Gian Lorenzo (or Gianlorenzo) Bernini (, , ; Italian Giovanni Lorenzo; 7 December 159828 November 1680) was one of the greatest artists of the Italian Baroque period. He was famous both for his sculpture and his architecture. From 1627, he worked for Pope Urban XIII and then for Pope Alexander VII at St. Peter's Basilica where he designed the famous piazza (place) in front of the basilica and many of the most splendid things that are inside.

Early life
Bernini was born in Naples, Italy. He was the son of Pietro Bernini (1562-1629) who was a well known sculptor. When he was about 7 years old, his father took him to Rome.

Inspiration
As a boy and as a young man living in Rome, he saw the works of many famous artists. He saw the famous fresco paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo, one of the most famous artists of the 1500s. The paintings told the Bible story of Creation. He saw the huge dome of St. Peter's Basilica which Michelangelo designed and the new extension to the building that was being built by Carlo Maderna.

Works
One artist who Bernini knew well was Annibale Carracci who painted scenes on the ceilings of rooms for the pope. The scenes told stories, often Ancient Roman legends. Carracci took Bernini into St. Peter's Basilica. Bernini fell on his knees and decided at that moment that he wanted to make something beautiful and splendid to honour Saint Peter.

Another artist whose work Bernini saw was Caravaggio. Caravaggio's paintings were nothing like Carracci's. Carracci's pictures were bright, lively and colourful. Caravaggio's pictures were dark, sad and often frightening. But looking into Caravaggio's paintings was like looking at something that was really happening while you were watching. The people in Caravaggio's paintings looked as if they could breathe, speak and feel pain.

By the time he was 20, Bernini was a sculptor, carving statues out of marble. He had learnt a lot, not just how to carve marble, which he learnt from his father, but how to make figures that told stories like Carracci's and Michelangelo's and seemed to be alive, like Caravaggio's.  An important man in the Roman Catholic Church, Cardinal Scipione Borghese, saw his work and became his patron, paying Bernini to make many beautiful sculptures for him and his family. Soon the cardinal's uncle got to hear about Bernini. He was Pope Urban VIII, the most powerful man in Italy. He asked Bernini to work for him at St. Peter's Basilica. Bernini spent 40 years of his life there, all the time except for a trip to France and shorter visits to other cities.

Bernini's sculpture

Most sculptures of that time were just of one figure. But Bernini had seen Michelangelo's famous sculpture of the "Pieta" which showed the Virgin Mary grieving over the body of her dead son, Jesus. Bernini made figures that were in groups and told stories. One of his famous groups comes from Roman Mythology. It shows the god, Apollo chasing a beautiful wood nymph (a sort of fairy) that he had fallen in love with. But her father had magic powers and suddenly turned his daughter into a tree. Bernini sculptured the very moment when her toes are turning into roots, her legs are becoming the trunk, and leaves are sprouting out of her hands and long hair. She has her mouth open and a look of horror on her face. No-one had ever tried to carve anything like that in marble before. The thing that is so amazing about Bernini's sculpture is that he has made the flesh, the wood, the leaves and the hair all look so real, even though they are all carved in white stone.

Bernini's most famous sculpture is St. Theresa in Ecstasy. It tells the story of a saint who had a vision of an angel. Her vision was so beautiful that she fainted. Bernini has sculptured the vision, with St. Theresa lying on a cloud with the laughing angel in front of her. Their robes are blowing around, and it is hard to believe that the whole scene, which is set against a wall, is not really floating. Bernini did not just design the statues. He also designed the walls of the chapel around it, which is like a stage-set, made of beautifully patterned marble.  Against another wall, he carved a balcony and several white marble people looking at the scene. They are members of the family that paid for the chapel.

The city of Rome has lots of squares with fountains in them. Pope Alexander wanted to make the city more beautiful, so during his time, more fountains were made. One of the biggest squares in Rome was the Piazza Navona. On one side of the piazza was the church of St. Agnes, built by Borromini. Bernini thought it was an ugly building. He was asked to make the "Fountain of the Rivers" in the square, right outside the church. It has four figures who are symbols of four rivers. Bernini carved one of river-figures looking up at the church and throwing his hands in the air in shock at its ugliness. Borromini was very upset with Bernini's joke, which has been there now for more than 300 years.

