Aubrey Wray Fitch (June 11, 1883 – May 22, 1978) was an admiral of the United States Navy during World War II.  A naval aviator, he held important aviation-related commands both at sea and on shore from the 1920s onward.  He also served as superintendent of the United States Naval Academy.

Early life and career
Fitch was born in Saint Ignace, Michigan, on June 11, 1883. He entered the U.S. Naval Academy in the summer of 1902 and graduated on February 12, 1906. His Naval Academy classmates included Arthur L. Bristol, William L. Calhoun, William A. Glassford, Charles C. Hartigan, Frank J. Fletcher, Robert L. Ghormley, Isaac C. Kidd, John S. McCain Sr., Leigh Noyes, Ferdinand L. Reichmuth, Raymond A. Spruance, John H. Towers, Russell Willson, and Thomas Withers. After serving the two years of sea duty then required by law before being commissioned (serving on the armored cruiser  and the torpedo boat ), Fitch became an ensign on February 13, 1908.  He then served afloat on  and  before receiving instruction in torpedoes at the Naval Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode Island, in the school conducted on board the old cruiser .

Upon completion of the torpedo course, Fitch helped to fit out the battleship , which commissioned on April 4, 1910, before returning to Annapolis for consecutive tours of duty at the Naval Academy, first as assistant discipline officer between 1911 and 1912 and later as an instructor of physical training from 1912 to 1913. Service in the destroyers  and  followed before he received his first sea command, the destroyer , with the 2nd Division, Reserve Torpedo Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet.

After serving on the staff of the commander in chief, Atlantic Fleet, Fitch assumed command of the yacht  in January 1915, with additional duty as aide to the commander in chief.

World War I and afterward
Relieved of command of Yankton shortly after the United States entered World War I in the spring of 1917, Fitch continued his staff duties for another five months before joining  to serve as her gunnery officer for the remainder of hostilities, as that dreadnought operated with the 6th Battle Squadron, Grand Fleet.

After the armistice, Fitch again served at the Naval Academy once more before becoming, concurrently, inspector of ordnance in charge of the Hingham Naval Ammunition Depot in Hingham, MA, and naval inspector of ordnance in charge at the Naval Coaling Station, Frenchman Bay, Maine. From August 1920, Fitch commanded a division of fast minelayers, while also commanding in turn  and .

Detached from Mahan in December 1922, Fitch served at Rio de Janeiro until March 1927 as a member of the United States mission to Brazil before reporting back to the Navy Department for a brief tour of duty in Washington, D.C. Going to sea as executive officer of  in May 1927, Fitch assumed command of  (a type of ship sometimes known uncomplimentarily as a "beef boat") in November of that year.

Aviation
He reported for aviation instruction at the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, in June 1929 and there won his wings as a naval aviator on February 4, 1930. Following brief duty at NAS San Diego, California, Fitch assumed command of the  in the spring of 1930. Relieved from that billet a little over a year later (July 1931), he then began a year as commanding officer of the Navy's first aircraft carrier, .

After commanding NAS Hampton Roads, Virginia, until June 1935 Fitch reported as chief of staff to commander, Aircraft, Battle Force, and remained in that billet until assuming command of  in April 1936. Subsequently, attending the Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, from June 1937 to May 1938, Fitch completed the senior course there before assuming command of NAS Pensacola, in June 1938. In the spring of 1940, he took over the reins of Patrol Wing 2, based at Pearl Harbor, and seven months later, broke his flag in  as commander, Carrier Division 1. The outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific in December 1941 thus found Fitch one of the most experienced carrier commanders afloat.

World War II
Fitch's flagship, Saratoga, figured prominently in the abortive attempt to reinforce Wake Island in December 1941 and was later torpedoed off Oahu in late January 1942, seriously cutting American carrier strength in the Pacific at a critical period.

Rear Admiral Fitch relieved Vice Admiral Wilson Brown on April 3, 1942, breaking his flag in Lexington, his former command. During the Battle of the Coral Sea, Fitch served as the Commander Task Group 17.5, consisting of "Lady Lex" and the , and was named Officer in Tactical Command (O.T.C.) by Task Force commander Admiral Frank J. Fletcher. That engagement, the first in history where neither side came within surface gun range of the other, effectively stopped the Japanese thrust at the strategic Port Moresby, but resulted in the first loss of an American aircraft carrier in the war— the USS Lexington, sunk on May 8, 1942.

The admiral then shifted his flag to , which was also flagship of Task Force 17 (TF 17). Fitch together with Captain Frederick C. Sherman and the Lexington's executive officer, Commander Morton T. Seligman, visited "Lady Lex"'s wounded in Minneapolis''' sickbay—an action that "contributed in no small measure to the patients' well-being." For the leadership he exhibited during the Battle of the Coral Sea, Fitch was awarded his first Distinguished Service Medal.

He again broke his flag in his former flagship, Saratoga'', but the task group formed around that ship arrived too late to take part in the pivotal Battle of Midway.

On September 20, 1942, six weeks after the first American amphibious operation of the war got underway at Guadalcanal, Fitch assumed command of Aircraft, South Pacific Force. Not a desk-bound admiral, he carried out numerous, hazardous flights into the combat zones, inspecting air activities incident to the selection of bases for projected operations. For these, he received a Distinguished Flying Cross.

Under Fitch's command, AirSoPac—ultimately encompassing not only Navy but Army, Marine Corps, and Royal New Zealand air units—achieved great success in aiding the Allied campaign in the South Pacific. Fitch's planes protected Allied shipping, providing vital air cover that strongly assisted the Allies in challenging, and ultimately defeating, the Japanese in the Solomons. In addition, his aircraft performed essential reconnaissance missions, spotting enemy warships prior to the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands in October 1942 and during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November 1942.

Later, Fitch oversaw the early experiments in conducting night bombing utilizing radar (a concept which paid great dividends in interdicting Japanese shipping) and encouraged the use of specially modified aircraft to obtain photographic intelligence. In addition, for his skillful coordination of the Allied air effort in that area of the world Fitch received a gold star in lieu of a second Distinguished Service Medal.

Fitch returned to Washington in the summer of 1944 and became the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air). He skillfully and efficiently directed the aeronautical organization of the Navy, oversaw efforts to assure the readiness and deployment of air units, and planned all of the related logistics measures. For these efforts he received the Legion of Merit.

Post-war service

After V-J Day, Vice Admiral Fitch assumed duty as the superintendent of the Naval Academy on August 16, 1945, and held that post until January 15, 1947, with collateral duty as commandant, Severn River Command. The first aviator to head the Naval Academy, Fitch was instrumental in establishing the Department of Aeronautics, authorized by the Navy on November 28, 1945.

Subsequent to heading the academy, Fitch served briefly in the Office of the Undersecretary of the Navy before becoming the senior member of the Naval Clemency and Prison Inspection Board in March 1947. He was so serving when he retired from the Navy and was relieved of all active duty on July 1, 1947.

Admiral Fitch died due to a heart ailment combined with a bout with pneumonia in Newcastle, Maine, his adopted state, on May 22, 1978, shortly before his 95th birthday.

Namesake
In 1981, the U.S. Navy guided-missile frigate  was named in Admiral Fitchs honor.

The main road to the former NAS Brunswick, is named Admiral Fitch Avenue in his honor.

TV & movie portrayals
Fitch was portrayed by Mitchell Ryan in the television version of Midway (1976 film)

Gallery

See also

List of Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy

References

Fitch, Aubrey W., Admiral, USN, Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy.

External links
hazegray.org/danfs/ biography of VADM Fitch

1883 births
1978 deaths
People from St. Ignace, Michigan
United States Naval Aviators
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy World War II admirals
Burials in Maine
Military personnel from Michigan
20th-century American academics

Aubrey Fitch


Grub係套開源嘅distributed search網絡爬蟲平臺。2007年7月27號,珍寶威爾士宣布,發展緊開源搜索器Wikia Search嘅牟利嘅Wikia公司 由LookSmart買咗Grub。

2000年,呢項計劃喺Oklahoma City開始,創始人係Kord Campbell、 Igor Stojanovski 同埋 Ledio Ago。2003年,LookSmart, Ltd. 買咗Grub, Inc 嘅知識產權。 之後一短時間,原班人馬繼續搞項計劃,出咗幾份新程式版本,但許可權(licence)就係唔公開嘅。

There were several controversial issues surrounding the Grub project in the time shortly after LookSmart aquired the project.  Grub had a slight tendency to ignore a few mis-configured robots.txt files on the sites it crawled.  Even when the development team addressed these issues, a few webmasters continued blaming it for crawling their site too much, and not respecting their robots.txt files.

Another issue was the closing of the source code base, and the apparent lack of using the crawled data for anything useful, such as a searchable index of the sites it crawled.  It appears that Grub was used for a short time to seed the URL list for NetNanny, another acquisition of LookSmart.

Operations of Grub were shut down in late 2005.  The site was reactivated on July 27, 2007, and the site is currently being updated.   The original developers are assisting with the new deployment, and investigating the robots.txt issue, to ensure a repeat performance does not occur.

Users of Grub can download the peer-to-peer grubclient software and let it run during computer idle time. The client indexes the URLs and send them back to the main grub server in a highly compressed form. The collective crawl could then, in theory, be utilized by an indexing system, such as the one being proposed at Wikia Search.  Grub is able to quickly build a large snapshot by asking thousands of clients to crawl and analyze a small portion of the web each.

維基雅 has now released the entire Grub package under an open source software license.

參攷

連出去

Official website
Search Wikia Project

互聯網搜尋引擎
開源程式
Free search engine software
Free web crawlers
Wikia

Grub


Julio Baghy (13 January 1891, Szeged – 18 March 1967, Budapest; in Hungarian Baghy Gyula) was a Hungarian actor and one of the leading authors of the Esperanto movement. He is the author of several famous novels but it is particularly in the field of poetry that he proved his mastery of Esperanto.

Early life
Baghy was born into a theatrical family — his father was an actor, and his mother a stage prompter. He began learning Esperanto in 1911. He started work as an actor and theatre manager, but the First World War intervened and took him out of his home country for six years.

He was captured and made a prisoner of war in Siberia. It was during this time that he began to work for the Esperanto movement, writing poetry and teaching the language to his fellow inmates.

