The Spitzer Space Telescope is a telescope launched into space by NASA in 2003. It is the fourth telescope in the Great Observatories program (the Hubble Space Telescope was the first). The Hubble Space Telescope takes pictures of visible light, and the Spitzer Space Telescope takes pictures of infrared light. Unlike Hubble, Spitzer orbits the Sun instead of the Earth.

The Spitzer Space Telescope is named after the scientist Lyman Spitzer. It was planned to last for 2.5 years, but it actually lasted until 2009 when it exhausted its supply of coolant. Some parts of the telescope can work even when they are warm, and are still working.

Discoveries

The Spitzer Space Telescope was able to see very good detail. Spitzer was the first telescope that could see light from extrasolar planets (planets outside the Solar System.) It was also able to see some of the first stars in the universe, believed to be only 100 million years after the Big Bang.

Further reading
Spitzer Space Telescope website at NASA.
Spitzer Space Telescope website at Caltech.

References

Space telescopes

Spitzer Space Telescope


A legendary creature (also called a mythical or mythological creature) is a type of fantasy entity, typically a hybrid, that has not been proven and that is described in folklore (including myths and legends), but may be featured in historical accounts before modernity.

In the classical era, monstrous creatures such as the Cyclops and the Minotaur appear in heroic tales for the protagonist to destroy. Other creatures, such as the unicorn, were claimed in accounts of natural history by various scholars of antiquity. Some legendary creatures have their origin in traditional mythology and were believed to be real creatures, for example dragons, griffins, and unicorns. Others were based on real encounters, originating in garbled accounts of travellers' tales, such as the Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, which supposedly grew tethered to the earth.

Creatures

A variety of mythical animals appear in the art and stories of the classical era. For example, in the Odyssey, monstrous creatures include the Cyclops, Scylla and Charybdis for the hero Odysseus to confront. Other tales include Medusa to be defeated by Perseus, the (human/bull) Minotaur to be destroyed by Theseus, and the Hydra to be killed by Heracles, while Aeneas battles with the harpies. These monsters thus have the basic function of emphasizing the greatness of the heroes involved.

Some classical era creatures, such as the (horse/human) centaur, chimaera, Triton and the flying horse Pegasus, are found also in Indian art. Similarly, sphinxes appear as winged lions in Indian art and the Piasa Bird of North America.

In medieval art, animals, both real and mythical, played important roles. These included decorative forms as in medieval jewellery, sometimes with their limbs intricately interlaced. Animal forms were used to add humor or majesty to objects. In Christian art, animals carried symbolic meanings, where for example the lamb symbolized Christ, a dove indicated the Holy Spirit, and the classical griffin represented a guardian of the dead. Medieval bestiaries included animals regardless of biological reality; the basilisk represented the devil, while the manticore symbolised temptation.

Allegory

One function of mythical animals in the Middle Ages was allegory. Unicorns, for example, were described as extraordinarily swift and uncatchable by traditional methods. It was believed that the only way for one to catch this beast was to lead a virgin to its dwelling. Then, the unicorn was supposed to leap into her lap and go to sleep, at which point a hunter could finally capture it. In terms of symbolism, the unicorn was a metaphor for Christ. Unicorns represented the idea of innocence and purity. In the King James Bible, Psalm 92:10 states, "My horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of a unicorn." This is because the translators of the King James erroneously translated the Hebrew word re'em as unicorn. Later versions translate this as wild ox. The unicorn's small size signifies the humility of Christ.

Another common legendary creature that served allegorical functions within the Middle Ages was the dragon. Dragons were identified with serpents, though their attributes were greatly intensified. The dragon was supposed to have been larger than all other animals. It was believed that the dragon had no harmful poison but was able to slay anything it embraced without any need for venom. Biblical scriptures speak of the dragon in reference to the devil, and they were used to denote sin in general during the Middle Ages. Dragons were said to have dwelled in places like Ethiopia and India, based on the idea that there was always heat present in these locations.

Physical detail was not the central focus of the artists depicting such animals, and medieval bestiaries were not conceived as biological categorizations. Creatures like the unicorn and griffin were not categorized in a separate "mythological" section in medieval bestiaries, as the symbolic implications were of primary importance. Animals we know to have existed were still presented with a fantastical approach. It seems the religious and moral implications of animals were far more significant than matching a physical likeness in these renderings. Nona C. Flores explains, "By the tenth century, artists were increasingly bound by allegorical interpretation, and abandoned naturalistic depictions."

See also
 Fearsome critters
 Lists of legendary creatures
 List of legendary creatures by type
 List of cryptids
 Non-physical entity

References

External links

Mythological archetypes
Mythological creatures

Legendary creature


Thomas Linley (born Badminton, Gloucestershire, England, 17 January 1733; died London 19 November 1795), was an English composer, harpsichordist and singing teacher.  He studied with Thomas Chilcot, organist of Bath Abbey, and later with William Boyce and possibly also with Paradies, the Italian harpsichordist who had come to live in England.

He soon became well known as a singing teacher and composed a lot of music for the Drury Lane theatre, London.

He married a girl called Mary Johnson and the couple had twelve children.  Several of them were gifted musicians, especially Thomas who died at the age of 22 in a boating accident.

Thomas Linley was chosen to be a member of the Royal Society of Musicians in 1777.  He is buried in Wells Cathedral.

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music&Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980;

1733 births
1795 deaths
English composers
Musicians from Gloucestershire

Thomas Linley the elder


Virtuality is a 2009 American science fiction drama television film directed by Peter Berg and written by Michael Taylor and Ronald D. Moore. Originally filmed for the Fox network as a television pilot for a series that was not commissioned, it aired on the network as a standalone film on June 26, 2009. It features the crew of Phaeton, a spaceship designed to search for a hospitable planet in a nearby star system after an ecological catastrophe in near-future Earth. While approaching the point of no return, the crew experiences problems with their virtual reality entertainment system, which quickly escalate and threaten their mission.

Plot
The story is set aboard the Phaeton, Earth's first starship, on a ten-year journey to explore the nearby Epsilon Eridani star system. In order to help the 12-person crew endure the long mission, a system of virtual reality modules are installed aboard the ship. These modules, which are worn like glasses and suppress real-world body movement, allow the crew to assume various identities and enjoy a variety of adventures. The crew's experiences aboard the ship are broadcast back to Earth as Fox's reality television program Edge of Never: Life on the Phaeton.

The pilot picks up approximately six months after the launch of Phaeton. The crew now faces a "go or no-go" situation, in that they are fast approaching their last chance to change course back towards Earth. However, their home planet is quickly becoming uninhabitable, with dry land becoming increasingly rare. Scientists estimate that the planet will become completely inhospitable within the next hundred years. The Phaeton's priority mission has been changed to that of searching out and discovering a new planet for humans to inhabit.

Unfortunately, as the crew fast approaches their point of no return beyond the planet Neptune, several problems arise. Dr. Adin Meyer (Metwally), the crew's only physician, becomes aware that he is in the early stages of Parkinson's disease. Via use of the Phaeton's virtual reality programs, Commander Frank Pike (Coster-Waldau) has begun a secret sexual relationship with botanist Rika Goddard (Guillory), whose husband, psychologist Dr. Roger Fallon (D'Arcy), is also a part of the crew, the mission psychologist and producer of Edge of Never.

Meanwhile, the crew's virtual reality simulators have been experiencing several bizarre glitches, all of which involve a mysterious man, whose acts against the crew inside the virtual simulations become more and more disturbing, including "murdering" Pike during a Civil War re-enactment and "killing" Meyer by pushing him off a cliff. Despite the hardships, the crew unanimously decides to continue on with the 10-year voyage.

After Billie Kashmiri (Bishé), the new host of Edge of Never, is beaten and raped by the mystery man within the virtual world, the crew considers discontinuing use of the virtual reality programs, possibly for the remainder of the voyage. Now past their "point of no return", the crew faces the prospect of continuing on for an entire decade within the confines of the Phaeton without a virtual world for comfort.

The communications array fails to deploy, and after Dr. Jules Braun (designer of most of the Phaeton's systems, played by Erik Jensen) tries everything that he can from inside the ship, Pike, Rika, Val Orlovsky (Farber) and Manny Rodriguez (Cantillo) prepare to identify the problem from the outside. However, while preparing for EVA, the airlock chamber closes by itself, with Pike inside and without his pressure suit helmet.  Despite efforts to save him, the airlock opens and Pike is killed.  His death leaves the crew in shambles.  Braun, however, believes Pike's death was murder, and does not know whom to trust.  The Phaeton's drive engineer and second in command, Dr. Jimmy Johnson (Coster), unwillingly assumes command, foreseeing conflict with the crew as he is a somewhat abrasive loner. While going over the ship's recording of Pike's death, Fallon discovers Pike's last confession of love to Rika.

Rika finds Pike's virtual reality headset in her quarters, and when she wears it, she finds herself in Pike's favorite simulation: a tactical military command of the Civil War era. Inside the simulation, she encounters what appears to be a simulation of Pike that tells her, "None of this is real," and only by following him "through the looking-glass and down the rabbit hole" will she learn the truth.  He rides off on horseback into the virtual sunset, with Rika crying out Pike's name in desperation.

Cast and characters
Nikolaj Coster-Waldau as Commander Frank Pike
Kerry Bishé as Billie Kashmiri – computer scientist, reality show host
Joy Bryant as Alice Thibadeau – astrobiologist
Jose Pablo Cantillo as Manny Rodriguez – astrophysicist
Ritchie Coster as Dr. Jimmy Johnson – pulse drive engineer, second-in-command
James D'Arcy as Dr. Roger Fallon – psych officer, reality show producer
Clea DuVall as Sue Parsons – pilot, flight systems engineer
Gene Farber as Val Orlovsky – geologist
Sienna Guillory as Rika Goddard – botanist, microbial exobiologist
Erik Jensen as Dr. Jules Braun – navigator, Phaeton designer
Nelson Lee as Kenji Yamamoto – astrobiologist
Omar Metwally as Dr. Adin Meyer – medical officer
Jimmi Simpson as Virtual Man
Kari Wahlgren as Jean (voice) – onboard computer

Production
The screenwriters consulted NASA to accurately display space travel technology. After seeing the scheduled airing time of Virtuality, Michael Taylor called it a "New Orleans funeral", having little hope in Fox picking up the series.

The closing credits honor Nora O'Brien, an NBC Universal executive, who died in May 2009 of a cerebral aneurysm at the age of 44.

