In Korean mythology, Dangun was the grandson of the gods, and the founder of Gojoseon, who set up the capital at Asadal. Legends say that around 4,340 years ago, Joseon was the name of the country that became Korea. So Dangun is believed to be an ancestor of the Korean nation. There was also a kingdom called Joseon later in Korean history, so Dangun's kingdom is called Go (meaning "Ancient") Joseon.

Once upon a time, Hwanung, the god Hwanin`s son, wanted to go down to the human world. Hwanin noticed that and let Hwanung go down to the human world with three amulets. Hwanung went to the Sindansu in Mount Taebaek, with his 3,000 followers. He managed the human world`s agriculture, morals, and 363 other fields of societal work. All these things went well.

One day, two animals visited Hwanung, begging him to change them to human beings. One was a tiger, and the other was a bear. Hwanung gave them an armful of divine wormwood and twenty cloves of divine garlic, and said: "Eat those for 100 days without being exposed to the sunshine. Then you will become human beings."

The two animals went to the cave and followed Hwanung`s orders. But during this process, the tiger could not endure this trial, and rushed out from the cave. On the other hand, the bear endured the trial and became a woman. But nobody was willing to marry her. So the bear woman prayed to conceive a baby at Sindansu. Then Hwanung transformed himself into human being for a while and married her. The bear woman gave birth to a baby. That baby was Dangun.

Dangun managed Gojoseon for 1,500 years, and after that long period, Giza succeeded to the throne. Dangun retired from the world and became a mountain god.

Other websites
 (from Korea site 'Naver Encyclopedia')

Korea

Dangun


Kenneth L. Farquharson known professionally as Ken Parker (born c. 1948 in Darliston, Westmoreland Parish, Jamaica) is a Jamaican musician who first recorded in the 1960s.

Biography
Like many of Jamaica's singers of the era, Parker began by singing in church, where his father was a preacher. He formed a group called the Blues Benders in the mid-1960s, and their first recording was "Honeymoon by the Sea". The group arranged to audition for Coxsone Dodd, but due to a misunderstanding, Parker was the only member to turn up, so he auditioned as a soloist, impressing Dodd sufficiently to launch his solo career. While at Studio One, he recorded singles such as "Choking Kind", "Run Come", and "My Whole World is Falling Down", and an album, Keep Your Eyes on Jesus, followed in 1968. He moved on to work with Duke Reid, who produced hits including "Jimmy Brown", "Help Me Make it Through the Night", and "Kiss an Angel Good Morning". His popularity continued to grow and he recorded for other producers including Bunny Lee ("Guilty"), Rupie Edwards ("Talk About Love"), Byron Lee ("Will the Circle be Unbroken"), Lloyd Charmers ("Queen Majesty"), and Joe Gibbs ("Only Yesterday").

By 1972, however, Parker had become disillusioned with the recording industry and ceased recording, relocating to England in 1973 after spending two years in New York City. He continued to perform occasionally but did not return to recording until the early 1980s, setting up his own record label and production company, releasing gospel records. He later moved to Florida. In April 2014, he performed to a sold out show at the International Ska and Reggae Festival in London.

Discography

Albums
Keep Your Eyes on Jesus (1968) Studio One/Tabernacle
Jimmy Brown (1974) Trojan
Here Comes Ken Parker (1974)
A Touch of Inspiration (1984) Pisces
I Shall Not Be Moved (1984) Pisces
Jesus on the Main Line (1985) Pisces
The Key (1990) Body Music

Compilation albums
A Glint of Gold (1986) Pisces
The Best of: Groovin' in Style! (2003) Trojan

References

External links
Ken Parker at Roots Archives
Peter I (2004) "Sacred Songs: an interview with Ken Parker", Reggae Vibes

Living people
Jamaican reggae musicians
Island Records artists
People from Westmoreland Parish
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ken Parker (musician)


Boleslaus III ( – 1037), called the Red (; to denote a "red-haired" individual) or the Blind, a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, was duke of Bohemia from 999 until 1002 and briefly again during the year 1003. He was the "worst of all men who ever sat on the Bohemian throne". During his chaotic reign, Bohemia became a pawn in the long German–Polish War between King Henry II and Duke Bolesław I, "the Brave", of Poland.

Life
The eldest son of Duke Boleslaus II "the Pious", probably with his first wife Adiva, he succeeded to the Bohemian throne upon the death of his father in 999. Boleslaus III turned out to be a weak ruler and soon entered into a fierce inheritance conflict with his younger brothers Jaromír and Oldřich. He had both expelled to the Bavarian court of Henry II in Regensburg, together with their mother Dowager Duchess Emma.

By 1002, a revolt organized by nobles of the rival Vršovci clan (along with Boleslaus's son-in-law) forced him to flee to Germany, where he was received by Margrave Henry I of Austria. At first, Henry I ordered the arrest of his guest because of an old offence, but soon forgave him and promised support. Meanwhile, the Polish duke Bolesław I installed Boleslaus' kinsman Vladivoj on the Bohemian throne.  Vladivoj was apparently an alcoholic, however, and died within a year. After the death of Vladivoj in 1003, the Bohemian nobles invited Jaromír and Oldřich back from exile. In turn, they each later assumed the throne at Prague.

On 9 February 1003, Boleslaus the Red was restored to authority with armed support from Duke Bolesław of Poland. Boleslaus's brothers Jaromír and Oldřich again fled to Germany and placed themselves under the protection of Henry II. But Boleslaus soon undermined his own position by ordering a massacre of the nobles of the Vršovci clan at Vyšehrad. According to the chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg, Boleslav slashed his son-in-law to death with his own sword.

Nobles who survived the massacre secretly sent messengers to Bolesław the Brave of Poland and entreated him to save them. The Polish duke willingly agreed and invited his Czech namesake to visit him at his castle (probably in Kraków). There, Boleslaus the Red was trapped, blinded and imprisoned. He never returned to Bohemia. Bolesław the Brave claimed the ducal throne for himself, invaded Bohemia in 1003 and took Prague without any serious opposition; he ruled as Duke Boleslaus IV for a little over a year. He then gave up his claim to the duchy of Bohemia and was replaced by Jaromír, who, backed by Henry II, entered through the Prague gates and in 1004 received the Bohemian duchy as a fief from the hands of the German king.

See also
Thietmar of Merseburg. Chronik. Neu übertragen und erläutet von W. Trillmich, B. 1957.
Cosmas of Prague. Chronicle of Bohemians.

References

10th-century births
1037 deaths
Blind royalty and nobility
Dukes of Bohemia
11th-century dukes in Europe
Christian monarchs
Bohemian monarchs

Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia


In cryptography, a shared secret is a piece of data only known to the parties involved in a secure communication. The shared secret can be a password, a passphrase, a big number or an array of randomly chosen bytes.

The shared secret is either shared before parties start to communicate; in this case it can also be called a pre-shared key. Or it is created at the start of the communication session by using a key-agreement protocol, for-instance using public-key cryptography such as Diffie-Hellman or using symmetric-key cryptography such as Kerberos.

The shared secret can be used for authentication (for instance when logging in to a remote system) using methods such as challenge-response or it can be fed to a key derivation function to produce one or more keys to use for encryption and/or MACing of messages.

To make unique session and message keys the shared secret is usually combined with an initialization vector (IV).  An example of this is the derived unique key per transaction method.

References

 Handbook of Applied Cryptography by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 10 and 12.

Cryptography

Shared secret


Low insertion force (LIF) is a technology used in integrated circuit sockets that are designed so the force required to insert or remove a package is low.

Initially, the LIF connectors were designed as a cheaper alternative compared to zero insertion force (ZIF) connectors, to facilitate programming and testing of equipment. Compared with standard IC sockets, they achieve a lower friction force between the contacts of the device and the socket, making insertion and removal of the device easier, while at the same time eliminating the need for the complex mechanism that is used in ZIF sockets.

The disadvantages of LIF connectors are that the grip force between the contacts is lower, and the contacts can oxidize faster and decrease the lifespan of the connector. With the advent of frequent changes in PC processors, a need arose for these systems. Intel introduced the LIF socket system, in which the processor is inserted into the socket, rather than fixed by a lever. This type of socket was used for some types of 386s and early 486s. This type of socket has been replaced by the ZIF socket, although LIF sockets are now used in modern 1.8" hard disks.

Further reading

Chip carriers

Low insertion force


The National Centre Party, initially known as the National Farmers and Ratepayers League, was a short-lived political party in the Irish Free State. It was founded on 15 September 1932 in the Mansion House, Dublin, with the support of several sitting TDs, including the three Farmers' Party members and thirteen Independents, all of whom feared for their political future if they did not coordinate in a common organisation. Prominent among the latter were party leader Frank MacDermot, a TD for Roscommon since the general election of February 1932, and James Dillon, a TD for Donegal, who was the son of John Dillon, the last leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party.

The party's policies included the establishment of a central bank (at this time, the Free State was still part of the sterling area, and the Bank of Ireland served as lender to the government), deflation through pay cuts, protectionism, an end to the Anglo-Irish Trade War and the removal of rates on agricultural land. The party was strongly opposed to Fianna Fáil, despite apparent similarities of policy, perhaps because most National Centre Party deputies represented rural constituencies. Fianna Fáil, with its strength among small farmers and increasing popularity among the rural middle-class, was the most obvious threat to a rural-based party at this time.

