The Royal Pavilion, and surrounding gardens, also known as the Brighton Pavilion, is a Grade I listed former royal residence located in Brighton, England. Beginning in 1787, it was built in three stages as a seaside retreat for George, Prince of Wales, who became the Prince Regent in 1811, and King George IV in 1820. It is built in the Indo-Saracenic style prevalent in India for most of the 19th century. The current appearance of the Pavilion, with its domes and minarets, is the work of architect John Nash, who extended the building starting in 1815.  George IV's successors William IV and Victoria also used the Pavilion, but Queen Victoria decided that Osborne House should be the royal seaside retreat, and the Pavilion was sold to the city of Brighton in 1850.

On 1 October 2020, management and operation of the Royal Pavilion & Museums' buildings and collections were transferred from Brighton & Hove City Council to a new charity: the Royal Pavilion & Museums Trust (RPMT).

History
The Prince of Wales, who later became George IV, first visited Brighton in 1783, at the age of 21. The seaside town had become fashionable as a result of the residence of George's uncle, Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland, whose tastes for fine cuisine, gambling, the theatre, and general fast living the young prince shared, and with whom he lodged in Brighton at Grove House. In addition, the Prince of Wales was advised by his physician that the seawater and fresh air would be beneficial for his gout. In 1786, under a financial cloud with investigation by Parliament for the extravagances incurred in building Carlton House, London, the Prince rented a modest, erstwhile farmhouse facing the Old Steine, a grassy area of Brighton used as a promenade by visitors. Remote from the Royal Court in London, the Pavilion was a discreet location for the Prince to enjoy private liaisons with his long-time companion, Maria Fitzherbert. The Prince had wished to marry her, and did so in secrecy as her Roman Catholic religion prohibited his marrying her under the Royal Marriages Act 1772.

In 1787, the Prince commissioned the designer of Carlton House, Henry Holland, to enlarge the existing building. It became one wing of the Marine Pavilion, flanking a central rotunda, which contained three main rooms: a breakfast room, dining room, and library, fitted out in Holland's French-influenced neoclassical style, with decorative paintings by Biagio Rebecca. In 1801–02, the Pavilion was enlarged with a new dining room and conservatory, to designs of Peter Frederick Robinson, who worked in Holland's office. The Prince also purchased land surrounding the property, on which a grand riding school and stables were built in an Indian style in 1803–08, to designs by William Porden, along with a famous onion garden to feed the Prince's well-known addiction. These provided stabling for 60 horses and dwarfed the Marine Pavilion.

Between 1815 and 1822, the designer John Nash redesigned and greatly extended the Pavilion, and it is his work that is still visible today. The palace is striking in the middle of Brighton, for its unique Indo-Islamic exterior. The fanciful interior design, primarily by Frederick Crace and the little-known decorative painter Robert Jones, was heavily influenced by both Chinese and Indian fashion (with Mughal and Islamic architectural elements). It is a prime example of the exoticism that was an alternative to more classicising mainstream taste in the Regency style.

Purchase by Brighton

After the death of George IV in 1830, his successor King William IV also stayed in the Pavilion on his frequent visits to Brighton. Queen Victoria, however, disliked Brighton and the lack of privacy at the Pavilion. Brighton became accessible to Londoners by rail in 1841, increasing its popularity with the masses. In addition, the Pavilion was cramped for her growing family. Famously, Queen Victoria disliked the constant attention she attracted in Brighton, saying "the people here are very indiscreet and troublesome".

She purchased an estate and land that was redeveloped for Osborne House in the Isle of Wight, which became the summer home of the royal family. After her last visit to Brighton in 1845, the Government planned to sell the building and grounds. The Brighton Commissioners and the Brighton Vestry successfully petitioned the Government to sell the Pavilion to the town for £53,000 in 1850 under the Brighton Improvement (Purchase of the Royal Pavilion and Grounds) Act 1850. The sale helped fund furnishing of Osborne House.

In 1860, the adjacent royal stables were converted to a concert hall, now known as the Brighton Dome. The town used the building as assembly rooms. Many of the Pavilion's original fixtures and fittings were removed on the order of the royal household at the time of the sale, most ending up either in Buckingham Palace or Windsor Castle. In the late 1860s, Queen Victoria returned to Brighton large quantities of unused fittings. George V and Queen Mary returned more furnishings after the First World War.

Since the end of the Second World War, the municipality of Brighton has worked to restore the Pavilion to its state at the time of King George IV. The city was encouraged in the 1950s by the permanent loan of over 100 items of furniture from Queen Elizabeth II. It has undertaken an extensive programme of restoring the rooms, reinstating stud walls, and creating replicas of some original fittings and occasionally pieces of furniture.

First World War

During the First World War, the Pavilion, along with other sites in Brighton, was transformed into a military hospital. From December 1914 to January 1916, sick and wounded soldiers from the Indian Army were treated in the former palace. Many Indian recipients of the Victoria Cross were treated here such as Khudadad Khan, Shahamad Khan and Mir Dast. The Pavilion hospital also incorporated the adjacent Dome and Corn Exchange; these buildings had formerly been part of the large stable complex associated with the residence.

The Pavilion hospital was set up with two operating theatres and over 720 beds. Over 2,300 men from the British Indian Army were treated at the hospital. Elaborate arrangements were made to cater for the patients' variety of religious and cultural needs. Nine different kitchens were set up in the grounds of the hospital, so that food could be cooked by the soldiers' fellow caste members and co-religionists. Muslim soldiers were given space on the eastern lawns to pray facing towards Mecca, while Sikh soldiers were provided with a tented gurdwara in the grounds.

The imperial government highlighted the Pavilion as showing that wounded countrymen of British India were being well treated. With the official sanction of the state, a series of photographs were made to show the resplendent rooms converted into hospital wards. The soldiers were visited by Lord Kitchener in July 1915, and King George V in August of the same year, who presented several soldiers such as Mir Dast with military honours.

The military hospital for Indian soldiers closed at the end of January 1916 after most of the British Indian Army had been withdrawn from the Western Front in France and redeployed to the Middle East.

The Pavilion reopened as a hospital in April 1916. It became a hospital for 'limbless men,' treating British soldiers who had lost arms and legs, usually from amputation. In addition to treating the men's physical needs, a great emphasis was placed on rehabilitating the men by training them in skills and trades. The Pavilion hospital operated until the summer of 1920, when the building was returned to Brighton Corporation.

A new gateway in Indian style was unveiled in 1921 by the King of Patiala to commemorate the Pavilion's role in treating injured Indian soldiers during the war.

Tourism
The purchase of the Royal Pavilion from Queen Victoria, by Brighton, marked the beginnings of the site's attraction as a tourist destination. The Royal Pavilion has been changed from a private residence to a public attraction under civic ownership. Today, around 400,000 people visit the Royal Pavilion annually. General filming and photography are permitted inside the Royal Pavilion. Many of the items in the palace are on loan, in particular from HM The King.

Marriage venue
The Royal Pavilion is licensed as a venue for weddings. On 29 March 2014, the Royal Pavilion was host to one of a number of the first legal same-sex marriages to take place in the United Kingdom following the passage of the 2013 Same Sex Couples Act.

Royal Pavilion Garden

The Royal Pavilion Garden, in the Pavilion's grounds, has a wide variety of plants, having been restored to Nash's original Regency vision. It is said to be the only fully restored Regency garden in the UK. The garden is maintained using only organic methods by the Trust's garden team led by a Head gardener and including volunteers.

The garden is often used by street entertainers, especially in summer. There is also a café in the garden.

The garden is Grade II listed in the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. Historic England deemed the garden 'at risk' in October 2017 due to its original character being blighted and overshadowed by unsightly fencing, litter bins, signage and lighting etc. Brighton and Hove City Council opened a public consultation on the future of the gardens after they were put on Historic England's "At Risk" register. A list of over 20,000 crimes and anti-social behaviour incidents (including indecent sexual behaviour and drug abuse) that had taken place at the gardens had been reported to the city council in 2017, raising the possibility of fencing off the gardens and closing them at night.

Image gallery

See also
Grade I listed buildings in Brighton and Hove

References and notes

Further reading
 Dinkel, John, 1983. The Royal Pavilion, Brighton
 Morley, John, 1983. The Making of the Royal Pavilion
 Musgrave, Clifford, 1951. Royal Pavilion: A Study in the Romantic
 Musgrave, Clifford, 1959. Royal Pavilion: An Episode in the Romantic
 Roberts, Henry D, 1939. The History of the Royal Pavilion, Brighton
 Rutherford, Jessica M.F., 2003. A Prince's Passion: The life of the Royal Pavilion.

External links

 The Royal Pavilion and Museums' official website
 Images of the Royal Pavilion

 Doctor Brighton's Pavilion The Royal Pavilion as a hospital for soldiers of the British Indian Army during World War I

Country houses in Brighton and Hove
Gardens in East Sussex
Grade I listed buildings in Brighton and Hove
Grade I listed houses
Grade I listed museum buildings
Grade I listed palaces
Grade II listed parks and gardens in East Sussex
Historic house museums in Brighton and Hove
Houses completed in 1802
Houses completed in 1822
John Nash buildings
Museums in Brighton and Hove
Pavilions
Royal residences in England
1802 establishments in England
Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture

Royal Pavilion


The Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (Ofsted) inspects all state schools in England. It writes reports about how good they are. It is funded by the government. It is organised under the Education (Schools) Act 1992. Michael Wilshaw is the head. It hires Additional Inspectors (AI) who do most of the inspections. It also hires Her Majesty's Inspectors (HMI) who come to 6-7% of inspections.

Ofsted's main office is on Kingsway, in central London.

Other websites
 Official website

Education in England
1992 establishments in England

Organisations based in London

Ofsted


A software license manager is a software management tool used by independent software vendors or by end-user organizations to control where and how software products are able to run. License managers protect software vendors from losses due to software piracy and enable end-user organizations to comply with software license agreements. License managers enable software vendors to offer a wide range of usage-centric software licensing models, such as product activation, trial licenses, subscription licenses, feature-based licenses, and floating licensing from the same software package they provide to all users.

A license manager is different from a software asset management tool, which end-user organizations employ to manage the software they have licensed from many software vendors. However, some software asset management tools include license manager functions. These are used to reconcile software licenses and installed software, and generally include device discovery, software inventory, license compliance, and reporting functions.

