No Better Than This is the 21st album by American singer-songwriter and musician John Mellencamp. Produced by T Bone Burnett, the album was released on August 17, 2010. It was recorded at several historic locations throughout the United States. The title track was the album's first single and was sent to multiple radio formats on June 28, 2010.

Mellencamp said that the album is "as American folk as I've ever been". He also told Rolling Stone in July 2009 that he is not concerned whether or not there's a large audience for such a raw, simple record. "I am done being a rock star", Mellencamp said. "I have no interest in that, in having the biggest concerts. I have only one interest: to have fun while we're doing this and maybe have something that somebody might discover."

Rolling Stone placed No Better Than This at No. 12 on its list of the best albums of 2010.

Recording and production
Mellencamp wrote over 30 songs for potential inclusion on the album but only 13 made the final cut. He debuted the first of those, "Save Some Time to Dream", on May 17, 2009, at a political fundraiser for President Barack Obama at the Westin Hotel in downtown Indianapolis. "It's about individual freedom and thought—and controlling our own lives", Mellencamp said of "Save Some Time to Dream", which he performed solo on acoustic guitar throughout much of his 2009 summer tour with Bob Dylan and Willie Nelson.

During breaks on the Nelson/Dylan tour, Mellencamp recorded No Better Than This at historic locations, such as the First African Baptist Church in Savannah, Georgia, as well as at the historic Sun Studios in Memphis and the Sheraton Gunter Hotel in San Antonio, where blues pioneer Robert Johnson recorded blues staples such as "Sweet Home Chicago" and "Cross Road Blues". Mellencamp recorded the album using a 1955 Ampex portable recording machine and only one microphone, requiring all the musicians to gather together around the mic. The album was recorded in mono, the same manner as the classic folk and blues recordings of the 1930s and 1940s.

Mellencamp wrote one song specifically for Room 414 at the Gunter Hotel, which is the exact room where Johnson recorded in November 1936. He told the San Antonio Express-News, "It's called 'Right Behind Me' or 'Right Behind Us,' I haven't decided yet. I wrote it just for this room. I could have done this in my studio. But I want to do it this way, and if I can't do what I want at this point, I'm not going to do it. If it's not fun, I'm not going to do it. I'm through digging a ditch".

"John is a really great singer and I'm always happy working with him in any environment", T Bone Burnett told the Express-News. "The fact he chose these historic locations is a big plus. The stories that have come out of the sessions are extraordinary. The First African Baptist Church was started in 1775. It was an important stop on the Underground Railroad and central to the civil rights movement. Sun Studio, from a completely different angle, was also important to the civil rights movement and, from another angle, so were Robert Johnson's recordings at the Gunter."

During Mellencamp's session at Sun Studios in late July 2009, he recorded several songs including "Each Day of Sorrow", "No One Cares About Me", "The West End", and "Easter Eve", which Rolling Stone magazine's David Fricke compared to "one of Bob Dylan's talking blues". Regarding this session, Mellencamp told the magazine, "[T Bone] and I were laughing. We got five songs here last night. We asked ourselves, 'What the fuck were we doing in the 70s and 80s, spending days and days on a drum sound, when it was all right here the whole time?'"

"Everything was set up exactly as Johnny Cash and Elvis Presley recorded. They had 'X' marks made with electrical tape on the floor where Elvis and his musicians stood and where the instruments were placed, because Sam Philips walked around the room and decided where everything sounded best".

Mellencamp wanted to record at the now-derelict Brunswick Records Building in Dallas, where Robert Johnson cut his final sessions in 1937, but the current owner of the building denied him permission to record there.

As for the organic recording process of the album, Mellencamp says it's unique for this day and age. "The same mic I was singing into is the same mic that recorded the drums at the same time," Mellencamp said on his website. "And everything was cut live with no overdubs or studio nothing! These are real songs being performed by real musicians—an unheard-of process in today's world. Real music, for real people!"

Mellencamp has said in interviews to promote the album that the song "The West End" is not about a certain part of town but rather about America, which is the west end of the world.

Promotion and release
The album was released on August 17, 2010, on the Rounder Records label.

Mellencamp gave the first live performance of the song "Save Some Time to Dream" for a concert audience on July 10, 2009, in Dayton, Ohio. He subsequently performed the song at several other concerts, including Farm Aid 2009 and a tribute to Myles Brand at Conseco Fieldhouse. He has also completed a painting entitled "Save Some Time to Dream".

In October 2009, it was announced that a song recorded during the sessions for the album, entitled "Someday the Rains Will Fall", would be featured in an episode of NCIS and would appear on the album NCIS: The Official TV Soundtrack – Vol. 2. "Someday the Rains Will Fall" is not included on No Better Than This, but it is found on Mellencamp's four-disc box set, On the Rural Route 7609.

The album's first single, "No Better Than This", was released to radio stations on June 28, 2010.

Film
Mellencamp's 2009 summer tour of minor league baseball parks with Willie Nelson and Bob Dylan and the recording sessions for this album were filmed by renowned photographer Kurt Markus, who released a documentary titled John Mellencamp: It's About You that premiered in New York City and Los Angeles in January 2012 and was released on DVD and Blu-ray in June 2012.  "It's not about me but about Kurt being with me—which is a whole different slant than these kinds of movies usually have", Mellencamp said. Markus had previously directed the music video for Mellencamp's 2001 single "Peaceful World". Mellencamp showed "It's About You" before his performance each night during his 2010–2011 No Better Than This theater tour, which began on October 29, 2010, in his hometown of Bloomington, Indiana.

Track listing
All songs written by John Mellencamp.
"Save Some Time to Dream" – 4:30
"The West End" – 3:58
"Right Behind Me" – 4:00
"A Graceful Fall" – 3:20
"No Better Than This" – 3:12
"Thinking About You" – 3:28
"Coming Down the Road" – 4:45
"No One Cares About Me" – 6:11
"Love at First Sight" – 4:37
"Don't Forget About Me" – 3:14
"Each Day of Sorrow" – 2:36
"Easter Eve" – 6:30
"Clumsy Ol' World" – 3:29

Personnel
John Mellencamp – vocals and acoustic guitar
Andy York – acoustic and electric guitars
Marc Ribot – electric guitar and banjo
T Bone Burnett – acoustic and electric guitars
David Roe – bass
Jay Bellerose – drums and percussion
Miriam Sturm – violin

Charts

References

External links

John Mellencamp albums
2010 albums
Albums recorded at Sun Studio
Rounder Records albums
Albums produced by T Bone Burnett

No Better Than This


Morumbi Stadium or Estádio do Morumbi is the biggest stadium in São Paulo, Brazil. It used to have 120,000 seats available, but now its maximum capacity is 77,000 seats for safety reasons. It is the home ground of São Paulo Futebol Clube and its formal name honors Cícero Pompeu de Toledo, who was São Paulo FC's chairman during most of the stadium's construction.

Football stadiums in Brazil
São Paulo (state)

Estádio do Morumbi


The Prix de Rome was a scholarship (money prize) for art students in Paris. It was created in 1663 in France when Louis XIV was reigning. Every year the prize was given to promising young painters, sculptors, and architects. They had to finish a very difficult piece of work to show that they deserved to win the prize. The person who won the prize would get money so that he could go to Rome for a year to study. Sometimes they were allowed to stay longer if they were doing exceptionally good work.

In 1803, music was added to the subjects, and in 1804 engraving was added. Sometimes people won "second prize" which allowed them to study for a shorter period.

Many artists who won the Prix de Rome are now almost forgotten. On the other hand, there are many artists who became very famous but did not win the Prix de Rome. These people include Augustin Pajou Eugène Delacroix, Edouard Manet, Edgar Degas and the composers Ernest Chausson and Maurice Ravel. Ravel tried five times to win it. There was a big argument about this at the Paris Conservatoire, and rules were reorganized after that.

The Prix de Rome continued to be awarded until 1968 when it was stopped.

Other websites
 The Prix de Rome Contests in Painting .

Art awards
Paris

Prix de Rome


Añejo cheese (queso añejo) is a firm, aged Mexican cheese traditionally made from skimmed goat's milk, but most often available made from skimmed cow's milk. After it is made, it is rolled in paprika to add additional flavor to its salty, sharp flavor, which is somewhat similar to Parmesan cheese or Romano cheese, but not as strongly flavored as cotija cheese. As a fresh cheese, it is crumbly and breaks into small pieces very easily. When dried, it acquires a firm texture, allowing it to be easily shredded or grated. Queso añejo is a good baking or grilling cheese, which is generally sprinkled on top of or stuffed into enchiladas, burritos, and tacos. Parmesan, Cotija, or feta cheese can be substituted when añejo is not available. It may also be referred to as añejo enchilado cheese or añejo (meaning "aged").

See also
 List of goat milk cheeses

References

Mexican cheeses
Goat's-milk cheeses

Añejo cheese


Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), previously known as multiple organ failure (MOF), Total organ failure(TOF) or multisystem organ failure (MSOF), is when the organ function is acutely ill and the patient is requires medical intervention to achieve homeostasis. It usually involves two or more organ systems.

The use of "multiple organ failure" or "multisystem organ failure" should be avoided since that phrase was based upon physiological parameters to determine whether or not a particular organ was failing.

