The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in a body. A mountain has typically more mass than a rock, for instance. Mass should not be confused with the related but quite different concept of weight.

We can measure the mass of an object if a force acts on the object. If the mass is greater, the object will have less acceleration (change in its motion). This measure of mass is called inertial mass because it measures inertia.

A large mass like the Earth will attract a small mass like a human being with enough force to keep the human being from floating away. "Mass attraction" is another word for gravity, a force that exists between all matter. When we measure the force of gravity from an object, we can find its gravitational mass. Tests of inertial and gravitational mass show that they are the same or almost the same.

Units of mass
The unit of mass in the International System of Units is the kilogram, which is represented by the symbol 'kg'. Fractions and multiples of this basic unit include the gram (one thousandth of a kg, symbol 'g') and the tonne (one thousand kg), amongst many others.

In some fields or applications, it is convenient to use different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance,
 Atomic physicists deal with the tiny masses of individual atoms and measure them in atomic mass units.
 Jewelers normally work with small jewels and precious stones where masses are traditionally measured in carats, which correspond to 200 mg or 0.2 g.
 The masses of stars are very large and are sometimes expressed in units of solar masses.

Traditional units are still in encountered in some countries: imperial units such as the ounce or the pound were in widespread use within the British Empire. Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the short ton (2,000 pounds, 907 kg) and the long ton (2,240 pounds, 1010 kg), not to be confused with the metric ton (1,000 kg).

Conservation of mass and relativity

Mass is an intrinsic property of the object: it does not depend on its volume, or position in space, for instance. For a long time (at least since the works of Antoine Lavoisier in the second half of the eighteen century), it has been known that the sum of the masses of objects that interact or of the chemicals that react remain conserved throughout these processes. This remains an excellent approximation for everyday life and even most laboratory work.

However, Einstein has shown through his special theory of relativity that the mass m of an object moving at speed v with respect to an observer must be higher than the mass of the same object observed at rest m0 with respect to the observer. The applicable formula is

where c stands for the speed of light. This change in mass is only important when the speed of the object with respect to the observer becomes a large fraction of c.

The Quantum Concept of Mass
For further reference,see the :en:Gluon field and :en:Higgs boson

In atomic nuclei,i.e in :en:Protons and :en:Neutrons,the residual mass comes from the binding kinetic and potential energy of the quarks and gluon field. An analogy to go along with is to think of the 3 :en:quarks as balls with the gluons as a spring connecting the quarks. This mass accounts for ~99% of the mass of these :en:baryons with the remaining ~1% coming from the individual quarks which comes from quantum interactions with the Higgs field.

References

Related pages
 Mass versus weight
 Center of mass
 Gravity
 Density
 Body mass index
 Advanced topics:
 Standard Model
 Higgs field.

Physical quantity
Matter
Mechanics
Basic physics ideas

Mass


Sir Joseph Jordan (–1685) was a naval officer and admiral. From a Thames shipowning family, he is initially recorded as importing tobacco from Nevis and Barbados aboard the Amity.

During the English Civil War, he served in the parliamentary navy commanding the merchantman Caesar in the summer guard of 1642; later that year he was recorded taking castles around the Isle of Wight. In 1643 he served as rear-admiral in the Irish guard and the following year was active off the Channel Islands and at the relief of Lyme Regis and, in 1645, the siege of Weymouth. He remained loyal to parliament during the 1648 naval revolt and in February 1649 signed remonstrance congratulating the army and the Commons for restoring liberty.

Following a short period abroad, Jordan resumed his naval career in 1650, was a flag-officer in the First Anglo-Dutch War and a member of the expedition against Algiers and Tunis under Robert Blake in April 1655. He was brought into service again in 1664 and served as a flag-officer in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665–7, knighted in 1665 after the Battle of Lowestoft; was rear-admiral of the Red squadron, with George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, in the inconclusive Four Days Battle, 1–4 June 1666, and vice-admiral of the Red at the victory in the St. James's Day Battle, 25 July 1666.

In the Third Anglo-Dutch War, 1672–4., as vice-admiral of the Blue, he led the fleet into action in HMS Sovereign of the Seas, 100 guns, in the Battle of Solebay, 28 May 1672. At the time it was alleged he had deliberately chosen to expose to danger Admiral Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich, HMS Royal James, who died in the battle, in order to protect the Duke of York, later James II of England.

After the war he was granted a pension and lived in retirement.

References

Robert Latham and William Matthews ed. 'The Diary of Samuel Pepys', Volume X, (1983) Companion; entry 'Jordan, Sir Joseph'

1600s births
1685 deaths
Royal Navy admirals
Roundheads
17th-century Royal Navy personnel
Royal Navy personnel of the Third Anglo-Dutch War
Royal Navy personnel of the Second Anglo-Dutch War

Joseph Jordan (Royal Navy officer)


Hamdija Pozderac (15 January 1924 – 7 April 1988) was a Yugoslav communist politician from Bosnia and Herzegovina. He served as the 4th President of the People's Assembly of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1971 to 1974. Pozderac was also a member of the Presidency of Yugoslavia for SR Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1986 to 1987, and served as President of the League of Communists of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1982 to 1984. He was forced to resign from politics due to a corruption scandal in September 1987.

Pozderac was considered one of the most influential and powerful politicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the communist era. His removal from the political scene in the late 1980s is today considered one of the most controversial events that preceded the Bosnian War. Pozderac was removed due to the Agrokomerc Affair of 1987, which the Yugoslav press compared to the American Watergate scandal.

Early life
Pozderac was born in Cazin to an established Bosnian Muslim family which exerted strong influence in the westernmost part of the Bosnian region of Bosanska Krajina known for its strong resistance to the fascist Independent State of Croatia regime during World War II. During the war, he joined the illegal Alliance of Communist Youth of Yugoslavia (SKOJ) and the anti-fascist Partisan movement.

He held various military and public posts in the Bosanska Krajina region during the war and was ordained with several military and public honors. Following the advent of communist rule, the Pozderac family affirmed its strong position in Yugoslav politics with Nurija Pozderac and Hamdija's brother, Hakija, both of whom held high positions in the Yugoslav government during and after World War II. Pozderac was a close ally of Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia for 27 years.

Education
Pozderac was highly educated, holding a philosophy degree from the University of Belgrade. He studied in Moscow, published several sociological studies, and was a professor of political science at the University of Sarajevo.

Political activity
Pozderac's politics centered on his involvement in the Communist Party of Yugoslavia that he ideologically followed. He held various high positions in the government of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina and SFR Yugoslavia in the 1970s and 1980s and exerted considerable influence on the politics of the communist party. He was president of the Federal Constitutional Commission of Yugoslavia which he held for nearly 20 years. His political ascendance began with economic revitalization of the Bosanska Krajina region, than impoverished region of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina. Pozderac provided the political backing to Agrokomerc, at the time small local food manufacturer which would later become one of the largest food manufacturing corporations in the former Yugoslavia. Agrokomerc proved to be the key to the economic prosperity of the region.

While his primary goal was economic reform of then impoverished SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, which he relatively successfully implemented, Pozderac also played an important role in confronting nationalists from Serbia through a series of controversial and risky political moves. The reason he is today considered one of the most important Bosnian politicians is his significant role in constitutional amendments in the 1970s which recognized Bosnian Muslims as one of the constituent ethnic groups of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina and SFR Yugoslavia. Although his political orientation was left of center, and while he continually confronted nationalist politics of ethnic groups in former Yugoslavia, Pozderac inevitably contributed to the establishment of the process that led to the emergence of the modern Bosniak nation.

A series of political attacks were reportedly staged against Pozderac by the Serbian lobby in Bosnia who tried to discredit and remove him from the political scene. One attempt was made by Vojislav Šešelj in the early 1980s, who learned that one of the students of Pozderac at the University of Sarajevo plagiarized portions of his dissertation, but was not punished for by Pozderac. Because the student Brano Miljuš was a high-ranking individual within the Communist party, controversy ensued but Šešelj's efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.

Sarajevo process
The most controversial process however was the so-called "Sarajevo process" in 1983. The Sarajevo process centered on convicting Alija Izetbegović for having written the Islamic Declaration. Pozderac reaffirmed his political opposition to Serbian nationalism and in particular to the politics of Slobodan Milošević, who was allegedly seeking to revert the constitutional amendments of the 1970s that awarded the Muslims the status of a constituent ethnicity.

The "Sarajevo process" backfired as the Serbian lobby insisted that Bosnia was a "dark vilayet" where all those who oppose the government will be prosecuted and where Bosnian Muslim communists were prosecuting Muslim believers. Others interpreted the "Sarajevo process" as Pozderac's way of removing political amateurs who could end up disrupting the process of Bosnian independence.

Izetbegović would later supersede Pozderac becoming the President of the Presidency of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1990.

Agrokomerc Affair
Attacks on Pozderac culminated with the "Agrokomerc Affair" that began in 1987. In the 1980s Agrokomerc, one of the leading food manufacturers, was engulfed in questionable banking deals where the corporation issued numerous high interest promissory notes without the proper financial equity. Such practices were reportedly common within the Yugoslav system. The difference with Agrokomerc was that the director of the corporation, Fikret Abdić, lost the sense of scale as the corporation issued in excess of $500 million in "worthless" promissory notes.

The problem became more acute as the press reported on it as the biggest economic affair in former Yugoslavia triggering the 250% inflation rate in Yugoslavia. Pozderac, who contributed to the initial growth of Agrokomerc, was indicted of being aware of the financial dealings of the company. However such accusations were never proven.

