Aëtus son of Aëtus (in Greek Ἀετὸς τοῦ Ἀετοῦ, in ancient Egyptian (transliterated from demotic) Ꜣyꜣtws (sꜣ) Ꜣyꜣtws) was a priest in the Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great under the reign of Ptolemy V. According to the inscription on the Rosetta Stone Aëtus in 196 BC held the annual priesthood "of Alexander and the Saviour Gods and the Sibling Gods and the Beneficent Gods and the Sibling-loving Gods and the Father-loving God", that is, of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy I Soter and his wife Berenice I Soter, Ptolemy II and his wife and sister Arsinoe II, Ptolemy III Euergetes and his wife Berenice II Euergetis, Ptolemy IV Philadelphus and his wife and sister Arsinoe III Philadelphia, and finally of the young king Ptolemy V Philopator who was still on the throne. All these were worshipped as gods in Ptolemaic Egypt. Aëtus is thought to have been the grandson of Aëtus son of Apollonius, a native of Aspendus in Pamphylia, who became Strategos or military governor of Cilicia under the reign of Ptolemy II.

Bibliography
C. P. Jones, Christian Habicht, "A Hellenistic Inscription from Arsinoe in Cilicia" in Phoenix vol. 43 (1989)
Joshua D. Sosin, "P.Duk.inv. 677: Aetos, from Arsinoite Strategos to Eponymous Priest" in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik vol. 116 (1997) pp. 141–146 Text

Priests of the Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great
2nd-century BC Greek people

Aëtus son of Aëtus


The International Bear Brotherhood Flag is a flag representing the international bear community. The design was probably inspired by the Gay Rainbow Flag and the Leather Pride Flag. The colors represent all the "fur colors and nationalities around the world." The flag was trademarked in 1995. It has been heavily marketed. It appears on tee shirts, baseball caps, license plates, and other items. Two bear flags preceded the International Bear Brotherhood Flag. A flag created by the Front Range Bears was introduced in 1992. It appeared in pride parades in Denver, San Francisco, and the 1993 March on Washington, DC. Colors used for the five diagonally placed stripes were gold, grey, brown, white, and black. Another bear flag was produced in Seattle. It is not seen outside the Northwest. It too uses diagonal stripes.

References

Bear (gay male)
LGBT flags

International Bear Brotherhood Flag


Matschie's tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei), also known as the Huon tree-kangaroo is a tree-kangaroo native to the Huon Peninsula of northeastern New Guinea island, within the nation of Papua New Guinea. Under the IUCN classification, Matschie's tree-kangaroo is an endangered species. The scientific name honours German biologist Paul Matschie. The indigenous population refers to it as a Boongarry.

Description

With a body and head length of , Matschie's tree-kangaroo are much smaller than Australia's well-known red kangaroo. An adult male weighs between 20 and 25 lb (9–11 kg). An adult female weighs between 15 and 20 lb (7–9 kg).

There is no particular season in which they breed. Gestation lasts 44 days and joeys of captive bred individuals leave the pouch after 11 months. The average life span of the Matschie's tree-kangaroo in the wild is unknown, but is at least 14 years. The life span of the kangaroo in a zoo is about 20 years.

The most distinctive trait of all tree-kangaroos is the hair whorl they possess. It is a patch of hair that goes out in many directions and its location ranges from up near the shoulders all the way down to the tail. The Matschie's tree-kangaroo is golden on its ventral side, lower parts of its limbs, ear edges, belly, and tail, and the rest of its body is a chestnut brown colour, except for usually having a dark stripe down its back. Their faces are typically an array of yellow and white colours. The Matschies' are similar in colour and size to Dendrolagus dorianus, the Doria's tree-kangaroo. Matschies' ears are small and bear-like looking and they do not have a good sense of hearing because of it. They have curved claws on their forelimbs and soft pads on their hind limbs that aid in their climbing ability, and they have some independent movement of their digits as well as good dexterity due to their forelimbs being able to bend a great deal. The 4th and 5th digit of their feet are enlarged, the 1st digit is absent, and the 2nd and 3rd digits are syndactylous (two digits that look like one fused together).
Scientists have discovered that the Matschie's are able to walk bipedally and there's a lot of rotation in their limbs for climbing. Out of all of the Dendrolagus species, the Matschie's tree-kangaroo is the best vertical climber and has more strength in its muscles than any others. Their tails help to offset their balance while moving swiftly through the trees since their tails are about the same length as their head and body size. Sexual dimorphism is very low, with males and females being of about equal sizes. The upper and lower jaws of the Matschie's tree-kangaroos are different too in addition to them being different in body size. The upper jaw has three incisors, one canine, one premolar, and four molars, while the lower jaw has one very sharp incisor, no canines and low crowned molars.

Ecology and behavior

Matschie's tree-kangaroo lives in the mountainous rainforests at elevations of between . The kangaroo tends to live either alone or with very small groups, usually composed of just a female, a joey, and a male. They spend most of their time in the trees and come down occasionally to feed. They are very adept at hopping and can leap up to 30 feet (9 m).

Instead of sweating, Matschie's tree-kangaroo licks its forearms and allows the evaporation to help cool its body.

In the wild, it will usually feed on leaves, fruits and mosses. When kept in zoos, it feeds on apples, carrots, yams, corn on the cob, celery, kale/romaine, high fiber monkey biscuits, tofu, hard boiled eggs, and various types of tree boughs (elm, willow, etc.).

In the wild, researchers have found most Matschies' live alone or in small assemblies, containing maybe a mother and her offspring and one male. Most of the time, the groups have a sex ratio of 1:1. The Matschie's tree-kangaroos are very closely related to Dendrolagus goodfellowi, the Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo, which was once considered a subspecies of the Matschie's tree-kangaroos. Matschies' appear to be scared of humans because they scramble around when humans are nearby and they are very difficult to find in the forests. They spend about 14 to 15 hours of their days sleeping and resting. The Matschie's tree-kangaroos are known for defending their home territory and marking their boundaries.

When the temperature of the environment drastically changes at different times of the year, they are able to maintain a moderate body temperature because of their metabolic rate. Matschies' have been found to be very susceptible to mycobacterial infections; however, the infections do not seem to be contagious because some individuals that are around infected kangaroos do not appear to get the infection. It seems to be from an avium complex related to tuberculosis, but scientists are still unsure of how exactly it spreads.

Range

Matschie's tree-kangaroos are restricted to the Huon peninsula of Papua New Guinea, a subdivision of Tumbanan faunal province, and are the only tree-kangaroos found there. They are also residents on the island of Umboi, which is just off the coast of Papua New Guinea. However, most scientists believe the tree-kangaroos were introduced onto this island and were not originally found there. The Matschies' prefer to live in deciduous forests and tropical rainforests because they remain in trees for most of their days. They mainly live in the northeast interior of New Guinea and their home range sizes consists of about 25 hectares of the area.

Diet
The Matschie's tree-kangaroos are mainly folivorous, eating anything from leaves, sap, insects, flowers, and nuts. It was also found that they have eaten chickens in captivity as well as feeding on a variety of plants, carrots, lettuce, bananas, potatoes, hard-boiled eggs, and yams. Since they eat high fiber foods, they only eat maybe about 1 to 2 hours throughout the day and the other time of the day they are resting and digesting their food. Their digestion is similar to that of the ruminants; they have a large, tubiform forestomach, where most of the fermentation and breakdown of tough material takes place at; in the hind stomach, there is a mucosa lining with many glands that help absorption begin here.

Reproduction

In captivity, the tree-kangaroos can get pregnant at any time of the year and are known to breed well. The female oestrus cycle is between 54.2 and 56.8 days and tree kangaroos are able to produce young at 2 to 2.5 years of age. Mating occurs when a female advances on a male while on the ground; they touch each other's noses and click their tongues. The female is initially resistant to the male's advances. She will hiss and swat at the male but will permit him to mount her within ten minutes. Copulation can last up to sixty minutes afterwards. The gestation period lasts approximately 44.2 days, which is known to be the longest for any of the marsupials. A single observed captive birth occurred above ground, in the branches. Joeys first stick their head out of the pouch at roughly 22 weeks. They will first leave the pouch and feed on their own at 28 weeks. Joeys permanently vacate the pouch at approximately 41 weeks. The Matschie's tree-kangaroos have no embryonic diapauses or delayed implantations and are able to get pregnant as soon as the joey leaves the pouch. (Loss of pouch young results in a return to estrus within 5 days.)

Conservation status

Threats

In 1996, the IUCN classified the Matschie's tree-kangaroos as endangered animals. A lot of the Huon Peninsula's trees have been cleared in which the tree-kangaroos chiefly inhabit, so there are more grassy areas created and the Matschie's tree-kangaroos' habitat is being destroyed. They are also threatened by oil drilling, logging, hunting by humans, and rainforest clearing. Some Matschie's tree-kangaroos are hunted by local natives for their meat and fur, while others, such as the people of Yawan, a village in New Guinea, aid in the Matschie's conservation. The people of Yawan have put aside  for the Matschie's preservation.

Conservation efforts

Many Matschie's thrive in captivity and maintain healthy lives interacting with one another. The numbers of tree-kangaroos in captivity in North America have been recorded over the years, and in 1997, the Matschie's tree-kangaroos' population reached a maximum of 90 animals, but it has declined to 53 in the past few years in these conservation zoos. North America developed the Tree Kangaroo Species Survival Plan (TK-SSP) in 1991 and the TK-SSP Master Plan in 1993 to help with their conservation. Conservation education programs have been set up in some schools thanks to Lisa Dabek, a conservation expert for the Matschie's tree-kangaroos, who has dedicated much of her career and life to helping ones in captivity as well as studying some in the wild. Dabek, along with other scientists, have captured many Matschie's in the wild and radio collared them so they could study their habits. Collaring them helps to learn their home ranges and the types of environments they stay in so that the scientists can help with conserving those types of areas.

