The Last Airbender is a 2010 American adventure fantasy movie released on 2 July 2010. It is a live-action movie adaptation based on the first season of the Avatar: The Last Airbender. The movie stars Noah Ringer as Aang, the main hero of the story. Aang and his friends, Katara and Sokka, journey to the North Pole to find a Waterbending master to teach Aang and Katara how control the water. At the same time, Fire Lord Ozai, the current Fire Lord of the Fire Nation, is waging a seemingly endless war against the Earth Kingdom, the Water Tribes, and the already vanquished Air Nomads. The movie also stars Nicola Peltz, Jackson Rathbone, and Dev Patel.

The first of a planned trilogy, The Last Airbender was created by Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon Movies. Development for a movie began in 2007; it was adapted into a movie by M. Night Shyamalan, who also directed and produced. Other producers include Frank Marshall, Kathleen Kennedy, Sam Mercer and Scott Aversano. The series from which it was adapted (the first season of Avatar: The Last Airbender) was created by Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko. Filming began in mid-March 2009; the movie was released in both traditional two-dimensional projectors, as well as in 3D (using the RealD 3D format).

The Last Airbender was made for $150 million and marketed with a budget of $130 million, making total costs at least $280 million. Other estimates put the cost between $100 million and $110 million, while various news sources reported the whole Last Airbender trilogy would be made for around $250 million. Premiering in New York City on 30 June, 2010, it opened in the USA the following day, grossing an estimated $16 million. The movie has received extremely negative reviews and is widely considered to be one of the worst movies of all time. It won 5 razzies in 2011, including Worst Picture and Worst Eye-Gouging Mis-Use of 3D.

Story

The movie begins with Katara and Sokka finding an iceberg and freeing Aang, the last airbender, and his flying bison, Appa. This attracts the attention of Zuko. Arriving to the Southern Water Tribe, Zuko demands the elderly under the impression that Avatar is an old person until Aang is found. Aang surrenders himself to Zuko as long as he agrees to leave the village alone. Eventually he manages to maneuver away from the guards before Katara and Sokka arrive on Appa, making their escape. Aang and friends visit the Southern Air Temple where the Avatar learns that he was in the ice for 100 years and the Fire Nation killed all the airbenders. It was there Aang meets up with the only known remaining "flying lemur", naming it "Momo" as it joins Aang's group.

Arriving in a small town of Earth Kingdom that is controlled by the Fire Nation, Aang's group are arrested while helping a boy named Haru. They then incite a revolution with reminding the disgruntled Earthbenders that earth was given to them through the air ducts. After, Katara finds a Waterbending scroll that she and Aang used to teach waterbending. During a side track to the Northern Air Temple on his own, Aang is betrayed by a peasant and captured by a group of Fire Nation Yuu Yan archers, commanded by Zhao. However, a masked marauder, the "Blue Spirit" (Zuko), free Aang. Aware that Zuko is the "Blue Spirit," Zhao arranges the prince's demise. But Zuko survives the attempt on his life and, with Iroh's help, sneaks aboard Zhao's lead ship as his fleet departs for the Northern Water Tribe to execute the plan he and Ozai set up with the scrolls from the Library detailing the spirits there.

Upon arriving, Aang's group is welcomed warmly by the citizens of the Northern Water Tribe. Sokka falls in love with Princess Yue, while Aang and Katara master their waterbending skills under master Pakku. Once the Fire Nation armada arrives, Zhao begins his attack while Zuko infiltrates the tribe on his own, capturing Aang while he entered the spirit world to find the dragon spirit to give him the wisdom to defeat the Fire Nation. Coming to his senses, Aang battles Zuko before Katara freezes him. As the battles escalates, Iroh watches Zhao slay the moon spirit Tui, causing the Waterbenders to lose all of their powers and abilities to Waterbend. However, Yue, who was imbued with some of the energy of the Moon Spirit when she was a newborn, sacrifices her life to revive the Moon Spirit. As Zhao is drowned by Northern Waterbenders after Zuko and Iroh leave him to his fate, Aang uses the ocean to drive the armada back. Aang now fully embraces his destiny as the Avatar and prepares to continue their struggle against Ozai. When news of Zhao's death and Iroh's betrayal reaches him, Ozai appoints his daughter Azula to capture both her uncle and older brother while hindering the Avatar in any way before Sozin's Comet makes its return within three years time.

Actors

 Noah Ringer as Aang, who disappeared 100 years ago.  While chronologically 112 years old, Aang still retains his biological age of 12. He is the latest reincarnation of the Avatar.  Though he is able of bending all four elements, at the beginning of the movie he has only learned to airbend.
 Dev Patel as Prince Zuko, a Fire Nation prince who travels with his uncle Iroh. He must capture the Avatar, to come back home and return the throne.
 Nicola Peltz as Katara, the last waterbender of South Pole. She and Sokka find Aang into an iceberg.
 Jackson Rathbone as Sokka, a warrior from the Southern Water Tribe and Katara's older brother. He cannot bending, but is extremely intelligent.
 Shaun Toub as Iroh, Zuko's uncle and older brother of Ozai. In past, a great general of Fire Nation.
 Aasif Mandvi as Admiral Zhao, a hot-tempered Fire Nation Commander who also want to capture the Avatar. But, in the end of the movie, he died.
 Seychelle Gabriel as Princess Yue, the princess of the Northern Water Tribe.
 Cliff Curtis as Fire Lord Ozai, the leader of the Fire Nation as well as Prince Zuko's father. He is a secondary antagonist of the movie, and the main antagonist of the series.

References

Other websites

2010 3D movies
2010 action movies
2010 adventure movies
2010s American action movies
2010s American adventure movies
2010s American fantasy movies
Movies about reincarnation
Avatar: The Last Airbender
Movies set in Antarctica
2010s English-language movies
Movies composed by James Newton Howard
Movies directed by M. Night Shyamalan
Screenplays by M. Night Shyamalan

The Last Airbender


The Euro Banking Association (EBA) is an industry forum for the European payments industry with close to 200 member banks and organisations from the European Union and around the world aimed at fostering and driving pan-European payment initiatives. Through its industry initiatives and the euro payment systems it has delivered, the EBA is a key contributor to the creation of a standardised Single Euro Payments Area (SEPA).

History and structure
The Euro Banking Association (EBA) was founded in Paris in 1985 by 18 commercial banks and the European Investment Bank. The European Commission as well as the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) supported the founding of the EBA. Since then, the number of members has risen to almost 200. The institutions come from all member states of the European Union as well as from Norway, Switzerland, Australia, China, Japan, the United Arab Emirates and the United States.

In its early years, the agenda of the EBA included the promotion of the European Monetary Union (EMU) and the development and management of a private industry ECU clearing system stretching across Europe.

For the start of the EMU, the EBA delivered EURO1, a RTGS-equivalent large-value payment system for single euro transactions. The EBA also developed STEP1, a payment service for single euro payments of high priority and urgency for small and medium-sized banks, and STEP2, a Pan-European Automated Clearing House (PE-ACH), which processes euro retail payments. All three payment systems are run by EBA Clearing.

References
 EBA CLEARING
 MyBank
 EBAday
 The Payment System

External links

Banking in the European Union
Business and finance professional associations
1985 establishments in France
Organizations based in Paris
French companies established in 1985

Euro Banking Association


Edward Griffith Begle (November 27, 1914 – March 2, 1978) was a mathematician best known for his role as the director of the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), the primary group credited for developing what came to be known as The New Math.  Begle was a topologist and a researcher in mathematics education who served as a member of the faculty of Stanford University, Princeton University, The University of Michigan, and Yale University.  Begle was also elected as the secretary of the American Mathematical Society in 1951, and he held the position for 6 years.

Biography
Edward G. Begle was born November 27, 1914 in Saginaw, Michigan.  Studying at the University of Michigan, Begle earned his A.B. in Mathematics in 1936 and his M.A. in 1938.  Begle's early academic work was in the field of topology, which is where he earned his Ph.D. at Princeton, studying under Solomon Lefschetz in 1940.  While Begle's contributions to the field of mathematical research are limited, among them is the first proof of the Vietoris theorem, which caused it to become commonly known as the Vietoris–Begle mapping theorem.

Begle departed Princeton a year after completing his doctorate to spend a year as a Fellow of the National Research Council, after which he joined the faculty of Yale in 1942.  Begle's interest in mathematics education is apparent in his early mathematics texts, where the writing departs from the tradition at the time of writing textbooks addressed to accomplished mathematicians.  Instead, Begle's introductory mathematics texts actually address freshman mathematicians, a revolutionary concept in teaching math.  As Begle's stature increased as an educator within the field of mathematics, he gained notice within his field and was elected secretary of the American Mathematical Society in 1951.

In the wake of Sputnik in 1958, Begle gained the directorship of the School Mathematics Study Group, a post he would hold for 15 years.  Under his leadership, the SMSG published numerous reports and studies, culminating in its series of books detailing the teaching revolution known as The New Math.  It was in this capacity that in 1961, Begle took on an appointment as professor in the  School of Education at Stanford as well as a courtesy appointment in the Stanford Department of Mathematics.  Also in 1961, Begle was awarded with the Mathematical Association of America's highest honor: The Award for Distinguished Service to Mathematics.

At the time of his death in 1978, Begle was working on a compilation of the results of his 15-year tenure as the director of the SMSG and a culmination of his lifetime of experience in mathematics education.  Published posthumously in 1979, Critical Variables in Mathematics Education: Findings from a Survey of the Empirical Literature was listed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics as Begle's most influential work.

Bibliography
 1951 Introductory calculus, with analytic geometry, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, revised edition 1960, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
 1955 Freshman mathematics at Yale University, (National Science Foundation), Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College
 1955 Lectures on experimental programs in collegiate mathematics, (National Science Foundation), Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College
 1964 Cooperative research project no. F-037: Final report. I. Conference on Mathematics Education for Below Average Achievers. II. Writing experience for potential ... participation in a group writing project, Stanford University Press
 1971 Calculus, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
 1972 Teacher knowledge and student achievement in algebra, School Mathematics Study Group
 1972 Teacher effectiveness in mathematics instruction (NLSMA reports), Available from A.C. Vroman
 1972 The prediction of mathematics achievement (NLSMA reports), Available from A.C. Vroman
 1975 The mathematics of the elementary school, McGraw-Hill
 1979 Critical Variables in Mathematics Education: Findings from a Survey of the Empirical Literature, Mathematical Association of America

References
 NCTM Biography of Edward Griffith Begle
 List of Books by Edward Griffith Begle
 Mathematics Genealogy Project Entry on Edward Griffith Begle
 Edward G. Begle Memorial Resolution

1914 births
1978 deaths
People from Saginaw, Michigan
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Stanford Graduate School of Education faculty
Princeton University faculty
University of Michigan faculty
Yale University faculty
Stanford University Department of Mathematics faculty
20th-century American mathematicians
Mathematicians from Michigan

Edward G. Begle


Tagalog sakey salitan ya suraten ken moste toon diad pegley diad Pilipino.