The political blow to Pozderac came from Abdić's statement that he was in possession of audio tapes with conversations that would prove Pozderac's involvement in the scandal. While tapes were never actually presented, the political pressure on Pozderac culminated in September 1987, at which point he resigned from politics.

Abdić would later join Alija Izetbegović in 1990 to form the Party of Democratic Action (SDA) and win the popular vote for the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990 Bosnian general election.

Legacy
Historical significance of Pozderac for the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina is today still debated among historians. He is criticized for his ideological following of the communist doctrines and for setting processes that did not honor certain liberties viewed in the western world as the core democratic principles, such as the freedom of speech. He was also criticized for being a cog of nepotism and although he did not subscribe to that tactic himself he certainly took advantage of it. As a result, Pozderac was criticized for contributing to the continued presence of Pozderac family on the political scene in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

One however needs to view these issues from the context within which Pozderac operated. Being part of the communist system, Pozderac saw political ascendance possible only within the system. If one adds to this, the patriarchic nature of the Balkans, his strong leadership was proven to be the only potent power that could make the difference in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina of the communist era. He was the follower of the conviction that political, legal, philosophical, religious, literary, artistic and other progress is based on the economic progress. Pozderac is credited for implementing processes that led the economic revitalization of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which contributed to strengthening the cultural independence and identity Bosnia within Yugoslavia.

Pozderac cannot be viewed as a movement leader but as a patient and principled politician who saw the opportunity for change by working within the system.

His legacy certainly can be credited with contributions to the constitutional recognition of Muslims (historically revived as Bosniaks in 1993) as a constituent people within Bosnia and Herzegovina, along with the already recognised Croats and Serbs, and his persistent position in protecting those rights. He has also continually worked on protection of the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina within Yugoslavia and while he did begin some processes for which he would be criticized, many consider that without his involvement in the Yugoslav politics at the time, Bosnia may have not had the political nor other potency to pursue to independence in the 1990s.

References

External links
Bosnia in 1980s
"A Man who Divided the People of Krajina - The Beginning of Fikret Abdic's Trial in Karlovac"
1987 Time magazine article about the Agrokomerc scandal

1924 births
1988 deaths
Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina Muslims
Bosnia and Herzegovina politicians
Yugoslav politicians
People from Cazin
Pozderac family
University of Belgrade Faculty of Philosophy alumni
League of Communists of Bosnia and Herzegovina politicians
Bosnia and Herzegovina people of World War II
Members of the Presidency of the 11th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Members of the Presidency of the 12th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Ex officio members of the Presidency of the 11th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Ex officio members of the Presidency of the 12th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Members of the Central Committee of the 11th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Members of the Central Committee of the 12th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Members of the Central Committee of the 13th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Presidency of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia members
Chairmen of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Recipients of the Order of the Hero of Socialist Labour

Hamdija Pozderac


Active Worlds (AW) is a 3D virtual reality platform. The "Active Worlds Browser" runs on Windows. Users assign themselves a user name, log into the Active Worlds virtual world universe, and explore 3D virtual worlds and environments that other users have created.  Users can chat with one another or build structures and areas from a selection of objects. AW allows users to own worlds and universes, and develop 3D content.

Related pages
Second Life
IMVU

Software

Active Worlds


A box is a container used to put things in. It is mainly a cuboid (square) shape, but it can be other shapes too. Boxes are usually made out of cardboard, wood, plastic or metal.
Many boxes are made of cardboard, and a lot of them are made. They are primarily used for packaging, commercial goods or storing goods and materials. They can be made from bent or wrinkled cardboard. In their most obvious life stage, they are popularly used as a cheap material to hold a range of projects, among them being science experiments, children's toys, costumes and other things.

A box also means a rectangle, e.g. userbox. But rectangles are mainly referred to as rectangles, the term box is the outline, or perimeter of the rectangle.

Basic English 850 words
Containers

Box


Anti-capitalism describes a wide variety of movements, ideas, and attitudes which oppose capitalism, toward social equality or environmentalism.  Anti-capitalists, in the strict sense of the word, are those who wish to completely replace capitalism with another system; however, there are also ideas which can be characterized as partially anti-capitalist in the sense that they only wish to replace or abolish certain aspects of capitalism rather than the entire system.

Related pages
Antiglobalization
Class struggle
Communism
Eco-socialism
Socialism
Karl Marx
Naomi Klein
Noam Chomsky

Capitalism
Political movements

Anti-capitalism


Naming rights is the term used when a company pays money to the owners of a stadium or other sports venue, to have that stadium named for the company. An example is the baseball park called Coors Field. This is done by a legal contract, usually for a limited number of years. "Naming rights" is also called Corporate sponsorship.

Marketing
Business law

Naming rights


The Story of Three Loves (also known as  Equilibrium) is a 1953 American Technicolor romantic anthology film made by MGM. It consists of three stories, "The Jealous Lover", "Mademoiselle", and "Equilibrium". The film was produced by Sidney Franklin. "Mademoiselle" was directed by Vincente Minnelli, while Gottfried Reinhardt directed the other two segments. The screenplays were written by John Collier ("The Jealous Lover", "Equilibrium"),  ("Equilibrium", "Mademoiselle"), and George Froeschel ("Equilibrium", "Mademoiselle").

"The Jealous Lover" stars Moira Shearer and James Mason; "Mademoiselle" features Leslie Caron, Farley Granger, Ethel Barrymore, and Ricky Nelson; Pier Angeli and Kirk Douglas headline "Equilibrium".

The music score is by Miklós Rózsa.  The soundtrack features extended excerpts from Sergei Rachmaninoff's Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini, performed by the pianist Jakob Gimpel for "The Jealous Lover".

Choreography for "The Jealous Lover" was by Frederick Ashton.

Plot

The Jealous Lover
On an ocean liner, a passenger recognizes famed ballet creator Charles Coudray (James Mason), and asks him politely why one of his works has never been performed since its debut. When Coudray remains silent, the fan leaves him alone with his thoughts, leading to a flashback.

Ballerina Paula Woodward (Moira Shearer) auditions for Coudray. Coudray is impressed, but then Paula collapses and has to be carried off stage. A doctor informs her aunt Lydia (Agnes Moorehead) that she has a heart condition that will force her to give up dancing.

Some time later, Paula attends a performance of Coudray's latest ballet. After everyone else has left, she goes on stage and starts dancing. However, she is not alone. Coudray has been watching. He is dissatisfied with certain aspects of his work; from what he has seen of Paula's impromptu performance, he believes she can help him fix the defects.

At first, Paula declines his invitation to dance for him at his studio home, but eventually agrees. Paula lives up to Coudray's high expectations, but exhausts herself in the process. Coudray tenderly kisses her before she goes to change. She slips away and returns home to Lydia with the news of what she has done. But on her way upstairs, she dies, her last words a lament that she had promised Coudray that she would be with him always.

Mademoiselle
The story then shifts to a second passenger, referred to only as Mademoiselle (Leslie Caron). A chance remark by a passerby about a governess triggers her flashback.

She is the governess and French tutor to Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr., a bored eleven-year-old American boy (Ricky Nelson) left in her charge at a hotel in Rome by his absent parents. One day, another boy dares him to visit Mrs. Hazel Pennicott (Ethel Barrymore), who lives next door and is reputed to be a witch.  When he wishes he were a man, she tells him to wrap a ribbon she has around his finger and recite her name at 8 pm, but she warns him that the spell will only last until midnight. She cuts the ribbon in half (in case she wants to have it for someone else's spell) and gives it to him. After arguing with Mademoiselle to stop her from over-mothering him and  staying in on her last night in Rome, he gets in bed and evokes the spell. The incantation works, and he is transformed into a young man (Farley Granger).

In his new form, he goes to find Mademoiselle, and is surprised to find that he no longer despises Mademoiselle, nor the romantic poetry that she kept reciting to him. They embark on a whirlwind romance, but he warns her that he has only a few hours  before he has to go away. He does however promise that he will see her off at the train station the next day. He flees as the clock strikes midnight.

He keeps his word, but as the young boy. Mademoiselle quits her job to remain in Rome. While waiting for her lover to show up, she bumps into Mrs. Pennicott and spills the contents of the old woman's purse. Mademoiselle gathers up the various items, but after Mrs. Pennicott thanks her and leaves, she picks up an overlooked red ribbon.

The film shifts back to the ship. While Mademoiselle is knitting in a deck chair, the red ribbon blows away. When she goes to retrieve it, she encounters a handsome young man who informs her that he saw her before, from the train as it departed the station.

Equilibrium
The camera moves to Pierre Narval (Kirk Douglas), leaning over the rail and gazing at the ocean.

In Paris, Narval saves a suicidal Nina Burkhardt (Pier Angeli) after she jumps from a bridge over the Seine River. He goes to visit her in the hospital, and finds her still very depressed. He gives her his address and asks her to come see him.

When she does (having nowhere else to go), he tells her that he was once a great trapeze artist. However being the best was not enough for him; he kept trying more and more dangerous tricks, and two years before, his partner was killed as a result. After that, nobody would work with him. As Nina has demonstrated that she has no fear of dying, he asks her to be his new partner. When she agrees, he starts training her, despite his friends' warning that his obsession will kill her too.

Narval learns Nina's own dark secret. She and her husband had been imprisoned by the Nazis in a concentration camp during World War II. She was released. Sensing that he was planning an escape, she had written him a letter begging him to wait, that the Allies would liberate him soon enough. However, she entrusted the letter to a man who betrayed them. Her husband was executed.