Conservation International, an organization that supports the preservation of biodiversity of the Earth, participates in the Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program. The Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program is a program that originated from Papua New Guinea and is now based at the Woodland Park Zoo in Seattle, Washington. It is designed to study and conserve the various tree-kangaroo species. The program also encourages local villages in Papua New Guinea to help with conservation, enhances the local schools and teachers as well as advancing the medical care for the people, and recognizing particular habitats needed for the tree-kangaroos to flourish. The Woodland Park Zoo is very keen on helping the Matschie's population grow and develop, and they have also seen that mothers develop their young better if they are removed from the males after mating. A Species Survival Plan has been developed by zoos around the world to help conserve the Matschie's tree-kangaroos and stop the destruction of their natural habitat as well as keep healthy populations growing in the zoos. By keeping them in zoos, researchers hope to build up the populations of the Matschie's. They are strongly committed to building up the population because Matschies' are the most widely exhibited species in zoos around the world. Scientists are still trying to learn more about Matschie's tree-kangaroos and are conducting studies to watch and help the populations in the wild.

In 2009 the YUS Conservation Area has been established to protect the habitat of Matschies' in the northern part of the Huon Peninsula. YUS stretches over 760 km² and includes three rivers: Yopno, Uruwa and Som, after which it was named.

Comparison of the genetic diversity of the captive breeding population to wild populations is done to evaluate how the captive breeding program is retaining the population's genetic diversity over time. In a study done by McGreevy et al. (2010), "AZA Matschie tree kangaroo's haplotype diversity was almost two times lower than wild Matschie tree kangaroos." This difference with allele frequencies shows the changes that can happen over time like genetic drift and mutation when a species is taken out of its natural habitat.

References

External links
ARKive - images and movies of the Huon tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei)
Tree Kangaroo Conservation Program - saving the tree kangaroos

Macropods
Marsupials of New Guinea
Tree-kangaroo, Matschie's
Tree-kangaroo, Matschie's
Tree-kangaroo, Matschie's
Mammals described in 1907
Articles containing video clips
Huon Peninsula montane rain forests

Matschie's tree-kangaroo


Ingeborg Morath (May 27, 1923 – January 30, 2002) was an Austrian photographer. In 1953 she joined the Magnum Photos Agency. She became a full photographer with them in 1955. In 1955 she published her first collection of photographs, of a total of 30 monographs during her lifetime.

Biography

Early years (1923-1945)
Ingeborg Morath was born in Graz, Austria. Her parents were scientists. They went to different laboratories and universities in Europe during her childhood. She first went to French-speaking schools. In the 1930s her family moved to Darmstadt, a German intellectual center. Then they moved to Berlin.

Morath's first encounter with avant-garde art was the Degenerate Art show by the Nazi party in 1937.  It was supposed to make people not like modern art. "I found a number of these paintings exciting and fell in love with Franz Marc's Blue Horse", Morath later wrote.

Morath went to Berlin University. At university, Morath studied languages. She learned French, English, and Romanian.  Later she added Spanish, Russian and Chinese.  Toward the end of World War II, Morath worked for factory service in Tempelhof, alongside Ukrainian prisoners of war. During an attack on the factory by Russian bombers, she ran on foot to Austria. In later years, Morath would not photograph war.

Middle Years (1945-1962)
After the Second World War, Morath worked as a translator and journalist. In 1948, she was hired by Warren Trabant. She worked for Heute. Morath met photographer Ernst Haas in post-war Vienna.  She brought his work to Trabant's attention. Working together for Heute, Morath wrote articles to go along with Haas' pictures. In 1949, Morath and Haas were invited by Robert Capa to join the newly founded Magnum Photos in Paris.

Morath was briefly married to the British journalist Lionel Birch.  She moved to London in 1951. That same year, she began to photograph during a visit to Venice.  Morath asked for an apprenticeship with Simon Guttman.  He was then an editor for Picture Post and running the picture-agency Report.

Morath divorced Birch and returned to Paris.  Her first jobs were stories that did not interest "the big boys." She went to London on an early job to photograph the residents of Soho and Mayfair. Morath's portrait of Mrs. Eveleigh Nash, from that job, is among her best-known works. During the late 1950s Morath traveled widely.  She covered stories in Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the United States, and South America.  She worked for such publications as Holiday, Paris Match, and Vogue. In 1955 she published Guerre à la Tristesse, photographs of Spain, with Robert Delpire.  This was followed by De la Perse à l'Iran, photographs of Iran, in 1958. Morath published more than thirty monographs during her lifetime.

Like many Magnum members, Morath worked as a still photographer on numerous motion picture sets. She met director John Huston while she was living in London. Huston's Moulin Rouge (1952) was one of Morath's earliest jobs.  It was her first time working in a film studio.

Marriage and family
Morath married the playwright Arthur Miller on February 17, 1962.  They moved to the United States. Miller and Morath's first child, Rebecca, was born in September 1962. The couple's second child Daniel was born in 1966 with Down syndrome. He was institutionalized shortly after his birth. Today Rebecca Miller is a film director, actress, and writer.

Death
Ingeborg Morath Miller died of cancer in New York City in 2002, at the age of 78.

Honors and legacy
2003, her family established the Inge Morath Foundation.
2002, members of Magnum Photos made the Inge Morath Award in honor of their colleague as an annual award.  It is administered by the Inge Morath Foundation, and is given to a woman photographer under the age of 30, to support her work towards the completion of a long-term project.
 1992 Great Austrian State Prize for Photography.
 1984 Doctor Honoris Causa Fine Arts, University of Connecticut, Hartford, USA.
 1983 State of Michigan Senate Resolution NO 295; Tribute to Inge Morath.

Selected One-Person Exhibitions
 2008 Well Disposed and Trying to See: Inge Morath and Arthur Miller in China, University of Michigan Art Museum, Ann Arbor, USA.
 2004 Inge Morath: The Road to Reno, Chicago Cultural Center, Illinois, USA.
 2004 Inge Morath: Chinese Encounters, Pingyao International Photography Festival, Pingyao, China.
 2003 Exposition, Henri Cartier-Bresson Foundation, Paris, France.
 2002 Inge Morath: Danube, City Gallery of Russe, Russe, Bulgaria.
 2002 Inge Morath: New York, Galerie Fotohof, Salzburg, Austria; Stadt Passau, Europäische; Wochen, Germany ESWE Forum, Wiesbaden; Esther Woerdehoff Galerie, Paris, France; Amerikahaus Tübingen, Germany.
 1999 Retrospective, Kunsthalle Wien, Austria; FNAC Etoile, Paris, France; FNAC, Barcelona, Spain.
 1999 Spain in the Fifties, Museo del Cabilde, Montevideo, Uruguay.
 1998 Inge Morath: Danube, Festival of Central European Culture, London, UK; Museen d. Stadt Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
 1998 Retrospective, Edinburgh Festival, Edinburgh, UK; Museum of Photography in Charleroi, Belgium; Municipal Gallery, Pamplona, Spain.
 1998 Celebrating 75 Years Leica Gallery, New York, USA.
 1997 Retrospective Kunsthal, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
 1997       Inge Morath: Danube, Keczkemet Museum, Esztergom Museum, Hungary
 1997       Photographs 1950s to 1990s, Tokyo Museum of Photography, Tokyo, Japan
 1996       Women to Women, Takashimaya Gallery, Tokyo, Japan
 1996       Inge Morath: Danube, Neues Schauspielhaus, Berlin, Germany; Leica Gallery, New York, USA; Galeria Fotoforum, Bolzano, Italy.
 1995       Spain in the fifties, Museo de Arte Contemporaneo, Madrid, Spain; Museo de Navarra,Pamplona, Spain.
 1994       Spain in the fifties, Spanish Institute, New York, USA
 1992/94    Retrospective, Neue Galerie Linz, Austria ;America House, Frankfurt, Germany; Hardenberg Gallery, Velbert, Germany; Galerie Fotogramma, Milano, Italy; Royal Photographic Society, Bath, UK; Smith Gallery and Museum, Stirling, UK; America House, Berlin, Germany; Hradcin Gallery, Prague, Czech Republic.
 1991       Portraits, Kolbe Museum Berlin, Germany; Rupertinum Museum Salzburg, Austria
 1989       Portraits, Burden Gallery, Aperture Foundation, New York, New York, USA; Norwich Cathedral, Norwich, UK; American Cultural Center, Brussels, Belgium.
 1988       Retrospective, Union of Photojournalists, Moscow, Russia; Sala del Canal Museum, Madrid, Spain; Rupertinum Museum, Salzburg, Austria.
 1984 Salesman in Beijing, Hong Kong Theatre Festival.
 1979 Inge Morath: Photographs of China, Grand Rapids Art Museum, Michigan, USA.
 1964 Inge Morath: Photographs, Gallery 104, Art Institute of Chicago, Illinois, USA.

Selected Monographs
 2009       Inge Morath: First Color. Steidl, Germany.
 2009       Inge Morath: Iran. Steidl, Germany.
 2006       The Road to Reno. Steidl, Germany.
 2003 Inge Morath: Last Journey Prestel.
 2002       New York. Otto Müller/Verlag, Austria.
 2000       Saul Steinberg Masquerade. Viking Studio, USA.
 1999       Inge Morath: Life as a Photographer. Kehayoff Books, Germany.
 1999       Arthur Miller:  Photographed by Inge Morath. FNAC, Spain.
 1999       Inge Morath: Portraits. Verlag, Austria.
 1996       Woman to Woman. Magnum Photos, Japan.
 1995       Donau. Verlag, Austria.
 1994       Inge Morath: Spain in the Fifties. Arte con Texto, Spain.
 1992       Inge Morath: Photographs 1952 to 1992. Otto Müller/Verlag, Austria.
 1991       Russian Journal. Aperture Foundation, USA.
 1986       Portraits. Aperture, USA.
 1984       Salesman in Beijing. with Arthur Miller. Viking Press, USA.
 1981       Bilder aus Wien: Der Liebe Augustin. Reich Verlag, Switzerland.
 1979       Chinese Encounters. with Arthur Miller. Straus & Giroux, USA.
 1979       Inge Morath: Photographs of China. Grand Rapids Art Museum, USA.
 1977       In the Country. Viking Press, USA.
 1975       Grosse Photographen unserer Zeit:  Inge Morath. C.J. Bucher Verlag, Switzerland.
 1973       East West Exercises. Simon Walker & Co., USA.
 1972 In Russia Penguin.
 1969       In Russia. Viking Press, USA.
 1967       Le Masque (Drawings by Saul Steinberg). Maeght Editeur, France.
 1960       Bring Forth the Children: A Journey to the Forgotten People of Europe and the Middle East. McGraw-Hill, USA.
 1958       De la Perse à l'Iran. Robert Delpire, France.
 1956       Venice Observed. Reynal & Co., USA.
 1956       Fiesta in Pamplona. Universe Books, USA.
 1955       Guerre à la Tristesse. Robert Delpire, France.