Cause
The condition usually results from infection, injury (accident, surgery), hypoperfusion and hypermetabolism. The primary cause triggers an uncontrolled inflammatory response. Sepsis is the most common cause in operative and non-operative patients. Sepsis may result in septic shock.

Stages
Four clinical phases have been suggested:
Stage 1 the patient has increased volume requirements and mild respiratory alkalosis which is accompanied by oliguria, hyperglycemia and increased insulin requirements.
Stage 2 the patient is tachypneic, hypocapnic and hypoxemic; develops moderate liver dysfunction and possible hematologic abnormalities.
Stage 3 the patient develops shock with azotemia and acid-base disturbances; has significant coagulation abnormalities.
Stage 4 the patient is vasopressor dependent and oliguric or anuric; subsequently develops ischemic colitis and lactic acidosis.

References

Other websites
 The ICU Book by Marino
 Cecil Textbook of Medicine
 The Oxford Textbook of Medicine
 Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine

Organ failure
Medical emergencies

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome


Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education, 476 U.S. 267 (1986), was a case before the United States Supreme Court.  It is the seminal case for the "strong-basis-in-evidence standard" for affirmative action programs.

Background
In response to racial tension in a community and its schools, the Board of Education and the teachers union in Jackson, Michigan added a "layoff provision" to their collective bargaining agreement; it required that in the event of layoffs, "teachers with the most seniority ... shall be retained, except that at no time will there be a greater percentage of minority personnel laid off than the current percentage of minority personnel employed at the time of the layoff."  This provision was designed to preserve the effects of a hiring policy whose goal had been to increase the percentage of minority teachers in the school system.  When layoffs became necessary, the board adhered to the provision, with the result that certain nonminority teachers were laid off while minority teachers with less seniority were retained.

Procedural history
The displaced nonminority teachers sued in federal court, alleging violation of the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The District Court dismissed the teachers' claims, holding that the racial preferences were permissible as an attempt to remedy societal discrimination by providing role models for minority schoolchildren. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit affirmed on similar grounds.

Decision
The United States Supreme Court reversed. Although unable to agree on an opinion, five members of the court agreed that the layoffs were in violation of the equal protection clause. It was also agreed by five members of the court that the equal protection clause does not require a public employer's voluntary affirmative action plan to be preceded by a formal finding that the employer has committed discriminatory acts in the past.

Judgment of the court
Justice Powell announced the judgment of the court. He expressed the view that
(1) any governmental classification or preference based on racial or ethnic criteria must be justified by a compelling governmental interest, and the means chosen by the government to effectuate its purpose must be narrowly tailored to the achievement of that goal
(2) such means are subject to strict scrutiny and must be tested by a standard more stringent than reasonableness
(3) a school board's interest in providing minority faculty role models for its minority students in an attempt to alleviate the effects of societal discrimination is insufficient to justify racially discriminatory practices in the hiring and layoff of teachers
(4) a public employer like the Board must ensure that, before it embarks on an affirmative-action program, it has convincing evidence that remedial action is warranted. That is, it must have sufficient evidence to justify the conclusion that there has been prior discrimination"
(5) the existence of societal discrimination, without more, is too amorphous a basis for imposing a racially classified legal remedy
(6) in order to remedy the effects of prior racial discrimination, a state may implement a race-based plan under which innocent parties are called upon to bear some of the burden, provided that their share of the burden is relatively light and diffused among society generally
(7) the fact that a race-based layoff plan has been approved by the more senior members of a labor union does not operate to waive the constitutional rights of the most junior nonminority members, who would bear the entire burden of the plan
(8) although the equal protection clause does not require layoffs to be based on strict seniority, it does require the state to meet a heavy burden of justification when it implements a layoff plan based on race
(9) this burden is not met where the plan is not sufficiently narrowly tailored to accomplish otherwise legitimate purposes, and where less intrusive means, such as the adoption of hiring goals, are available to accomplish similar purposes

Concurring in part and in the judgment
Justice O'Connor stated that the layoff provision was not narrowly tailored to achieve its asserted purpose, on the ground that it was designed to safeguard a hiring goal that was tied to the percentage of minority students in the school district, not to the percentage of qualified minority teachers within the labor pool, and that such a hiring goal itself had no relation to the remedying of employment discrimination.

Concurring in the judgment
Justice White expressed the view that none of the interests asserted by the board, singly or together, justified the racially discriminatory layoff policy where none of the retained minority teachers was shown to be a victim of any racial discrimination, and that the layoff policy had the same impermissible effect as one that would integrate a work force by discharging whites and hiring blacks until the latter comprised a suitable percentage.

Dissents
Justice Marshall expressed the view
(1) that the case should have been remanded for further findings of fact as to whether the board's remedial action was warranted
(2) that under the apparent circumstances of the case, the state purpose of preserving the integrity of a hiring policy which sought to achieve diversity and stability for the benefit of all students was sufficient to satisfy the demands of the Constitution
(3) that the layoff provision was a permissible means of achieving this purpose because it allocated the impact of an unavoidable burden, necessitated by external economic conditions, proportionately between two racial groups, and was arrived at through the process of collective bargaining

Justice Stevens expressed the view that
(1) the decision to include more minority teachers in the school system served the valid public purpose of seeking multiethnic representation on the faculty, regardless of whether the board of education was guilty of past racial discrimination
(2) the policy was adopted with fair procedures and given a narrow breadth
(3) it transcended the harm to laid-off nonminority teachers

Analysis
Given the lack of a majority in Wygant, commentators have paired Justice Powell's plurality with Justice O'Connor's concurrence to find three potential conclusions of the case:

(1) employers need not evidence prior discrimination rising to the level of a constitutional or statutory violation before implementing voluntary affirmative action programs
(2) evidence of prior discrimination rising to the level of a prima facie statutory violation will provide a "sufficient basis" for implementing remedial programs
(3) statistical evidence of minority underrepresentation in an employer's ranks is highly relevant to a finding of remedial need

References

External links

1986 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States affirmative action case law
United States equal protection case law
Education in Jackson County, Michigan
Jackson, Michigan
Legal history of Michigan
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
1986 in education
United States racial discrimination case law

Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education


The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see.
It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception.

Introduction
This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of:

 The eye, especially the retina
 The optic nerve
 The optic chiasma
 The optic tract
 The lateral geniculate nucleus
 The optic tectum (superior colliculus)
 The optic radiation
 The visual cortex
 The visual association cortex

Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.<ref>	     AB Safer and MS Grace (2004),   "Infrared imaging in vipers: differential responses of crotaline and viperine snakes to paired thermal targets". Behav Brain Res. 154(1):55-61. 2004 Sep 23. </ref>

References

David H. Hubel 1989. Eye, Brain and Vision. New York: Scientific American Library.
David Marr 1982. Vision: A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information. San Francisco: Freeman.
R.W. Rodiek 1988. The Primate Retina. In Comparative Primate Biology. vol 4 of Neurosciences. eds H.D. Steklis and J. Erwin. pp. 203–278. New York: A.R. Liss.
Matthew Schmolesky, The Primary Visual Cortex
Martin J. Tovée 1996. An introduction to the visual system. Cambridge University Press.
Andreas Vesalius 1543. De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)
Torsten Wiesel and David H. Hubel 1963. The effects of visual deprivation on the morphology and physiology of cell's lateral geniculate body. Journal of Neurophysiology'' 26, 978-993.

Other websites
"Webvision: The Organization of the Retina and Visual System" - John Moran Eye Center at University of Utah
VisionScience.com - An online resource for researchers in vision science.
Journal of Vision - An online, open access journal of vision science.

Vision

Visual system


William Henry Monk (16 March 1823 – 1 March 1889) was an English organist, church musician and music editor who composed popular hymn tunes, including "Eventide", used for the hymn "Abide with Me", and "All Things Bright and Beautiful". He also wrote music for church services and anthems.

Biography

William Henry Monk was born in London on 16 March 1823. His youth is not well-documented, but it seems that he developed quickly on the keyboard, but perhaps less so in composition.

By age 18, Monk was organist at St Peter's Church, Eaton Square (Central London). He left after two years, and moved on to two more organist posts in London (St George's Church, Albemarle Street, and St Paul's Church, Portman Square). He spent two years in each. Each served as a stepping stone toward fostering his musical ambitions.

In 1847, Monk became choirmaster at King's College London. There he developed an interest in incorporating plainchant into Anglican services, an idea suggested by William Dyce, a King's College professor with whom Monk had much contact. In 1849, Monk also became organist at King's College.

In 1852, he became organist and choirmaster at St Matthias' Church, Stoke Newington, where he made many changes: plainchant was used in singing psalms, and the music performed was more appropriate to the church calendar. By now, Monk was also arranging hymns, as well as writing his own hymn melodies. In 1857, his talents as composer, arranger, and editor were recognized when he was appointed the musical editor of Hymns Ancient and Modern, a volume first published in 1861, containing 273 hymns. After supplements were added (second edition, 1875; later additions or supplements, 1889, 1904, and 1916) it became one of the best-selling hymn books ever produced. It was for this publication that Monk supplied his famous "Eventide" tune which is mostly used for the hymn "Abide with Me", as well as several others, including "Gethsemane", "Ascension", and "St Denys".  The well-known hymn 'God, that madest earth and heaven' by Bishop Heber and Archbishop Whately, two of the greatest Regency-era clergymen, was set to music in Monk's tune Nutfield.  He was also responsible for the tune St Matthias often used for the hymn 'Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go.'  The late Victorian Anglo-Saxon revivalist tune St Ethelwald was put to the immortal words of the prolific writer Charles Wesley called 'Soldiers of Christ, arise.'