TV series campaign
Virtuality was filmed as a pilot but aired as a film when Fox did not pick up the series. On Friday June 26, 2009 Jessica Blank, wife of actor Erik Jensen who portrayed Dr. Jules Braun, posted a call to action on her husband's Facebook page urging people to watch the movie and write in support of more episodes.

DVD release
Virtuality was first released on DVD on October 27, 2009, in the United States, exclusively through Best Buy. The DVD then had a full release on May 4, 2010.

References

External links

 Michael Taylor interview at AMCtv.com

2009 television films
2009 films
2009 drama films
2009 science fiction films
2000s American films
2000s English-language films
2000s science fiction drama films
American drama television films
American science fiction drama films
American science fiction television films
American space adventure films
Fiction set around Epsilon Eridani
Films about virtual reality
Films directed by Peter Berg
Films set in the future
Films shot in Vancouver
Films with screenplays by Ronald D. Moore
Neptune in film
Television films as pilots
Television pilots not picked up as a series

Virtuality (film)


Record can mean:

A thing that is used to store information, such as --
vinyl record (also called a "phonograph record" or "gramophone record")
Compact disc
World record, an unsurpassed accomplishment or statistic
Record (computer science)
Record (technical) a document, originated by a qualified person or qualification body, that register or records data, parameters, variables, values and/or measurements pertaining to a specific technical activity.
Administrative records, a collection of documentation pertaining to personal information or transactions or organizational meetings.
 Any document for administrative use
 Vital record of life events
 Business record of economic transactions
 Medical record of a person's medical history and treatments
 Service record, usually associated with military service
 Minutes, a summary of the proceedings at a meeting
 Public record, information that has been filed or recorded by public agencies
Records (album), the 1982 album by rock band Foreigner
The Record (name of a number of newspapers and other publications)
Record (newspaper), a Portuguese sports newspaper.
Récord, a Mexican sports newspaper

Basic English 850 words

Record


A software suite or application suite, is a collection of computer programs —usually application software or programming software— of related functionality, often sharing a more-or-less common user interface and some ability to smoothly exchange data with each other. .

Sometimes software "suites" are at a lower price than buying each of "suite" programs.

Examples
Office suite
SeaMonkey

Software

Software suite


Shardik is a fantasy novel written by Richard Adams in 1974.

Plot
Shardik takes place in an imaginary region called the Beklan Empire.  A lonely hunter, Kelderek, pursues Shardik, a giant bear. Both of them become unwillingly drawn into the politics of the entire empire. The story's key themes include the personal struggles of sin and atonement, the strength and potential of children, and the responsibility of adults to protect and nurture children in hope of a better future.

1974 books
Books by Richard Adams

Shardik


Protection means when any group of people or things try to defend the people or things that they care about (so that they would not get hurt). Protection can also mean other things, for example:

 Civil protection, or civil defense, protecting life, health, property and environment of citizens
 Environmental protection, is a political action that is to do with protecting nature by preservation (keeping them), and restoration (making something that was lost to come back)
 Contraception (euphemism)
 Protectionism, in world trade, making people stop buying what other countries make, so they must buy things made in their own country
 Protective clothing, clothing that protect the body from danger
 A protectorate, in politics and history, is the protector (the person who protects), for example:
 A Lord protector, guarding as the country like a minor Monarch or during The Protectorate as a British republic
 The protectorate between a strong power (the protector) and a weaker one, who can ask for help when needed, or are obliged to agree
 Protection (album), a 1994 album by the group Massive Attack
 Protection (song), a song by trip-hop band Massive Attack. It was released in 1995
 Protection (band) is an American band, based in San Francisco
 The Protection of the Mother of God, a feast day in the Eastern Orthodox Church

Protection


Edward Bradford Titchener (11 January 1867 – 3 August 1927) was an English psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind: structuralism. After becoming a professor at Cornell University, he created the largest doctoral program at that time in the United States. His first graduate student, Margaret Floy Washburn, became the first woman to be granted a PhD in psychology (1894).

Biography

Education and early life
Titchener's parents, Alice Field Habin and John Titchener, eloped to marry in 1866 and his mother was disowned by her prominent Sussex family. His father held a series of posts as a clerk or in accountancy before dying of tuberculosis in 1879. The family, of five surviving children (4 girls, 1 boy), moved at least 10 times during this time. When he was 9, Titchener was sent to live with his paternal grandparents and two aunts. His namesake grandfather was a successful solicitor and investor and also an ex-mayor of Chichester.  He ensured that Titchener was first privately tutored and then given a grammar school education. However, his investments collapsed in 1881 and he died a few months later. In the reduced financial circumstances, Titchener's subsequent education was funded by scholarships, paid employment and entrepreneurial activities.

Titchener attended The Prebendal School and Malvern College and then went on to Oxford (Brasenose College) from 1885 to 1890.  He graduated with a rare 'double first' BA degree in classics in 1889.  His interests began to change to biology. At Oxford, Titchener first began to read the works of Wilhelm Wundt.  During his time at Oxford, Titchener translated the first volume of the third edition of Wundt's book Principles of Physiological Psychology from German into English. He spent an extra year at Oxford in 1890, working with John Scott Burdon-Sanderson, a physiologist to learn scientific methodology. Titchener went on to Leipzig in Germany to study with Wundt in autumn 1890.  He completed his doctoral program in 1892 with a dissertation on binocular vision. In summer 1892 he returned to Oxford and Burdon-Sanderson where he taught in the Oxford Summer School.

In autumn 1892 Titchener joined the Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell University as an untenured lecturer teaching philosophy and psychology. He developed a psychology laboratory, gained editing positions and in 1895 gained tenure, a full professorship and independence from the Sage School. He taught his views on the ideas of Wundt to his students in the form of structuralism.

Personal life
Titchener was married in 1894 to Sophie Bedloe Kellogg, a public school teacher from Maine. They had four children (3 girls, 1 boy). Once Titchener had a position at Cornell he gave financial support to his mother for the rest of his life. She, and his sisters, had lived in difficult circumstances after the death of his father, with his sisters spending time in an orphanage and then entering domestic service.

Main ideas

Titchener's ideas on how the mind worked were heavily influenced by Wundt's theory of voluntarism and his ideas of Association and Apperception (the passive and active combinations of elements of consciousness respectively).  Titchener attempted to classify the structures of the mind in the way a chemist breaks down chemicals into their component parts—water into hydrogen and oxygen, for example. Thus, for Titchener, just as hydrogen and oxygen were structures, so were sensations and thoughts. He conceived of hydrogen and oxygen as structures of a chemical compound, and sensations and thoughts as structures of the mind. A sensation, according to Titchener, had four distinct properties: intensity, quality, duration, and extent. Each of these related to some corresponding quality of stimulus, although some stimuli were insufficient to provoke their relevant aspect of sensation. He further differentiated particular types of sensations: auditory sensation, for example, he divided into "tones" and "noises." Ideas and perceptions he considered to be formed from sensations; "ideational type" was related to the type of sensation on which an idea was based, e.g., sound or vision, a spoken conversation or words on a page.

Titchener believed that if the basic components of the mind could be defined and categorised that the structure of mental processes and higher thinking could be determined.  What each element of the mind is, how those elements interact with each other and why they interact in the ways that they do was the basis of reasoning that Titchener used in trying to find structure to the mind.

Introspection

The main tool that Titchener used to try to determine the different components of consciousness was introspection.  Unlike Wundt's method of introspection, Titchener had very strict guidelines for the reporting of an introspective analysis. The subject would be presented with an object, such as a pencil. The subject would then report the characteristics of that pencil (color, length, etc.).  The subject would be instructed not to report the name of the object (pencil) because that did not describe the raw data of what the subject was experiencing. Titchener referred to this as stimulus error.

In "Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Laboratory Practice", Titchener detailed the procedures of his introspective methods precisely.  As the title suggests, the manual was meant to encompass all of experimental psychology despite its focus on introspection. To Titchener, there could be no valid psychological experiments outside of introspection, and he opened the section "Directions to Students" with the following definition: "A psychological experiment consists of an introspection or a series of introspections made under standard conditions."

This manual of Titchener's  provided students with in-depth outlines of procedure for experiments on optical illusions, Weber's Law, visual contrast, after-images, auditory and olfactory sensations, perception of space, ideas, and associations between ideas, as well as  descriptions proper behaviour during experiments and general discussion of psychological concepts. Titchener wrote another instructive manual for students and two more for instructors in the field (Hothersall 2004, p. 142). The level of detail Titchener put into these manuals reflected his devotion to a scientific approach to psychology. He argued that all measurements were simply agreed-upon "conventions"  and subscribed to the belief that psychological phenomena, too, could be systematically measured and studied. Titchener put great stock in the systematic work of Gustav Fechner, whose psychophysics advanced the notion that it was indeed possible to measure mental phenomena (Titchener 1902, p. cviii- cix).

The majority of experiments were to be performed by two trained researchers working together, one functioning as the "observer" (O) and the other as the "experimenter" (E). The experimenter would set up the experiment and record the introspection made by his partner. After the first run of any experiment, the researchers were to then switch roles and repeat the experiment. Titchener placed a great deal of emphasis on the importance of harmony and communication between the two memberships in these partnerships. Communication, in particular, was necessary, because illness or agitation on the part of the observer could affect the outcome of any given experiment.

The structuralist method gradually faded away due to the advent of newer approaches such as the introspective approach.

Attention

Edward B. Titchener formulated his seven fundamental laws of attention. Law number four, the law of prior entry, postulated that "the object of attention comes to consciousness more quickly than the objects which we are not attending to." (Titchener, 1908, p. 251) The law of prior entry has received a lot of interest over the last century and much debate ensued about the veracity of this law. It is not until recently that research has generated robust evidence that attention operates at a perceptual level. Behavioral studies looking at the speed of perception of attended stimuli suggest that the law of prior entry holds true. Recent brain imaging studies have been able to confirm these findings by showing that attention can speed up perceptual brain activation.

Life and legacy

Titchener was a charismatic and forceful speaker. However, although his idea of structuralism thrived while he was alive and championing for it, structuralism did not live on after his death.  Some modern reflections on Titchener consider the narrow scope of his psychology and the strict, limited methodology he deemed acceptable as a prominent explanation for the fall of Titchener's structuralism after his death. So much of it was wrapped up in Titchener's precise, careful dictations that without him, the field floundered. Structuralism, along with Wundt's voluntarism, were both effectively challenged and improved upon, though they did influence many schools of psychology today.

