Sport psychology means applying parts of psychology to sports and athletes. One of the main ways that sports psychologists use is to help athletes meet their goals. The main group of people that sports psychologists try to help are professional athletes. They can help non-professional athletes as well. Sports psychologists mainly focus on problems the athlete has on the field but they can also help athletes with problems that they have off the field. Sports psychology did not become a recognized area of study until recently, but it has been used in the past.

History

European history and the beginnings
Sports psychology began at the end of the nineteenth century in Europe. Sports and the body were now a more important part of people's lives. During the 1880s, more sports were a part of the lifestyle of the people. But, the word psychology was not used in connection with the word sport before the late 1890s. In 1899 and 1900, the phrase, psychology of sport, appeared in the titles of two journal articles. The first one was by Balduin Groller. It was published in two parts in 1899, in the journal Die Wage under the title "Zur Psychologie des Sportes" (translated About the Psychology of Sport). This article said that there were parts of psychology that had not been researched at that time, that could be connected to sports and physical activities. Then in May 1900, an essay by the founder of the modern Olympic movement, Pierre de Coubertin, was published. It was titled "Le Psychologie du Sport" (translated The Psychology of Sport).

In 1875, Pyotr Francevich Lesgaft started a system of physical education. Lesgaft was a Russian scientist who studied the human body. His aim was to promote harmony between the body and soul or mind. The method Lesgaft suggested was to learn conscious control of the body; being able to think about controlling the body and then actually doing it. Then in 1884-1885, Karoly Budinsky wrote an article called "About Gymnastic Activity and the Development of Will". The article was about how self-control and willpower could make the nervous system stronger through physical exercise.

Two scientists were at the beginning of European sport psychology: Angelo Mosso and Philippe Tissie. Angelo Mosso was an Italian who studied the human body. He was also interested in using science to study physical education, exercise, and sport. In his experiments, Mosso found that mental work causes weakness of the muscles. He also found that physical work causes weakness in mental performance. In 1894, Mosso conducted an experiment with his brother, Ugolino Mosso. He had ten Italian Mountain soldiers climb to the top of the mountain and live in a hut for ten days. He also had them perform physical exercises. There are two parts of his results that are related to sports psychology. The first one is called the pioneer effect. The pioneer effect is when in mountain climbing, the person who is leading the group will be more tired than all the others. The second is called the rivaling effect. The rivaling effect is when the soldiers, especially in periods of boredom, would begin to compete with each other in their weight lifting tests.  Philippe Tissie viewed sports as a way to treat mental disorders. He published several articles between 1894 and 1909. These articles talked about how sports could help people with mental disorders. He thought that a combination of sports, gymnastics, and psychology could help people with mental disorders. He also thought that playing in too many sports could cause people to have mental disorders and behavioral problems.

In 1896, a French doctor named Charles du Pasquier published an article about how sports could help people with depression. In 1900, Eduard Bertz said that sports could help people maintain a healthy body and soul or mind. Later in 1913, Toby Cohn believed sports was a way for people to develop self-confidence, emotional health, and goal orientation. In 1914, Bernhard Berliner conducted the first study on what effect sports and exercise had on the mind and psychology. In his study, he looked at children who exercised and played sports while at a camp. His study found that children who played sports and exercised were able to concentrate better.

The first sports psychology laboratory was opened in 1920 in Berlin, Germany by Carl Diem. That same year, a psychological lab was opened by Robert Werner Schulte at the Deutsche Hochschue fur Leibesubungen near Berlin. This was a college for physical education. The lab was used to study the natural ability that people had for doing good in sports.  Schulte also included sports psychology in his talks to students who took physical education. Then in 1921, he published his first book. This book was named Body and Mind in Sport. He then continued to go on to write many books about the topic of sport psychology. One of these books was called Aptitude and Performance Testing in Sport. The next development, in 1926, was the first psychoanalysis of what motivated people to want to play sports. This was done by Helene Deutsch. She found that playing in sports could help people with depression, anxiety and overcoming fears.

There were also major developments to the field of sports psychology that took place in Russia. In 1925, Russian sports psychologist Petr Antonovic Rudik did research on the development of skills and on reaction times. A reaction time is how quickly someone responds to something. In 1926, Alexander Netchayev did research on how perception, memory, imagination, and attention are influenced by sports and physical activities.

North American history
Sports psychology in North America began in the 1890s. E. W. Scripture began to study the reaction times of runners in his Yale lab. He also watched how athletes could be helped by experimental psychology. Experimental psychology uses experiments and science to study the brain and the mind. He also wrote papers about how sports affected who a person was. In his papers he argued that prisoners who participated in sports while in jail got a better attitude.

George Wells Fitz was also active in sports psychology at this time. Fitz created the first known physical education lab in North America. In 1895, Fitz ran an experiment. This experiment focused on studying the reaction times of people. He found one thing in his results: people who had quicker and more accurate reaction times would be better at sports.  Fitz was the first to run experiments on reaction times in North America.

The next major event in sports psychology was an idea known as transfer of training. Transfer of training happens when you exercise one arm or one side of the body to make it stronger and the other side also becomes stronger without having any exercise. This area was first studied by Walter Wells Davis in the late 1800s. Davis ran an experiment that involved having people lift weights with one arm and not the other. His results proved the theory of transfer of training. William G. Anderson also studied this concept. In his experiments he found that people who squeezed an object on one side of the body also got stronger on the opposite side of the body.

The next developments came from Norman Tripplett. Norman Tripplett worked at the University of Indiana as a psychologist. He conducted an experiment that focused on competition. This experiment started to connect sports and psychology. His experiment also began to combine them into one field. In 1897, Tripplett started his study. He focused on how the performance of one person is influenced by other people being around. In 1898, he wrote about his results in his article, "The Dynamogenic Factors Involved in Pace-making and Competition". His beliefs and findings were that cyclists were more likely to cycle faster when in the presence of a pacemaker or a competitor. People were more likely to cycle faster because the presence of another person caused them to put in more effort and use energy that they were not before. In 1898, Tripplett tried to confirm his predictions and beliefs he came up with during the cycling study by running an experiment in laboratory. This experiment consisted of people winding fishing line as fast as they could in order to move a flag around a course. The results of this experiment confirmed the results and predictions that were found in the cycling study.

In 1903, G.T.W Patrick studied the psychology of American football and why people loved the game so much.  Next in 1912, Howard wanted to discover why people became so emotional while watching sports. Then in 1915, Karl S. Lashley and John B. Watson started a study that focused on the learning curve of people in sports. A learning curve is how people learn the skills they need to in order to succeed in sports. The sport that they focused their study on was archery. The results of their study lead them to argue that when people were participating in harder tasks, like archery, they were more likely to work harder to complete the task.

Sportswriter Hugh S. Fullerton is involved in the next development in the history of sports psychology. Fullerton brought New York Yankees player Babe Ruth to a psychology laboratory at Columbia University. Fullerton brought Ruth there to participate in a study run by Albert Johanson and Joseph Holmes. He wanted Ruth to participate in the study because he wanted to find a reason for why Ruth hit so many home runs. He also wanted to prove to other baseball scouts whether or not other players like Ruth existed. The study that Ruth participated in was used to study sensory-motor performance. Sensory-motor performance is how things that we perceive with our senses influence our movements. The study involved measuring the power of Ruth's swing, his reaction time, his attention, his memory, and his motor skills. The results of this study offered a reason for why Ruth hit so many home runs. His skill for hitting home runs could be because on the tests his motor skills and reflexes scored above average. The next development that came regarded football. At Stanford University, B.C. Graves, a psychology graduate student, Walter Miles, a professor, and Glenn "Pop" Warner, a college football coach started an experiment. Their experiment studied reaction time. They ran their ran experiment so they could find the fastest way to get the offense to move together when the center hiked the ball. This led to the use of psychology as a way to gain an advantage over your opponent in a competition.

Coleman Griffith
Even though there were many developments to this field prior to this point, the most important did not come until the time of Coleman Griffith. Griffith was a professor at the University of Illinois. He is considered to be the father of sports psychology in North America. Griffith's first contribution was that he started a section in his introductory to psychology class that only athletes could take. Then in 1921, he gave the first public talk about psychology and athletics. In 1923, he started a special course focusing on psychology and sports. It was called Psychology and Athletics. The textbook that was used for this class was Griffith's third book, called Psychology of Coaching. Later in 1924, Griffith began meeting with Knute Rockne, who was a football coach at Notre Dame. He met with Rockne to explore how coaching was affected by psychology.

The next major contribution that Griffith made was in 1925, when he opened the first sports psychology lab in North America. This lab was only able to stay open for six years. After the closure of the laboratory, Griffith was contacted in 1937 by Philip Wrigley. Wrigley was the owner of the Major League Baseball team the Chicago Cubs. He contacted Griffith to offer him a job. Griffith accepted the job. He called the project Experimental Laboratories of the Chicago National League Ball Club. While with the Cubs, Griffith studied how psychological factors influenced performance. Based on the results of his research Griffith made recommendations to Wrigley. These recommendations included psychological clinics for the players, holding fielding practice, and having achievement tests to measure the athletes' basic skills.  However, Wrigley did not follow these recommendations but was still impressed by Griffith's work. Wrigley offered Griffith a full-time position as a sports psychologist in 1939. Griffith refused the job to stay with his family. After this Griffith did not conduct anymore major research in the area of sports psychology. Griffith was an important part of sport psychology's history. He was an important part because not only was he the first sports psychologist but he also opened the first laboratory in America that studied the relationship between sports and psychology.

