Decompression sickness is caused by bubbles which form in the blood and other body parts of people who have the pressure around them decrease too quickly. These bubbles may block the flow of blood and starve the body parts of oxygen, or the bubbles may cause damage by stretching, tearing, or pressing on the affected parts. Decompression sickness is also called the bends.

Who can get decompression sickness?
Decompression sickness can happen to underwater divers who spend a lot of time in deep water, and return to the surface too quickly for the breathing gases dissolved in their bodies to escape without forming bubbles.

People can also get decompression sickness if they are in a pressurised aeroplane or spacecraft and it is damaged and the air is lost.

How to prevent decompression sickness
Decompression sickness can be prevented by decreasing the pressure slowly. This allows the gases which have dissolved in the body to get out in the breathing air without forming bubbles. Divers do this by coming up to the surface slowly, as the pressure depends on the depth, and reducing the depth will reduce the pressure. For each ten metres change of depth the pressure will change by 1 bar, which is about the same as normal air pressure at sea level.

Divers find out how slowly to come up by using decompression tables or a dive computer. They may need to stop on the way up to wait for enough gas to get out before it is safe to go up further. This is called a decompression stop. The tables or computer will inform the divers what depths they must stop at and how long they must stay at each depth.

People flying high in aircraft avoid decompression by being in a pressurized cabin.  In military aircraft the crew may breathe oxygen before the flight for a few hours so most of the nitrogen that is dissolved in their bodies can escape.  This is called oxygen prebreathing.
Astronauts preparing for a spacewalk also prebreathe oxygen and decompress inside the spacecraft before getting into their suit and going outside.

What is actually happening?
When a person breathes, the air or other breathing gas dissolves into the blood from the lungs. This takes some time, and the amount of gas that can dissolve depends on the pressure around the person. If the pressure is greater, more gas can dissolve. After a while no more gas can dissolve at that pressure.

When a diver goes deeper, the pressure gets greater. This makes more gas dissolve in the diver. At the end of the dive the diver must return to the surface of the water where there is less pressure.

If the diver goes up slowly the pressure will change slowly, and there will be enough time for the gas dissolved in the diver to return from the blood to the breathing gas in the divers lungs and it will be safely removed. If the pressure change is too quick for enough of the dissolved gas to be removed, the gas may form bubbles in the blood and other parts of the diver's body. These bubbles will get bigger when the pressure gets less as the diver gets nearer to the surface. Bubbles which are in the blood may get stuck in small blood vessels. If this happens in the lungs they will usually do no great harm but if they block the blood flow in other parts of the body, the parts where the flow is blocked will not get enough oxygen and may be damaged. This is very dangerous if it happens in the brain or heart. The other place where bubbles may form is in the more solid parts of the body. If these bubbles grow enough they may tear the parts around them or press against them hard enough to do damage.

Treatment for decompression sickness
If a diver gets decompression sickness it can be treated by putting the diver in a decompression chamber, and increasing the pressure to squeeze the bubbles to a smaller size where they do less harm, and by giving the diver pure oxygen to breathe, which helps to get the bubbles to dissolve again. The oxygen also helps to stop more damage to the body by the bubbles which have blocked blood vessels, as there is more oxygen in the blood to keep the parts alive which have less blood supply because of the blockages.

Health problems
Diving

Decompression sickness


Burton M. Tansky (born November 30, 1937, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) is an American department store executive who  retired as  president and chief executive officer of The Neiman Marcus Group summer  of 2010.

Before being named CEO in May 2001, he was the company's president and chief operating officer. He was executive vice president from February 1998 until December 1998 and he served as chairman and chief executive officer of Neiman Marcus Stores, the $2.14 billion retail operating division of the company, from May 1994 until February 1998. He also served as chairman and chief executive officer of Bergdorf Goodman from 1990 until 1994. Previously, he served as president of Saks Fifth Avenue.

A 1961 graduate of the University of Pittsburgh, Tansky began his career in his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania as an assistant buyer at Kaufmann's. He also worked for Filene's (Boston, Massachusetts), Rike's (Dayton, Ohio), Forbes & Wallace (Springfield, Massachusetts), I. Magnin (San Francisco, California), and Saks Fifth Avenue (New York City) before joining the Neiman Marcus Group in 1990.

Tansky has been accorded numerous honors, among them the Superstar Award from Fashion Group International in 2006, a Visionaries! Award in 2005 from the Museum of Arts and Design, the 2004 Gold Medal Award from the National Retail Federation (considered the highest honor in retailing), and, in 2002, appointment as a "Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur" by the French government for his promotion of French-made merchandise in America. He has also been honored for his work with the National Alliance for Autism Research (NAAR).

Burton Tansky was born to Harry and Jeannette Tansky, who, fleeing religious persecution, immigrated to Pittsburgh from Poland and Russia respectively in the early 20th century. The couple operated a hair salon in the fashionable William Penn Hotel in Downtown, Pittsburgh. They raised three children, Burt, Shirley, and Eva, in the neighborhood of East Liberty. Burton is a graduate of Peabody High School.

References

Joyce Gannon (2007). Pittsburgh Post-Gazette: Profile of Burton Tansky. Retrieved November 18, 2007.
Maria Halkias (2010). Dallas News: Retiring Neiman Marcus CEO. Retrieved October 7, 2010.
David Moin (October 6, 2010). "Burt Tansky: Riding the Luxury Wave". Women's Wear Daily.

1937 births
Living people
University of Pittsburgh alumni
Businesspeople from Pittsburgh
Knights of the Legion of Honour
American chief operating officers
American retail chief executives

Burton Tansky


A Nagar Panchayat or Notified Area Council (NAC) or City Council in India is a council helps in the transformation of from rural to urban.

The 74th Amendment of the Constitution of India made laws relating to urban local government. The three-tier structure is municipal corporation, municipal council and nagar panchayat.

Each Nagar Panchayat has a committee consisting of a chairman / mayor along with ward/counselors members. There are at least ten elected ward members and three nominated members.

There are seats reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, backward classes and women. The councillors or ward members are chosen by direct election from electoral wards in the Nagar Panchayat.

Functions
 Essential services and facilities to the urban area.
 Sanitation program.
 Street lighting and providing roads in wards and main roads of town.
 Schools in urban areas.
 Program for adult literacy and run city libraries.
 Water supply to every ward of urban area.
 Drainage system to clear the solid and liquid wastes from town.
 Maintaining records of births and deaths.

References

Local government in India

Nagar panchayat


Pen y Boncyn Trefeilw is a subsidiary summit of Cyrniau Nod in north east Wales. It forms a part of the Berwyn range called the Hirnantau. It has two tops: Stac Rhos and Pen y Cerrig Duon. Pen y Cerrig Duon is now listed as a deleted Nuttall due to re-surveying.

The views from the summit are extensive, if unremarkable due to the featureless, flat moorland surroundings.  The summit is marked by a small cairn, is which located only a few metres from a track road that continues on to the pass between Cyrniau Nod and Y Groes Fagl.

References

Llangywer
Mountains and hills of Gwynedd
Mountains and hills of Snowdonia
Hewitts of Wales
Nuttalls

Pen y Boncyn Trefeilw


John Hancock  (January 12, 1737 – October 8, 1793) was an early American patriot, a leader in the American Revolutionary War, and an American statesman. He was the first man to sign America's Declaration of Independence. In modern America, "John Hancock" is a synonym for signature.

Hancock's ancestors arrived in the English colonies in 1652. In 1737, Hancock was born in Braintree (now Quincy, Massachusetts). When John Hancock Jr. his father died, he was adopted by his uncle, a merchant in Boston, Massachusetts. At his uncle's death in 1754, Hancock inherited the business. He became a leading merchant in Boston and one of the richest in the colonies.

In 1768, British officials seized his ship, the Liberty. It carried a shipment of wine. The officials said he was smuggling. Boston patriots rioted and he was acquitted. This incident was one of the events that led to the American Revolutionary War.

Hancock had several important jobs in Colonial America and the early United States of America. He was president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774 and 1775. He used his money to support American independence. The British thought him a very dangerous man.

Hancock was president of the Continental Congress in 1774 and 1775. He wanted to lead the Continental Army. George Washington got the job instead. With 5,000 troops, he tried to free Rhode Island from the British. He was not successful.

Hancock led the convention that adopted the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780. He was first Governor of the state Massachusetts. He served nine terms. Hancock suffered from gout in his later life.  He died in 1793.

References

1737 births
1793 deaths
Hancock, John
Hancock, John
Hancock, John
People from Quincy, Massachusetts

John Hancock


Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer is a fictional reindeer character with a bright red nose who first appeared in 1939 in booklets. In the story, Rudolph gets teased by other reindeer until one foggy Christmas Eve Santa Claus comes around, asking him to guide Santa's sleigh. A Christmas song based on the story has been covered by such artists as Bing Crosby, Dean Martin, Barry Manilow and The Supremes over the decades. Gene Autry was the singer of the original version.

Fictional animals
Christmas

Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer


The femur is the thighbone in tetrapods. It connects to the pelvis (hip) at the upper end and to the knee at the lower end. It connects with the hip by a ball-and-socket joint which allows freedom of movement.

The lower end of the femur forms a hinge with the lower leg known as the knee. This has two 'articulations': with the patella (knee-cap), and with the tibia (the main lower leg bone).The femur is also the longest and strongest bone in your body.

Bones

Femur


Instant messaging (often shortened to IM) is a way of two or more people to communicate over a network. When the sender sends a message, this message is sent to all the recipients in the group.  People use messaging clients to send and receive messages. The type of message supported depends on the specific client, and network. Most of the time, it is text. In some cases, images or other types of media is supported.