References

Austrian artists
Cancer deaths in New York City
People from Graz
Photographers
European translators
1923 births
2002 deaths

Inge Morath


Philosophy of language is the study of how languages were created and are used. It is part of Linguistics. In continental philosophy, it is not treated as a subject by itself, but Ludwig Wittgenstein and other analytic philosophers placed particular stress on it.

 Problems
Like all philosophies, there are some central questions that are important in philosophy of language:
 What does it mean for a word to mean something ? Why do some words have the same meaning ? How can we ever know if a word means something or not ? Why are some orderings of words meaningful, while others are not ?
 How are languages learnt ? How do they change ?
 How important are languages in communication ?
 How do we translate from one language into another ?
 What does truth have to do with language ?

History
Ancient Greek
Plato was the first philosopher we know was interested in philosophy of language although his teacher Socrates probably was too He believed that the smallest parts of words phonemes had meaning even if they were outside the words they are in This is not a very good theory and Plato understood that there were things wrong with it The Stoics also made a complicated philosophy of The Middle Ages The medieval scholars, such as William Occam also were interested in philosophy of language Occam was the first philosopher to think about the possibility of a mental language He also discussed how a word can refer to both its meaning and the actual word itself Modernity
Philosophy of language only became more popular in the twentieth century, when Ferdinand de Saussure wrote his book Course in general linguistics Since then philosophy of language has played an important part in philosophy as a whole

Related pages
 Ordinary language philosophy
 Philosophy of science
 Semiotics

Branches of philosophy

Philosophy of language


The Capetian Dynasty includes any of the direct descendants of Hugh Capet of France. King Felipe VI of Spain and the grand duke of Luxembourg are members of this family, both through the Bourbon branch of the dynasty.

The direct Capetians ruled France from the years 987-1328. After that the junior House of Valois ruled France until 1589, and the House of Bourbon ruled until the revolution of 1792.

History of France

Capetian dynasty


Many animals develop in separate stages. A larva (plural: larvae) develops from the egg in those animals. It is a separate life stage from the adult reproductive stage. A larva does not look like the adult animal, and changes shape (known as metamorphosis) as it grows up. There may be several larval stages before the adult form. Tadpoles, maggots and caterpillars are larvae.

Marine organisms with a larval stage often release large numbers of eggs and sperms into the water column. After fertilisation, the eggs develop into tiny larvae. The larvae develop and grow for some time before metamorphosing into adults. Most marine invertebrates and many fish have a pelagic larval stage or pelagic eggs. These live in the plankton, and may be transported long distances.

Evolutionary theory
Probably the most widely accepted theory explaining the evolution of larval stages is the need for dispersal. Sessile organisms such as barnacles and tunicates, and sea-floor groups like mussels and crabs, need some way to move their young into new territory, since they cannot move long distances as adults. Many species have relatively long pelagic larval stages (how long a larva is in the water column). During this time, larvae feed and grow, and many species move through several stages of development. For example, most barnacles moult through six nauplius larva stages before moulting to a cipris, when they look to settle. The larvae eat different food from the adults, and disperse.

The other consideration is the small size of the eggs. If animals lay many small eggs (and most do), then the young stages cannot live the life the adults lead. They must live a separate life until they have the size and capability to live as an adult. This is what the larvae do.

Origin of vertebrates
A long-standing theory is that in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates) lies the origin of vertebrates. Tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are mobile, and have some features found in early vertebrates. The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism. Genome analysis does show that the tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.

References

Zoology
Developmental biology

Larva


An Act of Parliament or Act is law made by the parliament (see legislation).

Bills
An Act of Parliament normally starts as a proposed law known as a Bill. The Bill will then be introduced into the Parliament (House of Commons, House of Representatives, House of Lords or the Senate) for debate and possible approval and enactment.

Bills that contain provisions significantly relating to taxation or public expenditure are introduced into the House of Commons in the UK; in Canada and Ireland, this is the law.

In the United Kingdom, Law Commission bills and consolidation bills start in the House of Lords.

In some countries, such as Spain and Portugal, a Bill has different names depending on whether it comes from the government (e.g. "Project") or from the Parliament (e.g. "Proposition" or Private Member's Bill).

An Act may be introduced to parliament also by means of a private bill.

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics

Other websites
 All Acts of Parliament (since 1988) and Statutory Instruments are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the Office of Public Sector Information ( OPSI).
 Parliamentary Stages of a Government Bill (pdf) from the House of Commons Information Office.
 Acts of Parliament (since 1267) revised to date are available free on-line under Crown copyright terms from the Department of Constitution Affairs ( SLD).

Legislation

Act of Parliament


Portugália Airlines is a Portuguese regional airline with its head office on the grounds of Lisbon Portela Airport in Lisbon. It was a subsidiary of TAP Air Portugal and operates scheduled international and domestic services from its bases at Lisbon Airport and Porto Airport on behalf of TAP Express.

History

Early years
The airline was established on 25 July 1988 as a joint-stock company, but had to wait two years before it could start services, due to a delay in air transport liberalization. It started operations on 7 July 1990 with a flight from Lisbon to Porto. It also flew from Lisbon to Faro that same day. It started operations with scheduled domestic and international charter flights, as scheduled international flights were not then permitted under Portuguese legislation. International scheduled flights started in June 1992 from Lisbon and Porto.

The company's first airplanes were Fokker 100, and since the late 1990s it has also purchased 8 Embraer 145, becoming the main competitor of state flag carrier TAP Air Portugal. Operating in the regional market, Portugália focused its operation in domestic routes, as well as on destinations in Spain, France, Italy, Germany and Morocco.

The company's fleet stabilized in 2000 with 14 aircraft (6 Fokker 100 and 8 Embraer 145) still operating today. Portugália developed its own maintenance services since its earliest days, however it only managed to have its own Hangar and to increase its base maintenance capabilities as of 2005 with the opening of its Hangar at Lisbon Portela Airport. Performing most of its Fokker and Embraer maintenance in house, Portugália managed to significantly improve its results.

Portugália received the title of Best Regional Airline in Europe, in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005, the Skytrax Award for Best Cabin Staff in Europe, in 2005 and 2006, and for Best Cabin Staff in Southern Europe, in 2007.

Integration into TAP Air Portugal Group
On 6 November 2006, TAP and Portugalia owners Grupo Espirito Santo, announced TAP's acquisition of 99.81% of Portugalia shares, subject to approval by the regulatory authorities. It had 750 employees (at March 2007). Portugalia was to join the SkyTeam Alliance in 2008.

With the acquisition by TAP Air Portugal Group it undertakes a new business model. The company stops working independently and starts working within a group logic as a supplier of flight capacity by hiring its aircraft to TAP Air Portugal. Fernando Pinto, president & CEO of TAP Air Portugal said that the airline's regional subsidiary, Portugália Airlines, is "important to the TAP results as it brings very important passengers from small cities to long distance services.", during European Regional Airlines Association 2012 conference in Porto.

On 21 March 2014, TAP Air Portugal announced that it would buy two ATR 42-600 for its subsidiary company Portugália replacing the smaller Beechcraft 1900D previously operated by PGA Express. However, White Airways now operates the ATRs family on behalf of TAP Air Portugal instead of Portugália.

Rebranding to TAP Express
On 14 January 2016, TAP Air Portugal announced that Portugália would be rebranded as TAP Express as of 27 March 2016 as part of the restructuring measures within the group. The division Portugália Airlines however was said to stay independent within the group.

On the same day, TAP Air Portugal also announced that the entire Portugália fleet consisting of Fokker 100 and Embraer ERJ-145 would be replaced by July 2016 with new Embraer 190 and ATR 72-600 aircraft (the latter operated by White Airways on behalf of TAP) which received a livery similar to that of TAP Air Portugal albeit wearing Express titles.

In April 2022, it has been announced that Portugália will be dissolved and fully integrated into TAP Portugal as part of cost cutting and restructuring measures.

Destinations
Portugália operated within the route network of TAP Express.

References

External links

Defunct airlines of Portugal
Portuguese brands
TAP Air Portugal
Airlines established in 1988
Portuguese companies established in 1988

Portugália Airlines


Child grooming is a term which describes the following situation. When an adult becomes friends with a child, this is sometimes done for a reason. The reason is to lower the inhibitions of the child and to prepare for sexual abuse. So, any action taken by an adult to form a trusting relationship with a child, with the intent of later having sexual contact, is 'child grooming'.

The act of grooming a child may include activities that are legal, but later lead to sexual contact. The grooming is done to gain the child's trust, and the trust of those responsible for the child. Children are less likely to report a crime if it involves someone the child knows, trusts, and cares about. Also, a relationship with the family means the child's parents will be less likely to believe any accusations.

Examples of  grooming
 Taking interest in someone's child (having a "special" friend)
 Giving gifts or money to the child for no obvious reason
 Showing pornography to the child - this is illegal in many countries
 Talking about sexual topics that are not age-appropriate
 Invading the child's privacy (e.g. walking in on him/her in the bathroom)
 Hugging, kissing, or other physical contact if the child does not want this attention
 Allowing the child to get away with behavior that is not right.
 Talking to the child about problems that would normally be discussed with adults (e.g. marriage problems).

Child grooming on the internet
Sexual grooming of children also occurs on the internet. Some abusers pose as children online and make arrangements to meet with them in person.

In 2003, MSN implemented restrictions in their chat rooms purportedly intended to help protect children from adults seeking sexual conversations with them. In 2005, Yahoo! chat rooms were investigated by the New York State attorney general's office for allowing users to create rooms whose names suggested that they were being used for this purpose. That October, Yahoo! agreed to "implement policies and procedures designed to ensure" that such rooms would not be allowed.

