The Royal Enfield Bullet is a British owerheid valve single cylinder 4-stroke motorcycle originally made by Royal Enfield in Redditch, Wast Midlands, but now produced by Royal Enfield Motors, the successor tae the Breetish company, at Chennai (umwhilely kent as Madras), Tamil Nadu in Indie. The Royal Enfield Bullet haes the langest production run o ony motorcycle haein remained continuously in production syne 1948. The Bullet marque is even aulder, an haes passed 75 years o continuous production. The Royal Enfield an Bullet names derive frae the company's links wi the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield.

Evolution
The Bullet haes evolved frae a fower-valve ingine wi exposed valve-gear tae the latest aw-alloy Unit Construction Ingine wi electronic fuel-injection.

1931–1939
Introduced in 1931 as a fower-stroke single cylinder motorcycle, this model wis the first tae featur the Bullet name. It differed in a nummer o ways frae its successors (whilk are nou faimiliar): it haed an inclined ingine wi exposed valve gear featurin fower valves per cylinder wi 350 cc an 500 cc options. In 1933, a 250 cc option wis an aa addit tae the range. Its frame wis an aa considerably different, haein centre-sprung girder front forks, bein amang a new range o models frae Royal Enfield that featurt them, alang wi a saddle-teep fuel tank. Housomeivver, common tae motorcycles o this period, it haed a rigid rear-end, necessitatin a 'sprung' seat for the rider, whilk resultit in the iconic leuk o the motorcycle that is muckle replicatit the day, even tho the sprung seat is unnecessary in modren models.

1939–1949

This model refresht Royal Enfield's model line-up for 1939. It differed in cosmetic details, as weel as in haein twa rocker boxes, whilk resultit in hichter volumetric efficiency for the ingine. The basic design wi front gaiter forks wis retained.

1949–1956

A nummer o chynges wur implementit in order tae bring the bike up-tae-date. This model featurt a vertical ingine wi alloy heid an hichter compression. The frame wis an aa chynged tae a fully sprung design uisin a swing-airm wi non-adjustable hydraulic shockers at the rear, while the front uised a brand-new telescopic fork o Royal Enfield's awn design. This enabled the introduction o a bench seat made o semple foam an wi nae lairge sprungs. Pouer transmission wis via the same fower-speed Albion gearbox as the previous model, wi a unique 'neutral-finder' lever the rider coud press frae ony gear ither than first tae shift tae neutral. The crankshaft continued tae hae a fully-floating big-end bearing. The headlight assembly wis enclosed wi the speedometer an ammeter intae a nacelle, whilk an aa served as the attachment o the front suspension as weel as the handlebars. An itherwise seemilar model, but wi ingine displacement o 499 cc, made its debut in 1953.

The prototype haed done weel in a performance trial an went on tae win the trophy at the 1948 Internaitional Sax Days Trial an twa Bullet riders wan gowd medals. In 1952 Johhny Brittain wan the Scots Sax Days Trial on a Royal Enfield Bullet an in 1953 he an aa wan the Internaitional Sax Days Trial athoot losin a single pynt.

In 1949, the Indien Airmy ordered Royal Enfield Bullets for mairch patrol uiss an the company decidit tae open a factory in Madras. In 1955, the 350 cc Bullets wur sent frae the Redditch factory in kit form for assembly in Indie, but Enfield Indie Ltd. suin developt the factory an produced complete motorcycles independently unner licence. The 1955 model remained amaist unchynged for years an Madras produced ower 20,000 Bullets annually.

1956–1964

In 1955, Royal Enfield carried oot some retoolin an redesign at thair Redditch plant, in the UK, tae modrenise the Bullet, an in 1959 some chynges wur made tae the gear ratios. Thir chynges, housomeivver, wur no incorporatit bi the Indien airm due tae its commitment tae supply the Indien Airmy. Sicweys the Breetish an Indien lines diverged, niver tae meet again.

Atween 1956 an 1960, the Breetish Bullet wis released in several models, includin a 350 cc Trials "wirks replica" version, a 350 cc "Clipper" model an in 1958 the Airflow version. This model haed full wather pertection frae a lairge fibreglass fairin an includit panniers for tourin. The design wis developt in partnership wi Breetish Plastics an featurt as a series in The Motor Cycle magazine. The ingines wur the same an the ae differences wur in exhaust, seatin, instrumentation, handlebars an fuel tank. Numerous technical improvements wur an aa made, includin movin tae alternator chargin (1956) an coil ignition (1960). The 350 cc model continued in production, but the 500 cc model wis discontinued in 1961. In 1962, the UK company wis sauld an the Bullet discontinued an in 1967, the Redditch factory closed. Finally, in 1970, Royal Enfield closed doun completely.

1955–1995

The Enfield Indie Ltd. factory did weel an continued production o the 1955 Bullet design amaist unchynged, re-introducin it tae the Breetish mercat in 1984 unner the name 'Enfield'. This wis a period o stagnation for the Bullet, as the Indien awners did no mak even basic improvements tae the motorcycle, an the quality o pairts dropt at an alarmin rate.

Due tae the protectionist Indien economy, housomeivver, thare wis felt nae need for betterment, an the brand survived intae the 1990s essentially as a domestic Indien commuter bike Equivalent bikes in the mercat wur the Yamaha RD350 an the Yezdi. Baith bikes enjoy a cult follaein in Indie, but hae been oot o production for decades. Housomeivver, this coud no prevent the erosion o the bike's mercat ance the economy wis sufficiently opened up tae allou the Japanese motorbikes. Chronic laich quality an mismanagement, coupled wi the bike's relatively laich mileage (awtho the Bullet ingine is fuel-efficient, its main competeetion wis wi bikes whose ingines at 100 cc wur less nor a third in size) caused a descendin spiral o sales till the company, naur bankruptcy, wis bocht oot bi Eicher Motors, a tractor an commercial vehicle manufacturer.

1995–1997
Unner the newly appointit CEO o Enfield Indie, Siddhartha Lal, Eicher unnerteuk major investment in the ailin firm. This wis stairtit wi the purchase o kenmerk an intellectual property richts o the defunct Breetish Royal Enfield firm, chyngin the name o the company tae Royal Enfield Motors. Mony management an production chynges wur made, wi the production process bein streamlined an excess capacity redistributit. Athoot the lairge-scale Airmy/Law Enforcement orders tae bail the company oot, thare wis ae the individual sales route in whilk the company haed tae perform if it wur tae survive at aw. The company an aa faced the difficult task o caterin tae a ver diverse mercat. Tae preserve the Bullet's naitur an reputation as a classic Breetish bike, as the Raja Gaadi, an tae attract yungsters away frae the newly appeared performance motorcycle mercat, the Bullet marque wis split up intae twa. The Bullet Standard 350 featurt aw the increased manufacturin quality an reliability but wis maintained in the traditional 'Bullet' leuk, available ae in black. A new model, available in mair colours an chrome accents, a CV carburettor, an gas-charged shock absorbers - but wi the same ingine an gearbox as the Standard - wis launched. This model wis cawed the 'Bullet Electra'. The Electra 350 gaed on tae acome the best-sellin Royal Enfield model, accoontin for aroond hauf the company's sales.

Alangside thir developments, Austrian ingine firm AVL wis contractit tae produce an aw-alloy ingine suitable as a drop-in replacement for the cast-iron block oreeginal ingine (wi design datin frae 1955). The first bike wi this ingine wis launched as the Bullet Machismo 350. This ingine did no sell weel in the Indien mercat; mony prospective buyers wur surveyd as sayin that it didna soond the same as the auld ingine, lackin the 'thump' noise o its predecessor. The ingine did succeed in the Thunderbird model, a chopper style cruiser frae Royal Enfield Motors. An aa seen wis the introduction o a disc-brake on the front wheel as a factory option hameltlie, an staundart on exportit models.

1997–2007

Iver tichter European emission norms forced the Bullet Standard 350 tae end 2007 as its last model year in the EU, sae whan on-haund stocks wur aw sauld the Breetish-design ingined Bullet became nae langer available new. Aw new models exclusively featurt the AVL 'lean-burn' ingine. The introduction o a 5-speed gearbox meant that Royal Enfield coud 'fix' ane o the lang-standin quirks o the Bullet design—the fit-brake is on the left side while the gearshift is on the richt. Accordinlie, the Bullet Machismo 350 wis equipt wi this gearbox. Housomeivver, the 'left-shift' gearchynge provoket a backlash frae Indien Bullet customers, forcin the company tae no ae continue the Bullet Standard wi the traditional seestem, but even on the Electra it wis affered ae as an option, leadin tae the Electra 4-speed (traditional) an Electra 5-speed (left-shift) variants. Sales figures indicatit that Indien Bullet customers haed shunned the new gearbox, foregoin even the attraction o 5-speed transmission tae keep the gearshift traditional. Housomeivver, customers ootside o Indie teuk tae the new gearbox wi pleasure, as a result it became standard fitment on aw exportit models. New developments includit the addition o electric stairt as an option on some models, while standard on ithers. In 2007–2008, a leemitit edition, heavily accessorised 500 cc lean-burn Machismo 500 wis launched as the ultimate tourin bike. Due tae extremely leemitit production (500 units) an hie price, this became a rare bike. The Machismo 350 wis discontinued.

Since 2007

As a result o wirk spannin several years, a new set o ingines wis introduced. Thir wur the Unit Construction Ingines (UCI). The 350 cc UCI foond uise in the domestic model Thunderbird TwinSpark in a configuration wi twa sparkplugs per cylinder, wi integratit 5-speed left-shift gearbox. It haes no been featurt on ony o the Bullet models, hamelt or itherwise. The auld cast-iron ingine currently haes a lairge cult follaein in Indie, sae it is currently unclear whether or no the new UCE ingines will be pusht in tae phase oot the aulder ingine mercat on new models.

