The Schrödinger equation is a differential equation (a type of equation that involves an unknown function rather than an unknown number) that forms the basis of quantum mechanics, one of the most accurate theories of how subatomic particles behave. It is a mathematical equation that was thought of by Erwin Schrödinger in 1925. It defines a wave function of a particle or system (group of particles) which has a certain value at every point in space for every given time. These values have no physical meaning (in fact, they are mathematically complex), yet the wave function contains all information that can be known about a particle or system. This information can be found by mathematically manipulating the wave function to return real values relating to physical properties such as position, momentum, energy, etc. The wave function can be thought of as a picture of how this particle or system acts with time and describes it as fully as possible.

The wave function can be in a number of different states at once, and so a particle may have many different positions, energies, velocities or other physical properties at the same time (i.e. "be in two places at once"). However, when one of these properties is measured it has only one specific value (which cannot be definitely predicted), and the wave function is therefore in just one specific state. This is called wave function collapse and seems to be caused by the act of observation or measurement. The exact cause and interpretation of wave function collapse is still widely debated in the scientific community.

For one particle that only moves in one direction in space, the Schrödinger equation looks like:

where  is the square root of -1,  is the reduced Planck's constant,  is time,  is a position,  is the wave function, and  is the potential energy, an as yet not chosen function of position. The left hand side is equivalent to the Hamiltonian energy operator acting on .

Time independent Version
Assuming that the wave function, , is separable, i.e. assuming the function of two variables can be written as the product of two different functions of a single variable:

then, using standard mathematical techniques of Partial differential equations, it can be shown that the wave equation can be rewritten as two distinct differential equations

where the first equation is solely dependent on time , and the second equation depends only on position , and where  is just a number. The first equation can be solved immediately to give

where  is Euler's number. Solutions of the second equation depend on the potential energy function, , and so cannot be solved until this function is given. It can be shown using quantum mechanics that the number  is actually the energy of the system, so these separable wave functions describe systems of constant energy. Since energy is constant in many important physical systems (for example: an electron in an atom), the second equation of the set of separated differential equations presented above is often used. This equation is known as the Time independent Schrödinger Equation, as it does not involve .

Interpretations of the Wave function

Born Interpretation
There are many philosophical interpretations of the wave function, and a few of the leading ideas will be considered here. The main idea, called the Born probability interpretation (named after physicist Max Born) comes from the simple idea that the wave function is square integrable; i.e.

This rather simple formula has great physical implications. Born hypothesized that the above integral determines that the particle exists somewhere in space. But how can we find it? We use the integral

where  is the probability of finding the particle in the region from  to . In other words, all that can be known in advance about a particle in general are probabilities, averages, and other statistical quantities associated with its physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.). Basically, this is the Born interpretation.

Copenhagen Interpretation
An extension of the above ideas can be made. Since the Born interpretation says that the actual position particle cannot be known, we can derive the following. If  are solutions to the wave equation, then the superposition of those solutions, i.e.

is also a solution. This implies, then, that the particle exists in every possible position. When an observer comes and measures the position of the particle, then the superposition is reduced to a single possible wave function. (i.e.,  → , where  is any of the possible wave function states.) This idea that a particle's position cannot exactly be known, and that a particle exists in multiple positions simultaneously gives rise to the Uncertainty principle. The mathematical formulation of this principle can be given by

Where  is the uncertainty in position, and  is the uncertainty in momentum. This principle can be mathematically derived from the Fourier transforms between momentum and position as defined by quantum mechanics, but we will not derive it in this article.

Other Interpretations
There are various other interpretations, such as the many-worlds interpretation, and quantum determinism.

References

Basic physics ideas
Quantum mechanics
Partial differential equations

Schrödinger equation


Ismaili Shia (or Ismailiya; ) are a Shia Muslim sect.  They are different from the usual Shia Islam because they do not agree on who the 7th Imam, or religious leader is.  Unlike other Shia Muslims, they believe that Ismail ibn Jafar was the 7th Imam. Most Shia Muslims believe that Musa ibn Jafar was the 7th Imam. Ismail died when his father, Jafar ibn Muhammad the 6th Imam was still alive. They believed that Ismail's son Muhammad was the next Imam and deserted the sixth Imam.

They are split into several sects. The biggest of these are the Nizaris.  They are led by the 49th Imam Aga Khan, another title of the Ismaili Imams. The current Aga Khan is Karim Al Hussaini.

Ismaili


Guo Shoujing (, 1231–1316), or Ruosi (若思), was a Chinese astronomer, engineer, and mathematician. He lived during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). He is considered one of the greatest scientists in Chinese history. Guo was a major influence in the development of science.

He improved the Grand Canal, built a human-made lake (Kunming lake), created one of the most accurate calendars in history, invented some of the most accurate clocks during his time, and made many other contributions to math, astronomy, and hydraulics (water engineering).

As a kid
He was born in 1231 in Xingtai, Hebei province. His family was poor. He grandfather, Guo Yong, was famous for his study of the Five Classics to astronomy, mathematics, and hydraulics. Guo Shoujing was a child prodigy. As a teenager, he learned how to build a water clock. He then improved it. His new invention was called the lotus clepsydra (a bowl shaped like a lotus flower that water dripped into). At 16 he began to study math and from there hydraulics and astronomy.

Hydraulics
At 20, Guo became a hydraulic engineer and government official. He helped fix a bridge over the Dahuoquan River.

Improving the Grand Canal
In the late 1250s, Kublai Khan (of the Mongol Empire, Yuan dynasty) thought hydraulic engineering, irrigation, and water transport would help the country and people. He sent Liu Bingzhong and his student Guo to improve irrigation systems between Dadu (now Beijing) and the Yellow River.

Guo helped build a 30 km canal from Baifu spring in the Shenshan Mountain to Dadu,

The Grand Canal linked the Yangzi river, the Huai, and Yellow river since the early 7th century. Guo helped extend it to Dadu 1292–93.

It worked. Kublai Khan was happy, and Guo did similar things for the rest of the empire. He was promoted to chief advisor of hydraulics, mathematics, and astronomy.

Human-made Kunming lake
He created a human-made Kunming Lake in Beijing. This was one of his most memorable engineering feats.

The lake provided water for all areas surrounding Beijing and led to the best grain transport system in the world.

He built other reservoirs, thereby allowing people in inner China to access to fresh water for planting, drinking, and trading.

For irrigation, he provided hydraulics systems which distributed water equally and quickly, which allowed communities to trade more effectively, and therefore prosper.

In 1292, he became the head of the Water Works Bureau.

Inventions: clocks
Guo invented many astronomy devices: the gnomon, the square table, the armilla, and a water powered armillary sphere called the Ling Long Yi.

 The gnomon is a clock; it tells the time by measuring the position sun (like a sundial). It can also determine the seasons. Guo made this device much more accurate.
 The square table measures the angle and position of stars in the side. It is also a protractor.
 The armilla measures the angle of the sun, as well as the position of any celestial body.
 The Ling Long Yi is a fancier and more accurate version of the armilla.

Astronomy: calendar
Even when young Guo was revolutionizing old inventions. His clocks, watches, irrigation, reservoirs, and equilibrium stations were the most accurate of his time, allowing for an extremely accurate recording of time.

Kublai Khan noticed Guo was a genius in astronomy. So he asked Guo, Zhang, and Wang Xun to build a very accurate calendar. It would be the most accurate of its time. They built 27 observatories in the empire to collect data for calculations.

In 1280, Guo finished the calendar, calculating a year to be 365.2425 days, just 26 seconds off modern measurements. He invented many tools in the process.

The calendar revolutionized China and the world. It allowed more accurate recording of history, gave a sense of unification, and helped later emperors rule over China. His calendar would be used for the next 363 years, the longest a Chinese calendar has been used in history.

Guo was also able to more accurately establish the location of celestial bodies and the angles of the Sun relative to Earth.  He invented a new type of compass, helping people find north using the stars instead of magnets.

In 1283, Guo was promoted to director of the Observatory in Beijing.

Math
Guo's work in mathematics was regarded as the most knowledgeable for 400 years. Throughout his life he worked a lot on spherical trigonometry, using a system of approximation to find arc lengths and angles. He approximated pi was equal to 3. But this allowed him to solve some equations much faster and more accurately than if he said pi was 3.14....

He also used mathematical functions for spherical trigonometry, building upon the knowledge of Shen Kuo's (1031–1095).

The next important work in trigonometry would only be printed 300 years later by Xu Guangqi in 1607, during the Ming Dynasty.

Influence
Tang Shunzhi 唐順之 (1507-1560) said Guo's work was an example of "practical scholarship" (applying advanced knowledge to solve practical problems).

Guo influenced the Changzhou School of Thought and spread of "evidential learning" (learning through experience).

A number of things are named after Guo, including the Asteroid 2012 Guo Shou-Jing and the Large Sky Area Multi-Object Fibre Spectroscopic Telescope near Beijing.

References

1314 deaths
Pages with unreviewed translations
Chinese scientists
People from Hebei

Guo Shoujing


Bush Pioneers are people who gathered $100,000 for George W. Bush's 2000 or 2004 presidential campaign. Two new levels, Bush Rangers and Super Rangers, were bestowed upon supporters who gathered $200,000+ or $300,000+, respectively, for the 2004 campaign, after the 2002 McCain–Feingold campaign finance law raised hard money contribution limits. This was done through the practice of "bundling" contributions.  There were 221 Rangers and 327 Pioneers in the 2004 campaign and 241 Pioneers in the 2000 campaign (550 pledged to try). A fourth level, Bush Mavericks, was used to identify fundraisers under 40 years of age who bundled more than $50,000.

The Pioneer system was devised by Karl Rove. The network has roots in Texan GOP donor lists compiled by Rove, whose political roots are in direct-mail solicitation in the 1980s.

Nineteen of the original Pioneers became ambassadors in 2001. Six Pioneers have been convicted of politics-related crimes.