An organization called Perverted-Justice (known as PJ) uses PJ operatives posing as underage teens on the internet to identify potential child molesters and turn the information over to the police and the courts. The news program Dateline NBC features the recurring segment "To Catch a Predator", based on documenting such activities.

An organization called Crisp Thinking has created an expert service providing social platforms and apps with the risk protection they need to protect their users from sexual exploitation, child abuse images and trolls.

Another software company in the UK has developed a program that hold as competitor to Crisp, called Sentry Parental Controls . It was launched by television personality Coleen Nolan and is supported by Mark Williams-Thomas, a leading expert in child protection.

References

Child sexual abuse

Child grooming


Dwyane Tyrone Wade Jr. (born January 17, 1982) is an American basketball player. He was born in Chicago, Illinois. His parents divorced a short time after he was born. He attended college at Marquette University on a scholarship. He was on scholarship for basketball but he did not play his first year because of academic problems. The next year he started on Marquette and led them to a good season. The year after that he led the Marquette Golden Eagles to the Final Four in the NCAA tournament.

Wade went on to the NBA and was selected as the 5th pick overall in the NBA draft by the Miami Heat. He had a good rookie season in the NBA, averaging 15 points per game and 6 assists per game. He soon became a superstar and led the Heat to an NBA championship in 2006. Wade was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the 2006 NBA Finals, in which the Heat beat the Dallas Mavericks.

References

Other websites

Dwyanewade.com
NBA profile

1982 births
Living people
American basketball players
American Olympic gold medalists
Miami Heat players
Sportspeople from Chicago

Dwyane Wade


Friction is a force that acts to stop the movement of two touching things. The energy lost to friction is turned into sound and heat. Two kinds of friction are static and kinetic. Static friction is when the friction is strong enough to stop movement between two objects. Kinetic friction is used when the frictional force is not strong enough to stop all motion. An effect of kinetic friction is heat production.

Many everyday mechanisms that use friction include car brakes, suitcases, and shoes. Even a person sliding across the floor uses a form of friction.

Some facts about friction are:

Friction can be thought to be caused by bumps on two touching surfaces. These bumps are called asperities. As these two rough surfaces move against each other they get stuck and prevent motion until the asperities are broken or slid over. Even the smoothest materials have these asperities.

As the force that is pushing on an object increases, the static friction increases too. However, if the force gets bigger than the maximum static friction, it makes the object accelerate. The object will begin to accelerate as soon as the static friction is less than the force pushing on it. After that point kinetic friction will act on the object.

The coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force slowing something down and the force pushing them together. The larger it is the stronger friction is (and the more the object is slowed down). For example, a person's skates on ice have a small coefficient of friction, but rubber on concrete has a big one.

Internal friction in a fluid is called viscosity. Viscosity is how hard it is for the fluid to move or flow. For example, honey is more "viscous" than water.

Friction is caused by electromagnetism. When the atoms that make the objects come close they are drawn to each other and may connect. Effort is needed to break this connection in objects that are not moving and effort is needed to keep an object moving against this attraction. Things with high friction have many points of contact or have atoms that strongly attract others. There are 4 types of friction. Static, sliding, rolling,Fluid friction.

Related pages
Laminar flow
Force
Movement

Force
Mechanics

Friction


Burnley is a town in Lancashire, England, UK. It is not far from the border with West Yorkshire.

Industry
Burnley is a large market town in the north west of England. It has a population of about 70,000. It lies approximately 34 km north of Manchester and 40 km east of Preston at the confluence of the River Calder and River Brun. Burnley grew larger during the industrial revolution when it was home to many cotton mills and was one of the world's largest producers of cotton cloth.

Location
Burnley lies along the M65, east of Accrington, Blackburn and Preston where it joins the M6. Lots of people use this motorway to go to these, and other large settlements like Manchester. It is surrounded by other small towns such as Padiham, Todmorden and Nelson. Many people come to Burnley from these settlements to shop and work. Burnley has a range of shops including:

Those that sell convenience goods, like newspapers and bread
Larger stores selling comparison goods such as furniture and other household items
Some clothes shops, for example:
Next
Marks and Spencer

Since the mills closed, Burnley has become one of the poorest towns in Britain. Houses in Burnley are on average the cheapest in the UK.

People
Burnley has produced many celebrities, including Ian McKellen and Ryan Simonds.

Towns in Lancashire

Burnley


A star cluster is a group of stars. They are held together by mutual gravitation. They are related by common origin, and have similar or identical ages.

In contrast, constellations and asterisms are just line-of-sight visual groups as seen from the Earth.

There are two major types of clusters:
open star clusters. Open clusters are loose, and they have less than a few hundred stars, which are often very young. A famous star cluster is the Pleiades, which is an open cluster.
globular clusters. Globular clusters are tight groups of hundreds and thousands of stars. Every large galaxy has hundreds or thousands of globulars revolving round it at great distances, usually outside the disk of the galaxy.

Star clusters visible to the naked eye include the Pleiades, Hyades, and 47 Tucanae.

Super star clusters
Super star clusters of very young large stars are known. They are thought to be precursors of globular clusters. The short-lived huge blue stars emit lots of UV radiation which ionises the surrounding gas. Examples are Westerlund 1 and 2 in the Milky Way, and R136 in the Larger Magellanic Cloud.

References

Star cluster


The Plaza Mayor (English: Town square) is a major public space in the heart of Madrid, the capital of Spain. It was once the centre of Old Madrid. It was first built (1580–1619) during the reign of Philip III. Only a few blocks away is another famous plaza, the Puerta del Sol.

History and architecture

The Plaza Mayor dates back to the 15th century where it was originally called the "Plaza del Arrabal" and was used as the main market of the town. In 1561, the plaza was transferred to the city of Madrid. King Philip II commissioned Classical architect Juan de Herrera to remodel the area. Construction did not begin until Philip III's reign in 1617. Juan Gómez de Mora continued on the architectural renovation, and was finished two years later in 1619. The Plaza Mayor has suffered 3 major fires in its history. The first was in 1631. Juan Gómez de Mora took on the reconstructions of the plaza following this fire. The second of the fires occurred in 1670, with the architect Tomás Román in charge of the reconstruction. The last fire consumed a third of the square and took place in 1790. Today, the Plaza Mayor's architecture is credited to Juan de Villanueva. He handled the reconstruction following the massive fire in 1790. Prior to this, the buildings that enclosed the square were five stories. Juan de Villanueva lowered the square's surrounding buildings to three stories, closed the corners and created large entrances into the squares. Construction after Juan de Villanueva's death by Antonio López Aguado and Custodio Moreno and was finished in 1854.

Today, the Plaza Mayor is rectangular in shape and highlights the uniformity of the architecture. The Plaza measures 129 m x 94 m (423 ft x 308 ft). 237 balconies are present on the three-story residential buildings that face inward towards the Plaza. To enter or exit The Plaza Mayor, there are ten entrances to choose from, however, there are nine gates. The entrances are named: 7 de Julio, Arco de Triunfo and Felipe III to the North; Sal, Zaragoza and Gerona to the East; Botoneras, Toledo and Cuchilleros to the South; Ciudad Rodrigo to the West. In the center of the square stands the statue of Philip III on a horse, which was placed in 1848. The Plaza Mayor has been the scene of multitudinous events. It has hosted executions in history. Today, it is the location of the annual Christmas market. It has also hosted bullfights and soccer games. Every Sunday and holidays it hosts stamp collecting and coin collecting market in the mornings.

In 1880, the Casa de la Panadería was restored by Joaquín María de la Vega. The Casa de la Panadería is the piece of the façade framed by two two-angled towers. It has been used for many different purposes in history. Its name originates from its original use of the main city bakery.

In 1921 the farmhouse was reformed, and then again in 1935 by Fernando García de Mercadal. In 1960s, the plaza closed itself to road traffic and added underground parking below the plaza. The last of the performances in the Plaza Mayor, held in 1992, consisted of mural decoration, the work of Carlos Franco, of the Casa de la Panadería, which represents mythological figures such as the goddess Cibeles. Today, the Plaza Mayor is a major tourist spot, but is also celebrated by the citizens of Madrid and has become a piece of Spanish culture. Next to the Plaza Mayor at Arco de Cuchilleros Street is the Restaurante Botin, the oldest restaurant of the world.

Name

The name of the plaza has changed over time. It has been known as "Plaza del Arrabal", "Plaza de la Constitución", "Plaza Real", "Plaza de la República" and now "Plaza Mayor". These names reflect events, history and reign in Spanish history.

"Plaza del Arrabal" was the original name of the present day "Plaza Mayor". The "Plaza del Arrabal" was once the site of the most popular marketplace until the end of 15th century. Following the Constitution of 1812, all major plazas in Spain were renamed "Plaza de la Constitución". It also held this name 1820 to 1823, 1833 to 1835, 1840 to 1843, and 1876 to 1922. When the Borbón king was restored in 1814, it became known as the "Plaza Real". In 1873, the name changed to "Plaza de la República". At the end of the Spanish Civil War the plaza received its present name of "Plaza Mayor".

Statue
There is a bronze statue of King Philip III at the center of the square, created in 1616 by Jean Boulogne and Pietro Tacca. Giambologna's equestrian statue of Philip III dates to 1616, but it was not placed in the center of the square until 1848. The statue was a gift from the Duke of Florence at that time. It was Queen Isabel II ordered to move it from Casa de Campo to become the centerpiece of the Plaza Mayor.

Photos

References

External links
 Plaza Mayor, description and pictures
Plaza Mayor Information and photos.
Plaza Mayor in English Visitor and student information, history, present day uses and photos.

1619 establishments in Spain
Buildings and structures completed in 1619
Mayor
Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in Madrid
Plazas in Spain
Renaissance architecture in Madrid
Baroque architecture in Madrid
Sol neighborhood, Madrid
Philip III of Spain

Plaza Mayor, Madrid


A British crown dependency is a special type of state.  The head of state is the British monarch, who is represented by a Lieutenant-Governor.  Each dependency has a parliament, government and prime minister to make all laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs.  Defence and foreign affairs are looked after by the British Government.