Tagalog so sakey mabalin ya to:
 Toon Tagalog, a Filipino ethnic group that is the original speakers of Tagalog language.

Persons with the name
 Ruben Tagalog, musikano Pilipino

See also
 Batangueño, a variation of the Tagalog language in southern Luzon in Philippines.
 Script na Tagalog, also known as Baybayin.
 Katimugang Katagalugan region, Regions IV-A and IV-B in the Philippines.
 Tagalongs, a variety of Girl Scout cookie
 Tagalong, Tag Along, or Tag-a-long, alternate names for trailer bikes

Tagalog


In chemistry, paraffin is the common name for the alkane hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax refers to the solids with n between 20 and 40, inclusive.

The simplest paraffin molecule is that of methane, CH4, a gas at room temperature. Heavier members of the series, such as that of  octane, C8H18, and mineral oil appear as liquids at room temperature. The solid forms of paraffin, called paraffin wax, are from the heaviest molecules from C20H42 to C40H82. Paraffin wax was identified by Carl Reichenbach in 1830.

Paraffin, or paraffin hydrocarbon, is also the technical name for an alkane in general, but in most cases it refers specifically to a linear, or normal alkane — whereas branched, or isoalkanes are also called isoparaffins. It is distinct from the fuel known in Ireland, Britain and South Africa as paraffin oil or just paraffin, which is called kerosene in most of the U.S., Australia and New Zealand.

The name is derived from the Latin parum (= barely) + affinis with the meaning here of "lacking affinity", or "lacking reactivity". This is because alkanes, being non-polar and lacking in functional groups, are very unreactive.

Related pages
Paraffin (disambiguation)

References

Hydrocarbons

Paraffin wax


Charles, Prince of Viana () (29 May 1421 – 23 September 1461), sometimes called Charles IV of Navarre, was the son of King John II of Aragon and Queen Blanche I of Navarre.

Background
His mother was the daughter and heiress of Charles III, King of Navarre. Both his grandfather Charles and his mother, who ruled over Navarre from 1425 to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose right had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche died in 1441 her husband John seized the kingdom to the exclusion of his son.

Marriage
The Prince of Viana was married in Olite (Navarre) on  30 September 1439, taking as his wife Agnes of Cleves (1422–1446), the daughter of Adolph I, Duke of Cleves and Mary of Burgundy; sister of Philip III "the Good", Duke of Burgundy. Agnes died, childless, on 6 April 1448, eight years after her marriage to Charles, aged only about twenty-six. After her death, the prince took a mistress, Brianda de Vaca, and by her had an illegitimate son, born about 1449. He wished to remarry, and a possibility which was canvassed was a match with Isabella of Scotland (1426–1494), the widow of Francis I, Duke of Brittany, after he died on 18 July 1450, but this was opposed by Charles VII of France. A match was then agreed between Charles and the Infanta Catherine of Portugal (1436–1463), daughter of King Edward I, but the marriage was delayed and had not taken place when Charles died in 1461. Charles left three illegitimate children by three different mistresses:

Anna, Countess of Medinaceli
Philip, Archbishop of Palermo
John, Bishop of Huesca

Clashes with his father

The ill feeling between father and son was increased when in 1447 John took for his second wife Juana Enriquez, a Castilian noblewoman (of a bastard cadet line from Castilian kings), who soon bore him a son, afterwards Ferdinand II of Aragon, and who regarded her stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in the internal affairs of Navarre, a civil war broke out, and in 1452 Charles, although aided by King John II of Castile, was defeated and taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the kingly title until after his father's death, the prince, again unsuccessful in an appeal to arms, took refuge in Naples with King Alfonso V of Aragon. In 1458 Alfonso died and John became king of Aragon, while Charles was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined these proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned to Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry Isabella of Castile, he was then thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans rose in his favor. This insurrection soon became general and John was obliged to yield. He released his son, and recognized him as perpetual governor of Catalonia, and heir to the kingdom.

Death and legacy

Soon afterwards, however, on 23 September 1461, the prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion that he had been poisoned by his stepmother, Joanna Enriquez.

Charles was a cultured and amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated Aristotle's Ethics into Aragonese, a work first published at Zaragoza in 1509, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, Cronica de los reyes de Navarra.

Ancestry

References

External links
"El príncipe don Carlos de Viana" by José Moreno Carbonero at ArteHistoria
The Prince Carlos of Viana in Medieval History of Navarre

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1421 births
1461 deaths
15th-century Navarrese monarchs
Charles
Navarrese monarchs
Princes of Viana
Dukes of Montblanc
Dukes of Gandía
Navarrese infantes
Aragonese infantes
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Burials at the Poblet Monastery
Sons of kings

Charles, Prince of Viana


The Laws of war are some simple rules or international law which most people accept about fighting out of humanitarianism. Many people think that because there is fighting, there should be no rules. This is called "total war". However, laws of war have been made so that wars do not get worse than they need to be.

Anything marked as a hospital, an ambulance, a doctor, or a first aid person are not to be attacked. Those places, vehicles, and people should not have weapons.
Anyone who is a member of a neutral power is not to be a target of violence unless the said person is committing or intending to commit a hostile act.
Anyone fighting in the war has to wear a uniform. They can only wear the uniform of their side. Also they have to carry their weapons out in the open where they can be seen.
Anyone carrying or waving a plain white flag or piece of cloth must not be attacked. That person should also not attack anyone. They may want to surrender, or just talk about ways to solve the problem without more fighting.
Any enemy soldier captured must be treated fairly as a prisoner of war.
Religious buildings such as churches, mosques, and temples are to be protected at all costs.
Occupied territory should be governed fairly and not looted or devastated.

Where the laws come from
These laws come from various treaties. Some of these treaties are:
The Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law of 1856. It abolished privateering
The First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 1864
The St. Petersburg Declaration of 1868. It bans ammunition of less that 400 grams weight. It also bans ammunition with Fulminates in them, or  with inflammable substances. Through this convention, it is no longer allowed to use ammunition that falls apart into fragments, that burns, or explodes for small arms. Such ammunition can still be used in autocannon or artillery though.
The Hague Conventions of 1898 and 1907
Various other Geneva Conventions
The Charter of the United Nations
Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects. This bans certain types of weapons (like some landmines, weapons with fragmenting ammunition, incendiary devices and blinding laser weapons)

Related pages
International humanitarian law
Military justice

War
International law

Laws of war


According to the principle of 'To each according to his contribution', during the transition of a society from capitalism to socialism and then to communism, individuals should be rewarded for the amount they contribute to society. Economists such as David Ricardo (1772-1823) had this idea. Ricardo founded a movement that is known as Ricardian socialism today. Many people in the labour movement had this idea too. Ferdinand Lassalle (1825–1864) and Eugen Dühring (1833-1921) expressed such ideas towards Leon Trotsky. Despite this, Vladimir Lenin was the first person to say that this element is fundamental to Marxist theory.

According to Libertarian socialist thinkers, such as American anarchist Benjamin Tucker, socialism is a system in which the laborer receives the full product of his labor. This eliminates exploitation and unearned income accrued to the capitalist.

The term To each according to his contribution simply means that each worker in a socialist society receives "wages" and benefits according to the quantity and value of the labor that he or she contributed. That way, highly productive workers will receive more wages and benefits than workers of average productivity, and substantially more than workers of low productivity. What is more, the more difficult the job is, the more one is rewarded for the labor contributed. Difficulty can result from factors such as greater training requirement, job intensity or safety hazards. According to Trotsky, the idea is to promote productivity. This is done by creating incentives to work harder, longer, and more productively. In the end, the principle comes from capitalism, but will vanish, according to Marx, as work becomes more automated and enjoyable, and as goods become available in greater quantities.

In capitalism, the means of production are owned by a few people; these people are also known as the bourgeoisie. These people do not produce, but they live off the work others do for them. Socialism can fix this issue, because with socialism, the means of production are owned by all people, they are a common good.

Related pages
From each according to his ability, to each according to his need
He who does not work, neither shall he eat

References

Socialism

To each according to his contribution


The Apollo asteroids are a group of asteroids near Earth named after 1862 Apollo, the first asteroid of this group to be discovered by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth. They are asteroids that cross Earth. Some of these asteroids can get very close to the Earth, making them a potential threat to our planet.

Well-known Apollo asteroids include:

Astronomy lists

Apollo asteroids


Sphalerite is a mineral. Its is a mixed zinc and iron sulfide. The chemical formula is (Zn,Fe)S. It can be brown, yellow, red, green, and black. It is normally found with galena, a lead ore. It is also known as zinc blende. It has a Mohs hardness of 3.5 to 4. It is the main ore of zinc. It has a non-metalic sheen.

Minerals

Sphalerite


USS Will Rogers (SSBN-659) (referred to as Willy R by her crews) was a  ballistic missile submarine – the last of the "41 for Freedom" Polaris submarines. She was the only ship of the United States Navy to be named for humorist Will Rogers (1879–1935).

Construction and commissioning
The contract to construct Will Rogers was awarded on 29 July 1963, and her keel was laid down on 20 March 1965 at Groton, Connecticut, by the General Dynamics Corporation's Electric Boat Division.  She was launched on 21 July 1966 sponsored by Muriel Buck Humphrey, the wife of Vice President of the United States Hubert Humphrey, and commissioned on 1 April 1967 with Captain R. Y. Kaufman in command of the Blue Crew and Commander W. J. Cowhill in command of the Gold crew.

Service history

Following shakedown, Will Rogers culminated her initial training and work-up by conducting a successful Polaris ballistic missile launch on the Atlantic Missile Range off Cape Kennedy, Florida, on 31 July 1967. In October 1967, she began her first strategic deterrent patrol.

Will Rogers was based at Groton until 1974 when she shifted to a forward deployment at Naval Station Rota, Spain. Around this time, she was converted to carry Poseidon ballistic missiles, and her nuclear reactor was modified to use an S3G core 3. She conducted additional deterrent deployments from Rota into 1978, bringing the total number of patrols she had conducted to 35.

From the latter half of 1978 until November 1991 Will Rogers was forward deployed at Site One in Holy Loch, Scotland. On 9 November 1991, Will Rogers departed Site One, the last submarine to leave Holy Loch before Submarine Squadron 14, which had been based there, was deactivated.