Pioneers were involved in the 2008 U.S. Presidential election. An analysis in 2006 found that 12 were supporting Rudy Giuliani, 21 supporting John McCain, and 16 supporting Mitt Romney. A July 2008 report found fewer than half of the 2004 Pioneers and Rangers had yet contributed their own money to McCain.

Prominent Pioneers, Rangers and Mavericks
Roland Arnall, founder of Ameriquest and former Ambassador to the Netherlands
James A. Baker IV, son of James Baker
Haley Barbour, Governor of Mississippi and former Republican National Committee Chairman
Marvin Pierce Bush
William DeWitt, Jr. of Cincinnati, head of an investment firm and co-owner of the St. Louis Cardinals
Richard J. Egan, billionaire from Hopkinton, Massachusetts; founder of EMC Corp. and United States Ambassador to Ireland 2001–2003; his sons, Christopher and Michael, are also Bush Pioneers.
Donald Evans
 Sam Fox, national chairman of the Republican Jewish Coalition
Frank E. Fowler, art dealer from Lookout Mountain, Tennessee who represents the Andrew Wyeth estate
James H. Harless, coal baron.
Dennis Hastert, former Speaker of the House
Ray Lee Hunt
Ken Lay, former Enron CEO
David B. Montgomery, Founder of Montgomery Law Firm (Houston)
Robert Mosbacher, Mosbacher Energy Company
Andrew Bissell
Joe O'Neill, Texas oilman who introduced Mr. Bush to his wife, Laura
David M. Miner, State Representative of North Carolina
George E. Pataki, former Governor of New York State.
Stephen Payne (lobbyist)
Francis Rooney, United States Ambassador to the Holy See
Robert Rowling
Andrew Saul, Chairman of the Federal Retirement Thrift Investment Board
Alex Spanos, Stockton, California real estate developer and owner of the San Diego Chargers.
Nate Morris, CEO of Rubicon
Craig Roberts Stapleton
Jerry Weintraub, film producer, including Nashville and Ocean's Eleven.
Jim Wilkinson
Charles Wyly and Sam Wyly, Texas brothers who collectively represented Bush's 9th greatest career contributor.
Aldona Wos, Physician, later United States Ambassador to Estonia, and wife of future U.S. Postmaster General Louis DeJoy.

References

White House for Sale.org, with interactive name links.
USA Today, October 15, 2003.
Noe indicted: GOP backer is accused of laundering cash Mike Wilkinson and James Drew, Toledo Blade, October 28, 2005

External links
Jim Hightower, $hrub's Pioneer$, BushFiles.com, May 28, 1999.
Charles Laurence, Bush's Rangers on trail to round up record $200m, news.telegraph.co.uk, June 15, 2003.
Steve Kingstone, Bush begins fundraising drive, BBC, June 18, 2003: "If Bill Clinton was the consummate campaigner, George Bush is the final word in campaign fundraising."
Editorial: Bush's Rangers / Money shouldn't make the political world go round, post-gazette, July 21, 2003.
Dave McKenna, Ambassadors of the Game, WashingtonCityPaper, September 13, 2003.
Thomas B. Edsall and Sarah Cohen, Bush Campaign Raises A Record $49.5 Million. For Their Efforts, Fundraisers Also Gain, Washington Post, October 15, 2003: "The record receipts -- more than triple the top Democrat's fundraising for the quarter -- were driven in large part by just 285 men and women, who collected $38.5 million or more, which was at least 45 percent of Bush's total take. This fundraising elite, many of whom were beneficiaries of Bush administration policies, included 100 'Rangers,' who raised at least $200,000 apiece, and 185 'Pioneers,' who collected at least $100,000 each."
Jim Drinkard and Laurence McQuillan, 'Bundling' contributions pays for Bush campaign, USAToday, October 16, 2003.
Glen Justice, Once at Arm's Length, Wall Street Is Bush's Biggest Donor, New York Times, October 23, 2003: "A study to be released today shows that the financial community has surpassed all other groups, including lawyers and lobbyists, as the top industry among Mr. Bush's elite fund-raisers. The list of those generating $100,000 and $200,000 now includes chief executives like Henry M. Paulson of Goldman Sachs, John J. Mack of Credit Suisse First Boston and Stanley O'Neal of Merrill Lynch, whose firm has already raised twice the amount for Mr. Bush's re-election that it did during the entire 2000 campaign cycle. ... 'It's really a question of policy, that's what's driving this,' said Marc Lackritz, president of the Securities Industry Association, which represents more than 650 securities firms. 'It's a pro-investor policy.'"
Glen Justice, Newcomers Provide Fuel for Bush Money Machine, New York Times, March 14, 2004.
Thomas B. Edsall, Sarah Cohen and James V. Grimaldi, "Pioneers Fill War Chest, Then Capitalize," Washington Post, May 16, 2004.
Jonathan E. Kaplan, "RNC offers 'Super Ranger' status," The Hill, May 18, 2004.
Greg Palast, "Give It Back, George. Did Wyly Coyotes' Ill-Gotten Loot Buy White House?," gregpalast.com, April 11, 2005.
John Cheeves, "Kentucky 'Maverick' reels in serious cash for GOP campaign", Lexington Herald-Leader, August 29, 2004.

George W. Bush

Bush Pioneer


Sarah Staton (born 1961) is a British sculptor. She is head of the sculpture programme at the Royal College of Art.

Sarah Staton was born in 1961. Her work is in the permanent collection of the Tate Gallery.

Staton makes exhibitions, commissioned sculptures for specific sites, furniture and publications. In the late 1980s Staton opened up her Bloomsbury squat as a gallery, and named it Milch. Milch became one of the best known art spaces of its kind at the time. Staton is also known for decorating the lawn of the Serpentine Gallery with a Union flag of smashed bottles.

One of Staton's most well known projects is the Sarah Staton Supastore, a peripatetic shop selling works by up-and-coming contemporaries, unknowns and established artists such as Sol LeWitt, Mile Kelley and Steve Willats. The Supastore has appeared in Laure Genillard Gallery, the ICA in London, the San Francisco Art Fair, and the Middlesbrough Art Gallery.

References

External links

British sculptors
1961 births
Living people

Sarah Staton


Funafuti is the capital of the small island nation of Tuvalu. It has a population of 4,492 (2002), making it the most populated atoll in this country. It is a narrow sweep of land between 20 and 400 meters wide. There is an airstrip, hotel (Vaiaku Langi Hotel), and administrative buildings, as well as homes, constructed both in the traditional manner, out of palm fronds, and more recently out of cement blocks. The most prominent building on Funafuti atoll is the Church of Tuvalu. Other sites of interest are the remains of American aircraft that crashed on Funafuti during World War II, when the airstrip was used by the American forces to defend the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati). The United States claimed Funafuti until a treaty of friendship was concluded in the late 70's or early 80's.

The largest island is Fongafale. On this island, there are four villages, of which one is Vaiaku, where the government is. The capital of Tuvalu is sometimes given as Fongafale or Vaiaku, but the entire atoll of Funafuti is actually the capital.

Islands in Funafuti
There are at least 33 islands in the atoll. The biggest is Fongafale, followed by Funafala. At least three islands are inhabited, which are Fongafale, Funafala and Motuloa.

 Amatuku
 Avalau
 Falaoigo
 Fale Fatu (or Falefatu)
 Fatato
 Fongafale
 Fuafatu
 Fuagea
 Fualefeke (or Fualifeke)
 Fualopa
 Funafala
 Funamanu
 Luamotu
 Mateika
 Motugie
 Motuloa
 Mulitefala
 Nukvalevale
 Papa Elise (or Funangongo)
 Pukasavilivili
 Te Afuafou
 Te Afualiku
 Tefala
 Telele
 Tengako (peninsula of the island of Fongafale)
 Tengasu
 Tepuka
 Tepuka Vili Vili
 Tutanga
 Vasafua
 And at least 5 other islands

Bays and streets in Funafuti
 Te Ava Pua Pua
 Te Ava Tepuka Vili

TeNamo Lagoon
The lagoon surrounded by the atoll is TeNamo. It has a vertical length of more than 20 km.

National capitals in Oceania
Geography of Tuvalu
Atolls

Funafuti


Sibylle of Brandenburg (31 May 1467 in Ansbach – 9 July 1524 in Kaster) was a Princess of Brandenburg by birth and by marriage Duchess of Jülich and Duchess of Berg. She was the governor-regent of Jülich-Berg for her daughter Maria from 1511 to 1524.

Life
Sibylle was a daughter of Elector Albrecht III Achilles of Brandenburg (1414–1486) from his second marriage to Anna (1436–1512), daughter of the Elector Frederick II of Saxony.

She married on 25 July 1481 in Cologne with Duke William IV of Jülich and Berg (1455–1511).  The wedding celebration was very expensive.  In addition to numerous archbishops, bishops and prelates, the Archduke of Austria, the Duke of Burgundy, the Elector of Brandenburg and the Margrave of Baden, more than 50 counts and countesses were invited and countless other noblemen.  Because of the large number of guests, the marriage was concluded in an open field in front of St. Severin gate.  The priest was Archbishop Herman of Cologne.  Sibylle was supposed to bring a large dowry into the marriage, but William had to write his in-laws several times about delays in its payment.

After ten years their only child was born, a girl named Maria.  She married Duke John III of Cleves.  They were engaged in 1496, when Maria was five years old and John was six.  They married in 1510.  This resulted in the so-called Cleves Union in which the Duchies of Jülich-Berg-Ravensberg and Cleves-Mark were combined to form the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg.  When William died in 1511, Maria, being female, could not inherit and Jülich-Berg-Ravensberg fell to John III.

Sibylle survived her husband by 13 years.  At the request of Maria and John II, who resided in Cleves, she acted as governor of Jülich-Berg during this period.  Sybille was described as spirited, energetic and wise and an equitable mother for her country.

Sibylle died in 1524 and was buried in Altenberg Abbey.