An additional benefit of these software management tools are that they reduce the difficulty, cost, and time required for reporting and can increase operational transparency in order to prevent litigation costs associated with software misuse, as set forth by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

License management solutions provided by non-vendor companies are more valuable to the end-users, since most vendors do not provide enough license usage information. A vendor license manager provides limited information, while non-vendor license management solutions are developed for end-users in order to maximally optimize the licenses they have.

Most license managers can cover different software licensing models as license dongles or license USB keys, floating licenses, network licenses, concurrent license etc.

References

External links
 Floating License Management
 License4J Floating License Server User Guide
 Cloud Software Licensing
 OpenLM Software License Management

System administration
Manager

Software license manager


Niedzica Castle also known as Dunajec Castle (, , , ), is located in the southernmost part of Poland in Niedzica (Nowy Targ County in Lesser Poland). It was erected between the years 1320 and 1326 by Kokos of Brezovica on the site of an ancient stronghold surrounded by earthen walls in the Pieniny mountains.  The Niedzica Castle stands at an altitude of 566 m, on a hill  upstream from the Dunajec River mouth, measured from the center of the dam on Lake Czorsztyn.  The outline of Niedzica Castle can best be viewed from the ruins of Czorsztyn Castle on the other side of the lake. It is known as one of the most picturesque castles in the country and adorns the covers of many books.

History

The castle was an important centre of Polish-Hungarian relations since the 14th century. It was a place where the money lent by the Polish king to the Hungarian king Sigismund had to be returned following an agreement signed in 1412. Once the loan was paid back, the Polish king returned the 16 Spiš towns given to him by Sigismund as collateral. For centuries the castle was a border-post with Hungary. At the time of the Turkish invasion five hundred years ago, a deal was struck at Niedzica to make it a Polish protectorate.

The castle was built by a Hungarian known as Kokos from Brezovica with family rights dating back to 1325. In 1470 it became the property of the aristocratic Zápolya family. However, in 1528, the entire county including the castle was given away by John Zápolya aspiring to the Hungarian throne, and became the property of William Drugeth who received it as a reward for his support. Sixty years later it became the property of Hieronim Łaski and his son Olbracht. At the end of the 16th century the castle was bought by Ján Horváth from Plaveč. The fortress was renovated many times in the fifteenth, sixteenth, eighteenth and in the beginning of the 19th century by its successive owners. The last Hungarian inhabitants remained there until in 1943 when the coming of the front in World War II inspired the Salamon family to abandon it. The last countess left with her children two years before the Red Army marched in. The final reconstruction of the castle was completed in 1963 under the supervision of the Polish Ministry of Culture. It has served as a historical museum ever since.

Recent conservation concerns
A new artificial reservoir, Lake Czorsztyn, was created in 1994 by damming the Dunajec River downstream of the castle. The castle now stands approx.  above the upper water level. The castle hill consists of limestone rock saddled on shale and marl found much below the current bed of the Dunajec River. Studies and analyses show that rock strata forming the limestone bank are weather-resistant, and provide secure foundation for the castle in spite of visible surface deterioration. In order to secure the stability of the hill, a number of reinforcing works were effected in the strip between the high- and low-water marks. The works include concrete reinforcement of rocks, substratum (weathered shale and marl) replacement, and surface protection elements on the hill. The castle and the hill are subject to constant monitoring.

The museum

Although in large part only ruins remain of what used to be the Gothic castle in Niedzica, its dungeons and a number of rooms survived, as have some of the paintings — including the Crucifixion that once adorned the chapel — and furnishings which are not entirely as they were in the 1930s. The architectural design consists of a densely packed complex of buildings with a courtyard surrounded by residential wings with arcades, towers and fortified walls.

The museum in Niedzica holds archaeological artifacts related to the castle, remnants of the masonry that once adorned its interiors, prints and engravings with views of the castle from various periods, and historical documentation. The museum's collections include ethnographic exhibits from the Spiš region, a collection of antique clocks, 18th and 19th century pistols, hunting rifles, and taxidermied game. In 1996, a new collection was added. Because of the fortress's Hungarian origins, Ákos Engelmayer, Hungarian ambassador to Poland (1990-1995), donated his collection of Hungarian-related items of historical interest from Poland, such as maps of Hungary from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries, engravings depicting various Hungarian kings and castles, as well as cities and battlegrounds; which it is hoped have become the largest collection of Hungarian-related materials outside of Hungary. The castle is a great place to visit. The views are magnificent, particularly to the south over the Pieniny mountains.

The legend
Before the Czorsztyn reservoir was built, the castle had a very Dracula-like setting, perched high on a wall above the Dunajec River. It was a place rich in tales and legends with some of the former residents resembling characters from gothic novels. In the post-World War II period Polish newspapers wrote at length about Sebastián Berzeviczy (one of Niedzica's owners) who traveled to the New World in the 18th century. According to a popular legend, he fell in love with the alleged Inca princess. Their daughter Umina married the nephew of an Inca insurrection leader Túpac Amaru II, whose assumed name implied descent from Inca kings.  Túpac Amaru was eventually executed by the Spaniards after rebelling against the colonial government.  The legend goes on to claim that the sacred scrolls of the Incas had been handed down to his surviving family members. His nephew, Andrés Túpac Amaru a.k.a. Andreas with wife Umina and his father-in-law Sebastián Berzeviczy fled to Italy, where Andrés was killed in suspicious circumstances. Consequently, Umina with son and her father fled to Hungary and settled at the castle. Sources claim that Umina was assassinated there some time later. Her testament to son Anton, written in 1797 and stored there, allegedly contained information about the lost treasure of the Incas. There was a leaden case found at the castle with some "quipu" writings, but it was lost in Kraków in the following years. Later, news appeared about expeditions searching for fantastic treasures at Lake Titicaca in Peru. The notion that the Inca treasure map could be hidden somewhere in the depths of the castle is still cherished today.

Other tales follow the exploits of a motley crew of the castle's other former owners. They include stories of counts and jesters who tortured village folk, stabbed priests and misbehaved.

The graphic novel
The legend of Niedzica was also the inspiration for a graphic novel, "Rainbow and the Sun" by Roko Zaper, which follows Andre Benesz as he discovers his heritage and the past he never knew.

Gallery

See also
 Dunajec river castles
 Pieniny National Park (Poland)
 Dunajec River Gorge
 Castles in Poland

References

External links

 Graphic Novel Based on Legend at the Internet Archive. Retrieved March 14, 2015.
 Dunajec Castle in Niedzica from ZZW-Niedzica.com at the Internet Archive. Retrieved March 14, 2015.
 Niedzica Castle at www.pieniny.sk

Buildings and structures completed in 1326
Castles in Lesser Poland Voivodeship
Gothic Revival architecture in Poland
Berzeviczy family
Museums in Lesser Poland Voivodeship
Nowy Targ County
Historic house museums in Poland

Niedzica Castle


So You Think You Can Dance is a joint Belgian-Dutch dance competition show broadcast on RTL 5 and vtm television stations. The first season was broadcast only in the Netherlands, whereas starting with season 2, the show became a joint Belgian-Dutch production.

The show premiered on 4 September 2008 in the Netherlands and expanded to broadcasting in Flanders for its second season on 1 September 2009. Like other series in the So You Think You Can Dance franchise, the show is a talent search that uses a combination of expert judge decisions and call-in voting to advance dancers from a wide variety of backgrounds through various different dance styles. A season winner is awarded a cash prize, funded study-abroad or work-abroad opportunities (usually in the U.S.) and other prizes, as well as the title "The Netherlands' Favourite Dancer". The winners of the first six seasons have been Ivan Paulovich, Els Smekens, Floris Bosveld, Nina Plantefève-Castryck, Frederic De Smet and Danny Boom.

The first season was hosted by singer Elise van der Horst. From the second season on, Dennis Weening and An Lemmens have co-presented.

Format
The format of the show closely follows that of other entries in the franchise. Dancers first present themselves at open auditions, where they dance in a style of their choosing before a panel of judges. This panel will make one of three determinations. If the dancer simply did not impress, he will be or she will not progress further. If the dancer impressed but the judges have reservations, he or she may be asked to stay until the end of auditions to try to prove themselves by picking up a short piece of expert choreography. If the dancer is found to excel, they may be given a "Ticket to the Bootcamp" and are advanced instantly one step further.

Following the open auditions, dancers are put through a "Bootcamp", a week-long live-in series of workshops, usually held in a foreign locale, where they are drilled and tested in a variety of dance styles. At the end of this process, and after successive waves of cuts, a Top 18 dancers are selected to move on and participate in the "live shows", which are the main segment of the competition and the point at which call-in voting begins.

The live shows place the dancers in groups and duets to tackle routines in various styles that are mostly randomly assigned, leaving dancers from a wide variety of backgrounds often out of their element as they attempt to display versatility and overall dance ability, which is then evaluated by the judge's panel. At-home viewers vote for their favorite dancer or dancers and the three couples with the lowest number of votes are at risk of being eliminated from the competition and must "dance for their life" to avoid being one of the two dancers (one male, one female) eliminated that week. In later weeks the judges lose their authority in this process and the dancers are selected purely by viewer vote. The season ends with a Top 4 dancers and a finale in which the champion is announced.

Seasons

Overview and finalists

Season One

The first season was presented by singer EliZe. The permanent members of the judge's panel consisted of Dan Karaty, Jaako Toivonen and Euvgenia Parakhina. The finale was broadcast on 11 December 2008 and concluded with the announcement of Ivan Paulovich as the first winner of the competition. Paulovich won a dance study of choice in America, €20,000, and a dance solo in the musical Footloose. Timor Steffens was the runner-up.

Season Two

The second season saw a broadening of the show's audience and contestant pool to include the Flemish. The season also began with a change of hosts, with Dennis Weening and An Lemmens taking over presentation from singer Elize. The judges panel also changed with Nicky Vernieuwe and Jan Kooijman taking the places of season one judges Jaako Toivonen and Euvgenia Parakhina. After a season plagued by injuries in the live shows, Els Smekens was announced winner during the 29 November 2009 season finale. Smekens and her partner Angelo Pardo, had been judge and fan favorites from early in the competition and took the top two winning positions. Smekens winning prize consisted off a dance study program of choice in America, €20,000, and a dance solo in the musical Hairspray.

