the son of lawyer, José Marmaduke Grove Abalos and Ana Vallejo Burgoa.
His first studies were in School Nº 1 of Copiapó and later at the local Liceum. From a very young age he was interested in the army, and in 1892, was accepted to the Chilean Naval Academy.  Very shortly before graduation, he participated in the so-called "Stale-bread rebellion", as a result of which he was expelled from the navy. That incident proved to be his turning point and from then on he declared his motto to be an "undying love for the underdogs and for true justice".

In 1897, Grove was accepted in the Military Academy, from which he graduated as an artillery sub-lieutenant. At the Military Academy, he was a classmate of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo and Arturo Puga Osorio, both of whom he remained in contact with for the rest of his long military and political life. In 1906 he was sent to Germany to specialize in artillery, and remained there until 1911. By 1912 he had become a freemason and the following year he joined the War Academy. Later he was transferred to the Tacna Garrison, where he remained until 1917 during which he married Rebeca Valenzuela, with whom he had six children.

Grove had a brilliant military career, and from 1920 to 1924 he was Under-Director of the Military Academy. After being promoted to Colonel, he was named Director of the Air Force Academy in 1925.

Political career

1924 also marked Grove's beginnings in politics. On September 3, 1924, he had a notorious participation in the incident known as the "saber rattling", where 56 military officers protested against their low salaries. The next day the officers involved created the "military committee" to defend themselves from the government. He was selected to carry the petitions to the president. These included increase of the military salaries, changes to the income tax, constitutional reforms, and changes to the employment code. He also was in charge of obtaining the support from the navy officers, which he got. He also tried his hand at journalism, and had a column in the newspaper La Nación supporting the committee, under the byline of Ekud.

This incident was a turning point. Even though the petitions were approved, the committee was not dissolved. President Arturo Alessandri, noticing that he had lost control over these officers, resigned and left the country on September 10. This led to the creation of a Government Junta, with the participation of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo.

Calais pact
In 1925, Grove was promoted to colonel and started a long period of travels through Europe, as military attaché. When Carlos Ibáñez del Campo became president, he was confirmed as military attaché in London, as a way to keep him outside the country. While in London, he contacted ex-president Alessandri who was also in exile. Together they started to conspire against Ibáñez. On January 17, 1929, together with also exiled General Enrique Bravo and major Carlos Millán, they signed the "Calais pact" and sworn themselves to bring democracy back to Chile. In November of that year, a meeting of the conspirators was discovered at Dover by the Ibáñez agents, and on November 28 he was sent into retirement from the army and deported to Buenos Aires.

The little red plane

Once in Argentina, Grove immediately started to conspire again. On September 21, 1930, he flew to Chile in a little red plane and landed in Concepción. The plan failed and Grove, together with lieutenant Carlos Charlín Ojeda were arrested and deported to Easter Island. He managed to escape from there on board a French corvette bound for Tahiti, and from there he went to Marseilles. Nonetheless he only was able to return to Chile after the fall of Ibáñez on July 26, 1931.

Socialist Republic of Chile
Once back in Chile, President Juan Esteban Montero reincorporated Grove to the Army and on March 17, 1932 promoted him to Air Commodore and named him Air Force Commander-in-chief. Still, Grove continued conspiring against Montero, and toppled him on June 4, 1932 through a military coup. He then proceeded to create the Socialist Republic of Chile. This republic lasted only 12 days.

The Socialist republic was headed by a Government Junta composed of General Arturo Puga, Carlos Dávila and Eugenio Matte. He became Defense minister, a position he held from June 5 to June 16, 1932.

In that short time, the Socialist republic only managed to approve a few social measures, such as the obligation of the Central Bank to grant credits to small mining and agricultural concerns and the return of the pawned articles at the government-owned pawnbroker to their owners. They also established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.

The Government Junta was in turn toppled by Carlos Dávila on June 16, 1932, who in turn remained in power for only one hundred days. In the meantime Grove was once again exiled, this time to Easter Island.