Literary works

Books
Baghy wrote two books on the subject of captivity in Siberia: Viktimoj (Victims, 1925), and Sur Sanga Tero (On Bloody Soil, 1933), republished together as a single volume in 1971. His satirical novel Hura! (Hooray!, 1930) was somewhat less of a success. Its sequel Insulo de Espero (Island of Hope) was lost during the war.

His most famous novel Printempo en Aŭtuno (Spring in Autumn) was written in 1931.

Poetry
It is however for his poetry that Baghy is best known. His first poems were written during his time of captivity in Siberia. Hitherto those poets, such as Zamenhof, who had written in Esperanto were limited by the still young language, and apart from Antoni Grabowski, no poet had managed to make a mark on the language.

Baghy's most significant collections of poems was his first: Preter la Vivo (Beyond Life, published in 1922). Among his more notable collection of poems are Pilgrimo (Pilgrim, 1926) and Vagabondo Kantas (The Vagabond Sings, 1933).

In 1966 he produced Ĉielarko (Rainbow), retelling in verse folk tales from twelve different nations. His last collection of poems, Aŭtunaj folioj (Autumn leaves), was published posthumously in 1970.

Esperanto movement
Returning to Hungary after the war, he became one of the principal teachers of the Esperanto movement, organising newsgroups and literary evenings. In addition to working in his native Hungary, he organised courses in countries such as Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and France.

He was one of the principal writers for the Esperanto literary review Literatura Mondo until 1933.

His works reflect a slogan of his: Amo kreas pacon, Paco konservas homecon, Homeco estas plej alta idealismo. (Love creates peace, Peace preserves humanity, Humanity is the highest ideal.)

Several of his works were granted awards by the Academy of Esperanto and a number of his novels have been translated into several languages.

Bibliography

M. Boulton, Poeto fajrakora. La verkaro de Julio Baghy, Saarbrücken: Artur E. Iltis, 1983. p. 144
Clelia Conterno, Baghy tra la tempo, in Literatura Foiro n. 43–44, jun-aŭg 1977, p 10-11
G. Silfer, La leginda Baghy, in Literatura Foiro n.  65, feb 1981, p 4-5

See also
Kálmán Kalocsay

External links

Writers of Esperanto literature
Hungarian writers
1891 births
1967 deaths
Hungarian Esperantists

Julio Baghy


RNA splicing is a stage in gene transcription. Messenger RNA (mRNA), which transfers the code from DNA to proteins, is built in two stages.

In the first stage, each gene is translated into a pre-mRNA. Then the exons in pre-mRNAs are joined by splicing, which is done in the spliceosomes.

This is needed because the gene is split into code sections called exons and non-coding sections called introns. The exons are brought together by splicing.

So, in molecular biology, splicing is a process where introns are removed and exons are joined. This makes the final mRNA. This messenger RNA is then used to produce a correct protein by translation.

Alternative splicing

In many cases, the splicing process creates a range of unique proteins by varying the exon composition of the same messenger RNA. This phenomenon is called alternative splicing. Alternative splicing can occur in many ways. Exons can be extended or skipped, or introns can be retained.

Eukaryotes vs prokaryotes
Splicing occurs in all the kingdoms or domains of life, however, the extent and types of splicing can be very different between the major divisions.  Eukaryotes splice many protein-coding messenger RNAs and some non-coding RNAs. Prokaryotes, on the other hand, splice rarely. Another important difference is that prokaryotes completely lack spliceosomes.

Discovery
Phillip Sharp and Richard Roberts were awarded the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of introns and the splicing process.

In 1977, work by the Sharp and Roberts labs showed that genes of higher organisms are "split" or present in several distinct segments along the DNA molecule.

The coding regions of the gene are separated by non-coding DNA which is not involved in protein expression.  The non-coding regions, the introns, are cut from the precursor mRNAs in a process Sharp called "splicing".  The split gene structure was found to be common to most eukaryotic genes.

References

RNA
Genetics

RNA splicing


Preston Rudolph York (August 17, 1913 – February 5, 1970) was an American professional baseball player, coach, scout, and manager. He played in Major League Baseball as a catcher and a first baseman between  and , most notably as a member of the Detroit Tigers.

A seven-time All-Star, York broke Babe Ruth's record by hitting 18 home runs in a single month – a feat he accomplished as a rookie in 1937. In 1943, he led the American League with 34 home runs, 118 RBIs, a .527 slugging percentage, and 301 total bases. He was the starting first baseman and leading slugger for the Detroit team that won the 1945 World Series.

He also played for the Boston Red Sox, Chicago White Sox and the Philadelphia Athletics. After his playing career, he worked from 1951 to 1964 as a professional baseball manager, coach, and scout.  He was the batting coach for the Boston Red Sox for four years from 1959 to 1962, including one game in July 1959 in which he acted as the team's interim manager. He was posthumously inducted into the Michigan, Georgia, and Alabama Sports Halls of Fame.

Early years
York was born in 1913 in Ragland, Alabama, but the family moved to Georgia when York was a young boy. York's father, Arthur, had only sporadic contact with the family. His mother, Beulah (Locklear) York, worked in Georgia's textile mills and raised York and his four siblings. His maternal great-grandmother Elizabeth Jane Barrett (Meadows) was a full-blooded Cherokee.

In the late 1920s, York's mother moved the family to a mill town operated by the American Textile Company (ATCO) on the outskirts of Cartersville, Georgia. York joined his mother working at the mill and became the star player on the ATCO baseball team from 1930 to 1933.

Professional baseball player

Minor leagues (1933–1936)
York began playing professional baseball at age 19. During the 1933 season, he played three games with the Knoxville Smokies of the Southern Association, 12 games with the Shreveport Sports of the Dixie League, and 15 games with the Beaumont Exporters of the Texas League.

York continued to work his way through the minor leagues in 1934, playing for Beaumont and the Fort Worth Cats of the Texas League. He was briefly called up to the Detroit Tigers late in the season, appearing in three games in which he had one hit in six at bats.

In 1935, York played 148 games at first base for Beaumont, compiled a .301 batting average, led the league with 29 home runs and 114 RBIs and was selected as the Most Valuable Player in the Texas League. Despite his solid performance in the Texas League, there was no room for him in Detroit as Hank Greenberg played 152 complete games at first base and led the American League with 36 home runs and 168 RBIs.

Greenberg missed most of the 1936 season with a broken wrist, but the Tigers traded for Jack Burns rather than calling up York. While Burns hit .283 with four home runs in Detroit, York played first base for the Milwaukee Brewers of the American Association. He appeared in 157 games, hit .334 with 37 home runs, and was selected as the Most Valuable Player in the American Association.

Detroit Tigers (1937–1945)
York finally spent a full season with the Tigers in 1937. With Greenberg recovered from his injury, York had to look to other positions for playing time. He appeared in 104 games, beginning at third base for 41 games and then moving to catcher for 54 games. He compiled a .307 batting average and a .651 slugging percentage with 35 home runs and 101 RBIs in just 375 at bats. His ratio of 10.7 at bats per home run led the American League, and his .651 slugging percentage ranked third. He hit 18 home runs and collected 35 RBIs in the month of August, breaking the major league records previously held by Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. Defensively, York was not as strong; his 12 passed balls led the league, and his nine errors in just 54 games at catcher ranked third in the league.

In 1938, York returned as the Tigers' catcher for 116 games and also played 14 games in left field. He hit .298, was selected for the All-Star team, and ranked among the American League leaders with 33 home runs (third), 128 RBIs (third), and a .579 slugging percentage (fifth).  Defensively, he again led the league with 10 passed balls, but also ranked among the league's leading catchers with 70 assists (second) and 10 double plays (third).

During the 1939 season, York shared catching duties with Birdie Tebbetts and started only 78 games – 67 at catcher and 11 at first base. Despite having only 376 at bats, he performed well at the plate with a .307 batting average, .544 slugging percentage, 20 home runs, and 68 RBIs.

Realizing that York was not best suited to the catcher position, and seeking to get his bat into the lineup on a full-time basis, the Tigers in 1940 shifted slugger Hank Greenberg from first base to left field, allowing York to return to his natural position at first base. The move proved successful as Greenberg and York each played 154 games and ranked highly among the league's batters in several key batting statistics: first and second in RBIs (150 and 134); first and second in total bases (384 and 343); first and second in doubles (50 and 46); and first and third in home runs (41 and 33). The power duo of Greenberg and York helped propel the Tigers to the American League pennant with a 90–64 record. In the 1940 World Series, the Tigers lost to the Cincinnati Reds as York batted .231 (6-for-26) with one home run and two RBIs. (On August 24, in the first game of a doubleheader in Boston, York received an unwanted distinction when his future teammate, slugger Ted Williams, was called in to pitch in a 12-1 Tigers rout. Williams struck out York looking, making York the only man Ted ever whiffed in a big-league game.)

The Tigers lost Greenberg to military service for the 1941 season, leaving York as the team's principal offensive weapon. Starting 155 games at first base for the second consecutive year, York received his second selection to the All-Star game. His batting average declined to .259, but he continued to hit for power with 27 home runs (including a three-home-run game) and 111 RBIs.

In 1942, York held out during spring training when the Tigers asked him to take a salary cut. In mid-March, he finally signed a contract providing a salary of approximately $9,000 with a $5,000 bonus if he collected 100 RBIs. He ended up hitting .260 with 21 home runs and 90 RBIs. In the 1942 All-Star Game, he hit a two-run home run in the first inning to propel the American League to a 3–1 victory over the National League.

York slumped badly at the plate for the first half of the 1943 season, drawing boos from the fans. Detroit sport writer H. G. Salsinger wrote at the time:"York got away to a bad start and soon found himself in a severe slump. He went from bad to worse . . . His fielding became as bad as his batting and he appeared to be on the verge of a nervous breakdown . . . The crowds at Briggs Stadium were 'riding' Rudy. Few players in history have ever been 'ridden' harder. They booed him from the time his name was announced in the starting lineup until the last man was out. They booed him every time he came to bat, every time he went after a batted ball, every time he took a throw. The razzing didn't start this year. The fans were 'aboard' York last season. He took an unmerciful booing all through 1942, and the booing increased with the start of the present season."
York rebounded in the second half of the 1943 season, hitting 17 home runs in August, and ended up leading the American League with 34 home runs, 118 RBIs, a .527 slugging percentage, 67 extra-base hits, and 301 total bases. He was selected to his fifth All-Star team and finished third in the voting for the American League Most Valuable Player award.