But the British government in London has no power in the dependencies, unless the government of the dependency agrees.

British Overseas Territories, which were British colonies, also have a government, parliament and prime minister and can make laws, except laws about defence and foreign affairs; but they were created by the British government and can be taken over by the British government, without the agreement of the British Overseas Territory.

The crown dependencies are
The Isle of Man,
The Bailiwick of Jersey, and
The Bailiwick of Guernsey

References

Crown dependencies


Rio de Janeiro is the second largest city in Brazil. It is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Until April 21, 1960 it was the capital city of Brazil. According to the 2000 Census, the city had 5,473,909 people, and an area of over 1,000 km2.  In 2008 Eduardo Paes became Mayor. The city was started in 1565.

Copacabana Beach, Ipanema Beach, Sugar Loaf Mountain (in Portuguese, Pão de Açúcar), the statue of Christ the Redeemer (in Portuguese, Cristo Redentor), a harbor on Guanabara Bay, and Tom Jobim Airport are in Rio de Janeiro. It has much commerce and many industries, especially textiles, food, chemicals, and metallurgy. Most of these industries are in the northern and western suburbs of the city. Rio de Janeiro also has a small rural area, near the suburb of Campo Grande, where fruits and vegetables are grown.

Other cities near Rio de Janeiro, like Duque de Caxias, Nova Iguaçu, Queimados and São Gonçalo, that form the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro, also have a lot of industries and population.

The city is 420 kilometers (about 261 miles) away from São Paulo, the biggest city in South America. The cities of Rio and São Paulo are linked by the Presidente Dutra Highway (also known as Via Dutra). The region crossed by the Presidente Dutra Highway has been an important industrial zone since the 1950s.

In the city of Rio de Janeiro lies Tijuca National Park, created in 1961. This park contains some 33 km2, between the northern and the southern parts of the city. The district (in Portuguese, bairro) of Santa Tereza can be reached by taking an electric tram (in Portuguese, bonde) from central Rio de Janeiro (near Largo da Carioca subway station), crossing over the Arcos da Lapa, an aqueduct built during the colonial period to provide water to the city.

The city hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2016.

Sister cities
Warsaw, Poland

References

Other websites
 Virtual photo tour through Rio de Janeiro and neighbourhood with www.riodejaneirophotoguide.com
 Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro's City Hall. Includes statistical information about the city, about Carnival, and municipal laws.
 Rio de Janeiro at Wikivoyage

Capital of Brazil
Former national capitals

Capitals of Brazilian states
1565 establishments
16th-century establishments in Brazil
1560s establishments in South America

Rio de Janeiro


Pakistan has a wide variety of folklore, mostly circulated regionally. However, certain tales have related variants in other regions of the country or in neighbouring countries. Some folktales like Shirin and Farhad are told in Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, and almost all nations of Central Asia and Middle East, with all having claimed the folklore to have originated in their land. Pakistani mythology here means the myths and sacred narratives of the culturally and linguistically related group of ancient peoples who inhabited the ancient Pakistan and its borderlands.

Pakistani culture

Pakistani folklore


Vittorio Emanuele Agnoletto (born 6 March 1958 in Milan) is an Italian doctor, politician and a former Member of the European Parliament for the Southern Italy constituency. He was first elected in the 2004 European Parliament elections on the Communist Refoundation Party (Italian: Partito della Rifondazione Comunista, PRC) list, part of the European Left. He was not re-elected in the 2009 European Parliament elections.

Agnoletto sat on the European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs and was a substitute for the Committee on International Trade, and a substitute for the Delegation for relations with the United States.

Career
A graduate in medicine and surgery at the University of Milan (1985), he specialized in occupational medicine, and became co-founder (1987) and national chairman (1992–2001) of LILA - Italian League against AIDS. Since 1992, Agnoletto has been a lecturer and director of studies for training courses on AIDS at the Higher Institute of Health in Rome.

Between 1993 and 2001, he served as member of the National Committee on AIDS of the Italian Ministry of Health, and member of the National Coordinating Committee for action to combat drugs established under the Italian Prime Minister's office. Since 1994, he is a member of the International AIDS Society. He works with the International Organization for Migration on preventive medicine projects in the Balkans. Vittorio Agnoletto was a member of the European AIDS Treatment Group between 1994 and 2000. In 1994, he was awarded the title Doctor of the Year in 1994 by the journal Stampa medica.

Before joining the PRC, he was a member of Proletarian Democracy (and was a member of its National Secretariat in the 1980s). He was elected a to the Milan Province Council in 1990, and served until 1995. A spokesman for the Genoa Social Forum during the 27th G8 summit in 2001, he became a member of the International Council of the World Social Forum.

His published works include the 2003 Prima persone: le nostre ragioni contro questa globalizzazione - published by Laterza.
In 2011 he publishes, together with Lorenzo Guadagnucci, L'eclisse della Democrazia, Le verità nascoste sul G8 2001 a Genova (27th G8 summit) - published by Feltrinelli.
With the musician Marco Fusi Agnoletto wrote a play of great success, also represented in the European Parliament in Brussels

References

External links

 Interview with him about Genoa (in German)

 Interview with him about his 2011 book and the Global political situation (in Italian)

1958 births
Anti-globalization activists
Italian occupational health practitioners
Living people
Communist Refoundation Party politicians
Physicians from Milan
Italian anti-war activists
Communist Refoundation Party MEPs
MEPs for Italy 2004–2009
21st-century Italian politicians
Proletarian Democracy politicians
20th-century Italian physicians
21st-century Italian physicians
Politicians from Milan

Vittorio Agnoletto


Felching is a human sexual practice in which one person sucks semen or other fluids out of the vagina or anus of a another person. The acts of sucking the semen and then passing it from the mouth of one person to a third person is called snowballing. However, snowballing usually relates to semen ejaculated in the mouth following fellatio.

Felching can also mean the licking or sucking of another person's anus, similar to the act of anilingus.

References

Sexual acts

Felching


English National Opera (ENO) is an opera company based in London, England.  The opera house where it performs is called the London Coliseum.  It is in St. Martin's Lane, very near Trafalgar Square.  It is one of the two big opera companies in London.  The other big one is the Royal Opera (ROH), Covent Garden.  The English National Opera is different because the operas there are always sung in English.  The ticket prices are not quite as high as at the ROH.

History
The beginnings of the ENO go back to 1898 when Lilian Baylis gave a series of opera concerts at the Old Vic theatre.  About ten years later she started a theatre company there. She put on Shakespeare's plays in a shortened form.  She added a small group of dancers to the company. The Sadler's Wells Theatre opened, and the company were called the Vic-Wells Opera Company.  The dancers later separated from Vic-Wells and became the Royal Ballet.

The company toured while the theatre was closed during the Second World War.  At the end of the war it came back and was called Sadler's Wells Opera Company, and the theatre opened again with a performance of Benjamin Britten's Peter Grimes.  It was the first English opera since the time of Purcell to become internationally famous.
In 1968 Sadler's Wells Opera moved from Sadler's Wells Theatre to the London Coliseum.  Six years later the company was renamed English National Opera.

Since then the ENO has put on many great opera productions.  For many years the general director was Peter Jonas, the artistic director was David Poutney and the conductor (musical director) was Mark Elder.

In 2004 many improvements were made to the building.  While the building was going on the ENO performed in the Barbican Centre.

Although ENO performs all operas in English, in 2005 it introduced surtitles at the Coliseum.  This makes it easier for the audience to understand the words being sung.

In 2007 the conductor Edward Gardner became music director of ENO.

Music directors
Lawrance Collingwood (Chief Conductor, 1931-1941, Music Director 1941-1946)
James Robertson (1946-1954)
Alexander Gibson (1957-1959)
Colin Davis (1961-1965)
Mario Bernardi (1966-1968) and Bryan Balkwill (1966-1969), co-Music Directors
Sir Charles Mackerras (1970-1977)
Sir Charles Groves (1978-1979)
Mark Elder (1979-1993)
Sian Edwards (1993-1997)
Paul Daniel (1997-2005)
Edward Gardner (2007-present)

Other websites
 ENO website
 ENO history

1900s establishments in England
Gilbert and Sullivan
Opera companies
Organisations based in London

English National Opera


Free Culture may refer to:
 Free Culture (book) by Lawrence Lessig
 Free-culture movement, a social movement for free culture (inspired partly by the book)
 Students for Free Culture, formerly FreeCulture.org, an international student organization supporting free culture

See also
 Open society, a concept originally developed by philosopher Henri Bergson and then by Austrian and British philosopher Karl Popper
 Free content, any kind of functional work, artwork, or other creative content, which meets the free content definition, having no significant legal restriction relative to people's freedom to use, distribute copies, modify, and to distribute derived works of the content
 Creative Commons, a non-profit organization headquartered in San Francisco, California, United States devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share
 Remix culture

Free Culture


The Monkey Wrench Gang is a novel written by American author Edward Abbey (1927–1989), published in 1975.

Abbey's most famous work of fiction, the novel concerns the use of sabotage to protest environmentally damaging activities in the Southwestern United States, and was so influential that the term "monkeywrench," often used as a verb, has come to mean, besides sabotage and damage to machines, any sabotage, activism, law-making, or law-breaking to preserve wilderness, wild spaces and ecosystems.

In 1985, Dream Garden Press released a special 10th Anniversary edition of the book featuring illustrations by R. Crumb, plus a chapter titled "Seldom Seen at Home" that had been deleted from the original edition. Crumb's illustrations were used for a limited-edition calendar based on the book. The most recent edition was released in 2006 by Harper Perennial Modern Classics.

Plot summary
The book's four main characters are ecologically minded misfits—"Seldom Seen" Smith, a Jack Mormon river guide; Doc Sarvis, an odd but wealthy and wise surgeon; Bonnie Abbzug, his young Jewish feminist assistant; and a rather eccentric Green Beret Vietnam veteran, George Hayduke. Together, although not always working as a tightly knit team, they form the titular group dedicated to the destruction of what they see as the system that pollutes and destroys their environment, the American West. As the gang's attacks on deserted bulldozers and trains continue, the law closes in.