Bernini at St. Peter's

Baldacchino and niches
Bernini's first work at St. Peter's was to design the "baldacchino" which is like a tent or "pavilion" above the High Altar. This amazing thing is 30 metres (98 ft) tall and is probably the largest piece of bronze in the world. It stands underneath Michelangelo's dome and has four huge bronze twisted columns decorated with olive leaves and bees, because bees were the symbol of Pope Urban. Pope Urban had a niece that he loved very much and he got Bernini to put her face and the face of her new-born baby boy on the columns as well.

Holding up the dome of the Basilica were four enormous stone pillars (piers). Bernini had a great idea for the big piers. He had four hollow "niches" carved into them where four huge statues could stand. This sent some people into a panic because they thought the dome would fall down, but it did not.

The basilica owns some precious relics: a piece of the True Cross of Jesus, a veil that a woman wiped the face of Jesus with, while he was carrying the cross, the spear that was used to pierce Jesus side, and the bones of St. Andrew, the brother of St. Peter. No-one knows for sure whether these things are real or not, but for hundreds of years they have been precious. Bernini's plan was the make four marble statues of the four Holy people: St. Helena who found the cross, St. Longinus who was the soldier with the spear, St Veronica who wiped Jesus' face and St. Andrew. Even though the design is Bernini's, the statues, which are all 5 metres high, were made by four different sculptors. Only St. Longinus is the work of Bernini.

The chair of St. Peter
Bernini's next job was to make a special throne out of bronze, to hold an ancient wood and ivory throne that had been at the basilica for more than 500 years. It is called the Cattedra Petri or "throne of St. Peter". The bronze throne, with the old wooden throne inside it, is held up high at the end of the basilica, by four important saints who are called "Doctors of the Church" because they were all great writers and teachers. The statues are made of bronze. They are Saints Ambrose and Augustine for the Church of Rome and Saints Athanasius and John Chrysostum for the Orthodox Church. Above the chair is a window which is made not from glass but thin translucent stone called alabaster. The Dove of the Holy Spirit is in the middle of the window with rays of light spreading out into the basilica through a sculpture of golden clouds and angels. Bernini designed this to look like a window into Heaven. There was a great celebration when the chair was put in place on January 16, 1666.

St. Peter's Piazza
To the west of the basilica is the Piazza di San Pietro (St. Peter's Place).  The piazza was designed by Bernini and built between 1656 and 1667. It was not an easy job because the designer had lots of things to think about. Firstly, many people complained that Maderna's facade on St. Peter's looked too wide, so Bernini wanted to make it look narrower, not wider. Secondly, in the old square left over from the Old St. Peter's, Pope Sixtus V had a monument set up. This monument was a precious Ancient Egyptian obelisk (which is like a tall column, but with four flat sides). From its base to the top of the cross (that the pope had put on top) it was 40 metres (131 ft) high, and had been brought to Roman in ancient times. The obelisk really should be at the centre of the new square, but it was not in quite the right place, and was very difficult to move without breaking. The third problem was that Maderna had built a fountain to one side of the obelisk, and Bernini needed to make another fountain to match it, otherwise the design would look unbalanced.

Bernini solved the problem by making two areas, instead of one huge one. The first area is an almost-square area right in front of the facade. It is cleverly designed with sloping sides that make the building look taller and not so wide. The second part of the piazza is oval. It has the obelisk at the centre with two fountains on either side at the widest part. The two parts of the piazza are surrounded by a colonnade (covered walk-way) which is carried on tall columns. All around are large statues of saints which seem to look down on the thousands of visitors that come to the square every day. The colonnade is in two great arcs that seem to stretch out like loving arms, welcoming people to the Basilica. In recent times some buildings were demolished, making another square, to match the one near the piazza. It is a good place for vans to park and can be seen in the photo.

The famous architectural historian, Sir Banister Fletcher, said that no other city in the world had given such a wonderful view to people visiting their main church. He said that no other architect except Bernini could have imagined such a noble design. He said it is the greatest entrance to the greatest Christian church in the whole world.