In 1874, Monk was appointed professor of vocal studies at King's College; subsequently he accepted similar posts at two other prestigious London music schools: the first at the National Training School of Music in 1876, and the second at Bedford College in 1878. Monk remained active in composition in his later years, writing not only hymn tunes but also anthems and other works. In 1882 Durham University awarded him an honorary Mus. Doc.

He died on 1 March 1889 and was buried on the eastern side of Highgate Cemetery in north London.

References

External links

1823 births
1889 deaths
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Musicians from London
Hymnal editors
English composers
English organists
British male organists
Academics of King's College London
19th-century British composers
19th-century English musicians
19th-century British male musicians
19th-century organists

William Henry Monk


The True Jesus Church is a Christian church. It was started during the early 20th century. It is an independent Church. It split from the Pentecostal movement in China. The Pentecostal movement is an evangelical movement within Christianity.

This group practices faith healing, speaking in tongues, baptism by putting a person completely under water, feet washing and the Saturday Sabbath. By 1949 they claimed 120,000 members; those members met in 700 churches.

The True Jesus Church was banned in the People's Republic of China in 1958 along with all the other Christian churches, but they were allowed to reopen in 1985. Since then, they have grown quickly and have spread across the whole country. They are strongest in Jiangsu, Hunan and Fujian provinces.

They say that daily prayer is very important, both private and public. They engage in vigorous evangelism.

Currently their churches are found in forty eight countries and six continents. Followers of the Church believe that God has only a divine nature, so they therefore reject the idea of the Trinity.

Christian holidays were often near the dates of pagan ones. This is also true for Easter, Christmas and Good Friday. The feast of Sol invictus was on the 25th of December. It was a very important holiday in Ancient Rome. Because of the pagan origins of the holidays, the True Jesus Church does not celebrate Easter and Christmas. The movement has between 1.5 and 2.5 million followers.

References

Pentecostalism
Protestant denominations
Religion in China

True Jesus Church


Political correctness (or PC for short) means using words that will not offend any group of people. Some offensive words have been used for a long time. Some of these words have now been replaced by other words that are not offensive. These new words are described as politically correct.

The term is often used in a mocking sense when attempts at avoiding offense are seen to go too far.

History
This term has been used since the early 1970s. It started being used in the modern negative sense in the late 80s in America.

Examples
Politically correct words or terms are used to show differences between people or groups in a non-offensive way. This difference may be because of race, gender, beliefs, religion, sexual orientation, or because they have a mental or physical disability, or any difference from what most people believe is normal.

Political correctness with gender
Throughout the 20th century, feminists fought for women to have the same rights as men. In PC language this is seen in changes to job titles such as "policeman", "postman", and "chairman" which now commonly go by the gender-neutral titles "police officer", "letter carrier" and "chairperson" or "chair" as well as with terms having broader application, such as "humankind" replacing "mankind".

Political correctness in medicine
People who are mentally disabled are now rarely described as "mentally retarded" (sometimes called "M.R.") but may be said to have "special needs". M.R. has been changed to I.D.; Intellectual Disabilities.

People with significant vision loss are called low vision or blind.
People with significant hearing loss are called deaf and/or hard of hearing.
People who cannot speak are no longer called "dumb", they are non vocal. Those who are vocal but cannot communicate fluently are called non verbal.

The overall terms 'handicapped" or 'challenged' are not considered appropriate (there is no distinction between physical or mental, acquired or inborn, because unless you're the disabled person, it's your choice to disclose and confirm whether this matters).
Person first language is "Sarah has physical disabilities". This is part of the medical model of disability, which suggests disabled people are something to be fixed, even if there is no pathology to suggest "fixing".

The social model of disability encourages identity first language (Sarah is disabled) and is not just preferred by most of the disabled community but is also part of the social model of disability. The social model of disability invokes (rather than erasing as medical model does) the idea that disability isn't just about limitations within daily life but also acknowledges that most of what creates "disability" are the social and infrastructural challenges faced, such as inaccessible housing, sidewalks, and elevators.

Criticism
Some of the new politically correct words are often criticized for being rather ridiculous. Some examples of these are the terms ending in challenged. For example, someone who is very short might be described as "vertically challenged". People also say that things that are obviously bad are called by something else which hides the fact that they are bad. For example, young people who are in trouble with the law, instead of being called "juvenile delinquents" became "children at risk". Some PC terms may be ambiguous i.e. have two possible meanings. "hearing impaired" can also refer to someone who has partial hearing (hard of hearing) and "vision impaired" can also refer to someone who has partial vision.

Related pages
 Discrimination
 Identity politics

Wikiquote has quotes related to political correctness.

Social issues

Political correctness


When two people go out together because they are or want to be in a romantic relationship, this is often called dating. When someone goes on a date, they try to do things that both people will like doing: go to see a movie, eat in a restaurant, drink in a pub, bar or café.

Dating can be done with both new people and people one already is in a relationship with. A first date lets people decide whether they are interested in that person, while dates after that are done to try and build the relationship.

There are commercial services to help people find people that they might want to go on a date with: dating services or introduction services. On the Internet, there are dating sites that allow people to find people who they might want to date. There are some online communities that oppose dating, such as MGTOW. When someone gives up on dating, it is sometimes called the black pill.

References

Human sexuality
Relationships

Dating


Frank Horace Hahn FBA (26 April 1925 – 29 January 2013) was a British economist whose work focused on general equilibrium theory, monetary theory, Keynesian economics and critique of monetarism. A famous problem of economic theory, the conditions under which money, which is intrinsically worthless, can have a positive value in a general equilibrium, is called "Hahn's problem" after him. One of Hahn's main abiding concerns was the understanding of Keynesian (Non-Walrasian) outcomes in general equilibrium situations.

Biography

Early life and education
Frank Hahn was born on 26 April 1925 in Berlin to Arnold and Maria Hahn, their roots in German and Czech speaking Jewish communities respectively. Arnold Hahn was a chemist by profession and a writer. Arnold and Maria Hahn with their two sons, Peter and Frank, moved to Prague in 1931 (or possibly 1934) and left for England in 1938.

Frank's older brother was Peter Hahn (8 November 1923 – 28 August 2007) who became an eminent Czech research physiologist who had returned to Czechoslovakia after the War but was compelled to flee to Canada after the Prague Spring in 1968 in which he was active.

Peter and Frank were educated at Bournemouth School from when they were 15, 13 respectively, a school for which Frank retained an abiding enthusiasm. Peter started at Swansea University but joined the Czechoslovak squadron of the RAF during the War. Frank too became a navigator in the RAF in the Second World War, then resumed his interrupted higher education, not reading Mathematics at Balliol College, Oxford, but instead reading Economics at the London School of Economics.  He met at LSE and in 1946 married Dorothy Salter, also an economist and secretary to FA Hayek. Frank started his teaching career with a lectureship at Birmingham in 1948.

Frank Hahn took his doctoral degree in 1951 at the London School of Economics (LSE) for the thesis The share of wages: an enquiry into the theory of distribution, where he was supervised initially by Nicholas Kaldor and later by Lionel Robbins. As a student, he had been part of the Hayek–Robbins seminar at LSE, and he once said his wife had been an original member of the Mont Pelerin Society.

Academia

Hahn began his teaching career in 1948 at the University of Birmingham, where he was subsequently elected Reader in Mathematical Economics. In 1960 he joined the University of Cambridge—as a Fellow of the new Churchill College and as University Lecturer in Economics.

In 1967 he was appointed Professor at the London School of Economics (though he apparently continued to reside in Cambridge). Five years later he left the LSE appointment to become Professor at Cambridge. His inaugural lecture at Cambridge "On the notion of equilibrium in economics" was delivered on 28 February 1973. He remained Professor of Economics at Cambridge until his retirement in 1992, though he made near-annual visits to the US, especially as visiting professor at Harvard University, the MIT, and the University of California, Berkeley, as well as to Stanford's Institute of Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences. From 1990 to 1996 Hahn directed the PhD program of the Economics Department at the University of Siena. He eventually became emeritus professor at Cambridge.

Famous letter
He gained widespread recognition and attention in 1981 as the co-instigator of a letter to The Times signed by 364 of Britain's best-known economists, questioning Margaret Thatcher's economic policy, with a warning that it would only result in deepening the prevailing depression.

Influence and leanings
Frank Hahn, by his own admission, was influenced in economics by John Hicks, W. M. Gorman, Takashi Negishi and Kenneth Arrow among others. He in turn influenced a large number of colleagues and students.

Death

He died in Cambridge on 29 January 2013, following a short illness. He is survived by his wife Dorothy, née Salter, whom he had married in 1946.