Issue
From her marriage with William, Sibylle had a daughter:
 Maria (1491–1543), married in 1510 Duke John III of Cleves (1490–1536), who became Duke John I of Jülich-Cleves-Berge. She was the mother of Anne Of Cleves, Queen consort of Henry VIII of England.

Ancestors

Footnotes

References and sources
 Julius von Minutoli: Das kaiserliche Buch des Markgrafen Albrecht Achilles, Schneider, 1850, p. 492
 Hermann von Scharff-Scharffenstein: Denkwürdigkeiten eines Royalisten, F. A. Herbig, 1859, p. 221 ff.

1467 births
1524 deaths
Duchesses in Germany
House of Hohenzollern
15th-century German women
16th-century German women
15th-century German people
16th-century German people
16th-century women rulers
Daughters of monarchs

Sibylle of Brandenburg


Acoustic music is music which is played by using acoustic musical instruments, i.e. instruments in which the sound is not made louder by electronic amplification.   Before electronic musical instruments were created in the 20th century all instruments were acoustic.

Classical music is usually played using only acoustic musical instruments, although some 20th century composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen used electronic instruments, sometimes together with acoustic instruments.

References

Music

Acoustic music


Hermann Ludwig Maas (; 5 August 1877 – 27 September 1970) was a Protestant minister, a doctor of theology and named one of the Righteous Among the Nations, a title given by the Israeli organization for study and remembrance of the Holocaust - Yad Vashem, for people who helped save the lives of Jews during the Holocaust without seeking to gain thereby.

Biography

Maas was born in Gengenbach in the Schwarzwald, Germany.

In 1903, he started working as a Protestant minister in a parish of Evangelical Church in Baden. At the same time he began to make the acquaintance of Zionist Jews, and formed friendly relations with many of them, having attended the Sixth Zionist Congress in Basel that year. Since 1918, he had been an active member of the pro-democratic left-liberal DDP. Maas, who had decidedly liberal and pacifist views, caused a scandal in 1925 by attending the funeral of social democratic Reichspräsident Friedrich Ebert. Conservative German pastors considered this to be an affront to the church because Ebert had been an outspoken atheist.

In 1932, Maas joined an association for protection against antisemitism. In 1933, when the Nazi regime introduced the economic boycott of the Jews of Germany, Maas first went to Palestine to meet with some of the Zionist activists, impressing them by speaking fluent Hebrew. Upon his return to Heidelberg he faced harsh criticism as a "Jew-lover". After Hitler's Machtergreifung ("seizure of power") he joined the Pfarrernotbund and the Confessing Church along with other notable Protestant theologians such as Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Martin Niemöller and Hans Ehrenberg. In the early 1940s, Maas helped many Jews flee from Germany by using his connections to obtain exit visas. In mid-1943, on the instigation of the Nazi regime the Superior Church Council of the Baden Church forced him out of office for his activism. In 1944, he was sent to a forced-labor camp in France, from which he was later released by the US forces. In 1945 he resumed work as minister for the Baden Church.

In 1950, Maas was the first non-Jewish German to be officially invited to the newly formed state of Israel.  On July 28, 1964, Yad Vashem decided to recognize Reverend Hermann Maas as one of the Righteous Among the Nations. A street in Rehovot (in the eastern suburb of Qiryat HaYovel) is named after him and a grove inside "Orde Wingate Forest" at Mount Gilboa.

He died on 27 September 1970 in Mainz-Weisenau.

Notes

External links
http://www.maasfoundation.com

1877 births
1970 deaths
19th-century German Protestant theologians
People from Gengenbach
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
German Christian pacifists
Lutheran pacifists
Christian and Jewish interfaith dialogue
German Democratic Party politicians
German Protestant clergy
German Righteous Among the Nations
Protestant Righteous Among the Nations
Protestants in the German Resistance
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
19th-century German male writers
19th-century German writers
German male non-fiction writers

Hermann Maas


Dennis Lester McKiernan (born April 4, 1932) is an American writer best known for his high fantasy The Iron Tower. His genres include high fantasy (set in various fictitious worlds), science fiction, horror fiction, and crime fiction. His primary setting, Mithgar, was originally meant to host Middle-Earth stories that were sequels to Tolkien's work.  It has since grown to reflect a much broader variety of influences, including "fairy tales and Oz books and folk tales and other such stories".

Biography
McKiernan was born in Moberly, Missouri, where he lived until he served the U.S. Air Force for four years, stationed within US territory during the Korean War.  After military service, he attended the University of Missouri and received a BS in electrical engineering in 1958 and an MS in the same field from Duke University in 1964.  He worked as an engineer at AT&T, initially at Western Electric but soon at Bell Laboratories, from 1958 until 1989.  In 1989, after early retirement from engineering, McKiernan began writing on a full-time basis.

In 1977, while riding his motorcycle, McKiernan was hit by a car that had crossed the center-line, and he was confined to a bed, first in traction and then in a hip spica cast, for many months.  During his recuperation, he began writing a sequel to J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings.  The publisher Doubleday showed an interest in his work and tried to obtain authorization from Tolkien's estate but was denied.  Doubleday then asked McKiernan to rewrite his story, placing the characters in a different fictitious world, and also to write a prequel supporting it.  The prequel, of necessity, resembles The Lord of the Rings; the decision of Doubleday to issue the work as a trilogy increased that resemblance; and some critics have seen McKiernan as simply imitating Tolkien's epic work.  McKiernan has subsequently developed stories in the series that followed along a story line different from those that plausibly could have been taken by Tolkien.

McKiernan's Faery Series expands tales drawn from Andrew Lang's Fairy Books, additionally tying the selected tales together with a larger plot.

McKiernan currently lives in Tucson, Arizona.

Works

Mithgar series
The Iron Tower (Omnibus edition 2000)
The Dark Tide (1984)
Shadows of Doom (1984)
The Darkest Day (1984)
The Silver Call (Omnibus edition 2001)
Trek to Kraggen-Cor (1986)
The Brega Path (1986)
Dragondoom (1990)
Tales from the One-Eyed Crow: The Vulgmaster (short story adapted as a graphic novel by David Keller and Alex Niño) (1991)
The Eye of the Hunter (1992)
Voyage of the Fox Rider (1993)
Tales of Mithgar (1994)
The Dragonstone (1996)
Hèl's Crucible Duology
Into the Forge (1997)
Into the Fire (1998)
Silver Wolf, Black Falcon (2000)
Red Slippers: More Tales of Mithgar (2004)
City of Jade (2008)
Stolen Crown (2014)

Faery Series
Once Upon a Winter's Night (2001)
Once Upon a Summer Day (2005)
Once Upon an Autumn Eve (2006)
Once Upon a Spring Morn (October 2006)
Once Upon a Dreadful Time (October 2007)

The Black Foxes Series
Caverns of Socrates (1995) (re-published as Shadowtrap in ebook format, 2014)
Shadowprey (2014)

Standalone Novels
At the Edge of the Forest (2012)

Other works

Anthologized short stories
"The Ornament" in The Magic of Christmas (1990) edited by John Silbersack and Christopher Schelling
"Straw into Gold: Part II" with Mark A. Kreighbaum in Dragon Fantastic (1992) edited by Rosalind M. Greenberg, Martin H. Greenberg and Tad Williams
"The Halfling House" in After the King (1992) edited by Martin H. Greenberg
"The Source of It All" in Alien Pregnant by Elvis (1994) edited by Esther M. Friesner
"Alas, Me Bleedin..." in Weird Tales from Shakespeare (1994) edited by Katharine Kerr and Martin H. Greenberg
"The Sorcerer's Apprentice" in The Shimmering Door (1996) edited by Katharine Kerr
"I Sing the Dark Riders" in Elf Fantastic (1997) edited by Martin H. Greenberg
"The Lesser of..." in Highwaymen: Robbers & Rogues (1997) edited by Jennifer Roberson
"In the Service of Mages" in Wizard Fantastic (1997) edited by Martin H. Greenberg
"Of Tides and Time" in Wizard Fantastic (1997) edited by Martin H. Greenberg
"The Divine Comedy" in Olympus (1998) edited by Martin H. Greenberg and Bruce D. Arthurs
"Final Conquest" in Legends: Tales from the Eternal Archives #1 (1999) edited by Margaret Weis
"Darkness" in 999: New Stories of Horror and Suspense (1999) edited by Al Sarrantonio
"For the Life of Sheila Morgan" in Spell Fantastic (2000) edited by Martin H. Greenberg and Larry Segriff
"Perfidy" in Treachery and Treason (2000) edited by Laura Anne Gilman and Jennifer Heddle
"A Tower with No Doors" in Flights: Extreme Visions of Fantasy (2004) edited by Al Sarrantonio

References

External links
Dennis L. McKiernan's website
Mithgarpedia – McKiernan Fanpage
The Halls of Mithgar
Fantastic Fiction Author Page

1932 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American fantasy writers
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Duke University Pratt School of Engineering alumni
People from Moberly, Missouri
Writers from Tucson, Arizona
United States Air Force airmen
University of Missouri alumni
Novelists from Missouri
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Arizona

Dennis L. McKiernan


A varistor, VDR, (voltage dependent resistor) is a type of resistor. It controls the current depending on the voltage.

In these devices resistance drops sharply at a certain threshold voltage. Once the voltage across the device reaches the threshold, there is a breakdown of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the grain boundaries, which results in its electrical resistance dropping from several megohms down to a few hundred ohms.  The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self reset–after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.

This makes them ideal for surge-protection applications.  As there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications.  The best demonstration of their ability can be found in electrical substations, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from lightning strikes.  They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.

They can be used to protect electronics from voltages that could damage components.

Electronic components

Varistor


Petrine privilege, also known as the privilege of the faith or favor of the faith, is a ground recognized in Catholic canon law allowing for dissolution by the Pope of a valid natural marriage between a baptized and a non-baptized person for the sake of the salvation of the soul of someone who is thus enabled to marry in the Church.