Sports Psychology after Griffith: The 20th century
In the 1920s and 1930s, psychology was beginning to be taught at coaching schools. Some coaches used what they were learning about sports psychology while coaching their teams. Paul Brown was head coach of the Cincinnati Bengals. He began using psychological testing with his players. His tests eventually became known as the beginning of the National Football League's tests that are still used today. During the 1940s, psychology was starting to be used as a way for athletes to improve their performance. Psychology professor Dorothy Hazeltine Yates helped a boxer try to improve his skills through psychology; the boxer then went on to have the best fights of his career. Also during the 1940s, hypnosis was starting to be used to help athletes to relax. During the 1950s, David F. Tracy began using psychological methods to help players on the St. Louis Browns, a major league baseball team, now known as the Baltimore Orioles.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, sports were becoming more important to people. So, psychology of sports was more accepted because it helped athletes. Four things were important to expand the field of sports psychology. These were textbooks, graduate programs, associations, and journals. One of the main areas that was being studied during this time period was the affect stress had on athletes and their performance. In 1960, Warren R. Johnson continued the research he started in 1949. This research was about the effect stress had on an athlete. He continued this research by creating the first textbook on the topic. In 1961, Maxwell Howell started the first graduate school program in physical education. He did this at the University of Alberta in Canada. The creation of associations and journals was the next development of this time period. In 1967, the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity or (NASPSPA)was created. It was created by a group of sport psychologists led by Warren Johnson. One of the first things that this organization did was to start publishing the "Sport Psychology Bulletin". The "Sport Psychology Bulletin" included research reports and the writings of the members of the NASPSPA. Then in 1970, the "International Journal of Sport Psychology" was started. During the 1970s and 1980s, there were many associations and journals that were started. These were the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, the American Psychological Association's Division 47 of Exercise and Sport Psychology, the Sport Psychology Academy of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, the "Journal of Sports Psychology", the "Journal of Sport Science", the "Sport Psychologist", and the "Journal of Applied Sport Psychology". The next major developments involved the United States Olympic Committee. In 1978, they started a Sports Medicine Council that included sports psychologists. In 1985, they created the first registry or list of sports psychologists.

Modern sports psychology
Now there are two types of sports psychology, academic and applied. Academic sports psychology does the research. Applied sports psychology uses that research to teach coaches and trainers. There are three main areas of need in applied sports psychology. They are what kinds of certification, education, or licenses are necessary to practice applied sports psychology, the need to provide proper training for people who are studying applied sports psychology, and developing new ways to help athletes.

Today the number of sports psychologists that are being used by athletes is increasing. In fact, so many athletes are being helped by sports psychologists, that some organizations are starting to limit how many coaches can be on the field during a game. Many athletes are now using sports psychology as part of their everyday lives and training for games.

References

Sports
Branches of psychology

Sport psychology


The Lombards  were a Germanic people who ruled most of the Italian Peninsula from 568 to 774. They themselves thought that they had originally come from southern Scandinavia. In ancient times they had worshiped nature, but later the worshiped Odin. They grew long beards in honor of Odin and became known as "Longobards" which means "long beards".

In about 560 A.D., Audoin, who was their leader and a warrior, was succeeded by his son Alboin, a young and energetic leader. He defeated some neighboring tribes and then, in the spring of 568, Alboin led the Lombard migration into Italy. According to the History of the Lombards, "Then the Langobards, having left Pannonia, hastened to take possession of Italy with their wives and children and all their goods."

When they came to Italy, most of the Lombards still followed their old religion, but some were Arian Christians. Most of them later adopted Orthodox Christian views. In later years they fought with the Franks and later the Muslims. The Normans also fought with them between 1017 and 1078 A.D. As a result, Italy consisted of many small states until modern times.

References

Ethnic groups in Europe
Former countries in Europe
Germanic tribes
History of Germany
History of Italy
Lombardy

Lombards


Alfred Gregory FBIPP, FRPS (Hon) (12 February 1913 – 9 February 2010) was a British mountaineer, explorer and professional photographer. A member of the 1953 British Mount Everest Expedition that made the first ascent of Mount Everest, he was in charge of stills photography and, as a climbing member of the team, reached 28,000 feet (8,500 metres) in support of the successful Hillary-Tenzing assault on the summit.

Early life
Gregory was educated at Blackpool Grammar School. Before World War II he climbed extensively in the Lake District of England, Scotland and the Alps, and during the 1940s he led several new routes in Britain. During the war he was an officer in the Black Watch, serving in North Africa and Italy. In 1952 he joined Eric Shipton's Cho Oyu expedition and during the 1950s he led several expeditions to Rolwaling and the Gauri Sankar massif, where 19 peaks were climbed and a plane table survey was made, and to Ama Dablam, Distigil Sar, the Karakoram and the Cordillera Blanca in Peru.

Photography
For 20 years he worked freelance for Kodak UK, lecturing on photography and presenting his pictures to large audiences throughout Britain and Europe.

He spent a lifetime travelling on photographic assignments around the world and his pictures were regularly syndicated to 35 countries. Along with his wife Sue he produced many photojournalistic picture stories through the Tom Blau Camera Press News Agency in London. His work has been exhibited throughout Britain, France, Belgium, America, Africa, Poland and Australia.

In 2002 they held a joint exhibition at the 80 Gold Street Gallery, in Collingwood, Victoria, with photographs of 'Walls, Doors and Windows'.

Death
Gregory died "peacefully in his sleep" on 9 February 2010 in Emerald, Victoria, where he spent the last 15 years of his life with wife Suzanne. He was three days shy of his 97th birthday.

Publications
The Picture of Everest (1953)
Alfred Gregory's Everest (published for the 40th anniversary of the first ascent)
Blackpool: a Celebration of the 60s
Alfred Gregory: Photographs from Everest to Africa

References

External links
 Imagining Everest (The Royal Geographic Society)
 Extract from his book, Alfred Gregory: Photographs from Everest to Africa at Penguin
 Transcript of interview with Gregory from ABC's 7:30 Report
 Alf Gregory – Daily Telegraph obituary

1913 births
2010 deaths
Photographers from Lancashire
British mountain climbers
British explorers
British photojournalists
Black Watch officers
British Army personnel of World War II
British non-fiction writers
British emigrants to Australia

Alfred Gregory


A tram (tramcar, trolley, or streetcar) is a passenger vehicle that is like a light train. It carries people to places within a city. Because a single tram can carry many people at the same time, riding on a tram instead of driving a car is a good way to help prevent pollution and stop the roads getting too busy.

The word tram is used mainly outside North America, while within North America these vehicles are called streetcars or trolleys as they run mainly on streets.

More modern and larger trams manufactured since the 1970s, such as the one in the second picture from Warsaw, are called light rail vehicles.  These vehicles are bigger because they are very often made of two or more parts, with a bendy section in the middle which works like a human joint.  In railway jargon, these types of vehicles are called "articulated".  These may sometimes have their own right-of-way instead of traveling on the street and their stops are usually farther apart than the stops of trams so that they can travel faster.

On Market Street in San Francisco, vintage streetcars from the 1910s through the 1940s, called "historic streetcars" (the F Market line), that travel on the street are a popular tourist attraction.  Another city whose trams are highly used by tourists is Hong Kong, because here the trams have two floors which is very rare in the world.

The largest tram networks in the world are in: Melbourne, St. Petersburg, Amsterdam, Berlin, Moscow and Vienna.

History

Trams first came into use in the 1890s, when they replaced horsecars--streetcars drawn by horses.

In the 1910s to 1930s, in many metropolitan areas in North America, there were special bigger and longer streetcars that traveled long distances to distant suburbs on what were called interurban lines.  These streetcar lines sometimes had "dedicated tracks" with their own right-of-way (land surrounding the tracks) and made fewer local stops.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, in the United States, there was a conspiracy by Standard Oil, General Motors, and Firestone Rubber. They formed a company called National City Lines to buy streetcar systems, tear up the tracks, and replace them with buses in almost all the cities in North America.  They did this so they could make bigger profits by selling more oil, buses, cars and rubber tires.  Because of this, it was necessary to spend  hundreds of millions of dollars of public funds in the 1980s and 1990s to reconstruct the streetcar systems as light rail systems using light rail vehicles.  This conspiracy is somewhat referred to in the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit.

Related pages
 Light rail
 Rapid transit
 Subway
 Bus

References

Rolling stock

Tram


Southwark ( ) is the main part of the inner London Borough of Southwark. It is on the Thames, south of London Bridge. It is often called just 'The Borough'. Southwark was once a separate town in Surrey, and was made part of London in 1889.

Southwark has several important buildings: Southwark Cathedral, London Bridge station and the Tate Modern art gallery. Two Roman roads met in Southwark: Watling Street and Stane Street. The area was marshy with islands in Roman times. They built the first London Bridge here.

The word 'Southwark' is pronounced Suthuk.

References

London Borough of Southwark

Southwark


Studebaker was an American wagon and automobile manufacturer based in South Bend, Indiana, with a building at 1600 Broadway, Times Square, Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Founded in 1852 and incorporated in 1868 as the Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company, the firm was originally a coachbuilder, manufacturing wagons, buggies, carriages and harnesses.

Studebaker entered the automotive business in 1902 with electric vehicles and in 1904 with gasoline vehicles, all sold under the name "Studebaker Automobile Company". Until 1911, its automotive division operated in partnership with the Garford Company of Elyria, Ohio, and after 1909 with the E-M-F Company and with the Flanders Automobile Company. The first gasoline automobiles to be fully manufactured by Studebaker were marketed in August 1912. Over the next 50 years, the company established a reputation for quality, durability and reliability.

After an unsuccessful 1954 merger with Packard (the Studebaker-Packard Corporation) and failure to solve chronic postwar cashflow problems, the 'Studebaker Corporation' name was restored in 1962, but the South Bend plant ceased automobile production on December 20, 1963, and the last Studebaker automobile rolled off the Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, assembly line on March 17, 1966. Studebaker continued as an independent manufacturer before merging with Wagner Electric in May 1967 and then Worthington Corporation in November 1967 to form Studebaker-Worthington.