Presidential candidate
During the presidential elections of 1932, Grove was nominated as a candidate by the Socialist forces. He was only able to return from his exile on Easter Island two days before the election, but still managed to finish second, behind Arturo Alessandri, with a 17.7% of the vote.

Later life
On April 19, 1933, together with Oscar Schnake, Salvador Allende, and Carlos Alberto Martínez, Grove founded the Socialist Party of Chile.  He became General Secretary of that party in 1938 and president of the Popular Front coalition that won the presidential election that same year with the candidate Pedro Aguirre Cerda.

Grove was elected Senator on May 9, 1934, in a by-election held to replace deceased Senator Eugenio Matte Hurtado, who had died in January of that year. His slogan was, "From the jail to the Senate", because he had to campaign from jail, where he was kept for conspiring against President Alessandri.  As senator he proposed the first plan of Agrarian Reform in Chile in 1939. His slogan this time was, "Neither land without men nor men without land" (Ni tierra sin hombres, ni hombres sin tierra).  He was reelected as a Senator in 1941. He was defeated by Carlos Ibáñez del Campo and retired from the Senate in 1949.

Grove died at the age of 75 on May 15, 1954, at Santiago, Chile.

External links

Official biography by Socialist party
Biography
Calais pact and the little red plane

1878 births
1954 deaths
Heads of state of Chile
Chilean Ministers of Defense
Chilean Air Force generals
Members of the Senate of Chile
Candidates for President of Chile
Leaders who took power by coup
Chilean socialists
Chilean people of English descent
Chilean people of Irish descent
People from Copiapó
20th-century Chilean military personnel

Marmaduke Grove


A vector field is a function that assigns to every point in space a vector. It can be imagined as a collection of arrows, each one attached to a different point in space. For example, the wind (the velocity of air) can be represented by a vector field. This is because in every point one can write an arrow showing the direction of the wind and its strength.

Vector calculus is the study of vector fields.

Physical examples
In everyday life, gravity is the force that makes objects fall down. More generally, it is the force that pulls objects towards each other. If we describe for each point in space the direction and strength of the earth's pull, we will get a gravity vector field for the Earth.

The theory dealing with electricity and magnetism in physics is called electromagnetism. One of the basic assumptions is that there are two vector fields in all space which govern electric and magnetic forces. One is the electric field, which is often written as  and the second is the magnetic field, which is often written as .

Atmospheric circulation can be represented by a vector field. The more precisely the vector field describes the actual flow, the better the resulting weather forecast.

Linear algebra
Vectors

Vector field


The  was an infantry division of the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call sign was the . It was formed on 24 August 1937 in Kanazawa as a square division, simultaneously with the 108th division. The nucleus for the formation was the 9th division headquarters. It was subordinated from the beginning to the Japanese Northern China Area Army.

First formation
The 109th Division was sent to North China in October 1937. It closely cooperated with the 108th division, contributing to the Beiping–Hankou Railway Operation and the capture of the Linfen city. Later it also provided a garrison for the Shanxi province. The division was eventually dissolved 24 December 1939.

Second formation
The 109th Division was reformed in May 1944 from the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade and other Bonin Islands garrisons reinforced by recruits from the Kōfu mobilization district. The 109th Division was assigned to the 31st Army, under Commanding Lieutenant General Hideyoshi Obata. It comprised the bulk of the Japanese garrison on the volcanic islands of Iwo Jima and Chichi Jima which were wiped out by American forces from February to March 1945 in Battle of Iwo Jima.

The structure of the 109th was different than most divisions in the IJA. After 1936, the normal make up of a division was the triangular organization, with three infantry regiments to a division. The 109th (along with the 91st Infantry Division) were considered square divisions because they had two infantry brigades (5000 men each) with two infantry regiments each. During the buildup prior to the attack of Iwo-jima General Kuribayashi divided the 109th and each was built up to maximum strengths. The 109th, as the Ogasawara island Detachment was the Ogasawara (Bonin Islands) District Group, also called the Ogasawara Army Group, with an approximate strength of 47,000 troops.