Deactivation, decommissioning, and disposal
Deactivated while still in commission, Will Rogers entered the U.S Navys Nuclear-Powered Ship and Submarine Recycling Program at Bremerton, Washington on 2 November 1992. She was formally both decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 12 April 1993. Scrapping via the recycling program was completed on 12 August 1994.

References

Benjamin Franklin-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Ships built in Groton, Connecticut
1966 ships

USS Will Rogers


The Carabinieri (, also , ; formally Arma dei Carabinieri, "Arm of Carabineers"; previously Corpo dei Carabinieri Reali, "Royal Carabineers Corps") are the national gendarmerie of Italy who primarily carry out domestic and foreign policing duties. It is one of Italy's main law enforcement agencies, alongside the Polizia di Stato and the Guardia di Finanza. As with the Guardia di Finanza but in contrast to the Polizia di Stato, the Carabinieri are a military force. As the fourth branch of the Italian Armed Forces, they come under the authority of the Ministry of Defence; for activities related to inland public order and security, they functionally depend on the Ministry of the Interior. In practice, there is a significant overlap between the jurisdiction of the Polizia di Stato and Carabinieri, although both of them are contactable through 112, the European Union's Single Emergency number. Unlike the Polizia di Stato, the Carabinieri have responsibility for policing the military, and a number of members regularly participate in military missions abroad.

They were originally founded as the police force of the Kingdom of Sardinia, the forerunner of the Kingdom of Italy. During the process of Italian unification, the Carabinieri were appointed as the "First Force" of the new national military organization. Although the Carabinieri assisted in the suppression of opposition during the rule of Benito Mussolini, they were also responsible for his downfall and many units were disbanded during World War II by Nazi Germany, which resulted in large numbers of Carabinieri joining the Italian resistance movement.

In 2000, they were separated from the Army to become a separate branch of the Italian Armed Forces. Carabinieri have policing powers that can be exercised at any time and in any part of the country, and they are always permitted to carry their assigned weapon as personal equipment (Beretta 92 FS pistols).

The Carabinieri are often referred to as "La Benemerita" (The Reputable or The Meritorious) as they are a trusted and prestigious law enforcement institution in Italy. The first official account of the use of this term to refer to the Carabinieri dates back to June 24, 1864.

History

Early history
Inspired by the French gendarmerie, the corps was created by King Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia with the aim of providing the Savoyard state of the Kingdom of Sardinia with a police corps. Previously, police duties were managed by the Dragoni di Sardegna Corps, created in 1726 and composed of volunteers. After French soldiers had occupied Turin at the end of the 18th century and later abandoned it to the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Royal Carabinieri Corps was instituted under the Royal Patents of 13 July 1814. The name is derived from the French word carabinier, meaning "soldier armed with a carbine."

The new force was divided into divisions on the scale of one division for each province. The divisions were further divided into companies and subdivided into lieutenancies, which commanded and coordinated the local police stations and were distributed throughout the national territory in direct contact with the public.

In 1868, the Cuirassiers Regiment or Corazzieri was formed, initially as a cavalry escort of honour for the sovereign, and since 1946 for the President of the Republic. The Italian unification saw the number of divisions increased, and on 24 January 1861, the Carabinieri were appointed the "First Force" of the new national military organization.

In May 1915, Italian troops marched to encompass South Tyrol, a territory of their former allies Austria-Hungary, in the Italian front . The defenders had sufficient time to prepare strong fortifications there, and at the Karst Plateau to the east. The Italians, under the overall command of General Luigi Cadorna, found themselves repeatedly repulsed in harsh fighting. The role of the Carabinieri was to act as barrier troops, setting up machine gun posts to control the rear of the attacking regiments and prevent desertion.

1930s and 1940s
During Fascist Italy (1922–1943) under Benito Mussolini, the Carabinieri were one of the police forces entrusted with suppressing opposition in Italy. During the same period, while part of the Italian African Police (mainly in the late 1930s), they were involved in atrocities in colonial Italian East Africa during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. During World War II, they fought in their function as military police against the Allied forces, and against Yugoslav Partisans as part of the Italian occupation force of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy on 25 July 1943, on the orders of the king, Mussolini was arrested by the Carabinieri as he left the king's private residence in Rome and subsequently imprisoned on Campo Imperatore by Carabinieri forces. After the armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces on 3 September 1943 and the country's split into the fascist Italian Social Republic in the north and the Kingdom of Italy in the south, the Carabinieri split into two groups.

In the Kingdom of Italy, the Carabinieri Command for Liberated Italy was founded in Bari, mobilizing new units for the Italian war of liberation. These units were attached to the Italian Liberation Corps and the six Italian Combat Groups of the Italian Co-Belligerent Army, fighting with the Allied forces.

In the fascist Social Republic in the North, the regime organized the National Republican Guard (composed of Carabinieri, former officers from the Italian African Police, Guardia di Finanza and customs police), to employ it as a military police and rapid-deployment anti-guerrilla force. GNR was later joined (but not taken over) by the Black Brigades, which represented a new militant incarnation of the Fascist party.

Due to the role the Carabinieri had played in the downfall of Mussolini, and since one of the few units which fought the German occupation of Rome were the Granatieri di Sardegna Mechanized Brigade regiments and the II Carabinieri cadet battalion, the Germans did not view the Carabinieri as loyal to the fascist cause. They disarmed the force and began the deportation of 8,000 officers to Germany for forced labour on 6 October 1943; the Italian Colonial Police took over their jobs.

Subsequently, large numbers of Carabinieri joined the Italian resistance movement to fight German and Italian fascists. Nonetheless, some 45,000 officers remained on the job and as of March 1944, this group was the only national security force in Italy.

After the war the Carabinieri counted at least 2735 fallen and 6500 wounded, out of approximately 14,000 who had joined the Resistance in northern and central Italy. In Yugoslavia, the Carabinieri formed a battalion of the Italian 182nd Armored Infantry Regiment "Garibaldi", which fought alongside the Yugoslav partisans against the Wehrmacht and the Croatian Ustaše. The battalion lost over 80% of its members in combat and was awarded the Silver Medal of Military Valor to commemorate the fallen.

One notable act of heroism in this era came from Vice Brigadiere Salvo D'Acquisto, who was executed by Nazi Germany in Palidoro (near Rome) during World War II. D'Acquisto exchanged his life for the lives of citizens due to be executed in retaliation for the killing of a German soldier; instead, he claimed responsibility and was executed for the offence.

Present day

The Carabinieri were in the forefront of many internal conflicts in Italy in the late 20th century, such as the Years of Lead (against the Red Brigades) and the Second Mafia War (against the Corleonesi Mafia). They participated, and lost men, in events such as the Peteano massacre in 1972, Circonvallazione massacre in 1982, and the murder of Emanuele Basile. Until 2000, the Carabinieri were part of the Italian Army. On 31 March 2000, they were separated to become the fourth branch of the Italian Armed Forces. Interpol summarizes this force (part of the Ministry of Defence) as having a "nationwide remit for crime investigations. It also serves as the military police for the Italian armed forces and can be called upon for national defence action."

According to Europol (the EU's law enforcement agency), the Carabinieri Corps' military duties include "contributing to national defence, participating in military operations in Italy and abroad, executing military police functions and ensuring the security of Italian diplomatic and consular representations". As a national police force, it "carries out public order and security policing, as well as investigative activities on its own initiative or at the request of the judicial authorities". Europol also states that the force is "supplemented by the Specialized Carabinieri Commands, responsible for safeguarding the primary interests of the community: from the protection of the environment, health, work and national cultural heritage, to the observance of community and agri-food regulations, to the suppression of forgery [of] currency".

In recent years Carabinieri units have been dispatched on peacekeeping missions, including Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. In 2003, 12 Carabinieri were killed in a suicide bombing on their base in Nasiriyah, near Basra in southern Iraq, in the largest Italian military loss of life in a single action since the Second World War. One of the previous projects included training and assisting the Afghan National Security Forces, the Afghan National Police, and the Afghan National Civil Order Police. In Iraq, Carabinieri have trained 13,000 police officers; during the ISIS destruction of historic sites, Italy dispatched troops from the Carabinieri's Command to protect cultural heritage.

At the Sea Island Conference of the G8 in 2004, Carabinieri were given a mandate to establish a Centre of Excellence for Stability Police Units to spearhead the development of training and doctrinal standards for civilian police units attached to international peacekeeping missions.

The State Forestry Corps was dissolved on 31 December 2016 and personnel with forestry police function were militarized and absorbed by the Carabinieri.

Organization

The corps is headed by the , consisting of the Comandante Generale (a General), the  (a Lieutenant General) and the Chief of Staff, all located in Rome. The Chief of Staff directs, coordinates and supervises all activities of the force. It directly supervises the Directors of Administration, Health, Engineering, the motor pool and the Veterinary Commission. On the Deputy Chiefs of Staff depend the National Center for Recruitment and Selection, the Administration National Center and the Legislation Office.

Territorial Organization
The Carabinieri are organised on a territorial basis for law-enforcement missions. The territorial organization represents the core of the institution; it contains 80 percent of the force and is organized hierarchically in five inter-regional commands, 19 regional commands and 102 provincial commands, 504 Company Commands and
4,672 Station Commands and lieutenancies.

The territorial organization includes four heliborne units:

 Carabinieri Heliborne Squadron "Cacciatori di Calabria", responsible for operations in Calabria
 Carabinieri Heliborne Squadron "Cacciatori di Sicilia", responsible for operations in Sicily
 Carabinieri Heliborne Squadron "Cacciatori di Sardegna", responsible for operations in Sardinia
 Carabinieri Heliborne Squadron "Cacciatori di Puglia", responsible for operations in Apulia

Specialist and Mobile Units Command Organization

Outside the territorial organisation, the Specialist and Mobile Units Command Palidoro (, based in Rome) controls the Carabinieri Mobile Units Division, the Carabinieri Specialist Units Division and the ROS.

Carabinieri Specialist Units Division

The Carabinieri Specialist Units Division is the Carabinieri formation, established in 2001, dedicated to the performance of specialist police activities and the support to the Territorial Organizations. The Division directs, controls, and coordinates its own units, which carry out tasks related to the protection of Italian artistic heritage, to the currency protection, to the protection of Italian embassies abroad, to the health protection, to the labour policing, to Bank of Italy needs, to the Carabinieri forensics police services. In addition, the Division provides Carabinieri air support.

Mobile Units Division

The Carabinieri Mobile Units Division is located in Rome and has two brigades tasked with mass manoeuvres during emergencies, defending the nation and participating in military operations abroad. It supports public order and territorial control in urban areas, and contributes to the operations of civil authorities in terms of public safety. 1st Mobile Brigade, whose headquarters is located in Rome and includes six Regiments and four Battalions mainly employed in public order tasks. 2nd Mobile Brigade headquartered in Livorno includes the Gruppo di Intervento Speciale  special forces group, the 1st Paratroopers Carabinieri Regiment "Tuscania", and the 7th "Trentino-Alto Adige" and 13th "Friuli-Venezia Giulia" regiments, which, together with the Multinational Specialized Unit, are mainly engaged in international missions.