The 500 cc UCE features fuel injection, an haes greater pouer than ony Royal Enfield 500 cc motor. The 500cc UCE, wi an integratit 5-speed gearbox, pouers the current Bullet Classic model. Stairtin in 2009 this ingine wis available ae in the EU tae satisfee emissions regulations, but is as o 2010 is available in the Unitit States unner twa frame models, the Bullet Classic C5, or the Bullet G5, whilk leuks seemilar an shares panelin wi the earlier AVL Electra models.

Special custom models

EGLI Royal Enfield Super Bullet
Swiss motorcycle tuner Fritz W. Egli, a distributor o Royal Enfield motorcycles, wis approached bi a customer tae creaut the ultimate Egli Super Bullet. The basis for this bike wis Egli's central tube frame constructit frae nickel-platit chromium-molybdenum steel an the ingine wis completely redesigned wi a langer stroke crankshaft (105 mm), special main bearings, dry clutch, timin belt primary drive. 36 mm Keihin flet-slide carburettors wur addit tae provide an ootput o 40 hp (30 kW) frae a 624 cc ingine fed via an electric pump.

Breetish motorcycles
Bullet
Royal Enfield Motors
Standard motorcycles

Royal Enfield Bullet


The British League of Racing Cyclists (BLRC) was an association formed in 1942 to promote road bicycle racing in Great Britain. It operated in competition with the National Cyclists' Union, a rivalry which lasted until the two merged in 1959 to form the British Cycling Federation.

Background
The National Cyclists' Union (NCU) had, since the end of the 19th century, banned racing on the roads, fearing the police would ban all cycling as a result. A call for a ban "evoked hardly any opposition because road conditions were such that the possibility of massed racing on the highway was never even envisaged." "The position of cyclists on the roads of England and Wales had not been established and police forces had objected to cyclists racing. Matters came to a head on 21 July 1894 during a timed race on the North Road, then the main road north out of London, in which 50 riders competed with the help of other riders to pace them. A group of riders passed a woman and her horse and carriage at a point about 57 miles from the capital. The horse panicked, the riders fell off and the woman complained to the local police. They in turn banned cycle-racing on their roads."

The NCU administered not only road racing but track racing and ruled that its clubs were to move their races off the road and on to tracks, the forerunners of modern velodromes. Some clubs did but most were too far from any track and so a rebel movement began to organise not massed, paced races but individual competitions against the clock, over standard distances and held out in the countryside, in the early hours and in secret to avoid antagonising the police.

The NCU and what became the Road Time Trials Council eventually became colleagues, each administering its own section of the sport, neither allowing massed racing.

The war and Percy Stallard
The National Cyclists Union was the international body for cycling in England and Wales and sent teams to the Olympic Games and to world championships. It also licensed riders to compete abroad in races such as Bordeaux–Paris. But teams had to be selected not in races akin to which they were being entered but in competitions held on private roads such as airfields and car-racing courses.

One of the riders to be selected was an enthusiast from Wolverhampton, Percy Stallard. The experience of massed racing stimulated him and he believed that the NCU's objection to it on grounds that it would disrupt traffic and give cycling a bad name was pointless in wartime when petrol rationing had largely cleared the roads of vehicles.

He wrote in December 1941 to A. P. Chamberlin of the NCU:

It is amazing to think that this is the only country in Europe where this form of sport is not permitted... There seems to be the mistaken idea that it would be necessary to close the roads. This, of course, is entirely wrong... There would be no better time than now to introduce this form of racing to the roads, what with the decreased amount of motor traffic and the important part that the cycle is playing in wartime transport.

I am convinced that to allow massed-start racing to recommence its career after the war on circuits is utter madness. Even before the war massed-start racing could not be counted as a national branch of the sport as it was only possible for riders living within easy reach of Donington and Brooklands [the two most circuits most used] to try their hand at the game, excepting on special occasions. It should be obvious to anyone the least bit interested that there cannot be a future to this form of racing while it is allowed to remain on the circuit.

Stallard protested that the airfields and car circuits which were the only place that the NCU would allow massed racing had been taken by the Army and RAF. Chamberlin was not impressed and replied at the end of January to say that the NCU had considered the question but considered it unwise.

The breakaway race

In the first week of April Stallard sent letters on the notepaper of the bicycle shop that he ran to announce his plan for a 59-mile race from Llangollen to Wolverhampton on 7 June.

"I just explained to the police what I was doing and told them that things like that were normal on the Continent, and they said they were happy and that they'd try to help", he said." He obtained sponsorship from the Wolverhampton Express and Star newspaper, offered any profits to the newspaper's Forces Comfort Fund, and recruited 40 riders to take part. He also asked the NCU and the Road Time Trials Council (RTTC) not to suspend those who took part "as this was liable to raise controversy detrimental to the sport."

Stallard's plan brought strong opposition not just from the NCU and RTTC but from the cycling establishment, particularly from the veteran administrator and writer George Herbert Stancer. His fear, and that of the NCU, was that asking the police for permission to hold a race ended the freedom of cyclists to hold races, or at any rate lone races against the clock, without interference.

Under the headline A hopeless revolt, he wrote:

They have plunged into their dangerous experiment without regard for the consequences... I understand that the 'rebels' want to go on holding races by police permit and under police protection; and when this is withdrawn they are apparently content to put up the shutters and go out of business as promoters.... If we voluntarily place road-racing under police control, we sign its death warrant.... If we are to race on the road, for heaven's sake let us do it as free citizens, and not by permission of the police.

Stancer's words influenced the NCU and it banned Stallard before the race had started. An agreement with the Road Time Trials Council meant that it too banned him.

Stallard went ahead and his race finished, without incident, in front of a crowd at West Park. There were 34 riders, including two Dutchmen serving in the army in Britain. The programme, priced 2d, urged: "Onlookers are earnestly requested to remain on the pavements at all times during the race." It also said that "The event is run with the kind permission of the Chief Constables of Denbighshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire and Wolverhampton." Cycling reported:

More than a thousand people watched the finish of the massed-start race organised by Percy Stallard, from Llangollen to Wolverhampton, on Sunday afternoon. The Chief Constable of Wolverhampton, an inspector, a sergeant and 15 uniformed policemen kept the crowd back. Police cars and police motorcyclists patrolled portions of the course. A police motorcyclist led the racing men through the streets to the finish. E. A. Price, of Wolverhampton, won the sprint from his clubmate, C. J. Anslow.

The report - in which the frequent mention of the police reflected the magazine's concerns as expressed by Stancer - went on to explain that the race had been banned by the NCU and the RTTC but that there had been no incidents other than a lorry backing on to the course. Fifteen riders finished and all those involved in the race were expelled from the NCU. Stallard was banned for life for refusing to account for himself to the NCU's management.

The race result:

1. A. E. Price, Wolverhampton 2h 25min 40sec
2. C. J. Anslow, Wolverhampton, at 1sec
3. J. Holmes, RAF, at 3sec
4. J. Kremers, Royal Dutch Brigade, at 53sec
5. E. Whitmore, RAF, at 55sec
6. R. Jones, Wolverhampton, at 56sec
7. S. Trubshaw, Wolverhampton, at 1min
8. E. Turner, Wolverhampton, at 1:05
9. R. Whitmore, RAF, at 3:30
10. E. Reddish, Bradford, same time
11. J. Clark, Wolverhampton, at 3:40
12. L. Roe, Bradford, at 3:52
13. J. Rhodes, Bradford, at 5:49
14. F. Beeston, Birmingham, at 7:00
15: E. Upton, Wolverhampton, at 7:06

British League of Racing Cyclists
"When I ran the race," Stallard said in Winning, "I didn't think anything of it. I just thought it was something that would be taken up by others. I thought that, when the point had been proved, the NCU would be only too pleased to find that they'd got a bit of activity. It had all been above board. The police had never seen one, of course, but I just told them it was in conformity with international practice and races of this type were organised in all different countries and they had no queries at all."

Further races were held elsewhere in the country and the clubs that organised them formed regional groups. The first was in the Midlands in July 1942, called by the Wolverhampton RCC. With nowhere to go but insistent that massed racing was the future, Stallard encouraged the groups to merge to form the British League of Racing Cyclists. The founding meeting was of 24 people at the Sherebrook Lodge Hotel, Buxton, Derbyshire on Sunday 14 November 1942.

The founding members - they were listed by their initials rather than their names - were M. J. Gibson, S. A. Padwick, P. T. Stallard, E. F. Angrave, J. E. Finn, R.Jones, E. R. Hickman, G. Anstee, L. Plume, G. Truelove, C. J. Fox, L. Merrills, W. W. Greaves. E. Reddish, E. Thompson, R. Hartley, K. Swaby, Chas J. Fox, S. Copley, S. Cooper, K. Pattinson, G. Clark, Mrs W. W. Greaves and Miss G. A. Stiff.

Other riders and then whole clubs joined the BLRC. British cycle racing became polarised, frequently bitterly so. Clubs could not affiliate to both the NCU and the BLRC; riders who raced in BLRC races were banned from NCU events and from time trials run by the Road Time Trials Council. The magazine Cycling at first refused to report BLRC events. According to John Dennis, at the time racing editor of the rival paper, The Bicycle:

What has been lost beneath the clouds of myths surrounding this situation is the reason why many clubs were cautious about wholeheartedly supporting the road-racing movement. Remember that it was wartime and the younger membership of most clubs was away engaged in a war. The older members left at home did not wish to risk damaging a sport which all had enjoyed, so they decided to maintain the status quo until the war ended. The rank and file of the NCU/RTTC membership was not anti-BLRC - all it wanted to do was preserve the sport until the service men returned to civvy street.