1st Brigade
The 1st Independent Mixed Brigade, led by Major General Tachibana, and the 17th Independent Mixed Regiment, as well as other elements, were stationed on Chichi Jima (Father Island) with approximately 25,000 troops. Many were deployed to other island defenses such as the rest of the middle cluster known as Father Island (groups); Ani-jima, Ototo-jima, Mago-jima, along with islets Higashi-jima, Nishi-jima, and Minami-jima. The northernmost cluster or Groom Islands (group) included; Yome-jima, Muko-jima, and Nakōdo-jima or Nakadachi-jima. The southernmost cluster known as the Mother Island (group) of Haha-jima, Ane-jima, Imōto-jima, Mei-jima, along with the smaller Hira-shima and Muko-jima. These groups of islands were by-passed when Iwo-jima was chosen to attack but were subjected to bombing and naval shelling by the U.S. military.

2nd Brigade
The 2nd Independent Mixed Brigade, led by Major General Kotau Osuga, and the Third Battalion of the 17th Regiment, led by Major Tomachi Fujiwara, was on Iwo Jima with Kuribayashi. The 2700 man 145th infantry regiment under Colonel Masuo Ikeda, a part of 46th division, was diverted from Saipan to Iwo Jima and Rear Admiral Toshinosuke Ichimaru that arrived with 2300 navy personnel.

Many of the 109th's personnel had previously served in China, Burma and the Dutch East Indies and had become reservists who were now reluctant to go back to battle. To bolster morale the Japanese Emperor Hirohito sent his own palace guard of anti-aircraft gunners to Chichi Jima to support the troops—as it was expected the main force of Americans would strike there, however the Allied Joint Chiefs of Staff decided to bypass Chichi Jima altogether.

Preparations

With preparations underway Kuribayashi worked with the tactic of defense-in-depth building numerous pillboxes for machine-gunners and 13,000 yards of tunnels with even a field-hospital worked in. However he had issues with many officers—dismissing 18 of them along with his Chief-of-staff, Kuribayashi also lost control of the Naval troops who dug in on the beaches.

The Battle Begins

On 19 February 1945 the battle began, but quickly came the feeling that the 109th were doomed as air or naval relief would not be able to help. Kuribayashi ordered his troops to inflict maximum damage and casualties on the enemy and to "kill 10 men before dying".

For 33 days the 109th fought on Iwo Jima, facing against tanks and heavy bombardments from the sea and air. In the end only 1083 Japanese survived, with a mere 216 captured from the 109th's 21,000 men during the battle, the other 867 Japanese soldiers came from other units. As for Kuribayashi, it is generally thought that he committed suicide by leading the last major counterattack. The rest held out hungry and alone in Iwo Jima's tunnels until the U.S. soldiers used explosives to clear the tunnels weeks later.

Elements of the 109th
The 109th Division comprised the 1st and 2nd Mixed Brigade. The 3rd Battalion of the 17th Independent Mixed Regiment was on Iwo Jima and there were many attached units

Headquarters Group
The 109th Chief of staff (detached to Chichi jima);  Colonel Hori, was replaced with Colonel Tadashi Takaishi

Communications
Anti-Aircraft, Major Shotaro Azuma
Headquarters Guard
Storm Company
Rocket Gun, Group B
Water Works
Ammunition Depot
Independent Trench Mortar 1st Company
Field Hospital (109th division)

145th Regiment
Commanding officer; Colonel Masuo Ikeda, approx. 2,700 men
First Battalion; Major mitsuaki Hara
Second Battalion; Major Yasutake
Third Battalion; Major Kenro Anso
Artillery Battalion; Captain Matsuda
Engineer Battalion; Captain Kikuzo Musashino
Field Hospital

145th Infantry Regiment, Captain Masuda
Second Middle Mortar Battalion; Major Jusuke Nadao
Third Middle Mortar Battalion; Major Koichiro Kobayashi

Third Battalion
Third Battalion, 17th Independent Mixed Regiment; Major Tomachi Fujiwara

26th Tank Regiment

Commanding officer; Lieutenant Colonel (Baron) Takeichi Nishi, 600 men and what started as 19 tanks. Many of the tanks were disassembled and the turrets concealed so they could be used with less threat of being destroyed by bombardment.