In the general election of January 1933, the new party won eleven seats. During this election, the party's opponents in Fianna Fáil disrupted National Centre Party meetings, often with the assistance of the prohibited Irish Republican Army. These incidents contributed to the rise of the Army Comrades Association, which was formed to protect the establishment conservative parties from the perceived threat of political violence. Fianna Fáil formed a majority government after the election. During the first Fianna Fáil government, the National Centre Party aligned with the largest opposition party, Cumann na nGaedheal, on almost all issues of political or economic importance. However, Frank MacDermot rejected a suggestion that the two parties should merge.

The opposition parties united in mutual self-defence when the government banned the Army Comrades Association in August 1933. The two parties and the ACA merged to form Fine Gael in September, just eleven months after the formation of the National Centre Party. Included in the six  National Centre Party members of the first Fine Gael National Executive were FB Barton, P Baxter and EJ Cussen.

Although MacDermot became a vice-president of Fine Gael at its foundation, he differed from most of his party colleagues on issues such as the degree of emphasis to be given to Ireland's membership of the British Commonwealth. He ultimately resigned from the party, to sit as an Independent.

General election results

See also
:Category:National Centre Party (Ireland) politicians

References

External links
Barberis, Peter, John McHugh and Mike Tyldesley, 2005. Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organisations. London: Continuum International Publishing Group. ,
Manning, Maurice, 1972. Irish Political Parties: An Introduction. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.

1932 establishments in Ireland
1933 disestablishments in Ireland
Agrarian parties in Ireland
Christian democratic parties in Europe
Conservative parties in Ireland
Defunct Christian political parties
Defunct conservative parties
Defunct political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Fine Gael
Political parties disestablished in 1933
Political parties established in 1932

National Centre Party (Ireland)


Hobart Peyton Young (born March 9, 1945) is an American game theorist and economist known for his contributions to evolutionary game theory and its application to the study of institutional and technological change, as well as the theory of learning in games. He is currently centennial professor at the London School of Economics, James Meade Professor of Economics Emeritus at the University of Oxford, professorial fellow at Nuffield College Oxford, and research principal at the Office of Financial Research at the U.S. Department of the Treasury.

Peyton Young was named a fellow of the Econometric Society in 1995, a fellow of the British Academy in 2007, and a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2018.  He served as president of the Game Theory Society from 2006–08. He has published widely on learning in games, the evolution of social norms and institutions, cooperative game theory, bargaining and negotiation, taxation and cost allocation, political representation, voting procedures, and distributive justice.

Education and career

In 1966, he graduated cum laude in general studies from Harvard University. He completed a PhD in Mathematics at the University of Michigan in 1970, where he graduated with the Sumner B. Myers thesis prize for his work in combinatorial mathematics.

His first academic post was at the graduate school of the City University of New York as assistant professor and then associate professor, from 1971 to 1976.  From 1976 to 1982, Young was research scholar and deputy chairman of the Systems and Decision Sciences Division at the Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria.  He was then appointed professor of Economics and Public Policy in the School of Public Affairs at the University of Maryland, College Park from 1992 to 1994.   Young was Scott & Barbara Black Professor of Economics at the Johns Hopkins University from 1994, until moving to Oxford as James Meade Professor of Economics in 2007. In 2004 he was a Fulbright Distinguished Chair at the University of Siena. He has been centennial professor at the London School of Economics since 2015 and remains a professorial fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford.

Contributions

Evolutionary game theory

Conventional concepts of dynamic stability, including the evolutionarily stable strategy concept, identify states from which small once-off deviations are self-correcting.  These stability concepts are not appropriate for analyzing social and economic systems which are constantly perturbed by idiosyncratic behavior and mistakes, and individual and aggregate shocks to payoffs.  Building upon Freidlin and Wentzell's (1984) theory of large deviations for continuous time-processes, Dean Foster and Peyton Young (1990) developed the more powerful concept of stochastic stability: "The stochastically stable set [SSS] is the set of states such that, in the long run, it is nearly certain that the system lies within every open set containing S as the noise tends slowly to zero" [p. 221].  This solution concept created a major impact in economics and game theory after Young (1993) developed a more tractable version of the theory for general finite-state Markov chains.  A state is stochastically stable if it attracts positive weight in the stationary distribution of the Markov chain.  Young develops powerful graph-theoretic tools for identifying the stochastically stable states.

In an influential book, Individual Strategy and Social Structure, Young provides a clear and compact exposition of the major results in the field of stochastic evolutionary game theory, which he pioneered.  He introduces his model of social interactions called 'adaptive play.'  Agents are randomly selected from a large population to play a fixed game.  They choose a myopic best response, based upon a random sample of past plays of the game.  The evolution of the (bounded) history of play is described by a finite Markov chain.  Idiosyncratic behavior or mistakes constantly perturb the process, so that every state is accessible from every other.  This means that the Markov chain is ergodic, so there is a unique stationary distribution which characterizes the long-run behavior of the process. Recent work by Young and coauthors finds that evolutionary dynamics of this and other kinds can transit rapidly to stochastically stable equilibria from locally stable ones, when perturbations are small but nonvanishing (Arieli and Young 2016, Kreindler and Young 2013, Kreindler and Young 2014).

The theory is used to show that in 2x2 coordination games, the risk-dominant equilibrium will be played virtually all the time, as time goes to infinity.  It also yields a formal proof of Thomas Schelling's (1971) result that residential segregation emerges at the social level even if no individual prefers to be segregated.  In addition, the theory "demonstrates how high-rationality solution concepts in game theory can emerge in a world populated by low-rationality agents" [p. 144].  In bargaining games, Young demonstrates that the Nash (1950) and Kalai-Smorodinsky (1975) bargaining solutions emerge from the decentralized actions of boundedly rational agents without common knowledge.

Learning in games

Whereas evolutionary game theory studies the behavior of large populations of agents, the theory of learning in games focuses on whether the actions of a small group of players end up conforming to some notion of equilibrium.  This is a challenging problem, because social systems are self-referential: the act of learning changes the thing to be learned.  There is a complex feedback between a player's beliefs, their actions and the actions of others, which makes the data-generating process exceedingly non-stationary.  Young has made numerous contributions to this literature.  Foster and Young (2001) demonstrate the failure of Bayesian learning rules to learn mixed equilibria in games of uncertain information.  Foster and Young (2003) introduce a learning procedure in which players form hypotheses about their opponents' strategies, which they occasionally test against their opponents' past play.  By backing off from rationality in this way, Foster and Young show that there are natural and robust learning procedures that lead to Nash equilibrium in general normal form games.

The recent literature on learning in games is elegantly reviewed in Young's 2004 book, Strategic Learning and its Limits.

Social Norms

In a series of papers, Young has applied the techniques of stochastic evolutionary game theory to the study of social norms (see Young 2015 for a review). The theory identifies four key features of norm dynamics.

(1) Persistence: once norms are in place, they persist for long periods of time despite changing external conditions.

(2) Tipping: when norms change, they do so suddenly. Deviations from an established norm may occur incrementally at first. Once a critical mass of deviators forms, however, the process tips and a new norm spreads rapidly through the population.

(3) Compression: norms imply that behavior (e.g. retirement ages, cropsharing contracts) exhibits a higher degree of conformity and lower responsiveness to economic conditions than predicted by standard economic models.

(4) Local conformity/global diversity: A norm is one of many possible equilibria. Compression implies that individuals who are closely connected conform fairly closely to a particular norm. At the same time, the presence of multiple equilibria implies that less closely connected individuals in the population could arrive at a very different norm.

These predictions are borne out in empirical work. Several regularities were uncovered in Young and Burke's (2001) study of cropsharing contracts in Illinois, which made use of detailed information on the terms of contracts on several thousand farms from different parts of the state. Firstly, there was considerable compression in the contract terms: 98% of all contracts involved 1/2-1/2, 2/5-3/5 or 1/3-2/3 splits. Secondly, when splitting the sample into farms from Northern and Southern Illinois, Young and Burke discovered a high degree of uniformity in contracts within each region, but significant variance across regions---evidence of the local conformity/global diversity effect.  In Northern Illinois, the customary share was 1/2-1/2. In Southern Illinois, it was 1/3-2/3 or 2/5-3/5.

The Diffusion of Innovations

Young has also made significant applied contributions to understanding the diffusion of new ideas, technologies and practices in a population.  The spread of particular social norms can be analyzed within the same framework. In the course of several papers (Young 2003, Young 2011, Kreindler and Young 2014), Young has showed how the topology of a social network affects the rate and nature of diffusion under particular adoption rules at the individual level.

In an influential 2009 paper, Young turned attention to the diffusion dynamics that can result from different adoption rules in a well-mixed population. In particular, he distinguished between three different classes of diffusion model:

(1)	Contagion: Individuals adopt an innovation (a new idea, product or practice) following contact with existing adopters.

(2)	Social Influence: Individuals are likely to adopt an innovation when a critical mass of individuals in their group has adopted it.

(3)	Social Leaning: Individuals observe the payoffs of adopters and adopt the innovation when these payoffs are sufficiently high.

The third adoption process is most closely related to optimizing behavior and thus standard approaches in economics. The first two processes are, however, the ones focused on by the vast sociological and marketing literature on the subject.

Young characterized the mean dynamic of each of these processes under general forms of heterogeneity in individual beliefs and preferences. While each of the dynamics yields a familiar S-shaped adoption curve, Young showed how the underlying adoption process can be inferred from the aggregate adoption curve. It turns out that each process leaves a distinct footprint. Turning to data on hybrid corn adoption in the United States, Young presented evidence of superexponential acceleration in the early stages of adoption, a hallmark of social learning.