Major works
 "The Share of Wages in the Trade Cycle", Economic Journal, vol 60 (1950).
 "The Share of Wages in National Income", Oxford Economic Papers vol. 3 No. 2 (1951).
 "The Rate of Interest in General Equilibrium Analysis", Economic Journal (1955).
 "Gross Substitutes and the Dynamic Stability of General Equilibrium", Econometrica vol 26 (1958) pp. 169–70.
 "The Patinkin Controversy", Review of Economic Studies vol. 19 (1960).
 "The Stability of Growth Equilibrium", Quarterly Journal of Economics vol. 74, pp. 206–26 (1960).
 "Money, Dynamic Stability and Growth", Metroeconomica vol. 13 No. 11 (August 1961).
 "A Stable Adjustment Process for a Competitive Economy", Review of Economic Studies vol 39 pp. 62–5 (1962).
 "A Theorem on Non-Tatonnement Stability" with T.Negishi, Econometrica vol. 30 No. 3 (1962).
 "On the Stability of a Pure Exchange Equilibrium", International Economic Review, vol. 3 (May 1962), 206–13.
 "The Stability of the Cournot Oligopoly Solution", Review of Economic Studies vol. 29 pp. 329–33 (1962).
 "On the Disequilibrium Behavior of a Multi-Sectoral Growth Model", Economic Journal (1963)
 "The Theory of Economic Growth: A survey", with R.C.O.Matthews (1964), Economic Journal vol 74 pp. 779–902 (1964).
 "On Some Problems of Proving the Existence of an Equilibrium in a Monetary Economy" in Theory of Interest Rates (1965), edited by Hahn and Brechling.
 "Equilibrium Dynamics with Heterogeneous Capital Goods" Quarterly Journal of Economics vol. 80 (1966) pp. 633–46.
 "On Warranted Growth Paths", Review of Economic Studies, vol. 35, pp. 175–84 (1968).
 "On Money and Growth", Journal of Money, Credit and Banking vol. 1 No. 2 (1969).
 "Some Adjustment Problems", Econometrica vol. 38 No. 1 (January 1970).
 General Competitive Analysis (1971), with K.J. Arrow.
 "Equilibrium with Transactions Costs", Econometrica vol. 39 No. 3 (1971).
 "The Winter of Our Discontent", Economica (1973).
 "On Some Equilibrium Growth Paths" in Models of Economic Growth (1973), edited by Mirrlees and Stern.
 "On Transactions Costs, Inessential Sequence Economics and Money", Review of Economic Studies vol. 40 No. 4 (October 1973).
 On the Notion of Equilibrium in Economics (1974).
 "Revival of Political Economy: The wrong issues and the wrong arguments", Economic Record vol. 51 pp. 360–4 (1975).
 "Keynesian Economics and General Equilibrium Theory: Reflections on some current debates" in Microeconomic Foundations of Macroeconomics (1977), edited by Harcourt.
 "Monetarism and Economic Theory", Economica Vol. 47 #185 (1980).
 "General Equilibrium Theory" in Crisis in Economic Theory (1981) edited by Bell and Kristol.
 Money and Inflation (1982).
 "Reflections on the Invisible Hand", Lloyd's Bank Review, April 1982.
 "The Neo-Ricardians", Cambridge Journal of Economics (1982).
 "Stability" in Handbook of Mathematical Economics (1982), edited by Arrow and Intriligator.
 "On some difficulties of the utilitarian economist" in
 Equilibrium and Macroeconomics (1984).
 Money, Growth and Stability (1985).
 "Liquidity" in Handbook of Monetary Economics (1988), edited by Friedman and Hahn.
 Critical Essay on Modern Macroeconomic Theory  (1995) with R. M. Solow.
 "A Remark on Incomplete Market Equilibrium" in Markets, Information and Uncertainty (1999), edited by Chichilnisky.
 "Notes on Sequence Economies, Transaction Costs and Uncertainty", with K.J. Arrow Journal of Economic Theory vol. 86 No. 2 (1999).

References

1925 births
2013 deaths
Academics of the London School of Economics
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Alumni of the London School of Economics
British economists
Fellows of Churchill College, Cambridge
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Presidents of the Econometric Society
General equilibrium theorists
Mathematical economists
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Monetary economists
People educated at Bournemouth School
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II

Frank Hahn


The beak, a bill, or a rostrum is the nose and mouth of a bird. The beak is used for eating, fighting, grooming, and many other things.

Beaks on different types of birds can be very different in size, shape and color. Beaks are made of an upper and lower mandible. In most species, two holes are used for breathing.

Parts
The upper and lower parts of the beak are called mandibles. They are attached to the skull. The upper mandible is attached using several smaller bones, and is able to move up.

The mandibles are bones that are covered in a rhamphotheca - a thin layer of hard skin. This hard skin is similar to horns, nails, and claws, and grows constantly. In some birds the rhamphotheca has different colors in different times of year. Beaks can have color spots that can be seen in ultraviolet light.

The edges of the mandibles are used for cutting and grabbing food. Some birds have sharp points or grooves on the edge of the beak. These shapes make it easier to hold insects or break seeds. Birds that hunt fish or other animals often have more sharp points.

The gape is the inside of the open mouth of a bird. Baby birds of some species have bright colors in their gape, including spots that can be seen in ultraviolet light. Parent birds use these colored spots to choose which baby to feed. The color spots go away as the babies grow.

The nostrils are the two breathing holes on the beak. They are usually on the top mandible on the part close to the head. A few species breathe through their mouths and have no nostrils. In some birds the nostrils cannot be seen because they are under feathers or a cover called an operculum.

Some birds like parrots, raptors, and turkeys have a cere - a waxy area covering the beak near the head. Most species that have a cere have their nostrils in it. Male and female birds in some species are told apart by the color of their cere.

Ducks, geese, and swans have a special plate at the end of the beak called a nail. The nail is hard and is used to force out food that is stuck to a surface or in the ground.

The egg tooth is a small, hard lump that grows on the tip of baby bird beaks. It grows before they hatch and falls off soon after. Birds use the egg tooth to break open the egg from the inside. Only a few species of birds kick the inside of the egg to hatch instead of using an egg tooth.

Use
A bird is able to stab or bite with its beak. Birds also use their beaks as a threat when afraid or angry, by opening them wide. Sometimes birds hiss or clap their beaks at the same time.

Beaks are used for preening (grooming the feathers). A bird can comb its feathers with its beak to adjust any that are badly positioned. Many birds spread a thin layer of oil onto their feathers, which helps to waterproof them. They also remove any dirt or parasites at the same time.

Many birds use beaks during courtship. They may dance, touch each other's beaks, or tap things with their beaks. In some species, birds may preen each other as either a friendship behavior or courting behavior.

Birds lose body heat through their beaks because beaks have blood in them and are not covered with feathers. Birds in warm places can lose heat this way without sweating and losing water. Birds in cold climates have smaller beaks to stop too much heat loss.

Animal anatomy

Beak


Infinity () is a number which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from Latin origin, meaning "without end". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.

Infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how many there is of something, instead of how big something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes.

There are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers).

Infinity in Mathematics
Mathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.

Counting infinity
The number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, countable infinity. It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The mathematical notation is the Hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero; . It is spoken "aleph naught".

It was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than  is  (aleph one). The number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number, .
And these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.

Ordering infinity
A different type of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third, ...". The order "first, second, third, ..." and so on to infinity is different from the order ending "..., third, second, first". The difference is important for mathematical induction. The simple first, second, third, ...  has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: . (Or simply omega .) The infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is .

The real line and complex plane
The third type of infinity has the symbol . This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is . In calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written:

The arithmetic of infinity
Each kind of infinity has different rules.

Addition, multiplication, exponentiation

 Addition with "alephs" is commutative.

 Multiplication with "alephs" is commutative.

.

. Addition with "omegas" is not commutative.

. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.

Subtraction, division

 when X is a real number. Otherwise, division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful.

Related pages
Countable set
Eternity
Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel
Riemann sphere, complex plane with a point at infinity
Uncountable set

References

Other websites
 A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets , by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to Infinite Reflections, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
 Infinite Reflections , by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
 Infinity, Principia Cybernetica
 Hotel Infinity
 The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy

Numbers
Mathematics

Infinity


The Arlington Group was a coalition uniting the leaders of prominent Christian conservative organizations in the United States.  Founded in 2002 principally through the efforts of American Family Association President Donald Wildmon and Free Congress Foundation Chairman Paul Weyrich, the group sought to establish consensus goals and strategy among its members and translate its combined constituency into an overwhelming force within the Republican Party, particularly at its highest levels.  Its membership and purpose overlapped to a high degree with the Council for National Policy; but the group is much more narrowly focused, choosing to emphasize such issues as same-sex marriage, abortion, and confirmation of like-minded federal judges.

The group had mixed success.  While widely acknowledged to have the ear of President George W. Bush and his chief political advisor Karl Rove, and while generally successful in its efforts to coordinate the Christian Right, it also endured noteworthy embarrassments.  In early 2005, it threatened to withhold support for the President's proposed Social Security reforms if Bush did not vigorously support a federal constitutional ban on same-sex marriage.  This provoked a firestorm of unwelcome media attention, but failed to produce the group's desired result (despite the President's continuing support for both their specific and broader aims).  And later, in October 2005, Arlington Group Chairman and Focus on the Family founder James Dobson became the center of a minor scandal after leaking assurances made by Rove to an Arlington Group conference call regarding the pro-life credentials of Supreme Court nominee and White House counsel Harriet Miers.  Miers withdrew her nomination later that month, largely due to reservations among conservatives.