At last, the act is ready. They audition for an important American, who insists they perform the climax, the "Leap of Death" (a blind jump by Nina through a screen to Narval on the trapeze), without a safety net, just as they would before a live audience. They do the trick, but then Narval makes a decision. They walk away, leaving the circus behind them. Back aboard the ship, Narval is joined by a loving Nina.

Cast
 Pier Angeli as Nina Burkhardt
 Ethel Barrymore as Mrs. Hazel Pennicott
 Leslie Caron as Mademoiselle
 Kirk Douglas as Pierre Narval
 Farley Granger as Thomas Clayton Campbell Jr.
 James Mason as Charles Coudray
 Moira Shearer as Paula Woodward
 Agnes Moorehead as Aunt Lydia
 Zsa Zsa Gabor as Flirt at Bar (segment "Mademoiselle")
 Richard Anderson as Marcel (segment "Equilibrium")
 Ricky Nelson as Thomas age 11

Reception
According to MGM records, the film made $1,096,000 in the U.S. and Canada and $2,071,000 in other markets, resulting in a loss of $805,000.

Awards
The film was nominated an Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Cedric Gibbons, E. Preston Ames, Edward Carfagno, Gabriel Scognamillo, Edwin B. Willis, F. Keogh Gleason, Arthur Krams, Jack D. Moore).

References

External links

1953 romantic drama films
American anthology films
Films about ballet
Circus films
American romantic fantasy films
Films directed by Gottfried Reinhardt
Films directed by Vincente Minnelli
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films scored by Miklós Rózsa
1950s English-language films
1950s American films

The Story of Three Loves


A crowbar is a metal tool used mainly to pry things open. It is usually hook shaped. Sometimes the bottom is slightly curved to allow for better leverage. Some crowbars have a notched an end for removing nails. Crowbars are often made of carbon steel. They can also be made of titanium which is lighter and non-magnetic. The first known use of the word was somewhere in the 1400s where they were simply called crows or iron crows.

It is used as a lever either to force apart two objects or to remove nails. Crowbars are commonly used to open nailed wooden crates. Common uses for larger crowbars are: removing nails, prying apart boards, and generally breaking things. Crowbars can be used as any of the three lever classes but the curved end is usually used as a first-class lever, and the flat end as a second class lever. In mining, crowbars are used to break blasted rocks and to remove loose rock on roof sides and the working face, but not much in modern mining.

Tools

Crowbar


In mathematics and abstract algebra, the two-element Boolean algebra is the Boolean algebra whose underlying set (or universe or carrier) B is the Boolean domain. The elements of the Boolean domain are 1 and 0 by convention, so that B = {0, 1}. Paul Halmos's name for this algebra "2" has some following in the literature, and will be employed here.

Definition
B is a partially ordered set and the elements of B are also its bounds.

An operation of arity n is a mapping from Bn to B. Boolean algebra consists of two binary operations and unary complementation. The binary operations have been named and notated in various ways. Here they are called  'sum' and 'product', and notated by infix '+' and '∙', respectively. Sum and product commute and associate, as in the usual algebra of real numbers. As for the order of operations, brackets are decisive if present. Otherwise '∙' precedes '+'. Hence  is parsed as  and not as . Complementation is denoted by writing an overbar over its argument. The numerical analog of the complement of  is . In the language of universal algebra, a Boolean algebra is a ∙ algebra of type .

Either one-to-one correspondence between {0,1} and {True,False} yields classical bivalent logic in equational form, with complementation read as NOT. If 1 is read as True, '+' is read as OR, and '∙' as AND, and vice versa if 1 is read as False. These two operations define a commutative semiring, known as the Boolean semiring.

Some basic identities
2 can be seen as grounded in the following trivial "Boolean" arithmetic:

Note that:
 '+' and '∙' work exactly as in numerical arithmetic, except that 1+1=1. '+' and '∙' are derived by analogy from numerical arithmetic; simply set any nonzero number to 1.
 Swapping 0 and 1, and '+' and '∙' preserves truth; this is the essence of the duality pervading all Boolean algebras.
This Boolean arithmetic suffices to verify any equation of 2, including the axioms, by examining every possible assignment of 0s and 1s to each variable (see decision procedure).

The following equations may now be verified:

Each of '+' and '∙' distributes over the other:

That '∙' distributes over '+' agrees with elementary algebra, but not '+' over '∙'. For this and other reasons, a sum of products (leading to a NAND synthesis) is more commonly employed than a product of sums (leading to a NOR synthesis).

Each of '+' and '∙' can be defined in terms of the other and complementation:

We only need one binary operation, and concatenation suffices to denote it. Hence concatenation and overbar suffice to notate 2. This notation is also that of Quine's Boolean term schemata. Letting (X) denote the complement of X and "()" denote either 0 or 1 yields the syntax of the primary algebra of G. Spencer-Brown's Laws of Form.

A basis for 2 is a set of equations, called axioms, from which all of the above equations (and more) can be derived. There are many known bases for all Boolean algebras and hence for 2. An elegant basis notated using only concatenation and overbar is:
  (Concatenation commutes, associates)
  (2 is a complemented lattice, with an upper bound of 1)
 (0 is the lower bound).
  (2 is a distributive lattice)

Where concatenation = OR, 1 = true, and 0 = false, or concatenation = AND, 1 = false, and 0 = true. (overbar is negation in both cases.)

If 0=1, (1)-(3) are the axioms for an abelian group.

(1) only serves to prove that concatenation commutes and associates. First assume that (1) associates from either the left or the right, then prove commutativity. Then prove association from the other direction. Associativity is simply association from the left and right combined.

This basis makes for an easy approach to proof, called "calculation" in Laws of Form, that proceeds by simplifying expressions to 0 or 1, by invoking axioms (2)–(4), and the elementary identities , and the distributive law.

Metatheory
De Morgan's theorem states that if one does the following, in the given order, to any Boolean function:
 Complement every variable;
 Swap '+' and '∙' operators (taking care to add brackets to ensure the order of operations remains the same);
 Complement the result,
the result is logically equivalent to what you started with. Repeated application of De Morgan's theorem to parts of a function can be used to drive all complements down to the individual variables.

A powerful and nontrivial metatheorem states that any identity of 2 holds for all Boolean algebras. Conversely, an identity that holds for an arbitrary nontrivial Boolean algebra also holds in 2. Hence all identities of Boolean algebra are captured by 2. This theorem is useful because any equation in 2 can be verified by a decision procedure. Logicians refer to this fact as "2 is decidable". All known decision procedures require a number of steps that is an exponential function of the number of variables N appearing in the equation to be verified. Whether there exists a decision procedure whose steps are a polynomial function of N falls under the P = NP conjecture.

The above metatheorem does not hold if we consider the validity of more general first-order logic formulas instead of only atomic positive equalities. As an example consider the formula . This formula is always true in a two-element Boolean algebra. In a four-element Boolean algebra whose domain is the powerset of , this formula corresponds to the statement  and is false when x is . The decidability for the first-order theory of many classes of Boolean algebras can still be shown, using quantifier elimination or small model property (with the domain size computed as a function of the formula and generally larger than 2).

See also
Boolean algebra
Bounded set
Lattice (order)
Order theory

References

Further reading
Many elementary texts on Boolean algebra were published in the early years of the computer era. Perhaps the best of the lot, and one still in print, is:
 Mendelson, Elliot, 1970. Schaum's Outline of Boolean Algebra. McGraw–Hill.

The following items reveal how the two-element Boolean algebra is mathematically nontrivial.
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra," by J. Donald Monk.
 Burris, Stanley N., and H.P. Sankappanavar, H. P., 1981. A Course in Universal Algebra.  Springer-Verlag. .

Elementary algebra
Boolean algebra

Two-element Boolean algebra


May Coup was a coup d'état that happened in Poland in May 1926. It was organised by the former Polish leader and national hero Józef Piłsudski to remove the "weak" democratic government from power. It started on 12 May and ended on 15 May.

Piłsudski and his followers were victorious and the Polish democracy was replaced with an authoritarian regime that remained in power until the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. After Piłsudski's death in 1935 the regime became more and more radical, with regular persecution of the political opponents, never changing into totalitarianism though.

References
 Joseph Rothschild, Pilsudski's Coup D'État, Columbia University Press, 1967, .

1926
1920s in Poland

May Coup


Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables.  Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres.

There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer.

Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum.

Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN

There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate.

Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different. Both have been developed to replace cabling. Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN.

Bluetooth devices

Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3. It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files).

Bluetooth uses protocols that make it easy to discover devices that are nearby, and to set up a connection between these devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all the services they offer. Using services becomes easier; a lot of the setup related to security, networking or permissions is automatic.

Wireless LAN
WLANs are more like traditional LANs. More configuration is needed to set up the network, and to make resources accessible by other devices in the network. WLAN devices also consume more power than Bluetooth ones.
Sometimes WLANs are called wireless Ethernet. WLAN needs more resources to be set up, but it also offers faster transfer speeds. The security is also better than that offered by Bluetooth.

References

Computer protocols
Computer networking

Bluetooth


Saint Anne Sandy Point is one of 14 administrative parishes that make up Saint Kitts and Nevis. It is the smallest parish on St. Kitts in terms of area, at just . It is located on the main island of Saint Kitts and the parish capital is Sandy Point Town.