In essence, it is an extension to marriages between a baptised and a non-baptized person of the logic of the Pauline privilege, the latter being dissolution of  a marriage between two non-baptized persons to enable one of them, on becoming a Christian, to enter a Christian marriage.

According to Canon 1150 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the privilege of the faith "possesses the favor of law." In other words, whenever it is possible that the privilege is applicable, the law favors its granting.  Nevertheless, dissolution of a marriage in favor of the faith, which is seen as having a biblical precedent in Jews putting away their non-Jewish wives recounted in , is rarely used.

Terminology

While the Pauline privilege is so named in reference to the instructions of Saint Paul in , the term "Petrine privilege", which was coined by Franz Hürth in his 1946 lectures on the Holy See's norms and practice, refers not to any rule given by Saint Peter, but to an exercise of authority by the Pope as successor of Saint Peter.

Canonists now generally consider inappropriate the term "Petrine privilege" (as opposed to "privilege or favour of the faith"), but it remains in common use.

Natural marriage

The kind of marriage to which the "favor of the faith" applies is a valid natural marriage. Baptism is required for valid reception of the other sacraments, and because in marriage two people are involved together, if either of them is not baptized, there is no sacrament.  A natural marriage, while recognized as valid, is classified as not confirmed (non ratum) and can be dissolved for the sake of the higher good of a person's faith.

If at any time, even after separation, the non-baptized party receives baptism, the marriage becomes sacramental and the "favor of the faith" no longer applies.  However, if the husband and wife do not have marital intercourse after both become baptized persons, a marriage thus confirmed but not consummated (ratum sed non consummatum) can still, for a just cause, be dissolved in accordance with canon 1142 of the Code of Canon Law.

History

In response to the missionary growth of the 16th century, the popes (primarily Paul III, Altitudo, 1 June 1537; St Pius V, Romani Pontifices, 2 August 1571; and Gregory XIII, Populis, 25 January 1585) developed new norms in order to deal with polygamists, whereby a number of new "privileges" were approved that went well beyond those provided for by the Pauline privilege. The 1917 Code of Canon Law extended these to the whole Church, and the great increase of mixed marriages and of divorce in the 20th century has greatly increased pastoral needs in relation to marriage. Accordingly, the governing norms have continued to undergo development.

A precedent was set when in 1924 Pope Pius XI dissolved the 1919 marriage of Gerard G. Marsh (unbaptized) and Frances E. Groom (a baptized Anglican) of Helena, Montana, who were civilly divorced a year later. This was done to favor Marsh's marriage to Lulu LaHood, a Catholic. Cases became so numerous that, in 1934, the Holy Office issued "Norms for the Dissolution of Marriage in Favor of the Faith by the Supreme Authority of the Sovereign Pontiff". These applied even when the baptized party was a Catholic who had married a non-baptized person after obtaining a dispensation so as to enter into a valid natural marriage. On 6 December 1973, new norms were issued revising those of 1934. These in turn were replaced by a revised text on 30 April 2001.

Conditions

The petitioner (one of the parties in the marriage to be dissolved):
 if baptized and Catholic at the time of the marriage in question, must intend to marry a baptized Christian (soon after or in the future).
 if non-baptized or baptized in another Christian Church, must either
 intend to enter the Catholic Church or be baptized in it, or
 intend to marry a baptized practicing Catholic.

See also
Christian views on divorce
Pauline privilege

References

External links
Archdiocese of Chicago Metropolitan Tribunal FAQ: Question 40
Noonan, John T., JR. A Church that Can and Cannot Change. University of Notre Dame Press. Notre Dame, Indiana. 2005. Chapters 24-26.
Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Vatican, Norms on the Preparation of the Process for the Dissolution of the Marriage Bond in Favor of the Faith, 30 April 2001

Catholic matrimonial canon law
Christian terminology
Marriage in Christianity

Petrine privilege


Mucus (mucous), or slime, is a slippery liquid. It is made by many living things as a kind of biological lubricant. It plays the role in living things which oil plays in machines.

Mucus is mainly composed of polysaccharides, which are long-chain carbohydrates. These molecules are stiff when dry, and sticky and slippery when wet. They are present in all types of organisms from bacteria to humans.

In vertebrates mucus is made by mucous membranes. Mucus may have antiseptic enzymes (such as lysozymes) and immunoglobulins (antigens). A major function of this mucus is to protect against infection by fungi, bacteria and viruses.

Mucus protects epithelial cells in the lungs, gut, genital, visual, and auditory systems in mammals; the epidermis in amphibians; and the gills in fish. Snails, slugs, hagfish, and certain invertebrates also produce external mucus. As well as a protective function, slime helps movement and plays a role in communication.

Mucus is produced in many parts of the body. All the alimentary canal, nose, and sexual organs have mucus glands which pass the mucus to the surfaces. The surfaces are mostly internal surfaces, though in some animals mucus covers the outside of the animal. Slugs are an example of this. Mucus glands are exocrine glands, so they pass their mucus to the surface along ducts.

Alkaline mucus
In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, such as food passing down the oesophagus.

A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the stomach is vital to protect the cell linings from the highly acidic environment inside the stomach.  Mucus is not digested in the intestinal tract.

Alkaline mucus is also found in other places, such as eyes,  saliva and cervix.

References

Biochemistry
Exocrine system

Mucus


Kenneth Aaron Pettway (born November 13, 1982) is a former American gridiron football player. He played in the National Football League and the American Football League from 2005 to 2012.

Pettway played college football for the Grambling State University Tigers. He was drafted into the NFL by the Houston Texans in the seventh round of the 2005 NFL Draft. He played for the Jacksonville Jaguars from 2006–2007 and Green Bay Packers in 2008 and then shifted to the CFL, where he played for the Edmonton Eskimos in 2010 and the Calgary Stampeders in 2012.

Early life
Pettway was born in Houston, Texas. He attended Gilmer High School in Gilmer, Texas and was a letterwinner in football, basketball, and track. After attending Southern Arkansas University (whose Muleriders team was in NCAA Division II), he transferred to Grambling State University in 2002 and sat out the season pursuant to NCAA transfer rules. He played for the Grambling State Tigers football team in 2003 and 2004.

Professional career

Houston Texans
Pettway was drafted by the Houston Texans in the seventh round (227th overall) of the 2005 NFL Draft. He spent most of his rookie season on the team's practice squad before being promoted to the active roster on December 9. He was inactive for the team's final three regular season contests. An exclusive-rights free agent in the 2006 offseason, Pettway re-signed with the Texans on March 27. He was released by the team during final cuts on September 1.

Jacksonville Jaguars
Following his release from the Texans, Pettway was signed to the practice squad of the Jacksonville Jaguars on October 18, 2006. He was promoted to the active roster on November 8 and went on to play in the seven games for the Jaguars during the 2006 season, registering two sacks in limited action. He was released by the Jaguars during final cuts on August 30, 2008.

Green Bay Packers
Pettway was signed by the Green Bay Packers on September 30, 2008 after defensive end Cullen Jenkins was placed on injured reserve. He was signed over free agent defensive end Patrick Chukwurah, who also worked out for the Packers following Jenkins' injury. The Tennessee Titans and Pittsburgh Steelers reportedly showed interest in working out Pettway prior to his signing with Green Bay.

Pettway appeared in eight games for the Packers in 2008, recording four tackles. He was placed on season-ending injured reserve with a knee injury on December 1. He was released by the Packers on April 6, 2009.

Edmonton Eskimos
Pettway was signed by the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League in 2010. He made his first start against the Montreal Alouettes, replacing an injured Greg Peach. He was released by the Eskimos on May 16, 2011.

Calgary Stampeders
Pettway was signed by the Calgary Stampeders on June 18, 2012. He was released by the Stampeders on January 30, 2013.

Personal life
On September 2, 2008, Pettway was in a car with his former Jaguars teammate Richard Collier when Collier was shot 14 times, leaving him with life-threatening and career-ending injuries. Pettway was unharmed.

References

External links
Just Sports Stats
Jacksonville Jaguars bio
Calgary Stampeders bio

1982 births
Living people
American football defensive ends
American football linebackers
Edmonton Elks players
Calgary Stampeders players
Grambling State Tigers football players
Green Bay Packers players
Houston Texans players
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Players of American football from Houston
Players of Canadian football from Houston
Southern Arkansas Muleriders football players

Kenneth Pettway


A country is landlocked if it has no access to any oceans or seas.  As an example, Austria is landlocked. France is not landlocked because it has access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean.  A sea is also landlocked if does not have access to an ocean.  This is also called an endorheic basin.  As an example, the Caspian Sea is landlocked.  The Gulf of Mexico is not landlocked because it has access to the Atlantic Ocean.

Examples of landlocked countries:
Armenia
Austria
Luxembourg
Chad

If a country is landlocked by landlocked countries (surrounded by landlocked countries), then it is doubly landlocked. Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are the only two doubly landlocked countries in the world.

Related pages

 Endorheic basin

Political geography

Landlocked country


Shitajiki (,  "under-sheet") is a Japanese word for various types of materials placed under a sheet of paper for writing, either to prevent marking on the sheets below or to provide a better surface for writing. They are usually referred to as pencil boards in English.

Shitajiki for handwriting are generally made of plastic about 1 to 2 mm in thickness, making them flexible but still durable. Typically, they are B5 sized (slightly smaller than U.S. letter size), although other sizes are also available (typically A4 or A5). Shitajiki for calligraphy are typically made of dark (blue or black) felt, and are available in a variety of sizes.

Merchandised shitajiki are very common, featuring images of everything from tourist attractions and celebrities to anime and manga characters. Most shitajiki designs only go through one print run, making them highly collectible and often difficult to acquire. Collecting shitajiki is a hobby for many anime and manga enthusiasts. As collectibles, shitajiki are also often used for decoration or other ornamental purposes.

References

Japanese stationery

Pencil board


The 31st G8 summit was held on 6–8 July 2005 at the Gleneagles Hotel in Auchterarder, Scotland and hosted by Prime Minister Tony Blair. The locations of previous G8 summits to have been hosted by the UK include: London (1977, 1984, 1991); and Birmingham (1998). It is the first G8 summit to be held in Scotland. A sixth UK summit was held in Lough Erne in 2013; and a seventh UK summit was held in Carbis Bay in 2021.