Shapley value

Young (1985) has contributed an axiomatization of the Shapley value. It is regarded as a key piece for understanding the relationship between the marginality principle and the Shapley value. Young shows that the Shapley value is the only symmetric and efficient solution concept that is solely computed from a player's marginal contributions in a cooperative game. Consequently, the Shapley value is the only efficient and symmetric solution that satisfies monotonicity which requires that whenever a player's contribution to all coalitions weakly increases, then this player's allocation should also weakly increase. This justifies the Shapley value as the measure of a player's productivity in a cooperative game and makes it particularly appealing for cost allocation models.

The Kemeny-Young Method

The Kemeny–Young method is a voting system that uses preferential ballots and pairwise comparison counts to identify the most popular choices in an election.  It is a Condorcet method because if there is a Condorcet winner, it will always be ranked as the most popular choice.

The Kemeny–Young method was developed by John Kemeny in 1959. Young and Levenglick (1978) showed that this method was the unique neutral method satisfying reinforcement and the Condorcet criterion. In other papers (Young 1986, 1988, 1995, 1997), Young adopted an epistemic approach to preference-aggregation: he supposed that there was an objectively 'correct', but unknown preference order over the alternatives, and voters receive noisy signals of this true preference order (cf. Condorcet's jury theorem). Using a simple probabilistic model for these noisy signals, Young showed that the Kemeny–Young method was the maximum likelihood estimator of the true preference order.  Young further argues that Marquis de Condorcet himself was aware of the Kemeny-Young rule and its maximum-likelihood interpretation, but was unable to clearly express his ideas.

Selected papers
J. Kemeny, "Mathematics without numbers", Daedalus, 88 (1959), 577–591.
H. P. Young and A. Levenglick, "A Consistent Extension of Condorcet's Election Principle", SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics 35, no. 2 (1978), 285–300.
H. P. Young, "Optimal ranking and choice from pairwise comparisons", in Information pooling and group decision making edited by B. Grofman and G. Owen (1986), JAI Press, 113–122.
H.P Young, "Monotonic solutions of cooperative games",  International Journal of Game Theory, 14, No. 2 (1985), 65–72.
H. P. Young, "Condorcet's Theory of Voting", American Political Science Review 82, no. 2 (1988), 1231–1244.
D. Foster and H.P Young, "Stochastic Evolutionary Game Dynamics", Theoretical Population Biology, 38 (1990), 219–232.
H.P Young, "The Evolution of Conventions", Econometrica, 61 (1993), 57–84.
H.P Young, "An Evolutionary Model of Bargaining", Journal of Economic Theory, 59 (1993), 145–168.
H. P. Young, "Optimal Voting Rules", Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no.1  (1995), 51–64.
H. P. Young, "Group choice and individual judgements", Chapter 9 of Perspectives on public choice: a handbook, edited by Dennis Mueller (1997) Cambridge UP., pp. 181–200.
D. Foster and H.P Young, "On the Impossibility of Predicting the Behavior of Rational Agents", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA,  98, no. 22 (2001), 12848–12853.
H.P Young and M.A. Burke, "Competition and Custom in Economic Contracts: A Case Study of Illinois Agriculture", American Economic Review, 91 (2001), 559–573.
D. Foster and H.P Young, "Learning, Hypothesis Testing, and Nash Equilibrium",  Games and Economic Behavior, 45 (2003), 73–96.
H.P Young, "The Diffusion of Innovations in Social Networks" in  The Economy as a Complex Evolving System, vol. III, Lawrence E. Blume and Steven N. Durlauf, eds. Oxford University Press, (2003).
H.P Young, "Innovation Diffusion in Heterogeneous Populations: Contagion, Social Influence and Social Learning", American Economic Review, 99 (2009), 1899–1924.
H.P Young, "Learning by Trial and Error", Games and Economic Behavior, 65 (2009), 626–643.
D. Foster and H.P Young, "Gaming Performance Fees by Portfolio Managers", Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125 (2010), 1435–1458.
H.P Young, "The Dynamics of Social Innovation", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, No. 4 (2011), 21285–21291.
B.S.R. Pradelski and H.P Young, "Learning Efficient Nash Equilibria in Distributed Systems", Games and Economic Behavior, 75 (2012), 882–897.
G. Kreindler and H.P Young, "Fast Convergence in Evolutionary Equilibrium Selection", Games and Economic Behavior, 80 (2013), 39–67.
G. Kreindler and H.P Young, "Rapid Innovation Diffusion in Social Networks", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111 Suppl 3 (2014), 10881–10888.
H.P Young, "The Evolution of Social Norms", Annual Review of Economics, 7 (2015), 359–87.
I. Arieli and H.P Young, "Stochastic Learning Dynamics and Speed of Convergence in Population Games", Econometrica, 84 (2016), 627–676.

Books
 H. Peyton Young (2004). Strategic Learning and Its Limits. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press. Contents and introduction.
_ (2001). Fair Representation, 2nd edition (with M. L. Balinski). Washington, D. C.: The Brookings Institution. Contents and introduction.
_ (1998). Individual Strategy and Social Structure: An Evolutionary Theory of Institutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Contents and introduction.
_ (1994). Equity: In Theory and Practice. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Contents and introduction.

References

External links
 Young's page at the University of Oxford with his CV and full list of publications.

1945 births
Game theorists
Harvard College alumni
University of Michigan alumni
21st-century American economists
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Place of birth missing (living people)
Living people
North Shore Country Day School alumni
Fellows of the British Academy
Fair division researchers
Brookings Institution people

Peyton Young


Direct democracy, which is also called pure democracy, is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.
When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Governments of modern countries rarely make laws this way.

Costs and benefits of direct democracy
Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today.
Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.

History

Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. But, to be a citizen, you had to be a free, land-owning, native-born man.

Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons,  Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus.

The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.

Related pages
Democracy
Representative democracy

References

Anarchism
Democracy

Direct democracy


A light year (symbol: ly)  is the distance that light travels in empty space in one year. Since the speed of light is about 300,000 km per second (about 186,000 miles per second), then a light year is 9.46 trillion kilometers (about 5.87 trillion miles), for AU, one light year is 63,241 AU. A light year is not a length of time.

The light year is used in astronomy because the universe is huge. Space objects such as stars and galaxies may be hundreds, thousands or millions of light years away.

Example
Think of a star at a distance of 100 light years from us on Earth. Light leaves the star and takes 100 years to get to us. When we see the star's light, we are seeing that star as it was 100 years ago.

Similar distance measurements
Light minute - The distance that light travels in one minute (about 18,000,000 km per minute, or 11,160,000 miles per minute).
For example, our Sun is about 8 light minutes from Earth
Light second - The distance that light travels in one second (about 300,000 km per second, or 186,000 miles per second)
For example, our Moon is about 1¼ light seconds from Earth

References

Units of length
Astronomical distances

Light year


Sidney William Bijou (November 12, 1908 – June 11, 2009) was an American developmental psychologist who developed an approach of treating childhood disorders using behavioral therapy, in which positive actions were rewarded and negative behaviors were largely ignored, rather than punished.

Early life
Bijou was born in the Arlington neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland. He moved to Brooklyn, New York with his family when he was 10 years old. He earned a degree in business administration at the University of Florida in 1933. He was awarded a master's degree in psychology at Columbia University in 1937 and earned his Ph.D. in the field at the University of Iowa in 1941. Together with Joseph Jastak, he developed the Wide Range Achievement Test, a comprehensive assessment of an individual's ability in reading, comprehension, spelling, and mathematics. During World War II, he served in the U.S. Army Air Forces.

Career in psychology

He was hired by Indiana University in 1946, where he spent two years under pioneering behaviorist B. F. Skinner. While other child psychologists had focused on the use of techniques such as play therapy to identify the motives and causes of problematic behavior, Bijou used Skinner's behavioral techniques to encourage positive behaviors through such rewards as praise, hugs and pieces of candy. Children who were defiant would be given a time-out and separated from a group activity, with the expectation that the bad behavior would be its own punishment, and that any additional sanctions would not have a positive effect. A child isolated from a group would strive to behave appropriately in order to have the opportunity to rejoin the group.

He relocated to the University of Washington in 1948, where he applied Skinner's techniques on children at the Institute of Child Development, and wrote several textbooks in the field together with Donald Baer. Studies he performed there showed that encouragement of good behavior would elicit more good behavior even from unruly children. Ole Ivar Lovaas of the University of California, Los Angeles, one of the developers of applied behavior analysis therapy for autism, adapted Bijou's techniques to develop one of the most commonly used techniques of using rewards to enhance social skills of autistic children.

In 1968, together with Donald Baer, Todd Risley, James Sherman, and Montrose Wolf, he established the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, as a peer-reviewed  journal publishing research about experimental analysis of behavior and its practical applications.

He relocated over the years to the University of Illinois, the University of Arizona (from 1975 to 1993) and the University of Nevada, Reno (from 1993 to 2001), where he established similar behavioral programs.

Personal life
Bijou died at age 100 on June 11, 2009, after collapsing at his home in Santa Barbara, California. He had moved there to live with his daughter Jude Bijou following his wife's death. He was survived by Jude and a son. His wife died in 2000; they had been married for 67 years.

His son recalled taking the family car for a joyride when he was 15 years old and being arrested by the police. At the police station, the officers offered several ideas for punishments for the misdeed, but Dr. Bijou rejected them all, stating that "he's already had punishment enough". His son recalled the incident, stating that "sometimes it can pay off to have a psychologist for a father".