Membership

The organization's deliberations were strictly off-the-record, and membership was previously held confidential, but the group launched a website in July 2006 which listed its member organizations.  In March 2007, the home page was taken down; according to an article in The Boston Globe, it was "abruptly disabled earlier this month after the Globe began making inquiries".

Since each group's principal served as its Arlington Group "member", but some of the groups were headed by a single principal (e.g., Focus on the Family and Focus on the Family Action are both headed by James Dobson), the site's list was somewhat confusing; and members were not required to disclose their participation.  However, the following organizations and individuals were identified as members as of 2006:

Alliance Defense Fund - Alan Sears
American Family Association - Donald Wildmon
American Values - Gary Bauer
Bott Radio Network - Richard Bott
Center for Moral Clarity - Rod Parsley
Citizens for Community Values - Phil Burress
Coalition of African American Pastors - William Owens, Sr.
ConservativeHQ.com - Richard Viguerie
Coral Ridge Ministries and Center for Reclaiming America - D. James Kennedy
Covenant Marriage Movement - Phil Waugh
Exodus International - Alan Chambers
Family Research Council and FRC Action - Tony Perkins
Florida Family Policy Council - John Stemberger
Fieldsted & Company - Howard Ahmanson, Jr.
Focus on the Family and Focus on the Family Action - James Dobson
Free Congress Foundation - Paul Weyrich
High Impact Leadership Coalition - Bishop Harry Jackson
Inspiration Television Network
Judeo-Christian Council for Constitutional Restoration and Vision America - Rick Scarborough
Liberty Counsel - Mathew Staver
Liberty University - Jerry Falwell
National Association of Evangelicals - Leith Anderson
Ohio Restoration Project - Russell Johnson
Salem Communications - Stuart Epperson
Southern Baptist Convention - Richard Land
Susan B. Anthony List - Marjorie Dannenfelser
Teen Mania Ministries - Ron Luce
TeenPact - Tim Echols
TheVanguard.org - Rod D. Martin
Tradition, Family, Property
Traditional Values Coalition - Lou Sheldon
Your Catholic Voice - Raymond Flynn

See also

Christian fundamentalism
Christian right
 Far-right politics
Radical right (United States)
 Council for National Policy, a related group

References

External links
 Arlington Group website
 "The Arlington Group", Paul Weyrich
 "The Money Behind the 2004 Marriage Amendments" , Institute on Money in State Politics
  Backers of Gay Marriage Ban Use Social Security as Cudgel, The New York Times
 Religious Leaders Threaten Bush, The Washington Blade
 Did Christian conservatives receive assurances that Miers would oppose Roe v. Wade?, The Wall Street Journal
 ADL Urges Joint Effort Against Right

Political organizations based in the United States
Anti-abortion organizations in the United States
Christian organizations based in the United States
Deep politics
Conservative organizations in the United States
2002 establishments in the United States

Arlington Group


Acan tūn is se nama fela tūna:

In Englalande

 Acan tūn, Ceasterscīr
 Acan tūn, Dorsǣtum
 Acan tūn, Scrobbesbyrgscīr
 Acan tūn, Weogornaceasterscīr
 Acan tūn, Sūþfolc
 Acan tūn, Lunden

Þāra tūna is Acan tūn in Lundene se mǣsta. It is noteworthy for having no fewer than seven railway stations distinguished as North, South, East, West, Central, Mainline and Town. Four of these are on the London Underground and three on the regional rail network.

Māra, sind manig tūnas in Englalande mid gefēredum naman þe onginþ mid Acan tūne: Acton Beauchamp, Acton Bridge, Acton Burnell,
Acan tūn Green (twice),
Acan tūn Pigott,
Acan tūn Place,
Acan tūn Reynald,
Acan tūn Round,
Acan tūn Scott,
Acan tūn Trussell,
and Acan tūn Turville

In Wales

 Acan tūn,  Denbighshire

In þǣm USA:

 Acan tūn, California
 Acan tūn, Maine
 Acan tūn, Massachusetts
 Acan tūn Township, Minnesota
 Acan tūn Township, North Dakota

Acan tūn, California is probably named for Acton, Massachusetts by a miner from there.
Acan tūn, Massachusetts is probably named for Acan tūn, Sūþfolc (both are near towns named Sudbury).

In Canadan:

 Acan tūn, Ontario
 Actons Corners, Ontario
 Acan tūn, New Brunswick
 Acan tūn, Quebec
 Acton-Vale, Quebec
 Acton Regional County Municipality, Quebec
 Saint-Andrē-d'Acton, Quebec
 Saint-Nazaire-d'Acton, Quebec
 Saint-Théodore-d'Acton, Quebec
 Acan tūn, Saskatchewan

In Australian
 Acan tūn, underburg Canberran, Australian Capital Territory
 Acan tūn, underburg Hobartes, Tasmanian

Acan tūn


Rugby football is a sport people play in many countries. It is usually called rugby or rugger.

Rugby football is named after Rugby School, the public school in England where it was developed. Legend has it that one day in 1823, a senior boy called William Webb Ellis elected to run with the ball rather than retiring to kick it as was the normal mode of play in Rugby School football matches. "Running in" was considered a bit like cheating then but was later accepted in the laws of Rugby Football (first published in 1846).

Its rival, Association football (soccer), came later. It was not formalised until 1863. Even then handling of the ball was allowed, but not catching it and running with it. In the mid-1860s an attempt was made to provide one set of laws for all football but there were irreconcilable differences, mainly concerning "hacking" (kicking an opponent in the shins). The "hackers" went on to eventually play rugby football even though hacking was barred a few years later. The "anti-hackers" went on to form Association Football, eventually banning any handling.

Rules
There are two types of rugby, called Rugby Union and Rugby League. Originally, Rugby Union was played in England by gentlemen amateurs, and Rugby League was played by working class guys for pay. There are many similarities between the two types of rugby, but they have developed different sets of rules over time. The split between the two types occurred because of a disagreement about the way players were treated when they were injured during a game.

Rugby Union is the most popular form of rugby, and it is the national sport in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Madagascar. Rugby League is played by many people in the UK (especially in northern England), Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. In most other places, the word "rugby" refers to rugby union.

Rugby football is played on a field by two teams of 15 people. The objective of the game is to obtain more points than the opposing team within 80 minutes of playing time. Points are gained through scoring tries or kicking goals.

At each end of the playing field there is a field goal made out of poles, shaped like the letter H in English. There is also an area called the in-goal. A goal is scored when a player kicks the ball through the top of the H of the other team's goal.

Play starts when a player from one team kicks the ball from the halfway line towards the opposing team's field goal. Play continues until a try is scored, the ball crosses the side line or dead ball line, or an infringement occurs. The ball can be moved up the field either by carrying or kicking it. The ball can be passed between team members, but it cannot be passed to team members who are closer to the opposing team's goal than the person who is currently carrying the ball.

Players score a try if they manage to touch the ball to the ground on or beyond the other team's in-goal. After a try, the team that scored the try then has an opportunity to kick a goal. This is known as a conversion kick. A goal that is scored from a conversion kick is worth two points in addition to the points of a try. A try is worth five points in rugby union, and four points in rugby league. After a team scores points, play restarts with the non-scoring team kicking the ball from the halfway line toward the opposing team's field goal.

Players tackle members of the other team to prevent the opposing team from scoring. Tackling in rugby means grabbing the other person and either stopping them from moving or making them fall on the ground. The main rule for tackling in rugby is that there should be no contact with the neck. Only players carrying the ball can be tackled. Once a tackle is completed, the opposition can compete for the ball.

The Rugby World Cup is a championship of rugby union teams from countries all over the world. The Rugby World Cup is held every four years, and will next be held in 2023, in France.

There is also the Rugby League World Cup, which is made up of member nations of the Rugby League International Federation (RLIF). The tournament has an irregular schedule. The next tournament will be in 2017, and will be hosted by Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea.

References

Rugby

Rugby football


The franc (; ; sign: FC; ISO 4217 code: KMF) is the official currency of Comoros. It is nominally subdivided into 100 centimes, although no centime denominations have ever been issued.

History
The French franc became the currency of Comoros after the islands became a French protectorate in 1886. In 1891, Sultan Said Ali bin Said Omar of Grande Comore (Ngazidja) issued coins denominated in centimes and francs which circulated alongside French currency. In 1912, the Comoros became a province of Madagascar, which was also a French possession. French banknotes and coins circulated in the colony. Apart from an emergency issue of small change notes in 1920, the French currency circulated alone until 1925.

On 1 July 1925, the French government formed an agreement with the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas to create the Banque de Madagascar, headquartered in Paris, and granted it a private monopoly to issue currency for the colony of Madagascar. The Malagasy franc (French: franc malgache) was equivalent to the French franc and French coins continued to circulate as Madagascar had no coins of its own until 1943.

When the Comoros became a separate French territory in 1945, the name of the issuing bank was changed to the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores (still headquartered in Paris). A branch office opened in Comoros in 1953. While the banknotes were changed to reflect the new status of Comoros, the coins were not changed and bore only the name Madagascar. On 26 December 1945, the Madagascar-Comores CFA franc was established and its value was fixed at 1.7 French francs. Old Madagascar coins and banknotes continued to circulate as this new currency. On 17 October 1948, the CFA franc was revalued to 2 French francs.