The BLRC itself wasn't that certain of its acceptance by the police. A sticker added to its membership licence read:

POLICE INTERFERENCE
 Make no statement to the Police about anything happening during a Race.
 If questioned, say 'I do not wish to make a statement.'
 Any rider accused of any offence which he does not consider he has committed should add 'I deny that I ......... (whatever he is accused of).'
 DO NOT SAY ANYTHING ELSE
 Give full details to the organiser.

In 1943, the League promoted the first British national road race championship, in Harrogate and later the Brighton-Glasgow stage race - a forerunner to the Daily Express Tour of Britain first run in 1951. See main entry - Tour of Britain.

The BLRC also organised representative teams to races in other countries, although not through the international body, the Union Cycliste Internationale, by whom it wasn't recognised but through private arrangements with individuals, other breakaway organisations and sometimes through communist sports clubs which operated outside their own country's framework. From 1948 the BLRC sent a team to the Peace Race, Warsaw-Berlin-Prague, considered then the world's international amateur stage race. In 1952, Ian Steel won and Britain took the team prize. That led the UCI to recognise at least the existence of the BLRC.   For the moment it said it would have to cooperate through the NCU but enthusiasts believed they had achieved international power.

Representatives of the NCU walked out of the meeting before the vote, saying the UCI's proposal was unconstitutional. One of its delegates, H.S. Anderson said: "There is no provision in the statute of the UCI for provisional or temporary affiliation of a national federation. The committee resolution is invalid because it violates several statutes of the UCI." Had they voted, the resolution would have failed.

The Tour de France
With the BLRC now halfway through the door, Britain sent a team to the Tour de France in 1955. It was the first team ever sent since the previous riders, Bill Burl and Charles Holland had competed as private entrants before the war. To turn down the Tour was something the NCU wouldn't do and yet it couldn't select riders who were BLRC members. To leave out BLRC members, however, would be to send a weakened team and antagonise a wavering UCI. Yet the BLRC could not select a team because the Union Cycliste Internationale didn't formally recognise it. The conundrum was solved by asking a panel of newspaper reporters to do the job instead.

The beginning of the end
Running the BLRC was never easy and there were frequent rows within its administration. The organiser of the first big stage race, Jimmy Kain, wrote to Stallard after the BLRC had merged with the BCF of the "two years of nervous and physical breakdown that followed the six years of BLRC office."

Stallard was a bright and energetic man with a vision for his sport. But he was not a man to tolerate argument or those with other views. Peter Bryan, editor of The Bicycle, later an associate of Sporting Cyclist and managing editor of Cycling said:
Stallard had the most abrasive nature that I have ever met. He could never believe that he could have a bad idea or make a bad decision. And sometimes he'd go berserk with those who disagreed with him. He didn't have, let us say, the delicacies of negotiation.

Having achieved what he wanted, with the NCU's final acceptance of massed racing on the road, Stallard placed the continuity of the BLRC over the end of the civil war that the BLRC and the NCU had conducted. He said: "The NCU were running road races and we were running road races and there wasn't any need for amalgamation [of the NCU and the BLRC, to form the British Cycling Federation] at all."

Critics said Stallard had lost sight of the intention of the BLRC, which had been to bring racing to the open road and that, once achieved, that there was no further point in rival cycling administrations. Peter Bryan said: "The BLRC was originally a gang of enthusiasts. Then along came what I'd call the parliamentarians of pedal power, men who saw a runaway organisation and decided they'd take it over." Stallard was influenced by those who agreed with him but in the end he and others became too much for the BLRC's other administrators and the BLRC magazine, The Leaguer, reported in 1954: "There is a malignant ulcer prevalent in the cycling world common to all three racing bodies in this country. It is the taint of vanity and culminates in the clash of personality."

With both the BLRC and the NCU physically and financially reeling from a civil war that had long outlasted the war with Germany, the two merged in 1959 to form the British Cycling Federation, now known as British Cycling.

The January 1959 edition of the BLRC magazine, The Leaguer, reported formally:

This Annual General Meeting of the British League of Racing Cyclists agrees that all assets, liabilities, obligations and commitments of the British League of Racing Cyclists shall be transferred to or handed over to the British Cycling Federation as from the date of the incorporation of that body.

The text accompanying the announcement said:

It was evident, even before the decisions of this 17th and final Annual General Meeting of the British League of Racing Cyclists were taken, that League Sections and Union Centres up and down the country were already providing the momentum for the practical activities of the British Cycling Federation. Not only has contact been established between many of them but meetings have been held and decisions taken for the setting up of the Divisions which will form the organisational basis of the new Federation.

It also said that "those who are predisposed to live in the past, and even the progressive League is old enough now to number several such in its ranks", would greet the news with surprise. Stallard saw the merger as treason by "just three people [who] were allowed the freedom to destroy the BLRC" and until his death saw the new British Cycling Federation (BCF) as a reincarnation of the NCU. In 1989 he wrote:

I have often sat back and thought just how nice it would be if you could relive your life based on the experience gained. For myself, I would never again try to achieve the impossible by trying to change things. On the two occasions I have tried to do this [he tried to introduce age-related racing for riders older than 40], I have failed, not because I lack followers, or because of the opposition of opposing bodies, but because of the activities of anarchists and those who are envious of your success and popularity.

Inheritance
To the question of whether Britain would have moved to massed racing anyway, without the BLRC, Peter Bryan says not, saying that the established cycling authorities had become entrenched in their positions, their own rivalry overshadowed by their joint fears and interests.

The NCU and the RTTC were never friends. The RTTC were particular bastards and they had so many clever men in the top echelon, many more than the NCU. They were steeped in the tradition of time-trialling and what it stood for and they wouldn't budge a jot or tickle.

Stallard's success was that he alerted the UCI to a problem in British cycling which led the UCI to threaten Britain with exclusion from world cycling unless it sorted out the conflict between the NCU and the BLRC. Seeing the BLRC as closer to the UCI's interests, it suggested it would recognise the BLRC and not the NCU as the representative body. It was because of that that the NCU relented and agreed to license the massed races it had hitherto opposed.

"You can never say that if it didn't happen then this wouldn't have happened, but I can't see what else [other than the BLRC] would have brought it [massed racing] about," said Peter Bryan.

References

External links
Catalogue of Chas Messenger's papers concerning the BLRC, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick

Cycle racing in the United Kingdom
Cycle racing organizations
Cycling
Sports trade unions
1942 establishments in the United Kingdom
Sports organizations established in 1942

British League of Racing Cyclists


Karl Otto Pöhl (1 December 1929 – 9 December 2014) was a German economist and a President of the Bundesbank and Chairman of its Central Bank Council from 1980 to 1991.

Born in Hanover, Lower Saxony, Pöhl worked as a sports reporter to help pay his way through the Georg August University of Göttingen. A graduate economist, he became a researcher and department head of the publications department at the Ifo Institute for Economic Research in Munich. In the 1960s he worked as an economic journalist in Bonn until the Social Democratic Party of Germany won the 1969 national election. He then was employed by the Federal government's Economics Ministry and then the Finance Ministry.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Pöhl was the driving force behind German efforts to get Europe's rampant inflation under control and to lay the framework for broad monetary cooperation among industrialized countries. He is referred to as one of the fathers of the Euro.

Pöhl was a partner in Sal. Oppenheim Jr. & Cie., a German private investment bank and a member of the Advisory Board of the Carlyle Group.  He had also been a member of the influential Washington-based financial advisory body, the Group of Thirty since 1992. He sat on the advisory boards of Royal Dutch Shell, Gulfstream, GAMCO, VW, Barrick Gold, Unilever and Rolls-Royce.

Karl Otto Pöhl was married, had 4 children and lived in Zurich. He died on 9 December 2014 at the age of 85.

References

External links

1929 births
2014 deaths
Businesspeople from Hanover
Presidents of the Deutsche Bundesbank
Waldorf school alumni
The Carlyle Group people
Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
German chief executives

Karl Otto Pöhl


St Austell is a town on the A390 road, in Cornwall, England. It is near an area of granite moorland where large quantities of china clay are produced. The district is full of disused clay pits and large mounds of waste material. The Eden Project has been built on the site of former china clay workings. St Austell's population is the largest of any town or city in Cornwall.

Towns in Cornwall
Civil parishes in Cornwall

St Austell


A tattie scone is a skleff kin o scone made wi tatties an ceukit on a griddle. It is aften pairt o a fried Scots brakfast. It is made wi ceukit tatties an saut an is aither fried or consumed cauld. In maist o Scotland, thay're dispatcht in packs o sax an thay dinna coast an awfu lot, but thay can be bocht in maist fuid shaps.

Scots cuisine
Breid
Tatties

Tattie scone


Potassium dichromate is a chemical compound. It contains potassium and dichromate ions. It has a chemical formula of K2Cr2O7 (K2Cr). The chromium is in its +6 oxidation state.

Properties
It is a bright red crystalline solid. It is a strong oxidizing agent in acidic conditions. It is poisonous because it contains dichromate, which is carcinogenic. It can be destroyed by reaction with reducing agents. It can be reduced to green chromium(III) compounds such as chromium(III) oxide.

Preparation
Potassium dichromate can be made by oxidation of potassium hydroxide and chromium(III) oxide. It can also be made by adding an acid to potassium chromate.

Occurrence
It is very rarely found in the earth. It is only found in very dry areas. If it rains, it dissolves in the water and is washed away.

Uses
It is used as a reagent for many chemicals, such as alcohol. Some breath alcohol testers use this, and the red turns to green when there is alcohol in the breath. It can be used to make chromic acid, which is used to clean glass. It can be used in cement. It is used to tan leather. It can be used in photography and to test for certain metals. It can be used to treat wood.