Books by Bijou
 Behavior Analysis of Child Development (1993)
 New Directions in Behavior Development by Sidney W. Bijou and Emilio Ribes  (c1996)
 Behavior Modification: Contributions to education by Sidney W. Bijou and Emilio Ribes-Inesta
 New developments in behavioral research: theory, method, and application: In honor of Sidney Bijou
 Child development: the basic stage of early childhood by Sidney Bijou (1976)
 The exceptional child: conditioned learning and teaching ideas. Papers by Sidney Bijou [et al.] (1971)

References

1908 births
2009 deaths
American centenarians
20th-century American psychologists
Child psychologists
Columbia University alumni
Indiana University faculty
Men centenarians
People from Baltimore
People from Brooklyn
People from Santa Barbara, California
Warrington College of Business alumni
University of Iowa alumni
University of Arizona faculty
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University of Nevada, Reno faculty
University of Washington faculty
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II

Sidney W. Bijou


Karl Emil Franzos (25 October 184828 January 1904) was a popular Austrian novelist of the late 19th century. His works, both reportage and fiction, concentrate on the multi-ethnic corner of Galicia, Podolia and Bukovina, now largely in western Ukraine, where the Habsburg and Russian empires met. This area became so closely associated with his name that one critic called it "Franzos country". A number of his books were translated into English, and Gladstone is said to have been among his admirers.

Life
Karl Emil Franzos was born near the town of Czortków (Chortkiv) in the eastern, Podolian region of the Austrian Kingdom of Galicia. His family came from Sephardi Spanish Jews who fled the Inquisition to Holland and later settled in Lorraine. In the 1770s his great-grandfather established a factory for one of his sons in East Galicia, part of the Habsburg monarchy since the First Partition of Poland in 1772. When the Austrian administration required Jews to adopt surnames, "Franzos" became his grandfather's name, from his French background, even though he regarded himself as German.

Franzos's father Heinrich (1808–1858) was a highly respected doctor in Czortków. His German identity at the time had mainly linguistic and cultural meaning, there being no state called "Germany", just a loose German Confederation. He was steeped in the humanistic ideals of the German Enlightenment as expressed by Kant, Lessing and, especially, Schiller. This brought a certain isolation: for local Poles and Ukrainians he was German, for Germans a Jew and for Jews a renegade, a deutsch. In the Vormärz era of the first half of the 19th century, liberalism and nationalism went hand in hand, and Franzos's father was one of the first Jews to join a Burschenschaft student fraternity whose ideal was a German nation state with a liberal constitution. It is ironic that by the time Franzos, who shared his father's ideals, went to university, the German student fraternities had "dejudaised" themselves.

His father died when he was ten and his mother moved to the Bukovina capital Czernowitz (Chernivtsi). The city's multiculturalism, representative of the Habsburg Empire, strongly influenced his youth and character. The first languages he spoke were Ukrainian and Polish, learnt from his nurse; his first school was attached to the Czortków Dominican abbey, where the teaching was in Latin and Polish; and he attended private lessons in Hebrew. In Czernowitz he attended the German gymnasium, passing the Matura exam with honours in 1867. By now the family was in reduced circumstances and he supported himself by giving lessons, later, as a student, from his writing.

He would have liked to study classical philology with the aim of becoming a teacher, but no scholarship was forthcoming. Jews were not eligible for teaching posts, and even though he was non-religious, he refused to convert to advance his career. An additional reason for the refusal of a scholarship was that he did not attempt to conceal his liberal outlook, having, for example, tried to organise a celebration for the liberal poet, Ferdinand Freiligrath. He studied law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, that being a shorter course. When he graduated, he found himself in a similar situation: he did not want to become an advocate, and a position as judge was closed to him as a Jew.

Having had a number of pieces published while he was a student, he went into journalism and worked for newspapers and magazines for the rest of his life, at first in Budapest and in Vienna as a travel writer of the Neue Freie Presse newspaper. In 1877 he married Ottilie Benedikt, a relative of editor Moriz Benedikt. From 1886 he lived in Berlin, capital of the German Empire. Franzos had acclaimed the 1871 German unification under Prussian leadership and advocated a Greater Germany including the Austrian territories. However, the move to the German capital was caused as much by the greater opportunities for publishing there as by his "Germanic" tendencies. Indeed, the increasing virulence of antisemitism in Germany meant that later on he had difficulty placing pieces which were felt to be too pro-Jewish—which was often another way of saying "not sufficiently anti-Jewish".

More and more under Jew-hatred attacks, Franzos suffering from heart trouble died at the age of 55 in Berlin, where he is buried in the Weißensee Cemetery.

Work
Franzos showed the attitudes of the 19th-century assimilated Jew in their best light. His conviction that Germanisation was the way forward was based on the idealistic strain in German culture and will have looked very different in his day to a post-Holocaust perspective. He believed, following the example of Friedrich Schiller, that literature should have an ethical purpose, but he managed to express that purpose through a range of vivid characters who still have the power to move the modern reader.

Galicia and Bukovina were the most backward, the poorest provinces of the Austrian Empire, so that Franzos saw his promotion of Germanisation as part of an attempt to improve conditions there politically and economically as well as culturally and socially. Jews made up some 12% of the population, the largest proportion of any province; two-thirds of the Empire's Jews lived in Galicia. Besides being mostly poor, the shtetl Jews were strict, conservative Hasidim, shutting themselves off as far as possible from their Christian neighbours, who responded in kind. Poor orthodox Jews from the east were a not uncommon sight in Vienna and were probably regarded with even greater hostility by many of the westernised Jews of the city than by the Christian population.

The rigidity with which the eastern Jewish communities shut themselves off from outside influences is the theme of Franzos's most ambitious work, Der Pojaz, completed in 1893, but not published until after his death in 1905. Why this novel, which Franzos regarded as his major work, remained unpublished during his lifetime, is a mystery. It is possible that he thought his critical portrayal of the ghetto might be exploited by antisemitic elements which were becoming increasingly active in Germany in the 1890s. The relations between the Christian and Jewish communities come into sharpest focus in sexual matters—as a young man Franzos fell in love with a Christian girl but renounced her because of the barrier between the two groups. This problem forms the subject of a number of his works, including two of his best novels, Judith Trachtenberg (1890) and Leib Weihnachtskuchen and his Child (1896).

The main focus of his writing is the relationships between the different nationalities of the region—Poles, Ukrainians, Russians, Germans and Jews—and his sympathies clearly lie with the oppressed groups, in particular the Ukrainian peasants and shtetl Jews. He insisted that he was free from racial prejudice and that his attacks on particular nationalities were because they oppressed others:

"I spoke out against the oppression of the Ukrainians and Poles by the Russians, but where the Poles do the same, as is the case in Galicia, then I speak out against their oppression of the Ukrainians, Jews and Germans."

He also "spoke out" against the rigid attitudes and practices of orthodox religion, and in this his attacks were directed above all at his fellow Jews:

"I stand up for the Jews because they are enslaved, but I attack the slavery the orthodox Jews impose on the liberal members of their faith."

His works include:
Aus Halb-Asien (1876)
Land und Leute des östlichen Europas (1876)
Die Juden von Barnow (1877)
Junge Liebe (1878)
Stille Geschichten (1880)
Moschko von Parma (1880)
Ein Kampf um's Recht (1882)
Der Präsident (1884)
Judith Trachtenberg  (1890)
Der Pojaz (1893)
Deutsche Fahrten. Reise- und Kulturbilder. Erste Reihe: Aus Anhalt und Thüringen (1903/2. Aufl. 1905)
Der Wahrheitsucher (1904)

Woyzeck

Franzos is also well known for being the first to publish an edition of Georg Büchner's work, which was vital for the rediscovery of the Vormärz author. Franzos completed his edition in 1879, including plays like Danton's Death and Leonce and Lena. The manuscript of Büchner's drama Woyzeck was difficult to decipher, and had to be treated with chemicals in order to bring the ink up to the surface of the paper, and many of the pages were kept and later destroyed by Büchner's widow, who survived him by four decades. But Franzos's edition was for many years the authoritative version, until the late 1910s when a revival of Büchner's works began in Europe and the many errors in Franzos' edition came to light. These errors include the misspelling of the title, as "Wozzeck" instead of "Woyzeck", an alternate ending that involves Wozzeck drowning in lieu of Büchner's incomplete manuscript, and a fragmented plot without connections between the scenes. Although the play is often performed in newer versions, Franzos' edition has been immortalized in the form of Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck, which uses the Franzos edition as its base.

References

External links

1848 births
1904 deaths
19th-century Austrian writers
19th-century Sephardi Jews
19th-century Austrian Jews
Austrian people of Spanish descent
Austro-Hungarian Sephardi Jews
Writers from Austria-Hungary
German-language writers
German nationalists
German Sephardi Jews
Jewish Austrian writers
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
People from Chortkiv
Writers from Ternopil Oblast
Ukrainian Sephardi Jews
Ukrainian people of Spanish descent

Karl Emil Franzos


Aaron Karfunkel (also known as Aaron ben Judah; in Hebrew, Aharon ben Yehudah ha-Kohen; in Yiddish, Aaron Löb (died 1816) was a Bohemian rabbi of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. After having successively filled the rabbinates of Gawartschew, Łask, Dasparschi, and Widowa, he was called in 1801 to Náchod, where he remained until 1806. From 1807 to 1816 he was chief rabbi of Silesia. Karfunkel was the author of She'eltot Abiyah, containing dissertations on Talmudic subjects, and divided into twelve parts, having for their respective titles the names of the precious stones in the high priest's breastplate. Of these parts only two have been published (Berlin, 1806). They are divided into "kelalim", subdivided into paragraphs, with glosses entitled Millu'at Eben and dissertations called Meshuah Milhamah. Karfunkel was the author also of Tzanif Tahor, a commentary on Ecclesiastes, a manuscript of which is in the British Museum.