Special forces

The Gruppo di Intervento Speciale in one of the six Italian special forces.

ROS
The ROS (Raggruppamento Operativo Speciale or Special Operational Group) is an elite unit founded in 1990 to deal with organised crime (Mafia and others), subversive activities, terrorism and more complex types of crime. An anti-crime section is found in every city and district public prosecutor's office.

Special Tasks Departments

Special Tasks Departments are outside the ordinary organisational framework and are used for special missions:
Corazzieri (Cuirassiers) are an elite corps and honour guard of the President of the Italian Republic, located in the Quirinal Palace. They are distinguished by their uniforms and height (the minimum height for admission is ). They have almost no other everyday duties, although they may be seen patrolling occasionally.

Other departments are in service to constitutional bodies such as, the Presidency of the Republic, the Senate, Parliament, the Judiciary, the prime minister and the National Council of Economy and Labour. Carabinieri also perform military police and security duties for the Ministry of Defence, military high commands, the offices of the military judiciary and allied military organisations in Italy and abroad. They also have personnel attached to the Department of Public Security in various departments, as well as anti-Mafia and anti-drug investigative task forces. Carabinieri officers are charged with surveillance and security at Italian embassies and consulates abroad, performing the same services entrusted to the Marine Corps Embassy Security Group in United States diplomatic and consular offices.

Together with the Polizia di Stato and the Guardia di Finanza, the Carabinieri is also responsible for border control.

Command Unit for environmental, agri-food and forestry protection
The specialized Comando unità per la tutela forestale, ambientale e agroalimentare has headquarter located in Rome and organized in 15 regional command and approximately 700 Station Commands on the territory. It counts 7,000 personnel involved in contrast of illicit agri-foodstuffs, environmental and biodiversity protection, contrast to poaching, contrast to all criminal organizations that, with their activity, affect the environment. In the Unit, there are also 29 NOE (Nucleo Operativo Ecologico), nucleus highly specialized in complex investigations in environmental matters against organized crime.

War service

The main battles in which the Carabinieri took part before World War I are:

 Grenoble, July 5, 1815
 Battle of Pastrengo, 30 April 1848 –  the Carabinieri Corps was awarded its first Silver Medal of Military Valor
 Battle of Santa Lucia, 6 May 1848 –  the Carabinieri Corps was awarded its first Bronze Medal of Military Valor
 Battle of Custoza, 24–25 July 1848
 Battle of Custoza, 24 June 1866
 Capture of Rome, 20 September 1870 (together with the Bersaglieri)

For its contributions during the First World War, the Corps was awarded its first Gold Medal of Military Valor

In World War II, Carabinieri fought in the following battles:
 Battle of Klisoura on the Greek-Albanian front from 16 to 30 December 1940 Bronze Medal of Military Valor
 Battle at Cafe Struga on the Albanian-Yugoslav front on 18 April 1941
 Battle of Culqualber (Ethiopia), 6 August-21 November 1941 –  Corps was awarded its second Gold Medal of Military Valor

From 1943 to 1945, the Carabinieri were accountable to the Control Commission of the Allied Military Government (AMGOT). Their reorganization and reform was organized by Colonel Arthur Young, a British police officer seconded as Director of Public Safety and Director of Security.

Uniforms

The Carabinieri, as a military and police force have various uniforms for different functions. For each type of uniform there are seasonal variants and (except for service, combat and historical) versions for men and women. How, when and why they are to be worn is dictated by the "R-11 "Regulation on Uniforms for the Carabinieri Arma" published by the Carabinieri General Command in 1988.

The uniforms of the Carabinieri are divided into:
 historical and full dress
 ordinary,
 service,
 representative, (for warrant officers, NCOs and constables)
 Great Winter Uniform (GUI) / Great Summer Uniform (GUE) (for officers)
 operational use
 athletic gear

Those of service, representation and GUI/GUE are a derivation of the ordinary.

History
Originally, the Carabinieri were issued a distinctive uniform in black with silver braid around the collar and cuffs, edges trimmed in scarlet and epaulettes in silver. The mounted division had white fringes, and the infantry had light blue. Their headgear was a distinctive bicorne, popularly called the lucerna (in use only for historical uniform and ceremonies).
They still use a version of the historic uniform today for ceremonies.

Design
The uniform that the Gendarmerie wore in 1814 consisted of a turquoise fabric buttoned suit with a blue collar and padded gloves. Since 1822, some small changes have been made to the uniform. Officials and Marshals had silver swords and sabres, both in a black leather scabbard. At the beginning of the 20th Century, the rules of the dress code were reinforced because of World War I.

Troopers had three different types of uniforms: the Complete uniform, the Ordinary uniform, and the Effort uniform. The Carabinieri's uniform at that time was made of a green-grey cloth material, and was used by all soldiers.

Historical and Ceremonial (Special) uniform

For historical and ceremonial use, the Carabinieri uniform consists of a distinctive black uniform made of silver braids around the collar and cuffs, edges trimmed in scarlet and epaulettes in silver. The fringes of the mounted division are white, and the infantry has light blue. The headgear used is the traditional two-pointed hat for Carabinieri, known as the Lucerna, also called a bicorne.

During the 1980s Giorgio Armani designed the new more modern uniforms.

Ordinary uniform

The modern Carabinieri Force uniform is coloured in black for every seasonal version, with small variations on weather basis (coat or wind jacket), and is composed of:

a four-button jacket with shoulder pads: all buttons on the uniform are silvered
a shirt underneath in white, with two pockets
trousers have a classic cut, with four pockets and has two vertical red stripes along the outer side of both legs, stretching from the hips to the ankles
flat black shoes are worn.

The uniform is accompanied by accessories such as:

the black tie,
the white cross-belt, or Sam Browne or no belt,
peaked cap (males), bowler cap (females)
black leather gloves,
V-neck sweater
wind-breaker
waterproof coat

There are differences for season, duties, rank and location. For instance, in the summer the four-button jacket and white shirt and tie are replaced with a short-sleeved blue shirt.

Depending on the weather conditions, the uniform can be worn with a waterproof coat (or beaver cloth for officers) and an anorak. Inside the military installations, the jacket can be removed or replaced with the "V-neck" sweater.

In 2020 new 'bomber-style jackets', with appropriate logos were introduced which can be worn instead of the four-button jacket. The white cross belt is still worn on top and either a roll-neck base layer or a white shirt and tie is worn underneath.

Accessories are the same, although Wanted in Rome reported that: "The old leather holster will also be retired, replaced by an external belt with a quick-release holster, made of plastic material.  The old gloves will be replaced with modern, cut-resistant gloves.  However, style has not been sacrificed for function, begging the question, are the Carabinieri of Rome the most stylish police force in the world?"

Headdress
The regulation peaked cap is rigid with a frieze of the Carabinieri (metallic for pinned, Carabinieri and students, embroidered in silver fabric for NCOs, gilded for the inspectors and officers while for the generals the frieze is the eagle of the staff with RI monogram in the centre, silver for brigade and division generals, gold for corps generals). The commanding officers of the department wear the frieze embroidered in gold-edged with red.

The official emblem is placed at the center of the cap.

Each cap is black and has a wimple held by two rounded buttons, the wimple is black for carabinieri, pinned, brigadiers and students; for the chief brigadiers the wimple is also black but with the addition of a silver galloncino mottled with black. The wimple becomes silver mottled with black in the center from the rank of marshal to that of chief marshal with the number of chevrons increasing as the rank increases. For the major marshals, the wimple is silver edged in red with three silver gallons flecked with black; for the top rank of non-commissioned officers, i.e. the lieutenant, the wiggle is silver edged in red with four silver braids edged in red.

For the lower officers, the wiggle and the braids are entirely in silver without streaks, for the superior officers, the wiggle becomes a double braided cord always silver with silver braids. Finally, for the general officers, the wimple becomes a silver braid with silver braids.

Other forms of headdress include berets and mountain-style caps. Carabinieri MP Units also wear a dark navy blue beret.

Service uniform

The service uniform is essentially the same as the ordinary uniform but is adapted for the specific duty of the soldier.

E.g.:
mountainous areas – ski patrol; ski kit is worn,
mounted (horseback) patrol; different boots are worn,
'radio-mobile' (car) patrol; different boots and a 'paletta' (stop sign used to stop vehicles) are worn, etc.

Representative (dress) uniform
(For carabinieri, NCOs, warrant officers, officers.)

The representative uniform is essentially the same as the ordinary uniform, but worn for more formal, but still on duty occasions, where the ordinary and ceremonial uniforms are unsuitable. It differs from the ordinary uniform for the following elements:

white cords (agiluettes) on the four-button jacket,
sabre (sword) with pendants and dragon,
black belt with shoulder strap (only marshals and chief brigadiers) or white cross-belt/bandolier (for the remaining staff).
white gloves
and a black-cape in colder conditions

Sometimes the pistol is worn with the sword, other times it is not. The cap worn is the peaked cap.

Operational uniform
The operational uniform is worn for public order (riot) situations, raids, cross-country work and is worn for operations only.
It is blue in color with red piping and a 'Polychrome' uniform.

It consists of:

jacket (with four patch pockets, shoulder straps fastened by a button and thermal lining) and trousers;
blue fleece suit (to be used as an alternative to the sweater);
blue neckerchief with red piping;
black leather gloves with reinforcement;
operational black amphibious ankle boots
and a dark-blue beret with cap badge

A "particular" version of this uniform is worn by the soldiers of the Special Intervention Group, as well as the following departments: The "Tuscania" CC Parachute Regiment, Carabinieri Regiment on Horseback and Airborne Squadrons CC Cacciatori. The colours (for the trousers and jacket) are often camouflage rather than blue and red and maroon/red (for the beret) rather than blue.

Riot helmets, body-armour, equipment vests, rescue helmets etc., are worn when necessary.

Gymnastic
It consists of a tracksuit (jacket and pants), t-shirt and shorts.

The suit consists of a jacket and long trousers in blue fabric, with red inserts. The jacket is made up of a body with a central zip, two detachable sleeves with a zip and a collar.
The trousers consist of two leggings, an elastic waistband with a drawstring at the waist and a zip at the bottom. The jacket, the T-shirt and the shorts bear the frieze of the Carabinieri.

Other
There are also evening-dress style (mess kit) uniforms for dinners and galas, as well as variations for the above uniform for occasions (e.g. medals, sabres to be worn etc.).