Instant messaging services got many ideas from an older and still popular way to online chat named Internet Relay Chat (IRC). In early instant messaging programs, each letter appeared when it was typed and when letters were deleted to correct typos. These were also seen by the reader. This made it more like a telephone conversation than sending letters. In newer instant messaging programs, the other readers in the conversation generally only sees each line of text right after a new line is started. Most instant messaging programs have a way to set a status message. This works likes the message on a telephone answering machine. It shows whether or not people are online and want to chat.

Benefits

Instant messaging offers real-time communication and allows easy collaboration, which might be considered more akin to genuine conversation than email's "letter" format. In contrast to e-mail, the parties know whether the peer is available. Most systems allow the user to set an online status or away message so peers are notified when the user is available, busy, or away from the computer. On the other hand, people are not forced to reply immediately to incoming messages. For this reason, some people consider communication via instant messaging to be less intrusive than communication via phone. However, not all popular systems allow the sending of messages to people not currently logged on (offline messages), thus removing much of the difference between IM and email.

Instant messaging allows instantaneous communication between a number of parties simultaneously, by transmitting information quickly and efficiently, featuring immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. In certain cases IM involves additional features, which make it even more popular, i.e. to see the other party, e.g. by using ((web-cams)), or to talk directly for free over the internet.

It is possible to save a conversation to read later or look at again. Instant messages typically are may be logged in a local message history which closes the gap to the persistent nature of e-mails and facilitates quick exchange of information like URLs or document snippets (which can be unwieldy when communicated via telephone).

People with an auditory or speech disability

Instant messaging opens new methods of spontaneous communication for people that have an impairment in hearing, auditory processing, or speech.  It is considered by many a powerful way to allow equal opportunities in communication, without the aid of special devices or services designed for users with hearing loss.

Friend-to-friend networks

Instant Messaging may be done in a Friend-to-friend network, in which each node connects to the friends on the friendslist. This allows to communicate to friends of friends and build chatrooms for instant messages with all friends on that network.

Business application

Instant messaging has proven to be similar to personal computers, e-mail, and the WWW, in that its adoption for use as a business communications medium was driven primarily by individual employees using consumer software at work, rather than by formal mandate or provisioning by corporate information technology departments. Tens of millions of the consumer IM accounts in use are being used for business purposes by employees of companies and other organizations.

In response to the demand for business-grade IM and the need to ensure security and legal compliance, a new type of instant messaging, called "Enterprise Instant Messaging" ("EIM") was created when Lotus Software launched Lotus Sametime in 1999. Microsoft followed suit shortly thereafter with Microsoft Exchange Instant Messaging, and later created a new platform called Microsoft Office Live Communications Server. Since then, both IBM Lotus and Microsoft have introduced federation between their EIM systems and some of the public IM networks thus employees may use a single interface to both their internal EIM system and their buddies on AOL, MSN, and Yahoo!. Current leading EIM platforms include IBM Lotus Sametime, Microsoft Office Live Communications Server, and Jabber XCP .

The adoption of IM across corporate networks outside of the control of IT organizations creates many risks and liabilities for companies who do not effectively manage and support IM use.  Companies implement specialized IM archiving and security products and services like those from Secure Computing, Akonix, Surfcontrol, and ScanSafe to mitigate these risks and provide safe, secure, productive instant messaging capabilities to their employees.

Risks

Although instant messaging has many good things, it also has risks and liabilities, especially when used in workplaces. Among these are:

 Security risks (e.g. IM used to infect computers with spyware, viruses, trojans, worms)
 Compliance risks
 Inappropriate use
 Intellectual property leakage

Hackers' use of instant messaging networks to deliver malicious code has grown consistently from 2004 to the present, with the number of discrete attacks listed by the IM Security Center having grown 15% from 347 attacks in 2005 to 406 in 2006. Hackers use two methods of delivering malicious code through IM: delivery of virus, trojan, or spyware within an infected file, and the use of "socially engineered" text with a web address that entices the recipient to click on a URL that connects him or her to a website that then downloads malicious code. Viruses, worms, and trojans typically propagate by sending themselves rapidly through the infected user's buddy list. An effective attack using a "poison URL" may reach tens of thousands of people in minutes when each person's buddy list receives messages appearing to be from a trusted friend. The recipients click on the web address, and the entire cycle starts again. Infections may range from nuisance to criminal, and are becoming more sophisticated each year.

In addition to the malicious code threat, the use of instant messaging at work also creates a risk of non-compliance to laws and regulations governing the use of electronic communications in businesses. In the United States alone there are over 10,000 laws and regulations related to electronic messaging and records retention. The more well-known of these include the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, HIPAA, and SEC 17a-3. Recent changes to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, effective December 1, 2006, create a new category for electronic records which may be requested during discovery (law) in legal proceedings. Most countries around the world also regulate the use of electronic messaging and electronic records retention in similar fashion to the United States. The most common regulations related to IM at work involve the need to produce archived business communications to satisfy government or judicial requests under law. Many instant messaging communications fall into the category of business communications that must be archived and retrievable.

Organizations of all types must protect themselves from the liability of their employees' inappropriate use of IM. The informal, immediate, and ostensibly anonymous nature of instant messaging makes it a candidate for abuse in the workplace. The topic of inappropriate IM use became front-page news in October 2006 when Congressman Mark Foley resigned his seat after admitting sending offensive instant messages of a sexual nature to underage former House pages from his Congressional office PC. The Mark Foley Scandal led to media coverage and mainstream newspaper articles warning of the risks of inappropriate IM use in workplaces. In most countries, corporations have a legal responsibility to ensure harassment-free work environment for employees. The use of corporate-owned computers, networks, and software to harass an individual or spread inappropriate jokes or language creates a liability for not only the offender but also the employer. A survey by IM archiving and security provider Akonix Systems, Inc. in March 2007 showed that 31% of respondents had been harassed over IM at work. Companies now include instant messaging as an integral component of their policies on appropriate use of the World Wide Web, email, and other corporate assets.

Security and archiving

In the early 2000s, a new class of IT security provider emerged to provide remedies for the risks and liabilities faced by corporations who chose to use IM for business communications. The IM security providers created new products to be installed in corporate networks for the purpose of archiving, content-scanning, and security-scanning IM traffic moving in and out of the corporation. Similar to the e-mail filtering vendors, the IM security providers focus on the risks and liabilities described above.

With rapid adoption of IM in the workplace, demand for IM security products began to grow in the mid-2000s. By 2007, the preferred platform for the purchase of security software had become the "appliance", according to IDC, who estimate that by 2008, 80% of network security products will be delivered via an appliance.

Related pages
 e-mail
 IRC

References

Other websites

Instant Messenger Security - Best Practices
All About Instant Messengers
List of popular Mobile IM Clients
Web Messengers Handbook

Instant messaging software
Messaging

Instant messaging


Alexander Sascha Ritter (7 June 1833 – 12 April 1896) was a German composer and violinist. He wrote two operas - Der faule Hans and Wem die Krone?, a few songs, a symphonic waltz and two symphonic fantasias. Ritter died in Munich.

Life and career
He was born in Narva, Estonia. He studied in Frankfurt am Main under Joachim Raff. In 1854 he married Wagner's niece Franziska (1829–1895). They had a daughter Hertha, who in 1902 became the wife of the Austrian composer Siegmund von Hausegger.

Ritter had a strong influence on Richard Strauss. He persuaded him to abandon the conservative style of his youth, and begin writing tone poems; he also introduced Strauss to the essays of Richard Wagner and the writings of Schopenhauer. He encouraged Strauss to write his first opera Guntram, but was deeply disappointed at the final version of the libretto, which Ritter took to be a rejection of Schopenhauerian-Christian ideals.

See also
 Wagner family tree

External links

Grande Musica - Alexander Ritter
Libretti of some of his songs
Information about Wem die Krone?

1833 births
1896 deaths
People from Narva
German violinists
German opera librettists
19th-century German composers
German male dramatists and playwrights
19th-century German dramatists and playwrights
19th-century violinists
German male violinists
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German male musicians

Alexander Ritter


In a chemical reaction, the transition state is the point where there is a maximum value of energy. This energy is called the activation energy. When two or more molecules are mixed, they will hit each other. If they hit with enough energy to go through the transition state, they will react and form new molecules. At the transition state, new bonds are formed while the old ones are broken. In a graph or a drawing, the transition state is often marked with the double dagger ‡ symbol.

It is very difficult to study a transition state. This is because it is so high in energy that the molecules will stay in that form for a very short time, usually femtoseconds. It is important not to confuse transition states with intermediates. Intermediates are found at minimum points of energy, and they can live for a very long time. Like a transition state, however, an intermediate is between reagents and products of a reaction.

Studying transition states is very important to understand reaction mechanisms. There are theories and computer programs that can be used to calculate how the transition state looks like. This is a part of chemical kinetics.

References

Chemical kinetics

Transition state


The chancel is a part of the architecture of many churches. It serves as a barrier between the part of the church accessible to lay people and the choir, which was reserved to the clergy. The rood screen has the same function, but a different layout. The Iconostasis is a kind of chancel which is richly decorated, and is used in Eastern Orthodox churches.

The chancel is where the congregation receives the blood and body of Jesus. The  chancel is usually found in a Roman Catholic church. The bread and wine are changed to the body and blood of Jesus through transubstantiation. The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 required clergy made sure that the area was inaccessible to the public. The main altar of the church is usually in the area behind the Chancel.

Church architecture

Chancel


Shalom Yoran (; June 29, 1925 – September 9, 2013) was a survivor of the Holocaust and a former Jewish partisan. His World War II memoir, The Defiant. A True Story of Jewish Vengeance and Survival, was first published in 1996.

Shalom Yoran was born Selim Sznycer in Raciąż, Poland.

Second world war
The Nazi Germans invaded Poland in 1939 when he was fourteen. His family fled eastwards into Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union, after the Soviet invasion of Poland, but in 1941 the Germans invaded the USSR and caught up with the Sznycer family in the small village of Kurzeniec.