Titchener was known for bringing some part of Wundt's structuralism to America, but with a few modifications. For example, whereas Wilhelm Wundt emphasised the relationship between elements of consciousness, Titchener focused on identifying the basic elements themselves. In his textbook An Outline of Psychology  (1896), Titchener put forward a list of more than 44,000 elemental qualities of conscious experience.

Titchener is also remembered for coining the English word "empathy" in 1909 as a translation of the German word "Einfühlungsvermögen", a new phenomenon explored at the end of 19th century mainly by Theodor Lipps. "Einfühlungsvermögen" was later re-translated as "Empathie", and is still in use that way in German. It should be stressed that Titchener used the term "empathy" in a personal way, strictly intertwined with his methodological use of introspection, and to refer to at least three differentiable phenomena.

Titchener's effect on the history of psychology, as it is taught in classrooms, was partially the work of his student Edwin Boring. Boring's experimental work was largely unremarkable, but his book History of Experimental Psychology was widely influential, as, consequentially, were his portrayals of various psychologists, including his own mentor Edward Titchener. The length at which Boring detailed Titchener's contributions—contemporary Hugo Münsterberg received roughly a tenth as much of Boring's attention—raise questions today as to whether or not the influence credited to Titchener on the history of psychology is inflated as a result. Boring recorded that Titchener had supervised 56 doctoral students, including 21 women. Two others did not formally graduate due to personal circumstances.

Another student who brought attention to Titchener's laboratory was Cheves West Perky (1874–1940), an American psychologist who performed the "Banana Experiment" in 1910, which led to the discovery of the Perky Effect, which examines the link between mental imagery and visual perception. Perky's work has since "achieved something of a classic, even mythic, status in the literature on imagery."

Professor Titchener received honorary degrees from Harvard, Clark, and Wisconsin.  He became a charter member of the American Psychological Association, translated Külpe's Outlines of Psychology and other works, became the American editor of Mind in 1894, and associate editor of the American Journal of Psychology in 1895, and wrote several books. In 1904, he founded the group "The Experimentalists," which continues today as the "Society of Experimental Psychologists".  Titchener's brain was contributed to the Wilder Brain Collection at Cornell.

Notes

Further reading
 Adams, Grace (1931). "Tichner at Cornell," The American Mercury, December 1931, at 440-446 (biography of Tichner as a professor).
 Boring, E.G. (1967). Taped transcription presented at a meeting of the Society of Experimental Psychologists in 1967. Recovered from: Titchener's Experimentalists. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 3, published online 13 February 2006.
 Hothersall, D. (2004). History of psychology. New York, NY: Mcgraw-Hill.
 Titchener, E.B. (1902). Experimental psychology: A manual of laboratory practice. (Vol. 1) New York, NY: MacMillan & Co., Ltd.
 An Outline of Psychology (1896; new edition, 1902)
 A Primer of Psychology (1898; revised edition, 1903)
 Experimental Psychology (four volumes, 1901–05)—220.127.116.11.2
 Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention (1908)
 Experimental
 Picture, biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science

External links

1867 births
1927 deaths
British emigrants to the United States
American science writers
People educated at The Prebendal School
Clark University alumni
Cornell University faculty
English psychologists
English non-fiction writers
English male non-fiction writers
19th-century psychologists
20th-century British psychologists

Edward B. Titchener


Joshua Morgan Hancock (April 11, 1978 – April 29, 2007) was a professional baseball pitcher, who played Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, Cincinnati Reds, and St. Louis Cardinals. He was killed in an auto accident on April 29, 2007, at the age of 29.

Career
Born in Cleveland, Mississippi, Hancock graduated from Vestavia Hills High School in Vestavia Hills, Alabama. After high school, he was selected in the fourth round of the 1996 Major League Baseball draft by the Milwaukee Brewers, but did not sign. An Alabama fan, Hancock instead attended college at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama, because the Tigers offered him a better scholarship. Hancock was selected by the Boston Red Sox in the fifth round (155th overall) of the 1998 amateur draft and signed with the Red Sox, making his major-league debut on September 10, 2002. In December 2002 Hancock was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for Jeremy Giambi. On July 30, 2004, he was traded along with  Andy Machado to the Cincinnati Reds for Todd Jones and Brad Correll.  The next day, Hancock was the winning pitcher for the Reds in a game against the Houston Astros (a suspended game that began the day before while he was still with the Phillies).

On the first day of Spring training 2006, Hancock was released by the Reds for being 17 pounds overweight — thus, violating a clause in his contract. He promptly signed with the St. Louis Cardinals and had his best season, pitching 77 innings, compiling a 4.09 earned run average ERA, and appearing in the 2006 postseason with the Cardinals. Hancock performed in a variety of roles for the Cardinals' bullpen, from short term relief appearances to less desirable roles when the game was out of hand.

Hancock was on the Cardinals roster for the 2006 World Series but did not pitch.

Before coming to the Cardinals,  Hancock had a penchant for giving up home runs. He gave up 17 homers over 68 innings pitched in 2005. Hancock improved in 2006, giving up only nine over 77 innings. In 2007, he had pitched 8 games with an 0–1 record and a 3.55 ERA.

Death

On April 29, 2007, Hancock was killed in a motor vehicle accident when the 2007 Ford Explorer he was driving while intoxicated struck the rear of a flat bed tow truck at 12:35 a.m. Central Time. The truck was reportedly in the left lane assisting another vehicle that was involved in a prior accident.

A police report revealed that Hancock was intoxicated at the time of his fatal accident with a blood-alcohol level of 0.157, nearly double the legal limit in Missouri. Police found 10.95 grams of marijuana and a pipe in his vehicle, although toxicology reports came back revealing that there was no marijuana in his system. Hancock was texting on his cell phone when the accident occurred, and was not wearing a seatbelt. An accident reconstruction team determined that Hancock was driving  in a  zone.

The Cardinals' scheduled game with the Chicago Cubs later that day was postponed due to his accident. The game was eventually made up on September 15, a 3-2 Cubs victory.

Hancock's death marked the second time in five years a player for the Cardinals died during the baseball season, the first being of pitcher Darryl Kile in 2002 with a coronary artery blockage. He was the second active MLB player to be killed in an accident in less than a year, after the plane crash of Yankees pitcher Cory Lidle.

Three days earlier, his teammates were concerned when they could not reach Hancock after he had overslept and had not shown up for the game on time, likening it to the events leading up to the sudden death of Kile. Hancock did not answer until the "20th call", having thought the start time was later than it actually was. Hancock was expected to be fined by the Cardinals after the incident.

On May 31, 2007, it was reported that Hancock had been involved in another accident involving his GMC Denali three nights before his fatal crash involving a rented Ford Explorer.
Hancock's final appearance for the team was April 28, 2007, giving up one run in three innings of relief.

Aftermath
The Cardinals wore a special patch on their uniform sleeves with Hancock's number (32) for the duration of the 2007 season to commemorate his life.
 Although his number is not retired, he is currently honored with his number being displayed above his name in the Cardinals bullpen at Busch Stadium, alongside Darryl Kile, who died in 2002.

In the wake of Hancock's accident, several teams banned alcohol from their home clubhouses.  The Florida Marlins had already implemented this policy several seasons before Hancock's death, saying that they wanted to keep their players from driving home intoxicated after home games.  They did not ban alcohol from visiting clubhouses because their opponents usually ride a team bus after playing away games.  In 2006, after Esteban Loaiza was arrested for drunk driving, Oakland A's GM Billy Beane banned alcohol in both clubhouses, saying it was a liability issue. After Hancock died, the Baltimore Orioles implemented a similar policy, at least on a temporary basis.

Hancock's family filed a lawsuit on May 24, 2007, against Mike Shannon's restaurant, the tow truck company, tow truck driver, and the driver of the car that the tow truck was stopped to help.
On May 31, 2007, the Missouri Division of Alcohol and Tobacco Control announced results of an investigation revealed no wrongdoing on the part of employees at Mike Shannon's Steaks and Seafood restaurant in Hancock's death.

The lawsuit was dropped on July 30, 2007.

See also
 List of baseball players who died during their careers
MLB.com  tribute
Sports E-Cyclopedia's Memorium to Josh Hancock
PDF file of Dean Hancock's lawsuit

References

External links

Josh Hancock at Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Professional Baseball League)

1978 births
2007 deaths
Auburn Tigers baseball players
Augusta GreenJackets players
Baseball players from Mississippi
Boston Red Sox players
Cincinnati Reds players
Gulf Coast Red Sox players
Louisville Bats players
Lowell Spinners players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Mesa Desert Dogs players
Navegantes del Magallanes players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Pawtucket Red Sox players
People from Cleveland, Mississippi
People from Vestavia Hills, Alabama
Philadelphia Phillies players
Road incident deaths in Missouri
Sarasota Red Sox players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
St. Louis Cardinals players
Trenton Thunder players

Josh Hancock


Royalty (also known as Royalty 1390) is a rouge Californian wine grape variety that was developed in 1938 by Dr. Harold P. Olmo of the University of California, Davis. The grape is a red fleshed teinturier which, unlike most red wine grapes, will produced red-tinged colored wine even without maceration time on the skins. The grape is a hybrid being produced from the Vitis vinifera Trousseau gris variety from the Jura wine region of France and the teinturier grape Alicante Ganzin that, itself, is a hybrid of a Vitis rupestris variety and the Vitis vinifera grape Aramon.

History
Royalty was first cultivated by Dr. Olmo in 1938 at the California Agricultural Experiment Station of UC-Davis but wasn't released for commercial use until 1958. It was released at the same time as Rubired another Olmo teinturier with Alicante Ganzin parentage. Like Rubired, Royalty was mostly grown in the Central Valley of California where it was used a blending grape to improve the color of red wines. However, Royalty showed itself to be more difficult to cultivate than Rubired and fell out of favor among many growers. While by the end of the 20th century there was still more than 6,000 acres (2,500 hectares) of Rubired in production in California there were only around 800 acres (320 ha) of Royalty in use.

Synonyms
Among the synonyms that Royalty has been known as include California S 26, Kek Royalti and Royalti.