Safety
Potassium dichromate is very irritating. It can cause cancer when the dust is inhaled. It is a strong oxidizing agent and can start fires. It can be reacted with iron(II) sulfate to detoxify (remove the toxicity of) it.

Related pages
Potassium chromate
Ammonium dichromate
Chromate

Potassium compounds
Chromium compounds

Potassium dichromate


Mike Douglas, born Michael Delaney Dowd, Jr. (August 11, 1920 – August 11, 2006) was an American entertainer.

Early life and career
Douglas was born in Chicago, Illinois, and began singing as a choirboy. He was singing on a Lake Michigan dinner cruise ship when he was a teenager. After being in the United States Navy for a short time, he moved to Los Angeles. He was on the Ginny Simms radio show. Then, he became a singer in the big band of Kay Kyser.

In 1950, he was the singing voice of Prince Charming in Walt Disney's Cinderella.

In the 1950s Douglas, who was living in Burbank, California, tried to keep his singing job going. He did not change to rock and roll, which shortened his chances of being a singer as big band music was becoming less popular. In the hardest years, he and his wife got by "flipping" their Los Angeles homes.

Talk show
He next showed up in 1961 in Cleveland, where a Chicago friend hired him for $400 a week as an afternoon television host at WKYC-TV. The Mike Douglas Show quickly got popular and had national broadcasting in August 1963.

Many famous people were on the show. For example, Truman Capote, The Rolling Stones,Herman's Hermits and Kiss were on the show. The show helped show entertainers for the first time, like Barbra Streisand and Aretha Franklin. After the move to Philadelphia, Douglas tried to sing again, but it did not work work well.

By 1967, The Mike Douglas Show had 6,000,000 viewers each day, mostly women. It earned $10.5 million from advertisers. Douglas was paid more than $500,000. In 1967, the program got the first Emmy Award for Individual Achievement in Daytime Television from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Most weeks, Douglas would be joined by a co-host, like John Lennon & Yoko Ono, and Anne Baxter. The show went off the air in 1980.

Death
He came down with prostate cancer in 1990, but after surgery he was cancer-free. Douglas died in August 11, 2006, on his 86th birthday from complications of dehydration.

His wife Genevieve, daughters Kelly and twins Michele and Christine lived after him.

References

1920 births
2006 deaths
Television talk show hosts
Television personalities from Chicago

Mike Douglas


Sir Alfred Wills (11 December 1828 – 9 August 1912) was a judge of the High Court of England and Wales and a well-known mountaineer. He was the third President of the Alpine Club, from 1863 to 1865.

Early life
Wills was the second son of William Wills, JP, of Edgbaston, Birmingham, and of his wife Sarah Wills, a daughter of Jeremiah Ridout. He was educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham and at University College London, where he held exhibitions and scholarships in Mathematics, Classics and Law, graduating BA in 1849 and LLB in 1851.

Legal career

Wills was called to the bar by the Middle Temple in 1851 and was appointed Queen's Counsel in 1872. He was first Recorder of Sheffield, 1881–84; a Judge of the Queen's and King's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice, 1884–1905, President of the Railway and Canal Commission, 1888–1893, and Treasurer of the Middle Temple, 1892–1893.

During his career as a judge, his most notable achievement was presiding over the trial in which Oscar Wilde was convicted for "committing acts of gross indecency with other male persons".  Willis sentenced Wilde to two years' hard labour. The judge described the sentence, the maximum allowed, as "totally inadequate for a case such as this," and that the case was "the worst case I have ever tried".  Wilde's response "And I? May I say nothing, my Lord?" was drowned out in cries of "Shame" in the courtroom.

With his father William Wills, he co-authored An essay on the principles of circumstantial evidence : illustrated by numerous cases (1905), still a standard text often cited.

Mountaineer
The ascent of the Wetterhorn above Grindelwald in the Bernes Alps by Wills and his party in 1854, which Wills mistakenly believed was the first (actually summited a decade earlier by local guides Melchior Bannholzer and Hans Jaun on 31 August 1844) is considered the beginning of the so-called golden age of alpinism. His account of the expedition helped make climbing mountains as sport fashionable.

He was the third President of the Alpine Club from 1863 to 1865.

A mountain hut near Chamonix bears his name: the Refuge Alfred Wills.

Publications
Wanderings among the High Alps (1856)
The Eagle's Nest in the Valley of Sixt (1860)
Wills on Circumstantial Evidence (ed.)
Rendu's Théorie des Glaciers de la Savioe (translation)

Honours
Knighted, 1884
Privy Councillor, 1905

Family
In 1854 Wills married Lucy, daughter of George Martineau. She died in 1860, and in 1861 he married Bertha, daughter of Thomas Lombe Taylor, of Starston, Norfolk. His second wife died in 1906. He had three sons and two daughters.

References

 Vanity Fair, The Honourable Sir Alfred Wills, 9 W. Res. L. Rev. 1 reprinted (1957) in the Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law (accessed 20 December 2020)

External links

A good explanation of "An essay on the principles of circumstantial evidence" and its importance
Refuge Alfred Wills

British mountain climbers
1828 births
1912 deaths
English mountain climbers
Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK)
Queen's Bench Division judges
Alumni of University College London
English barristers
Members of the Middle Temple
19th-century King's Counsel
Knights Bachelor
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
19th-century English judges
20th-century English judges

Alfred Wills


The Maine Legislature is the state legislature of the U.S. state of Maine. It is a bicameral body composed of the lower house Maine House of Representatives and the upper house Maine Senate. The Legislature convenes at the  State House in Augusta, where it has met since 1832.

The House of Representatives consists of 151 members, each chosen from single-member constituencies. The House is uniquely the only state legislative body in the U.S. to set aside special seats for Native Americans, where there are three nonvoting Representatives from the Penobscot Nation, the Passamaquoddy Tribe, and the Houlton Band of Maliseets. The Senate currently has 35 members, though under the Maine Constitution there may be 31, 33, or 35.

History

In 1922, Dora Pinkham became the first woman elected to the Maine Legislature, serving first in the House and then in the Senate.

In 1823, the Penobscot tribe sent what is believed to be their first representative to the Maine Senate. In 1842, the Passamaquoddy tribe also sent their first representative. It appears that prior to Maine's statehood, Massachusetts allowed the tribes to send in representatives. It is not known what role the representatives played in the legislature until 1907, when records started being kept, and included documentation of where the representatives sat, what they said when they spoke, and privileges  that were granted. While the representatives tried to achieve a higher status in the legislature,  in 1941, legislation was passed to remove the representatives from the Hall of House, meaning that they held very little power, besides the persuasive power granted by being in the capital.   It was not until 1975 when the representatives were once again allowed in the chamber hall with seating and speaking privileges. In 1996,  tribe representatives tried to co-sponsor a bill, and in 1999 the tribes were formally allowed to co-sponsor bills. On 2001, this rule change allowed for Donna Loring to push for a bill, "An Act to Require Teaching Maine Native American History and Culture in Maine's Schools" to require all public and private schools in the state to teach about Maine history, including Native American history. This act was signed by Governor Angus King in 2001. The Houlton Band of Maliseets received representation in 2012.

In 2015, the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot pulled their representatives from the legislature in protest of growing tension between the tribes and the state government, including Governor Paul LePage. As of the 2018 election, only the Passamaquoddy tribe have returned to the legislature, while the Maliseets have departed and the Penobscot have yet to return.

Qualifications
To be a member of the Legislature, one must be at least 21 years of age, have to have been a citizen of the US for five years, have been a resident of Maine for one year, and for the 3 months next preceding the time of this person's election shall have been and during the period for which elected continue to be, a resident in the district represented.

Elections
Legislative elections are held in November of every even-numbered year, during the state's general election. The terms for both houses are two years. Since 1996, members of both the House and Senate are limited to four two-year terms, a consecutive, rather than a lifetime, limit. Members who have served the limit are re-eligible after two years.

Until 1880, the Legislature was elected for a one-year term. Starting in 1881, an amendment to the Maine Constitution took effect to provide for two-year terms, the current length.

Sessions
The Legislature meets in two separate sessions. The first session begins the first Wednesday in December, following the general election, and continues into the following year. The second session begins the first Tuesday in January of the next year, the same year as the next general election. The second session is typically short and deals with a limited number of bills per the Maine Constitution, which are budgetary matters, legislation submitted by the Governor, bills held over from the first session, citizen initiatives, and legislation deemed to be an 'emergency'. According to the Constitution, emergency legislation is supposed to be legislation for an immediate need to protect public peace, health, or safety, but that provision is often broadly interpreted.

The Governor of Maine may also call the Legislature into a special session for "extraordinary occasions." The Governor and the Senate President may also call the Senate into session to confirm gubernatorial appointments.

Powers
As the legislative branch of the Maine state government, the Legislature has the power to make laws, subject to a veto by the Governor. The Legislature, however, by a vote of two-thirds in each house, may override the veto. The Legislature also has the power to propose constitutional amendments by a vote of two-thirds in each house; the proposal must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum in order to be passed.

Unlike other states, the Legislature is responsible for electing the Attorney General, State Treasurer, and Secretary of State.  Most states give this responsibility to gubernatorial appointments, or an election by the people at large.

See also
 Maine State House
 Maine House of Representatives
 Maine Senate
 Maine Legislative Youth Advisory Council

References

External links
Maine Legislature

Government of Maine
Bicameral legislatures

Maine Legislature


Operation RYAN (or RYaN, and sometimes written as VRYAN, ) was a Cold War military intelligence program run by the Soviet Union during the early 1980s when they believed the United States was planning for an imminent first strike attack. The name is an acronym for Raketno-Yadernoe Napadenie (, "Nuclear Missile Attack"). The purpose of the operation was to collect intelligence on potential contingency plans of the Reagan administration to launch a nuclear first strike against the Soviet Union. The program was initiated in May 1981 by Yuri Andropov, then chairman of the KGB.