2nd Mixed Brigade
Commanding officer; General Osuga was replaced with Major General Sadasue Senda, approx. 5200 men
309th Independent Infantry Battalion; Captain Awatsu
310th Independent Infantry Battalion; Major Iwatani
311th Independent Infantry Battalion; Major Tatsumi
312th Independent Infantry Battalion; Captain Osada
314th Independent Infantry Battalion; Captain Hakuda
Artillery Battalion, Major Kazuo Maeda
Engineer Battalion, Major Maekawa
Field Hospital, Major Masaru Inaok

Brigade Artillery Group, Colonel Chosaku Kaido
Second Mixed Brigade artillery unit; Major Kazuo Maeda
20th Independent Artillery Mortar Battalion; Captain Mitsuo Mizutari
8th Independent Anti-Tank Battalion; Captain Hajime Shimizu
9th Independent Anti-Tank Battalion; Major Okubo
10th Independent Anti-Tank Battalion; Major Matsushita
11th Independent Anti-Tank Battalion; Captain Node
12th Independent Anti-Tank Battalion; Captain Masao Hayauchi
1st Independent Machine Gun Battalion; Captain Ko Kawanami
2nd Independent Machine Gun Battalion; Major Tokio Kawasaki

Navy

Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN); Rear Admiral Rinosuke Ichimaru, arrived with 2,216 naval personnel
Naval Guard Force, Captain Samaji Inoue
20th Special Machine Cannon Unit; 2nd Lieutenant Momozaki, attached to IJN Guard Force
21st Special Machine Cannon Unit; 2nd Lieutenant Isamu Kondo, attached to IJN Guard Force
43rd Special Machine Cannon Unit; 1st Lieutenant Tamara, attached to IJN Guard Force
44th Special Machine Cannon Unit; unknown, attached to IJN Guard Force
Operations, Commander Takeji Mase
Communications, Lieutenant Commander Shigeru Arioka
Engineering, Lieutenant Commander Narimasa Okada
Supply, Lieutenant Commander Okazaki
Suribachi Commander, Captain Kanehiko Atsuchi
125th Anti-Aircraft Defense Unit, Lieutenant (j.g.) Tamura
132nd Anti-Aircraft Defense Unit, Ensign Okumura
141st Anti-Aircraft Defense Unit, Lieutenant (j.g.) Doi
204th Naval Construction Battalion, Lieutenant Fujiro Iida,  1,233 men

Other units
Rocket Gun Company; Captain Yoshio Yokoyama
Fifth Fortress Engineer Company; unknown
21st Well Drilling Team; unknown
Iwo Freight Depot Team; unknown
Engineer unit, mixed 1st brigade; unknown

The exact strength of Navy personnel is subject to question. With an estimate of approximately 21,000 troops it was reported that the IJA had 17,500 troops and the IJN had 5,500 troops and another report 13,586 IJA and 7,347 IJN troops.

Knowledgeable Predictions
During a dinner with Major Yoshitaka Horie (in charge of 109th Divisions Detached Headquarters on Chichi Jima) Kuribayashi asked Horie his opinion for defending Iwo Jima, to which Horie replied it was vulnerable as "a pile of eggs" and better to sink it to the bottom of the ocean with enough explosives. Kuribayashi—who had spent much time in Canada as deputy military attaché and traveled often in America—was in agreement, however they knew that at  from Tokyo, Iwo Jima would be "a dagger aimed straight at the heart of the homeland". Before leaving Japan to take up his post, Kuribayashi had informed his wife not to expect him home.

See also
 List of Japanese Infantry Divisions
Independent Mixed Brigades (Imperial Japanese Army)

References

Japanese World War II divisions
Infantry divisions of Japan
Military units and formations established in 1937
Military units and formations disestablished in 1939
Military units and formations established in 1944
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
1937 establishments in Japan
1939 disestablishments in Japan
1944 establishments in Japan
1945 disestablishments in Japan

109th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)