References

Red wine grape varieties
Hybrid grape varieties

Royalty (grape)


The hour record for bicycles is the record for the longest length rode in one hour on a bicycle.  The first recorded hour record was in 1876 when F. L. Dodds rode 26.508 kilometres on a penny-farthing bicycle.  Many people since then have tried to be the fastest.  People trying to break the record have helped to change bicycle designs.

In 1972, the Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx set a record of 49.431 kilometres.  It was the record for twelve years.  Since that time technology has allowed much more aerodynamic bicycle designs.  The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), has made his design standard for their competitions.  There is now another record, the International Human Powered Vehicle Association (IHVA) hour record, for other designs.  The hour record for regular bicycles is called the UCI record.

Ondřej Sosenka holds the UCI hour record at 49.700 kilometres.  Sam Whittingham holds the IHVA hour record at 86.752 kilometres.
Cycle races

Hour record


Samuel Lincoln (August 24, 1622 – May 26, 1690) was an Englishman and progenitor of many notable United States political figures, including his 4th-great-grandson, President Abraham Lincoln, Maine governor Enoch Lincoln, and Levi Lincoln Sr. and Levi Lincoln Jr., both of whom served as Massachusetts Representatives, Governor and Lieutenant Governor. Because of Samuel Lincoln's descendants, his fortuitous arrival in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and the fact that his ancestry is known for several generations, he is considered the father of the most prominent branch of Lincolns in the United States.

Journey to America

Having grown up in meager circumstances due to a family squabble in which his wealthy grandfather disinherited his earlier children, Samuel Lincoln became an apprentice weaver under Francis Lawes of Norwich, England. Samuel Lincoln's father Edward had abandoned his home at Swanton Morley near Hingham after he was cut out of his father Richard's will, and relocated to some small acreage at Hingham. In 1637, Lincoln left England for the New World with Lawes' family, embarking on a ship named John & Dorothy. Although most accounts indicate that he was 15 years old at the time, it has been suggested that he misrepresented his age in order to be permitted to make the voyage.

Samuel's older brother Thomas is known in early records as "Thomas Lincoln the Weaver" to distinguish him from several other unrelated Thomas Lincolns. In 1635, Thomas settled in Hingham, Massachusetts where the town granted him a house lot. Although twice married, Thomas had no children. Samuel sailed for the colony of Massachusetts. After Thomas' death, he left a great deal of his property, including several house lots, to Samuel and his nephews.

Life and family in Massachusetts

Samuel Lincoln helped build the Old Ship Church in Hingham. He married Martha Lyford of Ireland around 1649, possibly the daughter of the Rev. John Lyford, and the couple had 11 children, three of whom died in infancy, but another three of whom lived into their eighties. Lincoln's eldest son, born August 25, 1650, was also named Samuel. The emigrant Samuel Lincoln's fourth son was Mordecai Lincoln, who became a blacksmith, and who was the ancestor of Abraham Lincoln. Genealogists have noted the common and repeated use of certain Biblical names in the Lincoln family, particularly Abraham, Samuel, Isaac, Jacob, and Mordecai, a common practice among early Puritan settlers in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Many later Lincoln descendants, including the original emigrant's son, were named Samuel in succeeding generations.

Samuel's mother also belonged to a family long associated with American government: the Gilmans of Exeter, New Hampshire. Samuel's mother Bridget Gilman was the daughter of Edward Gilman of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whose son Edward Gilman Jr. emigrated to Hingham, Massachusetts, later to Ipswich, Massachusetts, and finally to Exeter, where he and his family became prominent businessmen, elected officials and, later, ardent Revolutionary War patriots. Nicholas Gilman, a signer of the U.S. Constitution, was a member of this family.

Commemoration
In 1937, the 300th anniversary of Samuel Lincoln's arrival in Massachusetts was commemorated with the dedication of a tablet at the Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts. President Abraham Lincoln is honored by a bust in the church of St Andrew's in Hingham, Norfolk, England, unveiled in a 1919 ceremony by then-American Ambassador John W. Davis. Samuel Lincoln's father Edward, who remained in Hingham, England, died on February 11, 1640, and was buried in the graveyard of St Andrew's Church.

See also
Lincoln family

Sources
Waldo Lincoln, History of the Lincoln Family: An Account of the Descendants of Samuel Lincoln of Hingham, Massachusetts, 1637–1920 (1923) .
Lincoln's Youth: Indiana Years, Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830, Indiana University Press (2002) .
Genealogy of Samuel Lincoln.
LINCOLN (Samuel), from George Lincoln, The History of the Town of Hingham, Massachusetts, The Genealogies (1893).
English church reaches out to Lincoln land; Building where president's ancestors once worshipped in need of major repairs.
The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln, James Henry Lea, John Robert Hutchinson, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1909

References

1622 births
1690 deaths
People from Hingham, Norfolk
Lincoln family
English emigrants to Massachusetts Bay Colony
People of colonial Massachusetts
People from Hingham, Massachusetts

Samuel Lincoln


Jacquie Phelan (born December 10, 1955 in San Francisco, California) is an American road and cyclocross racer, and was the NORBA champion three consecutive years—1983, 1984, and 1985.

Phelan is known through the US mountain bike community for having developed WOMBATS (Women's Mountain Bike & Tea Society) for women interested more in socializing and enjoying nature. Her nickname of "Alice B. Toeclips" is a homage to Alice B. Toklas.

Her bike Otto, was among the first aluminum frames raced, with  drop bars off-road, and her creative attire.
Phelan is married to Wilderness Trail Bikes founder and component inventor Charlie Cunningham, the bicycle frame builder whose aluminum bike, "Otto," Phelan raced unbeaten for six years. This bike was the first modern lightweight mountain bike, and its heat-treated sloping top tube aluminum frame held up for over nine consecutive seasons. The roller cam brakes, two chainrings (44-34), and custom-fabricated eleven-tooth rear cog gave a boost in technical riding. The bike also drew criticism from traditional framebuilders, who believed durable frames had to be made of steel.

She is a charter inductee into the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame in 1988. In 2000, she was inducted into the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame.  Along with a dozen others, Phelan founded NORBA in 1982, and was a charter member of IMBA. Phelan founded the Women's Mountain Bike & Tea Society (WOMBATS) in 1987 to encourage women's and girls' participation, and in 1984 produced the sport's first off-road skills camps & clinics, known as "Fat Tire Finishing School". Her nickname of "Alice B. Toeclips" is a homage to Alice B. Toklas.

Phelan once had the opportunity to ride with Independent Fabrication's racer Amy Crawford, a defining experience for both riders.

Phelan was the first US mountain bike racer to race abroad (Man v. Horse, Wales). In 2004, she placed 8th overall in the Transportugal, a 1300 km offroad adventure race, where she was the only woman. Phelan is still invited to participate in offroad races both stateside and abroad. In summer 2009 she took part in a two-month vodka commercial called the 42 Below ride, a 4,200-mile crossing of the US by road bike.

Phelan appears in three documentary films: Full Cycle: A World Odyssey (1994), How to Cook Your Life (Doris Doerrie's film about Zen baker Edward Espe Brown, 2007), and Billy Savage's Klunkerz.

References

External links
Her blog
Her new blog about food
Profile on the MTB Hall of Fame
WOMBAT's Home Page
2003 Interview on Metro Active
Bio on Hardi Hood
Photos from the 80s on mountainbikeroots.com
Some of Phelan's writing about biking on bikereader.com
"A brief autobiography"

1955 births
Living people
American female cyclists
American mountain bikers
Racing drivers from San Francisco
21st-century American women

Jacquie Phelan


Thallium(I) carbonate, also known as thallous carbonate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2CO3. It has thallium and carbonate ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) carbonate is a white solid. It dissolves in water. It is the only heavy metal carbonate that can dissolve in water. It is similar to potassium carbonate. It is highly toxic, though. It reacts with acids like all carbonates do to make a thallium salt and carbon dioxide.

Preparation
It is made by reacting thallium(I) oxide with carbon dioxide.

Uses
It is used to make fake diamonds, to test for carbon disulfide, and to kill fungi.

Related pages
Thallium(III) oxide
Thallium(I) chloride

Thallium compounds
Carbonates

Thallium(I) carbonate


Green chemistry (or sustainable chemistry) is a type of chemical research and engineering. It supports the design of products and processes that use as little dangerous substances as they can.

Environmental chemistry is the chemistry of the natural environment and of pollutant chemicals in nature. But green chemistry wants to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990, the Pollution Prevention Act was passed in the United States. This law sought original and new ways to handle pollution. It aims to avoid problems before they happen.

Green chemistry applies organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry and even physical chemistry.  While green chemistry seems to focus on just industrial applications, it does apply to any chemistry choice. Green chemists reduce the hazards and increase the efficiency of any chemical choice. It is distinct from environmental chemistry which focuses on chemical phenomena in the environment.

The 12 principles of green chemistry

1. Prevent waste

Create products without or with minimal wastes so that the wastes do not need to be taken care of afterwards.

2. Design safer chemicals and products

Design chemicals to have little or no toxicity, without affecting effectiveness.

3. Design less hazardous chemical synthesis

Design a way of synthesising products without it being toxic to humans or the environment.

4. Use renewable raw materials

Use renewable raw materials, like plant materials, other than depleting ones, such as Fossil fuels.

5. Use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents

Use of catalysts because of their ability to be able to be reused and that they are less harmful than reagents.

6. Avoid chemical derivatives

Chemical derivatives generate wastes that can be avoided.

7. Maximize atom economy

Make sure that a greater percentage of the atoms present in the reactants of a chemical reaction are used in the products that are also usable.

8. Use safer solvents and reaction conditions

Avoid using harsh solvents, but if that cannot be avoided, then use benign chemicals.

9. Increase energy efficiency

Use the normal ambient temperature and pressure wherever possible.

10. Design for degradation

Design materials to breakdown into benign substances by bacterial or other environmentally sound ways.

11. Analyse in real time to prevent pollution

Monitor and control the formation of by-products during a reaction.

12. Minimize the potential for accidents

Design chemicals to minimize the potential for accidents.

References

Other websites
EPA Green Chemistry Program Website
Introduction to Green Chemistry and Recent Literature
American Chemical Society Green Chemistry Institute
California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Green Chemistry Initiative
University of California, Berkeley, Program in Green Chemistry and Chemicals Policy
Center for Green Chemistry and Green Engineering at Yale University
Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence at the University of York, UK
Center for Sustainable and Green Chemistry at the Technical University of Denmark
Mediterranean Countries Green Chemistry Network
Next Generation Environmental Technologies Published by RAND
Green Chemistry at Tel Aviv University
Green Chemistry, Journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry
Green Chemistry Book Series published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, Taylor & Francis

Environmental chemistry

Green chemistry


The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is one of the Nobel Prizes which were created by Alfred Nobel. This award is decided by the Karolinska Institutet, a major medical center in Sweden. The Prize is given every year to a person or persons who have done excellent work in the area of medicine (treating or stopping disease) or physiology (the way the body works).