On September 9, 1942, the Jewish community of Kurzeniec was "liquidated". The Einsatzgruppen, assisted by Ukrainian, Lithuanian and Latvian auxiliary units and some locals, dragged 1,040 Jews, including Selim's parents, from their homes, hideouts and the synagogue, then systematically murdered and burned them. Only a few, including Selim and his older brother Musio, managed to hide in a barn of a sympathetic peasant Ignalia Biruk and later escape to the forest. Later he recalled:

Before being separated from my mother, she told me, "Go fight... try to save yourselves, avenge our death, and tell the world what happened." These are the words that guided me through that dark period, what gave me strength to fight, and what inspires me to share my story today.

In the woods, they found a disorganized group of about 150 Jewish escapees from nearby ghettos, Nazi concentration camps and Nazi atrocities. Five of them spent the harsh winter of 1942–1943 in a dugout zemlyanka they built themselves in the swamps near Lake Naroch. Without previous experience in construction, they built based on what they could remember from books such as Robinson Crusoe and common sense. They stocked up the food - mostly potatoes - by begging and stealing from local peasants. In the spring they returned to find that fewer than 50 Jews from the original group survived Nazi round ups.

They located a partisan unit, but were not allowed to join because they lacked weapons, according to a common partisan practice. A commander of another unit offered them a condition to join: they had to blow up a Nazi gunstock factory in Kurzeniec. The building was well guarded but they succeeded nevertheless. Upon their return, they learned that the partisans did not expect them to return from the mission and did not intend to let them in, because they were Jewish.

Together with fellow escapees, they formed an all-Jewish unit in the forests and swamplands of Western Belarus. Against all odds, they survived, acquired some guns and fought back the Germans and their collaborators. Later they joined a unit of the Soviet partisans and waged guerilla warfare against the retreating German troops, ambushed convoys, blew up bridges and railroads and derailed German trains.

In 1944, Belarus was liberated by the Soviet Union and Jewish partisans were drafted into the Red Army. Later some of them were allowed to join the Soviet-controlled Polish Army.

Postwar
After the end of the war, they illegally crossed a number of European borders to Italy, where Selim illegally worked for the British Army.

In 1946, he made his way to the British Mandate of Palestine using false identification to evade the limitations imposed on the Jewish immigration by the British White Paper of 1939. While recovering in a hospital following surgery, he recorded his wartime experiences in Polish and put the notebooks away.

He assumed the name of a deceased cousin in order to obtain an identity card. Later he joined the newly formed Israeli Air Force for many years. Later he played a major role in developing Israeli Aircraft Industries (IAI), eventually serving as IAI's Senior Vice President.

Shalom Yoran was a founding board member of the Museum of Jewish Heritage in New York City and a governor of Tel Aviv University. He was a chairman of a commercial aircraft company in Long Island.

Publication of wartime memoir
In 1991, he found his old manuscript and in 2003 published his wartime memoir. He dedicated the book to his parents.
He died on 9 September 2013 in New York.

See also
 Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany

References

External links
 Shalom Yoran's bio at jewishpartisans.org
 Virtual Zemlyanka by Adam Dickter. The Jewish Week. May 6, 2005
 3-D virtual model of Shalom Yoran's zemlyanka
 Heroic Actions of the Few by Tom Tugend. The Jewish Journal.
 Honoring The Jewish Resistance by Kate Taylor. The NY Sun. April 13, 2007
 World War II resistance fighter recounts harrowing story for captive audience by Christina Holder. Naples News. December 7, 2004

Israeli memoirists
Israeli military personnel
Tel Aviv University
Jewish partisans
Jewish resistance members during the Holocaust
Polish resistance members of World War II
Soviet partisans
Polish military personnel of World War II
Soviet military personnel of World War II
Polish expatriates in the Soviet Union
Holocaust survivors
Israeli Jews
Polish emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
People from Płońsk County
Israeli expatriates in the United States
1925 births
2013 deaths
Holocaust diarists

Shalom Yoran


Terrell Eldorado Owens (; born on December 7, 1973, nicknamed "T.O.") is an American football wide receiver for the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League, of where he is also a co-owner. A six-time Pro Bowl selection, Owens holds or shares several National Football League records, and features in the all-time top-five in several receiving categories, including yards and touchdowns. Owens played college football for the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.

Owens is also well known for the controversy he brings on and off the field. At one point, there were rumors that he attempted suicide, which Owens denied. Owens is now broke.

College

Owens played college football for the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He wore #80 to honor Jerry Rice, whom Owens loved to watch as a child. Owens caught 38 passes for 724 yards and eight touchdowns during his sophomore year, and 34 passes for 357 yards and three touchdowns during his junior year. Owens faced double coverage every week during his senior year, and so only had 43 receptions for 667 yards and one touchdown. He also played in the Senior Bowl.

Professional career

In his NFL career (lasted from 1996 to 2010), Owens showed much talent on the five teams he played for. However, he sparked even more controversy (arguments). Owens was known for his trash-talking, over-the top touchdown celebrations (often more to rub it in on the opponent than to fire his own team up), and off-field drama, where he has help several shirtless workouts, hosts a reality show (The T.O. Show), and has modeled for clothing companies. Despite all the attention he got, Owens has never won a Super Bowl. Owens is the only player to have scored on all 32 teams in the league. (He has actuall scored on them all at least twice.)

San Francisco 49ers
Owens was drafted by the San Francisco 49ers in the 3rd Round of the 1996 NFL Draft. This united Owens with Jerry Rice. Owens's first career score came on a 45-yard touchdown from Steve Young against the Cincinnati Bengals to tie the game in a win. Owens later emerged as the #1 threat in San Francisco.

In 2000, Owens mocked (teased) the Dallas Cowboys after scoring twice from quarterback Jeff Garcia. Since the Cowboys were at home, Owens stood in celebration on the Dallas star twice. It resulted in Cowboys runningback Emmitt Smith slamming his helmet into the turf to get even after he himself scored. Owens scored for a second time, and went back to the star. However, defensive back George Teague knocking Owens off. Owens was called for unsportsmanlike conduct and was suspended for a week by his head coach, while Teague was ejected by the officials.

Later moments with the 49ers included Owens grabbing pom-poms from 49ers cheerleaders and cheering with them, and taking a sharpie out of his sock to sign a touchdown ball.

Departure from the 49ers
After a spat with some 49ers front office members, Owens and the team decided to part ways after the 2003 season. Philadelphia quarterback Donovan McNabb wanted Owens to be an Eagle, as did many Eagles fans. Owens was actually traded to the Baltimore Ravens, but Owens challenged the 49ers' right to make the trade and made it clear he did not want to go to Baltimore. Owens eventually won the case, and was sent to the Philadelphia Eagles after the Ravens, 49ers, and Eagles agreed to a rare 3-team trade.

Philadelphia Eagles

Owens had a great season in 2004 on the field (caught 14 TDs), despite a broken leg by Cowboys safety Roy Williams. Owens's main celebration was copying the dance of Ravens linebacker Ray Lewis in a win against the Ravens. T.O. helped the Philadelphia Eagles to an appearance in Super Bowl XXXIX. However, Owens's controversy was at its high point. He had several feuds with McNabb and the Eagles managament. He was suspended b Phili for most of the 2005 season. That was the last of Owens's time with the Eagles.

Dallas Cowboys

Owens signed a three-year contract with the Dallas Cowboys in 2006. Owens (and star QB Tony Romo) enjoyed a good three years. Notable touchdown celebrations while with the Cowboys were sleeping on a ball and grabbing a fan's popcorn to dump down his facemask. The only other form of controversy while Owens was with the Cowboys was when he spit in the face of cornerback DeAngelo Hall, who had, according to Owens, been ""in his face all day." Owens was fined, but the two players made up with the help of Deion Sanders. Owens produced well through the rest of his time in Dallas, but was released after the 2008 season.

Buffalo Bills

Owens signed with the Buffalo Bills in 2009. He played fairly well during his lone season in Buffalo. He also caught a 98-yard touchdown pass, a career long. Owens, however, did not produce as Buffalo hoped when the payed him, and so he was not resigned. However, Owens was credited for not complaining at all publicly, especially since it would have been very easy because the Bills were doing so poorly.

Cincinnati Bengals

With the Cincinnati Bengals, Owens and friend Chad Ochocinco, who had the same kind of touchdown celebrations, were on the same team. Owens led the Bengals (including Ochocinco) with 983 receiving yards, but was injured and missed the last two games of the 2010 season. Owens was not cleared to play until October 2011. No one wanted to sign him.

Allen Wranglers

Owens signed with the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League for their spring season of 2012. He was also their co-owner. Owens caught three touchdowns in his first game for the Wranglers. However, reports surfaced during this time that Owens was broke.

Family
Terrell Owens was born to L.C. Russel and Marilyn Heard in Alexander City, Alabama. When Terrell was very young, he lived with his mother and grandmother. He grew up with three other siblings. He enjoyed watching football, especially his favorite player, Jerry Rice. However, Owens' grandmother did not allow him to play sports until high school. (Owens attended Benjamin Russell High School, where he did very well in football, baseball, and basketball.)

Terrell Owens is married and is now a father to sons Terique, Atlin, plus daughters Kylee, and Dasha.