In 1944, York was selected to the All-Star team for the sixth year, and York ranked among the American League leaders with 18 home runs (third), 98 RBIs (fifth), and 256 total bases (eighth). He also ranked among the league leaders in several defensive categories, both positive and negative, with 17 errors at first base (first), 163 double plays turned at first base (first), 1,453 putouts at all positions (second), and a 10.45 range factor per nine innings at first base.

In 1945, he started 155 games at first base for the Tigers team that won the American League pennant and defeated the Chicago Cubs in the 1945 World Series. During the 1945 season, he ranked among the league leaders with 23 double plays grounded into (first), 18 home runs (second), 85 strikeouts (second), 87 RBIs (fourth), 246 total bases (fourth), and 48 extra-base hits (fifth). Defensively, he led all position players with a career-high 1,464 putouts. He also led the league's first basemen with 19 errors. In the 1945 World Series, he had five hits and three RBIs in 28 at bats.

On January 3, 1946, with the Tigers' planning to return Hank Greenberg to first base, the Tigers traded York to the Boston Red Sox for infielder Eddie Lake.

Boston Red Sox (1946–47)

In 1946, York started 154 games at first base for Boston and finished among the American League leaders with 1,326 putouts (first), 116 assists at first base (first), 154 double plays turned at first base (first), and 119 RBIs (third). He hit two grand slams in a game against the St. Louis Browns on July 27, 1947, as part of a 10 RBI day. The combination of York, Ted Williams, and Bobby Doerr helped lead Boston to the American League pennant. In the 1946 World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals, he hit a 10th-inning game-winning home run in Game 1 and another three-run, game-winning  home run in the Game 3. Ultimately, St. Louis took the series four games to three.

In 1947, York started 48 games at first base for the Red Sox. On April 26, York escaped an early-morning fire in his Boston hotel suite caused when he fell asleep with a cigarette in his hand and liquor bottles strewn around. His batting average dipped to .212 with six home runs and 27 RBIs. By early June, York's poor hitting and inconsistent effort prompted The Boston Globe to publish an article titled, "What to Do About Big Rudy York?" On June 14, 1947, the Red Sox traded York to the Chicago White Sox in exchange for Jake Jones.

Chicago and Philadelphia (1947–48)
After the trade from Boston, York started 102 games at first base for the White Sox and compiled a .243 batting average with 15 home runs and 64 RBIs. On August 23, 1947, a fire broke out in York's Chicago hotel room, reportedly caused by a cigar that York left lit. York was unconditionally released by the White Sox in January 1948.

On February 12, 1948, two weeks after being released by the White Sox, York signed with the Philadelphia Athletics. He played in just 31 games, batting just .157. He appeared in his last major league game on September 20, 1948.

Return to the minors (1949)
After his major league baseball career ended, York continued to play when and where he could. It is believed that his playing career finally ended in 1952 when he batted .258 with two home runs for Benson-DeGraff in Minnesota's Class AA amateur Western Minny league.

Career statistics

In 13 major league seasons, York compiled a .275 batting average with 1,621 hits in 5,891 at-bats, a .483 slugging percentage, 291 doubles, 52 triples, 792 walks, 277 home runs, and 1,149 RBIs in 1,603 games. In three World Series he hit .221 (17-for-77) with three home runs and 10 RBIs. He was selected for the All-Star Game seven times. York's 239 home runs as a Tiger ranked second in franchise history until the 1960s and still ranks eighth all time. In each of the time he was in the top ten for walks (1938, 1940, 1941, 1943, 1944, 1946), he also ranked in the top five for strikeouts; in total, he also went in the top five for strikeouts three further times (1942, 1945, 1947) in strikeouts to make nine times.

With  Cherokee ancestry and less-than-perfect fielding abilities, York prompted one sportswriter to declare: "He is part Indian and part first baseman". However, his defensive weakness may have been exaggerated. While he did lead the American League in errors by a first baseman in 1941, 1944, and 1945, he also led the league's first basemen in fielding percentage in 1947, in assists in 1942, 1943, and 1946, in putouts in 1946 and 1947, and in double plays turned in 1944 and 1946. And his range factor per game ranked among the top five in the league in 1940, 1941, 1942, 1944, 1945, 1946, and 1947.

Manager, coach and scout
York was a player-manager for the Youngstown/Oil City Athletics during the 1951 season. He hit 34 home runs and had 107 RBIs, but his record as manager was 19–64. He played for a semi-pro baseball team in 1952 and then obtained work outside baseball with the Georgia Forestry Commission in 1953. He returned to baseball as a scout for the New York Yankees in 1956. In June 1957, he was named by the Cleveland Indians as the manager of their North Platte team in the Nebraska State League.

In January 1958, York returned to the Boston Red Sox for a six-year association. He was first hired as a coach for the Memphis Chicks, the Bosox' Double-A affiliate. In 1959, he was promoted to the MLB Red Sox as the team's batting coach.  On July 3, 1959, he served as Boston's acting manager for one game during the interim period between Pinky Higgins' firing and the hiring of Washington Senators coach Billy Jurges as Higgins' permanent successor. In York's one game as manager, the Red Sox lost to the Baltimore Orioles, 6–1.

In 1963, with the hiring of Johnny Pesky as Boston's manager, York lost his job as the team's batting coach. However, Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey decided not to let York go and assigned him to the coaching staff of the Reading Red Sox for the 1963 season.

In 1964, York concluded his managing career as the manager of the Statesville Colts, a joint affiliate of the Red Sox and the Houston Colt 45s in the Western Carolinas League. Hired by former Tiger teammate Paul Richards, he then was listed as a scout for the Houston franchise, renamed the Astros, in 1965.

Managerial record

Family, later years, and tributes
York married Violet Dupree (1913–1988) in 1931. They had three children: Mary Jane (York) Pruitt (born 1932); the Rev. Joe Wilburn York (born 1936); and Blanche (York) Hines (born 1940).

After retiring from baseball, York worked as a self-employed house painter in Cartersville, Georgia. He developed lung cancer and underwent surgery and radiation therapy in November 1969. He died in February 1970 at Floyd County Hospital in Rome, Georgia, at age 56. The cause of death was reported to be bacterial pneumonia. York was buried at Sunset Memory Gardens in Cartersville.

In 1972, the former Atco Field in Cartersville was renamed Rudy York Field. At the dedication ceremony, Gov. Lester Maddox unveiled a five-foot high marble monument and a bronze plaque honoring York.

York was posthumously inducted in the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 1972.  His widow and three children all attended the induction ceremony in Detroit.  York was also inducted into the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1977, and the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame in 1979.

See also

 Batters with two Grand Slams in the same baseball game
 List of athletes on Wheaties boxes
 List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
 List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders

References

External links

1913 births
1970 deaths
20th-century Native Americans
American League All-Stars
American League home run champions
American League RBI champions
American people who self-identify as being of Cherokee descent
Baseball players from Alabama
Beaumont Exporters players
Boston Red Sox coaches
Boston Red Sox managers
Boston Red Sox players
Chicago White Sox players
Deaths from lung cancer in Georgia (U.S. state)
Detroit Tigers players
Fort Worth Cats players
Griffin Pimientos players
Houston Astros scouts
Knoxville Smokies players
Major League Baseball first base coaches
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball hitting coaches
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
Native American baseball players
New Castle Indians players
New York Yankees scouts
People from Ragland, Alabama
Philadelphia Athletics players
Shreveport Sports players
Union City Greyhounds players
Youngstown A's players
People from Cartersville, Georgia
Sportspeople from Bartow County, Georgia
Sportspeople from Polk County, Georgia
American Association (1902–1997) MVP Award winners
North Platte Indians players

Rudy York


Arthur "Pen" Pendleton Mason (11 December 1835–22 April 1893) was an American military officer, merchant, planter and lawyer who served as a lieutenant colonel in the Confederate States Army serving during the American Civil War. Mason was a scion of the prominent Mason political family of Virginia.

Early life and education
Mason was born on 11 December 1835 near Alexandria, Virginia in Fairfax County. He was the ninth and youngest child of Thomson Francis Mason (1785–21 December 1838) and his wife Elizabeth "Betsey" Clapham Price (1802–21 December 1873).

Mason earned his law degree from the University of Virginia. Following law school, Mason was a planter and practiced law in Alexandria and Richmond.

Mason's father died on 21 December 1838 in Alexandria at the age of 53. Mason inherited his father's Colross estate in Alexandria. His mother transferred ownership of Huntley on 7 November 1859 to Mason and his brother Dr. John "Frank" Francis Mason.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, Mason joined the 2nd Regiment Mississippi Cavalry in either late 1860 or early 1861. On 5 June 1861, Mason transferred to the 6th Regiment of Brigadier General Thomas C. Hindman's brigade of Arkansas Volunteers. On 11 December 1861, Mason was ordered to report to General Joseph E. Johnston at Manassas. His brother-in-law, Thomas Grimke Rhett, was Johnston's chief of staff at the time. Mason was Johnston's assistant adjutant general during most of the war. Mason served as a member of Johnston's staff until Johnston was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines in 1862. Mason then served under Robert E. Lee until 1863 when he rejoined Johnston's during the Vicksburg Campaign. Following Johnston's removal from the command of the Army of Tennessee during the Atlanta Campaign, Mason joined the staff of John Bell Hood. Mason was appointed colonel in the 2nd Mississippi Cavalry on 2 January 1864, but President Jefferson Davis declined to nominate him and his appointment was later voided. Upon Hood's defeat at Nashville in December 1864, Mason joined Lieutenant General Richard Taylor's staff before rejoining Johnston in North Carolina at the end of the war.

Marriage and children
Mason married Mary Ellen Campbell, daughter of Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, John Archibald Campbell. The couple had four children, with only one surviving to adulthood:

John Archibald Campbell Mason (10 December 1870–18 April 1888)

Later life
Following the war, Mason relocated to New Orleans, Louisiana where he became a merchant.

Mason died on 22 April 1893 in Morris Park, The Bronx, New York at age 57. Mason was interred in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, Maryland.

References

1835 births
1893 deaths
19th-century American Episcopalians
American planters
American slave owners
Burials at Green Mount Cemetery
Businesspeople from Louisiana
Businesspeople from Virginia
Confederate States Army officers
Mason family
People from Alexandria, Virginia
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
Virginia Democrats
Virginia lawyers

Arthur Pendleton Mason


Matt Brandstein (born January 29, 1972) is an American writer and occasional Bollywood film actor. He is most known for his writing of the popular Jewish children's comic book series Mendy and the Golem. Brandstein often employs the use of his Hebrew name Moshe in honor of his Jewish heritage.