Nobel Prize winners

1901–1910

 1901 – Emil von Behring, Germany, for making a serum to stop people getting the disease diphtheria
 1902 – Ronald Ross, United Kingdom, for work on malaria
 1903 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Denmark, for treating Lupus vulgaris (tuberculosis of the skin), with light radiation.
 1904 – Ivan Pavlov, Russia, for his work on the way digestion works.
 1905 – Robert Koch, Germany, for studying tuberculosis
 1906 – Camillo Golgi, Italy and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spain for their work on the parts of the nervous system
 1907 – Alphonse Laveran, France, for his work on the way protozoa can cause disease
 1908 – Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Russia, and Paul Ehrlich, Germany, for finding out how immunity fights disease
 1909 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Switzerland, for his work on the thyroid gland
 1910 – Albrecht Kossel, Germany, for his work on proteins and nucleic substances

1911–1919

 1911 – Allvar Gullstrand, Sweden, for his work on light refraction and the eye
 1912 – Alexis Carrel, France, for his work on joining blood vessels and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs
 1913 – Charles Robert Richet, France, for his work on anaphylaxis
 1914 – Robert Bárány, Austria, for his work on the ear and balance
 1915 – Not awarded
 1916 – Not awarded
 1917 – Not awarded
 1918 – Not awarded
 1919 – Jules Bordet, Belgium, for his discoveries about immunity

1920–1929

 1920 – August Krogh, Denmark, for his discoveries about capillaries
 1921 – Not awarded
 1922 – Archibald Vivian Hill, United Kingdom, for finding out how muscles make heat
 1922 – Otto Fritz Meyerhof, Germany, for finding out how oxygen makes chemical changes in lactic acid in muscles
 1923 – Frederick Grant Banting, Canada and John Macleod, Canada, for the discovery of insulin"
 1924 – Willem Einthoven, The Netherlands, for inventing the electrocardiogram"
 1925 – Not awarded
 1926 – Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Denmark, for his discovery that an infection could lead to cancer
 1927 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Austria, for his discovery that malaria inoculation helps the treatment of paralysis
 1928 – Charles Jules Henri Nicolle, France, for his work on typhus
 1929, Christiaan Eijkman, The Netherlands, for finding out how to use a vitamin to stop nerve pain"
 1929 – Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the vitamins that help growth

1930–1939

 1930 – Karl Landsteiner, for discovery of human blood types.
 1931 – Otto Heinrich Warburg, Germany, for his discovery of the respiratory enzyme.
 1932 – Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, United Kingdom, and Edgar Douglas Adrian, United Kingdom, for discoveries about neurons (nerve cells).
 1933 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, United States, for his work on chromosomes and heredity".
 1934 – George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William Parry Murphy, United States, for their work on how eating liver could cure anaemia.
 1935 – Hans Spemann, Germany, for finding the organizer effect in embryonic development.
 1936 – Sir Henry Hallett Dale, United Kingdom, and Otto Loewi, Austria for their discoveries about neurotransmitters and nerve impulses.
 1937 – Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungary, for his discoveries about cells, vitamin C and chemical changes of fumaric acid.
 1938 – Corneille Heymans, Belgium, for work on the paranasal sinus and aortic mechanisms in the control of breathing.
 1939 – Gerhard Domagk, Germany, for finding the antibacterial effects of prontosil.

1940–1949

 1940 – Not awarded
 1941 – Not awarded
 1942 – Not awarded
 1943 – Henrik Carl Peter Dam, Denmark, for his discovery of vitamin K
 1943 – Edward Adelbert Doisy, United States, for work on vitamin K"
 1944 – Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser, United States, for their discoveries about single nerve fibres
 1945 – Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, United Kingdom and Howard Walter Florey, Australia, for the discovery of penicillin and making it into an antibiotic to cure infectious diseases
 1946 – Hermann Joseph Muller, United States, for the discovery of mutations caused by X-ray irradiation
 1947 – Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori, née Radnitz, United States, for their work on catalytic conversion of glycogen
 1947 – Bernardo Alberto Houssay, Argentina, for finding out how the hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe works in the metabolism of sugar
 1948 – Paul Hermann Müller, Switzerland, for his work on DDT as a poison against several insects
 1949 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Switzerland, for his discovery of the way the brain controls the internal organs
 1949 – António Egas Moniz, Portugal, for using leucotomy (brain surgery) to cure some mental illnesses.

1950–1959

 1950 – Philip French, Edward Kendall, United States, and Tadeusz Reichstein, Switzerland, for the hormones of the adrenal cortex.
 1951 – Max Theiler, Union of South Africa, for his discoveries about yellow fever.
 1952 – Selman Waksman, United States, for discovering streptomycin, the first antibiotic to work against tuberculosis.
 1953 – Hans Krebs, United Kingdom, for his discovery of the citric acid cycle.
 1953 – Fritz Lipmann, United States, for his discovery of co-enzyme A.
 1954 – John Enders, Frederick Robbins, and Thomas Weller, United States, for discovering the poliomyelitis virus and growing it in a laboratory.
 1955 – Hugo Theorell, Sweden, for his discoveries about enzymes changing with oxygen.
 1956 – André Cournand, Dickinson Richards, United States, and Werner Forssmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for their discoveries about heart catheterization and changes in the circulatory system.
 1957 – Daniel Bovet, Italy for his work on antihistamine and what they do to parts of the body.
 1958 – George Beadle and Edward Tatum, United States, for finding out how genes work.
 1958 – Joshua Lederberg, United States, for finding out how genetic recombination works in bacteria (transduction (genetics)).
 1959 – Arthur Kornberg and Severo Ochoa, United States, for their discovery of how living things make ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

1960–1969

 1960 – Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australia, and Sir Peter Medawar, United Kingdom, for their discovery of acquired immune tolerance.
 1961 – Georg von Békésy, United States, for his discoveries about the cochlea (inner ear).
 1962 – Francis Crick, United Kingdom, James D. Watson, United States, and Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand, for finding the structure of nucleic acids and its importance in coding information in living things.
 1963 – Sir John Eccles, Australia, Alan Hodgkin, United Kingdom, and Andrew Huxley, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about nerve cell membrane.
 1964 – Konrad Bloch, United States, and Feodor Lynen, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding out how cholesterol and fatty acid work in the body.
 1965 – François Jacob, André Lwoff, and Jacques Monod, France, for finding out how genes control viruses.
 1966 – Peyton Rous, United States, for his discovery that viruses can cause tumours.
 1966 – Charles Brenton Huggins, United States, for using hormonal treatment of prostate cancer.
 1967 – Ragnar Granit, Sweden, Haldan Keffer Hartline, and George Wald, United States, for their discoveries about how the eye works.
 1968 – Robert W. Holley (U.S), Har Gobind Khorana (India), and Marshall W. Nirenberg, United States, for their understanding of the genetic code and its role in protein synthesis.
 1969 – Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, and Salvador Luria, United States, for finding how viruses reproduce.

1970–1979

 1970 – Julius Axelrod, Ulf von Euler, Sweden, and Sir Bernard Katz, United Kingdom, for finding out about transmittors in the nerve terminals and how they work
 1971 – Earl W. Sutherland, Jr., United States, for his discoveries about hormones
 1972 – Gerald M. Edelman, United States, and Rodney R. Porter, United Kingdom, for finding out the chemical structure of antibodies
 1973 – Karl von Frisch, Federal Republic of Germany, Konrad Lorenz, Austria, and Nikolaas Tinbergen, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about individual and social behaviour patterns
 1974 – Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, Belgium, and George E. Palade, United States, for their discoveries about cells
 1975 – David Baltimore, Howard Temin, and Renato Dulbecco, United States, for finding what happens when tumour causing viruses infect normal cells.
 1976 – Baruch S. Blumberg and D. Carleton Gajdusek, United States, for their discoveries about the beginnings and spreading of infectious diseases
 1977 – Roger Guillemin, Andrew W. Schally, United States, for their discoveries about how the brain makes peptide hormone
 1977 – Rosalyn Yalow, United States, for the development of radioimmunoassays of peptide hormones
 1978 – Werner Arber, Switzerland, Daniel Nathans, United States, and Hamilton O. Smith, United States for finding restriction enzymes and their use in molecular genetics"
 1979 – Allan M. Cormack, United States, and Godfrey N. Hounsfield, United Kingdom, for the development of computer assisted tomography

1980–1989

 1980 – Baruj Benacerraf, United States, Jean Dausset, France, and George D. Snell, United States, for their discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that control immunological reactions
 1981 – Roger Sperry, United States, for finding out the role of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain
 1981 – David Hubel, United States, and Torsten Wiesel, Sweden, for their discoveries about information processing in the visual system"
 1982 – Sune Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, Sweden, and John R. Vane, United Kingdom, for their discoveries about prostaglandins.
 1983 – Barbara McClintock, United States, for her discovery of mobile genetic elements
 1984 – Niels K. Jerne, Denmark, Georges Köhler, Germany, Federal Republic of Germany, César Milstein, Argentina and the United Kingdom, for theories about the development and control of the immune system and the discovery of monoclonal antibodies are made
 1985 – Michael S. Brown, and Joseph L. Goldstein, United States, for finding out how cholesterol is controlled
 1986 – Stanley Cohen, United States, and Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italy and the United States, for their discoveries of growth factors
 1987 – Susumu Tonegawa, Japan, for his discovery how the genes make different antibodies
 1988 – Sir James Black United Kingdom, Gertrude B. Elion, and George H. Hitchings, United States, for finding important rules for drug treatment
 1989 – J. Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus, United States, found how disturbing a large family of genes that control the normal growth and division of cells, can cause normal cells to change into cancer cells.