History

German forebears
The ancestors of the Studebaker family descend from Solingen, Germany. They arrived in America at the port of Philadelphia on September 1, 1736, on the ship Harle, (see Exhibit B) from Rotterdam, Netherlands, (see Exhibit A, p. 11), original manuscripts now in the Pennsylvania State Library at Harrisburg). This included Peter Studebaker and his wife Anna Margetha Studebaker, Clement Studebaker (Peter's brother) and his wife, Anna Catherina Studebaker and Heinrich Studebaker (Peter's cousin). (see Exhibit A, p. 11)
In 1918, Albert Russel Erskin, Studebaker Corporation president, wrote the book, "History of the Studebaker Corporation", including the 1918 annual report, "Written for the information of the 3,000 stockholders of the Studebaker Corporation, the 12,000 dealers in its products living throughout the world, its 15,000 employees and numberless friends." (see Exhibit A, p. 9) This book was verified by lawyers and accountants and all board members and was a legal document. (see Exhibit A, p. 7) In the same book, Albert Russel Erskin, accurately wrote that Peter Studebaker was the "wagon-maker, which trade later became the foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit A, p. 11)

"The tax list of York County, Pennsylvania in 1798–9 showed among the taxable were Peter Studebaker Sr. and Peter Studebaker Jr. wagon-makers, which trade later became the foundation of the family fortune and the corporation which now bears his name." (see Exhibit D) "John Studebaker, father of the five brothers [that began the Studebaker Corporation] was the son of Peter Studebaker. (see Exhibit A, p. 13). John Clement Studebaker (son of Clement Studebaker and Sarah Rensel) was born February 8, 1799, Westmorland, PA, and died in 1877 in South Bend, St. Joseph, IN. John Studebaker (1799–1877) moved to Ohio in 1835 with his wife Rebecca (née Mohler) (1802–1887).

The five brothers

The five sons were, in order of birth: Henry (1826–1895), Clement (1831–1901), John Mohler (1833–1917), Peter Everst (1836–1897) and Jacob Franklin (1844–1887). The boys had five sisters. Photographs of the brothers and their parents are reproduced in the 1918 company history, which was written by Erskine after he became president, in memory of John M., whose portrait appears on the front cover.

18th-century colonial family business
In 1740 Peter Studebaker built his home on a property known as "Bakers Lookout". (The home still stands in Hagerstown, Maryland.) The first Studebaker wagon factory was built in the same year next to the home. On Bakers Lookout Peter, master of the German Cutler Guild, built the first Studebaker home, the first Studebaker wagon factory where he began forging and tempering steel and seasoning wood in the colonies. Peter Studebaker built the first Studebaker mill and a wagon road. Broadfording Wagon Road was built to run through the property. Peter owned property on both sides of the Conococheague Creek, so he built a bridge over the creek in 1747. Peter began the family business on the Bakers Lookout property where he made his home and built the first Studebaker wagon factory. In this factory, Peter manufactured everything, all necessities including products he made in Solingen, Germany, and naturally wagons. Bakers Lookout, the 1740, 100-acre land patent, Hagerstown, Maryland, was the first of many land patents to be acquired by Peter Studebaker. Peter purchased approximately 1500 acres in what is now known as the state of Maryland. The home still stands today and is proof of the advanced technology of Peter Studebaker. (see Bakers Lookout Peter Studebakers 1740 home website)

In 1747 Peter Studebaker built a road through his owned properties known as Broadfording Wagon Road. The road he built carried heavy traffic to Bakers Lookout's wagon and forging services that were instrumental to expand the west. The Maryland Historical Trust WA-I-306 writes 04/03/2001, that this road was "One of Washington County's earliest thoroughfares, Broadfording (Wagon) Road was already in existence in 1747." (see Exhibit I) The wagon transportation industry boomed. On the property, Broadfording Wagon Road built in 1740 by Peter Studebaker, went directly through the property to allow access from the home to the factory and to the mill.

Although Peter Studebaker's life in the colonies was short, less than 18 years, the family business flourished through his descendants (see Exhibit M) and apprentices expanded the vast land holdings enlarging the Studebaker family business and its industrious wagon-making region. Peter's trade secrets were passed from father to son, generation to generation. The Studebaker family business plan, purchasing, again and again, vast amounts of land, on which they built industrious farms with mills and wagon making facilities and wagon selling facilities, each identical to the Bakers Lookout situation, industrious farms, much acreage, on which one finds the necessary resources, lumber, iron ore, oil shale and land selected with stream, spring, or river to hydropower factories, mills and equipment. Peter's technology-enabled expansion of the family business through the famous Conestoga and Prairie Schooner wagon designs. Peter's trade was the stepping-stone that expanded the transportation industry. Thomas E. Bonsall, wrote "Much more than the story of a family business; it is also, in microcosm, the story of the industrial development of America." Peter Studebaker died in the mid-1750s.

End of horse-drawn era
John M. Studebaker had always viewed the automobile as complementary to the horse-drawn wagon, pointing out that the expense of maintaining a car might be beyond the resources of a small farmer. In 1918, when Erskine's history of the firm was published, the annual capacity of the seven Studebaker plants was 100,000 automobiles, 75,000 horse-drawn vehicles, and about $10,000,000 worth of automobile and vehicle spare parts ($ in  dollars ). In the preceding seven years, 466,962 horse-drawn vehicles had been sold, as against 277,035 automobiles, but the trend was all too clear. The regular manufacture of horse-drawn vehicles ended when Erskine ordered the removal of the last wagon gear in 1919. To its range of cars, Studebaker would now add a truck line to replace the horse-drawn wagons. Buses, fire engines, and even small rail locomotive-kits were produced using the same powerful six-cylinder engines.

Studebaker automobiles 1897–1966

In the beginning

In 1895, John M. Studebaker's son-in-law Fred Fish urged for development of 'a practical horseless carriage'. When, on Peter Studebaker's death, Fish became chairman of the executive committee in 1897, the firm had an engineer working on a motor vehicle. At first, Studebaker opted for electric (battery-powered) over gasoline propulsion. While manufacturing its own Studebaker Electric vehicles from 1902 to 1911, the company entered into body-manufacturing and distribution agreements with two makers of gasoline-powered vehicles, Garford of Elyria, Ohio, and the Everitt-Metzger-Flanders (E-M-F) Company of Detroit and Walkerville, Ontario. Studebaker began making gasoline-engined cars in partnership with Garford in 1904.

Studebaker marque established in 1911

In 1910, it was decided to refinance and incorporate as the Studebaker Corporation, which was concluded on February 14, 1911, under New Jersey laws. The company discontinued making electric vehicles that same year. The financing was handled by Lehman Brothers and Goldman Sachs who provided board representatives including Henry Goldman whose contribution was especially esteemed.

After taking over E-M-F's Detroit facilities, Studebaker sought to remedy customer dissatisfaction complaints by paying mechanics to visit each disgruntled owner and replace defective parts in their vehicles, at a total cost of US$1 million ($ in  dollars ). The worst problem was rear-axle failure. Hendry comments that the frenzied testing resulted in Studebaker's aim to design 'for life'—and the consequent emergence of "a series of really rugged cars... the famous Big Six and Special Six" listed at $2,350 ($ in  dollars ). From that time, Studebaker's own marque was put on all new automobiles produced at the former E-M-F facilities as an assurance that the vehicles were well built.

In 1913, the company experienced the first major labor strike in the automotive industry, the 1913 Studebaker strike.

Engineering advances from WWI
The corporation benefited from enormous orders cabled by the British government at the outbreak of World War I. They included 3,000 transport wagons, 20,000 sets of artillery harness, 60,000 artillery saddles, and ambulances, as well as hundreds of cars purchased through the London office. Similar orders were received from the governments of France and Russia.

The 1913 six-cylinder models were the first cars to employ the important advancement of monobloc engine casting which became associated with a production-economy drive in the years of the war. At that time, a 28-year-old university graduate engineer, Fred M. Zeder, was appointed chief engineer. He was the first of a trio of brilliant technicians, with Owen R. Skelton and Carl Breer, who launched the successful 1918 models, and were known as "The Three Musketeers". They left in 1920 to form a consultancy, later to become the nucleus of Chrysler Engineering. The replacement chief engineer was Guy P. Henry, who introduced molybdenum steel, an improved clutch design, and presided over the six-cylinders-only policy favored by new president Albert Russel Erskine, who replaced Fred Fish in July 1915.

First auto proving ground
In 1925, the corporation's most successful distributor and dealer Paul G. Hoffman came to South Bend as vice president in charge of sales. In 1926, Studebaker became the first automobile manufacturer in the United States to open a controlled outdoor proving ground on which, in 1937, would be planted 5,000 pine trees in a pattern that spelled "STUDEBAKER" when viewed from the air. Also in 1926, the last of the Detroit plant was moved to South Bend under the control of Harold S Vance, vice president in charge of production and engineering. That year, a new small car, the Erskine Six was launched in Paris, resulting in 26,000 sales abroad and many more in America. By 1929, the sales list had been expanded to 50 models and business was so good that 90% of earnings were being paid out as dividends to shareholders in a highly competitive environment. However, the end of that year ushered in the Great Depression that resulted in many layoffs and massive national unemployment for several years.

Facilities in the 1920s

Studebaker's total plant area in Indiana was , spread over three locations, with buildings occupying 7.5 million square feet of floor space. Annual production capacity was 180,000 cars, requiring 23,000 employees.

The original South Bend vehicle plant continued to be used for small forgings, springs, and making some body parts. Separate buildings totaling over one million square feet were added in 1922–1923 for the Light, Special, and Big Six models. At any one time, 5,200 bodies were in process. South Bend's Plant 2 made chassis for the Light Six and had a foundry of , producing 600 tons of castings daily.

Plant 3 at Detroit made complete chassis for Special and Big Six models in over  of floor space and was located between Clark Avenue and Scotten Avenue south of Fort Street. Plant 5 was the service parts store and shipping facility, plus the executive offices of various technical departments. The Detroit facilities were moved to South Bend in 1926, except that the Piquette Avenue Plant (Plant 10) was retained for assembly of the Erskine between 1927 and 1929 and the Rockne (1931–1933).

Plant 7 was at Walkerville, Ontario, Canada, where complete cars were assembled from components that had been shipped from South Bend and Detroit factories or locally made in Canada, and is in close proximity to the current Ford Windsor Engine Factory. Output was designated for the Canadian (left-hand drive) and British Empire (right-hand drive) trade. By locating it there, Studebaker could advertise the cars as "British-built" and qualify for reduced tariffs. This manufacturing facility had been acquired from E-M-F in 1910 (see above). By 1929, it had been the subject of $1.25 million investment and was providing employment that supported 500 families.