Background
Andropov suffered from a "Hungarian complex" from his personal experience of the Hungarian Revolution in 1956 according to the historian Christopher Andrew. Andropov had, as the Soviet ambassador to Hungary, "watched in horror from the windows of his embassy as officers of the hated Hungarian security service were strung up from lampposts". Andropov remained haunted for the rest of his life by the speed with which an apparently all-powerful Communist one-party state had begun to topple. Leonid Brezhnev and Yuri Andropov, then Chairman of the KGB, justified the creation of Operation RYaN because, they claimed, the United States was "actively preparing for nuclear war" against the Soviet Union and its allies. According to a Stasi report released in the mid-2010s, the primary "Chekist work" discussed in the May 1981 meeting was the "demand to allow for 'no surprise.

Operation
The Soviet defector Oleg Gordievsky divulged a top-secret KGB telegram sent to the London KGB residency in February 1983. It stated: "The objective of the assignment is to see that the Residency works systematically to uncover any plans in preparation by the main adversary [USA] for RYAN and to organize a continual watch to be kept for indications of a decision being taken to use nuclear weapons against the USSR or immediate preparations being made for a nuclear missile attack." An attachment listed seven "immediate" and thirteen "prospective" tasks for the agents to complete and report. These included: the collection of data on potential places of evacuation and shelter, an appraisal of the level of blood held in blood banks, observation of places where nuclear decisions were made and where nuclear weapons were stored, observation of key nuclear decision makers, observation of lines of communication, reconnaissance of the heads of churches and banks, and surveillance of security services and military installations.

RYAN took on a new significance after the announcement of plans to deploy Pershing II W85-nuclear-armed missiles to West Germany. These missiles were designed to be launched from road-mobile vehicles, making the launch sites very hard to find. The flight time from West Germany to European Russia was only four to six minutes (approximate flying time from six to eight minutes from West Germany to Moscow), giving the Soviets little or no warning.

On 23 March 1983, Ronald Reagan publicly announced development of the Strategic Defense Initiative. The Soviet government felt that the purpose of SDI technology was to render the US invulnerable to Soviet attack, thereby allowing the US to launch missiles against the USSR without fear of retaliation. This concern about a surprise attack prompted the sudden expansion of the RYAN program. The level of concern reached its peak after the Soviets shot down KAL 007 near Moneron Island on 1 September 1983, and during the North Atlantic Treaty Organization exercise Able Archer 83. The Soviet Union believed that a United States first strike on the Soviet Union was imminent.

Although Andropov died in February 1984, RYAN continued to be maintained and developed under the direction of Victor Chebrikov. Consultations held in August 1984 between the Stasi's head of the Main Directorate of Reconnaissance, Markus Wolf, and KGB experts discussed the early detection of potential war preparations in adversaries and indicated that the First Chief Directorate of the KGB was proposing to create a new division to deal exclusively with RYAN. 300 positions within the KGB were earmarked for RYAN of which 50 were reserved for the new division.

Operation RYAN continued to be maintained until at least April 1989.

See also

Able Archer 83
Deutschland 83
Warsaw Pact Early Warning Indicator Project

References

Further reading
Books
 The Brink: President Reagan and the Nuclear War Scare of 1983, Marc Ambinder, Simon & Schuster, 2018.
 1983: Reagan, Andropov, and a World on the Brink, Taylor Downing, Da Capo, 2018.
 War Scare, Peter Vincent Pry. Praeger, 1999.
Articles
A Cold War Conundrum: The 1983 Soviet War Scare, Benjamin B. Fischer.
Able Archer 83 Sourcebook, Nate Jones. The National Security Archive.
Stasi Documents Provide Details on Operation RYaN, the Soviet Plan to Predict and Preempt a Western Nuclear Strike; Show Uneasiness Over Degree of "Clear-Headedness About the Entire RYaN Complex.", Nate Jones. The National Security Archive.
Nuclear War: Stasi/KGB Intelligence Cooperation Under Project RYAN, Bernd Schaefer, Nate Jones, and Benjamin B. Fischer. The Wilson Center.

Cold War intelligence operations
Cold War military history of the Soviet Union
Nuclear strategy
Nuclear warfare
Soviet Union intelligence operations
Military history of the Soviet Union
Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union–United States relations
1981 establishments in the Soviet Union
1981 in international relations
1981 in military history
KGB operations
War scare

Operation RYAN


HeadJam is a BBC Television game show hosted by Vernon Kay. It originally aired during the summer of 2004 on BBC Three, with a repeat soon afterwards on BBC Two.

It features two teams, each consisting of a member of the public and a celebrity. Celebrities included Claudia Winkleman, DJ Spoony, Joe Cornish, Lauren Laverne, Natalie Casey, Paddy O'Connell, Edith Bowman, Mark Durden-Smith, Julie Fernandez and Ed Byrne.

All the contestants and celebrity contestants play a variety of rounds, answering questions about popular culture. Rounds included Spoonerisms, guessing TV themes and film taglines, and general knowledge questions about specific years. The contestant with the most points at the end played a final round, named "HeadJam", in which the member of the public had to memorise and then deliver the answers to eight questions in order.

External links

Bother's Bar review

BBC television game shows
2000s British game shows
2004 British television series debuts
2004 British television series endings
English-language television shows

HeadJam


A shore or shoreline is the land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean or river. Where the water is a sea, the shore is also called a "coast".

Shores are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape, as well as by erosion caused by water, such as waves.  The geological makeup of rock and soil controls the type of shore which is created.  Erosion of sedimentary soils can make a sandy or pebbly shore, usually called a beach.

A shore includes the intertidal zone that is alternately exposed and covered by waves and tides.

A shore will often have a lighthouse on it to help ships in the sea.

Landforms

Shore


Walter Sylvester Page (February 9, 1900 – December 20, 1957) was an American jazz multi-instrumentalist and bandleader, best known for his groundbreaking work as a double bass player with Walter Page's Blue Devils and the Count Basie Orchestra.

Early life

Page was born in Gallatin, Missouri, on February 9, 1900 to parents Edward and Blanche Page. Page showed a love for music even as a child, perhaps due in part to the influence of his aunt Lillie, a music teacher. Page's mother, with whom he moved to Kansas City in 1910, exposed him to folksongs and spirituals, a critical foundation for developing his love of music. He gained his first musical experience as a bass drum and bass horn player in the brass bands of his neighborhood. Under the direction of Major N. Clark Smith, a retired military bandleader who provided Page his first formal training in music, Page took up the string bass in his time at Lincoln High School. In an interview in The Jazz Review, Page remembers Major Smith: Major N. Clark Smith was my teacher in high school. He taught almost everybody in Kansas City. He was a chubby little cat, bald, one of the old military men. He wore glasses on his nose and came from Cuba around 1912 or 1914. He knew all the instruments and couldn't play anything himself, but he could teach. ...[One day he was looking for a bass player and no one was around, so he looked at me, and said, "Pagey, get the bass."  I said, "But," and he repeated, "Get the bass." That's when I got started.

In addition to the influence of Smith, Walter Page also drew inspiration from bassist Wellman Braud, who Page had the opportunity to see when he came to town with a band under the direction of John Wycliffe. "I was sitting right in the front row of the high school auditorium", recalled Page, "and all I could hear was the oomp, oomp, oomp of that bass, and I said, that's for me."  What attracted Page to Braud was Braud's intensity. "When Braud got ahold of that bass, he hit those tones like hammers and made them jump right out of the box."

Career
After Page had completed high school, he went on to study to become a music teacher at the University of Kansas at Lawrence. At college, Page completed a three-year course in music in one year, in addition to taking a three-year course on gas engines. Between the years 1918 and 1923, he moonlighted as a tuba, bass saxophone, and string bass player with the Bennie Moten Orchestra. "Fridays and Sundays I played with Bennie Moten and Saturdays with Dave Lewis who was paying me $7.00 a night. Bennie was paying for my food and transportation, so when I'd be finished a weekend [sic] I'd made me $20.00 and had a ball."

In 1923, Page left the Moten band and began an engagement with Billy King's Road Show, touring the Theater Owners' Booking Association (TOBA) circuit across the United States. The band included Page's future Basie band mates Jimmy Rushing and Count Basie himself.
The band soon fell apart, however, which led to the formation of Walter Page and the Blue Devils in 1925. The Blue Devils were a territory band based out of the Oklahoma City-Wichita, Kansas area.  Throughout various times in its six-year lifespan (1925-1931) the band featured such noteworthy figures as Basie, Rushing, Buster Smith, Lester Young, and Hot Lips Page. In his autobiography, Basie recalls the first time he ever saw the Blue Devils Play: The leader was the heavyset, pleasant-looking fellow playing the bass and doubling on the baritone. His name was Walter Page, and at that time the band was known as Walter Page and his Blue Devils. But you could also hear the musicians addressing him by his nickname, which was Big 'Un. You could also tell right away that they didn't just respect him because he was the boss; they really liked him and felt close to him because he was also one of them."
Page wanted badly to have his band square off against Moten's band, which he states in an interview never happened. Gunther Schuller gives a different account though, writing that "an encounter finally did take place in 1928, and on that occasion Page is reputed to have 'wiped out' the Moten band." What is indisputable, however, is that Moten did seem to shy away from competition with the Blue Devils, opting to buy off individual members with higher salaries and absorb them into his own group rather than do battle directly. Basie and Eddie Durham defected in 1929, followed shortly by Rushing and eventually by Page himself. Despite this seemingly underhanded tactic, Page still felt that "[Moten] had one of the biggest hearts I knew of." Page attempted to keep his Blue Devils intact, but after the departure of such key members of his band, the difficulties mounted. Unable to find suitable replacements, facing booking problems, and dealing with a musicians' union conflict, Page eventually ceded control of the band to James Simpson. He then proceeded to join Moten's band himself in 1931, staying on until 1934.  Count Basie describes the immediate effect Walter Page had upon joining the Moten Band: "Big 'Un in there on bass made things a lot different in the rhythm section, and naturally that changed the whole band and made it even more like the Blue Devils."
In an interview published shortly before his death, Page recalls an encounter with Duke Ellington in 1934: I remember Duke coming through on his way West that year. They were playing the Main Street Theatre and some of the boys in Duke's band wanted to go hear Basie. [Wellman] Braud was in the band and he acted biggety, didn't want to go, said, "What's he got?" We were playing at the Sunset Club and finally Duke and the rest crept around the scrim and started sitting in. I was playing right on top of Duke and he told Basie he was going to steal me out of the band. Basie told him I owed him $300.00 and that's how I didn't get to join Duke during all those good years he had. It was the smartest move Basie ever made.