The full set of different Carabinieri uniforms today is presented here (in Italian).

Females

The uniforms adopted for female staff are essentially an adaptation of the male ones.

The variants concern the buttoning, the shape of the jackets (without upper pockets), the use of skirts inside the Offices, off-duty or with formal uniforms and shoes.

No changes were made to any other items of clothing/equipment already in use by male personnel.

Decorations
The State Color of the Carabinieri bears the following decorations:
6 Cavalier Crosses of the Military Order of Italy
3 Gold Medals of Military Valor
3 Gold Medals of Army Valor
5 Silver Medals of Military Valor
4 Bronze Medals of Military Valor
11 Gold Medals of Civil Valor
1 Silver Medal of Civil Valor
2 War Crosses of Military Valor
4 Gold Medals of Civil Merit
6 Gold Medals of Benemerited Public Security
6 Gold Medals of Benemerited Service to Education, Culture and the Arts
2 Gold Medals of Benemerited Service to the Environment
1 Gold Medal of Service in the Earthquake of 1909
1 Bronze Medal of Civil Defense Excellence 1st Class

Weapons
The armament supplied is divided into individual armament (supplied to each soldier) and departmental armament (supplied to each individual unit). Departmental armament is divided into ordinary armament (supplied to all departments) and special armament (supplied only to specialized units).

Individual armament is composed of:
 Beretta 92 pistol in SB and FS versions, for personnel in the roles of carabinieri, appointed roles, superintendents and inspectors;
 Beretta 8000 pistol, issued only to officers;
 Beretta Px4 Storm pistol, as a replacement for the Cougar 8000 for officers;
Ordinary armament consists of:

 Beretta PM12-S2 submachine gun, as a departmental weapon – intended for decommissioning.

 Beretta PMX submachine gun, introduced as of June 1, 2019 and intended to replace the PM12.

 Franchi Spas 15 MIL smoothbore combat shotgun.

 Beretta 70/90 assault rifle (in the "AR" and "SCP" versions for the 1st Carabinieri Parachute Regiment Tuscania, the 7th Regiment "Trentino-Alto Adige" and the 13th Regiment "Friuli Venezia Giulia") – intended for decommissioning.

 Beretta ARX-160A3 assault rifle, introduced in 2018 as a replacement for the AR 70/90 at 1st Regiment Tuscania, 7th Regiment, Squadroni Eliportati Cacciatori and 13th Regiment, as well as a primary weapon of the API and SOS. The weapon is also intended to replace the Beretta AR 70/90 in the training and territorial line departments.

Special armament includes:

 Glock 17 pistol, supplied to GIS.

 M4 carbine, supplied to Tuscania and GIS.

 Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, used by GIS, Tuscania and the Hunting Squadron.

 Mauser Sp 66 sniper rifle (used by snipers and GIS).

 Accuracy International AWP sniper rifle (used by sharpshooters and GIS).

 Beretta MG 42/59 squad assault machine gun (supplied to the Naval Service, 1st Carabinieri Parachute Regiment Tuscania, 7th Regiment "Trentino-Alto Adige" and 13th Regiment "Friuli Venezia Giulia").

FN Minimi light machine gun (supplied to the 1st Carabinieri Parachute Regiment Tuscania, 7th Regiment "Trentino-Alto Adige" and 13th Regiment "Friuli Venezia Giulia").

Vehicles and equipment

Until very recently the Italian police (including the Carabinieri) operated only Italian-made vehicles, but that changed with the introduction of Land Rover Defenders and Subarus into service. Normal Carabinieri patrol vehicles are dark blue with a white roof, with a red stripe along the side. Carabinieri license plates begin with "CC" or previously with "EI" (formerly Esercito Italiano, Italian Army), and a Carabinieri car is traditionally called a Gazzella (gazelle). Small or medium-sized cars are used for ordinary patrol work, with larger and more powerful vehicles being used for emergency response, highway patrol, and special services. The vehicles of the Carabinieri military police and mobile units are painted in NATO camouflage scheme as done with the other Italian Armed Forces vehicles.

Cars

 Alfa Romeo 159
 Alfa Romeo Giulia
Alfa Romeo Giulietta
 Subaru Forester
 Lancia Kappa
 Land Rover Freelander
 Land Rover Defender-90 hard top
 Land Rover Discovery II e III e IV
 Lotus Evora S
 Fiat Ducato
 Hummer H1
 Fiat Grande Punto
 Fiat Tipo (2015)
 Jeep Renegade
 Jeep Grand Cherokee
 Mitsubishi Pajero
 Mitsubishi i-MiEV
 Isuzu D-Max
 Renault Clio
 Iveco Daily
 SEAT León
 Suzuki Jimny

Motorcycles

 Moto Guzzi California Cruiser
 BMW F650GS
 BMW R1100-RTP
 BSA M20

Aircraft

Fixed-wing aircraft
 Piaggio P.180 Avanti
Helicopters
 AgustaWestland AW109
 Agusta-Bell AB 412
 AgustaWestland AW139 (2019)

Tactical vehicles

 Land Rover Defender 110 soft top
 Iveco Daily 4×4 40.10WM 4×4 off-road light armored military truck
 Unimog
 RG-12
 Iveco VM 90T Torpedo
 Iveco VM 90P Protected
 Iveco LMV
 Puma 4×4
 Puma 6×6
 VCC1
 M113
 M3
 Hummer H1

Ships
 Offshore patrol boats
 Motovedetta classe 800
 Motovedetta classe N700
 Motovedetta classe 600
 Coastal patrol boats
 Motovedetta classe 200
 Motovedetta classe 100
 Motorboats
 Motovedetta classe 300
 Motovedetta classe N100
 Motovedetta classe T120
 Motovedette classe S
 Battello pneumatico Stinger

Special Vehicles

 GEMCAR
 Snowmobile Polaris

Uniforms

See also

Italian Carabinieri Bands
Civilian control of the military
Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City
Gendarmerie
Law enforcement in Italy
Military police
Multinational Specialized Unit
Zaptie
Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa
Centro Sportivo Carabinieri

References

External links

  Official Carabinieri website
  FIEP – Italian Carabinieri
  Carabinieri Association website

National law enforcement agencies of Italy
Gendarmerie
Border guards
Military provosts
Military of Italy
1814 establishments in Italy
Military units and formations established in 1814

Carabinieri


The Master of Science in Project Management (M.S.P.M.), also known as Master in Project Management (M.P.M.) is a professional advanced degree in project management. Such degree is not only for future project managers but also offers opportunities in consultancy, evaluation of investment projects, business analysis, business development, operations management, supply chain management, business administration, or any other area of Business administration or management. These Master programs usually provide general education revolving around business organization.

While programs may vary, most curricula are designed to provide professionals with the knowledge, skills and abilities to lead and manage effectively. Lecture and laboratory sessions require the application of critical thinking to problem solving within notional and actual situations. Students normally engage in the study of concepts, methodologies and analytic techniques necessary for successful leadership of programs/projects within complex organizations. Curricula typically focus on problem solving and decision-making using case studies, teaming exercises, hands-on applications, active participation, research and integrative exercises.

Candidates of M.P.M. programs are required to have at least an associate degree or Bachelor's degree from an accredited university, generally related to business administration or engineering. Most programs require 36-42 graduate credits and a thesis or final project.

References

External links
What PMI Accreditation Means
Project Management Institute (PMI)
Global Accreditation Center (GAC)
Master in Project Management with Agile Methodologies

Master's degrees
Project management education

Master of Science in Project Management


Events
January 3 – The Treaty of Tripoli (a peace treaty between the United States and Tripoli) is signed at Algiers.
January 7 – The parliament of the Cisalpine Republic adopts the Italian green-white-red tricolour as official flag. It is the birthday of the flag of Italy.
February 14 – The Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797), part of the Wars of the French Revolution.
February 18 – Spanish Governor Chacon peacefully surrenders the colony of Trinidad and Tobago to a British naval force.
February 22 – Attempted invasion of Britain at Fishguard in Wales by French forces
February 26 – The Bank of England (national bank of Britain) issues the first one-pound note (discontinued March 11, 1988).
March 4 – John Adams succeeds George Washington as the President of the United States of America.
 May 12 – First Coalition: Napoleon I of France conquers Venice, ending the 1100 years of independence of the city. Last doge of Venice, Ludovico Manin, steps down.
 July 24 – Horatio Nelson is wounded at Tenerife, causing a loss of one arm.
 September 7 – Treaty of Campo Formio ends the War of the First Coalition.
 October 21 – In Boston Harbor, the 44-gun United States Navy frigate USS Constitution is launched to fight Barbary pirates off the coast of Tripoli.
 December 17 – Napoleon leads a successful French charge against Fort l'Aiguilette to secure Toulon for French
 Large-scale mutinies in Royal Navy
 Joseph Haydn composes the music to "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser," the tune of which also became the music to the German national anthem, "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit."

Births
 Date unknown – Mahmud Bayazidi, Kurdish polymath
 August 30 – Mary Shelley, British writer of Frankenstein

Deaths
 September 10 – Mary Wollstonecraft, female philosopher (b. 1759)

1797


'RUGHVED' is an ancient Indian religious book. It is counted as one of the four sacred Hindu writings, which are called Vedas. It is  the world's oldest religious writings. It is also one of the oldest writings in Sanskrit language. Rigveda is very important to Hindus, especially Hindus in India and Nepal. Its words are said during prayers and religious gatherings. It is dated up to 3700 years ago.

Rig Veda mainly contains various hymns for praying to Vedic Gods such as Agni (Fire God), Indra (The lord of Heavens), Mitra, Varuna (Water God), Surya (Sun God) etc. These hymns are called Riks. Hence the Veda is called Rik-Veda or RigVeda. This writing consists of 10 writings. The Rigveda has 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses.

Other websites
 A Simple Translation of Hymns from Rig Veda

Vedas

Rigveda


Ross is a 1960 play by British playwright Terence Rattigan.

It is a biographical play about T. E. Lawrence and his time in the Royal Air Force.

Plot synopsis
The play is structured with a framing device set in 1922, when Lawrence was hiding under an assumed name as "Aircraftman Ross" in the Royal Air Force, and is being disciplined by his Flight Lieutenant for alleged misconduct. No one seems to have become aware of his true identity, except for a man named Dickinson, who had seen Lawrence at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and quickly attempts to blackmail him to keep his identity secret. Lawrence, however, refuses, and Dickinson decides to reveal his identity to the Daily Mirror.