Impact of the 1930s depression

Few industrialists were prepared for the Wall Street Crash of October 1929. Though Studebaker's production and sales had been booming, the market collapsed and plans were laid for a new, small, low-cost car—the Rockne. However, times were too bad to sell even inexpensive cars. Within a year, the firm was cutting wages and laying off workers. Company president Albert Russel Erskine maintained faith in the Rockne and rashly had the directors declare huge dividends in 1930 and 1931. He also acquired 95% of the White Motor Company's stock at an inflated price and in cash. By 1933, the banks were owed $6 million, ($ in  dollars ) though current assets exceeded that figure. On March 18, 1933, Studebaker entered receivership. Erskine was pushed out of the presidency in favor of more cost-conscious managers. Erskine committed suicide on July 1, 1933, leaving successors Harold Vance and Paul Hoffman to deal with the problems.

By December 1933, the company was back in profit with $5.75 million working capital and 224 new Studebaker dealers, while the purchase of White was cancelled. With the substantial aid of Lehman Brothers, full refinancing and reorganization was achieved on March 9, 1935. A new car was put on the drawing boards under chief engineer Delmar "Barney" Roos—the Champion. Its final styling was designed by Virgil Exner and Raymond Loewy. The Champion doubled the company's previous-year sales when it was introduced in 1939.

World War II
From the 1920s to the 1930s, the South Bend company had originated many style and engineering milestones, including the Light Four, Light Six, Special Six, Big Six models, the Dictator, the record-breaking Commander and President, followed by the 1939 Champion. During World War II, Studebaker produced the Studebaker US6 truck in great quantity and the unique M29 Weasel cargo and personnel carrier. Studebaker ranked 28th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts. An assembly plant in California, Studebaker Pacific Corporation, built engine assemblies and nacelles for B-17s and PV-2 Harpoons. After cessation of hostilities, Studebaker returned to building automobiles.

Post-WWII styling

Studebaker prepared well in advance for the anticipated postwar market and launched the slogan "First by far with a post-war car". This advertising premise was substantiated by Virgil Exner's designs, notably the 1947 Studebaker Starlight coupé, which introduced innovative styling features that influenced later cars, including the flatback "trunk" instead of the tapered look of the time, and a wrap-around rear window. For 1950 and 1951, the Champion and Commander adopted a polarizing appearance from Exner's concepts, and were applied to the 1950 Studebaker Starlight coupe. The new trunk design prompted a running joke that one could not tell if the car was coming or going, and appeared to be influenced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, particularly by the shortened fuselage with wrap around canopy. During the war the Studebaker Chippewa Factory was the primary location for aircraft engines used in the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and the marketing department attempted to evoke a reference to their contribution to the war effort.

Industry price war brings on crisis
Studebaker's strong postwar management team including president Paul G Hoffman and Roy Cole (vice president, engineering) had left by 1949 and was replaced by more cautious executives who failed to meet the competitive challenge brought on by Henry Ford II and his Whiz Kids. Massive discounting in a price war between Ford and General Motors, which began with Ford's massive increase in production in the spring of 1953—part of Ford's postwar expansion program aimed at restoring it to the position of the largest car maker which GM had held since 1931—could not be equalled by the independent carmakers, for whom the only hope was seen as a merger of Studebaker, Packard, Hudson, and Nash into a fourth giant combine after Chrysler. This had been unsuccessfully attempted by George W. Mason. In this scheme, Studebaker had the disadvantage that its South Bend location would make consolidation difficult. Its labor costs were also the highest in the industry.

Merger with Packard
Ballooning labor costs (the company had never had an official United Auto Workers (UAW) strike and Studebaker workers and retirees were among the highest paid in the industry), quality control issues, and the new-car sales war between Ford and General Motors in the early 1950s wrought havoc on Studebaker's balance sheet. Professional financial managers stressed short-term earnings rather than long-term vision. Momentum was sufficient to keep going for another 10 years, but stiff competition and price-cutting by the Big Three doomed the enterprise.

From 1950 Studebaker declined rapidly, and by 1954 was losing money. It negotiated a strategic takeover by Packard, a smaller but less financially troubled car manufacturer. However, the cash position was worse than it had led Packard to believe, and by 1956, the company (renamed Studebaker-Packard Corporation and under the guidance of CEO James J. Nance) was nearly bankrupt, though it continued to make and market both Studebaker and Packard cars until 1958. The "Packard" element was retained until 1962, when the name reverted to "Studebaker Corporation".

Contract with Curtiss-Wright
A three-year management contract was made by CEO Nance with aircraft maker Curtiss-Wright in 1956 with the aim of improving finances due to Studebaker's experience building aircraft engines during the war and military grade trucks. C-W's president, Roy T. Hurley, attempted to reduce labor costs. Under C-W's guidance, Studebaker-Packard also sold the old Detroit Packard plant and returned the then-new Packard plant on Conner Avenue (where Packard production had moved in 1954, at the same time Packard took its body-making operations in house after its longtime body supplier, Briggs Manufacturing Company, was acquired by Chrysler in late 1953) to its lessor, Chrysler. The company became the American importer for Mercedes-Benz, Auto Union, and DKW automobiles and many Studebaker dealers sold those brands, as well. C-W gained the use of idle car plants and tax relief on their aircraft profits while Studebaker-Packard received further working capital to continue car production.

Last automobiles produced
The automobiles that came after the diversification process began, including the redesigned compact Lark (1959) and the Avanti sports car (1962), were based on old chassis and engine designs. The Lark, in particular, was based on existing parts to the degree that it even used the central body section of the company's 1953–58 cars, but was a clever enough design to be popular in its first year, selling over 130,000 units and delivering a $28.6 million profit to the automaker ($ in  dollars ). "S-P rose from 56,920 units in 1958 to 153,844 in 1959."

However, Lark sales began to drop precipitously after the Big Three manufacturers introduced their own compact models in 1960, and the situation became critical once the so-called "senior compacts" debuted for 1961. The Lark had provided a temporary reprieve, but nothing proved enough to stop the financial bleeding.

A labor strike occurred at the South Bend plant starting on January 1, 1962, and lasting 38 days. The strike came to an end after an agreement was reached between company president Sherwood H. Egbert and Walter P. Reuther, president of the UAW. Despite a sales uptick in 1962, continuing media reports that Studebaker was about to leave the auto business became a self-fulfilling prophecy as buyers shied away from the company's products for fear of being stuck with an "orphan". NBC reporter Chet Huntley made a television program called "Studebaker – Fight for Survival" which aired on May 18, 1962. By 1963, all of the company's automobiles and trucks were selling poorly.

Exit from auto business

Closure of South Bend plant, 1963
After insufficient initial sales of the 1964 models and the ousting of president Sherwood Egbert, on December 9, 1963, the company announced the closure of the South Bend plant. The last Larks and Hawks were assembled on December 20, and the last Avanti was assembled on December 26. To fulfill government contracts, production of military trucks and Zip Vans for the United States Postal Service continued into early 1964. The engine foundry remained open until the union contract expired in May 1964. The supply of engines produced in the first half of 1964 supported Zip Van assembly until the government contract was fulfilled, and automobile production at the Canadian plant until the end of the 1964 model year. The Avanti model name, tooling, and plant space were sold off to Leo Newman and Nate Altman, a longtime South Bend Studebaker-Packard dealership. They revived the car in 1965 under the brand name "Avanti II". (See main article Avanti (car).) They likewise purchased the rights and tooling for Studebaker's trucks, along with the company's vast stock of parts and accessories. The plant, alongside Studebaker's General Products Division, was bought by Kaiser Jeep Corporation who used it to produce military vehicles. That unit formed the nucleus for what would later become AM General Corporation, which today is the world's largest producer of tactical wheeled vehicles. Nevertheless, as Newman and Altman decided not to progress with any Studebaker truck production, the tooling was then sold off again to Kaiser Jeep in late 1965, which continued producing parts for Studebaker trucks for a few more years. Some '1965' model Champ trucks were built in South America using completely knocked-down kits and left-over parts. These models used a different grille from all previous Champ models.

The closure of the South Bend plant hit the community particularly hard, since Studebaker was the largest employer in St. Joseph County, Indiana. Nearly a quarter of the South Bend work force was African-American.

Closure of Hamilton plant, 1966

Limited automotive production was consolidated at the company's last remaining production facility in Hamilton, Ontario, which had always been profitable and where Studebaker produced cars until March 1966 under the leadership of Gordon Grundy. It was projected that the Canadian operation could break even on production of about 20,000 cars a year, and Studebaker's announced goal was 30,000–40,000 1965 models. While 1965 production was just shy of the 20,000 figure, the company's directors felt that the small profits were not enough to justify continued investment. Rejecting Grundy's request for funds to tool up for 1967 models, Studebaker left the automobile business on March 17, 1966, after an announcement on March 4. A turquoise and white Cruiser sedan was the last of fewer than 9,000 1966 models manufactured (of which 2,045 were built in the 1966 calendar year). In reality, the move to Canada had been a tactic by which production could be slowly wound down and remaining dealer franchise obligations honored. The 1965 and 1966 Studebaker cars used "McKinnon" engines sourced from General Motors Canada Limited, which were based on Chevrolet's 230-cubic-inch six-cylinder and 283 cubic-inch V8 engines when Studebaker-built engines were no longer available.

The closure adversely affected not only the plant's 700 employees, who had developed a sense of collegiality around group benefits such as employee parties and day trips, but the city of Hamilton as a whole; Studebaker had been Hamilton's 10th-largest employer.

Potential link with Nissan and Toyota
In 1965, Gordon Grundy of Studebaker Canada was sent by Studebaker management to Japan to investigate potential links with Nissan and Toyota, to sell their vehicles badged as Studebakers. While Grundy was negotiating with Nissan to possibly import the Nissan Cedric, the Studebaker board found out about the Toyota Century, which was not introduced until November 1967, and then the attorney representing the board, former United States Vice President Richard Nixon, asked Grundy to contact Toyota, as well. Toyota was insulted at being Studebaker's second choice, and when word got out to Nissan that Grundy was also speaking with Toyota executives, Nissan ended negotiations, leaving Grundy empty-handed.

Network and other assets
Many of Studebaker's dealers either closed, took on other automakers' product lines, or converted to Mercedes-Benz dealerships following the closure of the Canadian plant. Studebaker's General Products Division, which built vehicles to fulfill defense contracts, was acquired by Kaiser Industries, which built military and postal vehicles in South Bend. In 1970, American Motors (AMC) purchased the division, which still exists today as AM General.