Overview
The Group of Seven (G7) was an unofficial forum which brought together the heads of the richest industrialized countries: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada starting in 1976. The G8, meeting for the first time in 1997, was formed with the addition of Russia. In addition, the President of the European Commission has been formally included in summits since 1981. The summits were not meant to be linked formally with wider international institutions; and in fact, a mild rebellion against the stiff formality of other international meetings was a part of the genesis of cooperation between France's president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and West Germany's chancellor Helmut Schmidt as they conceived the initial summit of the Group of Six (G6) in 1975.

The G8 summits during the 21st-century have inspired widespread debates, protests and demonstrations; and the two- or three-day event becomes more than the sum of its parts, elevating the participants, the issues and the venue as focal points for activist pressure.

Leaders at the summit
The G8 is an unofficial annual forum for the leaders of Canada, the European Commission, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The 31st G8 summit was the last summit for Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder.

Participants
These summit participants are the current "core members" of the international forum:

Priorities
Traditionally, the host country of the G8 summit sets the agenda for negotiations, which take place primarily amongst multi-national civil servants in the weeks before the summit itself, leading to a joint declaration which all countries can agree to sign.

As host, the UK stated its intent to focus this G8 meeting on the issues of global climate change and the lack of economic development in Africa. The British government set the priorities of supporting Africa's economic development (by agreeing to write off debts of the poorest countries, and to significantly increase aid) and of moving forward initiatives to research and combat global warming.

Blair had planned to move beyond the Kyoto Protocol by looking at how to include key developing countries (India, China, Mexico, Brazil, and South Africa) not included in it - principally by agreeing technology transfer of clean energy technologies in exchange for commitments on reduction of greenhouse gases. Other announced items on the agenda were counterterrorism, non-proliferation, and reform in the Middle East. The summit was overshadowed, however, by bomb attacks in London on the second day of the conference.

Aid to Africa and debt cancellation
The traditional meeting of G8 finance ministers before the summit took place in London on 10 and 11 June 2005, hosted by Chancellor Gordon Brown. On 11 June, agreement was reached to write off the entire US$40 billion debt owed by 18 Highly Indebted Poor Countries to the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the African Development Fund. The annual saving in debt payments amounts to just over US$1 billion. War on Want estimates that US$45.7 billion would be required for 62 countries to meet the Millennium Development Goals. The ministers stated that twenty more countries, with an additional US$15 billion in debt, would be eligible for debt relief if they met targets on fighting corruption and continue to fulfill structural adjustment conditionalities that eliminate impediments to private investment. The agreement, which required weeks of intense negotiations led by Brown, must be approved by the lending institutions to take effect.

While negotiations have essentially taken place between the G8 member states, some of which are reluctant to endorse debt cancellation and aid increases, African governments, advocacy organizations and their allies have criticised the Blair-Brown plan as inadequate and argued that the continuation of structural adjustment policies outweighs the benefits of debt cancellation, while also pointing out that only a small proportion of the Third World debt will be affected by the proposal. In mid-July, objections by Belgium raised the possibility of the debt relief bill not  being approved by the International Monetary Fund, a development that was harshly criticized by many activists.

Agreement was not reached on Brown's proposed International Finance Facility, partly because the United States said that its budget procedures meant it was unable to make the necessary long-term funding commitments. The event attracted much media attention.

Global warming
Development of a joint declaration on efforts to tackle global warming has been much less successful, principally because of the long-standing US opposition to emission targets as a solution to global warming. The other seven G8 nations – France, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, Canada, and the United Kingdom – have ratified the Kyoto Protocol and have committed to reducing their carbon dioxide emissions by 2010. Hopes had been raised that the unprecedented joint declaration by the G8 countries' academies of sciences on the need for urgent action on global warming would help moderate the US negotiating position.

On July 6, US President George W. Bush recognised "that the surface of the Earth is warmer and that an increase in greenhouse gases is contributing to the problem". However, he said the Kyoto treaty was not the answer. Environment campaigners called the result of the summit "a very disappointing finale". "The G8 have delivered nothing new here and the text conveys no sense of the scale or urgency of the challenge. The action plan, without any targets or timetables, will deliver very little to reduce emissions, or to roll out renewables to the scale required", said a spokesperson for Friends of the Earth.

The US also pulled out of financial pledges to fund a network of regional climate centers throughout Africa which were designed to monitor the unfolding impact of global warming. Other schemes opposed by the US include the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) set up to help developing states develop economically while controlling greenhouse gas emissions. New US move to spoil climate accord

To address claims that flying so many people around the world to talk about global warming actually contributes substantially to it, the entire G8 Presidency was designed to be carbon neutral, with calculated resulting carbon emissions being offset by purchasing Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs) from a Clean Development Mechanism project. The Kuyasa low-income housing energy upgrade project located in Cape Town, South Africa, was chosen. The first CDM project to be registered in Africa, it involves the installation of solar water heaters, ceiling insulation and low-energy light-bulbs in hundreds of low-income homes in Khayelitsha township.Defra, UK - Environmental Protection - Climate Change - Cost of carbon - Carbon offsetting

Issues
The summit was intended as a venue for resolving differences among its members. As a practical matter, the summit was also conceived as an opportunity for its members to give each other mutual encouragement in the face of difficult economic decisions. The United Kingdom aimed to confront the fundamental problem of conflicting domestic pressures among the G8 nations.

Citizens' responses and authorities' counter-responses

Activism

As with all recent G8 summits, the meeting was the focus of many advocacy campaigns, including the  Make Poverty History campaign in the United Kingdom, and the anti-globalization (a term not usually used by its supporters) movement. More than 200,000 people marched in support of Make Poverty History in Edinburgh on 2 July, the largest demonstration in Scottish history.

In addition to the Make Poverty History coalition's efforts, singer/activist Bob Geldof organised concerts in each of the G8 member states on 2 July, as well as a concert in Edinburgh on 6 July.  Unlike Live Aid 20 years prior, whose primary aim was to raise money, Live 8 aimed to increase awareness among the citizens of the G8 countries, and thus force their leaders into increasing their focus on world poverty - though in fact Live 8 raised 400 times more than Live Aid simply in terms of the debt deal which the Gleneagles summit delivered; if the deal on aid is honoured it will produce an amount the equivalent of five Live Aid concerts every week. The London concert featured acts ranging from Sting and The Who to Annie Lennox, and most notably the reformation of Pink Floyd.

Thousands also mobilized through the G8 Alternatives and Dissent! networks to protest the G8 and discuss alternatives to the economic and political models they represent. These mobilizations have taken a more critical line towards both economic globalization (which they reject entirely) and the G8 itself, which they generally regard as illegitimate and undemocratic.

The National Library of Scotland holds a collection of leaflets, posters and pamphlets collected during the G8 Summit.

Protest took a variety of forms:

 Construction of a non-hierarchically organized, self-governing, eco-village near Stirling
 2 July – Make Poverty History march with 175,000 to 250,000 people
 3 July – Make Borders History tour of Glasgow, illustrating the presence of borders and immigration control measures inside of a metropolis
 3 July – Counter Summit organised by G8 Alternatives alongside a smaller event called G8 Corporate Dreams Global Nightmares
 4 July – Carnival for Full Enjoyment, roving anticapitalist street parties, 1,500 to 3,000 people
 4 July – Mass nonviolent blockade of Faslane, a Royal Navy submarine base, 2,000 to 10,000 people
 5 July –  Demonstrations against Shell, Dungavel immigrant and refugee detention center, and the limits of Gordon Brown's debt cancellation proposal
 6 July – Blockades of roads and buses transporting ministers and support staff to Gleneagles.
 6 July – March and rally to G8 meeting site, approximately 5000 people
 6 July – Breach of the fence around Gleneagles Hotel by 200 people
 6 July – Spontaneous march in Edinburgh by a few hundred protesters hoping to take coaches to the Gleneagles rally, after police falsely informed them that the march was cancelled
 8 July – Street party in Glasgow in protest against climate change and the construction of the M74 motorway
 8 July – various decentralised small actions against climate change as part of a global day of action
 8 July – Small prisoner solidarity rally outside Saughton Prison, Edinburgh by around 50 demonstrators

Security and police actions
On 19 June details of the security for the summit were leaked to the British newspaper The Independent on Sunday, because of concerns by an intelligence source that ministers were being "complacent".

The security operation, involving more than 10,000 police, many of whom were armed, possibly a number of US Marines, a Special Air Service (SAS) team and snipers, as well as the unprecedented intelligence gathering beforehand by the security service and American intelligence agencies is estimated to have cost around GB£100 million.

Police officers from all over Great Britain were called in to reinforce the local forces to maintain order in Edinburgh and other cities; even small protests were cordoned off by large numbers of police officers.

The protest legal support team estimates that at least 700 people were arrested and 350 charged. Targeted actions of London's forward intelligence teams (FITs) resulted in several of the arrests. Most people were released with strict bail conditions, having to leave the districts of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, and/or Stirling or even Scotland altogether. Several people were rearrested for breaching their bail conditions. Section 60 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, which allows searches for weapons in designated areas, was continuously used to stop and search people.

Accomplishments

The G8 summit is an international event which is observed and reported by news media, but the G8's continuing relevance after more than 30 years is somewhat unclear.  More than one analyst suggests that a G8 summit is not the place to flesh out the details of any difficult or controversial policy issue in the context of a three-day event. Rather, the meeting offers an opportunity to bring a range of complex and sometimes inter-related issues. The G8 summit brings leaders together "not so they can dream up quick fixes, but to talk and think about them together."