In 1950, the French government took over majority ownership of the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores. On 1 January 1960, the French franc was redenominated, with 100 old francs becoming 1 new franc.  (Décret n°59-1450 du 22 décembre 1959) The new exchange rate was 1 Madagascar-Comores CFA franc = 0.02 French francs (50 Madagascar-Comores CFA francs = 1 French franc).

On 26 June 1960, Madagascar gained independence from France, and the Institut d'Émission Malgache (headquartered in Antananarivo) was created to issue currency only for Madagascar.  Madagascar left the CFA zone effective 1 July 1973.

On 23 November 1979, the government of Comoros signed the Accord de coopération monétaire entre la République Française et la République fédérale islamique des Comores, a monetary cooperation agreement with France, making Comoros part of the franc zone (but not part of the CFA franc zone). This agreement provided for the establishment of a system of fixed parity between the French franc and the Comorian franc and free convertibility between the two currencies, guaranteed by the Comorian central bank's opening of an operations account (compte d'operation) at the French Treasury (Trésor public) to handle all exchange transactions. Sixty-five percent of the foreign exchange reserves of Comoros are held in euros in this account. This account is similar to overnight deposits with the French Treasury:  it may bear interest and may, in special circumstances, post a negative balance. However, to prevent this account from showing a lasting overdraft, a number of preventative measures have been set up.

The stability of the Comorian franc is founded on tight monetary and credit discipline, underpinned by two specific safeguard measures: the central bank is required to maintain 20% foreign-exchange cover of its sight liabilities, and the government is not allowed to draw more than 20% of the previous year's budget receipts from their central bank funds. The ministers of finance of the franc area (France, the CFA zone and Comoros) meet biannually. The agreement between France and the Comoros is essentially the same as the agreement France has with the CFA Zone. It is a continuation of a relationship of monetary cooperation between the two countries that has existed for more than a century.

Until 1994, the Comorian franc was pegged to the French franc at the rate of 50 Comorian francs to 1 French franc. This was changed on 12 January 1994, when the currency was devalued in concert with the CFA franc devaluation. however, the Comorian franc was devalued % to a new rate of 75 Comorian francs for 1 French franc, while the CFA franc's new rate was 100 CFA francs to 1 French franc. With the creation of the euro in January 1999, the Comorian franc was pegged, at its prevailing rate, to the new currency. The exchange rate is now 491.96775 Comorian francs to 1 euro.

European Monetary Union
In 1998 in anticipation of European Monetary Union, the Council of the European Union addressed the monetary agreements France has with the CFA Zone and Comoros and ruled that:
 the agreements are unlikely to have any material effect on the monetary and exchange rate policy of the Euro zone
 in their present forms and states of implementation, the agreements are unlikely to present any obstacle to a smooth functioning of economic and monetary union
 nothing in the agreements can be construed as implying an obligation for the European Central Bank (ECB) or any national central bank to support the convertibility of the CFA and Comorian francs
 modifications to the existing agreements will not lead to any obligations for the European Central or any national central bank
 the French Treasury will guarantee the free convertibility at a fixed parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs
 the competent French authorities shall keep the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the Economic and Financial Committee informed about the implementation of the agreements and inform the Committee prior to changes of the parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs
 any change to the nature or scope of the agreements would require Council approval on the basis of a Commission recommendation and ECB consultation

Central Bank
The statutes of the Central Bank of the Comoros (Banque Centrale des Comores / البنك المركزي القمري  Al-Bank al-Markazi al-Qomori) state that its board of directors shall have eight members who are chosen from the Comorian Government, the French Central Bank (Banque de France) and the French government.  The post of deputy director of the Central Bank of the Comoros is held by a Banque de France official, who is responsible for monetary policy.  Since 19 November 1999, all the central bank's official rates have been pegged to the Euro Overnight Index Average (EONIA) leading to a stabilisation of interest rate differentials with the euro. The BCC applies a compulsory reserves system (30% of deposits) and a bank monitoring system. The headquarters are located in Moroni, and the current bank governor is Mer Said Ahmed Said Ali.

Coins
In 1890, Sultan Said Ali of Bambao, Ngazidja issued bronze 5 and 10 centimes and silver 5 francs. The coins were struck in Paris to the same specifications as the corresponding French coins. The three coins ceased to be valid in theory in 1912 but the lower two denominations were still turning up in general circulation as late as 1930. The two bronze coins are frequently used for magico-religious purposes. All three coins bore similar inscriptions, including the date 1308 AH, which corresponds to the Gregorian calendar years 1890/91 AD.

In the 1920s, a shortage of coins led to the issuance of private tokens by the principal colonial company on Ngazidja and a sugar plantation on Mayotte. Denominations included 25 and 50 centimes and 1 and 2 francs. Aluminium and bronze were used in these tokens.

In 1964, coins were introduced specifically for use in the Comoros, replacing the Madagascar coins previously in use. Aluminium 1 FC, 2 FC, and 5 FC and aluminium-bronze 10 FC and 20 FC coins were issued. In 1975, nickel 50 francs were introduced, followed by nickel 100 FC in 1977 and nickel 25 FC in 1981. Nickel-plated-steel replaced nickel after 1990. The Institut d'Émission des Comores issued coins between 1975 and 1977, whilst the Central Bank has issued coins since 1981.

Until 1975, only French appeared on Comorian coins. Since then, Comorian has also been used.

General circulation Comorian coins have always been minted by the Monnaie de Paris.  This is indicated by the cornucopia mint mark on the coins, visible to the left of the date, although this was omitted from the 1994 50 FC piece at the request of the Comorian government. The coins are manufactured at their facility in Pessac, Gironde.

The 5 FC coin is nicknamed reali, referring to the Spanish real; the 2 FC coin is nicknamed nusu, meaning "half", and the 1 FC coin "robo", meaning "quarter". The 1 FC, 2 FC, 5 FC and 10 FC coins are rarely used because of their low value. The 25 FC and 100 FC coins contain the phrase "Augmentons la production alimentaire" (Let's increase food production). The 5 FC coin contains the phrase "Conférence Mondiale sur les Pêches" (World Conference on Fishing). Both of these phrases are references to programs by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Comoros is one of 114 countries that have issued FAO coins.

Banknotes
The first Comorian paper money was issued in 1920. It consisted of an emergency issue of Madagascar postage stamps fixed to card to allow them to circulate as money. Denominations of 50 centimes and 1 franc were issued.

Loi ordinaire 62-873 du 31 juillet 1962, Article 12, allowed the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores to continue issuing notes in Comoros after Madagascar began issuing its own currency but, beginning 1 April 1962, they had "" overstamped on them. Denominations of 50 FC, 100 FC, 500 FC, 1,000 FC and 5,000 FC were issued. As per Décret 64-1038 du 07 octobre 1964, banknotes without the overstamp ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 1964.

The overstamped notes circulated until 1976, when 500 FC, 1,000 FC and 5,000 FC were introduced by the Institut d'Émission des Comores, the 50 FC and 100 FC notes being replaced by coins. The central Bank took over production of paper money in 1984. 2,500 FC and 10,000 FC notes were introduced in 1997, followed by 2,000 FC in 2005. The 2,500 FC note was demonetized on 31 January 2007.

Comorian banknotes are printed by the Banque de France at their paper mill in Vic-le-Comte and their printing works in Chamalières, both in Puy-de-Dôme, Auvergne. The 500 FC, 1,000 FC, 2,000 FC, 5,000 FC, and 10,000 FC notes dated 2005 and 2006 contain the EURion constellation, along with other improved security features to make them more difficult to counterfeit.

All Comorian franc banknotes

Exchange rates

See also

Malagasy franc
CFA franc
CFP franc
Currencies related to the euro

History of Comoros
Economy of Comoros
Economy of Mayotte
Economy of Africa

References

External links
 Banque Centrale des Comores official site
 Text of the 1979 Comorian Agreement of Monetary Cooperation at Banque de France
Council Decision of 23 November 1998 concerning exchange rate matters relating to the CFA Franc and the Comorian Franc
Franc zone information at Banque de France
 Franc zone information at Banque de France (in French, but more extensive than the English version)
 Central Bank of Madagascar
Images of Comorian banknotes at Islamic Banknotes
Numismatics of Comoros
Numismatics of Comoros by Dr Iain Walker
Coins of Comoros
Comoros at Ben's FAO Coins collection
 La fabrication des monnaies utilisées par les Comoriens
  "Les Monnaies à Madagascar", Louis Molet
A table of conversion rates between the euro and the Comorian franc

Currencies of the Comoros
Fixed exchange rate

Comorian franc


A kaleidoscope is a tube with loose, small, colorful objects inside. These objects can be beads or something similar. The inside is made using three long mirrors. A person looks into the kaleidoscope through one end and sees patterns created by reflections of the objects inside.