Biography
Matt Brandstein grew up in downtown Chicago, where he attended the Latin School of Chicago for fourteen years. After moving to New York City, Brandstein enrolled in New York University, Tisch School of the Arts, where he received his Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Film. Brandstein's writing career began in the music business. He collaborated with prominent directors including Brett Ratner, Diane Martel and Marcus Raboy in the conceptualization of music video treatments for top artists like Mariah Carey, Sting and D'Angelo.

In 2003 Brandstein took on the role of the writer of the second phase of the popular Jewish children's comic book Mendy and the Golem. Notable comic book artists Stan Goldberg, Barry Grossman, Ernie Colón and Joe Rubinstein have all participated in the creation of recent issues.

The comic book's characters' looks have recently been reinvented by reclusive European artist Kola Remaz. Remaz, letterer and Editor in Chief, Tani Pinson aka "Chief Golem" and writer Matt Brandstein make up the creative team responsible for a brand new Golem Factory series expected to launch in the fall of 2017.

As an actor, Brandstein made a brief cameo as a CIA operative in the 2006 Karan Johar Bollywood blockbuster Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna. That same year, he appeared as a Hip Hop dance enthusiast in the Bollywood musical comedy Jaan-E-Mann.

References

External links

 American short story writers
 American comics writers
 Latin School of Chicago alumni
 Writers from New York (state)
 Tisch School of the Arts alumni
 1972 births
 Living people
 Jewish American writers
 Jewish American male actors

Matt Brandstein


Selenium is a chemical element. Its chemical symbol is Se and its  atomic number is 34. It has 34 protons and 34 electrons and a mass number of 78.96.

Properties

Physical properties
Selenium (selenium atoms only) has several different forms. They are called allotropes. The most stable of these is a dense gray semimetal (an element that is partially a metal and a nonmetal). The way the atoms are put together is a named a trigonal polymer chain. It lets electricity pass through it better in the light than in the dark. This form is used in photocells.

Selenium also has many nonconductive forms: a black glass-like substance, as well as several red crystalline forms. In the red form the eight atoms of selenium form ring to make a molecule. These rings then stack together to make the solid red selenium. The way that red seleniums atoms are put together is similar to sulfur.

Chemical properties

Selenium is not very reactive. It does not dissolve in acids except nitric acid.  It also dissolves in alkalis like sodium hydroxide. It reacts with air when powdered to make selenium(IV) oxide. It does not react with many things, so selenium(IV) oxide is what most selenium compounds are made from.

Selenium forms several oxidation states; -2, +2, +4, and +6. The -2 state is in selenides. Selenides are strong reducing agents. They are stronger reducing agents than sulfides. Hydrogen selenide is the acid made from selenide ion. Selenium also reacts with reactive metals to make selenides, such as sodium selenide or aluminium selenide.

The +1 state is found in some selenium compounds, such as selenium(I) chloride. They are the most unreactive selenium compounds.

The +4 state is found in selenites. Selenites and selenous acid are moderate oxidizing agents. It is made by dissolving selenium dioxide in water and making selenous acid. Then selenous acid is reacted with bases to make selenites.

The +6 state is found in selenates. Selenates and selenic acid are powerful oxidizing agents. Selenic acid can even dissolve gold! They are made by reacting hydrogen peroxide with selenium(IV) oxide to get selenium(VI) oxide, which dissolves in water to make selenic acid. Selenates are more reactive than sulfates.

Most selenium compounds are colorless. Selenium compounds are not common.

Chemical compounds
-2 compounds
Selenides are the most common -2 compounds. Selenides are strong reducing agents.
Selenide, the ion
Aluminium selenide
Hydrogen selenide
Sodium selenide

+1 compounds
Selenium monochloride

+4 compounds
+4 compounds can exist in anions or cations.
Selenium(IV) chloride
Selenium(IV) fluoride
Selenium dioxide
Selenium disulfide

Selenites
Selenites are weak oxidizing agents.
Selenite, the ion
Selenous acid
Sodium selenite

+6 compounds
+6 compounds can exist in anions or cations, too.
Selenium hexafluoride

Selenates
Selenates are powerful oxidizing agents.
Selenate, the ion
Selenic acid
Sodium selenate

Occurrence
Selenium is very rarely found as an element in the ground. Most selenium in soil is in a very tiny amount. It is easily washed away. It is in very small amounts in the human body. Selenium is found most in sulfide ores like pyrite. This selenium is in selenides. Selenium is gotten as a byproduct. Sometimes selenium is concentrated in plants. It can also be leached into rivers when copper is mined. Too much selenium is bad for a river. Some coal has selenium in it.

Preparation
It is made as a byproduct when refining copper and certain other sulfide ores. Selenium is made by oxidizing selenide ores to selenium dioxide. The selenium dioxide is dissolved in acidic water to make selenous acid, which is reacted with sulfur dioxide to make selenium as an element. It is the red form that is made. To make the black form, the red form is heated and melted.

Uses

In materials
Selenium is used in photocells. The gray metallic form is used, as it changes its electrical conductivity when light shines on it. Selenium is also used as a catalyst. The largest use is to color glass red. It can be used in special brasses instead of lead. It is used in some rectifiers. Most use silicon instead. It is used to tone photographs. It can be used to remove dandruff from hair in the form of selenium sulfide.

In the human body
Selenium is a trace element in the human body. Humans need very small amounts of selenium. Only about 50-200 micrograms are needed. Selenium can be toxic if more than 400 micrograms are taken. Once there was coal that had a large amount of selenium in it. People were getting selenium poisoning from the coal.

Selenium deficiency is rare. Although selenium has some helpful effects on the human body, it also has some harmful effects and only a very little should be eaten.

Safety
It is toxic in large amounts. Some selenium compounds are very toxic and harmful to things that live in water. Consuming around 5 mg of selenium per day can kill a human being after a certain amount of time.

Related pages
Selenium compounds

References

Nonmetals

Selenium


Alexey Grigoryevich Stakhanov (; 3 January 1906 – 5 November 1977) was a miner in the Soviet Union. In 1970, he was made a Hero of Socialist Labor. In 1936, he became a member of the Communist Party. He became a celebrity in 1935 as part of a movement that was intended to increase worker productivity and demonstrate the superiority of the socialist economic system.

Stakhanov was born in Lugovaya near Oryol. In 1927, he began working in a mine called "Tsentralnaya-Irmino" in Kadievka (Donbass). In 1933, Stakhanov became a jackhammer operator. In 1935, he took a local course in mining. On 31 August 1935, it was reported that he had mined a record 102 tonnes of coal in 5 hours and 45 minutes (14 times his quota). On 19 September, Stakhanov was reported to have set a new record by mining 227 tonnes of coal in a single shift. His example was held up in newspapers and posters as a model for others to follow, and he even appeared on the cover of Time Magazine.

Between 1936 and 1941, Stakhanov was a student of the Industrial Academy in Moscow. In 1941–1942, he was appointed director of mine No. 31 in Karaganda. Between 1943 and 1957, Stakhanov worked in the Ministry of Coal Industry of the USSR. In 1957–1959, he was deputy director of the Chistyakovantratsit trust, and after that, assistant chief engineer at the mine management office No. 2/43 of the Torezantratsit trust until his retirement in 1974.

Stakhanov was a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of the first convocation. He was awarded two Orders of Lenin, Order of the Red Banner, and numerous medals. The last Sunday of August was designated "Coal Miner's Day", also apparently in his honor.

The town of Kadievka in eastern Ukraine where he started his work was renamed Stakhanov in his honour in 1978, after his death.

Stakhanov's records set an example throughout the country and gave birth to the Stakhanovite movement where workers who exceeded production targets could become "Stakhanovites". Orwell in Animal Farm presents Boxer as a symbolic character of the "Stakhanovites".

Record disputed
The validity of Stakhanov's record has since been called into question. In 1985, The New York Times printed a story that said Stakhanov had indeed succeeded in his feat, but that it was only because the Communist Party had pre-arranged the event. With it, the Communist party wanted to boost public morale. According to this article, many other miners helped Stakhanov beat the mining record. The Times quoted the chief of the Tsentralnaya-Irmino mine's branch of the Party, Konstantin G. Petrov: "I suppose Stakhanov need not have been the first... It could have been anybody else. In the final analysis it was not the individual face-worker who determined whether the attempt to break the record would succeed, but the new system of coal extraction." In 1988, Soviet newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda claimed that the widely propagandized personal achievements of Stakhanov were puffery – the paper insisted that Stakhanov had used a number of helpers on support works, while the throughput was tallied for him alone. Still, according to the newspaper, Stakhanov's approach had eventually led to the increased productivity by means of a better organization of the work, including specialization and task sequencing.

It has also been claimed that his record was beaten by Alija Sirotanović of Yugoslavia and Sergej Scemuk of Ukraine.

References

1906 births
1977 deaths
Russian people
Recipients of the Order of Lenin

Alexey Stakhanov


Sudan's people liberation army (SPLA) and Sudan's people liberation movement is a political party in South Sudan. It was founded as a resistance movement / rebel group in 1963. As Sudan's people liberation army, it fought against the Sudanese government, in the Sudanese Civil War. This war ended in 2005. Officially, the movement wanted to create a free secular Sudan, which it called "New Sudan". In reality, however, many people in the movement wanted to create an independent state, South Sudan. In 2005, there was a peace treaty. From that moment, until 2011, the SPLM was part of the Sudanese government. Since the independence of South Sudan in 2011, the SPLM is de facto the only party in the country. In the south, the SPLA will become the regular army. In the north, the SPLM is still part of the government. In the provinces South Kordofan and Blue Nile, the SPLA is one of the armies fighting the government.

Sudan
Political parties in Africa
Nationalist organizations in Africa

Sudan People's Liberation Movement


Georgios Kartalis (, 1908–1957) was a Greek politician.

Early life and political career
Kartalis was born in Athens to a distinguished family from Volos. He went to school in Geneva and enrolled in the ETH Zürich, only to change after the first year to Economics at the University of Munich and the University of Leipzig. He continued his studies by taking courses in Economy at the London School of Economics (1930–1932) and the University of Kiel (1932–1933).