Land
The parish itself is triangular in shape. The coastline of the parish is  in length, with black sandy beaches, such as Pump Bay and Belle Tête dominating the southern coast, with sheer cliffs to the north. The lower slopes of the parish are dominated by abandoned sugarcane fields, as well as numerous small holdings, cultivating provision crops and tropical fruits. The town of Sandy Point, the second largest town on the island, skirts the southern coast, whilst the village Fig Tree rests just north of it. Moving inwards (east), the terrain shifts from the gently sloping coastal plain to the steep mountains of the North West Range, which, above 1000 feet, above sea level, is draped in tropical forests.

Cranston Ghaut marks the northern border of the parish, whilst Sandy Point Ghaut (an ill-defined ravine near Brimstone Hill Road) marks the southern.

Town and villages
The main settlement in the parish is Sandy Point Town, the federation's second largest settlement, with a population near 3,000. The town rests along the South coast of the parish. The other settlements of the parish act as suburbs to the town, and are usually annexed in local reference to Sandy Point. These are Fig Tree, La Vallée, and Sir Gillee's. Abandoned estate houses dot other areas further inland.

Capital - Sandy Point Town

Other Villages:

Fig Tree
La Vallée
Sir Gillee's Estate

Economy
The town of Sandy Point is home to a small factory, owned by Harowe Servo Controls, which manufactures electrical equipment, but now sadly closed because of rare work. Despite its small size, it was the main employer in the parish, and the largest industrial area outside of Saint George Basseterre Parish. Tourism is the other main employer for the parish. The Sandy Point Area's rich history has left it awash with many of the nation's premier historical sites, such as Fort Charles, and many warehouse building ruins, remnants of when Dutch tobacco trade reigned in the town. Offshore, just west of Sandy Point Town, lies the Sandy Point National Marine Park, often noted as one of the premier dive sites in the Eastern Caribbean.

Port

In the early 17th century, Sandy Point Town functioned as the main port for British Saint Christopher, and grew wealthy from the tobacco trade. In 1640 when production was shifted to sugar, Sandy Point continued to be Saint Kitts' main port, until 1727, when Basseterre was made capital of the island and most business was shifted. The port of Sandy Point, with its naturally deep water harbour continued to function however, and became the main port on the island for mail and personal goods shipment. The port was destroyed and rebuilt many times in its history, and finally ceased to exist in 1984, via Hurricane Klaus. Its functions were replaced by Deep Water Harbour in Basseterre.

Community festival
The community festival for the parish of St. Anne Sandy Point is Black San' Bang-a-Lang. It is a two weeks long event during the Easter season, and it features calypso shows, queen shows, parties, street jam sessions and late night limes (hang outs) and is one of the most exciting parade of all times. Most activities are held around central Sandy Point and on Pump Bay, Fig Tree and Cleverly Hill.

Future developments
The northern coastal plains of St. Anne Sandy Point parish are currently being developed by the La Vallee Greens Corporation. The finished product will include the La Vallée Golf Course, a marina and port facility for transport to the northern Leeward Islands (Statia, Saba, St. Barths, St. Martin, and Anguilla), Villa developments, and a state-of-the-art sporting facility.

References

Parishes of Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Kitts (island)

Saint Anne Sandy Point Parish


The Twelves is an electronic music production and DJing duo, made up of Brazilian musicians João Miguel and Luciano Oliveira. They are best known for their remixing of songs by artists ranging from M.I.A. and La Roux to Nirvana and The Beatles. Spin dubbed them one of "9 Unknown Bands to Watch at SXSW" in March 2009 and one of the "25 Must-Hear Artists at Coachella 2011". They appeared on the Essential Mix on 19 Dec 2009.

Remixes

References

External links
 The Twelves on Myspace
 The Twelves on Discogs

Electronic music duos
Brazilian electronic music groups
Brazilian house music groups
Brazilian DJs
Musical groups from Rio de Janeiro (city)
Musical groups established in 2005
2005 establishments in Brazil

The Twelves


The law of the United States is made up of many levels of codified and uncodified forms of law. The most important these is the United States Constitution. This established the federal government of the United States. The Constitution sets out the boundaries of federal law. This consists of acts of Congress, treaties ratified by the Senate, regulations promoted by the executive branch, and case law originating from the federal judiciary. The United States Code is the official compilation and codification of general and permanent federal statutory law.

Federal law and treaties, so long as they are in accordance with the Constitution, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 U.S. states and in the territories. However, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. In the dual-sovereign system of American federalism states are the plenary sovereigns. Each state has its own constitution, while the federal sovereign possesses only the limited supreme authority given by the Constitution. States may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights. Most U.S. law (especially the actual "living law" of contract, tort, property, criminal, and family law) experienced by the majority of citizens on a day-to-day basis consists primarily of state law, which can and does vary greatly from one state to the next.

At both the federal and state levels, the law of the United States is largely based on the common law system of English law. This was the system of law that was in force at the time of the Revolutionary War. However, American law has changed from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure. American law also borrows ideas from civil law.

References

United States Constitution

Law of the United States


Ralph Waldo Ellison (March 1, 1913–April 16, 1994) was an African-American writer. He was born in Oklahoma and studied at the Tuskegee Institute.

Ellison is most famous for writing Invisible Man, a novel about racism and African American identity. The narrator of the book calls himself an invisible man because people refuse to see him for who he really is. Invisible Man won a National Book Award and is still read today by many students and scholars.

Besides Invisible Man, Ellison wrote many essays. He was very interested in music, especially jazz. He started a second novel, called Juneteenth, but never finished it.

Other websites
Ralph Ellison at BlackPast.org
Ralph Ellison at the National Book Foundation Website
The Ralph Ellison Project at Jerry Jazz Musician

Writers from Oklahoma
1913 births
1994 deaths

Ralph Ellison


Freedom of the press is a promise by a government not to punish journalists (and other people who report the news) for doing their job. It is an idea like freedom of speech: it lets people express their opinions or beliefs. Many countries have laws or constitutional amendments protecting freedom of the press. The word "press" in the phrase comes from the printing press.

Restrictions
Like with freedom of speech, freedom of the press does not protect everything that a journalist writes. A journalist can be sued for libel, which is publishing false and damaging claims about a person. Publishing copyrighted material is not legal in many countries. Writing about state secrets, like military plans, weapon designs, or other classified information is almost always illegal.

Journalism
Freedom

Freedom of the press


Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with microorganisms that convert lactose to lactic acid; an example of preventing a process would be stopping the browning on the surface of freshly cut apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water.

History of food chemistry
The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others. For example, Davy published Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture (1813) in the United Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785.

Some of the findings of Liebig on food chemistry were translated and published by Eben Horsford in Lowell Massachusetts in 1848.

In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the benefit of the public. Its early experiments were based on bread, milk, and wine.

It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with chemical food additives by the 1950s. The development of colleges and universities worldwide, most notably in the United States, would expand food chemistry as well as research of the dietary substances, most notably the Single-grain experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in the creation of the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American Chemical Society established its Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of Food Technologists established its Food Chemistry Division in 1995.

Food chemistry concepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport phenomena, physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds, and interaction forces, quantum mechanics and reaction kinetics,  biopolymer science, colloidal interactions, nucleation, glass transitions and freezing/disordered or noncrystalline solids, and thus has Food Physical Chemistry as a foundation area.

Water in food systems

A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to 95% in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and food spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is measured in food is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys to food preservation in most instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the water's characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration This field encompasses the "physiochemical principles of the reactions and conversions that occur during the manufacture, handling, and storage of foods".

Carbohydrates

Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CnH2nOn where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides. When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose, one of the more common sugar products found in plants, is formed.

A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Some of these carbohydrate polysaccharides are accessible for digestion by human enzymes and mainly absorbed in the small intestine, whereas dietary fiber passes to the large intestine where some of these polysaccharides are fermented by the gastrointestinal microbiota.

Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix.

Lipids

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH group (hydroxyl or alcohol).

Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.

Food proteins

Proteins comprise over 50% of the dry weight of an average living cell and are very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and function of cells. Consisting mainly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, they also may contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc.

In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending upon a person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Protein is commonly obtained from animal sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains and legumes provide vegetable sources of protein, and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein nutritional quotas from vegetables.

Protein sensitivity as food allergy is detected with the ELISA test.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another. They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread.

Vitamins

Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (vitamin C) or fat-soluble (vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.

Minerals

Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. Bulk minerals with a Reference Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)) of more than 200 mg/day are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less than 200 mg/day) are copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many foods, but can also be taken in dietary supplements.

Colour

Food colouring is added to change the colour of any food substance. It is mainly for sensory analysis  purposes. It can be used to simulate the natural colour of a product as perceived by the customer, such as red dye (like FD&C Red No.40 Allura Red AC) to ketchup or to add unnatural colours to a product like Kellogg's Froot Loops.  Caramel is a natural food dye; the industrial form, caramel colouring, is the most widely used food colouring and is found in foods from soft drinks to soy sauce, bread, and pickles.

Flavours

Flavour in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer, especially in sensory analysis. Some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but flavour chemists (called a "flavourist") develop many of these flavours for food products. Such artificial flavours include methyl salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste.

Food additives

Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavours, or improving taste, look, smell and freshness. The processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by "E number" in the European Union or GRAS ("generally recognized as safe") by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

See also

 Food physical chemistry
 Dietary supplement
 Food and Bioprocess Technology (journal)
 Food Chemistry (journal)
 Food composition
 Food engineering
 Food fortification
 Food microbiology
 Food packaging
 Food preservation
 Food rheology
 Food safety
 Food science
 Food storage
 Food supplements
 Food technology
 Nutraceutical
 Nutrification (also called food enrichment or fortification)

References

Bibliography
Fennema, O.R., Ed. (1985). Food Chemistry - Second Edition, Revised and Expanded. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Francis, F.J. (2000). "Harvey W. Wiley: Pioneer in Food Science and Quality." In A Century of Food Science. Chicago: Institute of Food Technologists. pp. 13–14.
Potter, N.N. and J.H. Hotchkiss. (1995). Food Science, Fifth Edition. New York: Champman & Hall. pp. 24–68.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1993). Everything Added to Food in the United States. Boca Raton, Florida: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC press, Inc.).