References
Broydé, Isaac and Solomon Schechter. "Karfunkel, Aaron ben Judah Lob ha-Kohen." Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk and Wagnalls, 1901–1906; which cites to:
Fürst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 171;
Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 409.

Czech Orthodox rabbis
18th-century births
1816 deaths

Aaron Karfunkel


The Index Librorum Prohibitorum () was The Index, a list of books banned by the Catholic Church. They were banned if the Church thought they were heretical, anti-clerical (anti-church) or lascivious (obscene). It was censorship by the Catholic Church.

Early versions of the Index were published in Catholic Netherlands (1529); Venice (1543) and Paris (1551). By mid-century, with wars of religion in France and Germany, authorities thought control of the press could prevent the spread of heresy. This could be done by using a catalog of prohibited works, backed by ecclesiastic and civil authorities.

The first version published in Rome (the Pauline Index) was issued by Pope Paul IV in 1559.  From 1571 to 1917 the Sacred Congregation of the Index was in charge of updating the list. The 20th and final edition appeared in 1948, and the Index was formally abolished on 14 June 1966 by Pope Paul VI.

The aim of the list was to protect the belief and morals of the faithful. This was done by preventing them from reading heretical and  immoral books. Books thought to contain such errors included works by astronomers such as Johannes Kepler's Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae, which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835, and by philosophers, like Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. The various editions of the Index also had the rules of the Church about the reading, selling and censorship of books. Even editions and translations of the Bible not been approved by the Church could be banned.

Enforcing the Index was the Inquisition. The burning at the stake of Giordano Bruno, whose entire works were placed on the Index on 8 February 1600, was (on the surface) for heresy, not for heliocentrism or other scientific views. However, those other views included a belief in 'other worlds', which was heresy.

Not until 1822 did the Church permit books to be printed which accepted the Earth's motion.

The developments since the abolition of the Index show "the loss of relevance of the Index in the 21st century". A complete list of the authors and writings present in the successive editions of the Index is given in J. Martínez de Bujanda, Index Librorum Prohibitorum, 1600–1966. A list of the books that were on the Index can be found on the World Wide Web.

References

Catholicism
Censorship

Index Librorum Prohibitorum


Travelodge (formerly TraveLodge) refers to several hotel chains around the world. Current operations include: the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia and several countries in Asia. As of December 31, 2018, it has 435 properties with 31,005 rooms.

United States

The Travelodge brand was one of the first motel chains in the United States. Scott King, the Travelodge Corporation founder, was incorporated in Southern California in 1939. The first TraveLodge opened in San Diego in 1940. For many years, Travelodge was headquartered in El Cajon, California, east of San Diego. During its early years, TraveLodge emphasized itself as a budget motel chain that offered functional accommodations at rates lower than other chains. TraveLodge also emphasized that its motels were centrally located in or near downtown areas in order to be convenient to local restaurants, churches, theatres, shopping areas and tourist attractions. Today, however, there are many different hotel "tiers" that Travelodge offers, from budget-priced properties to full-service high-rise hotels. Travelodge purchased the Skylight Inn of America Inn in 1988, which was founded only six years prior in Cleveland, Ohio,

In 1996, the Forte Group sold the Travelodge operation in North America. The trademark rights and franchise system were acquired for $39 million by HFS Inc., owner of other hotel brands such as Days Inn and Ramada. HFS was later merged into Cendant Corporation, and Cendant's hotel services, including Travelodge, were spun off as Wyndham Hotels and Resorts in 2006.

Targeting families with children, Travelodge is well-known for its mascot Sleepy Bear, a smiling, sleep-walking teddy bear wearing a nightcap with his name, a nightshirt with the Travelodge logo, and slippers. The logo was created in 1954 by Robert Hale, while employed by Dan Lawrence Advertising agency of San Diego. Years ago, Travelodge would give a free toy plush bear to any child staying in the Sleepy Bear Den room, of which every Travelodge had at least one. The Sleepy Bear mascot has largely been retired, but can still be seen on some older Travelodge signs and is still used on some advertising. Travelodge also has a brand of lower-price motels called Thriftlodge with another mascot named TJ, a freckle-faced bear with a baseball cap and a T-shirt with the Thriftlodge logo and the name TJ on it.

Canada

The Canadian Travelodge hotels are unusual for a Wyndham chain. Though operating under the Travelodge brand, Travelodge Canada administers the Master Licence for Travelodge and Thriftlodge in Canada. Travelodge Canada Corp. is owned by Superior Lodging Development TL Corporation based in Calgary, Alberta.

With over 95 properties nationwide, Travelodge is the third-largest hotel chain in Canada.

United Kingdom

Travelodge has been running in the UK since the first hotel opened at Burton Upon Trent in 1985. The company has been through several changes of ownership and reached £1bn in debts by 2008. The chain is currently being financed by Goldman Sachs and the hedge fund groups GoldenTree Asset Management and Avenue Capital Group.

Asia / Australia
Headquartered in Australia and Singapore, Travelodge Hotels Asia is responsible for the development, management and franchise of all Travelodge hotels in 22 key markets throughout Asia. The launch of Travelodge Kowloon in Hong Kong in January 2017 marks the first strategic step and key milestone for Travelodge Hotels Asia. The company, owned by Singapore-listed ICP, has plans for expansion in other Asian countries including Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Japan within the next few years.

See also

References

Motels
Hotel chains
Franchises
Motels in the United States
Companies based in Morris County, New Jersey
American companies established in 1939
Hotels established in 1939
1939 establishments in California
Reuben Brothers
Wyndham brands
Private equity portfolio companies

Travelodge


The 1989 Australian pilots' dispute was one of the most expensive and dramatic industrial disputes in Australia's history. It was co-ordinated by the Australian Federation of Air Pilots (AFAP) after a prolonged period of wage suppression, to support its campaign for a 29.5% pay increase.

The dispute began impacting the public on 18 August 1989 with pilots working "9-5" and was never formally resolved due to the mass resignation of pilots, cancellation of their award and de-recognition of their union.

As part of this campaign, AFAP pilots imposed on their employers (Ansett Australia, East-West, Ipec and Australian Airlines) a limitation on the hours they were prepared to work, arguing that if they were to be treated in exactly the same way as other employee groups (the stance adopted by the government), their work conditions should also be the same. This initially took the form of making themselves available for flying duties only within the normal office working hours of 9am to 5pm.

The dispute severely disrupted domestic air travel in Australia and had a major detrimental impact on the tourism industry and many other businesses. A few days earlier, Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke declared a national emergency and allowed Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) planes and pilots and overseas aircraft and pilots to provide services. The RAAF provided limited domestic air services to ease the impact of the dispute. The employers recruited new pilots from overseas, and for a while, some overseas airlines operated charter Boeing 737 and 757 aircraft on east coast routes, and travel between Perth and the East Coast was also possible via Singapore, using international flights. The dispute was superficially resolved after the mass resignation of a significant number of domestic airline pilots to avoid litigation from the employers.

The RAAF ceased 'public transport operations' on 15 December 1989, by 31 December 1989 regular leasing of seats on international flights ceased and, by 12 January 1990, the government ceased its waiver of landing charges. The airlines were able to slowly return to normal schedules as they hired replacement pilots. Thus no specific date can be set for when the dispute stopped impacting flights, tourism and the economy.

Ansett, Australian Airlines,  and Ipec no longer exist. East-West was a subsidiary of Ansett in 1989, and was absorbed fully in 1993. Australian Airlines merged with Qantas in 1992. Ipec was acquired by Toll Holdings in 1998. The dispute crippled the Australian Federation of Air Pilots and cleared the road to airline industry deregulation.

References

External links
An Troops as Strokebreakers Parliamentary Library of Australia

Other reading
 An account written by an ex-pilot who was involved in the dispute

Australian Pilots Dispute
Pilots' dispute
Aviation history of Australia
Labour disputes in Australia
Aviation strikes

1989 Australian pilots' dispute


In phonetics, an allophone is ane amang mony seemilar phones that's ocht the same phoneme. A phone is a soond that's soond swaw haes a definite shape, altho a phoneme is a basic group o soonds that disteenguishes wirds (i.e. chynging ae phoneme in ae wird brings forrit anither wird); speakers o a parteecular leid perceives a phoneme as a single kenspeckle soond in that leid. Fae this, an allophone is a phone thocht on as a member o the ae phoneme.

Ilka allophone is uised in a speceefic phonetic context. No aw phonemes haes signeeficantly differin allophones, but thare's aye a wee differ in soondin fae the ae bit speak tae the neist. An examplar is in Japanese that haes nae disteenction atween /l/ an /r/, an sae thir twa soonds gets guddelt by Japanese speakers acause thir soonds isna thocht on as sindry phonemes. Hooivver, in Scots thir twa soonds is thocht on as twa sindry anes, sae thay're baith thocht on as sindry phonemes. In some byleids o Inglis, "daurk" or velarised l is conseedert juist a kin o /l/, but in some ither leids, thir twa soonds differs.

Phonetics
Phonology

Allophones


Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. His father Hugh, died at 59 when Alexander was only seven. He is best known for discovering the antibiotic substance penicillin in 1928. He shared  Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 for this discovery with Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. His accidental finding of penicillin in the year 1928 marked the start of today's antibiotics.