Kartalis returned to Greece in 1933 in order to take up the family's role in the local politics of Volos. He stood unsuccessfully for the city's mayor in 1933, but in the June 1935 elections he was elected as an MP in the People's Party ticket. His knowledge of economy and finance led to his immediate appointment General Secretary in the Economics Ministry in the government of Panagis Tsaldaris, and after the royalist October coup of General Georgios Kondylis he was named Labour Minister.

The imposition of the dictatorial Metaxas Regime on 4 August 1936 marked a profound shift in Kartalis' political views: whereas his family had traditionally been conservative monarchists, and Kartalis himself had both campaigned with the royalist People's Party, which had never accepted the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935), and even held a post in Kondylis' government, which had restored the monarchy, Kartalis now became a convinced republican and was involved in a number of anti-regime initiatives.

Second World War
On the outbreak of the Greco-Italian War on 28 October 1940, Kartalis volunteered for the front. In April/May 1941 however, the German army overran Greece, placing the country under a brutal triple occupation. The first resistance groups began to appear in the summer and autumn of 1941, although the armed resistance movement would not begin until a year later. From October 1941, Kartalis began to meet with several Venizelist and republican Army colonels such as Evripidis Bakirtzis with the view of forming a republican-oriented resistance group. Finally, with the cooperation of Colonel Dimitrios Psarros, the National and Social Liberation (EKKA) movement was founded in early autumn 1942. EKKA aspired to a purely republican regime after the war, including vaguely socialist ideas such as a "socialization" of industry.

EKKA became the third major resistance group after the communist-led Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the republican National Republican Greek League (EDES), with its own armed force, named after the famed 5/42 Evzone Regiment, being established on 20 April 1943. From the outset however, EKKA came into intense rivalry with ELAS. ELAS forces attacked and dissolved the unit in May 1943, and it was only after sustained political maneuvering and British pressure that it was able to reform in autumn 1943. In his capacity as EKKA's political head, Kartalis went to Cairo from 9 August to 14 September as part of a Greek Resistance delegation for talks with the British and the Greek government in exile. Inside Greece, rivalry with ELAS continued, and in April 1944, ELAS forces attacked and overwhelmed the 5/42 Evzones, capturing and executing Psarros in the process. Kartalis however participated as EKKA's representative in the Lebanon Conference of May 1944, which led to the creation of a national unity government under George Papandreou. In this government, Kartalis held the post of Vice-Minister of Press and Information.

Post-war career
After the country was liberated in October 1944, Papandreou's government was soon faced with the mutual mistrust and rivalry between EAM-ELAS, which controlled most of the country, and the forces of the British-backed government-in-exile, which attracted the support of many of the pre-war political elites. Despite disagreements with Papandreou, Kartalis remained in office as Minister without portfolio from October 1944 to Papandreou's resignation on 3 January 1945, during the Dekemvriana clashes between ELAS and British forces. Kartalis also served as Supply Minister in the government of Themistoklis Sophoulis (November 1945 – April 1946), and in the 1950-1952 Nikolaos Plastiras cabinets as Finance and Government Coordination Minister. His tenure in these last posts was of critical importance for the recovery and stabilization of the Greek economy from the devastations of World War II. His reforms shored up public finances and paved the way for the Greek economic miracle of the 1950s and 1960s.

Together with Alexandros Svolos he founded the Democratic Party of the Working People, but failed to get elected into Parliament in the 1952 elections. He then stood successfully in 1954 as mayor of Volos, holding the office until his re-election into Parliament in 1956. He died of heart failure on 27 September 1957 in London.

References

1908 births
1957 deaths
Politicians from Athens
People's Party (Greece) politicians
National Progressive Centre Union politicians
Liberal Democratic Union (Greece) politicians
Finance ministers of Greece
Government ministers of Greece
Greek MPs 1935–1936
Greek MPs 1950–1951
Greek MPs 1951–1952
Greek MPs 1956–1958
Republicanism in Greece
Greek Resistance members
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Greek expatriates in Switzerland

Georgios Kartalis


Europium is a chemical element. It has the symbol Eu on the periodic table. It has an atomic number 63 which means it has 63 protons in one atom. It was named after the continent Europe. Its compounds can fluoresce, or glow under ultraviolet light.It costs $6700/KG. In the periodic table it stands next to samarium and gadolinium.

Color: Silvery White
Melting point: 826 degrees Celsius
Discovery Date: 1901

Related pages
 Periodic table
 List of common elements

Lanthanides

Europium


Rudi Dutschke born Alfred Willi Rudi Dutschke (March 7, 1940 – December 24, 1979, Århus, Denmark) was a spokesperson of the left-wing German student movement of the 1960s. He famously split from those who went on to form the violent Red Army Faction. Instead he wanted to have 'a long march through the institutions' of power to create radical change from within government and society by becoming an important part of the machinery. This was an idea he took up from Antonio Gramsci and the Frankfurt School of Cultural Marxism.

In 1968, he survived an assassination attempt which seriously injured him. He had to re-learn how to speak altogether. Because of this attempt, he developed epilepsy. He drowned in his bath tub 12 years later. This was caused by an epileptic seizure.

References

German politicians
1940 births
1979 deaths

Rudi Dutschke


The Brahmanda Purana is one of the oldest Puranas. Estimates for the composition of its earliest core vary widely. The early 20th-century Indian scholar Dikshitar dated the Brahmanda to 4th-century BCE. Most later scholarship places this text to be from centuries later, in the 4th- to 6th-century BCE. The text is generally assumed, states Ludo Rocher, to have achieved its current structure about 1000 CE.

The text was often changed after the 10th-century, and new sections probably replaced older ones. The 13th-century Yadava dynasty scholar Hemadri quoted large parts of the then existing Brahmanda Purana, but these parts are not found in currently surviving versions of the same text. This suggests that the 13th-century version of this Purana was different in many respects than extant manuscripts.

The Adhyatma-ramayana, the most important embedded set of chapters in the extant versions of the Purana, is considered to have been composed centuries later, possibly in the 15th-century, and is attributed to Ramananda – the Advaita scholar and the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya, the largest monastic group in Hinduism and in Asia in modern times. The Adhyatma-ramayana thus was added to this Purana later, and it is an important document to the Rama-related tradition within Hinduism.

A Javanese Brahmanda palm-leaf manuscript was discovered in Indonesia in the mid-19th century by colonial-era Dutch scholars, along with other Puranas. The Sanskrit originals of these are either lost or yet to be discovered. The Javanese Brahmanda was translated by the Dutch Sanskrit scholar Jan Gonda and compared to Sanskrit texts found in India.
Hinduism
10th-century works

Brahmanda Purana


Géza Alföldy (June 7, 1935 – November 6, 2011) was a Hungarian historian of ancient history.

Life
Géza Alföldy was born in Budapest.  He studied at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Budapest from 1953 to 1958, where he in 1959 received a doctorate. Alföldy worked at the Budapest city museum from 1957 to 1960, and from 1960 to 1965 he was an assistant professor at the Institute for Ancient History at the University of Budapest. In 1965, he emigrated to West Germany, where he initially worked at the Bonn Rhenanian State Museum from 1965 to 1968. During this time, Alföldy earned a habilitation at the University of Bonn in 1966, where he served as a university lecturer and eventually as a full professor. In the same year he became professor of Ancient History at the Ruhr University Bochum. Alföldy was appointed professor for Ancient History at the University of Heidelberg in 1975 and stayed there until his retirement in 2002. After the renewal of his professorship, Alföldy taught as a substitute professor until 2005.  He died in 2011 whilst visiting Athens, Greece.

In 2003, he acted as historical counsel for the two-part historical film "Imperium: Augustus" starring Peter O'Toole.

Work
Alföldys's main fields of research are:
 History and epigraphy of the Roman Empire
 Roman social, military and administrative history
 History of the Roman provinces
 Historiography of the Roman imperial era and late antiquity
 Roman prosopography

In the 1990s, Alföldy also concerned himself with the modern history of his native Hungary.

Within the scope of his epigraphical studies, Gezá Alföldy visited many countries (Albania, Algeria, Austria, Britain, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Jordan, Libya, Portugal, Spain, Syria, Turkey, Tunisia, and Yugoslavia) in order to research original ancient inscriptions.

Furthermore, Alföldy was a guest professor at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (1972/73), in Rome from 1986 and 2003, in Paris (1991), and Pécs (still in 1993)  in Poznań (1992), in Budapest (1993), and also in Barcelona in 1997 and 1998.

In addition, he continued to deliver diverse academic lectures both in and outside Germany, while supervising scores of new academics during their promotion or habilitation phases (more than one dozen alone since 1992).

Alföldy was also co-editor of numerous international academic journals and periodicals. His name was especially associated with the Heidelberger Althistorische Beiträge und Epigraphische Studien (HABES), which he was sole editor from 1986. Alföldy was corresponding member or honorary member of multiple academic societies and academies and a respected member of the Heidelberg Academy since 1978.

Apart from organizations like the Heidelberg Academy, Alföldy also worked at many other German research institutes: the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the German Archaeological Institute, as well as at Italian, French, and Spanish facilities for research of classical antiquity.