External links
 American Chemical Society – Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division
 Institute of Food Technologists Food Chemistry Division
 The Penn State University, Food Chemistry, US
 Wageningen University, Laboratory of Food Chemistry, The Netherlands

Food chemistry


A year is about 365 days (except in a leap year). It is the time it takes the Earth to go completely around (orbit) the sun once. A year is actually almost 365.25 days long, but a calendar has 365 days, except in a leap year, which has 366 days.

The year starts on January 1 and ends on December 31 in the Gregorian calendar, but a fiscal year or a school year can start on a different day of the year.

There are several ways used to measure the length of a year.

 a solar year, also called tropical year, is based on the seasons.  The Gregorian calendar is based on a tropical year of 365.2425 days.  This is the time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons, as seen from Earth; for example, the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to summer solstice.  The word "tropical" in this sense comes from the Greek tropikos meaning "turn".
 a lunar year is based on the moon and is usually 12 lunar months (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes each) or 354 days long.
 a sidereal year measures the time between when a selected fixed star is highest in the night sky.
 an anomalistic year is the difference between the times when the Earth gets closest to the sun.
 an eclipse year is the time between node passages. This is when the sun moves through a part of the sky where it is possible for the sun, Earth and moon to be in a line. It is also when eclipses can happen.

Solar and lunar years are used by different calendars for daily life. The other measurements are used by astronomers.

 Ma (for meganum) — a unit of time equal to one million years. The suffix "Ma" is often used in scientific disciplines such as geology, paleontology, and astronomy to signify very long time periods into the past or future. The simpler term "mya" for "million years ago" is generally preferred on this wiki as being intuitively more simple for non-technical readers.

A specific calendar is provided for the liturgical year.

References

Basic English 850 words
Units of time

Year


Fairfax Mastick Cone (February 21, 1903 – June 20, 1977) or Fax Cone, was an American businessperson, advertising executive and the former director of the American Association of Advertising Agencies.

Early years
Cone's father was a prospector and a mining engineer. His mother, Isabelle Fairfax Williams (1869–1940), was a schoolteacher in San Francisco. In 1921 Cone enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, originally intending to be an illustrator.  Eventually he graduated with a degree in English.  Due to a problem with his credentials, Cone got a job as an advertising clerk with the San Francisco Examiner rather than a teaching fellowship.  In 1928, Cone left the paper for an advertising agency, thus embarking on a career that would leave an indelible mark on his life.

Advertising career
After a year with the L.H. Waldron advertising agency, Cone joined Lord and Thomas as a copywriter.  Despite health problems stemming from an over-active pancreas, Cone steadily rose up the corporate ladder, eventually impressing the head of the firm, Albert Lasker.

In 1941, Lasker wished to retire and liquidate Lord and Thomas, but he passed of the bulk of the agency's clients to three of his rising stars; Emerson Foote, Don Belding, and Cone.  On December 29, 1942, the three opened a new agency, Foote, Cone and Belding.

Following the retirements of Foote and Belding (whose positions were subsequently filled by others), Cone became the last of the three founders on the board of directors, a position he retained until 1975.  In 1946, he became the director of the American Association of Advertising Agencies. He is sometimes called the "father of modern advertising" and is a member of the American National Business Hall of Fame. He died in Monterey, California.

Quotations
 Advertising is what you do when you can't go see somebody. That's all it is.
 There is no such thing as a Mass Mind. The Mass Audience is made up of individuals, and good advertising is written always from one person to another. When it is aimed at millions it rarely moves anyone.
 The inventory goes down the elevator every night.

References
 Time; Up the Elevator; Friday, December 9, 1966; "'Show me this young genius!' demanded fearsome George Washington Hill, onetime president of the American Tobacco Co., of Adman Albert Lasker back in 1941. Out came Fairfax Mastick Cone, then 38, with what soon became the cigarette slogan of the '40s: 'With men who know tobacco best ... it's Luckies two to one.' When he retired a year later, Lasker was apparently still amazed by his upstart protége's Lucky stroke: in any event, Lasker sold his agency to Cone and two other staffers at a gift price of $167,500. Now known as Foote, Cone & Belding Inc."

External links
 Cone's ANBHF biography
Guide to the Fairfax M. Cone Papers 1947-1971 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

1903 births
1977 deaths
American advertising executives
Businesspeople from San Francisco

Fairfax M. Cone


Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836) was King of France and Navarre from 1824 to 1830. He was the grandson of Louis XV and younger brother of kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII. Charles was known as Charles Philippe, comte d'Artois, until he became king. During the French Revolution he was one of the leaders of the émigrés. Charles X was the last senior Bourbon to rule France.

Early Life

Charles-Philippe was born in 1757, the youngest son of the Dauphin Louis Ferdinand, and his wife, the Dauphine Marie Josèphe, at the Palace of Versailles. Charles was named comte d'Artois at birth by his grandfather, the reigning King Louis XV. As the youngest male in the family Charles seemed unlikely ever to become king.

Charles' father died in 1765, which left Charles' oldest surviving brother, Louis-Auguste (the later Louis XVI), to succeed their father in the capacity of Dauphin, the French equivalent to a crown prince or heir apparent. Charles' mother, Marie Josèphe, never recovered from the loss of her husband and she died in March 1767 from tuberculosis. This left Charles an orphan at the age of nine.

Throughout the 1770s, Charles spent lavishly. He accumulated enormous debts (they totalled 21 million livres), which Louis XVI paid for him in the early 1780s. Their brother the comte de Provence also accumulated debts of a similar magnitude, which Louis XVI also paid off.

His political awakening started with the first great crisis of the monarchy in 1786, after which he headed the reactionary faction at the court of Louis XVI. The comte d'Artois supported the removal of the aristocracy's financial privileges, but was opposed to any reduction in the social privileges enjoyed by both the Church and the nobility.

During and After the French Revolution

When the French Revolutionary Wars broke out in 1792, Charles escaped to Great Britain. George III of Great Britain and Ireland welcomed the comte d'Artois warmly, and gave him a generous allowance. He lived in Edinburgh and London with his mistress Louise de Polastron. After the accession (1814) of Louis XVIII to the French throne, Charles returned to France, where he headed the ultraroyalist party of reaction.

King of France

Charles' first act as King of France was to grant the style of Royal Highness to his cousins of the cadet branch of the House of Bourbon, the Orléans. Because the Duke of Orleans had voted the death of his brother Louis XVI, Louis XVIII had greatly disliked the Orléans family. However, Charles intended it to create a unified House of Bourbon.His favoritism during his reign toward the Roman Catholic Church and the aristocracy aroused great opposition, leading to the July Revolution of 1830.

July Revolution

Charles X was a strong believer in absolutism and rejected the Charter of the French Liberties, issued by his predecessor and brother Louis XVIII. In July 1830, he suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted the press. Liberals and radicals responded forcefully to the absolute king. In Paris, angry citizens threw up barricades across the narrow streets. Others fired at soldiers and threw stones and roof tiles. The revolutionary tricolor flew from the towers of Notre Dame cathedral. Charles was forced to abdicate.  He again went into exile in Britain. He was succeeded by his cousin, Louis-Philippe, son of the Duke of Orleans who had supported the French Revolution.

Death

Charles caught cholera when he arrived in Gorizia, Italy. He died on November 6 1836. The townspeople draped their windows in black to mourn him. Charles was buried in the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady, in the Franciscan Kostanjevica Monastery (now in Nova Gorica, Slovenia).

Marriage and issue

Charles X married Princess Maria Teresa of Savoy, the daughter of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia and Maria Antonia of Spain on 16 November 1773. The couple had four children:

 Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (6 August 1775 – 3 June 1844) Louis Antoine d'Artois
 Sophie d'Artois (5 August 1776 – 5 December 1783) Sophie d'Artois
 Charles Ferdinand d'Artois, Duke of Berry (24 January 1778 – 13 February 1820) Charles Ferdinand d'Artois
 Marie Thérèse d'Artois (1783)

References

1757 births
1836 deaths
Kings and Queens of France
House of Bourbon
Princes of Andorra
Deaths from cholera

Charles X


Sir Terence Farrell  (born 12 May 1938), known as Terry Farrell, is a British architect and urban designer. In 1980, after working for 15 years in partnership with Sir Nicholas Grimshaw, Farrell founded his own firm, Farrells. He established his reputation with three completed projects in London in the late 1980s: Embankment Place, 125 London Wall aka Alban Gate and SIS Building aka Vauxhall Cross.

He garnered a strong reputation for contextual urban design schemes, as well as exuberant works of postmodernism such as the MI6 Building. In 1991, his practice expanded internationally, opening an office in Hong Kong. In Asia his firm designed KK100 in Shenzhen, the tallest building ever designed by a British architect, as well as Guangzhou South railway station, once the largest railway station in Asia.

At the 2013 invitation of Ed Vaizey, the Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries, his firm commenced the Farrell Review of Architecture and the Built Environment, intended to offer expert guidance on the direction of British architecture.