Fleming was a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War I. He saw many soldiers die of infection after being wounded, and after the war did research in bacteriology. After accidentally finding penicillin he studied ways to use it.

Fleming died of a heart attack in London. He was buried in St. Paul's cathedral.

.

Related pages
List of biologists

1881 births
1955 deaths
British Nobel Prize winners
Knights Bachelor
British pharmacologists
Scottish biologists

Alexander Fleming


Prince Escalus is a character in William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. He is the Prince of Verona. He holds authority over the Montague and Capulet families who are feuding. He is related to both Mercutio, Romeo's friend, and Count Paris, the proposed fiancé of Juliet.  He first punishes Capulet and Montague for the quarrel between Tybalt, Benvolio, and a handful of servants. In his next appearance he is too late to stop the fatal fight between Romeo and Tybalt. After Romeo kills Tybalt, Prince Escalus banishes him from Verona. Prince Escalus returns in the final scene after the suicides of Romeo and Juliet, and at last orders the lords of the feuding families to make peace. The two make peace. Then Montague promises to make a golden statue of Juliet. Capulet promises to place a golden statue of Romeo next to the statue of their daughter.

References

Characters in Shakespeare's plays

Prince Escalus


Billie Burke (August 7, 1884 - May 14, 1970) was an American stage, movie, and television actress. She was born Mary William Ethelbert Appleton Burke in Washington, DC. Her father was the circus clown, Billie Burke.  She married Florenz Ziegfeld Jr. on 11 April 1914. He died on 22 July 1932. They had one child, a daughter. Burke played Glinda, the Good Witch, in the 1939 MGM movie The Wizard of Oz. She died of natural causes in Los Angeles, California.

1885 births
1970 deaths
Actors from Washington, D.C.
American stage actors
American movie actors
American television actors

Billie Burke


James Burnham (November 22, 1905 – July 28, 1987) was an American philosopher and political theorist. He chaired the New York University Department of Philosophy; his first book was An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis (1931). Burnham became a prominent Trotskyist activist in the 1930s. He later rejected Marxism and became an even more influential theorist of the political right as a leader of the American conservative movement. His book The Managerial Revolution, published in 1941, speculated on the future of capitalism. Burnham was an editor and a regular contributor to William F. Buckley's conservative magazine National Review on a variety of topics. He rejected containment of the Soviet Union and called for the rollback of communism worldwide.

Biography

Early life

Born in Chicago, Illinois, on November 22, 1905, James Burnham was the son of Claude George Burnham, an English immigrant and executive with the Burlington Railroad. James was raised as a Roman Catholic but rejected Catholicism as a college student, professing atheism for much of his life (although returning to the church shortly before his death). He graduated at the top of his class at Princeton University before attending Balliol College, Oxford University, where his professors included J. R. R. Tolkien and Martin D'Arcy. In 1929, he became a professor of philosophy at New York University.

In 1934, he married Marcia Lightner.

Trotskyism
In 1933, along with Sidney Hook, Burnham helped to organize the American Workers Party led by the Dutch-born pacifist minister A. J. Muste. Burnham supported the 1934 merger with the Communist League of America which formed the US Workers Party. In 1935, he allied with the Trotskyist wing of that party and favored fusion with the Socialist Party of America. During this period, he became a friend to Leon Trotsky. Writing for Partisan Review, Burnham was also an important influence on writers including Dwight Macdonald and Philip Rahv. However, Burnham's engagement with Trotskyism was short-lived: from 1937 a number of disagreements came to the fore.

In 1937, the Trotskyists were expelled from the Socialist Party, an action which led to the formation of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP) at the end of the year. Inside the SWP, Burnham allied with Max Shachtman in a faction fight over the position of the SWP's majority faction, led by James P. Cannon and backed by Leon Trotsky, defending the Soviet Union as a degenerated workers state against the incursions of imperialism. Shachtman and Burnham, especially after witnessing the Nazi–Soviet pact of 1939 and the invasions of Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia by Joseph Stalin's regime, as well as the Soviet invasion of Finland in November 1939, came to contend that the USSR was a new form of imperialistic class society and was thus not worthy of even critical support from the socialist movement.

In February 1940 he wrote Science and Style: A Reply to Comrade Trotsky, in which he broke with dialectical materialism. In this text he responds to Trotsky's request to draw his attention to "those works which should supplant the system of dialectic materialism for the proletariat" by referring to Principia Mathematica by Russell and Whitehead and "the scientists, mathematicians and logicians now cooperating in the new Encyclopedia of Unified Science".

After a protracted discussion inside the SWP, in which the factions argued their case in a series of heated internal discussion bulletins, the special 3rd National Convention of the organization in early April 1940 decided the question in favor of the Cannon majority by a vote of 55–31. Even though the majority sought to avoid a split by offering to continue the debate and to allow proportional representation of the minority on the party's governing National Committee, Shachtman, Burnham, and their supporters resigned from the SWP to launch their own organization, again called the Workers Party.

This break also marked the end of Burnham's participation in the radical movement, however. On May 21, 1940, he addressed a letter to the National Committee of the Workers Party resigning from the organization. In it he made it clear the distance he had moved away from Marxism:

In 1941, Burnham wrote a book analyzing the development of economics and society as he saw it, called The Managerial Revolution: What is Happening in the World. The book was included in Life magazine's list of the 100 outstanding books of 1924–1944.

OSS and National Review

During World War II, Burnham took a leave from NYU to work for the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency. Recommended by George F. Kennan, Burnham was invited to lead the semi-autonomous "Political and Psychological Warfare" division of the Office of Policy Coordination.

Subsequently, during the Cold War, he called for an aggressive strategy against the Soviet Union. A contributor to The Freeman in the early 1950s, he considered the magazine too focused on economic issues, though it presented a wide range of opinion on the Soviet threat. In The Struggle for the World (1947), he called for common citizenship between the United States, Great Britain, and the British dominions, as well as a "World Federation" against communism. Burnham thought in terms of a hegemonic world, instead of a balance of power:

A World Federation initiated and led by the United States would be, we have recognized, a World Empire. In this imperial federation, the United States, with a monopoly of atomic weapons, would hold a preponderance of decisive material power over all the rest of the world. In world politics, that is to say, there would not be a balance of power.

In 1955, he helped William F. Buckley Jr. found National Review magazine, which from the start took positions in foreign policy consistent with Burnham's own. In the National Review, he wrote a column titled "Third World War," which referred to the Cold War. Burnham became a lifelong contributor to the journal, and Buckley referred to him as "the number one intellectual influence on National Review since the day of its founding." His approach to foreign policy has caused some to regard him as the first "neoconservative," although Burnham's ideas have been an important influence on both the paleoconservative and neoconservative factions of the American Right.

In 1983, President Ronald Reagan awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

In early November 1978 he suffered a stroke which affected his health and short-term memory. He died of kidney and liver cancer at home in Kent, Connecticut, on July 28, 1987. He was buried in Kent on August 1, 1987.

Ideas

The Managerial Revolution
Burnham's seminal work, The Managerial Revolution (1941), theorized about the future of world capitalism based upon its development in the interwar period. Burnham begins by saying that "It is a historical law, with no apparent exceptions so far known, that all social and economic groups of any size strive to improve their relative position with respect to power and privilege in society". He then weighed three possibilities: (1) that capitalism was a permanent form of social and economic organization and would continue indefinitely; (2) that it was temporary and destined by its nature to collapse and be replaced by socialism; (3) that it was currently being transformed into some non-socialist future form of society. Since capitalism had a more or less definite beginning in the 14th century, it could not be regarded as an immutable and permanent form. Moreover, in the last years of previous economic systems such as those of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, mass unemployment was "a symptom that a given type of social organization is just about finished." The worldwide mass unemployment of the depression era thus indicated that capitalism was itself "not going to continue much longer."

Burnham agreed with Marxists that the capitalist class would inevitably lose the class struggle, but disagreed that they would lose to the working class due to this class being too disorganized and weak. He instead argued that a new class called the managerial class would win against the capitalist class. Burnham defines this new class as the individuals responsible for "the tasks of the technical direction and coordination of the process of production." The managerial class is responsible for directing technical experts, including "operating executives, superintendents, administrative engineers, supervisory technicians; or, in government ... administrators, commissioners, bureau heads, and so on." According to Burnham, the managerial class has risen due to the increasing complexity and large scope of modern economies. Because doing certain tasks requires hyper specific technical knowledge, the capitalist class cannot perform all of the necessary tasks by themselves. This means that the capitalist class has to employ individuals who manage other individuals engaged in technical work. By doing this, the capitalist class has made themselves obsolete, since the managers are the individuals who actually control production. Although the managerial class is still employed by the capitalist class, Burnham argued that this arrangement was irreconcilable. This would eventually result in the managerial class who actually owns production seizing it from the capitalist class who owns it in name only. According to Burnham, the managerial class would seize power by implementing state ownership of production. Due to the complexity and large scale of modern economies, Burnham argues that this form of state ownership would prove more efficient than rule by individual capitalists. The "managerial revolution", according to Burnham, would result in the decline of capitalist democracy and the rise of managerial control of production while using "the unlimited state" as a vehicle.

Analyzing the emerging forms of society around the world, Burnham saw certain commonalities between the economic formations of Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia, and America under Roosevelt's New Deal. Burnham argued that in the short period since the First World War, a new society had emerged in which a social group or class of "managers" had waged a "drive for social dominance, for power and privilege, for the position of ruling class." For at least the previous decade, there had grown in America the idea of a "separation of ownership and control" of the modern corporation, notably expounded in The Modern Corporation and Private Property by Berle and Means. Burnham expanded this concept, arguing that whether ownership was corporate and private or statist and governmental, the essential demarcation between the ruling elite (executives and managers backed by bureaucrats and functionaries) and the mass of society was not ownership so much as control of the means of production.