For the gang, the enemy is those who would develop the American Southwest—despoiling the land, befouling the air, and destroying nature and the sacred purity of Abbey's desert world. Their greatest hatred is focused on the Glen Canyon Dam, a monolithic edifice of concrete that the monkey-wrenchers seek to destroy because it dams a beautiful wild river.

Reception
 From the National Observer, "A sad, hilarious, exuberant, vulgar fairy tale... It'll make you want to go out and blow up a dam."
 From The New York Times, "Since the publication of his novel The Monkey Wrench Gang last September, Mr. Abbey, a 48-year-old native of a rural town in Pennsylvania, has become an underground cult hero throughout the West among students, environmentalists and would‐be 'eco‐raiders.'"
 From The Washington Post, "One of the best writers to deal with the American West."
 From the Houston Chronicle, "What a thing of beauty is Edward Abbey's The Monkey Wrench Gang."

Legacy

In his book Screw Unto Others, George Hayduke states that Edward Abbey was his mentor, and mentions The Monkey Wrench Gang as the origin of the term monkey-wrenching. Hayduke says The Monkey Wrench Gang inspired environmentalist David Foreman to help create Earth First! a direct action environmental organization that often advocates much of the minor vandalism depicted in the book. Many scenes of vandalism and ecologically motivated mayhem, including a billboard burning at the beginning of the book and the use of caltrops to elude a group of vigilantes, are presented in sufficient detail as to form a skeletal how-to for would-be saboteurs. The actions are presented in a larger-than-life format, because much of what Hayduke, and the rest of the characters in the story face are larger-than-life obstacles that require larger-than-life approaches.

The symbol of Earth First! is a monkey wrench and stone hammer.

In his book Sewer, Gas & Electric: The Public Works Trilogy, author Matt Ruff notes:
"One of my other literary inspirations for the [...] subplot was Edward Abbey's The Monkey Wrench Gang. That book's protagonist, George Hayduke, is a Vietnam vet and former POW who launches a campaign of sabotage against the polluters who are ruining his beloved southwestern desert. Hayduke is a pretty angry guy, but he also loves life, and in his own fatalistic way he remains an optimist (my favorite line in the novel, uttered at a moment when Hayduke's luck appears to have run out, is 'When the situation is hopeless, there's nothing to worry about')."

Sequel
 Hayduke Lives! continues the story from where The Monkey Wrench Gang left off.

Adaptations

A film adaptation of the book, written and directed by Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman, has long been in pre-production. Neil Young is set to score the film, and Open Road Films is its distributor in the United States. The film rights holders for the book filed suit against the producers of Night Moves, charging that the film's plot is significantly similar to that of the book.

See also
 Adbusters
 Culture jamming
 Environmentalism

References

Further reading
 Cassuto, David N. "Waging Water: Hydrology vs. Mythology in The Monkey Wrench Gang." ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and the Environment 2.1 (1994): 13–36.
 Slovic, Scott. "Aestheticism and Awareness: The Psychology of Edward Abbey's The Monkey Wrench Gang." CEA Critic 55.3 (1993): 54–68.
 Box, C.J.,  Savage Run, G.P. Putnam's Sons, publishers, 2002;

External links

 The environmentalist as macho, working class, cowboy: Edward Abbey's The Monkey Wrench Gang
 "Rereading: Robert Macfarlane on The Monkey Wrench Gang
 "As reviewed by Darren Botello-Samson, Department of Social Sciences, Pittsburg State University

Novels by Edward Abbey
1975 American novels
Anarchist fiction
Eco-terrorism in fiction
Environmental fiction books
Mormonism in fiction
Novels set in deserts
Green anarchism
1975 in the environment
Radical environmentalism

The Monkey Wrench Gang


Sultan is a title of Arabic origin for Islamic rulers who are monarchs. The title often corresponds to that of a king.

The word sultan comes from the Arabic language. It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty. They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate. There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic. The word, sultana began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for sultano) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan. The Italian word also passed to other European languages.

The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate, which corresponds to a kingdom. During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.

Sultan


A town is usually a place with a lot of houses, but not a city. As with cities, there is more than one way to say what a town is in different countries. In some places, it is a kind of local government.  When they say "town" people are normally thinking of a big, important place. It may even be a city.

Generally, a town is smaller than a city and larger than a village, but that is not always the case, and the definition can differ in each country.

Generally, the difference between towns and villages or hamlets is the sort of economy they have. People in towns usually get money from industry (factories etc.), commerce (shops etc.) and public service (working for the town), not agriculture (growing food).

The number of people who live in a place does not tell us if it is a town or a village. In many areas of the world, like India, a big village can have many more people than a small town. It is also difficult to say if a place is a town because today, some towns are becoming bigger.

Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law. However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.

In the Middle Ages, a place became a town by means of a town charter, which gave it town privileges.

United States

In the United States of America, the meaning of the term town is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county.  In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning.  People use it to describe any place where many people live.

In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county.  In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do.  In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy.  In these states, the towns are really more important than the county. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power.  In the other four states, courts are the main work of counties.  The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.

Alabama
In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there. A place with 2,000 people or more is a city. A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6).  For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people. Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).

Kansas
All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities. Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what. There are three categories for cities:
3rd Class Cities - When a city incorporates, it becomes a 3rd class city. To incorporate, a city must generally have at least 300 people living there.
2nd Class Cities - A city may ask to become a 2nd class city when there are 2,00015,000 people living there. A city that has 2,0005,000 people may choose to still be a city of the 3rd class. However, they must become a 2nd class city when they have 5,000 people.
1st Class Cities - A city may ask to become a 1st class city when at least 15,000 people live there. A city with only 15,00025,000 people may choose to still be a 2nd class city. However, it must become a 1st class city when they have 25,000 people.

Louisiana
In Louisiana, a "town" is a place that has a city government, and it has 1,0014,999 people living there.

New York
In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England.  Towns provide almost all municipal services to places, called hamlets, that are not in villages, and some services to places that are in villages. In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages. But, because villages have power without towns (they are independent) they can be in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages. A city may be part of a county, but even if it is surrounded by a town that has more people than the city, it is not part of the town.

Utah
In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there. A place with 1,000 or more people is a city. A place with fewer than 1,000 people is a town. Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.

Virginia
In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it. By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.

Wyoming
Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there. Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".

England and Wales
In England and Wales, the name "city" is only for places that have a Royal Charter (a special document) saying they can have that name.

In the past, cities usually had a cathedral.  Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today.  For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough (where is the cathedral??) are all towns with a cathedral.

In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often). There are some English villages (for example Ipswich, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).

Japan
In Japan, The population of a town (町) is less than 50,000 people.

References

Basic English 850 words

Types of settlements

Town


The Haute Qualité Environnementale or HQE (High Quality Environmental standard) is a standard for green building in France, based on the principles of sustainable development first set out at the 1992 Earth Summit. The standard is controlled by the Paris-based Association pour la Haute Qualité Environnementale (ASSOHQE).

Coverage
The standard specifies criteria for the following:

Managing the impacts on the outdoor environment
 Harmonious relationship between buildings and their immediate environment
 Integrated choice of construction methods and materials
 The avoidance of nuisance by the construction site.
 Minimizing energy use
 Minimizing water use
 Minimizing waste in operations
 Minimizing building maintenance and repair

Creating a pleasant indoor environment
 Hydrothermal control measures
 Acoustic control measures
 Visual attractiveness
 Measures to control smells
 Hygiene and cleanliness of the indoor spaces
 Air quality controls
 Water quality controls

Future development
On 16 June 2009, it was announced that the CSTB (Centre Scientifique et Technique du Batiment) and its subsidiary CertiVéA had signed a memorandum of understanding to work together with the global arm of the United Kingdom's Building Research Establishment (BRE) to develop a pan-European building environmental assessment method. The BRE developed and markets (BREEAM (the BRE Environmental Assessment Method), which has similarities to the French HQE. Unfortunately, BREEAM and HQE are still disseminating their own standards round the world, leaving little doubt that no pan-European method will emerge in the near future, at least stemming from these two organisations.

International development
Since 2013, the HQE brand is now available for buildings and districts worldwide.
As of 2016 HQE is present in 24 countries.

See also

Green building
Sustainable architecture
Sustainable design

External links

Association pour la Haute Qualité Environnementale
Sustainable Building Alliance

References

Energy conservation in France
Building engineering
France
Sustainable building rating systems

Haute Qualité Environnementale


Guide dogs are dogs trained to help blind  or vision impaired people live on their own.  They are sometimes called "Seeing Eye" dogs. Guide dogs are one type of assistance animals, which are animals trained to help people with a disability to lead more complete lives.

The blind person (sometimes called a "handler") and the dog need to work together. Both the dog and the handler must take special training to learn how to work as a team. The handler needs to let the guide dog know the direction they want to go. The dog can lead the person around things that may be dangerous, such as moving cars or other things. Also, guide dogs may be taught to press buttons to work elevators or get things for their handler.  Because dogs cannot see colors as well as people, they cannot read traffic signals, so the handler must use ways to tell if it is safe to cross a street.

Because the guide dog and handler will be in public, it is important that the dog stays calm in busy or loud areas. In many countries, guide dogs are allowed inside places where animals normally are not allowed, such as restaurants, stores, buses and trains.

History
Germany started the first guide dog schools during World War 1, to help soldiers who were blinded in the war. By 1931, schools and organizations such as The Seeing Eye in Morristown, New Jersey in the United States and the British Guide Dog Association in the United Kingdom were founded.

Related pages
Blindness

Working dogs
Service animals

Guide dog


Jörð (or Jord) is a giantess (jötun) and goddess in Norse mythology. Her name means "earth". She is also called Fjörgyn.

Jörð is the wife of Odin, king of the gods, and the mother of Thor. Her parents are Annar and Nótt.

Snorri Sturluson says Jörð was included among the Asynjur.  Her name occurs most often in Skaldic and Eddic poetry in phrases that refer to Thor as "the son of Jörð".  There is some confusion, however, because in some parts of the Poetic Edda the word "Fjörgyn" appears in phrases referring to Thor, such as in the poem "Voluspa", where Thor is described as "the son of Fjörgyn".  Scholars explain the confusion by pointing out that Fjörgyn, as an Old Norse noun, means "earth" when used in the feminine form.