Early life and education
Farrell was born in Sale, Cheshire. His maternal grandfather was born in Manchester to an Irish mother who had emigrated to England from Ireland to escape Great Famine. As a youth he moved to Newcastle upon Tyne, where he attended St Cuthbert's Grammar School. He graduated with a degree in architecture from Newcastle University School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape (then part of Durham University) in 1961, followed by a Masters in urban planning at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.

Career
In 1965, Farrell moved to London to form a partnership with Sir Nicholas Grimshaw. In 1980, he founded his own company, Terry Farrell & Partners. In addition, Farrell lectures at a number of different universities including Cambridge University, the University of London, the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Sheffield.

In the early part of his career, Farrell gave emphasis to housing projects. Later, after the break with Grimshaw, he became the UK's principal postmodernist and was best known for the TV-am headquarters in Camden Lock and the redevelopment of Comyn Ching Triangle in London's Covent Garden. In the 1980s and 1990s his projects included Charing Cross Station, the MI6 headquarters building, The Deep Aquarium in Hull and The International Centre for Life in Newcastle. More recent work includes the new headquarters for the Home Office, the conversion of the Grade I-listed Royal Institution of Great Britain and the Great North Museum in Newcastle.

He has been responsible for regeneration projects in the UK including Newcastle Quayside, Brindleyplace in Birmingham, Edinburgh Exchange District, Greenwich Peninsula and Paddington Basin. He has also designed his own buildings within these projects, including the Edinburgh International Conference Centre and The Point in Paddington Basin. In May 2010, he was appointed to regenerate the  area around Earl's Court exhibition centre. In 2012 his practice was appointed as masterplanners for Wood Wharf – the next phase of Canary Wharf's development.

In East Asia, projects include Incheon International Airport in Seoul and Beijing South railway station, the largest in Asia. When completed in December 2010 Guangzhou South railway station was for a time the largest railway station in the world. Since setting up his practice in Hong Kong in 1990, he has designed the Peak Tower, Kowloon Station development and the British Consulate-General, Hong Kong. His KK100 tower in Shenzhen is the tallest building ever by a British architect.

Farrell is on the Design Advisory Committee of the Mayor of London. In 2008 he was appointed Design and Planning Leader for the Thames Gateway, Europe's largest regeneration project.

Farrell was named CBE in 1996 and made a Knight Bachelor in 2001.

He was made a visiting professor at the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape at Newcastle University, and also an honorary freeman of Newcastle, in 2016. In 2018, he donated £1 million and his archive to the university.

Personal life
Farrell has been married three times, and has five children and six grandchildren.

Selected awards
The Herman Miller factory in Bath, UK (joint project with Nicholas Grimshaw), completed 1976: the Financial Times Industrial Award (1977), Civic Trust Award (1978), RIBA South West Award (1978), Grade II listing by English Heritage (2013)
Ching Court, London: Civic Trust Award (1985), Grade II listing by English Heritage (2016)
The Henley Regatta Headquarters, completed 1986: Civic Trust Award (1988), RIBA award (1988)
Charing Cross railway station/Embankment Place, completed 1990: Civic Trust Award (1991 & 1994), RIBA National Award (1991), British Council of Offices Award (1994)
Edinburgh International Conference Centre, completed 1995: (RIBA Award (1996), Civic Trust Award (1996)
Newcastle Quayside, completed 1998: Civic Trust Urban Design Award (1998)
Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne, completed 2000: Civic Trust Award (2002)
The Home Office building, completed 2005: (RIBA International Award (2005), LEAF Award for Best Public Building (2005), the MIPIM Award for Business Centres (2008)
The Green Building in Manchester, ongoing: Civic Trust Award for Sustainability (2006 & 2010), LEAF Award for Best Environmentally Sustainable Project (2006)
Beijing South railway station, completed in 2008: RIBA International Award (2009)
Great North Museum, completed in 2009: RIBA Award for North East England (2010)
The Earls Court Project, ongoing: MIPIM AR Future Projects Award for regeneration and planning (2011)

Selected publications
2014 The Farrell Review of Architecture and the Built Environment
2013 The City As A Tangled Bank: Urban Design versus Urban Evolution, John Wiley and Sons London
2009 Shaping London: The patterns and forms that make the metropolis, John Wiley and Sons London
April 2008 Prospect, 12 Challenges for Edinburgh
Sept 2007 Architectural Review, Manifesto For London
2004 Place, Terry Farrell's Life & Work: Early Years to 1981 London
2003 Buckingham Palace Redesigned: A Radical New Approach to London's Royal Parks, Papadakis
2002 Terry Farrell in Scotland foreword by Dr. Brian Edwards, Edinburgh
2002 The Deep The World's Only Submarium – An Icon for Hull foreword by The Rt Hon John Prescott, London
2002 Ten Years: Ten Cities The Work of Terry Farrell & Partners 1991–2001 foreword by Sir Terry Farrell, Introduction by Hugh Pearman, Text by Jane Tobin, London
1999 PA Pro Architect 13 Terry Farrell, Seoul
1998 Sketchbook 12.05.98 Terry Farrell & Partners with essays by Robert Maxwell and Terry Farrell, London
1998 98:06 World Architecture Review Special Issue: Terry Farrell & Partners Shenzhen
1998 Kowloon Transport Super City Terry Farrell & Partners/Steven Smith, Hong Kong
1994 Terry Farrell Selected and Current Works introduction by Clare Melhuish, Victoria
1993 Terry Farrell Urban Design introduction by Kenneth Powell, London/Berlin
1993 Blueprint Extra 09, Three Urban Projects text by Piers Gough, London
1993 World Architecture Building Profile No 1 Lightweight Classic Terry Farrell's Covent Garden nursery building, London
1992 Vauxhall Cross: The story of the design and construction of a new London landmark, Kenneth Powell, London
1991 Palace on the River Terry Farrell's design for the redevelopment of Charing Cross, Marcus Binney, London
1989 A U special feature: Terry Farrell & Company' Japan, December pp. 37–132
1987 Terry Farrell in the context of London catalogue by Rowan Moore with an introduction by Deyan Sudjic, published to coincide with the exhibition at the RIBA Heinz Gallery 14 May to 13 June 1987, London
1986 Designing a House Charles Jencks and Terry Farrell, London
1984 Architectural Monographs: Terry Farrell introduction by Terry Farrell, texts by Colin Amery and Charles Jencks, London

References

External links

Terry Farrell and Partners

1938 births
 Living people
 People from Sale, Greater Manchester
 Harkness Fellows
 Modernist architects from England
Postmodern architects
 People from Newcastle upon Tyne
 People educated at St. Cuthbert's School
 Alumni of King's College, Newcastle
 Architects from Greater Manchester
 Knights Bachelor
 Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
 University of Pennsylvania School of Design alumni

Terry Farrell (architect)


Per Sivle (6 April 1857 – 6 September 1904) was a Norwegian poet, novelist and newspaper editor. He is known for his novel Streik from 1891, and for his collections of stories issued between 1887 and 1895, Sogor (includes the story "Berre ein Hund"), Vossa-Stubba, Nye Vossa-stubbar and Sivle-Stubbar. Among his poetry collections is Bersøglis- og andre Viser from 1895.

Life and career
Per Eriksen Sivle was born in Flåm as the son of farmer and horse trader Eirik Hansson Sivle and Susanna Andersdotter Ryum. He was the only living child of twins of which his mother bore two more sets, both of which died. His parents were not married, and his mother died in 1859, when he was only two years old. During his childhood he frequently moved from place to place, growing up along with different relatives. He attended a folk high school in Sogndal when he was 15 years old. In 1875, he moved to Christiania for studies, planning to become a priest. Because of illness these plans were abandoned and he aborted his studies. He then started a literary career. He made his literary debut in 1878 with the book En digters drøm, published under the pen name Simon de Vita. He was editor for the newspaper Buskeruds Amtstidende from 1883 to 1885. In 1885 he attended Askov Højskole in Denmark. Here he met his future wife, and he married Wenche von der Lippe Nilsen in 1887. From 1887 to 1891 he edited the newspaper Kristianiaposten. His literary breakthrough was the collection of five stories Sogor from 1887.  This book also included the story "Berre ein hund", which had been published in the literary and cultural magazine Nyt Tidsskrift in 1885. The story "Berre en hund" was later adapted into a film. In 1887 he also published Vossa-Stubba, a collection of stories written in dialect. His novel Streik from 1891, based on a conflict in Drammen in 1881, is one of the first workers' novels in Norwegian literature. In 1894 he published the poetry collection Noreg, and also the story collection Nye Vossa-Stubbar. His poem "Vi vil os et Land" from 1894, included in the poetry collection Bersøglis- og andre Viser from 1895, became a popular song with a melody composed by Christian Sinding. Literary historian Kristian Elster characterized Bersøglis- og andre Viser as Sivle's most outstanding poetry collection. His story collection Sivle-Stubbar was published in 1895, the poetry collections Skaldemaal in 1896 and En Fyrstikke og andre Viser in 1898, and the stories Folk og Fæ in 1898. His last poetry collection was Olavs-Kvæde from 1901. Two of his songs that have found their way into songbooks are "Lerka" (from Skaldemaal) and "Den fyrste song".

Sivle suffered from various personal problems during his life, including nerve troubles, alcohol abuse and financial straits. He shot himself in a public bath in Oslo in 1904. Commemorative monuments to Sivle exist in Flåm, Stalheim, along the very steep, zig zag road to Gudvangen, (just beneath the Stalheim Hotel & near to the family home), two in Vossevangen, one in Strømsgodset and one in Elverum.