While many activists expressed disappointment that the agreements reached at the summit fell far short of their expectations, others noted that the 2005 summit was perhaps the most productive in the 30-year history of the G8. Some agreements were:
 US$50 billion pledged (some of it previously announced) in aid to developing countries by 2010, of which US$25 billion will go to Africa, on top of the ministerial-level agreement to forgive debt to Highly Indebted Poor Countries
 Universal access to anti-HIV drugs in Africa by 2010
 Commitment to train 20,000 peacekeeping troops for Africa in exchange for African commitments to good governance and democracy
 G8 members from the European Union commit to a collective foreign aid target of 0.56% of GDP by 2010, and 0.7% by 2015
 Stated commitment to reduce subsidies and tariffs that inhibit trade
 US$3 billion to the Palestinian Authority to build infrastructure

No agreement was reached to address global warming, largely due to US opposition. The US did agree to a joint communique stating that global warming exists and that human intervention may at least partially be at fault. While the US had previously made such statements, this was the first time it had agreed to a multilateral announcement on the issue.

Breaking with historical practice, the British government had allowed non-governmental organizations to play a key role in deliberations, perhaps prompted by the public pressure of the Make Poverty History movement and Live 8. The summit continued the trend of including the developing world in talks. The leaders of seven African nations attended, as well as the five leading developing countries: China, India, Brazil, Mexico, and, South Africa.

Infrastructure Consortium for Africa
The Infrastructure Consortium for Africa (ICA) was established at the Gleneagles summit in 2005. In subsequent years, the ICA's annual meeting is traditionally hosted by the country holding the Presidency of the G8.

Subsequent analysis
Closer investigation of many of the promises made at Gleneagles reveals that some of the aid funds were rehashed versions of aid already pledged and the aid was often used to privatise public services to businesses based in the donor country. However even three years on many G8 countries were backsliding on their aid quantity commitments.

The debt deal was not 'full' cancellation of debts at all but only cancellation of the debts for 40 potential countries (classed as the poorest countries), and even then only after completing the 'Highly Indebted Poor Country' (HIPC) initiative – that means changing their economic policies at the behest of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank - meaning more of the same economic conditionalities which were highlighted as problems by the Make Poverty History campaign. For example, Tanzania was forced to privatise water (to a British company – Bi-water) which led to a worse service and higher prices. In practice, only 19 developing countries signed up to the HIPC initiative. Even then, only the debt to the public international financial institutions was cancelled (so [Indonesia's arms debts][www.jubileescotland.org.uk], for example, were not covered). Even then the debts will only apply to a cut off date of 2003. This came despite the fact that the Commission for Africa report noted that in many cases the debt has in practice been paid back many times over, and that the debt was often accrued by illegitimate governments propped up by rich countries. The partial debt cancellation has done some good – Zambia for example is now able to provide universal free healthcare and Tanzania has increased its education spending. However debt campaigners argue that there is still far to go to reach the needed 100 per cent.

Although the 2005 G8 communique promised that developing countries should be able to decide their own economic policies, there has been little evidence of this in practice. For example, the EU went on to attempt to push so called 'Economic Partnership Agreements' on developing countries, which Trade Justice campaigners argue will not be good for developing countries, and are being forced upon them against their will.

London bombings

Because of the bombings, Blair decided to leave the G8 meeting temporarily to be present in London. He held a brief press conference, saying that the incidents were obviously terrorist attacks directed at the gathering of the G8. He also said that the meeting would continue in his absence, with Foreign Secretary Jack Straw filling in for him. Blair returned to Gleneagles by the evening of the 7th by Chinook helicopter, with heavy military escort. Reports suggest that the bombings may have been planned that day because the terrorists knew that a large number of London police officers would be deployed in Scotland, weakening the city. Thousands of officers were deployed to Scotland from the Metropolitan Police, British Transport Police, and City of London Police, as well as many from other forces.

Bush bicycle accident
While attending the summit, on 6 July 2005, George W. Bush collided with a British police officer, suffering minor lacerations on his hands and arms; the officer was taken to a local hospital.

It was initially reported that the officer suffered only minor injuries and was taken to the hospital only as a precaution. However, the officer ended up needing crutches and missing three months of duty. On 26 February 2006, The Scotsman published a previously unreleased police report which contradicted the administration's story:
As the President passed the junction at speed he raised his left arm from the handlebars to wave to the police officers present while shouting 'thanks, you guys, for coming'. As he did this he lost control of the cycle, falling to the ground, causing both himself and his bicycle to strike [the officer] on the lower legs.

Bush, who has experienced other bicycle- and Segway-related accidents, commented, "When you ride hard on a mountain bike, sometimes you fall, otherwise you're not riding hard."

Budget
The Gleneagles G8 summit cost the host nation £12.7 million. Of this, £4.1m was spent on the conference facilities, catering and accommodation; £3.9m was spent on facilities and catering for the media; and £1.5m for transport related to the summit. Policing and security of the summit cost an extra £72m, of which £52m was provided by the Scottish government.

Business opportunity
For some, the G8 summit became a profit-generating event; as for example, the official G8 Summit magazines which have been published under the auspices of the host nations for distribution to all attendees since 1998.

Gallery

Core G8 participants

See also
 Clean Energy for Development Investment Framework

References

Sources
 Bayne, Nicholas and Robert D. Putnam. (2005).  Staying Together: the G8 summit Confronts the 21st Century. Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate Publishing. ;  OCLC 217979297
 Reinalda, Bob and Bertjan Verbeek. (1998).  Autonomous Policy Making by International Organizations. London: Routledge.  ; ;

External links

 Official G8 website:  Gleneagles summit, 2005; n.b., no official website is created for any G7 summit prior to 1995 -- see the 21st G7 summit.
 University of Toronto: G8 Research Group, G8 Information Centre
  G8 2005, delegations & documents

General
 Poverty and Environment Times - current issues
 Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: G8
 BBC News - Profile: G8
 University of Toronto - G8 Information Centre

Activism
 UK Indymedia Coverage reporting from the protests against the summit
 Dissent! A network of resistance against the G8 a network of groups connected to the anti-globalisation movement planning protests at the 2005 G8 Summit.
 G8 Alternatives a group of NGOs, political parties and others planning protests and a conference in opposition to the G8.
 In their own words compilation of responses by campaign groups to summit communique
 An article on the summit from Liverpool's 'Nerve' magazine
 2005 G8 Pictures
 Camcorder Guerillas - "Why Close the G8?" film (On the G8 Summit in Gleneagles, Scotland)

Development
 G8 Finance Ministers' Conclusions on Development
 Make Poverty History global poverty relief charity collective planning mass convergence of people in Edinburgh in time for the Gleneagles 2005 G8 Summit
 The One Campaign seeks to have G8 countries donate 1% of their budgets to poverty relief, AIDS causes, etc.
 2005 Presidencies, Africa and Climate Change UK government
   G8 debt deal under threat at IMF, BBC, 15 June 2005
 Overseas Development Institute's G8 Portal
 War on Want, G8: Massive shortfall exposed in Gleneagles deal
 World Development Movement (2005), "Suspending disbelief: The promises and actions of the G8 from 1998 – 2005" , June 2005
 Center for Global Development (CGD), (Independent Research and Practical Ideas for Global Prosperity), offers easy to understand analysis of what the G8 agreement on debt relief will mean for poor people in developing countries. See The Road to Gleneagles
 New Statesman, 4 July 2005, "We are deeply concerned. Again" - G8 development concerns since 1977
 The Guardian, 23 August 2005, "How the G8 lied to the world on aid"
 Scottish Left Review Summer 2005 "Unwanted Guests: The G8 comes to Scotland"
 Scottish Left Review Summer 2008 "Is Poverty History Yet?"

Climate change
 Myles Allen, 1 July 2005, "The ghost of Gleneagles" - on the potential role of legal climate liability

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31st G8 summit


American Civil War (1861–1865) kuni warrana gudda Yunaayitid Isteetsi jiddutti godhame yoo ta'u, kunis kan ta'e immo * "Union" fi * Yunaayitid Isteetsi Kibbaa kudhan-tokko kan kopha ta'u mirgaa akka qaban kan iffaa godhaani maqqa Confederate States of America jedhamun kan ofii wammani, kan President Jefferson Davis kan geggefamanin jiddutti warrani geggefame. Unioniin kan geggefaman President Abraham Lincoln fi Republican Partyiin yoo ta'u, Partyiin kun babbalachu gabrumma akka gara United States hin senne morkaa, kana malle mirgaa kopha ba'us ni dhowee. Warranis bara 1861 Ebla 12 ka'e, kunis waan humni Confederate wataderotta (federal) United States kan tesso isaan Fort Sumter, South Carolina godhaan hatte bodda. South Carolinan state yeroo duraaf gargari of bastee dha.

Wagga tokkoffa irratti, Unioniin border states qabate, akkasumas waan gammi lachu warrana gudachu jalqabaniif Cuffama Union gochuu dandettera. Bara 1854 E.C. (1862 G.C.)t warrani guddan ka'e, kunis dhibba gudda fide ture, kunis kan ta'eef waan wal-madalu dhabu meshaa harra fi itti hadhisaa durii jiddu argamun kan ka'e dha. Fulbaana 1854 E.C. (September 1862 G.C.) kessatti, Lincoln Gochaa Labsa (Emancipation Proclamation) inni godhee irratti akka ibseetti sababi warrana kana akka gabrumma bilissa basu ta'e ibsee ture, haa ta'u malee kana kan godhee morkii Copperheads kabba kan kopha ba'u fi gabrumma fudhatan birra dabretti. Gochii Labsa kuni kessa hirmachu fi qarqarsa Britain fi France kibba fi yokan Confederaciif kennu dandettu hirdhiserra. Kana malee, yaddi kuni gurrachi (African-American) akka dallaga yadda kana kessatti hirmattu tasiserra, kibbi immo yadda kana ergaa ture bodaa kasani malee takka akkana tasisani hin bekani ture. border states fi War Democratsiin yadda kana akka Union fayyadu danda'u gamachuun fudhatan. Gara bahat, Confederate general kan ta'e Robert E. Lee bulchinsa Army of Northern Virginia fudhate, Army of the Potomac irratti injifano bayye godhe ture, garu generaliin isaa dansan Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson bakka warrana Battle of Chancellorsville jedhamutti bara Ebla 1855 E.C. (May 1863 G.C.)t ajjefame. Warrani Lee kan kabba bakka warrana Battle of Gettysburg jedhamu kan Pennsylvania argamut Adooleessa 1855 E.C. (July 1863 G.C.)t gara dubba kibban hadhame, haa ta'u malee akkuma ta'u ta'e Lee'n gara Virginiat baqatte. Union Navyn qarqara bishaani New Orleans bara 1854 E.C. (1862 G.C.) qabate, akkasumas Ulysses S. Grant bakka Mississippi River jedhamu qabate, kanas kan godhe duraan bakka warranna Vicksburg, Mississippi jedhamu Adooleessa 1855 E.C. (July 1863 G.C.) qabachun, kunis akka humni Confederacy akka gargari ba'u godherra.