After Lawrence has a dream sequence, flashing back to the various figures in his life, the play flashes back to mid-1916. Lawrence is being given an unofficial assignment as a liaison officer to the forces of the Arab Revolt, under Prince Feisal (who, although he is frequently mentioned, never appears as a character). Sir Ronald Storrs, the head of the Arab Bureau, tries to talk him out of the mission, as does Colonel Barrington, a bull-headed intelligence officer. Along with two Arab servants, Hamed and Rashid (similar to Lawrence's real-life companions Farraj and Daud), Lawrence enters the desert, revealing that he feels that the supreme being of the world is "the will", and he believes that he can achieve anything if he puts his mind to it.

Lawrence later meets Auda ibu Tayi, leader of the Howeitat tribe of Bedouin, using flattery to convert him to the Arab cause (he has been paid off by the Turks to support them). Auda and Lawrence soon plan an expedition through the Nefud Desert to capture the Turkish-held port of Aqaba, which is weakly defended from the landward side. Along the way to Aqaba, however, he is forced to execute an Arab for murdering another in a feud.

Meanwhile, the Turkish military governor of Deraa and his subordinate, a Captain, watch with growing unease Lawrence's campaign against the Hejaz Railway, though they fail to ascertain the target of his campaign. The General decides to place a reward of £20,000 on Lawrence for his capture, and these leads to a comic scene where the Captain arrives in Auda's camp to offer him the reward, and Lawrence is present. Unable to act despite recognising Lawrence, the Captain is forced to leave the camp. At the end of Act I, Lawrence arrives at an army outpost in the Sinai Peninsula and uses a telephone station (despite the protests of a British naval officer) to report the Arab capture of Aqaba.

Act II begins in the office of the new commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, General Edmund Allenby, who is present with Storrs and Barrington. Allenby asks their opinions of Lawrence before Lawrence himself arrives. Storrs praises Lawrence, while Barrington finds him repugnant and undeserving of a position of responsibility. Allenby engages Lawrence in a brief discussion, which includes chat about archaeology, literature, and furniture, alternating with a serious discussion about the progress of the war. While Allenby wants Lawrence to be the permanent commander of the Arab liaison forces, Lawrence expresses the view that he is not up to the task, and admits to a  conflict of conscience over aiding the Arabs while being aware of the Sykes-Picot Agreement to divide up the Ottoman Empire – although Allenby convinces him otherwise.

On a reconnaissance mission in Deraa, Lawrence speaks with Hamed, with whom he has grown close, as Rasheed, the other servant, died on the march to Aqaba. Hamed has tried to bribe more Arabs into joining the cause, but they have been frightened into refusing by the Turks. Lawrence is arrested by a Turkish army sergeant, believing him to be a Circassian army deserter. He is taken back to Turkish HQ, where on the orders of the General, he is beaten and then raped. This is a deliberate action by the General, who feels that Lawrence is too extraordinary an enemy to simply kill; he must destroy his will and his personality through such an act, thus revealing his weakness.

At the beginning of Act III, Allenby has just received word of the fall of Jerusalem and is posing for photographs for a journalist named Franks (a stand-in for Lowell Thomas), who requests an interview with Lawrence. During this scene Barrington (now a Brigadier General on Allenby's staff) asks Lawrence to deny that his men execute prisoners, although he is disgusted when Lawrence admits that they have. Allenby interrupts the conversation, and discusses Lawrence's request to be transferred from Arabia – a request Allenby turns down. Lawrence feels that he has learned "the truth" about himself, refusing to discuss his rape with Allenby. At this point, Storrs enters, informing Allenby that the British government wants him to enter Jerusalem in a triumph – and Allenby all but forces Lawrence to take part in the parade.

The last sequence occurs in September 1918, the last days of the war, after the Battle of Megiddo has smashed the Turkish armies and the road to Damascus is all but open. Speaking with an RAF officer, Flight Lieutenant Higgins, Lawrence recounts his own forces' hand in the operation, including the massacre of 4,000 Turks outside the Tafas village, in retaliation for their sack of the village. However, Higgins is more disturbed about Lawrence's execution of a wounded colleague – later revealed to be Hamed, Lawrence's servant.

Lawrence then meets with Auda, recounting the death of Hamed. Lawrence inadvertently reveals the British treachery towards the Arabs to Auda, although he then promises Auda that he will fight for the Arabs "to the limits of my strength". At this point Barrington arrives, and Auda expresses his admiration for Lawrence to him before exiting.

After Auda's departure, Barrington complains that the Arab forces occupying Deraa have committed atrocities against Turkish soldiers captured there and refuses to allow the Arabs to garrison the city. He also discusses the Tafas massacre with Lawrence, referring to him as a "callous, soulless, sadistic little brute", while Lawrence concedes that he is "lost to all human feeling". The play ends in 1922, with the RAF officers trying to smuggle Lawrence away from the barracks before the press, newly alerted to the identity of "Ross", can descend on them.

Notable productions

The original 1960 production starred Alec Guinness as Lawrence, Harry Andrews as Allenby and Gerald Harper as Dickinson and opened at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket in London's West End on 12 May, where it was well reviewed, and ran for almost two years (making it Rattigan's second most commercially successful play, after While the Sun Shines). Michael Bryant replaced Guinness as Lawrence late in the show's run.
A New York production in 1961 starred John Mills as Lawrence, John Williams as Dickinson and Geoffrey Keen, amongst others, in a supporting role.
In 1970 the play was broadcast as a Play of the Month by BBC Television, featuring Ian McKellen, Edward Fox as Dickinson and Charles Gray.
In 1986, the first West End revival was produced starring Simon Ward as Lawrence and Marc Sinden as Dickinson, with David Langton, Roland Curram, Bruce Montague and Ernest Clark in supporting roles. It toured the UK and after a run at the Royal Alexandra Theatre, Toronto opened at The Old Vic.
Ross was originally written as a film script for the Rank Organization, with Dirk Bogarde cast as Lawrence. The project fell through due to a combination of financial difficulties and political turmoil in Iraq, where it was to be filmed. A later attempt to adapt the play, with Laurence Harvey as Lawrence, was scrapped when David Lean's Lawrence of Arabia went into production.
 Alec Guinness, who had played Lawrence to great acclaim in the theatre, played Prince Faisal, who never appears in the play but is mentioned frequently, in the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia.
 A 1961 production in Paris of the French translation starred Pierre Fresnay in the title role.
 The play was revived at the Chichester Festival Theatre from 3 – 25 June 2016 to mark the centenary of the outbreak of the Arab Revolt, and starred Joseph Fiennes and Peter Polycarpou.

References

1960 plays
Fiction set in 1922
Plays about World War I
Plays by Terence Rattigan
West End plays
LGBT-related plays
Cultural depictions of T. E. Lawrence

Ross (play)


Richard Dominguez (born Eufrancio Ricardo Dominguez September 22, 1960 in Dallas, Texas) is an American comic book creator. He is best known for making the comic book El Gato Negro.

Biography
Richard Dominguez was born in Dallas, Texas on September 22, 1960 as the second of seven children. Dominguez first read comics at the age of six. He was first interested in art while in high school. He took classes in Commercial Art and later took Life Drawing classes in community college. Richard later worked as an intern for art and design studios in the late '80s and early '90s.

Azteca Productions
Richard made the Azteca Productions company and imprint in 1993. The first publication was El Gato Negro #1. Dominguez first got the idea for El Gato Negro in the late '80s. He originally planned thought of putting the character in a team of superheroes. Liking the character better on his own, Dominguez left the original project and focused on El Gato Negro. A lot of the character's personality and look was inspired by Dominguez's favorite superheroes like The Spirit, The Crimson Avenger, Daredevil, Nightwing, The Shadow, The Phantom, Zorro and Batman. The character has been popular since his introduction. and other media Dominguez is currently looking to make a movie on the character.

Dominguez made his superhero group with the help of friend and writer Michael S. Moore in 1997 in a book called Team Tejas. Richard stopped publishing his books after 1997 to spend time with his family. He later came back to publish new El Gato Negro stories in 2004. Other books he plans on publishing are Lucha Grande Comics, The Acolyte, Demon Hunter, and a revival of Judge Margarito C. Garza's Relampago!

P.A.C.A.S.
The Professional Amigos of Comic Art Society or P.A.C.A.S. was a non-profit organization made by Richard Dominguez with his friends Carlos Saldaña, Jose Martinez, and Fernando Rodriguez in 1995. The group was made to bring together different artists, comic book and cartoon creators together to help with each other's projects. P.A.C.A.S. grew to over 50 members. Most of them lived in California. The P.A.C.A.S. group no longer exists but there are rumors of a new one being made. Only an official website and MySpace page stand in tribute to their effort.

References

Other websites
Dominguez Illustrations
Official MySpace
Azteca Productions

People from Dallas
1960 births
American comics artists
Living people

Richard Dominguez


Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre (18 June 1755 – 22 September 1821), also known as Madame Dugazon, was a French operatic mezzo-soprano, actress and dancer.

Born in Berlin as the daughter of a dancing master at the court of Frederick II of Prussia, she returned to Paris with her parents in 1765. She made her stage debut at the age of twelve as a dancer, but it was as an actress "with songs" that she made her debut at the Comédie Italienne in 1774 in Grétry's Sylvain. She was at once admitted pensionnaire and in 1775 sociétaire.

She became a star of the Comédie Italienne (which became the Opéra-Comique), where she created over 60 roles. She was married to the actor Jean-Henri Gourgaud, who went by the stage name Dugazon. Together they had a child, Gustave Dugazon. The couple soon divorced, but continued to perform at the Comédie Italienne for more than twenty years.

The two kinds of parts with which she was especially identified—young mothers and women past their first youth—are still called "jeunes dugazons" and "mères dugazons" in French opera. Examples of the first are Jenny in La dame blanche and Berthe de Simiane in Les mousquetaires de la reine; of the second, Marguerite in Le Pré aux clercs and the queen in La part du diable.  The type of voice for these roles is a light mezzo-soprano or a dark-colored soprano leggero, and they are generally less demanding technically.

Roles created
1779: Nicolette in Aucassin et Nicolette (Grétry)
1784: Laurette in Richard Coeur-de-lion (Grétry)
1786: Nina in Nina, Ou la folle par Amour (Dalayrac)

References

Warrack, John and West, Ewan (1992), The Oxford Dictionary of Opera, 782 pages,

1755 births
1821 deaths
Dancers from Berlin
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg
French operatic mezzo-sopranos
18th-century French actresses
French stage actresses
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French expatriates in Germany

Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre


Alexander Hislop (1807 – 13 March 1865) was a Free Church of Scotland minister known for his criticisms of the Catholic Church.  He was the son of Stephen Hislop (died 1837), a mason by occupation and an elder of the Relief Church.  Alexander's brother was also named Stephen Hislop (lived 1817–1863) and became well known in his time as a missionary to India and a naturalist.