References

 "Cowboys cut T.O". Sports.espn.go.com. March 5, 2008.
 "Terrell Owens Bio". NFLPLayers.com.
 "USA TODAY Salaries Database ". Asp.usatoday.com. November 5, 2008.
 Tadych, Frank (2010-11-09). "Owens on pace to reach contract incentives". NFL Enterprises LLC.
 Florio, Mike (October 19, 2011). "T.O. is officially ready to play". profootballtalk.com.
 "Terrell Owens' agent waits for calls". ESPN.com news services. October 26, 2011.
 Watkins, Calvin (January 19, 2012). "Terrell Owens to join Allen Wranglers". ESPN Dallas/Fort Worth. ESPN. Retrieved January 19, 2012
 Glauber, Bob (September 27, 2006). "Owens denies suicide try". Newsday.
 NFL Fines Dallas Cowboys' Terrell Owens $35,000 for Spitting on Opponent, FoxNews.com, December 18, 2006.
 "Official Store of Terrell Owens : I'm Back mp3 Download". Terrellowens.com. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008.
 "Terrell Owens Official Website - Terrell Owens Image & Video Gallery Message Board". Terrellowens.com. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008

1973 births
Living people
American football wide receivers
Sportspeople from Alabama

Terrell Owens


Toby Tyler; or, Ten Weeks with a Circus is a children's novel. It was written by 'James Otis' (James Otis Kaler). It was first published in parts (serialization) in the magazine Harper's Young People in 1877. It was then published as a book by Harper & Brothers in 1881. A sequel called Mr. Stubb's Brother was published in 1883.

The story is about a boy who runs away from a foster home to join the circus. It was one of many "bad boy" books of the 19th century that were meant to show boys the consequences of being "bad". Toby Tyler was made into a Walt Disney movie in 1960.

1877 books
American children's books
Books with circus settings
19th-century American novels

Toby Tyler


André Paul Guillaume Gide (22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French writer. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1947.

Gide was born in Paris into a middle class Protestant family. During a trip to Alegeria Gide realized that he was gay. His first novel The Notebooks of Andre Walter was published in 1891. Gide met Oscar Wilde in 1894. In October 1895 Gide married his cousin Madeleine. When Gide was 47 15-year-old Marc Allégret became his lover.

Gide also opposed colonialism and exploitation of slavery in Africa and was interested in communism and visited Soviet Union, but he expressed critical idea on the totalitarian regime.

1869 births
1951 deaths
Anti-communists
French communists
French Nobel Prize winners
Gay men
LGBT Nobel Prize winners
French LGBT writers
Writers from Paris

André Gide


In relation to juristic persons, the constitutional documents (sometimes referred to as the charter documents) are the documents which define the existence of an entity and regulate the structure and control of that entity and its members. The precise form of the constitutional documents depends upon the type of entity, such as corporations or private associations.

Companies
By convention, most common law jurisdictions divide the constitutional documents of companies into two separate documents:
the Memorandum of Association (in some countries referred to as the Articles of Incorporation) is the primary document, and will generally regulate the company's activities with the outside world, such as the company's objects and powers.
the Articles of Association (in some countries referred to as the by-laws) is the secondary document, and will generally regulate the company's internal affairs and management, such as procedures for board meetings, dividend entitlements etc.

In many countries, only the primary document is filed, and the secondary document remains private. In other countries, both documents are filed.

In civil law jurisdictions, the company's constitution is normally consolidated into a single document, often called the charter.

It is quite common for members of a company to supplement the corporate constitution with additional arrangements, such as shareholders' agreements, whereby they agree to exercise their membership rights in a certain way. Conceptually a shareholders' agreement fulfills many of the same functions as the corporate constitution, but because it is a contract, it will not normally bind new members of the company unless they accede to it somehow. One benefit of shareholders' agreement is that they will usually be confidential, as most jurisdictions do not require shareholders' agreements to be publicly filed.

Another common method of supplementing the corporate constitution is by means of voting trusts, although these are relatively uncommon outside of the United States and certain offshore jurisdictions...

Partnerships
Partnerships also have constitutional documents in the form of a partnership agreement. In some jurisdictions, a more formal constitution, sometimes referred to as articles of partnership or a partnership deed is used (particularly where the partnership has certain corporate aspects, such as a Limited Liability Partnership). However, many partnerships are not created formally, and may have no written partnership agreement and leave the regulation of the partnership to be regulated in accordance with the understandings of the parties and by general law. Some of the largest partnerships in the world have no written partnership agreement.

Trusts
A trust is not a separate legal entity as such, but is often treated as one for certain legal purposes. Like partnerships, trusts are not normally required to have a written trust instrument to constitute them, although most large and formal trusts do.

Unincorporated associations
An unincorporated association may also have a constitution which provides for the rights and remedies of the members as between themselves, and governs the conduct of the association. Because, in most legal systems, unincorporated associations do not have separate legal personality, this aspect of the constitutional documents is not applicable. In most legal systems unincorporated associations are not required to have formal written constitutions, but many of the larger and more complex organisations would be almost impossible to administer without one.

Notes

Corporate law

Constitutional documents


Mondini dysplasia, also known as Mondini malformation and Mondini defect, is an abnormality of the inner ear that is associated with sensorineural hearing loss.

This deformity was first described in 1791 by Mondini after examining the inner ear of a deaf boy. The Mondini dysplasia describes a cochlea with incomplete partitioning and a reduced number of turns, an enlarged vestibular aqueduct and a dilated vestibule.  A normal cochlea has two and a half turns, a cochlea with Mondini dysplasia has one and a half turns; the basal turns being normally formed with a dilated or cystic apical turn to the cochlear. The hearing loss can deteriorate over time either gradually or in a step-wise fashion, or may be profound from birth.

Hearing loss associated with Mondini dysplasia may first become manifest in childhood or early adult life.  Some children may pass newborn hearing screen to lose hearing in infancy but others present with a hearing loss at birth. Hearing loss is often progressive and because of the associated widened vestibular aqueduct may progress in a step-wise fashion associated with minor head trauma. Vestibular function is also often affected. While the hearing loss is sensorineural a conductive element may exist probably because of the third window effect of the widened vestibular aqueduct. The Mondini dysplasia can occur in cases of Pendred Syndrome and Branchio-oto-renal syndrome and in other syndromes, but can occur in non-syndromic deafness.

References

External links

Diseases of the ear and mastoid process
Congenital disorders of eye, ear, face and neck

Mondini dysplasia


The Sausage Race is a race of sausage mascots held before the bottom of the sixth inning at every home game of the Milwaukee Brewers. The Sausage Race began as a promotion for the Klement's Sausage Company, located in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, whose sausages were served at American Family Field (and previously at Milwaukee County Stadium), the home of the Brewers. In 2021, Johnsonville sausages began being served at American Family Field and today are officially known as the Famous Racing Sausages.

Famous Racing Sausages
The race started in the early 1990s with just three sausages – the bratwurst, the Polish sausage (kielbasa), and the Italian sausage. Since then, two new sausages have joined the race – the hot dog, introduced in the mid-1990s, and the chorizo, which was unveiled and eventually joined the race in the mid-2000s.

Today, the five racing sausages are known as "Brat", "Polish", "Italian", "Hot Dog", and "Chorizo".

Employees of the Milwaukee Brewers or American Family Field usually run the race. Donning over-sized foam sausage costumes that measure  from the top of the head to the knees of the runners, the contestants start their race between the dugout and the baseline around third base. They sprint down the warning track, around home plate and continue toward first base. On Sunday afternoon home games, the Sausages tag off to miniature versions of themselves, dubbed the Little Weenies, who finish the remainder of the race.

The sausages appear at many local charity events, including an annual 5K run/walk in their honor, with proceeds going to Brewers Community Foundation, and are available for personal appearances on non-game days. They also have a twice-yearly home-and-home relay race against their Pittsburgh Pirates counterparts, the Racing Pierogies.

The sausages have starred in two SportsCenter spots for ESPN. The first, set at ESPN's cafeteria, was shown at American Family Field on 19 May 2006. The second features them in a parody of the Running of the Bulls with ESPN employees.

History

Origins
The Famous Sausage Race began as a scoreboard animation in the early 1990s with just three characters – The Bratwurst, The Polish and The Italian – running toward Milwaukee County Stadium against a backdrop of the city of Milwaukee.

In the fall of 1992, Milwaukee graphic designer Michael Dillon of McDill Design presented an idea to Gabe Paul, who was the Vice President of Operations for the Brewers, to transform the race from the scoreboard to live action.

On June 27, 1993, as the Sausages approached Milwaukee County Stadium on the scoreboard video, the left field doors swung open and – much to the surprise of players and fans – out came the larger-than-life mascots. The three made their way to home plate with The Bratwurst (worn by Dillon) winning the first-ever live race.

For the remainder of the 1993 season, the Sausages raced live only at those games with particularly high attendance. In 1994, the live Sausage race resumed on Sunday, May 29 – the day the Brewers retired Robin Yount's number 19 jersey – and became a fixture at every home game since.

At the outset, the Sausage Race featured only three entrants: The bratwurst, the Polish sausage, and the Italian sausage. The Hot Dog joined the race in the middle-1990s. In 2007, after a one-race tryout the previous year, The Chorizo rounded out the group of five Sausages fans see today.

Randall Simon incident
On July 9, 2003, Randall Simon, then the first baseman of the Pittsburgh Pirates, hit the head of a runner's costume with a baseball bat. The tap did not hit the actual head of Mandy Block, who was wearing the Italian sausage costume, but it did knock her over, and she took the Hot Dog down with her. The Polish sausage helped the Italian sausage up and all sausages finished the race. Simon was arrested, fined, and suspended by Major League Baseball for three games. He later apologized. Block laughed off the incident and called herself "just a sausage." She asked only that the offending bat be autographed and given to her. Simon obliged. Later that year, Mandy Block received a complimentary trip to Curaçao, Simon's home island, from the Curaçao Tourism Board. Since the incident, T-shirts and other memorabilia have been sold with the slogan "Don't whack our wiener!" Pittsburgh lost the game 2–1.

Simon was traded to the Chicago Cubs later that season for reasons unrelated to the incident. He returned to Milwaukee with the Cubs for a series against the Brewers. During the first game, Simon's teammates playfully held him back as the sausages raced past their dugout, and manager Dusty Baker guarded the bat rack. In that same game, Simon purchased Italian sausages for a randomly chosen section of the crowd.