Season Three

The third season saw a third shake-up of the judges panel, which now consisted of returning judges Dan Karaty, Euvgenia Parakhina, and Jan Kooijman as well as new judge Marco Gerrits. An Lemmens and Dennis Weening continued in the role of co-hosts. Dancer Lorenzo van Velzen Bottazzi, one of the finalists of the second season who was prematurely forced to leave the show after he tore his knee ligaments during the first live show, was allowed to return to the competition. He was not required to audition but was required to re-secure a place in the Top 20 in the Bootcamp phase of the competition. Also returning was Natascha de Jong, a dancer who was selected for the top 20 in season one but was unable to participate for personal reasons. Both dancers earned a place amongst the finalists again and ultimately came in 2nd- and 4th-placed, respectively. First place went to hip-hop dancer Floris Bosveld during the 28 November 2010 finale. Bosveld won €25,000, a choice of dance school opportunities in America and a role in Johan Nijenhuis' Dutch dance film Body Language.

The season was the largest ratings success yet for the show, with average viewership peaking above a million viewers per episode for the first time.

Season Four

The fact that a fourth season had been commissioned was announced during the third season finale. For the first time no alterations were made to hosting duties or the judges panel from the previous season. However, Dan Karaty was prevented from participating in the bootcamp for this season as it was located in Cuba and Karaty, as an American, is prohibited by the trade embargo between the nations from visiting or working within Cuba. The remaining three judges made the ultimate decision on the season's Top 18 dancers. On the 27 November 2011 finale, ballet dancer Nina Plantefève-Castryck was announced the winner of the fourth season and was awarded a choice of dance school opportunities, a cash prize of €25,000, and a role in a music video of David Guetta. With Anna-Alicia Sklias taking second place, the vote also marked the first time in the show's four seasons that first place and first runner-up both went to female contestants, as well as the first time the top two spots both went to classically trained dancers.

Season Five

Season Five was officially announced during the season four finale and aired between 2 September and 9 December 2012. The second phase of bootcamp took place in New York.

Season Six

As with the previous two seasons, the reveal of a renewal was made during the Season Five finale, this time with the additional announcement that online enrollment for auditions via the show's official website were immediately open.  This sixth season began airing on September 1, 2013 and broadcast its finale on December 1, 2013

See also
 Dance on television

References

External links
 Official website in Dutch

Dutch reality television series
2008 Dutch television series debuts
Belgian reality television series
Belgian television series based on American television series
Dutch television series based on American television series
VTM (TV channel) original programming
RTL 5 original programming

So You Think You Can Dance (Belgian and Dutch TV series)


Wadi (), alternatively wād (), Maghrebi Arabic Oued, is the Arabic term traditionally referring to a river valley. In some instances, it may refer to a wet (ephemeral) riverbed that contains water only when heavy rain occurs.

Arroyo (Spanish) is used in the Americas for similar landforms.

Etymology
The term  is very widely found in Arabic toponyms. Some Spanish toponyms are derived from Andalusian Arabic where  was used to mean a permanent river, for example: Guadalcanal from wādī al-qanāl (, "river of refreshment stalls"), Guadalajara from wādī al-ḥijārah (, "river of stones"), or Guadalquivir, from al-wādī al-kabīr (, "the great river").

General morphology and processes
Wadis are located on gently sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts; commonly they begin on the distal portions of alluvial fans and extend to inland sabkhas or dry lakes. In basin and range topography, wadis trend along basin axes at the terminus of fans. Permanent channels do not exist, due to lack of continual water flow. They have braided stream patterns because of the deficiency of water and the abundance of sediments. Water percolates down into the stream bed, causing an abrupt loss of energy and resulting in vast deposition. Wadis may develop dams of sediment that change the stream patterns in the next flash flood.

Wind also causes sediment deposition. When wadi sediments are underwater or moist, wind sediments are deposited over them. Thus, wadi sediments contain both wind and water sediments.

Sediments and sedimentary structures
Wadi sediments may contain a range of material, from gravel to mud, and the sedimentary structures vary widely. Thus, wadi sediments are the most diverse of all desert environments.

Flash floods result from severe energy conditions and can result in a wide range of sedimentary structures, including ripples and common plane beds. Gravels commonly display imbrications, and mud drapes show desiccation cracks. Wind activity also generates sedimentary structures, including large-scale cross-stratification and wedge-shaped cross-sets. A typical wadi sequence consists of alternating units of wind and water sediments; each unit ranging from about . Sediment laid by water shows complete fining upward sequence. Gravels show imbrication. Wind deposits are cross-stratified and covered with mud-cracked deposits. Some horizontal loess may also be present.

Hydrological action

Modern English usage differentiates wadis from canyons or washes by the action and prevalence of water.  Wadis, as drainage courses, are formed by water, but are distinguished from river valleys or gullies in that surface water is intermittent or ephemeral. Wadis are generally dry year round, except after a rain. The desert environment is characterized by sudden but infrequent heavy rainfall, often resulting in flash floods. Crossing wadis at certain times of the year can be dangerous as a result.

Wadis tend to be associated with centers of human population because sub-surface water is sometimes available in them. Nomadic and pastoral desert peoples will rely on seasonal vegetation found in wadis, even in regions as dry as the Sahara, as they travel in complex transhumance routes.

The centrality of wadis to water – and human life – in desert environments gave birth to the distinct sub-field of wadi hydrology in the 1990s.

Deposits
Deposition in a wadi is rapid because of the sudden loss of stream velocity and seepage of water into the porous sediment. Wadi deposits are thus usually mixed gravels and sands. These sediments are often altered by eolian processes.

Over time, wadi deposits may become "inverted wadis," where former underground water caused vegetation and sediment to fill in the eroded channel, turning previous washes into ridges running through desert regions.

Gallery

See also

  in the Sinai peninsula, holy Muslim site

References

Bibliography
 Summary: Drainage Courses, Wadis. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Desert Processes Working Group; Knowledge Sciences, Inc. (n.d), retrieved 2008-08-26.
 Summary: Summary: Drainage Courses, Wadis – Inverted. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Desert Processes Working Group; Knowledge Sciences, Inc. (n.d), retrieved 2008-08-2onments
 Gelennie, K. W., 1970 Deserts sedimentary Environments. Developments in Sedimentology, v.14. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 222p.

External links

 IHP REGIONAL WADI HYDROLOGY NETWORK, International Hydrological Programme, UNESCO.
 Arab Center for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry lands (ACSAD): Water resources division.

 01
Dry or seasonal streams
Canyons and gorges
Fluvial landforms
Valleys
Arabic words and phrases

Wadi


Refraction is the change in direction of a wave, caused by the change in the wave's  speed. Examples of waves include sound waves and light waves. Refraction is seen most often when a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium. Different types of medium include air and water.

When a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the wave will change its speed and its direction. For example, when a light wave travels through air and then passes into water, the wave will slow and change direction. In this property when the light is transmitted through a medium, polarisation of electrons take place, which in turn reduces the speed of light, thus changing the direction of light.

As light goes into a medium which is denser, the light ray will 'bend' toward the normal. When it goes back into the less dense medium (with a lower refractive index), it will bend back through the same angle as when it came in (if the surface at exit is parallel to the surface at entry).

An example of how refraction works is placing a straw in a cup of water, with part of the straw in the water. When looking at a certain angle, the straw appears to bend at the water's surface. This is because of the change in density of the medium and thus, bending of light rays as they move from the air to water.

A good and simple way to understand how light works is to think of it like a car. When the car hits the gravel surface (this is the medium) on an angle, the tire that hits it first will slow, causing it to turn in that direction. Therefore, if light hits a medium on the right having a greater refractive index, it will bend right. The amount of bending is given by Snell's law and corpuscular theory of light. Lenses work by refraction.

When light refracts in a prism, it splits into colours of the rainbow because some wavelengths bend more than others.

In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of a substance is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or other radiation, goes through that medium. It is defined as

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the phase velocity of light in the medium. Snell's law uses refractive indexes to calculate the amount of refraction.

Notes

Wave physics

Refraction


Bajaur () is an Agency (district) of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan. Smallest of the agencies in FATA, it has a hilly terrain. According to the 1998 census, 595,227 people lived there. It borders Afghanistan's Kunar Province.

 Barang Tehsil
 Charmang Tehsil
 Khar Bajaur Tehsil
 Mahmund Tehsil
 Salarzai Tehsil
 Nawagai Tehsil
 Utmankhel (Qzafi) Tehsil

Bajaur District


Emil Alfred Fritz Lange (23 November 1898, Berlin – 16 September 1981) was a German communist politician and resistance fighter during the Nazi era. Later Lange was Minister for Popular Education in the German Democratic Republic (GDR).

Biography
Lange attended the Siemens Oberrealschule in the Berlin suburb of Charlottenburg from 1904 to 1912 and from 1912 to 1917, the Präparandenanstalt and the teacher-training program in Neuruppin. From 1917-1918, he was a soldier in the First World War. In 1919, he passed the teacher's examination and was a volksschule teacher in the Neuköln suburb of Berlin until 1924. In 1919, he joined the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany and in 1920, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). From 1921-1924, he was in the national leadership of the Communist Kindergruppe. In 1924, he was let go from his job and became a leading functionary of the Rotfrontkämpferbund from 1925-1928, as well as the district representative from Neukölln and a city delegate from Berlin from 1925-1933. Lange was the editor in the agitation and propaganda department of the Central Committee of the KPD from 1927-1933 and from 1930-1932, he was in the national leadership of the Kampfbund gegen den Faschismus, an antifascist organization of the KPD devoted to the fight against fascism.  In 1933, he was arrested and was sent to the Sonnenburg concentration camp. Afterwards, he lived as a worker and sales employee until 1942.

From 1935, he was active in the Resistance, working, among others, in the group that formed around Bernhard Bästlein and Wilhelm Guddorf. He was associate editor of the left-wing newspaper Die Innere Front ("The Internal Front"), which published articles for opponents of Adolf Hitler from various backgrounds, even publishing some articles in foreign languages.  As a result, he is considered to have been involved in the Rote Kapelle.

On 1 December 1942, he and Martin Weise were arrested, and on 8 October 1943 he was convicted in the second Senate of the Reichskrieggericht, the highest military court during the Nazi era. His crime was "complicity in treason and aiding the enemy" and he was sentenced to five years at hard labor. He was in various prisons until 1945, including the notorious Brandenburg-Görden Prison, where thousands were executed, including over 1,780 Resistance fighters.

After 1945

From 1945 to 1948, Lange was the mayor of Brandenburg an der Havel. Afterwards he was head of the Zentralen Kontrollkommission ("Central Control Commission") of the German Economic Commission and from 1949 to 1954, of the Zentrale Kommission für Staatliche Kontrolle, an executive organ of the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED) in the Soviet occupation zone, later the GDR.