The Chapel of the Sacrament
Bernini's last work for St. Peter's, 1676, was to decorate of the Chapel of the Sacrament. He designed a miniature temple just like the one that was built over the place where St. Peter died. He made it bronze covered with fine gold. On either side is an angel, one gazing in adoration and the other looking towards the viewer in welcome. Bernini died in 1680 aged 81, after working for St. Peter's for 40 years of his life.

Gallery

Notes

References
 Hintzen-Bohlen, Brigitte and Sorges, Jurgen. Rome and the Vatican City, Konemann,
 Fletcher, Banister.  A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method, first published 1896, current edition 2001, Elsevier Science & Technology
 Hartt, Frederick. A History of Italian Renaissance Art. Thames and Hudson (1970)
 Lees-Milne, James. Saint Peter's, Hamish Hamilton (1967). ISBN
 Gardner, Helen. Art through the Ages, 5th edition, Harcourt, Brace and World, inc.,
 Pevsner, Nikolaus An Outline of European Architecture, Pelican, 1964, ISBN  9780140201093
 Pinto, Pio V. The Pilgrim's Guide to Rome, Harper and Row, (1974),

1598 births
1680 deaths
Italian sculptors
Italian architects
Artists from Naples

Gian Lorenzo Bernini


Larnaca Destrict is ane o the sax destricts o Cyprus. Its main toun is Larnaca. A sma pairt o the destrict wis occupied bi the Turkis airmy in 1974.

The authorities in Turkish Republic o Northren Cyprus admeenister the Turkish-occupied pairts o Larnaca Destrict as pairt o Nicosia Destrict.

Larnaca hosts baith a port an the island's maist important airport, Larnaca Internaitional Airport.  The toun an aa hosts the Hala Sultan Tekke mosque which is sometimes referred tae as the third holiest site in Islam bi some orientalists. Housomeivver, this is no pairt o orthodox Muslim belief.

Destricts o Cyprus

Larnaca Destrict


A cutting board or chopping board is a strong board used to chop food on. It may also be used to cut raw materials such as leather or plastic. Kitchen cutting boards are often made of wood or plastic. There are also cutting boards made of glass, steel, marble or corian. These kinds of cutting boards are easier to clean than wooden or plastic ones. On the down side, they normally damage knives.

Kitchenware

Cutting board


Geoffrey Dawson Lane, Baron Lane,  (17 July 1918 – 22 August 2005) was a British Judge who served as Lord Chief Justice of England from 1980 to 1992. The later part of his term was marred by a succession of disputed convictions. Lane's critics claimed that his refusal to believe that police evidence could be institutionally corrupt, and his reluctance to overturn the verdict of a jury, "represented a dangerous hindrance to justice". His failure to allow the appeal of the Birmingham Six in 1988 led to calls for his resignation following their successful appeal in 1991; an editorial in The Times "urged him to go", while 140 members of parliament signed a House of Commons motion to that effect.

Early life
The son of a bank manager, Lane was born in Derby. He attended Shrewsbury School and Trinity College, Cambridge where he took Firsts in Part I of the Classical Tripos before the Second World War and both parts of the Law Tripos after he was demobilized. During the war, he served as a pilot in the Royal Air Force. Initially, he flew Wellington Bombers for 104 Squadron, before being promoted to Squadron Leader to command 233 Squadron, which flew Dakota transport aircraft in D-Day and Operation Market Garden. He was awarded the Air Force Cross in 1943.

Legal career
Lane was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1946. He specialised in criminal prosecutions on the Midland and Oxford circuit, and took silk in 1962. He prosecuted some of the Great Train robbers and the murderer James Hanratty in the same year, and was appointed as Recorder of Bedford in 1963.

While appearing for the defendant in the case of R v Morris, he made a much-cited statement as to what constituted 'common purpose' for the criminal law, which Lord Parker of Waddington CJ adopted:

"where two persons embark on a joint enterprise, each is liable for the acts done in pursuance of that joint enterprise, that that includes liability for unusual consequences if they arise from the execution of the agreed joint enterprise but (and this is the crux of the matter) that, if one of the adventurers goes beyond what had been tacitly agreed as part of the common enterprise, his co-adventurer is not liable for the consequences of that unauthorised act. Finally, he says it is for the jury in every case to decide whether what was done was part of the joint enterprise, or went beyond it and was in fact an act unauthorised by that joint enterprise."