1990–1999

 1990 – Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnall Thomas, United States, for their discoveries about organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of disease.
 1991 – Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, Federal Republic of Germany, for finding what single ion channels do in cells.
 1992 – Edmond H. Fischer, Switzerland and the United States, and Edwin G. Krebs, United States, for finding reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological control mechanism.
 1993 – Richard Roberts, United Kingdom, and Phillip Sharp, United States, for their discoveries of split genes.
 1994 – Alfred G. Gilman, and Martin Rodbell, United States, for finding G-proteins and the role of these proteins in signal transduction in cells.
 1995 – Edward B. Lewis, United States, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Federal Republic of Germany, and Eric F. Wieschaus, United States, for finding how embryonic development is changed by genes.
 1996 – Peter C. Doherty,Australia,and Rolf M. Zinkernagel, Switzerland, for finding how the immune system knows which cells are virus-infected.
 1997 – Stanley B. Prusiner, United States, for his discovery of prions, proteins that make people sick.
 1998 – Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro and Ferid Murad, United States, for finding how nitric oxide works as a signalling molecule in the cardiovascular system.
 1999 – Günter Blobel, United States, for the discovery that proteins have built-in signals that control their transport and localization in the cell.

2000–2009

 2000  Arvid Carlsson, Sweden, Paul Greengard, United States, and Eric Kandel, United States, for their discoveries about signal transduction in the nervous system.
 2001  Leland Hartwell, United States, Tim Hunt, United Kingdom, and Sir Paul Nurse, United Kingdom, for finding the main controls in the cell cycle.
 2002  Sydney Brenner, United Kingdom, H. Robert Horvitz, United States, and Sir John Sulston, United Kingdom, for their finding the genetic controls of organ development and programmed cell death.
 2003  Paul Lauterbur, United States, and Sir Peter Mansfield, United Kingdom, for inventing magnetic resonance imaging.
 2004  Richard Axel and Linda Buck, United States, for finding small receptors and the organization of the olfactory system, (how we smell things).
 2005  Barry Marshall and Robin Warren, Australia, for finding the bacterium Helicobacter pylori that causes gastritis and peptic ulcer disease.
 2006  Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, United States, for finding how RNA interference can switch genes on or off.
 2007  Mario Capecchi, United States, Sir Martin Evans, United Kingdom, Oliver Smithies, United States, for finding a way to switch off genes in mouse embryonic stem cells. This leads to genetically changed mice.
 2008  Harald zur Hausen, Germany, for finding the human papilloma viruses causing cervical cancer. Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, France, for finding the human immunodeficiency virus.
 2009  Elizabeth Blackburn, Australia, Carol Greider, US, and Jack Szostak, England, for their work on chromosomes.

2010–2019
 2010  Robert Edwards, U.K., for the development of in vitro fertilization.
 2011  Bruce Beutler, U.S.A., Jules Hoffmann, France, for their discoveries about how innate immunity is activated. Ralph Steinman, Canada/U.S.A. for his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity. (awarded posthumously)
 2012  John Gurdon, U.K.,  and Shinya Yamanaka, Japan, for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become stem cells.
 2013  James Rothman, Randy Schekman, both US, and Thomas G. Sudhof, Germany for "discovering the molecular basis of neutrotransmitters release".
 2014  John O'Keefe U.K./U.S., May-Britt Moser & Edvard Moser Norway for "discovering the cells that make a positing system in the brain" (the hippocampus as a mental map for spatial memory).
 2015 William C. Campbell (1/4)/ Satoshi Ōmura (1/4) / Tu Youyou (1/2) for therapy against (respectively) roundworm parasites, and malaria.
 2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi, Japan, for autophagy.
 2017 Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young & Jeffrey C. Hall, all U.S., for "for their discoveries of molecular mechanisms controlling the circadian rhythm"
 2018 James P. Allison, U.S, Tasuku Honjo, Japan for "discovery of cancer therapy by inhibitation of negative immune regulation".
 2019 William Kaelin Jr., U.S., Peter J. Ratcliffe, U.K., Gregg L. Semenza, U.S. for "their discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability".

2020-
 2020 Harvey J. Alter, U.S, Michael Houghton, U.K, & Charles M. Rice, U.S. for "the discovery of Hepatitis C virus".
 2021 David Julius, U.S. and Ardem Patapoutian, U.S. for "discovories of receptors for temperature and touch".
 2022 Svante Pääbo, Sweden for "discoveries concerning the genomes of extinct hominins and human evolution".
 2023 Katalin Karikó, Hungary, Drew Weissman, U.S. for "discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective RNA vaccinees against COVID-19".

Related pages
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Economics
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Physics
 List of Nobel Prize winners in Literature
 List of Nobel Peace Prize winners

References

Physiology

List of Nobel Prize winners in Physiology or Medicine


The word Context have a couple of meanings:

 Context (language): the text in which a word or passage appears and which affects its meaning; also the words and social setting which surrounds a spoken word or passage.

 ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system
 ConTEXT, a Windows text editor
 Context (computing), the virtual environment required to suspend a running software program
 Archaeological context, an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record
 the Context Science Fiction Convention, held every fall in Columbus, Ohio

Context may also be used for:

 Context analysis, analysis of the environment in which a business operates
 Context awareness, ability for computers to adjust to the natural environment
 Context menu, usability improvement based on context awareness
 Context mixing, a type of data compression algorithm
 Context principle, philosophy of language
 Context Sensitive Solutions, transportation
 Context theory, theory of how environmental design and planning of new development should relate to its context
 Contextualization, a translation approach that is not literal; predominately used in regards to Bible translations
 Trama (context or flesh), the mass of non-hymenial tissues that composes the mass of a fungal fruiting body
 Low context culture
 High context culture

Related pages
 Locality (disambiguation)
 State (disambiguation)
 Natural environment
 Causality
 Context free
 Context-sensitive
 Opaque context

Context


"Summertime Sadness" is a song by American singer-songwriter Lana Del Rey from her second studio album, Born to Die (2012). The pop ballad was released on June 22, 2012, by Interscope Records as the fourth single of the album. In the spring of 2013, "Summertime Sadness" reached number one in Poland, Ukraine and Armenia. Charting across Europe, the single reached the top 10 in Austria, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. Trap and house remixes of "Summertime Sadness" helped Del Rey break into the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart. That chart is where Del Rey's song became a modest hit and marked her first foray into the chart. On the accompanied Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart, the single gave Del Rey her first US number-one single in August 2013. In September 2021, the song was ranked number 456 on Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.

In the summer of 2013, a remixed version of the track by Cedric Gervais was released to American contemporary hit radio and helped the single become a sleeper hit, debuting at 72 on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming the highest-charting solo single of her career in the U.S. with a peak of 6. Switzerland and Austria gave "Summertime Sadness" a Gold certification; it reached platinum status in Germany and became a top 40 year-end hit. The record also reached number 4 in the UK Singles Chart. It joined BBC Radio 1's and BBC Radio 2's playlists. Gervais' remixed version won a 2014 Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical.

The song's accompanying music video depicts Del Rey and actress Jaime King as a couple. As the storyline progresses, both characters commit suicide by jumping from perilous heights. Cinematography was handled primarily by King's husband, Kyle Newman. The video gained success on video-hosting website YouTube, and circulated through social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter. In general, critics lauded the artistry of the single's music video, comparing it to photo-sharing site Instagram. The musical arrangement was composed by Del Rey's long-time collaborators Emile Haynie and Rick Nowels, with Nowels and Del Rey writing the lyrics.

Lyrical composition and themes

"Summertime Sadness" was released as a digital download on June 22, 2012, in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland. Written by Lana Del Rey and her long-time collaborator, Rick Nowels, the record was produced by Nowels and Emile Haynie. "Summertime Sadness" is a pop and trip hop ballad. It is written in the key of C♯ minor with a tempo of 125 beats per minute. Del Rey's vocals range from the note of C♯3 and C♯5. Various club remixes of the song were created, including one by Ryan Hemsworth. Spin said Hemsworth's trap remix, "teases us with a little stoney dubwise bubble, and then dunks the entire thing into a glistening pool of purple promethazine goo. The only sharp sounds come from the barrage of skittering beats, plus some space lasers and the like." "Summertime Sadness"s Adam Freeland remix employed house beats and strong synthesizers that creates a "dazzling dance floor production."

The song's video focuses on a lesbian couple reminiscing on positive moments before both commit suicide. Pop Dust writer Nate Jones compared the introductory lyrics, "I got my red dress on tonight/ Dancing in the dark in the pale moonlight" to "Dancing in the Dark" by Bruce Springsteen, affirming that the song's inherent somberness was building to its gloomy denouement by first displaying positive memories the song's lovers experienced. The following two stanzas of: "Got my hair up real big beauty queen style / High heels off, I'm feeling alive" and "Honey, I'm on fire, I feel it everywhere / Nothing scares me anymore" building on the same lyrical imagery. Lyrically, the song reaches a sadder conclusion with the chorus, "Kiss me hard before you go / Summertime sadness / I just wanted you to know/ That, baby, you're the best." The darkest portion of the song's story swells at the beginning of the second verse: "I'm feelin' electric tonight / Cruising down the coast goin' 'bout 99 / Got my bad baby by my heavenly side / I know if I go, I'll die happy tonight." As a whole, "Summertime Sadness" follows a typical pop song structure: verse, chorus, verse, chorus, bridge, chorus, with the chorus circulating several times before the song's end.

Critical reception
In his track-by-track review for Billboard magazine, Andrew Hampp wrote about "Summertime Sadness" that "the pouty title alone drew giggles at Del Rey's Bowery gig, but the song itself proves to be one of the more durable tracks here even if its lyrics start to get redundant ('Kiss me hard before you go... That baby you're the best')". Los Angeles Times named it among the best tracks on the album along with "Video Games" and "Dark Paradise".  The song is also referenced in the Chainsmokers' hit single "#Selfie".

Music video

The music video for "Summertime Sadness" was filmed in April 2012 in Santa Clarita, California. It was directed by Kyle Newman and Spencer Susser. Newman's wife, actress Jaime King, stars along with Del Rey in the video, which tells the sad story of two women, who both end their own lives. King said about the video that, "It's about not being able to live without the one you love, friend or lover it doesn't matter, that's whatever you want it to be." Actor Alex Pettyfer reportedly also helped out on set as a production assistant.

The radio edit of the video was released on July 20, 2012, in Germany on ClipFish. The same day, the video with the album version of the song was released on Lana Del Rey's YouTube channel. That week, Del Rey gained 69,000 new followers on both Facebook and Twitter.

Synopsis

The music video opens with a woman saying, "Remember, I'll always love you, bye". After the phone call, Del Rey sings the opening lyrics and jumps off the cliff. The next scenes tell the story of two women (played by Del Rey and Jaime King) who have become suicidal.