After his second stint with the Moten band, Page moved to St. Louis to play with the Jeter-Pillars band. Following the death of Moten in 1935, however, Basie took over the former Moten Band, which Page rejoined. Page stayed with the Count Basie Orchestra from 1935 to 1942, an integral part of what came to be called the "All-American Rhythm Section. Together with drummer Jo Jones, guitarist Freddie Green, and pianist Basie, the rhythm section pioneered the "Basie Sound", a style in which Page, as bass player, clearly established the beat, allowing his band mates to provide accompaniment more freely. Until this point, the rhythm of a jazz band was traditionally felt in the pianist's left hand and the kick of the bass drum on all four beats.

After his first departure from the Count Basie Orchestra, Page worked with various small groups around Kansas City. He returned to the Basie Band in 1946 for three more years. "Big 'Un just decided that he was ready to come back", recalled Basie. After his second stint with Basie, Page worked primarily as a freelancer until his life was cut short in 1957. The artists he worked with in the later portion of his career included former band mate and trumpeter Page, Jimmy McPartland, Eddie Condon, Ruby Braff, Roy Eldridge, Vic Dickenson, Buck Clayton, Rushing, and others, including many Basie alumni.

Death
The death of Walter Page on December 20, 1957 was very much a surprise, as the bassist had been playing gigs around New York City right up until his death. It is reported that Page contracted pneumonia on his way to a recording session in the midst of a snowstorm.
An obituary in Jet magazine from January 9, 1958 under the "Died" column, reads: "Walter Page, 57, one of the greatest jazz bass players, who helped Count Basie lead an invasion of Kansas City jazz to New York in 1935; of kidney ailment and pneumonia; at Bellevue Hospital in New York City."
It is speculated that Walter Page's early death may be a factor contributing to his relative obscurity in the history of jazz, despite his major influence and stylistic contributions. In an interview published only a month before his death in The Jazz Review, Walter Page expressed how he never sought praise and that he just wanted to know that he was appreciated for his influence on music.

Style and influence
More than any other jazz bass player in history, Page is credited with developing and popularizing the "walking bass" style of playing on all four beats, a transition from the older, two-beat style. "He started that 'strolling' or 'walking' bass", recalls Harry "Sweets" Edison, "going way up and then coming right on down. He did it on four strings, but other bass players couldn't get that high so they started making a five-string bass." Page himself acknowledged the influence of Wellman Braud, who may have been the first bassist to actually record the "walking bass" technique on Washington Wobble. While it remains unclear who, exactly, was the true 'originator' of the walking bass style, Page is nonetheless accepted as one of, if not the primary, proponent of the style.

Page is seen as the "logical extension of [bassist] Pops Foster", an influential bassist known for his dependable timekeeping. Page is also recognized as "one of the first bassists to play four beats to the bar", in contrast to the two-beat style of New Orleans jazz.
Band mate Eddie Durham recalls how Page helped make the double bass a viable alternative to bass horns, such as the tuba:
"Without amplification, a lot of guys weren't strong enough on bass fiddle. But Walter Page you could hear!" Page's imposing stature led Durham to state that "he was like a house with a note." Jazz critic Gunther Schuller notes describes some of Page's other stylistic contributions: "For the bass functions simultaneously on several levels: as a rhythm instrument; as a pitch instrument delineating the harmonic progression; and, since the days of Walter Page, as a melodic or contrapuntal instrument." Page was also famous for his restraint, a lesson fellow bassist Gene Ramey recounts: "There's a whole lot [you] could do here... but what you must do is play a straight line, because that man out there's waiting for food from you. You could run chord changes on every chord that's going on. You've got time to do it. But if you do, you're interfering with that guy [the soloist]. So run a straight line."

Although he was not well known as a soloist, Walter Page recorded one of the earliest jazz solos on the double bass on "Pagin' the Devil" with the Kansas City Six. He did, however, contribute to the legitimacy of the double bass as a melodic instrument, "open[ing] the door for virtuosos like [Duke Ellington Orchestra bassist] Jimmy Blanton to garner more respect for the instrument", through improvisation. "Without Page setting the table", writes DiCaire, "the exploits of Blanton would never have happened." "I'm not just a bass player", Page once said, "I'm a musician with a foundation."

Page had a complex understanding of the roles of all the instruments in his bands, due in no small part to the fact that he was a multi-instrumentalist himself. In fact, on Blue Devil Blues, one of only two recordings of Walter Page's Blue Devils, Page begins on tuba before switching to string bass and finally baritone saxophone, playing all three "astoundingly well". Drummer Jo Jones recalled an instance when "somebody was fooling around [in the band], Mr. Walter Page left his bass, went down quiet as a cat, got the baritone, played the sax parts, and went back to his place."

Page is perhaps best known for his work with the Count Basie Orchestra from 1935 to 1942. Page, drummer Jo Jones, guitarist Freddie Green, and pianist Count Basie became known as the "All-American Rhythm Section" and set the standard for jazz rhythm sections that is still emulated and considered the gold-standard today. Together, the four musicians "created the bedrock for the band to pile on a superstructure of exciting riffs" writes Shipton. Page's playing was a great influence on Jo Jones, who "says that it was Page who really taught him to play in Kansas City: 'An even 4/4'." Indeed, Berliner notes that "During the swing period, Walter Page's largely stepwise walking bass accompaniment in Count Basie's band epitomized the changing emphasis on the four-beat approach to meter described by Foster." "As part of the pianist's outstanding rhythm section", says Richard Cook, "Page's rock-solid time and unflustered swing was a key part of the four-way conversation." Jo Jones describes the dynamic of the rhythm section as a process and a group endeavor: "We worked at it, to build a rhythm section, every day, every night. We worked alone, not with the band all the time. I didn't care what happened—one of us would be up to par. If three were down, one would carry the three. Never four were out." "At its best, the Basie rhythm section was nothing less than a Cadillac with the force of a Mack truck. They more or less gave you a push, or a ride, and they played no favorites, whether you were an E-flat or B-flat soloist."

Discography
With Count Basie
The Original American Decca Recordings (GRP, 1937-39 [1992])
With Buck Clayton
The Huckle-Buck and Robbins' Nest (Columbia, 1954)
How Hi the Fi (Columbia, 1954)
Jumpin' at the Woodside (Columbia, 1955)
All the Cats Join In (Columbia 1956)
With Lester Young and Buck Clayton
The "Kansas City" Sessions (Commodore, 1938 [1997])
With Paul Quinichette
For Basie (Prestige, 1957)
With Lester Young, Charlie Christian and Buck Clayton
From Spirituals to Swing (Vanguard, 1938 - 1939 [1999])
With Ruby Braff
The Ruby Braff Octet with Pee Wee Russell & Bobby Henderson at Newport (Verve, 1957)

See also
Kansas City Jazz
Count Basie Orchestra
Oklahoma City Blue Devils

Notes

American jazz double-bassists
Male double-bassists
African-American jazz musicians
Swing double-bassists
Count Basie Orchestra members
1900 births
1957 deaths
People from Gallatin, Missouri
Jazz musicians from Missouri
20th-century American musicians
Deaths from kidney failure
Deaths from pneumonia in New York City
Slap bassists (double bass)
20th-century double-bassists
American male jazz musicians
Oklahoma City Blue Devils members
20th-century American male musicians

Walter Page


A stream is a natural flow of water moving across land between banks.  It is smaller than a river.

The primary meaning of stream is a body of water, confined within a bed and banks, and detectably flowing.  Synonyms or related words include river, creek, tributary, run, branch, brook, bourne, wash, and fork. Navigable streams are sometimes called waterways, though the term may apply to any size of permanent and natural water feature except oceans.

In the United States, an intermittent stream is one that only flows for part of the year and is marked on topographic maps with a line of blue dashes and dots.  In desert areas of the American Southwest, this also includes washes, which only flow after thunderstorms or other significant rains.  A blue-line stream is one which flows for most or all of the year and is marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line. In Australia, an intermittent stream is usually called a creek, and marked on topographic maps with a solid blue line.

Generally, streams that form only during and immediately after precipitation are termed ephemeral streams.

Streams in geographic terms are awarded order designations.  A stream of the first order is a blue-line stream which does not have any other blue-line stream feeding into it.  A stream of the second order is one which is formed by the joining of two or more blue-line streams.  A third-order stream is one below the confluence of two or more second-order streams; a fourth-order stream is formed by the confluence of at least two third-order streams, and so forth.

Typically, streams are said to have a particular profile, beginning with steep gradients, no flood plain, and little shifting of channels, eventually evolving into streams with low gradients, wide flood plains, and extensive meanders.  The initial stage is sometimes termed a "young" stream, and the later state a "mature" or "old" stream.  However, a stream may meander for some distance before falling into a "young" stream condition.