References

External links
Digitized books by Sivle in the National Library of Norway

1857 births
1904 suicides
1904 deaths
People from Aurland
Nynorsk-language writers
20th-century Norwegian poets
Norwegian male poets
Norwegian newspaper editors
Suicides by firearm in Norway
Norwegian male novelists
19th-century Norwegian poets
19th-century Norwegian novelists
19th-century Norwegian male writers
20th-century Norwegian male writers

Per Sivle


An impossible object is a kind of optical illusion. Impossible objects are also known as undecidable figures. In this kind of illusion, a person looks at a two-dimensional picture. The vision center of the brain does much of its work subconsciously  and automatically. It interprets the figure as a three-dimensional object.

The viewer usually knows such an object is impossible soon after looking at the figure. However, the impression of a 3D figure may still remain even when the viewer knows it is impossible in reality.

Some of these figures are more subtle. In these cases it is not obvious that they are impossible right away. The viewer carefully needs to look at the geometry of the object to find out that it is indeed impossible.

Impossible objects are of interest to psychologists, mathematicians and artists.

History
Swedish artist Oscar Reutersvärd was the first person to draw many impossible objects. He has been called "the father of impossible figures". In 1934, he drew the Penrose triangle, some years before the Penroses. The way Reutersvärd drew it, the sides of the triangle are broken up into cubes.

In 1956, British psychiatrist Lionel Penrose and his son, mathematician Roger Penrose, submitted a short article to the British Journal of Psychology titled Impossible objects: a special type of visual illusion. This was illustrated with the Penrose Triangle and Penrose stairs. The article referenced Escher, whose work had sparked their interest in the subject, but not Reutersvärd, whom they were unaware of. The article was only published in 1958.

From the 1930s onwards Dutch artist M.C. Escher produced many drawings with paradoxes of perspective. In 1957 he produced his first drawing containing a true impossible object: Cube with Magic Ribbons. He produced many other drawings of impossible objects, sometimes with the entire drawing being an undecidable figure. His work did much to draw the attention of the public to impossible objects. Some artists of the time are also experimenting with impossible figures, for example, Jos de Mey, Shigeo Fukuda, Sandro del Prete, István Orosz (Utisz), Guido Moretti, Tamás F. Farkas and Mathieu Hamaekers.

In fiction
In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "I, Borg", a plan was made to destroy the entire race of Borg—malevolent cybernetic aliens whose minds were interconnected—by showing one of the Borg a picture of a highly complex impossible object. This image would be transmitted back to the Borg hive, overloading its consciousness in larger and larger attempts to understand the image. This plan was dismissed as being genocide, so its potential results were never seen.
In the computer game Diablo II, the "Arcane Sanctuary" region was based on impossible drawings.
Alan Moore's miniseries 1963 features a character called the Hypernaut that lives in a space station shaped like an impossible object.
In the video game Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem the Essence of Xel'lotath, the Sigil of Xel'lotath, is an impossible artifact resembling a warped angel.
In The Simpsons episode "Treehouse of Horror VIII", a blivet (or devil's tuning fork) can be seen on Professor Frink's yard sale. In The Simpsons Movie, Homer falls down miles of the impossible infinite House of Stairs while having an epiphany.
The video game Echochrome for the PSP and PS3 features a mannequin who must traverse a series of impossible objects.
The set of the climactic scene in the Goblin King's castle in the 1986 fantasy film, Labyrinth, directed by Jim Henson, is based on M. C. Escher's "Relativity", and features impossible staircases and perspectives.
In Pokemon Platinum there is an area full of impossibilities such as these.

Related pages
Optical illusion
Necker cube
Paradox
Surrealism
Puzzle

References
Mathematical Circus, Martin Gardner 1979  (Chapter 1 — Optical Illusions)
Optical Illusions, Bruno Ernst 2006

Other websites
Art of Reutersvard
Real Escher Objects
Impossible World, a repository of impossible object images

Illusions
Art

Impossible object


Vladimir mey refer tae:

Names
Vladimir (name), Bulgarie, Croatie, Czech, Roushie, an Serbie spellin o a Slavic name
Waldemar (disambiguation) for Germanic version o name
Volodymyr (name) for Ukrainian version o name

Places
Vladimir, Roushie, ceety in Roushie
Volodymyr-Volynskyi, a ceety in Ukraine
Vladimir-Suzdal, medieval principality
Vladimir, Gorj, a commune in Gorj Coonty, Romanie
Vladimir, a veelage in Goiești Commune, Dolj Coonty, Romanie
Vladimir Oblast, a federal subject o Roushie

Fowk
Releegious leaders
Metropolitan Vladimir (disambiguation), multiple
Jovan Vladimir (d. 1016), ruler o Doclea an a saunt o the Serbie Orthodox Kirk

Muisickers
Vladimir Horowitz (1903-1989) Roushie American legendar classical virtuoso pianist an minor componer
Vladimir Ashkenazy (1937-) Roushie-Icelandic renowned classical pianist an conductor

Nobles
Vladimir o Bulgarie (fl. 889-893), King o Bulgarie
Vladimir I o Kiev (980–1015), medieval ruler o Kievan Rus
Vladimir II Monomakh (1053–1125), Veliky Knyaz o Kievan Rus, prince o Kiev; forby ruled in Rostov an Suzdal
Vladimir II Mstislavich (1132–1173), Prince o Dorogobuzh, Vladimir, an Volyn, Slutsk, Tripolye an Grand Prince o Kiev
Vladimir o Novgorod (1020–1052), Prince o Novgorod
Vladimir III Rurikovich (1187–1239), Prince o Pereyaslavl, Smolensk an Grand Prince o Kiev
Vlad II Dracul (1390–1447), Prince o Wallachia an Govrenor o Transylvanie
Vlad III the Impaler (1431–1476), aka Dracula, Prince o Wallachia

Poleetical an militar leaders
Vladimir the Bold (1353–1410), commander o the Muscovite armies in the 14t century
Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924), pseudonym o Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, leader o the Bolshevik Revolution an first leader o the Soviet Union
Vladimir Putin, current Preses o the Roushie Federation

Sportsfowk
Wladimir Balentien (b. 1984), ootfielder for the Seattle Mariners
Vladimir González (b. 1978), Colombie road cyclist
Vladimir Guerrero (b. 1976), basebaw player
Vladimir Latocha (b. 1973), French breaststroke swimmer
Vladimir Timoshinin (b. 1970), Roushie diver
Vladimir Parfyonov (b. 1970), Uzbekistani javelin thrower
Vladimir Popov (weichtlifter) (b. 1977), Moldovan weichtlifter
Vladimir Portnoi (b. 1931), Soviet Olympic siller an bronze medallist in gymnastics
Wladimir Ribeiro (b. 1967), Brazilian swimmer
Oleg Prudius (aka Vladimir Koslov) (b. 1972), Roushie professional wrestler

Feectional chairacters
Vladimir (Waiting for Godot), forby kent as Vladimir "Albert" an "Didi", a chairacter in Samuel Beckett's Waitin for Godot
Vovochka, diminutive form o Vladimir, common chairacter in Roushie jokes
Count Dracula, aka Vlad Dracula, frae Bram Stoker's 1897 Dracula
Vladimir, chairacter in the gemme League o Legends

Actors, writers, poets
Vladimir Semyonovich Vysotsky, 1938-01-25 - 1980-07-25, Actor, Poet, Bard, Writer
Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov (1899-1977), multilingual Roushie novelist

See also
Vlad
Volodymyr (disambiguation)
Vladimirov
Vladimirovka (disambiguation)
Vladimirsky (disambiguation)
Vladimirovsky

Roushie masculine given names

Vladimir


Operation Medusa (September 2–17, 2006) was a Canadian-led offensive during the second Battle of Panjwaii of the War in Afghanistan. The operation was fought primarily by the 1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment Battle Group and other elements of the International Security Assistance Force, supported by the Afghan National Army and a team from the United States Army's 1st Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group (Airborne) augmented by A Company, 2nd Battalion, 4th Infantry Regiment of the 10th Mountain Division. Its goal was to establish government control over an area of Kandahar Province centered in the district of Panjwayi some  west of Kandahar city. A tactical victory, it resulted in the deaths of 12 Canadian soldiers; five during the major combat operations, five in bombings, and two in a mortar/RPG attack during the reconstruction phase of the operation.  Fourteen British military personnel were also killed when their plane crashed. Despite suffering a brutal battlefield defeat, the Taliban retained their presence in Kandahar province and did not lose their will to fight, leading to the subsequent Operation Falcon Summit. Nonetheless, Operation Medusa was at the time the most significant land battle ever undertaken by NATO.

Background

This area is characterized by numerous small farming villages in the valley of the Arghandab River southwest of Kandahar City. NATO forces believed it to be a Taliban stronghold. It was previously assaulted in the Battle of Panjwaii during the summer of 2006, but Taliban forces quickly re-asserted their presence after the operation ended. Operation Medusa involved most of the Canadian Forces' combat troops in Afghanistan, which provided the bulk of the force there, including troops from 1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment Battle Group as well various company-sized formations from the US Army (Special Operations Forces; A Company 2nd Battalion 4th Infantry Regiment; 4th Brigade Combat Team 10th Mountain Division; and members of the Oregon National Guard). Dutch and Danish soldiers were also involved–albeit peripherally, as well as hundreds of Afghan soldiers. The Dutch PzH 2000 howitzer was positioned with the Canadian M777 Howitzers of Echo Battery (2RCHA) and made its combat debut with the Dutch Army as fire support.