Alexander was born and raised in Duns, Berwickshire. He was for a time parish schoolmaster of Wick, Caithness. In 1831 he married Jane Pearson.  He was for a time editor of the Scottish Guardian newspaper.  As a probationer he joined the Free Church of Scotland at the Disruption of 1843.  He was ordained in 1844 at the East Free Church, Arbroath, where he became senior minister in 1864.  He died of a paralytic stroke in Arbroath the next year after being ill for about two years.

He wrote several books, his most famous being The Two Babylons: Papal Worship Proved to be the Worship of Nimrod and His Wife , which is discredited by many historians.

The Two Babylons

This book, initially published in 1853 as a pamphlet, was greatly revised  and expanded and released as a book in 1858.

In the book, Hislop argued that the Catholic Church was a Babylonian mystery cult and pagan, but Protestants worshipped the true Jesus and the true God. He believed that Catholic religious practices are pagan practices that were grafted onto true Christianity during the reign of Constantine. Then, the merger between the Roman state religion and its adoration of the mother and child was transferred to Christianity, merging Christian characters with pagan mythology. The goddess was renamed Mary, and Jesus was the renamed Jupiter-Puer, or "Jupiter the Boy".

Hislop believed that the goddess, in Rome called Venus or Fortuna, was the Roman name of the more ancient Babylonian cult of Ishtar, whose origins began with a blonde-haired and blue-eyed woman named Semiramis.

According to Hislop, Semiramis was an exceedingly beautiful woman, who gave birth to a son named Tammuz, was instrumental as the queen, and wife of Nimrod the founder of Babylon, and its religion, complete with a pseudo-Virgin Birth. Later, Nimrod was killed, and Semiramis, pregnant with his child, claimed the child was Nimrod reborn.

Hislop attempted to show that the cult and worship of Semiramis spread globally, her name changing with the culture. In Egypt she was Isis, in Greece and Rome she was called Venus, Diana, Athena, and a host of other names, but was always prayed to and central to the faith which was based on Babylonian mystery religion. According to Hislop, Constantine, though claiming to convert to Christianity, remained pagan but renamed the gods and goddesses with Christian names to merge the two faiths for his political advantage.

Constantine's endorsement of the tradition was a turning point for Early Christianity.  In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan legalizing Christian worship. The emperor became a great patron of the Church, and set a precedent for the position of the Christian Emperor within the Church and the notion of orthodoxy, Christendom, and ecumenical councils that would be followed for centuries as the State church of the Roman Empire.

Books by Alexander Hislop
(Sources of information include COPAC )
 Christ's Crown and Covenant: or national covenanting essentially connected with national revival (Arbroath and Edinburgh, 1860)
 Infant Baptism, according to the Word of God and confession of faith. Being a review, in five letters, of the new theory of Professor Lumsden, as advocated in his treatise entitled, "Infant baptism: its nature and objects." (Edinburgh, 1856)
 The Light of Prophecy let in on the dark places of the Papacy (exposition of 2 Thess 2: 3–12) (Edinburgh, 1846)
 The Moral Identity of Babylon and Rome (London, 1855)
 The Red Republic; or Scarlet Coloured Beast of the Apocalypse (Edinburgh, 1849)
 The Rev. E.B. Elliott and the "Red Republic" (Arbroath, circa 1850)#
 The Scriptural Principles of the Solemn League and Covenant : in their bearing on the present state of the Episcopal churches (Glasgow, 1858)
 The Trial of Bishop Forbes (A lecture delivered in East Free Church, Arbroath) (Edinburgh, 1860)
 Truth and Peace (in reply to a pamphlet, entitled "Charity and mutual forbearance" by "Irenicus") (Arbroath, 1858)
 The Two Babylons; or, the Papal Worship proved to be the worship of Nimrod and his wife (Edinburgh, 1853 & 1858)
 Unto the Venerable the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland : the petition of the undersigned (relates to James Lumsden on "Infant Baptism":  Hislop was head signatory of this petition) (Edinburgh, 1860)

Bibliography
 Ewing, William: Annals of the Free Church of Scotland 1843–1900 (Edinburgh, 1914)

References

External links

The Two Babylons by Alexander Hislop (online)
Ralph Woodrow, The Babylon Connection?, 1997,  (critique from former advocate).
 Genealogical page on Jamie Hayter's family history site Note: shows different date of birth for Alexander Hislop - clarification being sought

1807 births
1865 deaths
19th-century Scottish writers
19th-century Ministers of the Free Church of Scotland
Pseudohistorians
Critics of the Catholic Church
Christian conspiracy theorists
British conspiracy theorists
British propagandists
Inanna

Alexander Hislop


Trsat Castle () is a castle in Trsat, Croatia. It is thought that the castle lies at the exact spot of an ancient Illyrian and Roman fortress. The Croatian noble Vuk Krsto Frankopan is buried in one of the churches. The Trsat castle was completely reconstructed and renovated in the 19th century when the mausoleum of the military commander Laval Nugent was built in its interior. The courtyard of the castle has now been turned into a restaurant and many tourists visit the place during the summer months.

History
The thirteenth century Trsat castle, whose site has been in use from Roman days for being an easy place from which to control access to the sea along the Rječina River, is situated on the steep hill overlooking the Rječina gorge on its left bank, just above the town of Rijeka. It may be that a Iapodian hill-fort, Darsata, used to be there, after which the Roman fortification Tarsatica was named. This Roman fort was of vital importance on a road that connected Aquileia to Pannonia and Senia (Senj). It was owned by Frankopan family who built the present castle, on the site occupied by the Illirian Tarsatica, to protect their holdings in Vinodol.

The capture of the Castle of Trsat compelled the Ban of Croatia, Andrew Bot of Bajna (Bajna is a village in Hungary, near Esztergom)), to intervene in the Austro-Venetian war, and in June 1509 he first recaptured Trsat with his Croatian army and then entered Rijeka after expelling the Venetians. In October 1509, the Venetians withdrew for good and Rijeka returned to the possessions of Maximilian of Habsburg. This notable episode is the sole event which links Rijeka with Venice, and consequently with Italy, during the whole of its history from the 7th century on.

In the 17th century the castle fell into decay due to the receding threats from Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Its decline was accelerated by the earthquake of 1750. In the year 1811, during the Napoleonic wars, Captain Hoste in pursuit of the French, arrived with his frigate at Fiume where he made himself lieutenant-governor. The situation in Trieste soon drew him away, but in 1826 he had the satisfaction of handing the castle over to Field-Marshal Laval Nugent von Westmeath, an Irishman then commanding the Austrian troops in the vicinity, for the purpose of conferring on him the rank of an Austrian noble. The general was later honoured by the Austrians and presented with the castle at Trsat as his residence. He had it restored in Neo-Gothic style and built a mausoleum adorned with the coat of arms of the Nugent family. It remained in the Nugent family until nearly the end of the Second World War when the general's great-granddaughter, Countess Nugent, died at the age of 82.

Gallery

References

External links

 Siege of Trsat

Trsat
Castles in Croatia
Tourist attractions in Rijeka
Buildings and structures in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County
Tourist attractions in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County

Trsat Castle


Vasa was a big Swedish warship. The ship was built from 1626 to 1628. The same year Vasa was ready outside Stockholm, but sank by accident on her maiden voyage (first trip). The ship lasted about 20 minutes until it sunk. Vasa sank because she was too heavy on top. Those who built her knew that she had problems, but they didn't dare say that to the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus. He was not in Sweden when Vasa was built and he wanted her to go fight in the Thirty Years' War as soon as possible. There was a hearing about why Vasa sank, but no one was found guilty or judged for her sinking.

Swedish divers in diving bells brought up some of Vasa'''s cannons from the sunken ship in the 1660s. Anders Franzén found Vasa in 1956 after he had read about the ship in sources and looked for her in the water around Stockholm. The ship was brought up in 1961 and was then treated with special chemicals so that it would last for a long time. The preservation treatment took almost 20 years to complete. Vasa is now in the Vasa Museum in Stockholm, Sweden. It is a very popular place for tourists to visit. It gets more than one million visitors every year.

When Vasa was brought up there were thousands of things inside her. There were bones of people, clothes, weapons, tools, coins, food and even some of the sails. The things and Vasa have been very good for historians, because they helps them understand how it was in Sweden in the 1600s. Vasa'' was a very expensive ship and was one of the largest in the world. She had hundreds of sculptures, and they were painted in many colors. She was a symbol of how powerful Sweden wanted to look and how good the Swedish king was.

Transport in Sweden
Warships

Vasa (ship)


Robert Anson Heinlein (July 7, 1907 – May 8, 1988) was an American writer. He mostly wrote science fiction books. He won the Hugo Award four times. Probably his best-known novels are Starship Troopers (1959, Hugo Award, was made into a film), and Stranger in a Strange Land (1961, Hugo Award). Two other Hugo awards were for Double Star (1956) and The Moon is a Harsh Mistress (1966). Together with Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke he is seen as one of the Big Three of Science Fiction.

References

1907 births
1988 deaths
Hugo Award winning writers
Writers from Missouri
Libertarians

Robert A. Heinlein


For the astronomer, see Ptolemy; for ithers named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus", see Ptolemy (disambiguation).

Ptolemy I Soter I  (Greek: , Ptolemaĩos Sōtḗr, i.e. Ptolemy (pronoonced ) the Savior, c. 367 BC – c. 283 BC) wis a Macedonien Greek general unner Alexander the Great, who became ruler o Egyp (323 BC – 283 BC) an foonder o baith the Ptolemaic Kinrick an the Ptolemaic Dynasty. In 305/4 BC he teuk the title o pharaoh.

His mither wis Arsinoe o Macedon, an, while his faither is unkent, auncient soorces variously describe him either as the son o Lagus, a Macedonien nobleman, or as an illegitimate son o Philip II o Macedon (which, if true woud hae made Ptolemy the half-brither o Alexander). Ptolemy wis ane o Alexander's maist trusted generals, an wis amang the seiven somatophylakes (bodyguards) attached tae his person. He wis a few years aulder than Alexander, an haed been his intimate friend syne childhood. He mey even hae been in the group o noble teenagers tutored bi Aristotle.

Ptolemy served wi Alexander frae his first campaigns, an played a principal pairt in the later campaigns in Afghanistan an Indie. At the Susa marriage festival in 324, Alexander haed Ptolemy mairy the Persian princess Artakama. Ptolemy an aa haed a consort in Thaïs, the Athenien hetaera an ane o Alexander's companions in his conquest o the auncient warld.

Pharaohs o the Ptolemaic dynasty

Ptolemy I Soter


, also known by the shorthand form , is a Japanese company, established on October 1, 1966, which publishes music, DVD and VHS videos, movies, and video games. It is affiliated with the Japanese media group Fujisankei Communications Group. Pony Canyon is a major leader in the music industry in Japan, with its artists regularly at the top of the Japanese charts. Pony Canyon is also responsible for releasing taped concerts from its artists as well as many anime productions and several film productions.