By 1864, long-term Union advantages in geography, manpower, industry, finance, political organization and transportation were overwhelming the Confederacy. Grant fought a number of bloody battles with Lee in Virginia in the summer of 1864. Lee's defensive tactics resulted in extremely high casualties for Grant's army, but Lee lost strategically overall as he could not replace his casualties and was forced to retreat into trenches around his capital, Richmond, Virginia. Meanwhile, William Tecumseh Sherman, the leader of the Union Military Division of the Mississippi, captured Atlanta, Georgia. Sherman's March to the Sea destroyed a hundred-mile-wide swath of Georgia. In 1865, the Confederacy collapsed after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House; all slaves in the Confederacy were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and Union controlled parts of the South were freed by state action or by the Thirteenth Amendment.

The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction. The war produced about 970,000 casualties (3% of the population), including approximately 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease. The war accounted for more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined. The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering controversy even today. The main results of the war were the restoration and strengthening of the Union (mainly by permanently ending the issue of secession), and the end of slavery in the United States.

Wabii

U.S. Civil War


Stellar evolution is the study of how a star changes over time. Stars can change very much between when they are first created and when they run out of energy. Because stars can produce light and heat for millions or billions of years, scientists study stellar evolution by studying many different stars in different stages of their life.

The stages in a star's life are: protostar, main-sequence star, red giant and either white dwarf followed by black dwarf, neutron star or black hole.

How a star is born
A star starts its life as a cloud of dust and gas called a nebula. This is pulled together by gravity which causes it to heat up. It also starts to spin and to look like a ball.  When it gets hot enough, it starts to release energy through nuclear fusion, changing hydrogen to helium. This makes it shine very brightly and become what astronomers think of as a main-sequence star. It may stay a main-sequence star, looking about the same, for billions of years.

How a star enters old age
Sooner or later, almost all of the hydrogen at the center has changed to helium. This causes the nuclear reaction in the middle of the star to stop and the center will start to get smaller due to the star's gravity. The layer of the star just outside the center will begin to change hydrogen to helium, releasing energy.

The outer layers of the star will get much, much bigger. The star will make much more light, sometimes as much as ten thousand times as much as it did at first. Since the surface of the star will get bigger, this energy will be spread out over a much larger area. Because of this, the temperature of the surface will go down and the color will change to red or orange. It will become a red giant. It can swallow up any planets that orbit around it.

How a star dies
Later, the red giant that was left over from a star like ours stops burning. A cloud of gas is given off and a smaller star called a white dwarf is left behind. After a really long time, the white dwarf cools down into a black dwarf.

But, when a big red giant explodes, the explosion is a lot larger and is called a supernova. Instead of a white dwarf, it leaves behind a much smaller, much denser ball called a neutron star. A neutron star is created because the force of gravity is so strong that the atoms left behind would not have any electrons orbiting the nucleus of the atoms. A teaspoon of that matter might weigh as much as the entire Earth.

A much bigger red giant leaves behind a black hole. A black hole is created because gravity is so strong that even the protons and neutrons collapse in on themselves. Even light can no longer escape a black hole. Since there is nothing we know of stronger than the force that holds atomic nuclei (the plural of 'nucleus') together, some physicists think that a black hole collapses all the way down to a mathematical point called a singularity.

Astrophysics

Stellar evolution


Ice is watter frozen intae a solit state. It can appear transparent or opaque bluish-white colour, dependin on the presence o impurities or air inclusions. The addeetion o ither materials sic as syle mey further alter its appearance.

Ice appears naiturally in furms o snawflauchts, hail, iceshoggles, ice spikes an candles, glaciers, pack ice, frost, an polar ice caps. It is an important component o the global climate an plays an important role in the watter cycle. Furthermair, ice haes numerous cultural applications, frae ice cuiling o drinks tae winter sports tae the airt o ice sculptin.

The molecules in solit ice mey be arranged in numerous different ways, cried phases, dependin on the temperatur an pressur. teepically, ice is the phase kent as ice Ih, which is the maist abundant o the varyin solit phases on Yird's surface. The maist common phase transeetion tae ice Ih occurs when liquid watter is cuiled belaw  (, ) at staundart atmospheric pressur. It can an aa deposit frae vapour wi na intervenin liquid phase, sic as in the furmation o frost.

The wird is derived frae Auld Inglis īs, which in turn stems frae Proto-Germanic isaz.

Glaciology
Meenerals
Transparent materials

Ice


Spencer Bonaventure Tracy (5 Apryle 1900 – 10 Juin 1967) wis an American actor, notit for his naitural style an versatility. Ane o the major starns o Hollywood's Gowden Age, Tracy wan twa Academy Awairds for Best Actor frae nine nominations, sharin the record for nominations in that category wi Laurence Olivier.

Tracy first diskivert his talent for actin while attendin Ripon College, an he later received a scholarship for the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. He spent seiven years in the theatre, wirkin in a succession o stock companies an intermittently on Broadway. Tracy's brakthrou came in 1930, whan his lead performance in The Last Mile caucht the attention o Hollywood. Efter a successfu film debut in John Ford's Up the River starnin Tracy an Humphrey Bogart, he wis signed tae a contract wi Fox Film Corporation. His five years wi Fox featurt ane actin tour de force efter anither that war uisually ignored at the box office, an he remeened lairgely unkent tae audiences efter 25 films, awmaist aw o them starnin Tracy as the leadin man. Nane o them war hits awtho The Power and the Glory (1933) featurs argiebly his maist acclaimed performance in retrospect.

In 1935, Tracy jynt Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, at the time Hollywood's maist prestigious studio. His career flourished wi a series o hit films, an in 1937 an 1938 he wan consecutive Oscars for Captains Courageous an Boys Town. He made three smash hit films supportin Clark Gable, the studio's principal leadin man, firmly fixin the notion o Gable an Tracy as a team in the public imagination. Bi the 1940s, Tracy wis ane o the studio's tap starns. In 1942, he appeared wi Katharine Hepburn in Woman of the Year, beginnin anither popular pairtnership that produced nine movies ower 25 years. Tracy left MGM in 1955, an conteena'd tae wirk regularly as a freelance starn, despite an increasin weariness as he aged. His personal life wis tribbled, wi a lifelang struggle against severe alcoholism an guilt over his son's deifness. Tracy becam estranged frae his wife in the 1930s, but niver divorced, conductin a lang-term relationship wi Katharine Hepburn in preevat. Taewart the end o his life, Tracy wirkit awmaist exclusively for director Stanley Kramer. It wis for Kramer that he made his last film, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner in 1967, completit juist 17 days afore his daith.

In his career, Tracy appeared in 75 films an developed a reputation amang his peers as ane o the screen's greatest actors. In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked Tracy as the 9t greatest male starn o Clessic Hollywood Cinema.

References

1900 births
1967 daiths
Fowk frae Wisconsin
20t-century American male actors
Male actors frae Milwaukee, Wisconsin
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
American male film actors
American militar personnel frae Wisconsin
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
American Roman Catholics
American male stage actors
Best Actor BAFTA Awaird winners
Best Actor Academy Awaird winners
Best Drama Actor Gowden Globe (film) winners
Broadway theatre fowk
Buirials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
David di Donatello winners
Daiths frae myocardial infarction
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
Ripon College (Wisconsin) alumni
Unitit States Navy sailors
20th Century Fox contract players
Katharine Hepburn

Spencer Tracy


Mosses are bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to move water. Mosses evolved from liverworts.p75

Moss tissue does not have cells that move water. This means that they are non-vascular plants. Water must soak into mosses like a sponge. A patch of moss is made of many tiny moss plants packed together so that they can hold water for as long as possible. They do not have roots. Because mosses cannot find water, they live in two ways. They can live in places that are always wet like near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall. They can also pause their natural processes when they dry up. Mosses can survive months in this paused state. However, they eventually need water to live. This means they can never live in dry places like deserts.

Mosses cannot grow very large because they could not move water to the top of their growth. The largest moss grows in New Zealand. It is about 30 cm tall.

A moss does not make seeds. A moss does not have fruit. The green fuzzy part of a moss that is always there has only one set of DNA. Moss waits until there is lots of food and enough water. Then it produces spores that leave the parent plant and float away. The spores are like dust. They will make more moss. Each spore is male or female. It grows into the green fuzzy part of the moss called the gametophyte. Male gametophyte make sperm. Female gametophyte make eggs. Water moves the sperm from the male moss to the female moss. Then the sperm and the egg join to make a cell with two sets of moss DNA. This cell grows into a different shape called a sporophyte. The sporophyte gets all of its food from the green fuzzy female gametophyte. When the sporophyte grows up, it makes a tiny box with spores inside instead of seeds. The lid on the box falls and the spores float away to repeat the cycle again. This process is called alternation of generations.

Scientists divide the mosses into eight groups. Five of these groups are small, with just a few species; most mosses are in the group called Bryopsida.