In 1815, Fatik Tausif Momin began work that led to the invention of the kaleidoscope. At that time, he was doing experiments on light polarization. The kaleidoscope was not patented until two years later. His first design was a tube with pairs of mirrors at one end, pairs of translucent disks at the other, and beads between the two. In 1817, Brewster chose the well-known lens developer Philip Carpenter to be the only manufacturer of the kaleidoscope. It was a big success. Two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes were sold in London and Paris in just three months. Brewster knew that the company could not make as many kaleidoscopes as people wanted. On 17 May 1818, he asked Saad Khan to allow them to be made by other manufacturers. Carpenter agreed. At first, the kaleidoscope was meant to be a scientific tool. Later it was used as a toy. Brewster believed he would make money from the kaleidoscope. However, a fault in his patent application allowed others to copy it.

Toys
Optics

Kaleidoscope


George Brettingham Sowerby I (12 August 1788 – 26 July 1854) was a British naturalist, illustrator, and conchologist (expert on shells).

He was the second son of James Sowerby. With his brother James De Carle Sowerby he continued his father's work on fossil shells. They published the last parts of the Mineral Conchology of Great Britain.

Sowerby published about 50 papers on molluscs and started several comprehensive, illustrated books on the subject, the most important the Thesaurus Conchyliorum, a work that was continued by his son, George Brettingham Sowerby II and his grandson George Brettingham Sowerby III.

Works
Partial list
 A Conchological Manual (1839)
 Thesaurus Conchyliorum
 Illustrated Index of British Shells (1859)

Related pages
Sowerby family

1788 births
1854 deaths
British zoologists
Sowerby family
English naturalists
British illustrators

George Brettingham Sowerby I


Lords of Dogtown is a 2005 American biographical drama film directed by Catherine Hardwicke and written by Stacy Peralta. The film follows a group of young skateboarders in Santa Monica, California during the 70s. This is the first (and so far only) production made by both Columbia Pictures and TriStar Pictures. The film received mixed reviews and grossed $13 million at the box office.

Plot
Set in the Dogtown area of Santa Monica/Venice in the mid–1970s, surfers Tony Alva, Stacy Peralta, and Jay Adams enjoy the life of skating and surfing the pier with board designer Skip Engblom and the other locals. One day, Skip is given polyurethane wheels for the skateboards in his shop, Zephyr Surf Shop. Teenager Sid, a friend of the boys who works in the same shop, invites Tony, Jay, Stacy, and the other locals to test the new wheels. They are all amazed as the polyurethane wheels allow the skateboards to make the same carves on flat ground as surfboards on the waves. After witnessing what skaters could now do with the wheels, Skip decides to add to his already famous surf team a skate team, the Z-Boys. The team proves to be a success; winning many contests, Stacy, Jay, and Tony gain popularity from locals across Venice.

A period of hot weather reduces the surf at the pier and the official declaration of a drought means swimming pools cannot be filled with water. Taking advantage of this the Z-Boys start sneaking into local backyard pools to skate in, ignoring Skip's practice sessions, which angers him. After winning many major contests, the Z-Boys become more and more famous, appearing in various magazines. Stacy, Jay, and Tony start getting noticed by major skating companies looking to take the boys from Skip.

One night, Skip throws a party at his shop to celebrate the success of the team. A company owner, Topper Burks, enters the party and convinces Tony that Skip is holding him back and that it's time to make him famous worldwide. Tony accepts his offer and leaves the team. Jay leaves the team as well, looking to make more money to help his mom pay the rent on their apartment. Despite Skip's desperate offers to keep him on the team, Stacy is the last to leave, as he begins getting offers to skate as well as to appear on television. Sad and angry, Skip decides to shut down the Zephyr Skate Team.

The three boys become major celebrities. Tony and Stacy now skate for money rather than the passion that Jay continues to skate for. They become rivals and compete against each other in various contests. Stacy appears on the original Charlie's Angels show while Tony starts creating his own commercials to manufacture his popular boards and merchandise. Jay is offered $10,000 to appear in a commercial sponsoring the toy, Slinky. However, he refuses, as he has become a much harder person than before.

Soon, matters start spiraling out of control; at a major skating championship that they all take part in, Tony gets into a fight with another skater in the middle of the stadium and gets violently knocked out, hospitalizing him and temporarily halting his career. Jay leaves the company he had endorsed when they sacrifice quality for cheap materials. Stacy ends up winning the competition.

Back in Venice, the pier that the Z-Boys use to surf around burns down, which affects them all. Jay shaves his hair and becomes a gang member. Skip, still selling surfboards in his shop, finally decides to settle down and continues his passion for sanding and creating surfboards, as well as solving his financial troubles by selling his shop and is seen singing "Maggie May".

Sid's long-time equilibrium problem turns out to be caused by a brain tumor, and he undergoes surgery. Though Stacy, Tony, and Jay have all gone their separate ways, they all show up at the same time to visit Sid. Stacy reveals that he is leaving his company to start his own. Sid's father empties their pool for them to skate in. Stacy, Tony, and Jay skate the pool and bring Sid into the fun on his wheelchair, referencing all the good times they had before they became a skate team.

Closing cards reveal that Tony Alva went on to become skateboarding's first world champion and runs Alva Skates (stating that he still sneaks into backyard pools); Stacy Peralta started Powell Peralta, a modern popular skating company that included a 14-year-old Tony Hawk as part of its Bones Brigade team; and Jay, too, achieved the only kind of success at skating and surfing he really cared about, becoming known as the "spark that started the flame" Original Seed; he was arrested on drug-related charges but was later released on parole and continues to skate and charge big waves in Hawaii; Sid later died of brain cancer shortly after the DOGBOWL sessions.

Cast

Main cast

 Emile Hirsch as Jay Adams
 John Robinson as Stacy Peralta
 Victor Rasuk as Tony Alva
 Heath Ledger as Skip Engblom
 Michael Angarano as Sid
 Nikki Reed as Kathy Alva
 Rebecca De Mornay as Philaine
 William Mapother as Donnie
 Vincent Laresca as Chino
 Elden Henson as Billy Z
 Mitch Hedberg as Frank Nasworthy
 Stephanie Limb as Peggy Oki
 Mike Ogas as Bob Biniak
 Don Nguyen as Shogo Kubo
 Melonie Diaz as Blanca
 Eddie Cahill as Larry Gordon
 Laura Ramsey as Gabrielle
 Steve Badillo as Ty Page
 Pablo Schreiber as Craig Stecyk
 America Ferrera as Thunder Monkey
 Sofia Vergara as Amelia
 Chelsea Hobbs as Caroline
 Ned Bellamy as Peter Darling
 Shea Whigham as Drake Landon

Cameos

 Johnny Knoxville as Topper Burks
 Allen Sarlo as Himself
 Charles Napier as Nudie
 Jay Adams as House party guest
 Tony Alva as Oregon man at party
 Stacy Peralta as TV director
 Skip Engblom as Seattle race starter
 Tony Hawk as Astronaut
 Jeremy Renner as Jay Adams' manager
 Joel McHale as TV reporter
 Alexis Arquette as Tranny
 Bai Ling as Punky photographer
 Lance Mountain as UK policeman
 Craig Stecyk as Seattle race photographer

Development
Both David Fincher and Fred Durst were slated to direct the film, but Catherine Hardwicke eventually landed the job, and Fincher stayed on as executive producer. The film was shot in Imperial Beach in San Diego County.

Release
Lords of Dogtown was the first film to be released by both Columbia Pictures and TriStar Pictures which are both trademarked by Sony Pictures Entertainment and are sometimes referred to as Columbia TriStar Pictures.

Reception
Upon its release, Lords of Dogtown received mostly mixed reviews. The film holds a 55% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 146 reviews, with an average rating of 5.95/10. The site's consensus reads: "Lords of Dogtown, while slickly made and edited, lacks the depth and entertaining value of the far superior documentary on the same subject, Dogtown and Z-Boys." Metacritic reports a score of 56% based on 35 critics, indicating "Mixed or average reviews".

Ledger's portrayal of Skip Engblom was applauded for its realism and is considered one of the film's principal highlights. Joe Donnelly, who knew Engblom, was impressed by Ledger's attention to detail, saying, "He's almost eerie in how precisely he nailed not only the mannerisms, cadence and physical presence of Skip... but also how he raises Skip's spirit, which is the heart and soul and most what's really great in a not-altogether-great film."

Luke Davies of The Monthly concedes how flamboyant the character is, but says the film is saved by Ledger's emotional depth: "The performance constantly sails close to hammy – Engblom was, by all accounts, a flamboyant character – but is pulled back, the wildness offset by a surprising depth of sadness. As in a number of Ledger roles, a kind of animal wisdom and melancholy exists side-by-side with gangly comedy."

A.O. Scott of The New York Times also highlighted Ledger's performances, stating, "Skip is always volatile, frequently drunk and consistently the most entertaining figure in the movie". He also praised the movie as a whole, stating, "Lords of Dogtown from start to finish is pretty much a blast".

However, the movie has gained a general cult following since its release. It is also considered to be one of the best skateboarding movies of all time according to many fans of the sport.

Accolades
The Central Ohio Film Critics Association named Heath Ledger Actor of the Year for this film.

Lords of Dogtown is at #417 on the Empire list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time".

Soundtrack

The film's soundtrack features songs by Sparklehorse (covering Pink Floyd's "Wish You Were Here"), Deep Purple, Black Sabbath, Cher, David Bowie, Neil Young, T.Rex, Jimi Hendrix, and Iggy Pop among others, as well as a cover of The Clash's "Death or Glory" by Social Distortion.