The grove of 5,000 trees planted on the proving grounds in 1937, spelling out the Studebaker name, still stands and has proven to be a popular topic on such satellite photography sites as Google Earth. The proving grounds were acquired by Bendix in 1966 and Bosch in 1996. After Bosch closed its South Bend operation in 2011, a part of the proving ground was retained and, , has been restored to use under the name "New Carlisle Test Facility".

For many years a rumor persisted of the existence of a Studebaker graveyard. The rumor was later confirmed to be true when the remains of many prototype automobiles and a few trucks were discovered at a remote, heavily wooded site bounded by the proving grounds' high-speed oval. Most of the prototypes were left to rot in direct contact with the ground and full exposure to the weather and falling trees. Attempts to remove some of these rusting bodies resulted in the bodies crumbling under their own weight as they were moved, so now they exist only in photographs.

However, there were a few notable exceptions. A few of the prototypes were rescued. The only example of a never-produced 1947 Champion wood-sided station wagon was restored and is on display at the Studebaker National Museum.

Another prototype initially slated for disposal at the proving grounds escaped the fate of the others. In late 1952 Studebaker produced one 1953 Commander convertible as an engineering study to determine if the model could be profitably mass-produced. The car was based on the 1953 2-door hardtop coupe. The car was later modified to 1954-model specifications, and was occasionally driven around South Bend by engineers. Additional structural reinforcements were needed to reduce body flexure. Even though the car was equipped with the 232 cu. in. V-8, the added structural weight increased the car's 0-60 mph acceleration time to an unacceptable level. In addition, the company did not have the financial resources to add another body type to the model line. The company's leadership mistakenly thought the 2-door sedans, 4-door sedans, and 1954 Conestoga wagon would sell better than the 2-door coupes, so the company's resources were focused on production of the sedans and the wagon. When the prototype convertible was no longer needed, engineer E. T. Reynolds ordered the car to be stripped and the body sent to the secret graveyard at the proving grounds. A non-engineering employee requested permission to purchase the complete car, rather than see it rot away with the other prototypes. Chief engineer Gene Hardig discussed the request with E. T. Reynolds. They agreed to let the employee purchase the car on the condition that the employee never sell it. In the 1970s, the car was re-discovered behind a South Bend gas station and no longer owned by the former employee. After eventually passing through several owners, the car is now in a private collection of Studebaker automobiles.

In May 1967, Studebaker and its diversified units were merged with Wagner Electric. In November 1967, Studebaker was merged with the Worthington Corporation to form Studebaker-Worthington. The Studebaker name disappeared from the American business scene in 1979, when McGraw-Edison acquired Studebaker-Worthington, except for the still existing Studebaker Leasing, based in Jericho, NY. McGraw-Edison was itself purchased in 1985 by Cooper Industries, which sold off its auto-parts divisions to Federal-Mogul some years later. As detailed above, some vehicles were assembled from left-over parts and identified as Studebakers by the purchasers of the Avanti brand and surplus material from Studebaker at South Bend.

Diversified activities
By the early 1960s, Studebaker had begun to diversify away from automobiles. Numerous companies were purchased, bringing Studebaker into such diverse fields as the manufacture of tire studs and missile components.

The company's 1963 annual report listed the following divisions:

 Clarke – Floor Machine Division, Muskegon, Michigan
 CTL – Missile/Space Technology Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
 Franklin – Appliance Division, Minneapolis, Minnesota (home office; other locations also in Minnesota, Iowa, and Ontario). Manufactured private label kitchen and laundry appliances for major retailers until it was sold to White Consolidated Industries.
 Gravely Tractor – Tractors Division, Dunbar, West Virginia, and Albany, Georgia
 International – South Bend, Indiana (handled business matters for all divisions doing business overseas)
 Onan – Engine/Generator Division, Minneapolis, Minnesota
 Paxton Automotive – automobile superchargers
 STP – Chemical Compounds Division, Des Plaines, Illinois, and Santa Monica, California. Produced automotive engine additives.
 Schaefer – Commercial Refrigeration Division, Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Aberdeen, Maryland
 Studebaker of Canada – Automotive Manufacturing, Hamilton, Ontario
 SASCO – Studebaker Automotive Sales Corp., South Bend, Indiana.
 Studegrip – Tire Stud Division, South Bend, Indiana, Jefferson, Iowa, and Minneapolis, Minnesota
 Trans International Airlines – founded by Kirk Kerkorian

Having built the Wright R-1820 under license during World War II, Studebaker also attempted to build what would perhaps have been the largest aircraft piston engine ever built. With 24 cylinders in an "H" configuration, a bore of  and stroke of , displacement would have been , hence the H-9350 designation. It was not completed.

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Studebaker factories

South Bend, Indiana

Downtown location
635 S. Lafayette Blvd., South Bend, IN
manufactured conestoga wagons, horse-drawn carriages, electric cars, automobiles

Clement and Henry Studebaker Jr., became blacksmiths and foundrymen in South Bend, Indiana, in February 1852. They first made metal parts for freight wagons and later expanded into the manufacture of complete wagons. At this time, John M. was making wheelbarrows in Placerville, California. The site of his business is California Historic Landmark #142 at 543 Main St, Placerville.

The first major expansion in Henry and Clem's South Bend business came from their being in the right place to meet the needs of the California Gold Rush that began in 1849. From his wheelbarrow enterprise at Placerville, John M. had amassed $8,000 ($ in  dollars ). In April 1858, he quit and moved out to apply this to financing the vehicle manufacturing of H & C Studebaker, which was already booming because of an order to build wagons for the US Army. In 1857, they had also built their first carriage—"Fancy, hand-worked iron trim, the kind of courting buggy any boy and girl would be proud to be seen in".

That was when John M. bought out Henry's share of the business. Henry was deeply religious and had qualms about building military equipment. The Studebakers were Dunkard Brethren, conservative German Baptists, a religion that viewed war as evil. Longstreet's official company history simply says, "Henry was tired of the business. He wanted to farm. The risks of expanding were not for him". Expansion continued from manufacture of wagons for westward migration, as well as for farming and general transportation. During the height of westward migration and wagon train pioneering, half of the wagons used were Studebakers. They made about a quarter of them, and manufactured the metal fittings for other builders in Missouri for another quarter-century.

The fourth brother, Peter E, was running a successful general store in Goshen, Indiana, which was expanded in 1860 to include a wagon distribution outlet. A major leap forward came from supplying wagons for the Union Army in the Civil War (1861–1865). By 1868, annual sales had reached $350,000 ($ in  dollars ). That year, the three older brothers formed the Studebaker Brothers Manufacturing Company—Clem (president), Peter (secretary), and John M. (treasurer). By this time, the factory had a spur line to the Lake Shore railroad and, with the Union Pacific Railroad finished, most wagons were now dispatched by rail and steamship.

World's largest vehicle house

In 1875, the youngest brother, 30-year-old Jacob, was brought into the company to take charge of the carriage factory, making sulkies and five-glass landaus. Following a great fire in 1874, which destroyed two-thirds of the entire works, they had rebuilt in solid brick, covering  and were now "The largest vehicle house in the world". Customers could choose from Studebaker sulkies, broughams, clarences, phaetons, runabouts, victorias, and tandems. For $20,000, a four-in-hand for up to a dozen passengers, with red wheels, gold-plated lamps, and yellow trim, could be had.

In the 1880s, roads started to be surfaced with tar, gravel, and wooden blocks. In 1884, when times were hard, Jacob opened a carriage sales and service operation in a fine new Studebaker Building on Michigan Avenue, Chicago. The two granite columns at the main entrance,  in diameter and  high, were said to be the largest polished monolithic shafts in the country. Three years later, Jacob died, the first death among the brothers.

In 1889, incoming President Harrison ordered a full set of Studebaker carriages and harnesses for the White House. As the 20th century approached, the South Bend plant "covered nearly  with 20 big boilers, 16 dynamos, 16 large stationary engines, 1000 pulleys, 600 wood- and iron-working machines,  of belting, dozens of steam pumps, and 500 arc and incandescent lamps making white light over all". The worldwide economic depression of 1893 caused a dramatic pause in sales and the plant closed down for five weeks, but industrial relations were good and the organized workforce declared faith in their employer. Studebaker would end the nineteenth century as the largest buggy and wagon works in the world, and by 1900, with around 3,000 workers, the plant in South Bend was producing over 100,000 horse-drawn vehicles of all types yearly.

The wagons pulled by the Budweiser Clydesdales are Studebaker wagons modified to carry beer, originally manufactured circa 1900.

Family association continues
The five brothers died between 1887 and 1917 (John Mohler was the last to die). Their sons and sons-in-law remained active in the management, most notably lawyer Fred Fish after his marriage to John M's daughter Grace in 1891. "Col. George M Studebaker, Clement Studebaker Jr, J M Studebaker Jr, and [Fred Sr's son] Frederick Studebaker Fish served apprenticeships in different departments and rose to important official positions, with membership on the board." Erskine adds sons-in-law Nelson J Riley, Charles A Carlisle, H D Johnson, and William R Innis.

Chippewa Factory
701 W Chippewa Ave, South Bend, IN

Due to the war effort, and the capacity of the Downtown Facility was dedicated to Studebaker US6 truck and M29 Weasel production, the Chippewa Factory was built south of the city to initially manufacture Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone aircraft engines to be installed in the North American B-25 Mitchell. Construction began January 1941 and completed in June 1942. Due to logistics challenges, the initial order was cancelled and Studebaker was asked to build Wright R-1820 Cyclone aircraft engines instead. Retooling of the factory commenced and by January 1944 was the exclusive location of the Wright R-1820 installed in the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress.

After the war ended, the factory was idled until the Korean War began, and the M35 series 2½-ton 6×6 cargo truck resumed in 1950, and the M54 5-ton 6x6 truck was also manufactured at this location. Ownership of the factory changed hands a few times, but the M35 and M54 stayed in production until they were replaced by the FMTV in 1989.