Pony Canyon is headquartered in Tokyo with offices in Taiwan, Malaysia and South Korea. It employs approximately 360 people. Pony Canyon also owns the recording label Flight Master.

History
On October 1, 1966, Nippon Broadcasting System, Inc. opened  a new record label division, called as Nippon Broadcasting System Service, Inc., in order to produce and market music from Japanese artists. The division formally changed its name in 1970 to Pony Inc. in order to match the brand names it had been using previously. These were "PONYPak" for 8-track cassettes from 1967, and "PONY" for cassettes from 1968.

On August 1, 1970, another Japanese record label, Canyon Records Inc. was founded. Like Pony Inc., Canyon Records was part of the Fujisankei Communications Group. Canyon Records was financially backed at 60% by Pony Inc. and at 40% by Pony's parent company Nippon Broadcasting System.

In 1982, Pony ventured into interactive content by producing  personal computer game software under the name "Ponyca". In 1984, the company entered license agreements with major overseas companies, MGM/UA Home Video, Vestron Video International, Walt Disney Home Video and BBC Video (the company also entered license agreements with major overseas companies, RCA/Columbia Pictures International Video in 1986), and in 1985, they established offices in New York and London. In 1986, Pony signed licensing agreements with A&M Records and in 1989 with Virgin Records to handle both companies' Japanese CD releases.

On October 21, 1987, Pony Inc. and Canyon Records merged their operations to form Pony Canyon Inc.

In 1990, Pony Canyon branched out, and opened five subsidiaries outside Japan, one of them is a subsidiary in Singapore called Skin which was managed by Jimmy Wee and signed local English language performers such as Gwailo, Art Fazil, Chris Vadham, The Lizards' Convention, Humpback Oak and Radio Active. In addition to Singapore, Pony Canyon has also had a subsidiary in Taiwan, and a joint venture in Hong Kong and South Korea, named as Golden Pony and SAMPONY, respectively. Four of five subsidiaries were closed in 1997 due to Asian financial crisis, leaving the Malaysian subsidiary as the only subsidiary to remain in operation. However, the Hong Kong and Korean operations were reestablished as a wholly owned subsidiary, although the Korean operation had a 16% stake of local partner. In 2003, the Hong Kong and Taiwan branch of Pony Canyon, both affected by the financial crisis, were acquired by Forward Music. In 2018, Pony Canyon reestablished its branch in Taiwan.

As a video game producer, Pony Canyon brought the Ultima series from Origin Systems and the Advanced Dungeons and Dragons series from Strategic Simulations to Nintendo's Family Computer. Between 1986 and 1990, they produced remakes of the first four Ultima titles for the MSX2 and NES platforms. These remakes differed from the original versions, with rewritten game code and all-new graphics. Pony Canyon's video game library was generally released in North America by FCI. Pony Canyon has not released any video games since Virtual View: Nemoto Harumi for the PlayStation 2 in July 2003.

The company has occasionally been involved in film production. For example, they were a co-production company for the 1996 Indian erotic film Kama Sutra: A Tale of Love.

Following a merger with Nippon Broadcasting System, Fuji Television Network, Inc. became the major shareholder of Pony Canyon in 2006. The following year, Fuji Television made Pony Canyon its wholly owned subsidiary. Fuji Television was subsequently renamed Fuji Media Holdings in 2008. Despite associations with Fuji Television, not all of Pony Canyon's TV show and movie library has been broadcast on Fuji Television. Some of Pony Canyon's non-Fuji TV catalog includes Doraemon movies.

In September 2014, Pony Canyon opened a North American anime distribution label, Ponycan USA, which aims to license their titles for streaming and home video in US and Canada. Their home video releases will be distributed exclusively by Right Stuf Inc.

Music artists

Below is a selected list of musical artists signed under the Pony Canyon label in the past and present.

 +Plus
 A.B.C-Z
 Aaron Yan
 Agnes Chan
 Ai Maeda
 aiko
 Akari Kitō
 THE ALFEE (1979–1997)
 Alyssa Milano (1988–1993)
 Ami Wajima
 Arashi (moved to J Storm in 2002)
 Asaka Seto
 Asriel (2014–2015)
 Λucifer (1999–2000)
 Aya Ueto
 Ayana Taketatsu
 B1A4 (Korean idol group)
 Beatcats (2020–)
 Babyraids Japan
 Bananarama
 Band-Maid (2021–)
 Berryz Koubou
 Billie Hughes
 Blood Stain Child
 Buono! (moved to Zetima in 2011)
 By-Sexual (1990–1995)
 CHAGE and ASKA (moved to Toshiba-EMI in 1997)
 Cherryblossom (2007–2010)
 Cinema Staff
 COMA-CHI
 Combattimento Consort Amsterdam
 Crayon Pop (Korean idol group)
 Cute (Korea only)
 D-51
 Defspiral
 Dreamcatcher (Korean idol group)
 Ebisu Muscats
 Ensemble Planeta
 Fahrenheit (Japan release)
 Flame
 Funkist (band)
 GARNiDELiA (2021–)
 Glay
 HALO (Korean idol group)
 Hanako Oku
 Happatai (band)
 Hinano Yoshikawa
 Hiro Shimono
 Hiro Takahashi (1993–1995)
 Hiroko Hayashi
 Idoling!!!
 Jamil
 Jang Keun-suk
 John Hoon
 Jun Fukuyama
 Kaori Ishihara
 Kana Hanazawa (2021–)
 Kazuki Kato
 Kikuko Inoue
 Kim Samuel (Korean Soloist)
 Kitarō (1979–1981)
 Kokia (1998–1999)
 Kreva
 Kym Campbell (Japan)
 Kyoko Fukada (1998–2003)
 Le Couple (1994–2005)
 Lead
 Leaf Squad
 LM.C
 Maaya Uchida
 Mao Abe
 Masako Mori (1979–2008)
 Marc van Roon (Japan/South Korea)
 Masayoshi Oishi
 MC Sniper
 Miki Matsubara (1979–1986)
 Mikuni Shimokawa
 Milky Bunny
 Miyuki Nakajima (moved to Yamaha Music Communications in 1999)
 Naohito Fujiki
 Naoko Ken
 Nature (Korean idol group)
 Non Stop Rabbit
 Official Hige Dandism
 Onyanko Club
 OxT
 Original Love
 Paradise Lost
 Park Yong-ha (1998–2010)
 .Paul Mauriat. (After Philips)
 The Pillows (1991–1994)
 Ricki-Lee Coulter
 Roger Joseph Manning, Jr.
 Romeo (Korean idol group)
Rumdarjun
 S/mileage
 Sam Roberts
 Segawa Ayaka
 Sexy Zone
 Smiley*2G
 she
 Shinji Tanimura
 Shizuka Kudo
 Show Lo
 Suzuko Mimori
 Sound Horizon
 SS501 (Korean idol group)
 SuG
 Suzuko Mimori
 Taegoon
 Team H
 TiA (2011–)
 Tsukiko Amano (retired)
 Van Ness Wu (Japanese albums only)
 Watari Roka Hashiritai
 Weather Girls
 w-inds.
 The Wild Magnolias (one release)
 World Order
 Yoko Hikasa
 Yoko Minamino
 Yoshino Kimura (1998–2001)
 Yu Yamada
 Yuki Saito
 Yukiko Okada (1983–1986)
 Yurika Kubo
 Zeebra

Composers
 Yasuharu Takanashi (Fairy Tail, First series only)

 Masaya Oya/Camellia

Video games
Below is a selected list of video games either developed or published by the Pony Canyon label.

 Attack Animal Gakuen
 Bubble Ghost
 Dr. Chaos
 Final Justice
 Hydlide
 Jungle Wars 2 – Kodai Mahou Ateimos no Nazo
 Kabuki-chou Reach Mahjong: Toupuusen
 Lunar Pool
 Onita Atsushi FMW
 Onyanko Town
 Penguin Land
 Phantom Fighter
 Pit Fall
 Shiroi Ringu he
 Super Pitfall
 Tasmania Story
 Ultima I: The First Age of Darkness
 Ultima II: The Revenge of the Enchantress
 Ultima III: Exodus
 Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar
 Zanac

Anime
Below is a list of anime series licensed for streaming and home video release in North America by Pony Canyon's Ponycan USA label.

 Clean Freak! Aoyama kun
 Cute High Earth Defense Club Love! (Seasons 1 & 2)
 Days
 Denkigai no Honya-san
 Etotama
 Garakowa: Restore the World
 Kuromukuro (Netflix original)
 Lance N' Masques
 The Lost Village
 The Quintessential Quintuplets (Seasons 1 & 2)
 Rokka: Braves of the Six Flowers
 Sanrio Boys
 Sound! Euphonium (Seasons 1 & 2)
 Welcome to the Ballroom
 Yuki Yuna Is a Hero

See also
 List of record labels
 Master of Entertainment

References

External links

1966 establishments in Japan
Anime companies
Mass media companies based in Tokyo
Software companies based in Tokyo
Fuji TV
Fujisankei Communications Group
Home video distributors
Home video companies of the United States
IFPI members
Japanese record labels
Jazz record labels
Record labels established in 1966
Video game companies of Japan

Pony Canyon


The foot is a unit for measuring length. It is one of the Imperial units and U.S. customary units. The shortest way of writing the unit "foot" is by the abbreviation "ft" (or "ft."), or by a prime symbol ( ′ ).

One foot contains 12 inches. This is equal to 30.48 centimetres. It is called a foot, because it was originally based on the length of a foot.

History
The foot was a common unit of measurement throughout Europe. It often differed in length not only from country to country but from city to city. Because the length of a foot changed between person to person, measurements were not even consistent between two people, often requiring an average. Henry I of England was attributed to passing the law that the foot was to be as long as a person's own foot. This was one of the first times a standard unit of measurement was put into place.

In 1959, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Australia and the United Kingdom all signed a treaty known as the 'International Yard and Pound Agreement'. This standardised the avoirdupois weight and length of all nations. Those standards are still officially used in both the Imperial system and U.S. customary units.

Usage

Road signs with height restrictions in the United States and the United Kingdom are in feet and inches. They are less commonly seen in Canada and Ireland. In the U.S. and the UK, people usually measure a person's height in feet and inches. If a person is "five foot eleven", this means that person is 5 feet and 11 inches, or about 180 centimeters. The height is written 5′ 11″

Many people born before metrication in a number of Commonwealth nations still use feet and inches. Altitude measurements are still sometimes given in feet, even in metricated nations.

Length

Imperial units
Units of length

Foot (unit)