Norse gods and goddesses

Jörð


The Ford LTD II wis a mid-size caur biggit bi the Ford Motor Company atween 1977 an 1979 for the North Americaen mercat.  It wis based on the Ford Torino, which it replaced, an uised the same platform as the concurrent Ford Thunderbird, which wis dounsized an dramatically reduced in price for 1977 tae occupy the mercat poseetion o the 1974-76 Ford Elite, which wis a Torino derivative designed tae compete wi the popular Chevrolet Monte Carlo.

When Ford redesigned its mid-sized models for 1977, the Torino name wis replaced bi "LTD II" in an attempt tae convince consumers that this wis really a dounsized full-size caur, much lik the new Chevrolet Impala an Caprice. The LTD IIs stylin emulated the squared-off grille an body lines o the lairger LTDs, which wur produced until the 1978 model year. A twa-door coupe an fower-door sedan wur available in aw three model years, wi a fower-door station wagon offered for 1977 anerlie.  It wis an aa the platform for the final Ford Rancheros.

While 1977 sales wur reasonably strong, thay dropped dramatically for 1978 an 1979 in the face o newly downsized intermediate models frae General Motors, as well as Chrysler's new Dodge Diplomat an Chrysler LeBaron an Ford's awn Fairmont, which teuk ower the mid-size wagon slot for 1978.  Ford downsized its awn full-size LTD for 1979, wi dimensions vera seemilar tae the LTD II.

The LTD II wisnae directly replaced in the Ford lineup. In 1980, the Fox platform-based Granada effectively teuk its place as the mid-size offerin, while the full-sized LTD continued wi seemilar dimensions.

Ingine choices wur aw V8s; the 5.0 L 302 Windsor, the 5.8 L 351M, the 5.8 L 351 Windsor, or the 6.6 L 400 Cleveland. The 400 wisnae available in 1979. The 302 wisnae available in Californie.

References

1978 Ford LTD II Factory Sales Brochure - http://amcar.fvn.no/brochures/ford/78ltd/bilder/12.jpg

LTD II
Mid-size caurs
Rear wheel drive vehicles
Coupes
Sedans
1970s automobiles
Motor vehicles manufactured in the Unitit States

Ford LTD II


Eliyahu Dobkin (, 31 December 1898 – 26 October 1976) was a leading figure of the Labor Zionism movement, a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence and a founder of the Israel Museum. He was also active in the Jewish Agency and the World Zionist Organization.

Biography
Eliyahu Dobkin was born in Babruysk in the Russian Empire (today in Belarus) to a religious-Zionist family. His father, Yosef, worked in the lumber and banking industries, and was a member of the Mizrahi movement. Dobkin was schooled in a heder and gymnasium and later studied in Kharkiv (today in Ukraine), where he founded the Zionist student movement HaHaver in 1914. In 1917 he joined the HeHalutz movement founded in the same year by Joseph Trumpeldor.

After World War I the family fled the Bolsheviks and settled in Białystok in Poland. In 1921 he was elected general secretary of the world HeHalutz movement, which was headquartered in Warsaw. There he met Simcha Blass, who would later marry Dobkin's sister Yehudit.

On 6 June 1932 Dobkin immigrated to Mandate Palestine with his wife and daughter and settled in Tel Aviv. That year he became a member of the Histadrut trade union. Between 1933 and 1968 he was a member of the Zionist Workers' Committee. In 1936 he joined the Jewish Agency, and headed its immigration department during World War II with the responsibility for rescuing Jews from Europe and illegal Jewish immigration to Mandate Palestine. He became a member of its executive in 1946.

When Israel declared independence on 14 May 1948, Dobkin was one of the designated signatories. However, at the time he was trapped in besieged Jerusalem, and added his signature at a later point. In the same year he became head of Keren Hayesod, a post he held until 1961. In 1951 he also took over as head of the Jewish Agency's youth and HeHalutz, serving until 1968.

An art collector, Dobkin was head of the Bezalel museum and later founded the Israel Museum, sitting on its board until his death.

See also
Visual arts in Israel

References

External links
The Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem site. Office of Eliyahu Dobkin  (S68)

Signatories of the Israeli Declaration of Independence
Aliyah Bet activists
1976 deaths
People who emigrated to escape Bolshevism
Polish emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Belarusian Jews
Jews from the Russian Empire
People from Babruysk
People from Bobruysky Uyezd
Heads of the Jewish Agency for Israel
1898 births
Burials at Har HaMenuchot

Eliyahu Dobkin


Mr. Jones is a character in the book Animal Farm. He is the brutal (and often drunk) owner of Manor Farm.

Jones is kicked out of his farm when the animals start their rebellion. Later he returns with several others, and tries to get his farm back. There is a battle, but the animals win.

He symbolizes Czar Nicholas II.

Animal Farm characters

Jones (Animal Farm)


Decadence (pronounced: DEK-a-dence) means a state in which people are behaving in a way that is regarded by some people as being morally bad.  The adjective is 'decadent'.  It has nothing to do with the word decade (10 years).

Where the word came from
"Decadence" comes from the Latin words "de" (from) and "cadere" (to fall).  Thus it means to fall from a higher state of being.

Decadence and society
Decadence is usually a state in a society which used to be good but has become bad. Many people have started to behave in a way that others think is shocking and society does not function as well as it did before.  Of course, not everyone will agree what is "good" or "bad", but some societies, such as Sodom and Gomorrah, are thought to have been decadent.

Decadence and the arts

The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often called the fin de siècle (end of century). It is an example of a supposed decadent society in literature and art.

In France there were several writers who were happy to be called "decadent".  They included Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé. In France, the symbolist artists such as Gustave Moreau regarded themselves as "decadent". In England decadent artists included the author Oscar Wilde and visual artists such as Aubrey Beardsley. The "decadents" advocated living a "decadent lifestyle", which means a lifestyle based on seeking  the maximum possible amount of aesthetic pleasure.

In the early 1970s, glam rock musicians such as David Bowie called themselves "decadent". David Bowie's 1973 album Diamond Dogs is about the theme of decadence.  Glam rock musicians and fans of glam rock music signaled that they were decadent by wearing platform shoes. The popular 1976 film Rocky Horror Picture Show was a humorous depiction of "decadence".

People of the goth subculture, which began in the early 1980s among fans of the band Bauhaus, generally regard themselves as being "decadent".  One way they may symbolize themselves as being decadent is by wearing fishnet stockings.

Colors that symbolize decadence
The color lavender is usually used to symbolize decadence.  Both of the books in the "further reading" list below are colored different tones of lavender.  In the 1890s, the color mauve was used to symbolize decadence--the 1890s were called the mauve decade.

Further reading
 Decadence: the strange life of an epithet By Richard Gilman--New York: 1979--Farrar, Straus and Giroux
 Dreamers of decadence: the symbolist painters of the 1890s By Philippe Julian 1971

Culture
Ethics
Literature
Painting
Pop music

Decadence


Bon Jovi is an American hard rock band that formed in Sayreville, New Jersey in 1983.  They are one of the world's best-selling bands of all time, having sold over 130 million records worldwide.

Band history

The first years

The song "Runaway" which was written by Jon Bon Jovi and George Karak reached the first place in a radio talent contest in 1983. So Jon became the possibility to sign a recording contract. Coincidentally he founded Bon Jovi in 1983 with Richie Sambora, Alec John Such, Tico Torres, and David Bryan. The self-titled debut album "Bon Jovi" was released in 1984. The single "Runaway" was the band's first hit and reached #39 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1984.

Slippery When Wet
Bon Jovi's second album 7800° Fahrenheit (1985) had also only moderate success. In fact, every member of the band had lost their girlfriend at the time, they were all heartbroken; those feelings were showing in the songs. Some members, especially Richie, were afraid because they had not put out a hit song since "Runaway". The band then went to Vancouver to record another album. They lived together while they were recording.

In 1986, Bon Jovi's third album Slippery When Wet was released. It brought them some of the band's most successful songs, including "You Give Love a Bad Name", "Livin' On A Prayer", and "Wanted Dead or Alive". Also involved was Desmond Child, Bruce Fairbairn, and Bob Rock, and Desmond co-wrote some of the songs on the album. "Slippery When Wet" has sold over 28 million copies worldwide. The Slippery When Wet Tour let the band become even more famous in Europe and North America.

The song "Livin' on a Prayer" is the one that had the most success. In the beginning, Jon Bon Jovi did not like the original song. Richie Sambora, however, convinced him that the song was good. They rewrote the entire musical piece together, added a guitar solo, different drum fills and a talk box to make it a hit song.

Jon gave everything he had to sing "Livin' on a Prayer" during the first part of the Slippery When Wet tour, and it was seriously damaging his voice. He was barely able to sing at the end of the tour and he had to use a lot of backing tracks to fill out the parts that he could not sing. He also used the services of a vocal coach and some steroids to help him finish the tour without losing his voice completely. At the end of the tour, they had played 206 shows all around the world. The band members took a break before going back into the studio to make another album.

The 1990s
After the enormous success with "Slippery When Wet" and the following tour, Bon Jovi released their fourth album 1988's "New Jersey". It was also successful and contained the hit "Bad Medicine" and the ballad "I'll Be There for You". Between 1990 and 1992, the band members went their separate ways for a while. Jon Bon Jovi released his first solo album "Blaze of Glory", that served as the soundtrack for the movie "Young Guns II". In 1992, "Keep the Faith" was released. The album signified a music genre change. Bon Jovi turned away from heavy drums and wild guitar solos, and their new sound was lighter and calmer than in the eighties. The piano had a bigger influence now and the lyrics had a different meaning. The song "Keep the Faith" is about social and religious problems. The singles "Bed of Roses", "Keep the Faith" and "In These Arms" reached the Top 40 in the United States. In 1994, Bon Jovi's first greatest hits album was released: "The Best of  Bon Jovi, Cross Road". It includes the hits from 1983 to 1992 and two new songs. One of them, "Always", became one of the most successful songs of Bon Jovi. "Always" is a love song and a power ballad written by Jon Bon Jovi alone. The 1995 album "These Days" was the band's sixth studio album. "This Ain't a Love Song" was the lead single of "These Days" who sold over 11 million copies all around the world.