Chicago, Illinois
5555 S. Archer Ave, Chicago, IL

During World War II, the plant produced aircraft engines for the B-17 Flying Fortress starting in January 1944 until the August 9, 1945 announcement for the building sale. Studebaker built 63,789 engines at the plant and each had nearly 8,000 finished parts. The aircraft were equipped with engines known as the Studebaker-built R-1820. The plant's main building, just west of Midway Airport, contained 782,988 square feet and sat on a 50-acre site. Although, engine items were fabricated and produced in the Chicago plant, they were sent to South Bend, Indiana for final assembly. The plant was acquired by Western Electric to produce telephones that were already in backlog orders because of their war efforts.

Detroit, Michigan
4333 W Fort St, Detroit, MI461 Piquette Street, Detroit, MI6230 John R St, Detroit, MI (E-M-F)
 Manufactured automobiles

E-M-F and Flanders
Studebaker's agreement with the E-M-F Company, made in September 1908, was a different relationship, one John Studebaker had hoped would give Studebaker a quality product without the entanglements found in the Garford relationship, but this was not to be. Under the terms of the agreement, E-M-F would manufacture vehicles and Studebaker would distribute them exclusively through its wagon dealers.

The E-M-F gasoline-powered cars proved disastrously unreliable, causing wags to say that E-M-F stood for Every Morning Fix-it, Easy Mark's Favorite, and the like. Compounding the problems was the infighting between E-M-F's principal partners, Everitt, Flanders, and Metzger. Eventually in mid-1909, Everitt and Metzger left to start a new enterprise. Flanders also quit and joined them in 1912, but the Metzger Motor Car Co could not be saved from failure by renaming it the Flanders Automobile Company.

Studebaker's president, Fred Fish, had purchased one-third of the E-M-F stock in 1908 and followed up by acquiring all the remainder from J.P. Morgan & Co. in 1910 and buying E-M-F's manufacturing plants at Walkerville, Ontario, Canada, and across the river in Detroit. The former Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, located across Brush Street from the old E-M-F plant in the Milwaukee Junction area of Detroit, was purchased from Ford in January 1911 to become Studebaker Plant 10, used for assembly work until 1933.

E-M-F was bought out by Studebaker, which formed Studebaker Canada. This was followed by rebadging E-M-F's products: the E-M-F as the Studebaker 30, the Flanders as the Studebaker 20 Sales of these rebadged models continued through the end of 1912.

Elyria, Ohio (Studebaker-Garford)
400 Clark St, Elyria, OH
Manufactured automobiles

Garford

Under the agreement with Studebaker, Garford would receive completed chassis and drivetrains from Ohio and then mate them with Studebaker-built bodies, which were sold under the Studebaker-Garford brand name at premium prices. Prices listed for the Model G were $3,700 to $5,000 based on the body style used, equal to ($ in  dollars ) to ($ in  dollars ). Eventually, vehicles with Garford-built engines began to carry the Studebaker name. Garford also built cars under its own name, and by 1907, attempted to increase production at the expense of Studebaker. Once the Studebakers discovered this, John Mohler Studebaker enforced a primacy clause, forcing Garford back on to the scheduled production quotas. The decision to drop the Garford name was made and the final product rolled off the assembly line by 1911, leaving Garford alone until it was acquired by John North Willys in 1913.

Vernon, California

4530 Loma Vista Ave, Vernon, CA
Manufactured automobiles

In 1938, the company built an assembly location at 4530 Loma Vista Avenue in Vernon, California, which remained in production until 1956. At one time, the facility was averaging 65 cars a day assembled from knock-down kits shipped by rail from the factory in South Bend, Indiana. The factory manufactured the Champion, the Land Cruiser, and the Starlight. During the war, the factory was in close proximity to Douglas Aircraft and Lockheed Aircraft and built engine assemblies and nacelles for B-17s and PV-2 Harpoons.

Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

391 Victoria Ave N, Hamilton, ON L8L 5G7
Manufactured automobiles

On August 18, 1948, surrounded by more than 400 employees and a battery of reporters, the first vehicle, a blue Champion four-door sedan, rolled off of the Studebaker assembly line in Hamilton, Ontario. The company was located in the former Otis-Fenson military weapons factory off Burlington Street on Victoria Avenue North, which was built in 1941. Having previously operated its British Empire export assembly plant at Walkerville, Ontario, Studebaker settled on Hamilton as a postwar Canadian manufacturing site because of the city's proximity to the Canadian steel industry.

Studebaker manufactured cars in Hamilton from 1948 to 1966. After the South Bend plant shut, Hamilton was Studebaker's sole factory. Studebaker briefly manufactured cars in Windsor, Ontario, from 1912 to 1936.

Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Studebakers were assembled in Melbourne in RHD configuration from CKD kits manufactured at Hamilton, Ontario, Canada beginning in 1960. The first location was the Canada Cycle and Car Company in the neighborhood of Tottenham, which assembled Studebaker Lark sedans and station wagons, the Studebaker Champ pickup truck and the Studebaker Silver Hawk. In 1964, after the South Bend, Indiana factory closed, Australian assembly was handed off to Continental & General's factory in West Heidelberg until 1968 when the last car was built. When the factory ceased operations Renault products were brought in to replace them. Previously, Studebakers were exported to Australia fully assembled beginning in 1948 in limited numbers.

Studebaker had a long history of selling products in Australia, starting in the 1880s when horse-drawn wagons and carts were imported from the South Bend, Indiana factory, and as the company transitioned to automobiles, they were also brought in.

Legacy
While Studebaker closed fully its automotive sector in 1969, the company still left a big legacy behind it among classic car enthusiasts. The Studebaker US6 truck was the basis for the legendary GAZ-51 Soviet truck that was produced in the Soviet Union until 1975, nearly a decade after Studebaker had closed, and proceeded to form the basis for all GAZ trucks later, such as the GAZ-53, GAZ-3307 and 3309 and the GAZon Next.

The designers of the 1993 Dodge Ram stated that the Studebaker E series pickup was their main inspiration for the design.

Spectra Merchandising International, Inc. produces a number of "retro" styled audio equipment under the brand name "Studebaker."

Products

Studebaker automobile models

Studebaker Electric (1902–1912)
Studebaker-Garford (1904–1911)
Studebaker Six monobloc-engine models (1911–1918)
Studebaker Light Four (1918–1920)
Studebaker Big Six (1918–1927)
Studebaker Special Six (1918–1927)
Studebaker Light Six (includes Standard Six model) (1918–1927)
Studebaker Commander (1927–1935, 1937–1958, 1964–1966)
Studebaker President (1928–1942, 1955–1958)
Studebaker Dictator/Director (1927–1937)
Studebaker Champion (1939–1958)
Studebaker Land Cruiser (1934–1954)
Studebaker Conestoga (1954–1955)
Studebaker Speedster (1955)
Studebaker Scotsman (1957–1958)
Hawk series:
Studebaker Golden Hawk (1956–1958)
Studebaker Silver Hawk (1957–1959)
Studebaker Sky Hawk (1956)
Studebaker Flight Hawk (1956)
Studebaker Power Hawk (1956)
Studebaker Hawk (1960–1961)
Studebaker Gran Turismo Hawk (1962–1964)
Studebaker Lark (1959–1966) (Includes the Lark-based 1964–66 Cruiser, Daytona, Commander, and Challenger)
Studebaker Avanti (1962–1964)
Studebaker Wagonaire (1963–1966)

Studebaker trucks

Studebaker GN series (1929–1930)
Studebaker S series (1930–1934)
Studebaker T series (1934–1936)
Studebaker W series (1934–1936)
Studebaker J series (1937)
Studebaker Coupe Express (1937–1939)
Studebaker K series (1938–1940)
Studebaker M series (1941–1942, 1945, 1946–1948)
Studebaker US6 (1941–1945)
Studebaker M29 Weasel (1942–1945)
Studebaker 2R Series (1949–1953)
Studebaker 3R Series (1954)
Studebaker E series (1955–1964)
Studebaker Transtar (1956–1958, 1960–1964)
Studebaker Champ (1960–1964)
Studebaker Zip Van (1964)
M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck (1950s through 1964)

Studebaker body styles
Studebaker Starlight (1947–1955, 1958)
Studebaker Starliner
Coupe Express

Affiliated automobile marques

Tincher: An early independent builder of luxury cars financed by Studebaker investment, 1903–1909
Studebaker-Garford: Studebaker-bodied cars, 1904–1911
E-M-F: Independent auto manufacturer that marketed cars through Studebaker wagon dealers, 1909–1912
Erskine: Brand of automobile produced by Studebaker, 1926–1930
Pierce-Arrow: owned by Studebaker 1928–1934
Rockne: Brand of automobile produced by Studebaker, 1932–1933
Packard: 1954 merger partner of Studebaker
Mercedes-Benz: Distributed through Studebaker dealers, 1958–1966

See also

Automotive industry
Charles Brady King
List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers
South Bend Watch Company (maker of Studebaker watches)
Studebaker Canada Ltd.
Studebaker National Museum
Story Monument
The Three Musketeers (Studebaker engineers)
Turning Wheels magazine
Tippecanoe Place

Notes

References
 Bonsall, Thomas E More Than They Promised: The Studebaker Story Stanford University Press (2000)
 Erskine, A R History of the Studebaker Corporation, South Bend (1918) (via – Google Books)
 Foster, Patrick Studebaker: America's Most Successful Independent Automaker Motorbooks
 Grist, Peter Virgil Exner: Visioneer: The official biography of Virgil M. Exner, designer extraordinaire Veloce, US
 Longstreet, Stephen A Century on Wheels: The Story of Studebaker, A History, 1852–1952, New York: Henry Holt and Co (1952)

Further reading
 Bodnar, John. "Power and memory in oral history: Workers and managers at Studebaker." Journal of American History 75.4 (1989): 1201-1221. .
  National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. (The heritage research includes details of the early history of the firm at South Bend.)
 Severson A. Lark and Super Lark: The Last Days of Studebaker at Ate Up With Motor October 17, 2009

External links

 Collection of mid-twentieth-century advertising featuring Studebaker automobiles from The TJS Labs Gallery of Graphic Design.
 1963 model range at RitzSite
 The Studebaker Drivers Club

1852 establishments in Indiana
1900s cars
1910s cars
1920s cars
1930s cars
1940s cars
1950s cars
1960s cars
American companies disestablished in 1967
American companies established in 1852
Brass Era vehicles
Car brands
Coachbuilders of the United States
Companies based in St. Joseph County, Indiana
Defunct brands
Defunct companies based in Indiana
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
History of Hamilton, Ontario
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
South Bend, Indiana
Truck manufacturers of the United States
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1967
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1852
Vintage vehicles

Studebaker


Data science is the study of the extraction of knowledge from data. It uses various techniques from many fields, including signal processing, mathematics, probability, machine learning, computer programming, statistics, data engineering, pattern matching, and data visualization, with the goal of extracting useful knowledge from the data. With computer systems able to handle more data, big data is an important aspect of data science.