Parodies
On October 1, 2008, the Brewers traveled to Philadelphia to play the Philadelphia Phillies in Milwaukee's first post-season game since the 1982 World Series. In the middle of the 6th inning, three feebly dressed sausages appeared from the left field gate of Citizens Bank Park in what proved to be a mockery of the Miller Park tradition. The three sausages were then accosted by the Phillie Phanatic at home plate, to the delight of the Phillies fans. Simon, who played for the Phillies in 2006, was invited back and received loud cheers as he hit the fake sausages with a large plastic bat. Most fans understood the reference, and laughed that Simon was invited back for the gag.

In Washington, DC, the Washington Nationals have made fun of them, calling them the "un-Racing Sausages" during Brewers visits to the nation's capital in the Presidents Race, featuring runners dressed in oversized costumes representing the four Presidents on Mount Rushmore – George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln and Theodore Roosevelt – which began when Ted Lerner took over ownership of the team in 2006; the live action version replacing a computerized animation version. This stems from a negative response by Brewers management after the Nats invited them for match races similar to those with Pittsburgh's racing pierogies staged annually; however, the Brewers refused to partake in these events. As a response, the Nationals made cardboard copies of the Brewers' racers, naming them "Un-talian sausage", "No-Lish Sausage", "Not-Dog", "Not-Wurst", and "Choriz-No".

At Wescott Elementary School in Northbrook, Illinois, They have five students every year wear their own sausage costumes based on that of the Brewers.

The Chorizo joins the race

The Chorizo was added for the 2006 season to commemorate Latino contributions to the game of baseball, as well as to acknowledge the Brewers' growing Latino fanbase. It ran its first race (and the only one of the 2006 season) on Saturday, July 29 to celebrate Cerveceros Day (cervecero translates to beer-maker or maker of beer, i.e., brewer, in Spanish; the Brewers also wore Cerveceros jerseys on this day). However, the Chorizo did not become a regular participant in the Sausage Race until the  season because of an MLB rule stating that a team may not introduce a new mascot in the middle of a season.

The Italian goes missing
On February 27, 2013, news outlets reported that the Italian sausage costume was missing. According to police, eyewitnesses saw someone wearing the costume leaving the Milwaukee Curling Club in suburban Cedarburg the evening of February 16, proceeding to visit several bars in the area and pose for photographs with patrons before disappearing. Rewards offered for the costume's safe return included year's supplies of mustard and sauerkraut from local businesses, but these went unclaimed as the costume was ultimately dropped off in a hurry at a Cedarburg bar on February 28 by two unidentified men.

20th anniversary celebration
On June 27, 2013, the Brewers and Klements sausage marked the 20th anniversary of the Sausage Race. The festivities, held during that day's Brewers game against the Chicago Cubs at American Family Field, featured pregame ceremonies honoring the Racing Sausages, a ceremonial first pitch by Michael Dillon (winner of the first live-action race in 1993), and the regular Sausage Race in the middle of the 6th inning that featured only 3 competitors—original entrants bratwurst, Polish sausage, and Italian sausage (the hot dog and chorizo held the tape at the finish line).

Notable contestants
Ball players Mark Grace, Pat Meares, Geoff Jenkins, and Hideo Nomo have raced as sausages. A handful of sports journalists have also raced as well as former Green Bay Packers wide receiver Javon Walker, who participated in the race in 2004. Casey McGehee's son Mack has raced as a Little Weenie. Dan Patrick and the "Danettes" of The Dan Patrick Show raced in the June 22, 2013, race with Andrew "McLovin" Perloff winning as the Hot Dog. Participation is not open to the general public.

On February 24, 2014, a small stray dog wandered into the Brewers' spring training camp. The team adopted him and named him Hank after the late Hank Aaron. He ran his first sausage race with the team on February 27, 2014. Despite losing the race, Hank is popular with the team and has his own Twitter account.

On August 20, 2021, late-night TV host Stephen Colbert made a guest appearance as part of his 'Milwaukee Apology Tour'. He was in the hot dog costume and finished last.

See also
Presidents Race
Great Pierogi Race
Mascot race

References

External links

Milwaukee Brewers
Major League Baseball competitions
Major League Baseball team mascots
American sausages
Mascot racing in baseball
Recurring sporting events established in 1994

Sausage Race


The Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge, officially the Veterans Memorial Bridge, spans the Susquehanna River between Columbia and Wrightsville, Pennsylvania, and carries Pennsylvania Route 462 and BicyclePA Route S. Built originally as the Lancaster-York Intercounty Bridge, construction began in 1929, and the bridge opened September 30, 1930. On November 11, 1980, it was officially dedicated as Veterans Memorial Bridge, though it is still referenced locally as the Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge.

In nominating the present Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge as an engineering landmark, the Pennsylvania section of the American Society of Civil Engineers noted that it is "a splendid example of the graceful multiple-span, reinforced-concrete arched form popular in early 20th Century highway bridges in the United States." The bridge is designated State Route 462 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is also a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. Instead of being replaced by a name such as the Old Lincoln Highway, its name is a kept part of the historic Lincoln Highway in local naming, the nation's first transcontinental highway, connecting a series of local highways and stretching from New York City to San Francisco. The opening in 1940 of the cross-state Pennsylvania Turnpike, a part of Interstate 76, subsequently provided faster passage.

History

Construction
Designed by James B. Long and built by Glen Wiley and Glenway Maxon (Wiley-Maxon Construction Company), it cost $2,484,000 (equivalent to $ million in ), plus  an early completion bonus of $56,400 (). Constructed of reinforced concrete, the  bridge ( including spans over land) has 27 river piers, 22 approach piers, a  two-lane roadway, and a  sidewalk.  of concrete and 8 million pounds of steel reinforcing rods were used, and coffer dams were built to aid in construction. Each span consists of three separate concrete ribs connected at five points by horizontal concrete struts, with the longest span measuring .

Tolls of 25 cents per vehicle were charged when the bridge first opened () and ended on January 31, 1943, when the bond issue was retired. Some time after World War II, the original bridge lights were replaced with newer lighting. Two of the original bronze light fixtures can still be seen on the front lawn of the Frank Sahd Salvage Center along Route 462 in Columbia.

Current
In the 1970s, the state considered closing the bridge permanently due to the recently constructed Wright's Ferry Bridge nearby, but local residents objected. In the mid-1970s, it was given a major overhaul instead, and was closed only temporarily. A few years later, the bridge was once again closed briefly so that a weather-resistant coating could be applied to the roadway. Today, the bridge is maintained by PennDOT and is still considered the world's longest concrete multiple-arch bridge. Its annual average daily traffic (AADT) was 10,350 as of 2004. It is the fifth bridge to span the river at this general location.

As of the first quarter of 2020, PennDOT said plans were underway to restore the bridge, while also: improving roadway intersections at both ends, connecting pedestrian and bicycle paths to river-side parks, and possibly addressing annual mayfly swarms by adding lights beneath the bridge. The project has an estimated $54 million cost and construction was projected to begin in the winter of 2022–2023. In June 2023, an inspection of the bridge revealed cracks in the floor beams and columns that support the deck. The discovery resulted in a weight restriction of  being applied, except for emergency vehicles that need to cross. A PennDOT spokesman said the bridge is safe and the limit is to keep the deterioration from getting worse. Interim repairs are planned and, with an expected need for redesign, the already-scheduled bridge rehabilitation is being pushed back to 2025.

The other present-day Columbia-Wrightsville bridge is the Wright's Ferry Bridge, the sixth bridge to cross the river between the two towns. Also known as the Route 30 bridge, it stands about  north of the Veterans Memorial Bridge. (Wright's Ferry was one of the original names of Columbia.) G.A. & F.C. Wagman, Inc. began its construction in March 1969, and the bridge opened on November 21, 1972. It was commissioned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the 1960s to relocate Route 30 and bypass the river towns of Wrightsville and Columbia. Costing $12 million, it is constructed of reinforced concrete and steel and has 46 equal sections on 45 piers. US 30 crosses it as an expressway (4-lane divided highway), and there is no walkway. Tolls were never collected on this bridge. About a year after its opening, the bridge was shut down briefly so that an experimental weather-resistant coating could be applied to its roadway.

Previous bridges

First bridge

Construction of the first Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge was begun in 1812 and completed December 5, 1814, by J. Wolcott, H. Slaymaker, S. Slaymaker at a total cost of $231,771 (equal to $ today), which was underwritten by the newly formed Columbia Bank and Bridge Company. The bridge was  long and  wide and had 54 piers and twin carriageways. Constructed of wood and stone, the covered bridge also included a wooden roof, a whitewashed interior and openings in its wooden sides to admit light and allow a view of the river and surrounding areas. It stood immediately south of the present-day Wright's Ferry Bridge along Route 30. Tolls were $1.50 () for a wagon and six horses, and six cents for pedestrians (). It was considered the longest covered bridge in the world at the time. The bridge accommodated east–west traffic across the Susquehanna River for 14 years before being destroyed by ice, high water and severe weather on February 5, 1832.

Second bridge
Construction of the second Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge, another covered bridge, started mid-1832 and was completed in 1834 (opening on July 8, 1834) by James Moore and John Evans at a cost of $157,300, equal to $ today. It was  long and  wide and also enjoyed the distinction of being the world's longest covered bridge. The wood and stone structure had 27 piers, a carriageway, walkway, and two towpaths to guide canal traffic across the river. Tolls were $1.00 for a wagon and 6 horses (), and 6 cents per pedestrian (). Much of the mostly oak timber used in its construction was salvaged from the previous bridge. Its roof was covered with shingles, its sides with weatherboard, and its interior was whitewashed.