Burnham emphasized that "New Dealism", as he called it, "is not, let me repeat, a developed, systematized managerial ideology." Still, this ideology had contributed to American capitalism's moving in a "managerial direction":

In its own more confused, less advanced way, New Dealism too has spread abroad the stress on the state as against the individual, planning as against private enterprise, jobs (even if relief jobs) against opportunities, security against initiative, "human rights" against "property rights." There can be no doubt that the psychological effect of New Dealism has been what the capitalists say it has been: to undermine public confidence in capitalist ideas and rights and institutions. Its most distinctive features help to prepare the minds of the masses for the acceptance of the managerial social structure.

Burnham argued that the power of the capitalist class would decline, while a new managerial class would rise to take its place, directing the state and industry. He described both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union as having a managerial class based on an economic model he considered to be superior to liberal capitalism. Because of this, he incorrectly predicted that the Nazis would win World War II.

In June 1941, a hostile review of The Managerial Revolution by Socialist Workers Party loyalist Joseph Hansen in the SWP's theoretical magazine accused Burnham of surreptitiously lifting the central ideas of his book from the Italian Bruno Rizzi's La Bureaucratisation du Monde (1939). Despite certain similarities, there is no evidence Burnham knew of this book beyond Leon Trotsky's brief references to it in his debates with Burnham. Burnham was influenced by the idea of bureaucratic collectivism of the Trotskyist Yvan Craipeau, but Burnham took a distinct conservative Machiavellian rather than a Marxist viewpoint, an important philosophical difference which Burnham explored in greater detail in The Machiavellians.

According to Vox, "Virtually all of The Managerial Revolution's major predictions — the coming collapse of capitalism, an Axis victory in World War II, the superior efficiency of state-run enterprises — were proven wrong. The power of the capitalist class has become more entrenched since the neoliberal revolution of the 1970s and '80s and attendant skyrocketing inequality. The rise of tech capitalism, with firms founded by individual innovators and technical experts, seems to disprove his theory that capitalists cannot themselves perform technical and management tasks at scale."

Burnham's idea of an unaccountable managerial class has gained traction among conservative intellectuals seeking to counteract the power of this class, viewing them as "woke".

Later writings
In The Machiavellians, he developed his theory that the emerging new élite would prosper better if it retained some democratic trappings—political opposition, a free press, and a controlled "circulation of the élites."

His 1964 book Suicide of the West became a classic text for the post-war conservative movement in American politics, proclaiming Burnham's new interest in traditional moral values, classical liberal economics and anti-communism. He defined political ideologies as syndromes afflicting their proponents with various internal contradictions. His works greatly influenced paleoconservative author Sam Francis, who wrote two books about Burnham, and based his political theories upon the "managerial revolution" and the resulting managerial state.

In fiction
British writer George Orwell was inspired by Burnham's The Managerial Revolution and his explanation of power, which informed Orwell's 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Orwell noted in 1945, "For Burnham's geographical picture of the new world has turned out to be correct. More and more obviously the surface of the earth is being parceled off into three great empires ... " The superpowers of Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia in the novel are partly influenced by Burnham's assessment of Roosevelt's America, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union as being managerial states. In 1946 Orwell, summarized Burnham's managerial revolution and outlined the geopolitical landscape of Nineteen Eighty-Four:

The rulers of this new society will be the people who effectively control the means of production: that is, business executives, technicians, bureaucrats and soldiers, lumped together by Burnham, under the name of 'managers'. These people will eliminate the old capitalist class, crush the working class, and so organise society that all power and economic privilege remain in their own hands. Private property rights will be abolished, but common ownership will not be established. The new 'managerial' societies will not consist of a patchwork of small, independent states, but of great super-states grouped round the main industrial centres in Europe, Asia, and America. These super-states will fight among themselves for possession of the remaining uncaptured portions of the earth, but will probably be unable to conquer one another completely. Internally, each society will be hierarchical, with an aristocracy of talent at the top and a mass of semi-slaves at the bottom."

While Orwell partly agreed with Burnham's analysis, he never fully accepted Burnham's attitude towards Machiavellian managerial power. This unresolved thought helped to inspire the character of O'Brien, who talks about power and regimes in Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Works
Books
 Introduction to Philosophical Analysis (with Philip Wheelwright). New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1932.
 The Managerial Revolution: What is Happening in the World. New York: John Day Co., 1941.
 The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom. New York: John Day Co., 1943. .
 The Struggle for the World. New York: John Day Co., 1947.
 The Case for De Gaulle: A Dialogue Between André Malraux and James Burnham. New York: Random House, 1948.
 The Coming Defeat of Communism. New York: John Day Co., 1949.
 Containment or Liberation? An Inquiry into the Aims of United States Foreign Policy. New York: John Day Co., 1953.
 The Web of Subversion: Underground Networks. New York: John Day Co., 1954.
 Congress and the American Tradition. Chicago: Regnery, 1959. .
 Bear and Dragon: What is the Relation Between Moscow and Peking? New York: National Review, in cooperation with the American-Asian Exchange, 1960.
 Suicide of the West: An Essay on the Meaning and Destiny of Liberalism. New York: John Day Co., 1964.
 The War We Are In: The Last Decade and the Next. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1967.

Book contributions
 Introduction. In: Dobriansky, Lev E. Veblenism: A New Critique. Washington: Public Affairs Press, 1957.

Pamphlets
 War and the Workers (as John West). New York: Workers Party of the United States, 1935. alternate link
 Why Did They "Confess"? A Study of the Radek-Piatakov Trial. New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1937. alternate link.
 The People's Front: The New Betrayal. New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1937. alternate link
 How to Fight War: Isolation, Collective Security, Relentless Class Struggle? New York: Socialist Workers Party & Young Peoples Socialist League (4th Internationalists), 1938.
 Let the People Vote on War! New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1939?.
 In Defense of Marxism (Against the Petty-Bourgeois Opposition) (with Leon Trotsky, Joseph Hansen and William Warde). New York: Pioneer Publishers, 1942.

Public speaking
 Why Does a Country Go Communist? An address delivered at the Indian Congress for Cultural Freedom on March 31, 1951. Bombay: Democratic Research Service, 1951.

Selected articles
 "The Case Against Adlai Stevenson." American Mercury, Vol. 76, October 1952, pp. 11-19.
 "Can Washington Conduct Political Warfare?" American Mercury, December 1952, pp. 10-24.
 "Does ADA Run the New Frontier?" National Review, Vol. 14, No. 18, May 7, 1963, pp. 355-362.

See also
 William F. Buckley Jr.

References

Further reading
 John P. Diggins, Up From Communism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975.
 Samuel Francis, Power and History, The Political Thought of James Burnham. London: Claridge Press, 1999.
 Grant Havers, "James Burnham's Elite Theory and the Postwar American Right," Telos 154 (Spring 2011): 29–50.
 Benjamin Guy Hoffman, The Political Thought of James Burnham. PhD dissertation. University of Michigan, 1969.
 Daniel Kelly, James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2002.
 C. Wright Mills and Hans Gerth, "A Marx for the Managers", 1942. Reprinted in Power, Politics, and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills edited by Irving Horowitz. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.
 George Orwell, "Second Thoughts on James Burnham," Polemic, No. 3, May 1946.
 Paul Sweezy, "The Illusion of the 'Managerial Revolution,'" Science & Society, vol. 6, no. 1 (Winter 1942), pp. 1–23. In JSTOR.

External links

 James Burnham Internet Archive at Marxists Internet Archive
 Register of the James Burnham Papers, 1928-1983, the Online Archive of California (OAC) initiative of the California Digital Library
 Obituary of James Burnham, National Review, September 11, 1987
 Lenin's heir. By Victor Serge. At Victor Serge Archive  (Marxists Internet Archive)
 James Burnham, the First Cold Warrior by Francis P. Sempa

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James Burnham


John Edward Christopher Hill (6 February 1912 – 24 February 2003), usually known simply as Christopher Hill, was an English Marxist historian and author of textbooks.

Hill was born into a prosperous middle class family of Methodists in York. His father was a solicitor. He attended St Peter's School, York. When he sat his entrance examination at Balliol College, Oxford, The two history tutors from Balliol College, recognised his ability and offred him a place to forestall any chance he might go to Cambridge.

Before he went to Oxford in 1931, Hill had a prolonged holiday in Freiburg, Germany, Where he witnessed the rise of the Nazi Party; he later said it contributed significantly to the radicalisation of his politics.

He died of cerebral atrophy in Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire.

1912 births
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Christopher Hill


Rory Byrne (born 10 January 1944) is a South African semi-retired engineer and car designer, most famous for being the chief designer at the Benetton and Scuderia Ferrari teams of Formula One.

Byrne-designed cars have won ninety-nine Grands Prix, seven constructors' titles and seven drivers' titles. This makes Byrne the third most successful Formula One designer, behind rival Adrian Newey and Colin Chapman.

Early career
Byrne became interested in motor racing at Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, South Africa, firstly as a competitor and later the technical aspects of the sport. After graduating in 1964 Byrne began working as a chemist but retained his fascination for racing until by the late 1960s he, with three friends Dave Collier, Ronny and Dougie Bennett, set up a company importing performance car parts called Auto Drag and Speed Den situated in Jules Street, Malvern, Johannesburg and later Voortrekker Road in Alberton. It was in this period that he first began to design racing cars, putting to use his mathematical knowledge even though he lacked formal engineering training. His first car, a Formula Ford racer, was competitive and finished well in the 1972 championship.