The gradient of a stream is a critical factor in determining its character, and is entirely determined by its base level of erosion.  The base level of erosion is the point at which the stream either enters the ocean, a lake or pond, or enters a stretch in which it has a much lower gradient, and may be specifically applied to any particular stretch of a stream.  In geologic terms, the stream will erode down through its bed to achieve the base level of erosion throughout its course.  If this base level is low, then the stream will rapidly cut through underlying strata and have a steep gradient, and if the base level is relatively high, then the stream will form a flood plain and meanders.

When a stream flows over an especially resistant stratum and forms a waterfall or cascade, or the same results because for some reason the base level of erosion suddenly drops, perhaps as a result of a fault, the resulting sudden change in stream elevation is called a nickpoint.  The stream, of course, expends kinetic energy in "trying" to eliminate the nickpoint.

Meanders are looping changes of direction of a stream.  These may be somewhat sine-wave in form.  Typically, over time, the meanders don't disappear but gradually migrate downstream.  However, if some resistant material slows or stops the downstream movement of a meander, a stream may erode through the neck between two legs of a meander to become temporarily straighter, leaving behind an arc-shaped body of water termed an oxbow lake or bayou.  A flood may also result in a meander being cut through in this way.

The point of origin of a stream is often called the headwaters or source.  The entire basin drained by the stream is termed the watershed.  Every watershed is made up of smaller watersheds, while most watersheds are parts of larger watersheds.  For instance, the Continental Divide in North America divides the Atlantic Ocean watershed from the Pacific Ocean watershed, but the Atlantic Ocean watershed may be first divided into the Atlantic Ocean drainage and the Gulf of Mexico drainage.  This delineation within the United States is termed the Eastern Divide.  The Gulf of Mexico watershed may be divided into Mississippi River basin and a number of smaller watersheds, such as the Tombigbee River watershed.

The Mississippi River watershed includes the Ohio River watershed, which in turn includes the Kentucky River watershed, and so forth.

The point at which a stream empties into an ocean or other large body of relatively level water is termed the mouth.  There may often be an estuary or delta at the mouth.

Some streams flow underground through unconsolidated sediments or through caves.  Especially with caves, a stream may flow aboveground for part of its course, and underground for part of its course.  When a stream emerges from an underground course, it is termed a spring.

The study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is important in environmental geography or environmental geology.

Related pages
waterfall
river
waterway
lake
marsh
swamp
ocean
spring
Bodies of water

Stream


Continuity is a word used when talking about art, especially serial art. Serial art is when an artist paints several pictures which all have something to do with each other.

Examples

Pop culture
The six Star Wars films tell one long story which continues from part to part.  This is where the word continuity comes from.  Continuity refers to consistency from part to part-- that is, everything should fit together like one whole piece.

At the end of the Star Wars film The Empire Strikes Back, Luke Skywalker loses one of his hands.  In the next film, Return of the Jedi, he has a fake hand to replace the one he lost.  If he had his real hand again, it wouldn't make sense.  The audience would say, did not he lose his hand in the last one?  Continuity is making sure things make sense.

Art
Sometimes the word is used to refer to any work of art, like just one film.  For example, a woman has a full glass of wine in one shot.  In the next shot, the wine is gone.  In a third shot, she has a full glass of wine again.  That scene would have very poor continuity: it does not make sense, and it reminds the audience that they are watching a movie.  Poor continuity is continuity that does not make sense and usually has mistakes.

Books
In American comic books, many different characters live in the same world.  For example, Superman and Aquaman live in the same world.  But if Superman goes to Atlantis and it's different than Aquaman's Atlantis, it does not make sense.  If they are in the same world, Atlantis should be the same no matter who visits it.

Making sure that all the different stories and characters fit together is working with continuity.  Sometimes, the word is used to talk about the stories themselves.

Entertainment

Continuity


The Octet for wind instruments is a chamber music composition by Igor Stravinsky, completed in 1923.

Stravinsky's Octet is scored for an unusual combination of woodwind and brass instruments: flute, clarinet in B and A, two bassoons, trumpet in C, trumpet in A, tenor trombone, and bass trombone. Because of its dry wind sonorities, divertimento character, and open and self-conscious adoption of "classical" forms of the German tradition (sonata, variation, fugue), as well as the fact that the composer published an article asserting his formalist ideas about it shortly after the Octet's first performance, it has been generally regarded as the beginning of neoclassicism in Stravinsky's music, even though his opera Mavra (1921–22) already displayed most of the traits associated with this phase of his career .

History

According to Stravinsky, he composed the Octet fairly rapidly in 1922. After completing the first movement, he composed the waltz that would become the fourth variation of the middle movement. Only after composing this waltz did the idea come to him that it might be a good subject for a variation movement. The seventh variation, a fugato, especially pleased Stravinsky, and the following third movement grew out of this final variation (Stravinsky and Craft 1963, 71). One biographer concludes that Stravinsky began composing the Octet after returning from Germany to Biarritz late in the autumn of 1922, and completed the score on 20 May 1923.

However, the sketch materials reveal a more complex chronology. Twelve measures of what would become the waltz variation were composed in 1919, and the fugato variation was the first complete section to be composed, in January 1921. There is an early five-page draft of uncertain date for the beginning of the Allegro section in the first movement, at that time planned for piano and wind orchestra. The main segments of the first movement were drafted in sketches dated between 12 July and 8 August, and the full score of the movement was completed on 16 August 1922. Two days later, Stravinsky began work on the second movement by adding the previously composed fugato, and then the waltz fragment, slightly expanded. The waltz coincidentally contains the same intervals as the opening of the fugato, and on 23 August 1922, he created the theme and titled the movement "Thème avec variations monométriques". Variation D was begun next, but work was interrupted and Stravinsky finished it only on 18 November, followed by the "ribbons of scales" variation A on 1 December, variation B on 6 December, and variation C on 9 December. The Finale was completed in Paris on 20 May 1923. The score was revised by the composer in 1952.

The published score does not carry a dedication, though Stravinsky said it was dedicated to Vera de Bosset.

Stravinsky himself conducted the premiere of the Octet on one of Serge Koussevitzky's concerts at the Paris Opera House on 18 October 1923. This was the first time he had conducted a premiere of a new piece, though not the first time he had conducted his music in public. The cavernous space cannot have been ideal for presenting such a chamber-music work, but Stravinsky later expressed satisfaction with the balance of the sound at that performance.

The very first recording that Stravinsky made was of the Octet: a private recording, probably made for his own study purposes, which is now lost.

Form

The Octet is in three movements:

The thematic and rhythmic materials of the three movements are interrelated, and the second movement connects to the third without a break.

First movement
The opening Sinfonia is a comparatively rare example (despite his label of "neoclassic composer") of Stravinsky's use of sonata form. His employment of this form, along with the other style elements consciously borrowed from the past, is not out of a reverent desire to perpetuate them, but rather constitutes a defiant and satirical act of mockery. The opening Lento section functions like a classical introduction, presenting the background tonal structure that will also govern the main Allegro section.

In the Allegro, Stravinsky exploits the apparent contradiction of two formal balances: one created through the parallel restatement of themes, the other through the symmetrical arrangement of themes and events on different structural layers of the composition.

Second movement

In 1922, when Stravinsky was composing the second, theme-and-variations movement, he confided in a letter to Ernest Ansermet that Mozart was for him what Ingres was to Picasso. The hybrid of rondo and variation form resembles the slow movement of Mozart's E major Piano Concerto, K. 482, to which it has been compared. Variations 1, 3, and 6 are practically identical (all are labeled "variation A" in the score), and serve as introductions to the following variations 2, 4, and 7. Stravinsky referred to this recurring introduction as the "ribbons of scales" variation. The second, fourth, fifth, and seventh variations assume the characters of a march, a waltz, a can-can, and a solemn fugue, respectively. The fugato is almost uniformly written in  time. This seventh, final variation is particularly surprising. The theme here is scarcely recognizable, and does not seem promising as the subject for a fugue; the sound character of the variation, with its emphasis on slow-moving harmonic masses, is unearthly, and its plan is unconventional, with the subject occurring only four times.

Third movement

The finale's material is based on a rhythm identified by Stravinsky in earlier works (such as The Firebird and The Rite of Spring) with the Russian circle-dance called a khorovod. This repeating, three-note syncopated rhythm with proportions 3:3:2 (  ) is especially evident in the accompanying chords at the end, but all the preceding material in the movement is built on it or contains it.  The overall formal design may be represented as A–B–A′–C–A″–D–D′, where the refrain material in the A sections occurs one time fewer in each successive repetition: three times, then two times, and finally just once. In this process, the khorovod-like element becomes progressively less evident in the refrain, whereas in the intervening couplets it increases in clarity, from a disguised augmentation in the solo trumpet in section B, to a flute solo built on the original rhythmic shape in C, to the chordal accompaniment in D. The conception of a round dance is transformed here into an instrumental rondo, with a main theme resembling a baroque fugue subject.

Reception
Aaron Copland witnessed the world premiere in Paris, and reported the general dismay at the abrupt, inexplicable turn away from Stravinsky's well-established neo-primitivist Russian style, to what appeared to everyone as "a mess of 18th-century mannerisms". The press, too, was unanimous in condemning what seemed like a bad joke. From a perspective of several decades later, of course, it had become clear that Stravinsky was embarking on a new and important stylistic phase that was destined to influence composers everywhere by bringing out a latent objectivist tendency in the music of the period, by openly reverting to the ideals, forms, and textures of the pre-Romantic era.

Not all of the early reviewers took a negative view, however. When the Octet was performed at the Salzburg Festival in 1924, by instrumentalists from Frankfurt conducted by Hermann Scherchen, an anonymous reviewer in the Times declared that, "without claiming for it, after the manner of the composer's more violent admirers, that it is a seventh Brandenburg Concerto", it displayed "a complete mastery of the medium", as well as a sure sense of form and "an ingenuity in counterpoint" with its own laws. Though finding moments of unaccustomed discords preventing acceptance of the music as "beautiful", this critic concluded that "there is so much to admire in the work that it cannot be dismissed as a piece of buffoonery".