The structure was modified in 1840 by the Canal Company at a cost of $40,000 (equal
to  $ today) concurrent with the construction of the Wrightsville Dam. Towpaths of different levels and with sidewalls were added to prevent horses from falling into river, as happened several times when the river flooded. The roof of the lower path formed the floor of upper path. In this way, canal boats were towed across the river from the Pennsylvania Canal on the Columbia side to the Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal at Wrightsville.

Sometime after 1846, a double-track railway was added, linking the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad to the Northern Central Railway. Due to fear of fire caused by locomotives, rail cars were pulled across the bridge by teams of mules or horses.

The second bridge's role during the Civil War
To prevent the advance of Confederate troops across the river from the Wrightsville (York County) side during the Civil War, the bridge was burned by Union militia under Maj. Granville O. Haller and Col. Jacob G. Frick on June 28, 1863. Civilian volunteers from Columbia had mined the bridge at the fourth span from the Wrightsville side, originally hoping to drop the whole  span into the river, but when the charges were detonated, only small portions of the support arch splintered, leaving the span passable. As Confederates advanced onto the bridge, Union forces set fire to it near the Wrightsville side. Earlier they had saturated the structure with crude oil from a Columbia refinery.

The entire structure soon caught fire and completely burned in six hours. Confederate generals Jubal A. Early and John B. Gordon had originally planned to save the bridge despite orders from General Robert E. Lee to burn it, and Union forces under the command of Colonel Jacob G. Frick had burned the bridge, originally hoping to defend and save it. Afterwards, the Columbia Bank and Bridge Company appealed to the federal government for reimbursement for damages incurred from the bridge burning, but none were ever paid. Conservative estimates put the cost of damages with interest today at well over $170 million.

In 1864, the bank sold all interest in the bridge and bridge piers to the Pennsylvania Railroad for $57,000, equal to $ today.

Third bridge
Construction of the third Columbia-Wrightsville bridge was started in 1868 by the Pennsylvania Railroad. The covered bridge (5,390 feet long) was completed later that year at a cost of $400,000, equal to $ today. Built of stone, wood, and steel, it included 27 piers, a carriageway, railway, and walkway. It was destroyed September 30, 1896 by the 1896 Cedar Keys hurricane.

Fourth bridge

Construction of the fourth Columbia-Wrightsville bridge, known as the Pennsylvania Railroad "Iron Bridge," started April 16, 1897, and was completed May 11, and was considered the fastest bridge-building job in the world at the time. A steel truss bridge made of  prefabricated sections, it was designed to be resistant to fire, ice, water and wind, elements that had destroyed previous wooden structures. Like the previous bridges, tolls were collected to recover a portion of the half-million dollar investment, equal to $ today. Built on the same 27 piers as the previous two bridges, it opened June 7, 1897. The iron and prefabricated steel structure had a railway to carry rail traffic for the York Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and twin carriageways that were shared with pedestrians. Tolls were 20 cents () for vehicles (plus four cents per passenger; ) and three cents for pedestrians ().

The bridge remained uncompleted because a planned upper deck was never built. With the completion of the Lincoln Highway in 1925, vehicular traffic routinely jammed in the late 1920s when vehicles had to wait for trains to pass before crossing the bridge, since the bridge was shared with rail traffic. A fifth bridge (Veterans' Memorial Bridge) was planned and erected to accommodate vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The "Iron Bridge" carried passenger trains until 1954 and freight traffic until March 13, 1958, and was dismantled for scrap starting in 1963 and ending in November 1964. Its stone piers, dating to pre-Civil War times, still stand today, running parallel to the north side of the Veterans' Memorial Bridge.

See also

 List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Pennsylvania
 List of crossings of the Susquehanna River

References

Further reading

Town historical markers and plaques provided by Columbia Borough and Rivertownes PA USA

External links

https://web.archive.org/web/20070919222620/http://www.columbiapa.net/about.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20070709072013/http://www.columbiapaonline.com/
http://www.rivertownes.org/Features/Crossings/Crossings.htm
http://www.rivertownes.org/Features/Burning/storm_fw2b.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20070825001139/http://www.civilwaralbum.com/misc6/columbia_wrightsville_bridge1.htm
http://www.rivertownes.org/townes.htm
Vital statistics, fifth bridge: http://www.yorkblog.com/yorktownsquare/2005/11/columbiawrightsville-bridge-ce

Open-spandrel deck arch bridges in the United States
Bridges completed in 1930
Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania
Lincoln Highway
Bridges over the Susquehanna River
Historic American Engineering Record in Pennsylvania
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Bridges in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Bridges in York County, Pennsylvania
Former toll bridges in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in York County, Pennsylvania
Concrete bridges in the United States

Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge


Yeghishe Charents (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges.

From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.

Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same.

Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.

Works
"Three songs to the sad and pale girl", poems (1914)
"Blue-eyed Homeland", poem (1915)
"Soma", poem (1918) Yerevan
"Charents-Name", poem (1922)
"Uncle Lenin", poem (1924)
"Country of Nayiri" (Yerkir Nayiri) (1926)
"Epical Sunrise", poems (1930)
"Book of the Way", poems (1934)

Film
 1987: Charents - Known and Unknown Sides (Yeghishe Charents)Armenfilm,35mm, script by Levon Mkrtchyan, narration by Sos Sargsyan, director Levon Mkrtchyan

Related pages
 Armenian Genocide

1987 births
1937 deaths
Armenian poets

Yeghishe Charents


A chemical nomenclature is a set of rules for creating a system of names ("nomenclature") for chemicals. This is done so that everyone uses the same name for a chemical. The system used most often around the world today is the one created and developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

The IUPAC's rules for naming chemical compounds are written in a series of books. The system for naming organic compounds is written in the Blue Book. The system for naming inorganic compounds is written in the Red Book. A third book, called the Green Book, gives recommendations about the use of symbols for physical quantities. A fourth book, the Gold Book, contains the definitions of many of the technical terms used in chemistry. Similar books exist for biochemistry, analytical chemistry, macromolecular chemistry, and clinical chemistry. The books do not cover everything, however. Shorter recommendations for specific circumstances are published sometimes in the journal Pure and Applied Chemistry.

References

Other websites

 Interactive IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (interactive "Gold Book")
 IUPAC Nomenclature Books Series (list of all IUPAC nomenclature books, and means of accessing them)
 IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology ("Gold Book")

Chemical nomenclature


Cape Romano is a cape at the southern end of Caxambas Island, just south of Marco Island and northwest of the Ten Thousand Islands in Collier County, Florida. Cape Romano was also the spot where Hurricane Wilma made its first U.S. landfall in October 2005.

Calusa Indians declared-ownership of the area and called it Manataca. Juan Ponce de León made a short stop at Manataca on his first visit from Puerto Rico to Florida, but the Indians tried to fight him off.

Cape Romano was the spot where Hurricane Wilma first reached land in the U.S. October 2005. Tropical Storm Fay also reached land here in 2008.

Geography of Florida
Romano

Cape Romano


Jerry March, Ph.D. (August 1, 1929 – December 25, 1997) was an American organic chemist and a professor of chemistry at Adelphi University.

March authored the March's Advanced Organic Chemistry text, which is considered to be a pillar of graduate-level organic chemistry texts.  The book was prepared in its fifth edition at the time of his death.

External links
 New York Times obituary

Organic chemists
1929 births
1997 deaths
Adelphi University faculty

Jerry March


The Handley Page Hinaidi was one of two twin-engine bombers built by Handley Page that served with the Royal Air Force between 1925 and 1935. The aircraft was developed from the Handley Page Hyderabad and named after Hinaidi, an RAF station in Iraq.

Design and development
In 1923, Handley Page designed and built a new heavy bomber based on its W.8 airliner, the Hyderabad. The Hyderabad was an all-wooden biplane powered by two Napier Lion engines. Forty-five were built, entering service from 1925.

The Hinaidi was an improved version of the Hyderabad built to meet Air Ministry Specification 13/29. The first machine, the HP33 Hinaidi I -in fact an early production Hyderabad, J7745, with another engine and a change of fin and rudder- first flew on 26 March 1927. At least four Hyderabads were converted to Hinaidi Is, while six late-production Hyderabads were completed as Hinaidi Is, retaining the wooden airframe of the Hyderabads. The first true Hinaidi, the HP36 Hinaidi II, went into production after major structural modifications were implemented, the structure being changed from wooden to metal.

A re-engined version with two 480 hp Siddeley Jaguars was proposed, the HP44 Hinaidi III, but not built.

Operational history
The first 33 aircraft came into service in 1929, and were issued to No. 99, No. 10 and No. 503 squadrons. Total production ended with 36 aircraft, with some being converted to transport aircraft on the North-West Frontier in India. The Clive II transport version operated out of Lahore.

Variants
HP.33 Hinaidi I
 Wooden airframe. Three built, one prototype, J7745, as a conversion of a Hyderabad, two from new, with seven Hyderabads converted.
HP.33 Clive I
 One of the Hinaidi I prototypes, J9126, built using a W.10 fuselage as a transport design later converted to become Clive III though not entering service as such. Later as G-ABYX sold to Sir Alan Cobham with his air circus and named "Youth of Australia" and later renamed "Astra".
HP.35 Clive II
 Two transport aircraft built, all-metal structure, J9948 and J9949.
HP.36 Hinaidi II
 All-metal airframe. 34 built, prototype J9478 and production K1063-K1078 and K1909-K1925. Approximately 20+ aircraft were converted into Clive II transport aircraft configuration in the early 1930s.