In the next scene, the forlorn King seeks out the nearest bridge in the city and then stands on its ledge in a tear-stricken state. The next scenes depict a statue of Jesus Christ, Del Rey looking into the distance and a phone smashing into pieces as it hits the floor, hinting at Del Rey's realization that her girlfriend has killed herself. Feeling at fault for her lover's death, Del Rey spreads her arms wide mimicking the statue of Jesus Christ and jumps off the cliff.

The last scenes show both women in happier times, Del Rey turns to see King and smiles; both women are seen pouting and glancing seductively over their shoulders towards one another. As the women embrace, the smoke in the atmosphere gathers and they disappear. It's shown, after both suicides, that a haunting image of Del Rey (presumably her ghost) is seen walking down a long road towards the camera.

Reception
The video received generally favorable reviews from critics. Crystal Bell, a blogger for Huffington Post, called the video an "ode to Instagram," and compared it to Del Rey's previous videos. Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media wrote, that "it's certainly no seven-minute re-enactment of the life of the Kennedy family, but it still offers the trademark LDR touch. Instagram-like footage, very forlorn faces, possible suicide attempts, and a very special guest." Jenna Hally Rubenstein, of MTV's Buzzworthy blog, considers that the coral-smoked scenes are Del Rey in the afterlife, post-suicide, saying it may be unlikely as "the clip closes with an image of Lana and her ghost walking alone down an empty road." Further, she said, "Sad, sad times, y'all. But then again what else did you expect from a Lana video? Sunshine, glitter and ice cream cones? Probably not." Brennan Carley of Billboard noted that "keeping the buzz alive while sticking with sepia-tones and a healthy dose of melodramatics, Lana Del Rey probes a crumbling relationship in the music video [...] the video traces the women's relationship with spliced together film bits – much like the effects used in her earlier efforts – and foggy scenes of the stars pouting and glancing seductively over their shoulders." Spin magazine writer Marc Hogan found that the video recalled Del Rey's breakout video for "Video Games". He added, that "more provocative, though, is the hint of romance-gone-sour between Del Rey and the character played by actress Jaime King. Because this is a Lana Del Rey video, it's not spoiling anything to say there's a Thelma and Louise-like twist." Entertainment website Spinner called the visual "weird. It's beautifully shot, sepia-soaked and melodramatic. The singer's bestie, played by the very lovely actress Jamie King, is also pretty sad about summer ending." Tyler Monroe, writing for AUX, called the video "indistinguishable nothingness", adding "I don't think Lana Del Rey is even trying anymore."

Live performances
In 2012, Del Rey performed "Summertime Sadness" at the Irving Plaza, along with "Million Dollar Man", while drenched in purple lights. New York Times writer Bradley Sterns described Lana Del Rey's vocal style during the Irving Plaza performance as "lounge singer crooning". Along with "Million Dollar Man" and "Summertime Sadness", Del Rey also sang "Video Games", "Born to Die", "Lolita", and "Without You".

Miley Cyrus covered the song for BBC Radio1's Live Lounge.

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Cedric Gervais remix

In January 2013, a remix by Cedric Gervais was commissioned for the record label Universal Germany. However, the remix was initially turned down by Interscope and Polydor Records, Lana Del Rey's record labels in America and the UK, respectively, but was released on Spinnin' Records.  In the spring of 2013, the remix quickly surged to number one on Beatport, resulting in several radio programmers and DJs, such as Pete Tong, working the song into their radio station's rotation. BBC Radio 1  added the remix to its playlist, helping it to gain popularity around the world. Several Sirius XM radio stations began playing it, and Interscope decided to push at Top 40 radio in the United States. After positive feedback, Interscope agreed to release the remix.

Background
Hesitant to accept requests for remixes from other artists, Gervais immediately consented to assist Del Rey with remixing "Summertime Sadness". He said, "Lana Del Rey came in. I didn't even ask how much money [...] I wasn't thinking if it was going to be a hit or not, I just love and respect the artist that she is." Satisfied with the finished product, Del Rey's team commissioned Gervais to produce a mix version of "Young and Beautiful".

The decision to release the new version of "Summertime Sadness" on the DJ's primary label, Spinnin' Records, was made by Cedric's manager Luke Allen (Red Light Management) to expand the song's audience to Gervais' EDM fanbase. Allen grew and built the record from grassroots, but it wasn't until he invited Interscope A&R John Ehmann to a performance at the Electric Daisy Carnival in Las Vegas that the major label came on board after Ehmann heard 60,000 people singing along to the song. Months later, the house and Eurodance track was a sleeper hit, peaking at number 6 on Billboards Hot 100 chart. "In every country I'm going to, I hear my remix on the radio," the DJ commented on the song's success. "I started a long time ago in the business with the passion of being a DJ and all of the sudden I make a track like this I get even more excited and motivated." Becoming the most successful work of his career at the time, "Summertime Sadness" unlocked a plethora of opportunities for Gervais, including a contract for the release of a full-length album that features many high-profile dance singers, Rick Nowels (co-writer of "Summertime Sadness"s lyrics) assisting him.

Music video
Gervais' interpretation of "Summertime Sadness" received a video treatment. The majority of the video includes the same footage of the original version produced by Kyle Newman. Sam Lansky of Idolator described the remake as being "...stitched together with familiar glitchy footage of Lana in her conventional Tumblrwave style." Expanding, he said: "the euphoric house production contrasts with the melancholy aesthetic in that way that feels quintessentially Lana and, well, if nothing else, the track is straight fire." Further, Lansky remarked on the audio, stating: "The gloomy cut has received a proper single treatment" from Cedric Gervais who metamorphosed "Lana"s lachrymose original into a dancefloor stomper".

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Decade-end charts

Certifications

Track listing

German CD single
 "Summertime Sadness" (Radio Mix) – 4:12
 "Summertime Sadness" – 4:25

German remixes EP
 "Summertime Sadness" (Radio Mix) – 4:12
 "Summertime Sadness" – 4:25
 "Summertime Sadness" (Radio Mix, Extended Version) – 5:06
 "Summertime Sadness" (Hannes Fischer Nightflight Remix) – 6:41

German 12" remixes EP
 "Summertime Sadness" (Todd Terry Remix) – 6:35
 "Summertime Sadness" (Todd Terry Dub) – 5:37
 "Summertime Sadness" (Hannes Fischer Nightflight Remix) – 6:41
 "Summertime Sadness" (Marbert Rocel Remix) – 5:41

"Summertime Sadness" – Asadinho Remixes
 "Summertime Sadness" (Asadinho Main Vocal Mix) – 8:34
 "Summertime Sadness" (Asadinho Dub) – 7:45
 "Summertime Sadness" (Asadinho Instrumental) – 7:00

"Summertime Sadness" – Cedric Gervais Remix
 "Summertime Sadness" (Cedric Gervais Extended Remix) – 6:52
 "Summertime Sadness" (Cedric Gervais Remix) - 3:34

"Summertime Sadness" – Cedric Gervais Extended Remix
 "Summertime Sadness" (Cedric Gervais Remix) – 3:34
 "Summertime Sadness" (Cedric Gervais Extended Remix) - 6:52

"Summertime Sadness" – MK in the Air Remix
 "Summertime Sadness" (MK in the Air Remix) – 4:02

"Summertime Sadness" – Nick Warren Remixes
 "Summertime Sadness" (Nick Warren's Vocal Remix) – 10:34
 "Summertime Sadness" (Nick Warren's Skandik Dub) – 10:40
 "Summertime Sadness" (Nick Warren's Instrumental Remix) – 10:32

Credits and personnel
Credits for "Summertime Sadness" taken from Born to Die album liner.

 Lead vocals – Lana Del Rey
 Producers – Emile Haynie
 Co-producers  – Rick Nowels
 Lyrics – Lana Del Rey, Rick Nowels
 Label – Interscope Records
 Strings arranged and conduction – Larry Gold

 Flute – Dan Heath
 Additional strings, guitar, and keyboards – Patrick Warren
 Additional strings – Rick Nowels
 Additional pads – Devrim Karaoglu
 Mixer – Dan Grech Marguerat
 Assistant mixer – Duncan Fuller

Release history

Notes

References

External links

2010s ballads
2011 songs
2012 singles
Cedric Gervais songs
Eurodance songs
Grammy Award for Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical
Interscope Records singles
Lana Del Rey songs
Number-one singles in Poland
Pop ballads
Song recordings produced by Emile Haynie
Songs about heartache
Songs about loneliness
Songs about suicide
Songs written by Lana Del Rey
Songs written by Rick Nowels
Spinnin' Records singles
Torch songs
Trip hop songs

Summertime Sadness


Wofford Benjamin "Bill" Camp (1894–1986) was a USDA agronomist who played an instrumental role in the development of corporate farming, particularly of cotton, in California.

Camp was born in Cherokee County, South Carolina in 1894 and attended Clemson University, where he earned a degree in agronomy in 1916.  He took a job with the USDA Cotton Breeding Office and was transferred to California in 1917 to develop a long-staple cotton supply for the covering required by military aircraft during World War I. Camp became famous for developing the California cotton industry during and after the war.  In 1958, Camp was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Whittier College.

California Cotton

World War I
Soon after arriving at the USDA station at Shafter in Kern County, California, Camp began to experiment with 96 different varieties from different sources worldwide. He determined that Egyptian Pima cotton was the superior option and quickly developed widespread production, managing to generate successful crops within the year in 1917 and again in 1918.  When the war came to a close and removed the need for long-staple cotton for military aircraft, Camp succeeded in expanding the cotton industry in California under USDA auspices rather than scaling it back.

Postwar era
Soon after the end of the war, Camp switched California cotton cultivation to the Acala #8 variety and pushed for the mechanization of cotton ginning.  He used USDA money to bring James S. Townsend to California to adapt the cotton gin to the fine lint of Acala #8.  In 1924, he successfully pressed for a "one variety" law prohibiting the growth of other varieties of cotton in California's cotton-growing counties.  This development ensured that the Acala #8 plants would not be contaminated with other varieties and that the Shafter station (the originator of the variety) would remain dominant in the California cotton industry.

Great Depression
Having briefly left the USDA to work for the Bank of Italy in 1928, Camp returned in 1933  to oversee the cotton program in the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, part of the New Deal.  He encouraged the move away from fruit farming toward cotton across California and helped funnel federal aid to cotton growers (especially large growers).