From 1950 to 1958, he was a representative in the Volkskammer and a candidate for the Central Committee of the SED. In 1954, he became the Minister of Education. As Minister, he became part of a trend taking place in both East and West Germany that sought to reconnect with German culture, with those parts of Germany's past that was not controversial, not full of war and misery.

After criticism on the 5th Party Congress of the SED in 1958, he was removed from his position. From 1960 to 1961, he worked at the Militärgeschichtliches Institut der DDR ("Military History Institute of the GDR") in Potsdam.

Lange died in Berlin in 1981.

Honors
In 1955, Lange was awarded the Vaterländischer Verdienstorden, a medal for patriotism and service to his country.

Further reading
 Hermann Weber/Andreas Herbst: Deutsche Kommunisten. Biographisches Handbuch 1918 bis 1945, Berlin: Karl Dietz Verlag 2004, S. 433-434

See also
 Government of East Germany
 List of Germans who resisted Nazism

References

1898 births
1981 deaths
Politicians from Berlin
Independent Social Democratic Party politicians
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Socialist Unity Party of Germany politicians
Government ministers of East Germany
Members of the Provisional Volkskammer
Members of the 1st Volkskammer
Members of the 2nd Volkskammer
Rotfrontkämpferbund members
Red Orchestra (espionage)
Communists in the German Resistance
German Army personnel of World War I
Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit (honor clasp)
Recipients of the Banner of Labor
Prisoners and detainees of Germany
Saefkow-Jacob-Bästlein Organization

Fritz Lange (politician)


Gastón Carrillo de Peralta y Bosquete, 3rd Marquess of Falces (Spanish: Don Gastón Carrillo  de Peralta, III marqués de Falces) (1510–1587) was a Spanish nobleman who was the third viceroy of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (colonial México) from October 16, 1566 to March 10, 1568.

Biography
He was born in Pau, Navarre (now in France).

Gastón de Peralta was appointed viceroy of New Spain in 1566, replacing Francisco Ceinos and the Audiencia Real of Mexico, which had been governing on an interim basis since the death of the previous viceroy, Luís de Velasco.

After the death of Velasco, a conspiracy to obtain independence from Spain was discovered. Some personalities of high position, including some close relatives of Hernán Cortés — Martín, Don Martín Cortés y de Zuñiga,  and Luís (his sons, and half-brothers of each other) — were involved in this plot. It was made known to Peralta while he was still at the coast in Veracruz, before he entered Mexico City to take up his office officially. A local judge of the Audiencia Real of México had sentenced the conspirators to death, but Peralta personally reviewed the cases of each of the prisoners and suspended the death penalty for Luís and Martín Cortés. They were sent back to Spain to be dealt with by the Council of the Indies.

Peralta arrived in Mexico City  in a tense atmosphere. One of his first acts was to remove the artillery and soldiers that had been posted at the viceroy's palace and in the principle streets of the city. His leniency toward the conspirators alarmed the Audiencia, which accused him of sympathizing with the rebels and protecting them. Testimony was given that the new viceroy had a list of 30,000 rebel fighters ready to rise against the Crown. These accusations were communicated to Spanish king Philip II in a letter. Alarmed, King Philip dispatched two visitadores, Luis Carrillo and Lic. Alonso Muñoz, to New Spain to investigate the charges. They ordered Peralta back to Spain to explain his conduct.

In his brief term of office, Peralta founded a hospital for the aged, invalids, convalescents, and the "insane."

Back in Spain, he was tried and acquitted. Subsequently, he was made constable of Navarre. He died in Valladolid in 1587.

See also
Francisco Ceinos

References

Viceroys of New Spain
1510 births
1587 deaths
Falces
1560s in New Spain

Gastón de Peralta, 3rd Marquess of Falces


Marmaduke Thomas St John Pattle,  (3 July 1914 – 20 April 1941), usually known as Pat Pattle, was a South African-born English  Second World War fighter pilot and flying ace (an aviator credited with the destruction of five or more enemy aircraft in aerial combat) of the Royal Air Force (RAF).

Pattle applied to join the South African Air Force at 18, but was rejected. He travelled to the United Kingdom and joined the RAF in 1936 on a Short Service Commission. Pattle was a pilot by 1937 and was posted to No. 80 Squadron based in Egypt upon the outbreak of war in September 1939. In June 1940, Italy entered the war on the side of the Axis Powers and he began combat operations against the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Air Force), gaining his first successes during the Italian invasion of Egypt.

After the Italian invasion, his squadron was sent to Greece in November 1940, where Pattle achieved most of his victories. Pattle claimed around 20 aircraft shot down and in March 1941 was promoted to squadron leader. After the German intervention, and in fourteen days of operations, Pattle claimed . Pattle claimed five or more aircraft destroyed in one day on three occasions, which qualified him for ace in a day status. Pattle achieved his greatest success on 19 April 1941, claiming six victories. The following day, having claimed more aerial victories than any other Western Allied pilot, he took off against orders, while suffering from a high temperature, to engage German aircraft near Athens. He was last seen battling Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters. His Hurricane crashed into the sea during this dogfight and Pattle was killed.

Pattle is sometimes noted as being the highest-scoring British Commonwealth pilot of the war. If all claims made for him are correct, his total could have been more than 51. It can be stated that his final total was at least 40 and could exceed this number. Log-books and semi-official records suggest this figure, while personnel attached to his squadron suspect the figure to be closer to 60. A total of 26 of Pattle's victims were Italian; 15 were downed with Gloster Gladiators, the rest with Hawker Hurricanes. He is considered to be the highest-scoring ace on both Gladiator and Hurricane (35 victories) fighters.

Early years

Childhood and education
Pattle was born in Butterworth, Cape Province, on 3 July 1914, the son of South African-born parents of English descent, Sergeant-Major Cecil William John "Jack" Pattle (b. 5 September 1884) and Edith Brailsford (1881–1962). Marmaduke was named after his paternal grandfather, Captain Thomas Marmaduke Pattle, who resigned his commission in the Royal Horse Artillery and emigrated to South Africa from England in 1875. Thomas became the first military magistrate of Butterworth. Jack Pattle followed his father into the British Army at the age of 15. He fought in the Second Boer War and the Natal Rebellion. Afterwards, he studied law and became a civilian attorney. Jack Pattle met Edith Brailsford in 1909. Brailsford was an English nurse who had lived in South Africa since the age of five. Jack Pattle and Edith Brailsford married in 1912. Within two years, two sons had been born, Cecil and Marmaduke.

As a child, Marmaduke was academically gifted and also a keen boxer and long-distance swimmer. He also took a keen interest in mechanical things, particularly combustion engines, and was building Meccano models of aircraft and other vehicles by the age of 12. In his early teens, he became an avid amateur mechanic, fixing the family motor car and learning to drive. Marmaduke was never a hard worker and did not embark upon an academic career, but was considered to possess above average intelligence. In 1929, he passed the Junior Certificate Exam with first class honours. The certificate qualified him for Victoria Boy's High School from which he graduated in 1931.

Although he had considered a career as a mining engineer, Pattle sent in an application to join the South African Air Force in 1932 and was employed in menial jobs while waiting for a response. For several months, he worked at a petrol station owned by an uncle.

Military service
On 22 March 1933 he was invited for an interview for a commission in the Air Force in Pretoria. One of 30 applicants vying for three places, he was rejected for lack of flying experience. Determined to rectify this weakness, he went to Johannesburg and began taking flying lessons. To fund his new ambition, he worked for a mining company, Sheba Gold Mine. He enjoyed the work so much he considered studying for a degree in mining engineering. His passion for flying subsided, but an impromptu visit by a transport aircraft gave Pattle a close glimpse of it, which rekindled his interest. At around the same time, the Ministry of Defence created the Special Service Battalion to employ South African youth who were struggling to find work because of the Great Depression. He joined up in 1936 hoping it would lead to a career in the Air Force. He undertook basic training and national service on the understanding that he would be given an opportunity to enter the Air Force as an instructor at the end of his four-year service.

Pattle worked toward this goal for some time until, in late 1935, by chance, he picked up a copy of the Johannesburg Star newspaper. The paper contained an advertisement by the Royal Air Force (RAF) which was offering five-year short service commissions for cadets throughout the British Empire. The RAF expansion schemes required a great influx of capable personnel into the organisation as rearmament and the need for fighting men heightened. Pattle decided that a career in the RAF offered better prospects than as an instructor in South Africa and applied. Early in 1936, he was invited to Britain as an applicant. He flew to London at his own expense to attend the selection processes and was offered a commission by the selection board. He immediately returned to South Africa to arrange his migration to Britain and left aboard SS Llandovery Castle on 30 April 1936.

RAF career
Pattle was assigned to a civil flying school at RAF Prestwick which was run by Scottish Aviation Limited. He formally began his training on 29 June 1936. He progressed well in his theory examinations, gaining 99 percent for gunnery and 91 percent for airmanship. He flew a single-engined De Havilland Tiger Moth training biplane and gained his A Licence at the end of July, partly because he was a capable pilot and also because the Air Ministry was anxious to produce trained pilots. He completed his training within two months and was classified as above average after passing his examination with ease. Pattle was give the service number 39029.

Pattle was sent to No. 10 Elementary Flying School at RAF Ternhill in Shropshire. He spent three months with the Initial Training Squadron and three further months with the Advanced Training Squadron. On 24 August 1936, he became an acting pilot officer. In November, he passed his technical exams, achieving 98 percent in aero engine mechanics and 96 percent in meteorology while scoring 95 percent in applied mechanics. The basic flight training came to an end and Pattle scored 88.5 percent. His advanced training began in November 1936 on the Gloster Gauntlet. He completed his training somewhat later than planned, in March 1937, owing to bad weather which curtailed flying. He was rated as "exceptional" in his final report.

Pattle joined No. 80 Squadron RAF. The squadron was in the midst of re-forming at RAF Kenley and he was able to fly the Gloster Gladiator fighter for the first time in May 1937. In June, the unit moved to RAF Debden. Here, they practised aerial combat against RAF Bomber Command squadrons which staged mock raids against London. During these exercises, he mastered deflection shooting. Pattle developed his own air tactics. He preferred attacking at higher altitudes than his quarry, meeting head-on, then waiting for the enemy to fly by before rolling over and diving to attack from the side and rear of the enemy. He usually held his fire until very close to the target to make sure of hitting his opponent. His qualities as an officer led to him being promoted to squadron adjutant. A gifted flyer and natural marksman, he took pains to improve both talents, doing exercises to improve his distance vision and sharpen his reflexes. He progressed in rank with the squadron and was duly promoted to pilot officer on 27 July 1937.