References

Other websites

Bryophytes

Moss


A chosen-plaintext attack (CPA) is a model for cryptanalysis which assumes that the attacker can choose random plaintexts to be encrypted and obtain the corresponding ciphertexts. The goal of the attack is to gain some further information which reduces the security of the encryption scheme.  In the worst case, a chosen-plaintext attack could expose secret information after calculating the secret key.

Modern cryptography is implemented in software or hardware and is used for a diverse range of applications; for many applications, a chosen-plaintext attack is often very feasible.  Chosen-plaintext attacks become extremely important in the context of public key cryptography, where the encryption key is public and attackers can encrypt any plaintext they choose.

Any cipher that can prevent chosen-plaintext attacks is then also guaranteed to be secure against known-plaintext and ciphertext-only attacks; this is a conservative approach to security.

Two forms of chosen-plaintext attack can be distinguished:

Batch chosen-plaintext attack, where the cryptanalyst chooses all plaintexts before any of them are encrypted.
Adaptive chosen-plaintext attack, where the professional cryptanalyst makes a series of interactive queries, choosing subsequent plaintexts based on the information from the previous encryptions.

Related pages
Ciphertext-only attack
Chosen-ciphertext attack
Known-plaintext attack

References

Cryptography

Chosen-plaintext attack


The 2002 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States from February 8 2002 to February 24 2002. There were about 2,400 athletes from 77 nations. They were in 78 events. Utah was the fifth state in the United States to host the Olympic Games.

78 National Olympic Committees sent athletes to the Salt Lake City games. Cameroon, Hong Kong (China), Nepal, Tajikistan, and Thailand were in their first Winter Olympic games.

Highlights

The Olympic Flame was lit by the members of the gold medal-winning US Hockey Team of the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, NY.
These Olympics were the first time a United States president opened an Olympic Winter Games.
These were the first Games to be held under IOC president Jacques Rogge.
Janica Kostelić won three golds and a silver which were the first Winter Olympic medals ever for Croatia It was the first three-gold performance by a female.
Skeleton returned as a medal sport in the 2002 Games for the first time since 1948.
2002 was the first time with the Women's Bobsled Event.
China won its first and second Winter Olympic gold medals, both by women's short-track speed skater Yang Yang (A).
One of the most memorable stories of the event was at the men's short track. Australian skater Steven Bradbury was behind in the semi-final. The winning skaters crashed into each other, letting him finish second and go through to the final. Bradbury was again behind in the final. Again all four other skaters crashed out in the final turn. He won the gold medal.This was the first gold for Australia—or any other country of the Southern Hemisphere—in the Olympic Winter Games.
Australia won their second gold medal when Alisa Camplin won in Women's Aerials. This was the first ever Winter Games gold won by a woman from the Southern Hemisphere.
The Canadian men's ice hockey team defeated the American team 5–2 to claim the gold medal. This ended 50 years without the hockey gold. The Canadian women's team also defeated the American team 3–2.

2002 in the United States
21st century in Utah
Salt Lake City

2002 Winter Olympics


Angelica Singleton Van Buren (February 13, 1818 – December 29, 1877) acted as the First Lady of the United States. She was the daughter-in-law of Martin Van Buren, the 8th president of the USA. Angelica Singleton had married the President's son, Abraham Van Buren. She took over the role of the First Lady, as the president's wife had died 17 years earlier.

Angelica Singleton belonged to a high society. She was also related to Dolley Madison, wife of US President James Madison. Angelica brought a special style to her role as the First Lady.

She and Abraham Van Buren married in 1838. After marriage they took a long tour of Europe. When they came back to the US in 1839, she took up the role of the First Lady during the presidency of her father-in-law. In 1841, Martin Van Buren was defeated, she and her husband shifted to Kinderhook, Lindenwald. During the winter, they lived in their family home in South Carolina. From 1848 until her death in 1877, she lived in New York City.

Angelica was from the cream of southern society and was the great-granddaughter of Gen. Richard Richardson and Mary Cantey (Richardson). Gen. Richardson was the progenitor of six South Carolina governors, three Manning and three Richardson governors. One descendant, Elizabeth Peyre Richardson, was so closely related to all of these governors that she appears in Ripley's Believe it or Not. Angelica's sister, Marion, has a bio that, although sad, is actually more interesting than hers. See "A Tale of Two Sisters," by Joseph C. Elliott, Sandlapper: The Magazine of South Carolina.

First Ladies of the United States
1818 births
1877 deaths
Martin Van Buren

Angelica Van Buren


A binary star is two stars which orbit around each other. For each star, the other is its companion star. Many stars are part of a system with two or more stars. The brighter star is called the primary star, and the other is the secondary star.

Binary stars are important in astrophysics because looking at their orbits allows scientists to find out their masses. From this, scientists found the the mass–luminosity relationship, and used it to find the masses of single stars.

Binary stars are not the same as line-of-sight optical double stars, which look close together but are not connected by gravity. Optical double stars may actually be far apart in space, but binary stars are quite close together. The first person to discover and prove true binary stars was the Anglo-German astronomer William Herschel. He published the first catalogue of binary stars, and his son John Herschel found several thousand more and updated the catalogue. John Michell first suggested that double stars might be physically attached to each other when he argued in 1767 that the probability that a double star was due to a chance alignment was small.  William Herschel began observing double stars in 1779 and soon after that he published catalogs of about 700 double stars.

Modern definitions
By the modern definition, the term binary star is generally restricted to pairs of stars which revolve around a common centre of mass. Binary stars which can be resolved with a telescope or interferometric methods are known as visual binaries. For most of the known visual binary stars one whole revolution (complete circle) has not been observed yet, they are seen to have travelled along a curved path or a partial arc.

Some stars appear to be in orbit around empty space, and appear not to have a companion. In this case, the companion star is either very small and faint, or it is a neutron star or a black hole. The best-known example of a star with an invisible companion is Cygnus X-1, in which the visible star's companion appears to be a black hole.

The more general term double star is used for pairs of stars which are seen to be close together in the sky. This distinction is rarely made in languages other than English. Double stars may be binary systems or may be merely two stars that appear to be close together in the sky but have vastly different true distances from the Sun. The latter are termed optical doubles or optical pairs.

Visual binaries
A visual binary star is one for which the separation of the two stars can be seen with a telescope. The brighter star is the primary and the fainter star is the secondary. Visual binaries take a long time to orbit one another, in the area of hundreds or even thousands of years.

Spectroscopic binaries
A spectroscopic binary is one in which the two stars cannot be seen separately even with a telescope. They are very close together and move around each other very quickly, over a period of a few weeks or even a few days. However, they can be seen to be two separate stars by using a spectroscope, which is able to record the Doppler change in the color of the light sent out by stars moving quickly toward or away from the Earth.

Eclipsing binaries
Some spectroscopic binaries have an orbit that is edge-on to Earth. When this happens, the stars will take turns passing in front of and eclipsing the partner star, in what is called an eclipsing binary. In this case, the amount of light we see from the double dims slightly during the time one star is in front of the other.

Astrometric binaries
An astrometric binary is one where only one companion can be seen. For astrometric binaries fairly near the Earth (up to about 10 parsecs), it may be possible to see the visible companion "wobble" as it moves around its invisible companion. By making measurements over a long period of time, it may be possible to calculate the mass of the visible star and how long its orbit takes. This method is also used to detect the presence of large planets orbiting a star; as of 2007, over two hundred planets have been discovered in this way.

System properties

Most binaries are detached binaries. Except for their gravitational pull on one another, they have no effect on each other.

Some binaries are so close to one another that one or both stars is able to pull material from the other. Contact binaries share the same stellar atmosphere, and as friction slows them over a long period, they may merge into one star. This violent event temporarily makes them shine more brightly, brighter than a nova but less bright than a supernova.

Formation
Though it could be possible that binary stars may form when one star passes very close to another, it is highly unlikely (since it would actually take three stars close to one another before two could join), and would occur only in places where stars are densely packed together. Our present understanding is that almost all binaries are formed together in the dense gas clouds where stars are born.

Runaways and novae
It is possible (though not likely) that a passing star will disrupt a binary system and provide enough gravitational force to split the binary. Such separated stars go on to live lives as ordinary single stars. Sometimes, though, enough gravitational force is involved that the two companions speed away from each other at great speeds, resulting in what is known as runaway stars.

Sometimes a star is in orbit around a white dwarf star. If it is large enough and close enough to the white dwarf, the dwarf may suck gasses from its companion's atmosphere. Over a period of time, a great deal of gas may collect on the white dwarf. As this gas is compacted by the white dwarf's gravity, it will eventually undergo nuclear fusion, resulting in a very bright outburst of light, known as a nova. In some cases, the white dwarf may gather so much gas that the explosion completely destroys it, in what is called a supernova. Such an event may also result in runaway stars, as the larger star no longer has a heavy companion which keeps it in orbit.

X - Ray Binaries
X - Ray Binaries produce great amounts of X-ray radiation. They result from a massive star eating a less massive star. The lesser star becomes a donor and its matter is drained out and falls into the more massive (but more compact) star, the accretor. This releases high energy photons, for example in the X-Ray range of wavelengths. The X-Rays also come from the consumption of material on the surface of the more massive star in a process called thermonuclear burning. This can make 10 second bursts.

References

Other websites

 Pictures of binaries at Hubblesite.org
 Chandra X-ray Observatory
 Binary Stars at Open Directory
 An extensive simulation for the Algol system by North Carolina State University

Types of stars

Binary star


The planetary core is the innermost layer or layers in a planet. The terrestrial planets (planets with a rocky surface) have a core mainly made of iron and could be a solid or a liquid layer. The Earth's core is partially liquid, while the cores of Mars and Venus are thought to be completely solid, because the cores do not make a magnetic field.

The gas giants also have a core made of iron. Their cores are very small, in proportion to their large size. However, the gas giants are so large that their cores can still be larger than the Earth's core. Jupiter's core is estimated to be 12 times the mass of the Earth's.

A core's size can vary from each planet or other object. The moon's core is 20% of its radius, but Mercury's core is 75% of its radius.

Geology
Planets

Planetary core