A person that does data science is called a data scientist. Data scientists solve complicated data problems using mathematics, statistics and computer science, although very good skill in these subjects are not required. However, a data scientist is most likely to be an expert in only one or two of these disciplines, meaning that cross disciplinary teams can be a key component of data science.

Good data scientists are able to apply their skills to achieve many kinds of purposes. Their skills and competencies vary widely.

References

Data science


A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.

A cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called cubic.
Surface area of cube=6l^2
Lateral Surface area of cube=4l^2
Volume of cube=l^3

Relative 2-dimensional shape
The basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.
The 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles.  A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes.

Volume
 The volume of a cube is the length of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) cubed.
 This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again.
 If the edge is named 'd' (See Diagram), the equation would be this: Volume=d×d×d (or Volume=d3).

Cube-shaped figures
 Dice
 Boxes

Platonic solids

Cube


Ela Ramesh Bhatt (7 September 1933 – 2 November 2022) was an Indian cooperative organiser, activist and Gandhian, who founded the Self-Employed Women's Association of India (SEWA) in 1972, and served as its general secretary from 1972 to 1996. She was the chancellor of the Gujarat Vidyapith from 7 March 2015 to 19 October 2022. A lawyer by training, Bhatt was a part of the international labour, cooperative, women, and micro-finance movements and won several national and international awards, including the Ramon Magsaysay Award (1977), Right Livelihood Award (1984) for "helping home-based producers to organise for their welfare and self-respect" and the Padma Bhushan (1986).

Early life and background
Bhatt was born at Ahmedabad in India. Her father, Sumantrai Bhatt, was a successful lawyer, while her mother, Vanalila Vyas, was active in the women's movement and also remained secretary of All India Women's Conference, which in turn was founded by Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay.

The middle child of three sisters, her childhood was spent in Surat, where she attended the Sarvajanik Girls High School from 1940 to 1948. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the M.T.B. College (South Gujarat University) in Surat in 1952. Following graduation, she entered L.A. Shah Law College in Ahmedabad. In 1954, she received her degree in law and a gold medal for her work on Hindu law.

Career
Bhatt started her career teaching English for a short time at SNDT Women's University, better known as SNDT, in Mumbai. In 1955 she joined the legal department of the Textile Labour Association (TLA), India's oldest unions for textile workers, in Ahmedabad.

TLA and SEWA
In 1956, Ela Bhatt married Ramesh Bhatt (now deceased). After working for sometime with the Gujarat government, Ela was asked by the TLA to head its women's wing in 1968. She went to Israel where she studied at the Afro-Asian Institute of Labour and Cooperatives in Tel Aviv for three months, receiving the International Diploma of Labor and Cooperatives in 1971. She was very much aware that thousands of female textile workers worked elsewhere to supplement the family income, but state laws protected only industrial workers and not these self-employed women.

With the co-operation of Arvind Buch, then-president of the TLA, she undertook to organise these self-employed women into a union under the auspices of the Women's Wing of the TLA. Then in 1972 the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) was established with Buch as president and she served as its general-secretary from 1972 to 1996.

The Elders: 2007–2022
On 18 July 2007 in Johannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela, Graça Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders to contribute their wisdom, independent leadership and integrity to tackle some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday.

Kofi Annan served as Chair of The Elders and Gro Harlem Brundtland as deputy chair.
The Elders work globally, on thematic as well as geographically specific subjects. The Elders' priority issue areas include the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the Korean Peninsula, Sudan and South Sudan, sustainable development, and equality for girls and women.

Bhatt was particularly involved in The Elders' initiative on equality for women and girls, including on the issue of child marriage. In February 2012, Bhatt travelled to Bihar, India with fellow Elders Desmond Tutu, Gro Harlem Brundtland and Mary Robinson. Together, the Elders visited Jagriti, a youth-led project aimed at preventing child marriage, and encouraged the state government's efforts to tackle the issue.

A Gandhian practitioner of non-violence, Bhatt also travelled to the Middle East with Elders delegations in August 2009 and October 2010.

In a blog post written for The Elders' website following the group's visit to Gaza in October 2010, Bhatt stated that non-violent struggle against injustice requires "more hard work than fighting" and that "it is the coward who uses weapons."

The Elders are independently funded by such donors as Sir Richard Branson and Jean Oelwang (Virgin Unite), Peter Gabriel (The Peter Gabriel Foundation), Kathy Bushkin Calvin (United Nations Foundation), Jeremy Coller and Lulit Solomon (J. Coller Foundation), Niclas Kjellström-Matseke (Swedish Postcode Lottery), Jeff Skoll and Sally Osberg (Skoll Foundation), and Marieke van Schaik (Dutch Postcode Lottery), among others. Mabel van Oranje, former CEO of The Elders, sits on the Advisory Council in her capacity as Advisory Committee Chair of Girls Not Brides: The Global Partnership to End Child Marriage.

Personal life
Ela Bhatt married Ramesh Bhatt in 1956, with whom she had two children, Amimayi (b. 1958) and Mihir (b. 1959). She lived in Ahmedabad, Gujarat with her family. She died on 2 November 2022, at the age of 89.

Awards and recognition
Bhatt was one of the founders of Women's World Banking in 1979 with Esther Ocloo and Michaela Walsh, and served as its chair from 1980 to 1998. She has served as Chair of the SEWA Cooperative Bank, of HomeNet, of the International Alliance of Street Vendors, and was formerly on the board of directors of WIEGO. She was also a trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation.

Bhatt was granted an honorary Doctorate degree in Humane Letters by Harvard University in June 2001. In 2012, she received a Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa from Georgetown University and an honorary doctorate from Université libre de Bruxelles in Brussels, Belgium. She also held honorary doctorates from Yale and University of Natal.

Ela Bhatt was also awarded the civilian honour of Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1985, and the Padma Bhushan in 1986. She was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Community Leadership in 1977 and the Right Livelihood Award in 1984.

Bhatt was chosen for the Niwano Peace Prize for 2010 for her work empowering poor women in India.

In November 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton honoured Bhatt with the Global Fairness Initiative Award for helping move more than a million poor women in India to a position of dignity and independence.

Ela Bhatt was honoured with the prestigious Radcliffe Medal on 27 May 2011 on Radcliffe day for her efforts in helping uplift women, which has had a significant impact on society.

In November 2011, Ela Bhatt was selected for the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development 2011 for her lifetime achievements in empowering women through grassroots entrepreneurship.

In June 2012, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton identified Ela Bhatt as one of her 'heroines'. She said, "I have a lot of heroes and heroines around the world and one of them is Ela Bhatt, who started an organisation called the Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in India many years ago".

Writings
Bhatt's book has been translated in Gujarati, Urdu, Hindi and is currently being translated in French and Tamil.

 Bhatt, E. R. (2006). We are poor but so many: the story of self-employed women in India. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
 Bhatt, E.R. (2015).  Anubandh : Building Hundred Mile Communities. Ahmedabad, Navjeevan Publishing House.

References

Further reading
India's 50 Most Illustrious Women () by Indra Gupta

External links

 SEWA.org, Official website
 Ela Bhatt – Truthseeker, an interview with Culture Unplugged
 An Empire for Poor Working Women, Guided by a Gandhian Approach NY Times Profile
 Biography, National Resource Centre for Women, Government of India
 Biography of Ela Bhatt on the official site of the Magsaysay award
 Ela Bhatt's biography on The Elders' website

1933 births
2022 deaths
Scholars from Ahmedabad
Recipients of the Padma Shri in social work
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in social work
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
Indian cooperative organizers
Indian women activists
Gandhians
Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha
Indian microfinance people
Gujarat University alumni
Gujarati people
Indian social entrepreneurs
Indian women's rights activists
Indian independence activists from Gujarat
Businesswomen from Gujarat
20th-century Indian women scientists
20th-century Indian educational theorists
20th-century Indian businesspeople
Women educators from Gujarat
Educators from Gujarat
Women Indian independence activists
Social workers from Gujarat
Businesspeople from Ahmedabad
20th-century Indian businesswomen
Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award
20th-century Indian women educational theorists
20th-century Indian educators
Women members of the Rajya Sabha

Ela Bhatt


A condominium (or condo) is a building complex containing a number of individually owned apartments with shared facilities. In the United States and in Canada a condominium is a collection of apartment units, townhouses, garden homes or single homes that share common property together. In British Columbia condominiums are referred to as stratas. By owning a unit in a condominium, a person has access to the common facilities. The shared use of these facilities is legally guaranteed as part of the property; they share ownership of these areas. Such facilities may include hallways, a heating system, elevators, gardens, and recreational facilities.

Other websites

Houses

Condominium


Uniformitarianism is the idea that the same physical laws of today have always operated. It was the centerpiece of James Hutton's 1795 geology book Theory of the Earth, with proofs and illustrations.

In this work Hutton proposed that the causes acting on the world today also acted in the past. This means that the rocks of the Earth were formed by processes which we can see operating today. These processes, though very slow (gradualism), made the world what it is today. The idea is part of a wider philosophy called the philosophy of naturalism.

The term 'uniformitarianism' was invented by William Whewell in 1837 to describe Hutton's basic idea. This idea is the foundation of modern geology.

Hutton's ideas were popularised by John Playfair in 1802 in Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth, and by Charles Lyell in his Principles of geology (1830 to 1833). The phrase "the present is the key to the past" is Lyell's most famous quotation.

Uniformitarianism in geology is opposed by catastrophism, the idea that major changes in the Earth take place through sudden and violent events.