On 29 April 1938, Pattle accompanied the unit to Egypt having been tasked with the defence of the Suez Canal. While in Egypt, Pattle carried out ground attack duties against Arab rebels. He fired on the enemy several times as local rebellions against British rule took shape and then died away.

Second World War

North African campaign
Following the outbreak of war, the unit, flying the Gloster Gladiator, moved up to the Libyan border, where in August 1940, Pattle first saw action. 80 Squadron received the order to deploy one of its flights to Sidi Barrani in anticipation of Italian air attacks. "B" Flight, commanded by Pattle, moved to the forward airfield. On 4 August 1940, Pattle claimed his first victories. While escorting a Westland Lysander, Pattle and his flight engaged first a force of six Breda Ba.65/A80s of the 159a Squadriglia ("squadron") and six Fiat CR.42 quarters of the 160a Squadriglia. Pattle claimed a Breda, but was then attacked by the escorting Fiat CR.42s. He managed to hit one, that he saw falling spinning, but later was himself attacked by another formation of Bredas and CR.42s. The Bredas dived and delivered attacks from the quarter and beam. Pattle avoided them by turning away and opening fire on the nearest target as they dived past to gain speed, climbed, and then engaged Pattle again. The Gladiator's guns jammed one by one, leaving him without any form of defence, other than bluff attacks. After 15 minutes of battle, while avoiding one enemy fighter, he flew into the line of sight of another and was hit. Pattle's rudder controls were shot away, so he climbed to 400 ft and bailed out.

He was shot down most probably by Italian Spanish Civil War ace Tenente (Lieutenant) Franco Lucchini of 90a Squadriglia, 10° Gruppo ("group"), 4° Stormo ("wing"). He landed, winded, and played dead to avoid being strafed. He started to walk towards the Allied lines and crossed the border at around midday the following day. After two days, he was rescued by a detachment from the 11th Hussars, who returned him to Sidi Barrani. Pattle was annoyed. He considered being shot down by the Italians as an embarrassment and regarded the episode as a slur on his reputation. After his forced march to friendly lines, he was also determined not to get lost in the desert again so he flew to Alexandria and bought a compass which he never flew without.

On 8 August, Pattle claimed two more victories (nos 3–4). While leading 14 Gladiators of 80 Squadron in a surprise attack against 16 Fiat CR.42s from 9° and 10° Gruppi of 4° Stormo, over Gabr Saleh inside the Italian territory.  Sergente (Sergeant) Rosa, Dallari and Valla bailed out and Sotto Tenente Querci, Sergente Gino and Poli force landed. One pilot, Norino Renzi, a Regia Aeronautica pilot since 25 December 1930 and a pre-war member of 4° Stormos aerobatics group, was killed. "Shorty" Graham, Pattle's wingman that day, confirmed he saw two fall to Pattle. On 3 September 1940, Pattle was promoted to flight lieutenant.

Three days later, the Italian invasion of Egypt began. Much to Pattle's distaste, the squadron was heavily involved in close air support operations and ordered specifically to avoid air-to-air combat unless attacked. On occasion, he chanced upon Italian aircraft, but the Gladiator's limited speed denied Pattle further success. Pattle succeeded in damaging a Savoia-Marchetti S.79 bomber which emitted black smoke but dived away and Pattle could not catch it. The speed of the Savoia-Marchetti S.79 enabled it to escape the RAF fighters on a consistent basis. The unit withdrew to Habbaniyah to re-equip with Mark II machines, but was then ordered to Greece after the Italian attack.

Greco-Italian War

In November, the squadron was transferred to the Balkans to help the Greek Air Force oppose the Italian invasion. On 8 November, the squadron and its new Gladiator IIs moved from their base at Sidi Haneish to Abu Suweir. There the pilots were granted two days leave. On 16 November 1940, the squadron arrived in Athens and moved to airfields north of the capital. Pattle's aerodrome was situated at Eleusis. They stayed to organise the squadron into flights but moved to the Albanian–Greek border town of Trikkala hours later.

Here Pattle was to enjoy significant success. On 19 November 1940, Pattle with eight other pilots from 80 Squadron, attacked Fiat CR.42s and Fiat G.50bis near the Italian airfield at Korçë. In this combat, the RAF claimed nine and two probably destroyed while 160o Gruppo Autonomo (Independent Group) lost three Fiat CR.42s and one damaged while 355a Squadriglia, 24o Gruppo Autonomo, lost one G.50. Four Italian pilots were killed, while the RAF lost a Gladiator. Pattle claimed two CR.42s in the battle — his wingman Heimar Stucky (himself wounded in action later on) witnessed both catch fire and crash in the vicinity of Korçë with the pilots killed. Pattle's guns jammed during the battle and he was forced to break off combat. Pattle also noted the inferior speed of the Gladiator against the Fiat G.50 Freccia. The Italian pilots could easily outrun the Gladiators if outnumbered. His combat reports also noted the ineffective fire of the Italians who fired and broke away from too far away. Having regained pressure in his guns, he encountered a lone G.50. Though respectful of its advantages, he was convinced of his own flying ability. He placed the Gladiator below and in front of the Italian fighter to tempt the enemy pilot, but could not persuade it to accept battle. Between 27 and 29 November, Pattle made four claims. Flying as escort for Bristol Blenheims, Pattle engaged three SM.79s and shared two destroyed with 11 other pilots. On 29 November, he shared with William Vale with both claiming two shared damaged.

On 2 December, he claimed two victories (nos 7–8). In the Gjirokastër area, Pattle shot down an IMAM Ro.37bis from 42a Squadriglia, 72o Gruppo, and Sergente Luigi Del Manno and his observer, Tenente Michele Milano, were both killed. In the afternoon, Pattle shot down another Ro.37bis from 72oGruppo near Përmet, killing Capitano Fuchs and Sergente Vescia. On 4 December 1940, the RAF claimed nine Fiat CR.42s destroyed and two probables. Pattle — whose own aircraft was hit in the main fuel tank and a wing strut — claimed three CR.42s plus another and a Fiat CR.42 as probable victories — he had seen two of his victims bail out. According to Italian combat records, 150° Gruppo, involved in that combat, lost just two CR.42s. Tenente Alberto Triolo and Sottotenente Paolo Penna were killed in action.

Pattle achieved further success on 20 December 1940. On this day he achieved  12 or 13 air victories. Covering the withdrawal of Blenheims from 211 Squadron over the Kelcyre sector, he missed the rendezvous. Instead, Pattle opted to fly a patrol between Tepelene and Kelcyre. He intercepted a flight of escorted SM.79s and attacked them before the escort could react. He downed one via a head-on attack. The crew bailed out and the bomber crashed near Tepelene. Two Gladiators had been damaged and withdrew after being hit by withering return fire. Soon he spotted another formation of much slower Savoia-Marchetti SM.81. He expended all his ammunition and watched the Italian pilot attempt a crash-landing, only for the bomber to hit a tree and disintegrate 15 miles north of Kelcyre. His victims were from 104° Gruppo and drawn from 252a  and 253a  Squadriglia. His first victim was piloted by Tenente Andrea Berlingieri. Berlingieri and his crew were killed. On 21 December, he downed a CR.42, but his unit suffered the loss of Squadron Leader Hickey. Hickey bailed out and was subsequently shot in his parachute. Pilot Officer Ripley was killed also — Pattle witnessed his death. The squadron claimed a number of victories in return. Pattle's 15th and last victory in the Gladiator was claimed on 9 February 1941. In between these dates, on 28 January 1941, he took a third share in the destruction of a CANT Z.1007 and a half-share in a Fiat BR.20. In view of his actions, Pattle was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) on 11 February 1941.

No. 80 Squadron was re-equipped with newer model Hawker Hurricane Mk Is on 20 February 1941. That day, Pattle, flying Hurricane Mk I V7724, was leading a group of six Hurricanes escorting 16 Blenheim light bombers — eight from No. 84 Squadron RAF, six from No. 211 Squadron and three from No. 30 Squadron RAF—to Berat. Fiat G.50bis from the 361a and 395a Squadriglia, 154° Autonomo Gruppo were scrambled from Berat airfield, but they were attacked by the higher altitude Hurricanes. Pattle led his section straight towards four Fiat G.50s and selected the leading aircraft as his own target. It was the first time he had fired the eight guns of the Hurricane, and the G.50 exploded. The Fiat G.50 was from 154° Gruppo and it was the first Hurricane victory that Pattle claimed. Tenente Livio Bassi was killed in this battle. Another CR.42 fell to Pattle on 27 February 1941 — his 17th victory. His Hurricane sustained a bullet hole in the fuel tank.

On 28 February, British pilots in Greece celebrated their biggest success in combat. No. 80 Squadron claimed 27 Italian aircraft without loss in 90 minutes of air combat. Pattle himself claimed three Fiat CR.42s shot down in less than three minutes. The Regia Aeronautica claimed that day it lost just one CR.42 (as confirmed by Italian pilot Corrado Ricci, a participant in those battles), plus four Fiat BR.20s and two G.50bis. The Italians claimed six Gladiators and one Supermarine Spitfire — none would be in the Mediterranean Theatre until March 1942 — while in fact only one Gladiator of No. 112 Squadron was lost, while two Blenheims, attacked by CR.42s had to crash-land returning to base. In a previous fight south of Vlorë, Pattle had to return to base with the windscreen covered by oil from a shot down enemy bomber. His tally was now 21 air victories. Later sources suggested two of Pattle's claim were from the 37° Stormo.

On 4 March 1941, Pattle claimed three enemy Fiat G.50bis fighters (nos 22–24) belonging to 24oGruppo. He claimed the first, while Nigel Cullen — another leading fighter ace — flew as his wingman. Escorting Blenheims to attack Italian warships, the pair were engaged by a lone G.50. Pattle engaged the Fiat and shot it down — its landing gear dropped down and it rolled over and into a mountainside just north of Himare. Pattle searched for Cullen, expecting him to be behind him but saw no sign of the Australian. He assumed Cullen had gone off to scout for more enemy aircraft after missing out on Pattle's victory. Now alone, he was attacked by another lone G.50bis while flying towards Vlorë. After a brief combat, he shot down the Fiat. It crashed into the sea southwest of Vlorë harbour. He then became involved with a third such fighter over Valona harbour and claimed to have shot this down into the sea in flames on the west side of the promontory. After his return to base, he was informed Cullen had been posted missing in action. Pattle and the squadron considered he had most likely been shot down and killed.