Battle

September 2, 2006
NATO said on September 3, 2006 that the previous day, Afghan and NATO forces killed more than 200 suspected Taliban fighters in a major operation in southern Afghanistan. Four Canadian soldiers were killed and nine others were wounded in the fighting. A further statement from the alliance said:

Reports indicate that more than 200 Taliban fighters have been killed since Operation Medusa began early morning on September 2, 2006. This figure was arrived at by reviewing information from ISAF surveillance and reconnaissance assets operating in Panjwaye and Zhari districts, as well as information reported by various Afghan officials and citizens living nearby,

More than 80 suspected Taliban fighters were captured by Afghan police and a further 180 insurgents were seen fleeing the district, the statement said.

The air-offensive commenced on September 2 while ground forces positioned themselves in a pincer, north and south of the Panjwayi District. The air attacks led to the killing, in the first two days, of around 200 Taliban fighters and the arrest of another 80. While supporting the operation a British Nimrod MR2 reconnaissance aircraft crashed, killing all 14 on board. This represented the largest single fatal incident involving British troops in Afghanistan. The UK Ministry of Defence believed the crash was not the result of hostile action.

Stronger than expected resistance was put up by the Taliban forces, whom NATO expected to simply retreat. Instead, they prepared for the decisive engagement, deciding to take advantage of the defensively advantageous ground of the district, and laid traps for the coming NATO troops. The NATO troops' objective was, basically, to capture a grouping of villages known as Pashmul, which had been the site of repeated battles throughout the summer of 2006 and where several Canadian soldiers were killed on August 3.

An odd decision made at RC(S) changed the tone of the battle. "C" Company of 1st Battalion Royal Canadian Regiment Battle Group was positioned for a feint in the south while the bombing went on. Three days ahead of schedule "C" Company was suddenly ordered to cross the Arghandab River and move into Pashmul. Enemy resistance was severe. Several Canadian vehicles were lost, four Canadian soldiers were killed, and nine were wounded in the intense fighting. Explosions echoed across grape and pomegranate fields and clouds of dust rose amid the greenery and dried-mud houses of the Panjwayi district, which is about  from Kandahar city.

After Operation Medusa started, authorities in Kandahar warned people not to travel off the main highway in the province, which leads into Panjwayi. The road was blocked by soldiers–not far from where bombing was taking place. Some military Humvees were parked nearby. Observers reported that 180 Taliban fighters managed to escape the district.

September 4 and 5
On September 4 there was a friendly fire incident. U.S. warplanes mistakenly strafed "C" Company, as they were preparing to once again attack Pashmul. The A-10 killed one soldier and wounded at least 30, five of whom were seriously wounded, including all the leadership. NATO said the incident happened after ground troops battling Taliban militants requested air support. NATO said in a statement, "Two USAF aircraft provided the support but regrettably engaged friendly forces during a strafing run, using cannons." NATO later identified the planes as US A-10 Thunderbolt II. The incident essentially rendered "C" Company combat ineffective. Emphasis was switched from the southern flank of Panjwayi to the north. As forces reoriented themselves the Canadian and Dutch artillery as well as NATO air power resumed their attacks.

Canadian and Dutch artillery and NATO air strikes killed at least 51 suspected Taliban militants. Maj. Scott Lundy said earlier that an estimated 700 militants were "trapped" in an area spanning several hundred square miles in Panjwayi and Zhari districts, some in fortified compounds, others moving in the open. Also on the fourth day, first reports of civilian casualties emerged with people saying that at least 10 civilians from the same family were killed in the bombing since the start of the operation.

September 5th and 6th

Five soldiers were wounded in an ambush by a 82mm Recoilless Rifle, while in an all-around-defensive. Around Sundown, members of 22B were struck by the Rocket, which bounced off the ground, then struck the LAV's 4 tires, destroying the right side of the LAV. The shrapnel injured 5 Soldiers, 2 were repatriated home. After the Ambush, members from 5 Platoon engaged the enemy, taking control of the recoilless rifle, to prevent additional coalition casualties.

On the fifth day Canadian and Dutch artillery and NATO air strikes continued pounding Taliban positions killing another 40 fighters who tried to break through NATO lines and escape. Forward observers reported that the Taliban fighters that remain had entrenched themselves and were ready for a fight.

September 8
The next two days there was a lull in fighting. But it flared up again on September 8, 2006. Ground combat renewed and in the fighting on the 8 and 9 September another 40 Taliban fighters and one American soldier were killed. "We are engaging with everything from direct fire to artillery and air strikes," an official with the NATO-led ISAF said. Three insurgent positions, a bomb-making factory, and a weapons cache were destroyed, and ISAF troops occupied parts of Panjwayi and Zhari districts. "Afghan and ISAF troops have reopened Highway 1 to civilian traffic and will maintain a patrolling presence to ensure civilians can travel the route in increased safety," ISAF said.

September 9 and 10
Late on September 9, 2006 the fighting started up again and lasted until morning of the 10th. NATO said 94 militants were killed in both Panjwayi and neighboring Zhari districts. Late on the 10th insurgents staged a counterattack which led to the killing of another 92 militants, many falling easy prey to the Canadian snipers positioned on hills.

September 11–14
The next four days there was virtually no fighting with NATO reporting that the Taliban have fled. NATO troops, however, found a large number of booby traps left behind by the Taliban. On September 14, the 11th day of the operation, troops began moving ahead into Taliban-controlled areas of Pashmula. As the hours unfolded evidence of the Taliban's presence mounted:  of nitrogen, dozens of batteries, rocket-propelled grenades, ammunition, tunnels and bunkers. Meanwhile, connections to drug trafficking were evident at the compound. NATO and Afghan soldiers had to check every building and scour every inch of ground before victory could be declared and residents allowed to return to their homes. "Caution is the name of the game today," Major Geoff Abthorpe, Officer Commanding "B" Company, said Wednesday as the day began. "Slow is smooth, and smooth is fast." As NATO troops forged ahead, they were on the lookout for Taliban fighters. The insurgents had showed a stronger-than-expected resistance, but it now appeared they've fled their stronghold, which some had suspected would serve as a last stand. Many Canadian soldiers were excited and had anxiety because they were worried that the Taliban managed to flee to fight another day. But at the day's end an Afghan interpreter with the Canadian troops reported that he heard radio chatter from the Taliban, and that they were saying about pulling together in a spot to dig in and fight.

But the Taliban did not dig in. Instead some 400 heavily armed Taliban crossed into the western Farah province, taking control of its Gulistan district after chasing away the police and burning the district headquarters and a local clinic on September 14, 2006.

September 17
NATO announced the operation over on September 17, 2006. They said that the operation was a success in destroying the Taliban force that was massing near Kandahar, and the Taliban had been driven from both Panjwayi and Zhari districts of Kandahar province.

Aftermath
A day after NATO declared victory a suicide bomber in Panjwayi district of Kandahar province killed four Canadian soldiers while they were on a security patrol. While the operation was going on, in other attacks by the Taliban, in the same period, four American and four British soldiers were killed along with dozens of Afghan soldiers and police, and dozens of civilians. Military operations of Operation Medusa did not stop on September 17 though. The seventeenth was the date that the major combat of the operation ended. After that the next phases of operation Medusa began which included reconstruction of infrastructure and roadways, combined with efforts to help the local people return home and link the regional economy to the rest of the country.

Although suffering a brutal battlefield defeat, the Taliban retained their presence in Kandahar province and did not lose their will to fight. On October 6, 2006 anonymous commanders from five NATO countries, were demanding their governments "get tough" with Pakistan over the alleged support and sanctuary the Pakistani Interservices Intelligence (ISI) provided to the Taliban during operation Medusa. Despite the end of combat operations, heavy fighting continued in the area. In the last week of October 2006, dozens of civilians were reported killed in ISAF operations. A local council member was quoted as stating, "The government and the coalition told the families that there are no Taliban in the area any more. If there are no Taliban, then why are they bombing the area?"

At the start of the battle, NATO said there were no reports of civilian casualties, despite the heavy amount of firepower being used. Afghan Defense Ministry spokesman Gen. Zahir Azimi, citing intelligence reports, said 89 suspected Taliban militants and an uncertain number of civilians had been killed during the first two days of fighting in Panjwayi district. It was not immediately possible to gain independent confirmation of the casualty reports, as the government had ordered vehicles off the roads leading to Panjwayi during the operation. A NATO statement said its troops reported dozens of insurgents killed during the first day of the operation. It said many more had been wounded, and a significant number arrested. The tough military action had brought with it a risk of civilian deaths. Besides the physical injuries, many Coalition soldiers suffered from mental problems." The follow-up operation, Operation Falcon Summit, generally did not involve such heavy firepower, instead using small infantry units searching villages in co-operation with tribal elders.

See also
 Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006

References

Further reading
 Col. Bernd Horn, No Lack of Courage: Operation Medusa, Afghanistan, Dundurn Press, 2011

 Major General David Fraser, Brian Hanington, Operation Medusa: The Furious Battle That Saved Afghanistan from the Taliban, McClelland & Stewart, 2018.

External links

 Afghan Government map of Panjwayi District
 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation - Afghanistan Background
 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation - Canadian Casualties
 Legion magazine published by the Royal Canadian Legion
 Op MEDUSA: A Summay

Conflicts in 2006
2006 in Afghanistan
Battles of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving Canada
Battles of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the Netherlands
Battles of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the United States
Military operations of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving the United Kingdom
Battles of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) involving Denmark
Battles of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
Operations involving American special forces
Taliban

Operation Medusa