Honours

Honorary doctorates

 Autonomous University of Barcelona, Doctor honoris causa, 1988.
 University of Pécs, Doctor honoris causa, 1992
 Eötvös Loránd University of Budapest, Doctor et professor honoris causa, 1992
 University of Lyon III, Doctor honoris causa, 1996
 University of Bologna, Doctor honoris causa, 2002
 Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Doctor honoris causa, 2004
 University of Debrecen, Doctor honoris causa, 2005
 Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona Doctor honoris causa, 2008

Other honours
 Hungarian Archaeology and Art History Society, Kuzsinszky Medal, 1965 (the medal could not be awarded at that time because of Alföldy's emigration out of Hungary; it was awarded in 1992)
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 1986
 Medal of the University Central of Barcelona, Faculty of Philosophy and Letters of Tarragona, 1988
 Max Planck Research Prize of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and the Max Planck Society (obtained together with Silvio Panciera, University of Rome), 1992
 Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Barcelona), Premi Internacional Catalònia de 1997, 1997
 Centro Segoviano, Premios "Tierra de Segovia: sus hijos y sus obras": Premio Andrés Laguna, 1997
 Commemorative insignia of Rome, 1997
 Commemorative insignia of the President of the Hungarian Republic "Nagy Imre" for "prominent work in support of the spirit of the Revolution of 1956", 1997
 Medal of the University of A Coruña – Ferrol, 1998
 Medal of the University of La Rioja, Logroño, 2000
 Medal of the University of Valladolid, 2000
 Creu de San Jordi (Cross of Saint George) of the Catalan government, 2001
 Verdienstkreuz (Federal Cross of Merit) of the 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 2002
 University Medal of the University of Heidelberg, 2006 (for his commitment to international exchange)

Writings
 Bevölkerung und Gesellschaft der römischen Provinz Dalmatien. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1965
 Epigraphische Studien. Rheinland-Verlag, 1968
 Die Hilfstruppen der römischen Provinz Germania inferior. 1968
 Fasti Hispanienses. Senatorische Reichsbeamte und Offiziere in den spanischen Provinzen des römischen Reiches von Augustus bis Diokletian. Steiner, Wiesbaden 1969
 Konsulat und Senatorenstand unter den Antoninen. Prosopographische Untersuchungen zur senatorischen Führungsschicht. Habelt, Bonn 1977
 Sir Ronald Syme, 'Die römische Revolution' und die deutsche Althistorie. 1983
 Römische Sozialgeschichte. 3. Aufl. Steiner, Stuttgart 1984 (Wissenschaftliche Paperbacks. Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Band 8)
 Antike Sklaverei. Widersprüche, Sonderformen, Grundstrukturen. 1988
 Der Obelisk auf dem Petersplatz in Rom. Ein historisches Monument der Antike. Heidelberg 1990
 Ungarn 1956. 1998
 Die römische Gesellschaft. Ausgewählte Beiträge. Steiner, Stuttgart 1998
 Die Krise des Römischen Reiches. Steiner, Stuttgart 1998
 Städte, Eliten und Gesellschaften in der Gallia Cisalpina. Epigraphisch-historische Untersuchungen. Steiner, Stuttgart 1999
 Inschriftliche Denkmäler als Medien der Selbstdarstellung in der römischen Welt. (mit Silvio Panciera) Steiner, Stuttgart 2001
 Römische Sozialgeschichte. 4., völlig überarbeitete und aktualisierte Aufl. Steiner, Stuttgart 2011

References

External links

 Alföldy's homepage at the University of Heidelberg.
 Wikimedia category: Drawings by Géza Alföldy

20th-century Hungarian historians
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize winners
1935 births
2011 deaths
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Historians of ancient Rome
21st-century Hungarian historians
Members of the Institute for Catalan Studies

Géza Alföldy


André Benoît Mathieu Meyer (September 3, 1898 – September 9, 1979) was a French-American  investment banker.

Biography
Meyer was born to a low-income Jewish family in Paris. As a boy, he began following the workings of the stock market and out of necessity left school at age sixteen to work as a messenger at the Paris Bourse. Ambitious, he used his time to study the intricacies of stock trading and because of personnel shortages created by so many young French men serving in the military in World War I, he was able to get a job with Baur & Fils, a small Paris bank. By 1925, his performance with the bank got him noticed by Raymond Philippe, who arranged for him to get an offer from the prestigious investment bankers Lazard Frères. Within a few years Meyer was made a partner, succeeding to Raymond Philippe.

At Lazard, André Meyer organized SOVAC (Societé pour la Vente à Crédit d'Automobiles), a finance company that in the late twenties introduced the concept of automobile financing for consumers. It made Lazard Frères a significant force in consumer credit as well as in product leasing. As well, from 1927, representing Lazard along with Paul Frantzen and Raymond Philippe, André Meyer was elected to Board of Directors of the failing automobile giant Citroën. They took charge of company expenditures and substantially reduced operating costs while putting together a financial restructuring plan that saved the company from liquidation. For his service to the economy of France, the government awarded him with the Legion of Honor.

Married with two children, Meyer, who was Jewish, and his family were forced to flee France following the Nazi occupation during World War II. He came to Lazard Frères' New York City office with Chairman Pierre David-Weill (1900–1975) and following the Allied Forces liberation in 1944 David-Weill returned to France and Meyer was appointed head of the American operations, a position he would occupy for the rest of his life.

André Meyer, called "the most creative financial genius of our time in the investment banking world" by David Rockefeller, became one of the most important people in American business with an influence that extended around the globe. Known as "The Picasso of Banking," he introduced innovative financing techniques to post-War American business. During the 1960s, Meyer was responsible for making Lazard Frères the top mergers and acquisitions (M&A) firm in the U.S. He put together prodigious deals through leveraged buyouts for companies such as International Telephone & Telegraph Company (ITT) who grew to become the ninth largest industrial corporation in the United States.

Although he personally was publicity-shy, André Meyer was an advisor to the Kennedy family and a lifelong friend and advisor to Jackie Onassis. He was a friend and advisor to other high-profile public figures such as William S. Paley at CBS and Katharine Graham at The Washington Post''. He was also a close confidant of U.S., President Lyndon Johnson, consulting at the Oval Office several times a year during Johnson's tenure.

An avid collector of art objects, Meyer's eclectic assemblages included paintings by Claude Monet, Marc Chagall, and Pablo Picasso, sculptures, Louis XIV furniture, and original music scores. In 1961, he gave artwork to Museum of Modern Art in New York, including a major work by Paul Cézanne. Following his death, the Metropolitan Museum of Art acquired his collection of 19th century European art.  His collection of music scores began with works by Georg Muffat and Jean-Philippe Rameau, and expanded to include scores by Georg Frideric Handel, François Couperin, Antonio Vivaldi, Vincent Lübeck, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Christoph Willibald Gluck, a sketchleaf of Ludwig van Beethoven once owned by Frédéric Chopin, Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, Johann Kuhnau, Domenico Scarlatti, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Johann Christian Bach, and Carl Friedrich Abel.  When his collection was sold by Sotheby's on 16 and 17 October 2012, they noted that the collection contained beautifully bound 16th and 17th century scores by composers whose manuscripts rarely come up at auction anymore  including Orlande de Lassus, Claudio Monteverdi, Jacques Arcadelt, Cristóbal de Morales, Luca Marenzio, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Marco da Gagliano, Girolamo Frescobaldi, Jacopo Peri & Ottavio Rinuccini, and Antonio Cesti, among others.

André Meyer maintained a vacation home in Crans-sur-Sierre, Valais, Switzerland and while there in the summer of 1979, he fell ill. He died of circulatory problems in the Nestlé Hospital in Lausanne, and was interred near his closest friend and business partner Pierre David-Weill in the Jewish section of the Cemetery of Montparnasse in the Montparnasse Quarter of Paris, France.

Legacy
Felix Rohatyn credits Meyer as his mentor. Rohatyn asserts that Meyer's guidance and advice made success at Lazard possible.

Notes

References

1898 births
1979 deaths
Jewish American bankers
American financial businesspeople
American art collectors
American money managers
American philanthropists
French art collectors
Jewish art collectors
French emigrants to the United States
French money managers
20th-century French Jews
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery

André Meyer


The American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) is an ornithological organization. It is found in the USA. Its members are mainly professional ornithologists. It is similar to the National Audubon Society, except its members are mainly amateur birders. It is a member of the Ornithological Council.

It was founded in September 1883 by Elliott Coues, Joel Asaph Allen, and William Brewster.

It has a journal, called The Auk. It is published four times a year. It has been published since January, 1884. Some of its other big publications are the AOU Checklist of North American Birds and a series, Ornithological Monographs. The AOU Checklist of North American Birds is the standard reference for the field.

The South American Classification Committee (SACC) is a committee under the AOU. It deals with creating a standard classification, with English names. This is for the bird species of South America.

Other websites
 AOU website
 SACC website

Birds

American Ornithologists' Union


Grampian was a government region in north east Scotland. It was named after the Grampian mountains which start in this region.

The capital city of the region was Aberdeen.

The region was created in 1974. It was removed in 1995 because local government in Scotland was  made simpler.

Local government in Scotland

Grampian


Guatemala City is the capital of Guatemala. It is the largest city in Central America. It has a population of 942,348 in the city itself and 2,945,080 including all the suburbs. It was founded in the year 1773 after strong earthquakes damaged the old capital, Antigua Guatemala.

The city has being the center of trade and comerce in Guatemala since it's establishment. The main center of trade and comerce can be found on the Central Market and The Terminal, which recently suffered from a fire. Guatemala City is a center of culture showing this on the Museum for Children, La Sexta (an open pedestrian street) and The National Palace (where the government operated until the 50s).

1773 establishments
National capitals in North America
Cities in Central America

Establishments in Guatemala
1770s establishments in North America

Guatemala City


Robert Massard (born August 15, 1925) is a French baritone, primarily associated with the French repertory. He is one of a number of outstanding French opera singers of the postwar era.

Career

Massard was born in Pau, France, and was mainly self-taught. After singing in his native province, Massard made his professional debut at the Paris Opera in 1952, as the High Priest in Samson et Dalila, shortly followed by Valentin in Faust. The same year, he also made his debut at the Aix-en-Provence Festival, as Thoas in Iphigénie en Tauride. His career rapidly took an international dimension with debuts in 1955, at La Scala and the Glyndebourne Festival, both as Ramiro in L'heure espagnole. Oreste in Iphigénie en Tauride was his debut role at the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino, the Royal Opera House in London, and the Edinburgh Festival. Massard also appeared in North and South America, notably at the Lyric Opera of Chicago, at Carnegie Hall in New York, the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires. Henceforth considered one of the best French baritone of his generation, he was internationally acclaimed as Valentin in Faust, Escamillo in Carmen, Chorèbe in Les Troyens, Fieramosca in Benvenuto Cellini, and Golaud in Pelléas et Mélisande.

Massard also enjoyed considerable success in the Italian repertory, singing Enrico in Lucia di Lammermoor, notably at the Paris Opera in 1960, opposite Joan Sutherland, and Riccardo in I puritani in London in 1961, again with Sutherland. He also appeared as Rigoletto and Germont in La traviata. Massard also sang in contemporary works, such as Le Roi David and L'école des maris by Emmanuel Bondeville, and Médée by Darius Milhaud.

Massard made many recordings, the two most famous being Faust, opposite Joan Sutherland, Franco Corelli, Nicolai Ghiaurov, and Carmen, opposite Maria Callas, Nicolai Gedda and Andréa Guiot, with Georges Prêtre conducting.

Robert Massard was also active as a teacher at the Conservatoire de musique of Bordeaux.