Operators

 Royal Air Force
 No. 10 Squadron RAF
 No. 99 Squadron RAF
 No. 502 Squadron RAF
 No. 503 Squadron RAF
 Heavy Transport Flight RAF – Handley Page Clive

Specifications (Hinaidi Mk II)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Barnes, C. H. Handley Page Aircraft Since 1907. London: Putnam & Company, Ltd., 1987. .
 Clayton, Donald C. Handley Page, an Aircraft Album. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1969. .
 Jarrett, Philip. "By Day and By Night: Hyderabads and Hinadis". Aeroplane Monthly, August 1993, Vol 21 No 8, Issue No 244. London: IPC. ISSN 0143-7240. pp. 18–24.
 Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber Since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. .
 Thetford, Owen. Aircraft of the Royal Air Force 1918–57, 1st edition. London: Putnam, 1957.
 Thetford, Owen. "By Day and By Night: Hyderabads and Hinadis". Aeroplane Monthly, September 1993, Vol 21 No 9, Issue No 245. London: IPC. ISSN 0143-7240. pp. 18–24

External links

 Handley Page aircraft
 Handley Page Hinaildi – British Aircraft Directory
 Flight article of 1930 showing Clive transport

1920s British bomber aircraft
Hinaidi
Aircraft first flown in 1927
Biplanes

Handley Page Hinaidi


Haggis is a tradeetional Scots dish.  It is a wechtie pudden tradeetionally served wi chappit neeps an tatties.

Altho the'r monie recipes, some uisin deer emmledeug, for ordinar it's makkit wi the follaein ingredients: sheep's hert, liver, an lichts, minced wi ingan, aitmael, shuet, spices, an saut, mixt wi bree an tradeetionally byled in the beast's painch for several hoors. It is amang the maist muckle kinds o sassenger. The'r receipts athoot maet an aa, speceifically for vegetarians, that tastes gey seimilar tae the maet-based receipts.

In some weys, the nor-aestren US dish scrapple is lik haggis, but haggis differs in the follaein weys: it uises sheep emmledeug insteid o swine emmledeug an aitmael insteid o cornmael (maize); it is a sassenger raither nor a maet laif; an it is byled insteid o bein bakkit.  Acause o this, the leuk an the gust differs seegnificant.

History an popularity

Haggis is tradeitionally sert wi the Burns supper on 25t Januar, whan Scotland's naitional poet, Robert Burns, is commemorate.

He wrate the poem Address tae a Haggis, stertin "Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race! Aboon them a' ye tak your place...."  In Burns' lifetime haggis wis a popular dish for the puir, syne it made uiss o pairts o a sheep that wad ithergates hae been wastit. It is servit wi neeps an tatties for a tradeetional Burns supper.

Haggis is widely available in supermercats in Scotland the hail year aboot, an the cheaper brands is for ordinar stappit intae artifeicial casins, raither nor painches, juist lik the cheaper brands o sassengers isna stappit intae ainimal thairms ony mair. Whiles it is selt in tins, an ye juist microwave it or uin-bak it. Some supermercat haggis is maistlie made frae swine's, raither nor sheep's, emmledeug. Forby, aamaist aa Scots fish an chips shops will sell thair customers a haggis supper, a smaa aesome portion o haggis doukit intae batter an deep fried wi chips; it gies a het, fillin, hie-energy mael for a cauld winter's day.

Variants
The'r fast-fuid shops that sells haggis burgers an aa, a patty o fried haggis on a bap. An thare vegetarian an curry variants that been makkit an aw.

Orra facts an popular cultur
Syne monie kintras' fuid saufty laws ootlaws some o the ingredients in haggis (for examplar, Unitit States law forbids the sale o onie ainimal's lichts for human consumption) but this is aboot tae chynge.  It wis said expatriate Scots an Scots descendants owerseas haes been kent tae engage in haggis smugglin for tae obtein richt Scots haggis.

Haggis is a funny subject for monie fowk. Thaim that speirs at a Scotsman for wittins aboot is rarely gien a straucht anser. A common "anser" tae the speir "Whit is a haggis?" aften gaes lik this: "A haggis is a smaa fower-leggit Scots Hieland craitur that haes its lims on the tae side shorter nor the tither.  This means that it is weel adaptit tae rinnin aboot the braes at a steady altitude, athoot aither gaun up or doun. Houaniver a haggis can be eith keppit bi rinnin aboot the brae conter gates." (See wild haggis.) Surpreisinly the humorous myth is believed bi monie tourists; syne thay are scunnert tae hear the trowth.

Forby thon haggis is uised in a sport cryed haggis hurlin, thrawin a haggis sae faur as possible.

The Warld Record for Haggis Hurlin haes been hauden bi Alan Pettigrew for mair nor 18 year. He threw a 1 lb 8 oz haggis a stoondin 180 feet 10 inch on the island o Inchmurrin on Loch Lomond in Augist 1984.

References

See an aa
Portal:Scotland

Fremmit airtins
Robert Burns' "Address tae a Haggis"

Scots sausages
Breetish puddings
Offal
Scots cuisine
Meat dishes

Haggis


Retail is selling goods or items to the people who will use them. This is different from wholesale, which is selling to a retailer.

According to Oxford Dictionary, Retail is the sale of goods to the public in relatively small quantities for use or consumption rather than for resale.

Retailers buy finished goods or items directly from a manufacturer or a wholesaler and then distribute in smaller quantities to the final consumer who has a need for such items.

For instance, when we buy shoes to wear or food to eat, we buy from a retailer.

Retailing can be done at shops and stores. This includes department stores, malls and markets where stalls or stands are set up at a cleared area.

Another way of purchasing retail items is by ordering them by mail, telephone, Internet or other methods, to be delivered by post or package delivery service such as United Parcel Service. Some items are sold door-to-door, in which a sales person goes to a possible customers home and tries to sell an item.

References

Retail

Retail


The Environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM) was a research institute at Ann Arbor, Michigan, founded in 1972. The institute contributed to the development of remote sensing, radar, and holography. ERIM grew out of a military and environmental research arm of the University of Michigan, the Michigan Aeronautical Research Center, later known as the  Willow Run Research Center.

A for-profit enterprise, ERIM International, split off from it in 1997. This was successively acquired by Veridian Corporation, by General Dynamics - moving to Ypsilanti - and in 2014 by MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA). Meanwhile, the remaining non-profit portion became the Altarum Institute in 2001. Part of Altarum was in 2006 merged into the Michigan Tech Research Institute (MTRI), conducting environmental and remote sensing research, while health systems research continues at Altarum Institute.

History

The Environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM) began as Willow Run Laboratories in 1946, but was established as a private not for profit research institute when it formally separated from the University of Michigan in 1972.  ERIM contributed to the development of remote sensing for environmental and military applications.  Much of the laboratory's early history is not publicized because ERIM and its predecessor organizations were developing remote sensing and surveillance systems to collect military intelligence from aircraft and satellites.

Willow Run Laboratories

Prior to Willow Run Laboratories's establishment in 1946, with the Cold War just beginning, the War Department was concerned about keeping the U.S. in the forefront of applied science. University researchers newly returned from WWII service were anxious to use their expertise to address those concerns.

At the University of Michigan's College of Engineering, Professors William Gould Dow and Emerson W. Conlon approached Wright-Patterson Air Force Base scientists with their proposal to conduct a large-scale research project. The project was designed to prove the feasibility of what would later be referred to as an antiballistic missile system. The proposal was accepted, called WIZARD, and it was this contract that gave birth to ERIM's first predecessor organization, the Michigan Aeronautical Research Center (MARC).

During the Vietnam War, protesters at the University of Michigan forced the University to sever formal ties with Willow Run Laboratories.  Research from ERIM provided technology for military surveillance, as well as information and models for better prediction and understanding of floods, fires, agricultural crops and remotely sensed information, including studies of the Bering Glacier.

Key technologies

ERIM became well known in the scientific community through a series of international conferences on remote sensing and geospatial information technologies, in the spirit of the first International Symposium on Remote Sensing of the Environment held in Ann Arbor, Michigan in 1962.

ERIM played key-roles in the development and implementation of synthetic aperture radar (SAR), at the time, an entirely new concept of radar technology. Development of an optical processing system for SAR data led Emmett Leith, Adam Kozma and Juris Upatnieks to use the newly invented laser in conjunction with the holographic theories outlined by Dennis Gabor. Leith and Upatnieks developed a practical technique for wave-front recording and reconstruction using lasers, thereby making possible the field now known as holography. Holograms have since found a wide variety of applications.

Corporate history

In 1997, claiming an inability to compete with for-profit industry, President Peter Banks and ERIM's board of trustees spun off a for-profit subsidiary under the name ERIM International, Incorporated.  Nearly all of ERIM's R&D work and contracts moved to the for-profit entity, while the buildings, property, and a small fraction of personnel and contracts were retained by the not-for-profit ERIM.  Banks and many board members allotted themselves high numbers of shares in the new for-profit venture, which were exercised for considerable sums when ERIM International, Inc. was sold to Veridian Corp. of Washington, D.C. in 1999.  Veridian was later bought by  General Dynamics Advanced Information Systems in 2003, and the heritage-ERIM part of the organization became its Michigan Research and Development Center (MRDC) and moved from Ann Arbor to nearby Ypsilanti.  Proceeds from the sale of ERIM International were used by the not-for-profit ERIM to acquire Center for Electronic Commerce (CEC), another Ann Arbor not for profit in 1998.  ERIM acquired Vector Research, Inc. (VRI) in 2001 to form the Altarum Institute, headquartered in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

On October 1, 2006, Michigan Technological University purchased the Altarum Institute's Environmental and Emerging Technologies Division (EETD), which was mostly comprised by the heritage-ERIM portion of the Institute, to form the Michigan Tech Research Institute (MTRI).  The Altarum Institute is a nonprofit now solely focused on health systems research, while the environmental and remote sensing research continues at MTRI.

On October 3, 2014, MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA), Canadian corporation, completed the acquisition of the Ypsilanti, Michigan building and employees therein from General Dynamics Advanced Information Systems. With MDA's corporate restructuring following the acquisition of Digital Globe in 2017, this line of business was shifted into the newly-formed subsidiary Radiant Solutions .