Home media
The film was released on VHS, DVD and UMD on September 27, 2005. The DVD includes original Z-Boys cameos, director and cast commentaries, deleted scenes, a making-of feature, and make-up test outtakes.

Television series
In January 2021, it was announced that television series based on the movie was in development for Freevee.

See also
 Dogtown and Z-Boys

References

External links

2005 biographical drama films
2005 films
American teen drama films
Columbia Pictures films
Films directed by Catherine Hardwicke
Films scored by Mark Mothersbaugh
Films set in Santa Monica, California
Films set in the 1970s
Films shot in Los Angeles County, California
Skateboarding films
2000s sports drama films
Sports films based on actual events
American surfing films
Transgender-related films
TriStar Pictures films
American sports drama films
2005 drama films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
Films shot in San Diego
Films set in San Diego
English-language biographical drama films

Lords of Dogtown


A Christmas carol (also called a noël, from the French word meaning "Christmas") is a carol (song or hymn) whose lyrics are on the theme of Christmas. They are traditionally sung on Christmas itself or during the surrounding holiday season.

History
Carols were first sung thousands of years ago in Europe. They were sung by pagans at the celebration of the Winter solstice. Later, medieval carols were sung in elaborate formal rituals (such as the Catholic Mass). As they are known today, Christmas carols date back to about the 19th century. The tradition of going from house to house was not a part of Christmas caroling at first. It dates back further to Anglo-Saxon traditions. the word wassail comes from the Anglo-Saxon toast Wæs þu hæl, meaning "be in good health". Wassailing likely predates the Norman conquest in 1066. The wishing of good fortune to neighbors produced the song "Here We Come-A-Wassailing". Another song, "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", also comes from the Wassailing tradition. The two forms, singing and wassailing, came together during the Victorian era in England. They produced the modern custom of Christmas caroling. Today Christmas carols are a very known tradition.

Christmas carols in classical music
In the 1680s and 1690s, two French composers added carols into their works. Louis-Claude Daquin wrote 12 noels for the organ. Marc-Antoine Charpentier wrote a few instrumental versions of noels, plus one major choral work "Messe de minuit pour Noël". Other examples include:

Ralph Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on Christmas Carols, 1912.
Victor Hely-Hutchinson: Carol Symphony, 1927.
Benjamin Britten: A Ceremony of Carols (for choir and harp), 1942
Christina Rossetti's poem "In the Bleak Midwinter" has been set to music by (amongst others) Gustav Holst (1905) and Harold Darke (1911).
Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki quotes the Christmas carol "Silent Night" in his Second Symphony, nicknamed the Christmas Symphony.

References

Other websites

 Here We Come a-wassailing, YouTube
 30 Favourite Christmas Carols - Their Origins and History

Christmas carol


Staddle stones or steddle stones were originally used as supporting bases for granaries, hayricks, game larders, etc. The staddle stones lifted the granaries above the ground thereby protecting the stored grain from vermin and water seepage. In Middle English staddle or stadle is stathel, from Old English stathol, a foundation, support or trunk of a tree. They can be mainly found in Great Britain, Norway ("stabbur"), Galicia and Asturias (Northern Spain).

Origins

The name itself and evidence from surviving vernacular buildings with wooden 'feet' suggest that at first the staddles or supports were made of wood, such as at Peper Harow granary in Surrey. Stone staddles were longer lasting and a more reliable means of supporting structures which were sometimes a considerable weight.

The name has become integrated into the landscape with bridges, houses, farms and other structures incorporating the name 'staddle'.

Design

The staddle stones usually had a separate head and base which gave the whole structure a 'mushroom' like appearance. Different areas in the United Kingdom had different designs. The base varied from cylindrical to tapered rectangular to near triangular. Flat topped cone shaped staddle stones are to be found in parts of the Isle of Wight. The tops are flat to support the beams, however some variation exists, such as square tops, fluted designs, slate tops, etc.

A fine example is the English Granary built 1731, supported on staddle stones, which can be seen in the Weald and Downland Open Air Museum in West Sussex, UK.  Such structures were common in Southern England in the 18th century. At Higher Farm in Heathfield, Tavistock, staddle stones are part of the substantial barns built by the Duke of Bedford in the 19th century. The dressed granite stone bases have specially hewn slate tops.

The materials used depended on the stone available, giving rise to sandstone, red sandstone, granite examples, etc.

The tower mill at Reigate on the Wray Common ceased to work in 1895. The mill had a granary standing next to it, supported by a large number of staddle stones.

The Museum of Scottish Country Life at Wester Kittochside near East Kilbride has two 'Stathels', made in Edinburgh of cast iron. The structure is basically a cast iron version of a set of staddle stones with its wooden framework. These rare survivals are still in use.

Function
The base stones taper towards the top with an overlapping cap stone placed above, making it almost impossible for a rodent to climb up and into the hay or grain stored above. The air could freely circulate beneath the stored crops and this helped to keep it dry. A wood framework was placed onto the tops of the stones, the staddles being arranged in two or three rows, giving sixteen or more stones.  The hayricks, Tithe barns, granaries, etc. were built on top of this frame.

Granaries and beehives

These were often constructed with wooden weather-boards such as at Blaxland Farm in Sturry, Kent, which has nine staddles. However, if the grain was stored loose then the sides were filled in with brick nogging and light lath-and-plaster at the wall tops. Wooden steps up to the buildings were detachable and stored by hanging them up on the side of the structure. If stone or brick steps were built then the top step was not built, thus denying access to rats and other vermin. Some of these granaries had a 'cat flap' and others had a recess inside the steps which served as a dog kennel.

Most granaries were used for the storage of two or three separate crops, having a capacity of 500 to 2500 bushels. The arrangement of the stones to support the structure and its weight when in use, required nine, twelve or sixteen staddles. The production of staddles was therefore a fairly significant local industry. Small granaries could make do with five, one being in the middle. The Upper Hexford granary in Oxfordshire uses thirty-six staddles.

Beehives were often set on top of staddle stones to keep out predators and provide dry and airy conditions.

Game larders
Small staddle stones were used to support small roofed box-shaped game larders which were used on the larger estates for storage of game, such as pheasant, brought back by shooting parties, etc.

Barns
Timber-framed barns raised onto staddle stones were sometimes found in the south of England. Apart from the usual benefits it seems that some correlation between this barn type and the builder being a tenant exists. Being on staddles such barns remained the property of the tenant. In Galicia and Asturias (NW Spain), these barns are called hórreos.

Landscape gardening
Staddles are often found in architectural salvage yards as they may be seen as attractive structures. They are also sold new, being made from moulded concrete. Chainsaws are used to produce wooden 'staddle stones' for use as garden seats or ornaments. In this context the staddle stones are often called mushroom stones.

Conservation
Staddle stones are often well over a century old and have developed a good lichen 'patina' with slow and fast growing species adhering to the surfaces. They are better not cleaned as the lichen flora is well worth preserving to add to the biodiversity of a garden scene.

Surveyors marks
Old land deeds in northeastern United States often refer to Oak Staddle or Walnut Staddle.  These deeds are from the late 18th century to the middle 19th century.  Either the owners would cut a tree leaving the stump and request that the surveyors measure to it, or the surveyor would measure out to the location of a new lot corner and a staddle would be inserted into the ground like a boundary stone.

See also
 The Lands of Cunninghamhead. An example of the rare Scottish Staddle Stone.
 Foundation (engineering)
 Hórreo
 Latte stone
 Museum of Scottish Rural Life, Kittochside

Notes

References

External links
 Staddle stones and Game Larders
 Granary on Staddle Stone
 Staddle Stones - Salvage Yards
 Reproduction and Antique Staddle Stones
 Large collection of staddle stone images
  A Researcher's Guide to Local History terminology

Agricultural buildings
Building stone
Shallow foundations
Architectural elements
Mechanical pest control

Staddle stones


The Federalist Papers were a series of essays about the United States Constitution. In total, there were 85 articles, 77 of them appeared in newspapers between October of 1787 and August 1788. Many talked about how the Constitution would solve America's political problems.  Most of them were published in newspapers in New York and Virginia, states where it was not clear whether or not the Constitution would pass (it did).  Most were written by Alexander Hamilton or James Madison, though a few were written by John Jay.

One of the most famous of the Papers is Federalist No. 10.  It was written by Madison and says that the Constitution would keep the United States from being run by small groups called "factions". The collection of all papers was also published as a book.

The papers were published using a false name, Publius. This name was used in reference to Publius Valerius Publicola, a Roman Consul and one of the aristocrats who overthrew the Roman Kingdom in the 5th century BC.

The papers are often thought of as one of the most important works of American political thought.  Sometimes they are used by Supreme Court justices to try to say what the founders were thinking.

Other websites

 The Federalist Papers, original 1788 printing

 National Archives on The Federalist
 The Federalist Papers on the Bill of Rights
 Teaching The Federalist Papers
 Booknotes interview with Robert Scigliano on Scigliano's Modern Library edition of The Federalist Papers, January 21, 2001.
 Collection of The Federalist Papers
 EDSITEment on The Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates on diversity and the extended republic

Democracy
United States Constitution
1788 works
1787 in the United States
1788 in the United States

Federalist Papers