Following his success in 1972 Byrne relocated to England to pursue a career in racing car design. Purchasing an ageing Royale Formula Ford car he began putting together the skills required to improve the design and received a lucky break in 1973 when Royale founder Bob King decided to sell the team. The new owner needed an engineer to replace King, who had also been the cars' designer, and offered the job to Rory Byrne, who spent the next four years designing a variety of cars for Royale and its customers.

An introduction to Ted Toleman in 1977 offered the next opportunity for the thirty-three-year-old who was by now an established figure in British motor racing. Toleman was owner of a Formula 2 team and hired the South African as its designer. Several seasons of increasingly respectable results culminated in first and second place in the 1980 European Formula 2 championship. The team with Rory Byrne as its chief designer was now ready to make the jump into Formula One.

Formula One

Toleman/Benetton
The first Byrne-designed car to appear at a grand prix was the Hart-powered TG181. Lacking the finances to reach the first three long-haul races Toleman entered Formula One at the San Marino Grand Prix. Two seasons passed before the fledgling team began to score points, but by the conclusion of the 1983 season Derek Warwick and Bruno Giacomelli had collected a very respectable 10 points – enough for the team to finish ninth in the constructors' championship, and enough to earn Byrne credibility in the pit-lane. It was in the off-season of 1983/84 that Toleman signed Ayrton Senna – a move that almost made Byrne, Senna and the team first time winners at that year's Monaco Grand Prix.

The team's steady progress towards the front of the grid was given a boost in 1985 when the Benetton family announced plans to purchase Toleman. With more money, more resources and the most powerful engine available in the form of the inline-four turbocharged BMW, it took only until October 1986 for Gerhard Berger to secure the first win for himself, for the team and for a Byrne-designed car at the Mexican Grand Prix.

Over the following five seasons Rory Byrne–designed cars took four more race wins but the Benetton team was never in a position to truly challenge the likes of Ferrari, Williams and McLaren, with most victories being taken on days when the competition faltered.

After a brief spell with the abortive Reynard F1 project in 1991 Byrne returned to Benetton that fall. What he found was a changed team now firmly under the control of Flavio Briatore and with hotshot Michael Schumacher installed as number one driver. Byrne's B193 car was a substantial technical advancement on the previous season's car, incorporating a semi-automatic gearbox, four-wheel steering, active suspension and traction control. The car took a single win in the hands of Schumacher, but everything was now in place for a title challenge in 1994.

It was immediately obvious at the first race of 1994 that Byrne's B194 chassis would be the car to beat. Critics suggested that the team's domination was more a result of an uncharacteristic slump by Williams star designer Adrian Newey and accusations of cheating dogged the team for the entire season. A late-season charge by Williams robbed Byrne of his first constructors' title, but with his motto of "Evolution Not Revolution", everything seemed set for more success in 1995.

With the accusations of cheating behind them, the Benetton team secured both titles before the season was finished – finally Byrne had what he wanted most. His car had won the Formula One constructors' crown. With the hugely influential Schumacher leaving Benetton for Ferrari at the end of the season, the team began to fragment. Byrne announced that he would retire in 1996.

Ferrari
By the conclusion of the 1996 season Michael Schumacher was being given free rein at Ferrari to build a team of engineers capable of returning the team to the top of the sport after years of underperforming. Benetton technical director Ross Brawn was hired and Ferrari approached Rory Byrne to replace the team's existing chief designer John Barnard who refused to re-locate to Italy. After long negotiations Byrne was lured from his retirement in Thailand back to Europe where he began building a design office at Ferrari's Maranello headquarters. Ferrari were immediately competitive once again, taking the title fight to the final race of the season in both 1997 and 1998. Continuing to build momentum in the following seasons, Ferrari won the constructors' championship in 1999, their first in 17 years. By the end of the 2004 season, Byrne-designed Ferraris had secured 71 race victories, six consecutive constructors' titles and five consecutive drivers' titles for Michael Schumacher with a sustained level of dominance never before seen in the sport.

In 2004 Rory Byrne announced that he would be retiring from Formula One at the end of the 2006 season, handing over the role of chief designer to Aldo Costa, his assistant since 1998. On 19 September 2006, it was announced that Rory had extended his stay, as a consultant, at Ferrari for another two years which led him until early 2009.

In 2012, Byrne was called in to look at the Ferrari F2012 F1 car after it had a troubled start to its life. He was also involved in the design of LaFerrari.

In February 2013, at the launch of F138 – in interview to the German Auto Motor und Sport Rory Byrne said that he is "working full steam" on Ferrari's 2014 F1 car, in an advisory role.

Maurizio Arrivabene revealed that Byrne is working as mentor in Ferrari helping the chief designer Simone Resta.

Byrne was heavily involved in the design of the 2022 Ferrari F1-75. As the car proved successful on the first part of the season, his contract was renewed for further three years. He was also involved  in the design of the 2023 Ferrari SF-23.

Discovery Insure
Byrne is a Special Engineering Advisor to Discovery Insure in South Africa in which he assists the company in improving the driving behaviour of South Africans and making the roads safer for all to use.

Formula One World Championships

References

1944 births
Ferrari people
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Formula One designers
White South African people
People from Pretoria
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South African automobile designers
Benetton Formula

Rory Byrne


Joel Hirschhorn (December 18, 1937 – September 17, 2005) was an American songwriter. He won the Academy Award for Best Original Song on two occasions. He also wrote songs for a number of musicians, including Elvis Presley and Roy Orbison. Hirschhorn was born in the Bronx and attended the High School of Performing Arts in Manhattan. After graduating, Hirschhorn became a regular performer on New York's nightclub circuit, both as a solo singer and as a member of the rock & roll band, The Highlighters.

During the mid-1960s, Hirschhorn branched out into writing film soundtracks. The first score he wrote was for Who Killed Teddy Bear? (1965), which was directed by his friend Joseph Cates. He worked with Cates again the following year in The Fat Spy. However, the film was received so badly that Hirschhorn struggled to find work in Hollywood for years afterwards.

Hirschhorn, along with songwriting partner Al Kasha, did not work on another film until 1970's The Cheyenne Social Club, which was directed by Gene Kelly. It was the pair's next effort, for The Poseidon Adventure (1972), that really made their name. "The Morning After", a song they wrote in a single evening, won them their first Oscar and also topped the Billboard chart.

The Towering Inferno (1974) provided Hirschhorn and Kasha with their second Oscars, this time for the "We May Never Love Like This Again". Following this success, the pair received two further Oscar nominations, both for their work on Pete's Dragon (1977).

Hirschhorn and Kasha continued to work together until the late 1990s, their final collaboration being Rescue Me (1992). The pair also worked together on Broadway musicals, receiving Tony Award for Best Original Score nominations for both Copperfield and Seven Brides for Seven Brothers. Late in his career, Hirschhorn wrote The Complete Idiot's Guide to Songwriting, which was first published in 2001.

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Joel Hirschhorn


Sir John Tavener (28 January 1944 – 12 November 2013) was an English composer.

Life
John Tavener was born in Wembley, Middlesex. He went to Highgate School in North London. Another pupil there at the time was John Rutter. At school he studied piano, organ and composition and wrote music for the school orchestra. He also wrote music for the Presbyterian church where his family went and where his father was organist. In 1962 he went to the Royal College of Music where he studied the piano at first but then changed to composition. One of his early successes was a cantata called Cain and Abel which was performed by the London Bach Society. It was the performance of The Whale by the London Sinfonietta in 1968 that made him really famous. This work used collage, pre-recorded tape, amplified percussion and a chorus who used loudhailers. This kind of thing was very fashionable in the 1960s.

Another work written in 1968 was In Alium. It was performed at the Proms. It was an unusual concert: three works by living composers were played in the first half. The audience were asked to vote for which one they wanted to hear again after the interval. They chose In Alium.

The Beatles became interested in Tavener's music. John Lennon heard The Whale and he decided to issue Tavener's music on the newly formed Apple label.

Tavener became professor of composition at Trinity College. He continued to compose, although he often had difficulty finishing pieces. He was often worried that he might not be able to think of any new music. In 1977 he became a member of the Russian Orthodox Church. This changed his life. His music was very religious. He married his second wife and had two children. He was also very ill with heart trouble and even died on the operating table in hospital, but he brought back to life by the doctors.

He made a very important friend, Mother Thekla. She was an 80-year-old nun in the Orthodox Church, and she gave John a lot of advice and encouragement in his life.

A short piece for choir, The Lamb was written as a birthday present for his 3 year old nephew. It is very often sung by choirs at Christmas as a carol.

In 1989, his work The Protecting Veil was performed at the Proms. It was a work for cello and orchestra. The cellist was Steven Isserlis. This piece is one of the best known modern works for cello. He continued to write a lot of music. His Song for Athene was performed at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1998. It was heard on television all over the world.

Tavener was knighted in 2000.

Death
Tavener died on 12 November 2013 at his home in Child Okeford, Dorset from unknown causes, aged 69. Tavener suffered many health issues. He suffered two heart attack and had surgery to remove an intestinal tumor.

References

Other websites
 Sir John Tavener's homepage

1944 births
2013 deaths
20th-century English composers
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Knights Bachelor
Musicians from Middlesex

John Tavener