See also
Remote Sensing
University of Michigan
Michigan Technological University

References

External links
 Official Altarum Institute website
 Michigan Tech Research Institute
 International Symposia on Remote Sensing of the Environment

Research institutes in Michigan
Engineering research institutes
Remote sensing research institutes
Laboratories in the United States
Michigan Technological University
University of Michigan
Research institutes established in 1946
1946 establishments in Michigan
General Dynamics
Geographic data and information organizations in the United States


The First Battle of Cannanore was a naval engagement between the Third Portuguese Armada under João da Nova and the naval forces of Calicut, which had been assembled by the Zamorin against the Portuguese in order to prevent their return to Portugal.

The battle was fought over two days, between 31 December 1501 and 2 January 1502, and was the first major Portuguese naval engagement in the Indian Ocean. Although badly outnumbered, da Nova's bold tactics, better trained and prepared men, and superior weaponry proved decisive for the Portuguese to defeat the blocking force of Calicut, break out of Cannanore, and emerge victorious from the battle.

The battle is also historically notable for being one of the earliest recorded deliberate uses of a naval line of battle, and for resolving the battle by cannon alone. These tactics would become increasingly prevalent as navies evolved and began to see ships less as carriers of armed men, and more as floating artillery. In that respect, this has been called the first 'modern' naval battle (at least for one side). After it, João da Nova returned to Portugal.

References

Cannanore
Cannanore
1501 in India
1502 in India
Cannanore

First Battle of Cannanore


Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central node, typically a switch or hub, which acts as a conduct to transmit messages. In star topology, every node (computer workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node.

Computer networking

Star network


In the study of chronobiology, entrainment occurs when rhythmic physiological or behavioral events match their period to that of an environmental oscillation. It is ultimately the interaction between circadian rhythms and the environment. A central example is the entrainment of circadian rhythms to the daily light–dark cycle, which ultimately is determined by the Earth's rotation. Exposure to certain environmental stimuli will cue a phase shift, and abrupt change in the timing of the rhythm. Entrainment helps organisms maintain an adaptive phase relationship with the environment as well as prevent drifting of a free running rhythm. This stable phase relationship achieved is thought to be the main function of entrainment.

There are two general modes of entrainment: phasic and continuous. The phasic mode is when there is limited interaction with the environment to "reset" the clock every day by the amount equal to the "error", which is the difference between the environmental cycle and the organism's circadian rhythm. The continuous mode is when the circadian rhythm is continuously adjusted by the environment, usually by constant light. Two properties, the free-running period of an organism, and the phase response curve, are the main pieces of information needed to investigate individual entrainment. There are also limits to entrainment. Although there may be individual differences in this limit, most organisms have a +/- 3 hours limit of entrainment. Due to this limit, it may take several days for re-entrainment.

The term entrainment is applied because the biological rhythms are endogenous: the rhythm persists even in the absence of environmental cues because it is not a learned behavior but something that is inherent in organisms. Of the several possible cues, called zeitgebers (German for 'time-givers', 'synchronizers', 'external timekeepers'), which can contribute to entrainment, light has the largest impact.  Units of circadian time (CT) are used to describe entrainment to refer to the relationship between the rhythm and the light signal/pulse.

The activity/rest (sleep) cycle in animals is one of the circadian rhythms that normally are entrained by environmental cues. In mammals, such endogenous rhythms are generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the anterior hypothalamus. Entrainment is accomplished by altering the concentration of clock components through altered gene expression and protein stability.

Circadian oscillations occur even in the cells of isolated organs such as the liver/heart as peripheral oscillators, and it is believed that they sync up with the master pacemaker in the mammalian brain, the SCN. Such hierarchical relationships are not the only ones possible: two or more oscillators may couple in order to assume the same period without either being dominant over the other(s). This situation is analogous to pendulum clocks.

The phase of entrainment refers to the relative timing of any circadian event within the objective 24-hour day.

When good sleep hygiene is insufficient, a person's lack of synchronization to night and day can have health consequences. There is some variation within normal chronotypes' entrainment; it is normal for humans to awaken anywhere from about 5 a.m. to 9 a.m.  However, patients with DSPD, ASPD and non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder are improperly entrained to light/dark.

See also
Crepuscular – Animals active at twilight (i.e. dusk and dawn).
Diurnality – Animals active during the day and sleeping at night.
Nocturnality – Animal activity of sleeping during the day and active at night.

References

Further reading
 Pittendrigh CS (1981) Circadian systems: Entrainment. In Handbook Behavioral Neurobiology, Vol. 4. Biological Rhythms, J. Aschoff, ed. pp. 239–68, University of California Press, New York.

Circadian rhythm

Entrainment (chronobiology)


A vowel is a particular kind of speech sound made by changing the shape of the upper vocal tract, or the area in the mouth above the tongue. In English it is important to know that there is a difference between a vowel sound and a [letter] in the [alphabet]. In English there are five vowel letters in the alphabet.

The sounds of American English are written with letters in the English alphabet, as either vowels or consonants. All English words are written with vowel letters in them.

These letters are vowels in English:
A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes W and Y.

It is said that Y is "sometimes" a vowel, because the letter Y represents both vowel and consonant sounds. In the words cry, sky, fly, my and why, letter Y represents the vowel sound /aɪ/. In words like myth and synchronize, Y represents the vowel sound /ɪ/. In words like only, quickly, and folly, Y represents the vowel sound /i/.

It can also be a consonant sound called a glide as in the beginning of these words: yellow, yacht, yam, yesterday. Y is a consonant about 2.5% of the time, and a vowel about 97.5% of the time.

The letter W can sometimes be the second part of a vowel sound as in words like such as cow, bow, or how. In these words the vowel has the sound of /aʊ/. The letter W can be used as a consonant sound at the beginning of in the words when, where, wet. In some languages, like Welsh, the letter W represents the vowel sound /ʊ/, like cwm (a kind of valley).

In written English the six vowel letters are used to represent the 13-15 vowel sounds (depending on the variety) in English. This means there are many more vowel sounds than letters in the English alphabet, and the English spelling systems doesn't always help us figure out what the English sounds are. This can be confusing.
 The rest of the letters of the alphabet are consonants:
B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, and Z.

Monophthongs and diphthongs
Simple vowels are called monophthongs. The letters, like /ɪ/, are the IPA letters for each vowel sound in English. (The IPA is the International Phonetic Alphabet). In the IPA, each symbol represents a different sound, so using the IPA is helpful in pronouncing words.

Common monophthongs in English (these are for General American English) include:
 /i/ as in police, feet, eat, and silly
 /ɪ/ as in it, sit, kick, myth and bitter
 /ɛ/ as in end, bet, less, and letter
 /æ/ as in at, apple, fat, and matter
 /u/ as in cool, tune, soup, and kung fu,
 /ʊ/ as in cook, should, pudding, foot, and rook
 /ʌ/ as in bus, blood, come, and up
 /ə/ as in kingdom, photography, philosophy, ketchup, and hundred
 /ɚ/ as in butter, collar, flavor, firm, and burst
 /ɔ/ as in all, fought, hot, and bot
 /ɑ/ as in father, walk, arm, heart, wasp, lager, envelope and aardvark

Diphthongs are a combination of two different vowel sounds, one vowel sounds turns into another sound as you say them. If you pronounce the words below slowly, you can hear the two vowel sounds of the diphthongs.

Common diphthongs in English include:
 /eɪ/ as in ate, reign, vain, flavor, slay, and convey
 /oʊ/ as in toe, row, go, boat, mode, and chateau
 /aɪ/ as in eye, I, pie, cry, cypher, climb, lime, light, kayak, Thai, and height
 /aʊ/ as in loud, house, cow, about, Daoism, and Macau
 /oɪ/ as in boy, moist, and Freud

Like other languages, there are many dialects of English, and different dialects often use different vowel sounds. But the IPA symbols can tell us which vowel sound a dialects uses. For example, some American English speakers differentiate between the vowels in the words cot and caught, while in other dialects these words are homophones. People who study the differences between the dialects of English often study the different way vowel sounds are pronounced.

The difference between the way English is spelled and the way the words are pronounced came about because all languages change, so spoken English changes, but the spelling system does not.

The study of speech sounds is called phonetics.

Related pages
 Orthography
 Dialect
 Diphthong

References

Vowel


"Say You'll Be There" is a pop single by the Spice Girls. It was recorded in sometime in 1995 though it was not released until the middle of October 1996. The song is about relationships and setting conditions for staying together. The song has various mixes, one of them eight minutes and thirty seconds. The song peaked at #3 for the Billboard Hot 100. It hit #1 over western Europe. The song got mixed reviews from critics. The music video was filmed in the Mojave Desert and spent 2 weeks at No.1 in the UK.

1996 songs
Spice Girls songs

Say You'll Be There


Adana (Greek Άδανα) (the ancient Antioch in Cilicia or Antioch on the Sarus) is the capital of Adana Province in Turkey. According to the 2000 census, with 1,130,710 inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous city of Turkey (after İstanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Bursa). The 2006 estimate of Adana's population is 1,271,894.

For most Turkish people, the word 'Adana' associates with Kebab, şalgam, cotton, oranges and very hot weather, in the awareness that Adana also embodies more than just these.

Adana is also named among the 25 European Regions of the Future for 2006/2007 by Foreign Direct Investment Magazine. Chosen alongside Kocaeli for Turkey, Adana scored the most points for cost effectiveness against Kocaeli's points for infrastructure development, while Adana and Kocaeli tied on points for the categories of human resources and quality of life.

Adana has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Koeppen climate classification).

Related pages
Adana massacre

References

Other websites

 Governorship of Adana
 Municipality of Adana

Cities in Turkey
Mediterranean Region, Turkey

Adana