Sources
 Alain Pâris, Dictionnaire des interprètes et de l'interprétation musicale au XX siècle (2 vols), Ed. Robert Laffont (Bouquins, Paris 1982, 4th Edn. 1995, 5th Edn 2004).
 Roland Mancini and Jean-Jacques Rouveroux,  (orig. H. Rosenthal and J. Warrack, French edition), Guide de l'opéra, Les indispensables de la musique (Fayard, 1995).

1925 births
People from Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques
20th-century French male opera singers
French operatic baritones
Living people

Robert Massard


The Pinnacle Point Man is a name given to a group of Homo sapiens believed to have lived in a cave at Pinnacle Point 164,000 years ago. This cave is near Mosselbaai/Mossel Bay on the south coast South Africa. Discoveries in the cave show that these early humans were able to work with haematite pieces, and used ochre to paint their bodies. The discovery challenges the widely held belief that modern human behaviour began only 45,000 years ago. It also challenges the view that this behaviour was reached through a "large cultural leap".

Because the African climate became cool and dry, the food resources were reduced dramatically. This was the reason why the Pinnacle Point man moved to the shores. There, they could eat marine creatures like mussels, snails and crabs. These men also used amazingly subtle tools. Microliths were mounted on wood shafts

The Discovery

The startling discovery was made in 2007 by an international team, including the palaeoanthropologist Curtis Marean from the Institute of Human Origins of the Arizona State University and three graduate students of the School of Human Evolution and Social Change. They came to the conclusion that humans living in the cave started to eat new foods. They added shellfish and other marine resources to their diet. The cause for this evolution was the climate change. It is the first evidence that mankind was able to this. The report in the magazine Nature also reports that the evidence for using coloured pigments was also found. This is much earlier than the earliest known usage which had been from 70,000 years ago.

The findings give rise to the assumption that living near the coast has caused the changes.

Searching for beginnings
The evidence shows that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa 100,000 to 200,000 years ago. At that time, the world was in an ice age, and Africa was a desert. But as archaeologica sites dating to that time period are rare in Africa, palaeonthologist Curtis Marean looked at different information. He studied geologic formations, the sea currents, climate data and much more. As a result, he was able to pinpoint his research to destinations like the Pinnacle Point cave, where the findings have been made.

References

Other websites
  Tagesspiegel vom 18.10.2007
 Paleoanthropologist Curtis Marean in Cave 13B at Pinnacle Point in South Africa

Hominins

Pinnacle Point Man


Twilight is a 2008 American teen romantic-fantasy movie. It is based on the novel by Stephenie Meyer. The movie was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and stars Robert Pattinson, Kristen Stewart, and Taylor Lautner. Stephenie Meyer has a cameo appearance in the movie. The movie is about a teenage girl and a vampire falling in love.

The movie was a huge success. It was released in cinemas on November 21, 2008 and grossed $35.7 million on this day. Since then, it has gone on to gross over $382,133,300 worldwide. The soundtrack for the movie was released on November 4, 2008 and debuted at #1 on the Billboard 200. The soundtrack contains all of the music from the movie including music created and sung by actor Robert Pattinson, who appeared in the movie.

Plot
Bella Swan, who is seventeen years old, moves to Forks, a small town in Washington, to live with her father, Charlie, after her mother remarries. She meets many new friends at High School and they inform her about the Cullen family, and Bella becomes intrigued. Edward Cullen, who is in Bella's Biology class, acts very strangely when he sees her for the first time, which makes Bella confused. A few days later, Bella is almost hit with a blue van in the school parking lot. Edward manages to move extremely quickly by her side and pushes the van away with his hand, leaving a huge pressure mark in the side of the van. Bella did not know how he managed to do this, so she is determined to find out. However, Edward refuses to explain what happened, and warns her not to be friends with him.

After Bella does lots of research, she finds out that Edward Cullen is a vegetarian vampire. Bella and Edward fall in love and Edward introduces her to his family, Carlisle, Esme, Alice, Jasper, Emmett, and Rosalie who are also vampires. They invite Bella to play baseball with them, and she agrees. However, three other vampires called James, Victoria and Laurent arrive and disrupt the game. James, who is a tracker vampire, is intrigued by Edward's protectiveness over a human girl and wants to hunt Bella. Edward and his family risk their lives to protect her, but James gets Bella on her own after lying to her that he was holding her mother hostage. James attacks Bella and bites her wrist, but Edward, along with the other Cullen family members, arrives before he can kill her. James is destroyed, and Edward sucks James's venom from Bella's wrist, preventing her from becoming a vampire.

A severely injured Bella is taken to a hospital. Upon returning to Forks, Bella and Edward attend their school prom. While there, Bella expresses her desire to become a vampire, which Edward ignores. The movie ends with Victoria secretly watching the pair dancing, plotting revenge for her love.

Other websites

2008 fantasy movies
2008 romantic drama movies
2000s teen drama movies
2000s teen romance movies
2000s American fantasy movies
American romantic drama movies
American teen drama movies
American teen romance movies
2000s English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in Washington (state)
Phoenix, Arizona in fiction
Vampires in movies

Twilight (2008 movie)


Rattle is a hamlet in the English county of Derbyshire.  It is part of the village of Ashover.  This portion of the village was the centre of stocking frame working in Ashover and probably derives its name from the noise made by the machines.

The frames were owned and operated by individual families who converted the top floors of their already cramped cottages to accommodate the large, complex machines.  Raw materials, such as silk or cotton, where obtained from a local entrepreneur.  He would then collect the finished stockings and pay the machinist a piece rate, usually very low.

In the 18th century and 19th century, most of the cottages then existing in Rattle housed at least one spinning or weaving frame.  Today, the only surviving 'weaver's cottages' are at the junction of Chapel Hill and Hill Road.

See also
Wessington
List of places in Derbyshire

Hamlets in Derbyshire
Towns and villages of the Peak District
North East Derbyshire District

Rattle, Derbyshire


Equestrianism is the sport of horseback riding. It is a popular sport in countries like the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and other countries in Europe. Horses are used in many different competitions.

Within the sport, there are several types of riding, such as English and Western.

English riding is part of the Olympics there are several equestrian competitions, Dressage, Show jumping and Eventing, where three individual disciplines; dressage, showjumping and cross country are all performed by the same horse and rider partnership . There are no forms of Western riding in the Olympics.

Show jumping

In show jumping, a rider rides a horse over a set course of horse jumps while being timed.  Riders win by having the fastest time without mistakes.  There are many types of horse jumps such as the vertical (a jump which is straight up and down and has no depth), the  oxer (a jump which is two or more rails deep, creating a wider jump), and combinations (2 or 3 jumps put right after each other). Courses will generally include more than 10 jumps, and require the horse and rider to do many complicated turns, jump at difficult angles, and perform more advanced tests of ability and communication.

Not every type of horse can jump well, just like not all horses are able to do well at horse racing or farm work.  Most horses seen in show jumping competitions are warmblood and thoroughbred horses which were bred for equestrian sports.  The riding has been popular since 1900.

Dressage
Dressage is an event where horses are judged "on the flat" (no jumps) and where horse and rider are tested on their ability to talk to each other and perform specific tasks in a specific order within a time period. There is usually a sequence of activities that the horse and rider must complete. Letters are placed around a sand filled arena to show where movements should happen.  In dressage the horse and rider can also perform a freestyle, which is also known as "Dancing on Horseback". Dressage riders usually wear tight pants called breeches, as well as a blouse, a top coat and a top hat.  The moves of the horse should be very graceful. Horses and riders that compete at the Olympics in dressage have had many years of training to learn all the moves they must do together for the competition.

Eventing
Eventing (or 3-day-eventing) combines dressage, show jumping, and the horse version of cross country into one sport. This combined training is based on the old military tests of the cavalry where the rider's life depended on the horse listening to what the rider told it to do. In eventing, the horse and rider compete in three separate tests of skill typically over 2–3 days: Dressage, Show Jumping, and Cross Country.

The cross country test makes this sport different from the other equestrian sports. It requires the horse to canter and gallop at a high speed over solid and complicated jumps and jump combinations. These jumps may be logs, stone walls, water, ditches, or banks. The cross country course is very long, and at the Olympics it may take as long as 10 minutes to complete the course.

The dressage test makes sure that the horse is listening to the rider, is relaxed, and is able to do very difficult small tasks. It tests that the horse is very well trained. The cross-country course makes sure that the horse is fast, has long-distance endurance, and is brave. Cross-country fences may be very scary and the horses may become tired while running. The show jumping test makes sure that the horse and rider are in good physical condition, have excellent jumping skills, and are able to jump many high jumps in a short period of time without making a mistake. This is an especially difficult test as the athletes will be tired after completing the other tests. If the horse is too tired, he will hit the show jumps and make it harder for the rider to win.

Sometimes bad accidents happen during the cross country course it is a huge risk if you join the course.

Hunter-jumper
In the Hunter-jumper discipline, people ride horses in various classes meant to test skills required in English fox hunting. Tests may be conducted over fences or "under saddle" meaning without jumps. In this discipline, the horse is being judged on how easy it makes each of the tests look. It is the job of the rider to make the test look as easy as possible, to not show signs of forcing the horse to do anything, and to let the horse show its ability.

Under saddle, a horse should walk, trot, and canter in both directions easily and relaxed. The horse should not show signs of being annoyed, show anger, change speed, or misbehave in any other way. In some cases, riders may be asked to "jog" their horses, which is where they get off the horse, take off the saddle, and run on foot next to the horse to show that it has no injuries and so the judge can look at the horse to see if it has the right body for hunting.

Over fences, riders will be asked to take the horses over a course of natural jump fences, made to look like the obstacles encountered in the English countryside. The courses are simple, with no tight turns, or complicated jumps, and usually only one or two changes of direction. The horse must keep the same speed throughout the course, they must not touch any of the jumps with their body, and the rider must make it look as easy as possible.

Hunter-jumper is one of the most popular disciplines for children and teenagers. Classes are also offered at most shows for adults and professionals as well.

Stock work
Stock work began when horses were ridden on a ranch to round up cows, sheep, or other animals.  Today, horse shows also have competitions for horses to show these skills. These include Cutting, Reining, Barrel Racing, Cattle Penning, Calf Roping, Campdrafting,  and Pole Bending.

Driving
Driving in the horse world means that a horse is pulling a type of wagon. It knows where to go by a person sitting on the wagon that tells them which direction they should turn. A horse used to pull a wagon is usually bigger and heavier than most other horses.  The hooves are also much larger than a racing horse. Large horses are calm, trustworthy and good-natured. Types of heavy horses are: Belgians, Shires, Clydesdale, Friesian horse, and Gypsy Vanners. These horse breeds are generally quiet, strong, heavy, but gentle. Beginner equestrians may be able to communicate with these well tempered horses.