Squadron leader
On 12 March 1941, Pattle was promoted to squadron leader. The following day, the squadron returned to Eleusis north of Athens. There, Pattle was reassigned to No. 33 Squadron. Pattle received a Bar to his DFC on 18 March 1941, for which the citation read: "In March 1941, during an engagement over Himara Flight Lieutenant Pattle shot down three enemy fighters. This courageous and skilful fighter pilot has now destroyed at least 23 enemy aircraft".

Pattle arrived in Athens and was immediately unimpressed by No. 33 Squadron. The group was already indignant and many of the veterans believed one of their number should have been promoted instead. He gathered the pilots together and made a statement of his intent:

After the lecture, Pattle took another pilot, Pilot Officer Ping Newton, up for dogfight practice. The squadron watched. They climbed to 10,000 feet, separated and then began a head-on attack so neither would have an advantage. Soon, Pattle had moved onto his tail and Ping could not shake his leader off. He criticised the pilot for being too smooth on the controls and urged his men to be rough with them in combat. Within a week, constant practice had moulded the squadron into an effective team. He impressed on his pilots one critical point about his own approach to combat:

On 23 March, Pattle flew his first missions with No. 33 Squadron, now based at Larissa. They flew as escort for Blenheims from No. 84 Squadron over the Pindus Mountains and Paramythia. Supported by No. 112 Squadron Gladiators, they flew to raid Berat. The cloud base was low and thick and they descended below it at 1,900 feet. The bombers attacked and two Hurricanes were badly damaged by ground fire. One of the squadron was shot down by a Fiat G.50 and bailed out — the Italians disappeared before they could retaliate. In the afternoon, he was briefed to strafe the heavily defended Fieri airfield. It was an unpopular sort of mission. At 25,000 feet, they were intercepted and a dogfight began with G.50s and Macchi C.200s. Only Pattle and one other Hurricane attacked the airfield. Furious, Pattle berated the pilots for not carrying out their primary assignment. He had claimed one enemy fighter as a probable and proceeded to the airfield to claim another victory — his 25th — and claimed another three on the ground.

Battle for Greece

On 6 April 1941, Adolf Hitler resolved to end the conflict in the Balkans and subjugate Allied-sympathetic states. The Invasion of Yugoslavia began in the morning. The German Wehrmacht also intervened in Greece thus beginning the Battle of Greece. Italian failures had allowed another British foothold on the continent too close to the Romanian oilfields — Germany's ally.

No. 33 Squadron was immediately put on alert. At noon, Pattle was ordered to fly a fighter patrol over the Rupel Pass, Bulgaria, another Axis partner. Here he had his first encounter with the Luftwaffe. No. 33 Squadron attacked 20 Bf 109s and claimed five without loss. Pattle claimed two victories over Bf 109Es over the Rupel Pass —Oberleutnant Arno Becker was killed and Leutnant Klaus Faber was captured. These successes represented his 26th and 27th aerial victories. Thereafter, details vary as to his score as all records were destroyed.

The following day, he acted as escort for No. 11 Squadron RAF. Only one enemy aircraft was sighted by Pattle, though none of the squadron could see it. He left them in order to deal with the intruder. Thirty seconds later, they witnessed an explosion and a CR.42 fall to the ground while Pattle rejoined them. It is believed he attacked a reconnaissance Dornier Do 17 from Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ("dive bomber wing 2") which he claimed destroyed, though it appears it made it back to German lines damaged. On 8 April, despite bad weather, Pattle led an attack on Petrich in Bulgaria and left a number of enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground.

The air war intensified after a period of bad weather and the Luftwaffe began exerting severe pressure on communications and Allied ground forces. On 9 April, Pattle claimed a Junkers Ju 88 (actually a Do 17) damaged. He left the burning machine as it disappeared into cloud. Pattle received confirmation that the aircraft crashed and he drove out with a member of the squadron to bring back souvenirs. On 10 April, he flew as fighter escort for No. 11 Squadron Blenheims on a mission over Betjol, Yugoslavia. They were attacked by flights of Messerschmitt Bf 110s and Bf 109s. Pattle shot down a Bf 110 which was seen to crash in flames and a Bf 109 whose pilot bailed out. On Good Friday, Pattle led his squadron into battle against German bombers minelaying over Volos harbour. He dispatched a Ju 88 and Heinkel He 111 into the sea. The successes represented his 33rd and 34th aerial victories.

Pattle's success in the air was overshadowed by events on the ground. The Allied forces were routed at Vevi and the Battle of the Metaxas Line had ended in total defeat for the Greek Army on 9 April. Covering the Greek forces from Larissa, Pattle claimed another Do 17 and SM.79 along with a Bf 109 damaged for his 35th and 36th aerial victories. Interceptions would now be more difficult for the port of Salonika fell. Observers at the port had been able to telephone his operations hut to warn him of approaching enemy aircraft over Mount Olympus. Pattle had to send pairs of fighters to patrol the area, which helped act as a rudimentary warning system. The effect was that there was little warning of impending attacks. The Germans, now operating from forward airfields, slipped through unnoticed. On 13 April, Pattle witnessed 15 Bf 109s strafe the airfield as three Hurricanes took off. Two veteran pilots were killed in the very brief battle in exchange for two Bf 109s. Pattle searched for the Hurricane pilots and found one fighter with a parachute beside it but no pilot. Pattle was to be further disheartened. One of the German pilots bailed out and Pattle watched in horror as the Greek soldiers guarding the airfield shot him dead as he floated down in his parachute. One of the Bf 109s crash-landed perfectly. He ordered that no-one should approach the Bf 109 in case it was rigged with explosives. The pilot was likely Hans-Jakob Arnoldy.

Pattle claimed four victories during five sorties on 14 April. One Bf 109, one Ju 88 and a Bf 110 were claimed as destroyed. His final victory was an Italian SM.79 in the afternoon. The day took his tally to 40 enemy aircraft. As the wreckage of some old Greek aircraft and a captured SM.79 was being cleared up after the attack on 13 April, John D'Albiac, Air Officer Commanding British Forces in Greece, arrived to warn him of the Allied collapse in the north. After seeing the AOC off in a Lysander aircraft escorted by five squadron Hurricanes, Pattle evacuated his squadron to Eleusis.

During the journey, Pattle developed a fever and high temperature. Nevertheless, on 19 April he took to the skies in several missions. By this date, Pattle's fever had metamorphosed into influenza and his condition had worsened. He did not want his squadron to know he was unwell. Pattle feared the effect it would have on morale and vowed to continue flying. The officer commanding No. 80 Squadron, Tap Jones, visited Pattle the day before and noticed he was very gaunt, drawn and that he had lost weight. Jones helped the weakened Pattle change into his flying gear. Jones was acting wing commander, but did not ban Pattle from operations. Pattle claimed six victories this day — three Ju 88s and three Bf 109s — plus one Henschel Hs 126 shared and two probables (a Ju 88 and a Bf 109). The battle with the Bf 109s took place over Eleusis and Tanagra airfields. He engaged III./Jagdgeschwader 77 (Fighter Wing 77 or JG 77) in a head-on position and executed an Immelmann turn which took him behind and above the Messerschmitts and allowed him to claim three of them shot down. No. 33 Squadron claimed four Bf 109s (three were lost). Among the victims was the German ace, Kurt Ubben. Ubben landed in Allied territory and was picked up by a Fieseler Fi 156, escaping to his own lines.

Death over Piraeus Harbour

By dawn on 20 April 1941, the Germans were well aware that British and Allied forces had begun preliminary withdrawal operations from ports in southern Greece. The Luftwaffe made substantial attacks against these departure points in a bid to prevent or forestall an evacuation. On Sunday 20 April, the Luftwaffe mounted mass attacks against Allied shipping in Piraeus Harbour.
On this very morning, at roughly 05:00, large formations appeared over the capital, Athens. The remaining Allied fighter units in the area committed themselves to defending the Allied ships in what became known as "the Battle of Athens". Barely 15 Hawker Hurricanes, the entire Allied air presence in Greece at the time, participated in a series of defensive missions over Athens.

Pattle had flown several patrols that morning and was suffering from a high temperature and fever. He had downed a Ju 88 and two Bf 109s on a morning interception to interdict German air operations. One of his victims, a Bf 109 from III./JG 77 crash-landed at Larissa. His success took Pattle's total from 47 to 49. At 17:00 in the afternoon, another raid approached. He was seen, just before an air raid alarm, in the mess, lying on a couch, shivering under the blankets. He was detailed to take a patrol over the lines but during the mission briefing, around 100 German bombers with fighter escort attacked the capital, seeking to attack Allied shipping in the harbour. He ran for the door towards a Hurricane. His adjutant, George Rumsey, tried to stop him, but Pattle was determined to fly. On the way to his fighter, he narrowly avoided being killed in a strafing attack by a low-flying Bf 110. He took to the skies minutes later. Pattle climbed to gain altitude and headed for Piraeus Harbour at 20,000 feet.

At this time, other Hurricanes were already in action with Bf 110s from Zerstörergeschwader 26 (ZG 26). The Irish ace Timber Woods attacked a formation of Bf 110s positioned above him. One of the Bf 110s detached itself and dived on the RAF pilot. Pattle, instinctively knowing that the German had the advantage and the Hurricane pilot had acted foolishly, dived toward the Bf 110. He engaged the Bf 110, knowing he too would likely be followed and attacked from behind. He succeeded in shooting it down in flames, but not before it had fired at point-blank range into the Hurricane, with the same effect. Woods died when his fighter crashed into the harbour. Pattle avoided a German counter-attack and climbed instead of attempting a dive, since the Bf 110s could out-dive the Hurricane. He fired into another Bf 110 and avoided a collision with a third. No RAF pilot saw Pattle die for certain. Jimmy 'Kettle' Kettlewell, one of Pattle's unit, arrived on the scene moments after Pattle had scored his victory. He saw a lone Hurricane diving towards the sea, its pilot slumped forward over the controls and flames engulfing the engine compartment. Two Bf 110s were still firing at it. Seizing the opportunity, he engaged and shot one of them down watching it and the Hurricane hit the sea simultaneously. Kettle did not specify the fate of the German crew — the victory was his fifth, making him an ace. It is possible Kettlewell's victim was one of two 5./ZG 26 Bf 110s that were lost: Bf 110E (Werknummer 4272—factory number), Oberfeldwebel Georg Leinfelder and Unteroffizier Franz Beckel who were killed in action or Bf 110E (Werknummer 4299), Oberleutnant Kurt Specka and Günther Frank. A third Bf 110 crash-landed with severe damage. Kettlewell was shot down and wounded in the same battle.