References

Philosophy of science
Geology
History of science

Uniformitarianism


Girls' Generation (Hangul: 소녀시대; Hanja: 少女時代) is a pop group made up of nine members that was formed by SM Entertainment in 2007. Girls' Generation members are Yoona, Tiffany, Yuri, Hyoyeon, Sooyoung, Seohyun, Taeyeon (who is the group's leader), and Sunny. Jessica was a member, but in 2014, she left the group. Fans usually call the group SNSD, which is a short-form of the group's Korean name, So Nyeo Shi Dae (or So Nyuh Shi Dae). Their fans are called "S♡NE" (소원), and is pronounced as "So-won", which means "wish" in Korean.

Members:

 Taeyeon (태연) -- Tarikh lahir : 9 Mac 1989 - Kim Tae-Yeon (김태연)
 Jessica (제시카) -- Tarikh lahir: 18 April 1989 - Jung Soo-Yeon (정수연)
 Sunny (써니) -- Tarikh lahir: 15 Mei 1989 - Lee Soon-Kyu (이순규)
 Tiffany (티파니) -- Tarikh lahir : 1 Ogos 1989 - Stephanie Hwang (스테파니 황) - Nama Korea: Hwang Mi-Young (황미영)
 Hyoyeon (효연) -- Tarikh lahir : 22 September 1989 - Kim Hyo-Yeon (김효연)
 Yuri (유리) -- Tarikh lahir : 5 Disember 1989 - Kwon Yu-Ri (권유리)
 Sooyoung (수영) -- Tarikh lahir: 10 Februari 1990 - Choi Soo-Young (최수영)
 Yoona (윤아) -- Tarikh lahir: 30 Mei 1990 - Im Yoon-Ah (임윤아)
 Seohyun (서현) -- Tarikh lahir: 28 Jun 1991 - Seo Joo-Hyun(서주현)

History

Before debut
Each member of the group was trained in singing and dancing before their debut, while some others were trained in acting and modelling. Some girls had already appeared in television advertisements, music videos of other music groups and acted in dramas as well, before Girls' Generation started.

2007: Debut and first album

Girls' Generation first performed on M.net M! Countdown in July 2007. Even though their performances were never played on television, videos of their performances were posted on the Internet. The girls performed "Into the New World"(), which became their single. "M.Net's Girls Go To School" was filmed during this time, to show how the girls made their debut. The show ended after 9 episodes, when they finally appeared on another show, "School of Rock".

In August 2007, the single "Into the New World" was released. This single included two other songs, "Beginning" and "Perfect for You" (), later renamed as Honey for their debut album Girls' Generation. An instrumental of "Into the New World" was also put in the album.

After the single was released, the group started to promote it. Girls' Generation performed their single on SBS's Inkigayo, MBC's Show! Music Core, and on KBS's Music Bank.

After a short break, the group's first full album was released in late autumn 2007, with the lead single "Girls' Generation" (), a cover of Lee Seung-Chul ()'s hit song in the 1980s. Promotion for the single started in early November. "Girls' Generation" was became popular, and the album has sold 121,143 copies to date, placing 8th in the year-end charts. In early 2008, Girls' Generation began promoting their third single, "Kissing You". The music video featured Donghae from Super Junior. This song achieved the #1 spot in the three main TV music rankings—SBS Inkigayo, M.net M.Countdown! and KBS Music Bank.

In March 2008, the album was re-released and re-titled Baby Baby. A third single, "Baby Baby", was used to promote the album. A digital EP featuring Jessica, Tiffany, and Seohyun was released on April 2008, titled Roommate. The single from the mini-album is "Oppa Nappa" (, lit."Bad Brother", although contextually it refers to an older male friend).

Girls' Generation, along with fellow artists such as BoA, TVXQ, Super Junior, CSJH the Grace, Zhang Liyin, SHINee, and other SM artists participated in SM Town Live '08. The tour went on to South Korea, Thailand, and China.

2008–2010: Other activities, return with mini-albums; and Japanese Debut

In 2008, M.net announced that the group would be starring in a reality TV show called "Factory Girl", in which the girls work as interns at fashion megazine "Elle", writing articles for the magazine.

During their break from music, they appeared in many television advertisements for MapleStory and Mabinogi.

Later, it was announced that the group's first mini-album, Gee, would be released in January 2009.
A teaser video was released in January 2009 and the first single "Gee" was released soon after. People became interested in the song rose after the digital release, and the song became #1 Cyworld's hourly music chart on the release day. The song also went #1 on all major digital music charts within two days.

The group began to promote the album in January 2009 on MBC Show! Music Core. They sang their new single, "Gee", and "Him Nae/Way To Go", another track from the Gee mini-album. This song is a remake of the song "Haptic Motion" that was used in cellphone advertisements and is a mix of bubblegum pop and punk rock. However, the group did not appear on KBS's Music Bank with "Gee", even after winning #1 on the music chart show.
"Gee" is the record holder for the longest-running #1 on music portal M.net (for 8 weeks), surpassing the previous record of 6 weeks set by the Wonder Girls' "Nobody".
They also broke the record on KBS's music show Music Bank by being #1 for 9 consecutive weeks, previously set by Jewelry's "One More Time", which had 7 wins. They won the award for best-selling song for the first half of 2009 for "Gee". The group stopped promoting the song at the end of March 2009.

After a short break, SM Entertainment announced that the girls would be back with a new single and showing a "Marine Girl" concept; the song, titled "Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" (, lit. "Tell Me Your Wish"), the mini album was released digitally on June 22, 2009. The mini-album includes a duet between Jessica and Shinee member Onew called "One Year Later". During the group's promotion, the girls would be seen wearing marine uniforms as part of the album's concept.

On May 3, 2009, Girls Generation starred in their new reality show "SNSD Horror Movie factory", with the premier episode receiving a viewership rating of 3.3%. The show was then cancelled after 6 episodes due to low ratings from the public.

From June 23 to November 17, 2009, Girls' Generation starred in a Cable TV program called "Girls' Generation's Hello Baby" of KBS Joy, where they are taking care of a child and somewhat experience how motherhood is like. In that show, they take care of a boy name "Cho Kyungsan" (), and each week they (or fathers, male guests who come out from time to time) select "The Best Mom" and "the Worst Mom" among the members according to their work for the day. The show ended after 22 episodes.

On June 26, 2009, Girls' Generation's comeback performance was recorded on KBS's Music Bank. The group then had their return performances on MBC's Music Core and SBS's Inkigayo on June 27 and 28, 2009. Girls' Generation's 2nd mini-album Genie was released on June 29, 2009.

"Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" won its first #1 spot at the July 10, 2009 episode of KBS Music Bank. Their second award was claimed at the July 12, 2009 episode of SBS Inkigayo. The group finished promotions for "Sowoneul Malhaebwa (Genie)" in August 2009.

On January 23, 2010, the group released a teaser of their new single "Oh!". This was a precursor to their upcoming album "Oh!", a full album to be released on 28 January, 2010. The concept of the new album channels cheerleading.

On March 17, 2010, a re-packaged version of the album was released, featuring a "Dark" concept for the girls. The lead single, entitled Run Devil Run, was released one day before its music video.

On August 25, the group held their first showcase in Tokyo Ariake Colliseum and on September 7th, Girls' Generation released their debut Japanese single, "GENIE", followed by "GEE" on October 20th.

On October 27, 2010, the girls released their third mini album, "Hoot" (훗). The music video for "Hoot" was released the next day, and on the 29th, they had their comeback performance on Music Bank.

By the end of the year, Girls' Generation had won various awards, including the prestigious "Disk Daesang Award" at the Golden Disk Awards. They became the first female group to win both the Daesang and Digital Daesang (which they won in 2009). At the "Melon Music Awards", Girls' Generation won Best Dressed Singer award, Hot Trend Song award for their latest song, "Hoot", as well as the Artist of the Year award. This was the 2nd year in a row that they won the Artist of the Year award. They also got first in the Hanteo annual Singer Award chart for 2010. Girls' Generation was also named "Artist of the Year" by Dosirak, Soribada, Korea Gallup, Hanteo and Sport Korea.

2011: Japanese Activities

In January, Girls' Generation released a song for Intel, called "Visual Dreams".

On January 20, at the 20th Seoul Music Awards, the group received an Artist of the Year award, a Bonsang prize, a Popularity award and a Hallyu award. By winning all of these, Girls' Generation became one of four artists in Korean music history (the others being Seo Taiji, Jo Sungmo and H.O.T.) to win two consecutive Artist of the Year awards at the Seoul Music Awards, they are the only girl group to receive Artist of the Year awards for Seoul Music Awards, Melon Music Awards and Golden Disk Awards for two years in a row.

On April 9, the Japanese music video of Run Devil Run was released. Girls' Generation fully released their third Japanese single, "Mr. Taxi/Run Devil Run", on April 27.

On June 1st, 2011, they released their first Japanese studio album Girls' Generation. This album has 12 songs including the singles "Genie", "Gee", "Run Devil Run", "Mr. Taxi" and a Japanese version of "Hoot". The album's sales surpassed 100,000 within only two days after release, breaking fellow Korean girl group Kara's record, Kara having surpassed sales of 100,000 in Japan in 2010 after a week with their first original Japanese studio album Girl's Talk. [82]

2011-now: Jessica's departure, Lion Heart, Holiday Night, and lineup changes
On September 30, 2014, Jessica announced that she had  been forced out of Girls' Generation by SM and the other 8 members.

In August 18 and 19, Girls' Generation released their fifth album, Lion Heart.

In August 2017, SNSD released Holiday Night to celebrate their 10th anniversary.

On October 10, 2017, Seohyun, Sooyung, and Tiffany left SM Entertainment to pursue new careers. They still remain members of Girls' Generation.

Discography

Korean Albums
 Girls' Generation (2007)
 Oh! (2010)
 The Boys (2011)
 I Got A Boy (2013)
 Lion Heart (2015)
 Holiday Night (2017)

Japanese albums
 Girls' Generation (2011)
 Girls' Generation II ~Girls & Peace~ (2012)
 Love & Peace (2013)

Other websites

 Official website
 Soshified.com

K-pop music groups
Musical groups established in 2007
South Korean girl groups
2007 establishments in South Korea

Girls' Generation