Races of horses pulling carts are called harness races. Harness racing is typically done at a trot and by a single horse pulling a light cart with a single jockey.

In other types of carriage or harness races, teams of multiple horses may race around figure 8 courses. Horses may also compete in individual driving competitions which require individual or teams of horses to be guided through a serious of tests.

Racing

Horse racing tests the speed of a horse. Different breeds do different types of races. The most popular type in the U.S. is Thoroughbred racing, where only horses of this breed can participate in galloping around a track. There are also endurance races, trotting races and steeplechases (horses galloping around a track with jumps). Most horses that are used for racing are ridden by professional riders called jockeys. Usually the people that own or train the horse do not ride it in the races.

Barrel racing is a sport where the rider rides the horse in a pattern around three barrels. The rider must be able to turn the horse very quickly around the barrels. The horse that does the pattern the fastest is the winner.

Pleasure riding
Pleasure riding is riding for enjoyment, not for awards. People ride horses on trails in the forest, along quiet roads, or in an arena near their homes or barns. Horse back riding lessons could be considered pleasure riding.  Pleasure riding can be called trail riding. Pleasure riding does not have to be for any specific reason, just for fun and enjoyment. Riding in a horse carriage may also be for pleasure.

Endurance
Endurance riding is an equestrian long-distance race.  There are two main types of endurance rides which are competitive trail riding and endurance rides.

The Risk
If you join the Cross country course there is a huge risk of it. Lots of accidents happen during the course. Sometimes the horses die or need to be taken to the vet. But equestrians fall of very much.

Horse riding

Equestrianism


Inbreeding is a term in genetics, meaning the crossing (mating) of closely related animals or plants.  Self-fertilisation in plants is the most extreme kind of inbreeding.  It is quite widespread in plants which carry both male and female flowers on the same plant. Inbreeding is the opposite of outcrossing, which is the mating of unrelated members of the same species. The combination of inbreeding and outcrossing is a standard method of artificial selection.

Other terms are inbred strain, a group of organisms so inbred that they have little or no genetic variation, and inbreeding depression, which is the decreased fitness (usually lack of fertility and early illness and death) brought about by inbreeding.

Inbred strains, for example of mice or drosophila, are often used in biology as model organisms when genetic uniformity makes them useful in investigation of such things as drugs and cancer.

For human beings, inbreeding is destructive, and almost all cultures have an incest taboo. For example, many prohibit marriage between first cousins, and most prohibit it for closer family members.

Loss of genetic variation
Loss of genetic variation means that many gene loci that were heterozygous are now homozygous. The result of both genes at a locus being mutant can be serious.

The most intense form of inbreeding is the self-fertilisation in an hermaphrodite, in which the proportion of heterozygotes is halved in each generation.p139 Aa x Aa (100%) gives 1 AA: 2 Aa; 1 aa (50%), and so on. A similar effect takes twice as long with brother-sister mating, and longer still with mating in very small isolated groups. The latter situation is famous because Sewall Wright did his calculations for just such groups, and he called the process genetic drift. Genetic drift and inbreeding are closely related concepts.

The degree of inbreeding can be measured in various ways. A simple test for mammals is the exchange of skin grafts. If the grafts are not rejected, the animals must be nearly identical genetically. Skin grafts can be successfully exchanged between rats in standard laboratory strains, and between cheetahs caught in the wild.

Discussion
Why is it that inbreeding brings about a loss of viability? There are two answers, and both seem to be true. The first is that a group with little genetic variation is vulnerable to environmental challenges: infections, sudden climate events, predators. Small groups are vulnerable to chance events in any case, but with no heritable variability they are even more vulnerable.

The second explanation is genetic. Some of the homozygous genes will be deleterious recessives which would normally be shielded by a dominant allele. Also, there are some loci where the heterozygote is inherently fitter than either homozygote. If so, inbreeding will automatically cause a loss of vigour.p103

Many plant species do self-pollination in the wild, but the great majority have occasional outcrossing. This provides them with sufficient variety for their survival.

References

Classical genetics

Inbreeding


The Indian Emblem of India  is the symbol of the Republic of India, formally called 'National emblem'. It has four lions. The idea for this coat of arms was taken from the Sarnath Lion Capital that was built by Indian emperor Ashoka. It's a pillar in the city of Sarnath. Ashoka built it around 250 BC using a single piece of polished sandstone. The symbol is invariably used on all types of currency notes, passports and coins of India. In the two dimensional view of this symbol, one can see 3 heads (the fourth being hidden from view). It was adopted on 26 January 1950, the day that India became a republic.

The lions represent royalty and pride. It also represents the currency.

The wheel beneath the lions is called the Ashoka Chakra or Dharmachakra comes from Buddhism, representing Truth and Honesty. The horse and the bull probably stand for the Strength (Mental) of the people of India. There are four Ashoka Chakras in total around the emblem and two horses and bulls each.

The verse written below, Satyamev Jayate is a very popular and revered saying in the ancient language Sanskrit. It can be divided phonetically into three words - Satyam, which means truth, Ev or aev, that is, only and Jayate which means wins or won. The whole verse can be translated as, 'Only (the one who speaks) the truth will win or wins.' This verse describes the power of honesty and truth in society and religion. You can lie to your friends, family, but you cannot lie to God and yourself. Your conscience will forever be stained.

The verse can also be translated as 'The truth alone triumphs'. Meaning that even after all the lies and deceptions with which we have been fooled, the truth will finally emerge victorious.

References

India
National symbols of India
Lions in heraldry

Coat of arms of India


A mall or shopping center is a large building that is full of many smaller shops and stores.  It is different from earlier markets or bazaars because most of the shops are not little booths or stalls in one big open area.  Each store has its own space with walls.  Most of their entrances face a central walking area inside the building.

People visit the stores in the mall to shop.  Most malls have parking lots (places to park cars).  Most malls also have roofs so people can shop inside.  Most malls have a food court where people buy food.  Some malls have movie theatres.

Name
"Mall" is the most common name for these buildings in America, and "shopping center" is the most common name for them in the United Kingdom. The name "shopping center" is also sometimes used in America. Malls are also sometimes called plazas.

Famous malls
 West Edmonton Mall, in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, is one of the largest malls in the world.
 The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota is one of the largest malls in the world.
 Ala Moana is the largest outdoor mall in the United States.

Mall


Paper is a thin sheet o feebres pressed thegither. Fowk writes on paper, an beuks is made o paper. Paper can souk up liquids sic as watter, an sae fowk can dicht things wi paper.

Makkin Paper
Paper is made frae the wid o trees. Wid is grund up an mixed wi watter an ither chemicals for tae mak a thin liquid cried "paper pulp". Paper pulp can be bleached for tae mak white paper, or dyes can be eikit for tae mak coloured paper. This pulp is pressed intae sheets o paper. When the sheets ir dry, thay are cuttit intae pieces o paper.

Whiles paper is made shiny bi eikin cley or ither materials.

Whiles paper is made frae ither kynds o paper. This is an ensaumple o recyclin.

No aw paper is made frae wid. Ither kinds o feebre can be uised an aw. Fowk maks paper frae cotton, linen, an hemp.

Uises o paper
Paper is uised for writin an prentin. Beuks, jurnals an newspapers is prentit on paper.

Paper is aften uised for siller. Paper uised for siller is aften made in gey special weys for tae mak it haurd for fowk tae prent thir ain siller. A piece o paper money is cried a baunknote, a bill, or a note.

Paper can be uised for dichtin. Special forms o paper is uised, sic as paper touels, facial tissues, or toilet paper.

Pretty paper can be uised as decoration. It can be pastit ontae the waws o a room; this is cried wawpaper. Paper can be uised tae wap gifts. This is cried wappin paper or gift wap.

Some kynds o paper is strang an can be uised in boxes an ither packagin material. Whiles several layers o paper is hauden thegither wi glue for tae mak cairdbuird.

History o paper

Mony centuries syne – sae early as 3000 BC – fowk in Egypt made a kynd o paper frae the papyrus plaunt. This is whaur the wird "paper" comes frae. The fowk o Greece an Roum learnt tae dae this an aw.

Aboot the year 105, a man in Cheenae cried Ts'ai Lun thocht o a wey tae mak paper frae cotton duds. Fowk in Japan learnt hou tae dae this wi feebre frae the mulberry tree, in the year 610. Efter that thir wis shapit intae a kynd o paper made in Japan. This is cried Japanese paper or Washi. This Cheenese discovery spreid tae Indiae, an syne tae the Middle East, an syne tae Italy. A chance o spreidin tae the Middle Aest wis the Battle o Talas in 751. Then airmy o the Arabs captured sodgers o the Cheenese. Thare wis paper makkers amang the caiptive sodgers. In 757 a paper mill wis biggit at Samarkand. Middle Aestren fowk learnt tae uise linen as paper raw material an tae uise stairch made frae floor as a chemical additive. Thir papers wis weel-kent in the Middle Aest. The Italians uised hemp an linen duds. In 1276 the first Italian paper mill wis biggit at Fabriano an till 14 century Italy becam a paper supplier in Europe. In 1282 the first wattermerk wis introduced in Bologna.

Paper wis haurd tae mak, an it cost muckle siller. In the 19t century, new machines wis made that coud mak paper frae wid feebres. This helpit mak paper cheap eneuch for awbody tae coff. Aboot the same time, ither inventions wis made, lik the pincil, the funtain pen, an a prentin press that uised steam pouer. Acause o thir new things, it wis easy for fowk tae write letters, tae buy beuks an newspapers, an tae haud records o whit thay did.

Materials

Paper


Polychlorinated biphenyls (often shortened to PCBs) are organic chemical compounds that contain chlorine atoms. They were used in industrial chemistry, and to make certain transformers, capacitors, and cooling fluids. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants declared them to be among the worst chemical pollutants. Their use has been banned worldwide, since 2001. The mode of action of these substances is similar to that of dioxin.

Polychlorinated biphenyls were widely used, and they can be found in the atmosphere, the soil, and the bodies of water anywhere on the earth. In the short term, these substances are not very toxic, but they accumulate in the body. They are teratogens, and may cause cancer.

Organochlorides

Polychlorinated biphenyl