Surviving records show that the German claimants included Staffelkapitän Hauptmann Theodor Rossiwall and Oberleutnant Sophus Baagoe who were credited with kills against Hurricanes, taking their scores to 12 and 14 respectively. Baagoe would be killed in action within a month, on 14 May 1941. It cannot be known for certain which one shot down Pattle since three other German pilots made claims in the air battle. One of the 80 Squadron pilots involved in the battle, Roald Dahl, records five Hurricanes were downed in several air battles that day, with four pilots dying. One of those was Pattle.

List of victories
While most of Pattle's victories were claimed while flying Hurricanes, at least 15 were downed in Gladiators. His claims included 26 Italian aircraft.

Pattle was provisionally credited with 50 air victories (and two shared), seven (and one shared) probable victories, and four (and two shared) damaged. It is likely that his total was at least 40 enemy aircraft destroyed a figure which biographer Edgar Baker has compiled through a list of semi-official records and log-books. Baker asserts that the true figure could be higher, owing to the inability of post-war researchers to identify an exact figure, due to the loss or destruction of British records in the retreat from Greece or during the subsequent occupation. Recent research into Pattle's claims has shown that 23 claims can be directly linked to records by March 1941. The Air Historical Branch contains information collated through memory. Baker's work suggests another 17 were claimed in April 1941. Other research dedicated to the history of German bomber units, some of which took part in the air battles against Pattle's unit, have drawn attention to the fact that 97–98 percent of all German primary records belonging to the Luftwaffe have been lost either through Allied bombing or through Hermann Göring's order to destroy all records in the first week of May 1945. This makes any research into German bomber losses difficult.

Memorials
Pattle is commemorated on the Alamein Memorial at El Alamein together with 3,000 other Commonwealth airmen who lost their lives in the Middle Eastern Theatre during the Second World War, and who have no known grave.

Air Marshal Sir Peter Wykeham, recalled:
"Pat Pattle was a natural. Some fighter pilots did not last long because they were too kind to their aircraft; others were successful because they caned it half to death. And their victories were accompanied by burst engines, popping rivets, stretched wire, wrinkled wings. But Pat was a sensitive pilot, who considered his machine, but, somehow he got more from it than anyone else, and possibly more than it had to give."

Pattle is mentioned in Roald Dahl's second autobiography, Going Solo. He flew with Pattle in Greece and called him "the Second World War's greatest flying ace."

The novel Signed with their Honour (1942), by war correspondent James Aldridge, is a fictionalized but realistic  account of 80 Squadron's activities in Greece. It is dedicated to Pattle and 80 Squadron's CO, Hickey, who was also killed in action in Greece.

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 South African Aces of WW2
 Biography

1914 births
1941 deaths
People from Mnquma Local Municipality
White South African people
South African people of English descent
Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II
Royal Air Force squadron leaders
South African World War II flying aces
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)
Alumni of Graeme College
Aviators killed by being shot down
Non-British Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
South African military personnel killed in World War II
People of the Greco-Italian War

Pat Pattle


Moses ben Hanoch or Moses ben Enoch (in , Moshe ben Hanoch) was a medieval rabbi who inadvertently became the preeminent Talmudic scholar of Spain. He died about 965.

Moses was one of the four scholars who went from Sura, the seat of a once flourishing but then declining Talmudic academy, in order to collect contributions for that school. During a voyage from Bari, on the coast of Italy, they were captured by the Moorish-Spanish admiral Ibn Rumahis, who, according to the legend, became enamored of the beautiful young wife of Moses. In distress she asked her husband in Hebrew whether those who were drowned in the sea could look forward to resurrection, and when he answered, in the words of the psalm, "The Lord saith, I will bring again from Bashan, I will bring them again from the depths of the sea," she cast herself into the waters and was drowned. Moses was taken to Cordova with his young son Hanoch, where he was redeemed by the Jewish community, in the year 945 or 948. While there, he went to the schoolhouse where he acted as a server, and sat in the corner listening quietly to the Talmudic discourse of the judge and rabbi, Nathan. At the time, the Jews of Cordoba were not well versed in the methodology of study of Talmud due to the centralization of Torah study in Babylon. Some of Rav Nathan's remarks attracted attention, and Moses' detailed explanation of the passage quoted by Nathan, his use of Rabbinic Aramaic and his ready answers to all questions addressed to him astonished the whole assembly. Nathan, therefore, on that very day voluntarily resigned his office and confessed himself Moses' pupil. The wealthy community of Cordova showed Moses much honor and immediately elected him rabbi. Hasdai ibn Shaprut, rejoicing at this event, induced the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Rahman III to order Ibn Rumahis to forgo the higher ransom which he, in consequence, was demanding for Moses. Moses organized an important school at Cordova, which was independent of the gaonate and was attended by many pupils; and through him Cordova became the seat of Jewish scholarship.

Bibliography
Sefer ha-Ḳabbalah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 41a;
Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, ii. 399 et seq.;
Frankel's Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums, ii. 100 et seq., iii. 397 et seq., 422 et seq.;
Grätz, Gesch. v. 336, 347 et seq., 542 et seq.

References

960s deaths
Year of death uncertain
Year of birth unknown
10th-century rabbis from al-Andalus
Talmudists

Moses ben Hanoch


Lieutenant General Sir Edward Ian Claud Jacob  (27 September 1899 – 24 April 1993), known as Ian Jacob, was a British Army officer, who served as the Military Assistant Secretary to Winston Churchill's war cabinet and was later a distinguished broadcasting executive, serving as the Director-General of the BBC from 1952 to 1959.

Early life
Jacob was born in 1899 in Quetta, Pakistan (then a part of the British Empire). His father was Field Marshal Sir Claud Jacob, in whose footsteps Ian followed by becoming a professional soldier with the Royal Engineers in 1918, after being educated at both Wellington College, Berkshire and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, where he was commissioned into the Royal Engineers. In 1924, Jacob married Cecil Treherne, the daughter of another senior army officer, Surgeon Major-General Sir Francis Treherne. The couple had two sons, William and John.

Jacob served as a commander of a company of Gentlemen Cadets at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich until January 1931 and later at the Staff College, Camberley from 1931 to 1932, (where he passed the entrance examination with record marks), his fellow students there including Brian Horrocks, Sidney Kirkman, Frank Simpson, Cameron Nicholson, Arthur Dowler, Nevil Brownjohn, and Thomas Rees. He also studied at King's College, Cambridge.

Wartime work

Jacob served as the Military Assistant Secretary to the War Cabinet for the duration of the Second World War (he actually asked to be returned to his regiment in 1940, but was refused). He worked closely with Winston Churchill and implemented Churchill's communications during his thirteen wartime journeys outside the United Kingdom. Churchill valued Jacob's efforts enough to endorse his promotion from the rank of colonel to lieutenant general over the course of the war. As a brigadier (war-substantive lieutenant-colonel), Jacob was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel in the Regular Army on 30 June 1943. He was granted the acting rank of major-general on 8 September 1944 and advanced to temporary major-general on 8 September 1945. In the 1944 Birthday Honours, he was appointed a Companion in the Military Division of the Order of the Bath (CB).

Post-war
As Jacob had never been in command of troops, he had few prospects for serious work in the forces after the war and sought to make use of his experience in communications. Indeed, he was one of a number of wartime information service staff who moved into broadcasting after 1945. Jacob retired from the Army on 1 July 1946 with the honorary rank of major-general.

By the end of the war, the BBC's European Service (later the BBC World Service), based at Bush House, had become the world's most respected and sophisticated foreign language broadcasting operation and had been admired for its contribution to the war effort. After the war, however, its significance was greatly reduced and its future in some doubt. The departing head of the service, Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick (who would become the Chairman of the Independent Television Authority a decade later), recommended Jacob as a potential successor. Sir William Haley, the BBC's Director-General, had already met Jacob during preparations to report the news of the D-Day landings and was aware that his political contacts (Churchill in particular) could be valuable. He heeded Kirkpatrick's recommendation, and Jacob was duly appointed Controller of the European Service following his retirement from the Army. Jacob accepted the post shortly after receiving a knighthood for his work with the war cabinet.

In 1947, Haley decided to rationalise the BBC's overlapping European and Overseas services into a single operation. Jacob's successful management of Bush House led to his being appointed Director of the reconstructed Overseas service in which post he continued until 1951. In February 1950, he helped to establish the European Broadcasting Union (responsible for the Eurovision Song Contest and similar events) and served as its first President until 1960.

Back into government
Churchill regained power in 1951, and in addition to being Prime Minister he took the office of Secretary of State for Defence. He immediately asked for William Haley to second Jacob from the BBC to reprise his advisory role, this time under the title of Chief Staff Officer. After a single visit to the United States of America and Canada, Churchill realised that the Defence portfolio was relatively dull during peacetime; he left the post and appointed Field Marshal the Earl Alexander as his replacement. Jacob was less comfortable working for Alexander than for Churchill, but a new opportunity arose for him in June 1952, when Haley announced he was to leave the BBC to become editor of The Times.

Jacob as BBC Director-General
As Haley departed, it was apparent that Jacob was likely to succeed him in the role of Director-General. Jacob was well respected by the senior staff of the BBC, much more so than the other candidate George Barnes, then the controller of BBC television. (Barnes had been appointed Controller of Television in 1950, despite having no enthusiasm for visual broadcasting, and was not popular within the BBC. Indeed, the BBC's regional controllers informed the Chairman, Lord Simon of Wythenshawe, that they would resign simultaneously if Barnes was chosen over Jacob as Haley's replacement). However, Jacob was still officially seconded to the Ministry of Defence, and so a member of the Board of Management, Sir Basil Nicholls, was made acting Director-General until Jacob could be released back to the BBC. Jacob eventually entered his new job on 1 December 1952.

Jacob's tenure coincided with the rise of television, which was beginning to displace radio as the main broadcast medium (sales of Sound-and-Television licences overtook those of Sound-only licences in 1957). In contrast to Haley's hard-bitten era, Jacob's was a time of financial prosperity for the BBC. Indeed, he initially found it hard to persuade senior staff that money was available and that there was ample opportunity to spend it in developing television to the full.