"Crush" and "Bounce"
From 1995, till, 2000, Bon Jovi had a longer break. The band members focused on solo projects and family. In 2000 the first album after 5 years was released: "Crush". The album itself was not as prosperous as "Slippery When Wet" and "Keep The Faith". But the hit-single "It's my Life" became the most successful song of Bon Jovi. It reached the first place in the charts of many countries. The next album was "Bounce" in 2002. It's was influenced by the September 11 attacks.

"The Circle"
"The Circle" was released in 2009. They were on tour in 2010 in places like New Jersey. It consists of songs like "We Weren't Born To Follow", "Thorn In My Side", and "Bullet".

"What About Now"

What About Now was released in 2013.

Discography

1984 - "Bon Jovi"
1985 - "7800° Fahrenheit"
1986 - "Slippery When Wet"
1988 - "New Jersey"
1992 - "Keep The Faith"
1994 - "Crossroad"
1995 - "These Days"
2000 - "Crush"
2002 - "Bounce"
2004 - "100,000,000 Bon Jovi Fans Can't Be Wrong..."
2005 - "Have a Nice Day"
2007 - "Lost Highway"
2009 - "The Circle"
2010 - "Greatest Hits"
2013 - "What About Now"
2015 - "Burning Bridges"
2016 - "This House Is Not For Sale"
2020 - "2020"

Members

Current members
 Jon Bon Jovi - lead vocals, rhythm guitars (1983-present)
 Tico Torres - drums, percussion (1983-present)
 David Bryan - keyboards, backing vocals (1983-present)
 Hugh McDonald - bass guitar, backing vocals (1994-present)
 Phil X - lead guitar, backing vocals (2011-present)

Touring members
 Bobby Bandiera - rhythm guitars, backing vocals (2003-present)
 Lorenza Ponce - violin, fiddle, backing vocals (2007-present)
 Kurt Johnston - pedal steel, backing vocals (2007-present)

Former members
Richie Sambora - lead & rhythm guitars, backing vocals, lead vocals (1983-2013)
Alec John Such - bass guitar, backing vocals (1983-1994; died 2022)
 Jeff Kazee - Additional keyboards, backing vocals (Touring musician 2003-2007)

Other websites

 Bon Jovi.com
 The Official Bon Jovi Website

References

American hard rock bands
Glam metal bands
Musical groups from New Jersey
Musical groups established in 1983
1983 establishments in the United States
1980s establishments in New Jersey

Bon Jovi


Alexander the Great (Greek leid: Μέγας Αλέξανδρος) (Julie 20 or 26, 356 BC - Juin 10 323 BC) wis a Auncient Greek king. He wis learnt maist o his skeels in Athens durin his bairnheid. He is kent for his meelitary skeels. He invadit a muckle empire cried Persie, an gaed on tae invade pairts o Central Asie an Indie. He is aft said tae be ane o the greatest military commanders in heestory, alang wi Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Genghis Khan, Subutai, Napoleon I o Fraunce, an ithers. Bi the time o his daith he had owerhailt maist o the Middle Eastern yird kent tae Europeans, alang wi a muckle pairt o Central Asie that includit Persia, Egypt, an Asie Minor. He dee'd in Babylon in 323 BC.

Alexander the Great
356 BC births
323 BC daiths
4t-century BC Greek fowk
4t-century BC Macedonies
4t-century BC rulers
Auncient Macedonie generals
Auncient Pellaeans
Ceety foonders
Deified fowk
Greek historical hero cult
Hellenistic individuals
Hellenistic ruler cult
Macedonie monarchs
Monarchs o Persie
Pharaohs o the Argead dynasty

Alexander the Great


Roger de Busli (c. 1038 – c. 1099) was a Norman baron who participated in the conquest of England in 1066.

Life
Roger de Busli was born in or around 1038. His surname comes from the town now known as Bully (near Neufchâtel-en-Bray, mentioned as Buslei ar. 1060, Busli 12th century.) in Normandy, and he was likely born there.  Busli was given lands in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and the Strafforth wapentake of Yorkshire.  These had previously belonged to a variety of Anglo-Saxons, including Edwin, Earl of Mercia.

By the time of the Domesday survey de Busli was tenant-in-chief of 86 manors in Nottinghamshire, 46 in Yorkshire, and others in Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and Leicestershire, plus one in Devon.  They became the Honour of Blyth (later renamed the Honour of Tickhill), and within it, de Busli erected numerous castles, at Tickhill, Kimberworth, Laughton-en-le-Morthen and Mexborough. In 1088, he founded Blyth Priory.

Much of the de Busli's family's leverage came from their familial relationships with the crown through the Counts of Eu.  Roger de Busli's wife Muriel was in favour with the queen, to whom she was probably a lady-in-waiting or a kinswoman, evident in the queen's grant to de Busli of the manor of Sandford upon his marriage. The de Buslis had one son, also called Roger, who died as an infant, thus leaving no heirs.  His daughter (or possibly his sister)  Beatrix, (also known as Beatrice de Builli), married William, Count of Eu.

De Busli died in the last years of the 11th century without an heir. His lands were given to Robert de Bellême, who lost them in 1102 after he led a rebellion against Henry I of England.  Ernulf de Busli, probably Roger's brother, may then have inherited some of the lands; these were then passed to Ernulf's son Jordan and grandson Richard de Busli. Richard de Busli was co-founder of Roche Abbey, South Yorkshire with Richard FitzTurgis in 1147. The male line of the de Busli family died out in 1213, and their holdings passed into the Vipont family through the marriage of Idonea de Busli with Robert de Vipont (Vieuxpont).

References

Sources
The Origins of Some Anglo-Norman Families, Lewis C. Loyd, 1951
Roger de Busli and his Descendants
The Aristocracy of Norman England, Judith A. Green, Cambridge University Press, 1997
Wentworth Family Genealogy: English and American, John Wentworth, Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1878
Pedigree of de Busli and Vipont

External links
 Sheffield Under De Busli, rotherhamweb.co.uk

1030s births
1090s deaths
Anglo-Normans
Norman warriors
History of Sheffield
Devon Domesday Book tenants-in-chief

Roger de Busli


A prefix is a part of a word or a word, within a word. It is put at the start of another word to make a different meaning. It can also mean a number that is put in at the start to show which number something is in a group. It is a type of affix.
compound nouns (in other cases also compound adjectives).

The following examples illustrate real prefixes.

Often people want to use a prefix to mean not. There are many prefixes that mean not.
 Unnatural means not natural.
 Apolitical means not political.
 Nonviolent means not violent.
 Indirect means not direct

We also learnt the prefixes anti which means against and auto is used to mean self or own

Some examples of these prefixes:

antisocial which means non social

anti glare which means it will prevent sun and light glare on a screen

autograph which means a person's signature

autopilot which means working by itself

Other examples of prefixes:

 bicentennial (and other number related prefixes: mono, ter/tri, tetra, quadro, penta, hepta, octo, nano etc.)
 contradiction
 encompass
 paratrooper
 percent
 periscope
 prototype
 polytechnical
 react
 semicolon

Scientists and doctors use prefixes in many words.
 Hepato- is a prefix that means liver. So hepatocellular means 'about liver cells'.
 Hydro- is a prefix that means water. So Hydroelectric dams are dams that make electricity from the flow of water.
 Pre- or Ante- are prefixes that mean before. Prenatal diagnostics is the diagnostics done before the birth of a baby.
 Post- is a prefix that means after. Post-traumatic experience would be an experience that was made after trauma.

Sometimes people make up words by adding a prefix. These words are not in a dictionary. But if people use these words enough, sometimes they go into dictionaries.
For example, we can make the word unsimple, which splits up into not simple. This is not a word in a dictionary.

Compare to suffix. Suffixes are letters put at the end of a word to change its meaning.

Words

Prefix


Hippalus (Ancient Greek: Ἵππαλος) was a Greek navigator and merchant who probably lived in the 1st century BCE. He is sometimes conjectured to have been the captain of the Greek explorer Eudoxus of Cyzicus' ship.

The writer of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea credited Hippalus with discovering the direct route from the Red Sea to Tamilakam over the Indian Ocean by plotting the scheme of the sea and the correct location of the trade ports along the Indian coast. Pliny the Elder claimed that Hippalus discovered not the route but the monsoon wind also called Hippalus (the south-west monsoon wind). Most historians have tried to reconcile the reports by stating that knowledge of the monsoon winds was necessary to use the direct route, but the historian André Tchernia explains that Pliny's connection between the wind and the navigator was based on common pronunciation: in the Hellenistic Era the name of the wind was written as Hypalus, only in Roman times the spelling Hippalus came in use. The wind had already been known in Hellenistic times and had before been used by Himyarite (Southern Arabian Semites) and Indian sailors to cross the Indian Ocean.

To understand the importance of Hippalus' discovery we have to know that before him Greek geographers thought that the Indian coast stretched from west to east. Hippalus was probably the first (in the west) to recognize the north–south direction of India's west coast. Only someone who has this insight will think crossing the Arabian Sea might be a faster way to south India than following the coastline.

The use of Hippalus' direct route greatly contributed to the prosperity of trade contacts between the Roman province of Aegyptus and India from the 1st century BCE onwards. From Red Sea ports like Berenice large ships crossed the Arabian Sea to the Malabar coast and Muziris port, Tamil kingdoms of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras in present-day Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

In modern times a crater on the Moon was named after the navigator.  He  is also a prominent character in L. Sprague de Camp's 1969 novel about Eudoxus, The Golden Wind. He is also mentioned in the Tamil novel Veera Yuga Nayagan Vel Paari.

References
Federico De Romanis and André Tchernia, Crossings: Early Mediterranean Contacts with India (New Delhi 1997)

Ancient Greek explorers
Ancient Greek merchants
Ancient Greeks in Africa
Navigators
1st-century BC Greek people
History of Kerala
Explorers of Asia
1st-century BC travelers

Hippalus