References

Sources

Further reading

 Aguilar, Victor Reyes. 2006. "Igor Stravinsky's "Octet for Wind Instruments" (1923): An Analysis and Discussion of Conducting Performance Practices". DMA diss. Los Angeles: UCLA.
 Cross, Jonathan (ed.). 2003. The Cambridge Companion to Stravinsky. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. .
 Hyde, Martha Maclean. 1996. "Neoclassic and Anachronistic Impulses in Twentieth-Century Music". Music Theory Spectrum 18, no. 2 (Fall): 200–235.
 Hyde, Martha M. 2003. "Stravinsky's Neoclassicism". In The Cambridge Companion to Stravinsky, edited by Jonathan Cross, 98–136. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. .
 Kielian-Gilbert, Marianne Catherine. 1981. "Pitch-class Function, Centricity, and Symmetry as Transposition Relations in Two Works of Stravinsky". PhD diss. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
 Lubaroff, Scott. 2004. An Examination of the Neo-classical Wind Works of Igor Stravinsky: The Octet for Winds and Concerto for Piano and Winds. Studies in the History and Interpretation of Music 102. Lewiston, New York: E. Mellen Press. .
 Stravinsky, Igor. 1924. "Some Ideas about My Octuor", translated from the French. The Arts 6, no. 1 (January): 4–6. Reprinted in Eric Walter White, Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works, second edition, 574–577. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1979.  (pbk).
 Van den Toorn, Pieter C. 1983. The Music of Igor Stravinsky. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .
 Wood, James R. 2007. "A Historical and Analytical Examination of the Stravinsky Octet for Wind Instruments, with a Guide to Performance Preparation of the Two Trumpet Parts". DMA diss. Denton: University of North Texas.

External links
"Stravinsky, Igor: Octet for Wind Instruments (1922–23, rev. 1952)", programme note by Joseph Horowitz at the publisher's (Boosey & Hawkes) website.

Compositions by Igor Stravinsky
1923 compositions
Compositions for octet
Compositions for flute
Compositions for clarinet
Compositions for bassoon
Compositions for trumpet
Compositions for trombone
Neoclassicism (music)
Music dedicated to family or friends

Octet (Stravinsky)


VegitaBeta is a Japanese soft drink marketed by The Coca-Cola Company. Its name refers to a supplement of beta-carotene added to the drink. Its primary ingredients are sugar and water.

It was one of the eight international soda flavors featured and available for tasting at Club Cool in Epcot, prior to its closing.

It features apricot and passion fruit flavors, and at Club Cool it says "Originally launched in Japan in 1992, VegitaBeta is a non carbonated beverage with apricot and passionfruit flavors and is rich in Beta-Carotene that contributes to its unique yellowish-orange color."

References

Coca-Cola brands

VegitaBeta


Falsifiability is a concept from philosophy of science. It refers to whether a particular theory can be proved wrong.

There are different ways in which it can be done. The easiest way to do it is to find an example where the theory should apply, but fails. As an example: Swans are birds related to ducks and geese. Today, several species of swans are known. For most people in Europe, a swan is a large white bird: The only species of swan that occurs in Europe is white. Several hundred years back, people in Europe therefore thought that all swans were white.  In 1697, the Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh found black birds that looked like swans, during an expedition on the shores of Swan River, in Australia.  Later, it turned out these birds were indeed swans. With his discovery, de Vlamingh had falsified the theory that all swans were white.

That was a trivial example. A very important example is the idea that the Earth goes round the Sun, which was a step in understanding how the Solar System works.

Falsification
Falsification is to prove that a theory is wrong. This is done in the following way: There is a set of statements (which are logically sound, and do not contradict each other) called theory. If a single logical statement can be found, which is also logically sound, and which contradicts one of the statements in the theory, then the theory is proven wrong. This can be done with observation, as in the example with the Swans above. It can also be done using mathematical logic, using  induction.

Karl Popper had the opinion that only theories that are falsifiable are scientific.<ref>Thornton, Stephen,  "Karl Popper," Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyWinter 2011);  "Science, Pseudo-Science, and Falsifiability,"  1962; retrieved 2012-5-8.</ref> Falsifiability is then a line between science and other kinds of knowledge: if it can be refuted, it is science; it if cannot, then it is not science. Many working scientists think Popper was right.

Not everyone agreed with this: Pierre Duhem and Paul Feyerabend had different ideas. Feyerabend's Against method (1975) argued that there was no one scientific method. Instead, whatever works, works and anything goes. This is called epistemological anarchy.

Duhem's idea was more subtle. He thought that for any given set of observations there is a huge and uncountable number of explanations. According to Duhem, an experiment in physics is not just an observation, but an interpretation of observations by means of a theoretical framework. Furthermore, no matter how well one constructs one's experiment, it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test. Instead, it is a whole interlocking group of hypotheses, background assumptions, and theories that is tested. This thesis has come to be known as holism. According to Duhem, it makes crucial experiments impossible.

There are some special cases, where a statement or theory cannot be falsified:
Kurt Gödel showed that certain propositions inside a system of logic cannot be proved inside that system.
Closely related to this is the fact that some statements are undecidable (This statement is false'', see paradox). Undecidable statements cannot be falsified.

Related pages
Hypothesis
Philosophy of science
Raven paradox

References

Philosophy of science

Falsifiability


Bipedalism is a form of movement on the ground. Some tetrapods have evolved the ability to move on two limbs. Those that do, use their rear limbs. Some animals move on two limbs all the time, they are called habitual bipeds. Optional bipeds can move on two or four legs.

Early quadruped animals used all four limbs for locomotion but many later ones are bipedal. The earliest dinosaurs were bipedal but millions of years later some reverted and became quadrupeds. Birds are descendants of bipedal dinosaurs, and are bipeds themselves. Their forelimbs have become wings.

Some optional bipeds stand on two legs to drive away competitors and predators, to see farther, or as body language. Their locomotion is on four limbs.

Examples
Amongst mammals, apes, bears and pangolins are optional bipeds.
Some small mammals can stand up on two legs quite well, but only move on four legs. Meerkats are a familiar example.
Birds carry their weight vertical. This is especially obvious in the ostrich, which is the fastest running biped.
Bipedal dinosaurs, on the other hand, carried the body more or less horizontal. The weight of the front part of the body was balanced by the weight of their tails. Dinosaurs were probably primitively bipedal, and the larger herbivores reverted to quadrupeds as their weight increased.
Pangolins are bipedal when walking on a level surface. They keep their body horizontal, and the tail balances the front part.
Some primates can walk bipedal sometimes. Humans are the only living primates that are normally biped.

References

Physiology
Anatomy
Animal locomotion

Bipedalism


Gaheris is a legendary character, a member of the Knights of the Round Table in Arthurian legend. He was a nephew of King Arthur. He was the third son of Arthur's sister Morgause and her husband Sir Lot. He was described as being valiant, agile, handsome, and his left arm was shorter than his right arm.  He was killed by Lancelot in the Prose Lancelot He was Sir Gawain's brother.

Arthurian legend
Fictional knights

Gaheris


James Bateman  (22 March 1893 – 2 August 1959) was an English painter and engraver specialising in agricultural topics, rural subjects and pastoral landscapes.

Life and work
Bateman was born in Kendal, the son of a blacksmith. During World War One he served with the Northumberland Fusiliers, the Machine Gun Corps and, from 1916, with the Artists Rifles. Although he had studied sculpture at Leeds School of Art from 1910 to 1914, and won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art, a serious war-time injury caused by a gunshot wound to the spine and lungs, led him to concentrate on painting, as it would be less physically demanding. Bateman studied at the Slade School of Art between 1919 and 1921, and was a Rome Scholarship finalist in 1920.
After the Slade, Bateman taught art, first at the Cheltenham Art College, then the Hammersmith School of Art and, in 1929, at Goldsmiths College. He exhibited at the Royal Academy from 1924 onwards and was made a full member of the Academy in 1942. He was also a member of the New English Art Club, the Cheltenham Group and the Cotswold Group.

At the start of the Second World War Bateman worked as a Camouflage Officer at the Civil Defence Camouflage Establishment for the Ministry of Home Security in Leamington Spa. He was unhappy with the work and resigned, in March 1940, when offered a commission for four paintings on land work subjects by the War Artists' Advisory Committee. For the commission he visited farms in Cambridge, St. Albans and Reading and he completed three pictures, including one on the Women's Land Army, and was offered a further commission for two production subjects at Shoeburyness but he declined due to other commitments and the commission went to Kenneth Rowntree.

After the war Bateman continued painting and teaching. In 1948 he was elected an Associete member of the Royal Watercolour Society. He painted a number of boxing scenes and portraits of boxers including one of Freddie Mills in 1951. In 1957 Bateman wrote Oil Painting, part of the How to do it series published by The Studio. He also began to experiment with new subjects, most notably Ancient Greek myths. He died in London from a combination of liver failure and pneumonia in 1959.

Works by Bateman are held in the Tate, the Laing Art Gallery and the Cheltenham Art Gallery & Museum.

References

External links

1893 births
1959 deaths
20th-century British printmakers
20th-century English male artists
20th-century English painters
Alumni of Leeds Arts University
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
Artists' Rifles soldiers
British Army personnel of World War I
British war artists
Camoufleurs
English engravers
English landscape painters
English male painters
Machine Gun Corps soldiers
People from Kendal
Royal Academicians
Royal Northumberland Fusiliers soldiers
World War II artists
20th-century engravers

James Bateman (artist)