Private grower
In 1936, Camp permanently left the USDA and founded W. B. Camp & Son in Kern County, a diversified farming operation.  Camp died in 1986 in Bakersfield, California.

References

External links
Wofford Benjamin Camp Papers at Clemson University's Special Collections Library Part IPart II Part III

American agronomists
1986 deaths
1894 births
People from Cherokee County, South Carolina
Clemson University alumni
United States Department of Agriculture people
20th-century agronomists

Wofford Benjamin Camp


Johann Ernst IV, Duke o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (22 August 1658 – 17 Februar 1729) was a duke o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.

Life
He wis a son o Ernst I, Duke o Saxe-Gotha an Princess Elisabeth Sophie o Saxe-Altenburg.

After the daith o his faither in 1675, Johann Ernest initially governed the duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, jointly with his six older brithers, as set out in their faither's will. However, in 1680, the brithers concluded a treaty dividing the paternal lands an Johann Ernst became duke o Saxe-Saalfeld, with the touns o Gräfenthal, Probstzella an Pössneck. As he wis the youngest, he kept the smallest portion o lands.

Johann Ernest an his brither Ernst soon found themselves financially overstretched as a result of the partition (the income o their eldest brither, Friedrich, far exceeded the income of Johann Ernest), an they both made a protest. Over the following years, the controversy continued and increased, as their aulder brithers Albert o Saxe-Coburg, Henry o Saxe-Römhild an Christian o Saxe-Eisenberg died without male heirs. During these years, Johann Ernst took possession o Coburg (in 1699), Römhild an 5/12 o Themar (in 1714).

The "Coburg-Eisenberg-Römhilder Erbstreit" was finally resolved (efter repeated intervention and arbitration bi the emperor) in 1735, six years after the daith o Johann Ernest. His descendants retained Coburg. The decision wis generally accepted, maist importantly bi the descendants o his aulder brither Bernhard, wha also haed a claim tae Coburg.

First mairiage
In Merseburg on 18 Februar 1680, Johann Ernst mairit firstly Princess Sophie Hedwig o Saxe-Merseburg, a dochter o Christian I, Duke o Saxe-Merseburg. They haed issue.

Issue

Princess Christiane Sophie o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (14 Juin 1681 –  3 Juin 1697).
 Stillborn dochter (6 Mey 1682)
 Christian Ernst, Duke o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (18 August 1683 – 4 September 1745)
 Princess Charlotte Wilhelmine o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (b. (4 Mey 1685 –  5 Aprile 1767), mairit Philipp Reinhard, Coont o Hanau-Münzenberg.
 Stillborn son (2 August 1686).

Seicont mairiage
In Maastricht on 2 December 1690 Johann Ernst mairit secondly Charlotte Johanna o Waldeck-Wildungen. They haed issue.

Issue
 Wilhelm Friedrich o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (16 August 1691 –  28 Julie 1720)
 Prince Karl Ernst o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (12 September 1692 –  30 December 1720)
 Sophie Wilhelmine o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (9 August 1693 –  4 December 1727), mairit Friedrich Anton, Prince o Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
 Princess Henriette Albertine o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (8 Julie 1694 – 1 Aprile 1695).
 Princess Luise Emilie o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (24 August 1695 – 21 August 1713).
 Charlotte (30 October 1696 – 2 November 1696).
 Franz Josias, Duke o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (25 September 1697 –  16 September 1764).
 Princess Henriette Albertine o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (20 November 1698 – 5 Februar 1728).

1658 births
1729 daiths
Fowk frae Gotha (toun)
Dukes o Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Dukes o Saxe-Saalfeld
Dukes o Saxe-Coburg


Patricio Rey y Sus Redonditos de Ricota were a rock band from Argentina. This band originated in La Plata in 1976. Direct descendant of The Brotherhood of the Solar Flower, originally had no name or fixed members, but about 15 musicians took turns on the instruments. The three pillars are: Indio Solari (vocals), Beilinson Skay (guitar) and Carmen Castro 'The Black Poly "(manager and alma mater) who could add Richard Cohen," Rocambole ", something like the director artistic group. Skay Diplodocum had integrated along with his brother William Beilinson, Topo D'Aloisio, Isa Portugheis and Bernardo Rubaja.

History
Although music was always an essential part of the shows by Patricio Rey in the first presentations in theaters in La Plata numbers were put on stage plays and ballet, while ricotta redonditos true distributed among the public.
By the '78 are presented in theaters under the Capital. Between 1979 and 1980 the band distance: Poly Skay and move to Mar del Plata and Indian Valeria del Mar. As the custom implies, at the end of the year gathered to play together.
In 1981 he resumed the course of the pubs to get professional recording their first demo in 1982: "Baby, baby," "Pontiac", "Superlógico" and "Pure luck" was recorded in RCA issues, encompassing important in the FM broadcast from Buenos Aires. At that time also had joined the band of choristers Bay Bisquits (Vivi Tellas, Faithfull Marianne and Elizabeth Sebastian). Also involved the journalist Henry Symms, reciting monologues and the introduction of the show.
Journalist Gloria Guerrero published back in December 1982: "A is impartial, is not siding with anyone, but sometimes it's impossible. The group that interested me in recent times does a recital and I want to know. And because it is very difficult to find out otherwise, as these delusional punks do not advertise a horn nothing to do. The news "run" and the theaters are filled "(G.Guerrero in Humor, December 1982).
In December 1984 they recorded "Gulp", the first plate, in studies of MIA, with Lito Vitale as an operator and a guest musician. The money for this independent production came from a common pool formed by a percentage of the profits from each show. Commercial distribution was handled by the Black Poly. "If a producer wants to take Patrick King recordings, or whatever, is investing an amount. And to recoup what it spent to Patrick King must sell in a way that has absolutely nothing to do with what Patrick King wants to do "(Poly, in G.Guerrero p 80). Later sign a contract with the Distriubuidora Belgrano. Almost 8 years of his birth, The Round began to be known widely, with songs like "love versus lethal Bluebeard," "The beast pop" or "Yum fri fruli fali fruit."
"Oktubre" (1986), the second plate, throw ends of the masses. The press agrees: "It is a great album that requires input adjectives unreasonably", publishes CantaRock. The major hits were "Semen-Up" and "October Fires".
In early 1988, Walter Avalos Sidotti replace the battery. D'Aviero also departs. In November, migrating is Crook (joins Grandparents of Nothingness) and its place is Sergio Dawi. By then, the Round were praised almost devoutly.
"An eye for baiao idiot" is the title of the third album (1988), "which more accurately reflects the group's sound," the Indian and containing a signature song for them and their audience, "Let the Bands" .
"That was my star luxury," "The pabellum of a psychopath" and "Hero of whiskey" are the issues that stand in the next LP, "Bang! Bang!'re Settled!" (1989). On December 29, 1989, ten days after completing two works, occur in the same field hockey club, before 25,000 fans, hitherto unpublished figure for them. The 90 years spent with constant presentations in discothèques and Sanitary Works stage. This changed in part the relationship between band and audience. Many felt that occur in works consisted of a "betrayal" of the principles of non-peaked always compromise.
In April 1991 recur in works. Police arrested 40 people, including Walter is Bulacio, who after spending hours locked in a dungeon and 5 days in a coma, died in the midst of contradictory statements. The cover is changed from "grave injury death" a "suspicious death", but the culprits do not appear, despite rallies of repudiation. Since then, a new little song is taken up by the public: "I knew, I knew, police Bulacio killed him."
By the end of that year, Patrick King is presented again in works with the new board: "The Fly and the soup" (1991), which takes into
"My dog dynamite" and "A little French love" their most important issues.
The live album "Live" (1992) is a kind of "official pirate" by the same Skay. Includes recordings of shows carefully selected and remastered in America.
The popularity of the band is confirmed again in two presentations at the Municipal Exhibition Center, where he premiered new songs to 40 000 people. Patrick King then decided to release a double album with 25 tracks, entitled "Wolf Loose" / "Lamb tied" (1993). For the first time in his career, the Round will encourage a football stadium, two consecutive nights in Hurricane, with 80,000 spectators in total, are evidence of the acceptance of the disc.
Tars long months of silence, he announced a presentation at the city of San Carlos santafecina in August '95. To date the show, the hotel capacity was fully saturated and hordes of fans were installed in tents on the outskirts of the city. Two shows in a nightclub with a capacity of 3000 people which was completely filled.
In late December 1998, were presented at the Round Stadium Racing, for the presentation of "Last bondi Finisterre," the ninth album. Two shows with over 45,000 people each year with closed Patricio Rey near the Federal Capital, as long ago you could not enjoy.
This highly anticipated show in the middle of Buenos Aires finally took place on 15 and 16 April 2000 in River. With some incidents in the vicinity of the stadium, about 140,000 fans attended an event described by the press as "historic."
A year later, the Round will be presented at the Estadio Centenario in Montevideo, the first of the band outside of Argentina. And the August 4, 2001, at the Estadio Chateau Carreras, Cordoba, was the last live performance of the band.
The show was followed several months of silence, until finally, Black Poly Skay and announced that "at least for a while," Patrick King would remain silent. Then Skay announced the launch of his first solo album, called "Through the Sargasso Sea" and the same path followed by the Indian

Discography

Argentine rock bands
Musical groups established in 1976
1976 establishments in South America
20th-century establishments in Argentina

Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota


The Four Seasons Centre for the Performing Arts is an opera house in Toronto, Canada.  It was opened on June 14, 2006.  It is home to the Canadian Opera Company and the National Ballet of Canada.  It is one of the world's most important opera houses.  It was designed by Jack Diamond.  Its construction uses a lot of new technological ideas.  It is in the center of Toronto.  People say that the acoustics are excellent (the music can be heard beautifully everywhere in the hall). The subway (underground train) runs just below the building, but inside the trains cannot be heard.

Opera houses
Buildings and structures in Toronto
2006 establishments in Canada


A cape can mean any outer piece of clothing that has no sleeves. However, it usually it is long and covers only the back half of the wearer, It fastens around the neck. Capes were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood. Capes have had periodic returns to fashion. Roman Catholic clergy wear a type of cape known as a ferraiolo, which is worn for formal events. Capes are often used as rain wear in various military units and police forces. In modern times, comic-book super-heroes, such as Superman and Batman, are often shown wearing capes.

Outerwear

Cape