Jacob was an enthusiast of news and current affairs programming, and was keen to continue the BBC's tradition of accuracy and impartiality in its journalism. However, this goal led him to misinterpret the intentions of the controversial Editor of News, Tahu Hole, who was inclined to abuse the impartiality principle to avoid management responsibilities. In fact, it was only in 1958, by which time BBC News was being put to shame by its competitor Independent Television News, that Jacob finally noticed Hole's shortcomings and moved him into an administrative post. Jacob did, however, campaign for the abolition of the restrictive Fourteen-Day Rule that prevented broadcast analysis of topics that were to be debated in parliament within the next fourteen days (the Rule was finally suspended in December 1956). Also during Jacob's time as Director-General was the first showing of Panorama which is the world's longest-running current affairs series as of 2017.

Jacob's approach to news coverage was not always popular with the government. His former mentor Winston Churchill in particular had never liked the BBC's journalistic impartiality, thinking that broadcast media should be a tool of government rather than a forum of political analysis and criticism. Churchill's successor as Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, objected to the BBC's reporting of the 1956 Suez Crisis. Eden insisted that unfavourable reports of the British bombardment of Egypt should not be broadcast to the world on the BBC's Overseas Service, but Jacob refused to compromise:-

Eden responded by cutting the budget of the Overseas Service (which was, unlike today's World Service, funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office rather than the Licence fee which funded the rest of the BBC). However, this punitive measure was lifted after Eden's resignation in 1957 with no further restrictions on the BBC's journalistic freedom.

Jacob was replaced as Director-General in 1960 by Hugh Carleton Greene. Though less radical (and certainly less well-known) than Greene, he saw the BBC successfully through many significant events in British broadcasting: the surge in television viewership (aided especially by the coverage of the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953); the introduction of the competing ITV service in 1955; the gradual modernisation of some old eccentric practices (the aforementioned Fourteen-Day Rule and the Toddlers' Truce closedown period in the early evening). It was also mostly on the strength of Jacob's work that the 1960 Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting recommended that the third television channel should be offered to the BBC, eventually materialising as BBC2 in 1964.

Jacob's date of retirement was 31 December 1959. The following day, he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year's Honours.

Later life
Jacob was the co-author (along with Lord Ismay) of the 1963 Report on the Central Organisation of Defence, a work he later came to regard as his most important ever. He was also a trustee of the Imperial War Museum between 1966 and 1973 and was a County Councillor in Suffolk for two separate periods (1960–1970 and 1974–1977). He was a Deputy lieutenant for the county from 1964 to 1968.

References

Bibliography

External links
Papers of Ian Jacob held at Churchill Archives Centre
Generals of World War II

1899 births
1993 deaths
BBC executives
British Army generals of World War II
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
People from Quetta
Royal Engineers officers
Deputy Lieutenants of Suffolk
Councillors in Suffolk
European Broadcasting Union
British Army lieutenant generals
Military personnel of British India
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
War Office personnel in World War II
Academics of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
Directors-General of the BBC

Ian Jacob


The Cathedral of St. Ducha (the holy spirit) is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Hradec Králové, Czech Republic. It was built in 1307. It was built by order of Eliška Rejčka because the church of St. Klement was too small. The church was burned and rebuilt several times between the 14th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, the church was plundered by Swedish soldiers. In 1664, Pope Alexander VII blessed the church as a cathedral. The last repairs were done after World War II.

Interior
The cathedral has an old Gothic altar from the end of the 15th century. It also has an early baroque altar from the 17th century. There is a portrait of St. Antoním by Petr Brandla, a pastoforium made by Matej Rejsem and a pulpit by Josef Myslbek. Under the cathedral are 3 crypts. There is a legend that Jan Žižka z Trocnova, a famous Hussite commander, was buried there for a short time. In the towers are 4 bells named Leopold, Klement, Václav and Michal.

Services
There are services every day. On Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, services are at 18:30. On Sunday, services are at 6:30, 9:30 and 11:00. There is a special service for children on Wednesdays at 17:30. People can visit the interior of the cathedral during worship.

Photo gallery

Other websites
 History of Cathedral on deanery site
 Official site of Hradec Králové deanery

Roman Catholic cathedrals
Buildings and structures in the Czech Republic

Cathedral of the Holy Spirit, Hradec Králové


Erasmus, full name Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, (28 October, probably 1466 in Rotterdam – 12 July 1536 in Basel) was a Dutch humanist, theologian and philosopher.

Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a "pure" Latin style. Although he was a Catholic, he was critical of the Roman Catholic Church and wrote satires of them. He stood at the beginning of the reformation.

The following information from * to * is sourced from 'Oxford AQA History A LEVEL, The Tudors: England 1485-1603:

*He visited England four times, his most important visit being from 1509 to 1514 when he was appointed to a professorship at Cambridge University. During this visit, he also became a well known figure around the court of King Henry VIII.

In 1516, he published a Greek New Testament complete with a new Latin translation.

Some of his works include Julius Excluded from Heaven, On Civility in Children, The Praise of Folly, Discourse on Free Will, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style and a Handbook of a Christian Knight.

Although he was an important humanist figure who inspired who had some influence on the younger generations of English Humanists, the scope of Erasmian humanism is quite limited and much of the change that took place in England at this time stemmed from the influence of new religious thinking rather than simply scholarly Renaissance humanism.

The term Erasmianism is defined as the body of ideas that is associated with Erasmus and his followers. *

Related pages
ERASMUS programme

References

Other websites

 Works by Erasmus at Internet Archive
 Catholic Encyclopedia
 Metropolitan Museum of Art
 In Defense of Erasmus and the Textus Receptus
 Luther and Erasmus: The Debate on the Freedom of the Will by Charles L. Cortright
 La herencia Erasmus: Presente y futuro
 The Erasmus Text Project
 Erasmus University Rotterdam
 A set of essays on Erasmus

1466 births
1536 deaths
16th-century philosophers
Bible translators
Dutch  theologians
Dutch philosophers
Dutch Roman Catholics
Protestant Reformation
Writers from Rotterdam

Erasmus


Paris is a personality in Greek mythology. He is an important person in the Trojan War, and Homer's Iliad. Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba. Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness, but was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris.

Three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena, had a beauty contest with a prize of the golden Apple of Discord of Eris (goddess). Paris was the judge and they all bribed him. Hera offered him power, Athena offered him wisdom, and Aphrodite promised him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.

The problem was that Helen was already married to Menelaus, the brother of Agamemnon. Paris took Helen home with him to Troy. This caused the Trojan War.

During the war, Paris killed Achilles by shooting his heel with a poisoned arrow.

Late in the war, Paris was killed by Philoctetes.

References

Paris

Paris (Trojan prince)


The Tempest is one of William Shakespeare's last comedies. It tells the story of a wizard who drives a ship to the island he lives on, in order to undo something that happened to him in the past. Unlike most of Shakespeare's plays, it does not appear to be based on an earlier story.

Story
The play is set on an island where a magician called Prospero lives with his daughter Miranda. The only company is Ariel, a spirit that Prospero rescued, and Caliban, a monster that Prospero has enslaved. Prospero conjures a storm that drives a ship to the island. Prospero explains to Miranda that there are men on board the ship who have done wrong against him. He used to be the Duke of Milan but was overthrown by his brother Antonio, with the help of Alonso, the King of Naples. Prospero and Miranda were cast out to sea in a boat, which took them to the island. Miranda was only a baby at the time, and can only remember living on the island.

The passengers of the ship escape onto the island and are separated into groups. Alonso and his son Ferdinand both think each other is dead. Alonso is left with his brother Sebastian, Antonio and his kindly advisor Gonzalo. Ferdinand meets Miranda and falls in love. Prospero tests Ferdinand to see if he is worthy enough for his daughter, and decides that he is. Antonio and Sebastian plot to kill Alonso and Gonzalo, but are stopped by Ariel. Meanwhile, Caliban meets two servants, Trinculo and Stephano. He persuades them to overthrow Prospero so that they can rule the island. Prospero stops them by summoning goblins and hounds to chase them away.

Ariel transforms into a fearsome bird-like creature and confronts Antonio, Alonso and Sebastian, telling them they should be sorry for overthrowing Prospero. They flee and eventually find Prospero. He announces that he will forgive everyone who plotted against him (including Caliban), give up magic and return to Milan. They react in different ways; Alonso is sorry for what he has done, while Antonio thinks the forgiveness is "unnatural". It is revealed that the ship and all the passengers survived the "shipwreck". Prospero sets Ariel free, and he and Miranda join everyone else in heading off back to Italy.

Main characters
 Prospero, the rightful Duke of Milan, who is a magician
 Miranda, Prospero's daughter
 Ariel, an airy spirit who used to be a slave of Sycorax
 Caliban, a savage and deformed slave
 Alonso, King of Naples
 Ferdinand, son of Alonso
 Sebastian, Alonso's brother
 Antonio, Prospero's brother, the usurping Duke of Milan
 Gonzalo, an honest old councillor
 Adrian and Francisco, lords
 Sycorax (unseen), a deceased sorceress and mother of Caliban, who was banished to the island before Prospero arrived and enslaved the spirits on the island, including Ariel.

Parallels with Forbidden Planet
The 1956 science fiction film Forbidden Planet set the story on a planet in space, Altair IV, instead of an island.

Professor Morbius (Walter Pidgeon) and his daughter Altaira (Anne Francis) are the Prospero and Miranda figures (both Prospero and Morbius having harnessed the mighty forces that inhabit their new homes). Ariel is represented by the helpful Robbie the Robot, while Sycorax is replaced with the powerful race of the Krell. Caliban is represented by the dangerous and invisible "monster from the id", a projection of Morbius' psyche born from the Krell technology instead of Sycorax's womb.

Other websites

 Shakespeare's The Tempest: The Wise Man as Hero
 The Theme of Natural Order in "The Tempest"
 Form and Disorder in The Tempest
 The Magic of Charity: A Background to Prospero
 The Tempest  - plain vanilla text from Project Gutenberg
 The Tempest  - scene indexed, online version of the play.
 The Tempest - HTML version of this title.
 Bermoothes in E. Cobham Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1898).
 Lesson plans for The Tempest  at Web English Teacher
 William Strachey's "True Reportory" original-spelling version at Virtual Jamestown.

References

Plays by William Shakespeare
1610s plays

The Tempest


A shrine is a holy or sacred place with something important inside it, such as the tomb of a religious person. Shrines are built in the surroundings of the grave of pious men. These are built to show respect and love for the one who died. People visit the shrines to pray for themselves and also for the dead. Shrines are common in Muslim countries. However other countries also have shrines; in Japan, Shinto 'Jinja' are called shrines in English.

Originally, the word "shrine" referred to a container, usually made of gold or silver and was used to store relics.

The most famous type of shrines are the Buddhist shrines

Shrine