He is also famous for his quote: "Loss of freedom seldom happens overnight. Oppression doesn't stand on the doorstep with toothbrush moustache and swastika armband – it creeps up insidiously... step by step, and all of a sudden the unfortunate citizen realizes that it is gone."

Judicial office

High Court
Later in 1966, Lane was appointed a Justice of the High Court, assigned to the Queen's Bench Division, receiving the customary Knighthood. He was elected a Bencher at Gray's Inn the same year.

He delivered some notable judgments: in 1968, he awarded damages against a school for a pupil who had been injured in 'horseplay' between his peers, saying that the school had a responsibility to stop it getting out of hand; and while acting as an appeal judge, he found for the publishers of Last Exit to Brooklyn who had been convicted of publishing an obscene book, because of faults in the trial Judge's summing-up. He was chosen to head the inquiry into the Staines air disaster in 1972, and concluded that the underlying cause was an undiagnosed heart condition of the pilot which impaired his judgement, coupled with the pilot's known bad temper which led to his junior crew being unwilling to challenge him.

Court of Appeal and House of Lords
Lane was made a Lord Justice of Appeal in 1974. He was one of the appeal judges in Tameside Metropolitan Borough Council's appeal to keep its Grammar Schools rather than be forced by the government to adopt a comprehensive system, and joined in the judgment that found for Tameside and brought a halt to comprehensivisation. Lane's judgment was personally critical of Fred Mulley, the Secretary of State for Education and Science for being "far from frank" about his reason for intervening in Tameside.

In another high-profile case in 1977, Lane joined in dismissing an appeal against deportation from Mark Hosenball, an American journalist working for the Evening Standard. In 1978, Lane found for the Labour Party and against its dissident members (Paul McCormick and Julian Lewis) who tried to win control of Newham North East Constituency Labour Party from the party's National Executive.

Lane became a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary on 28 September 1979, receiving as a Law lord additionally a life peerage as Baron Lane, of St Ippollitts in the County of Hertfordshire. He had been appointed by the new Lord Chancellor, Lord Hailsham, soon after Margaret Thatcher won the 1979 general election. His appointment was welcomed in the legal profession, where Lane was regarded as a genial figure ("Geoffrey Dawson, Baron Lane. Good to have you back again."), but eventually not welcomed by Lane himself, who disliked the work. The overdue retirement of Lord Widgery, whose physical ill-health and increasing dementia had become a suppressed scandal, led to Hailsham picking Lane to follow him as Lord Chief Justice from 1980.

Lord Chief Justice
Shortly after taking over as Lord Chief Justice, Lane attracted political controversy when he called for a general reduction in prison terms. His appeal judgments frequently cut the length of sentences and he was known to be a member of the Prison Reform Trust. He had served as deputy chairman of the Parole Board from 1970 to 1972. After the publication of lengthy interviews with members of the jury in the trial of Jeremy Thorpe, Lane supported moves (later made in the Contempt of Court Act 1981) to ban any publication of reports from within the jury room. Lane also opposed the proposal to extend rights of audience in the higher courts to solicitors.

One of the areas of crime in which Lane did not support shorter sentences was rape. In 1982, Lane stated that sentences for rape should include immediate prison time, except in the most exceptional circumstances, which was taken as an implied rebuke for a Judge who had attracted controversy for fining a rapist £2,000 and saying that the victim was "guilty of a great deal of contributory negligence". Lane made it clear he rejected the general concept that victims of rape could have given their attackers an excuse. Much later in his career, Lane was responsible for a judgment in the case of R v R which for the first time held that a husband could be guilty of raping his wife, overturning the irrebuttable presumption at common law that a wife consented to sex with her husband.

Many observers regarded Lane as a defender of traditional 'Victorian' morality rather than a supporter of mild feminism. In 1983, he gave the Darwin Lecture at Cambridge, in which he stated that he believed that the word "gay" should not be used to mean homosexual, and that instead the term should be "homosexuals, and/or buggers".

Disputed convictions
Lane had an early introduction to controversies and disputed convictions when, in 1962, he was the junior Crown counsel in the trial of James Hanratty for the A6 murder. Hanratty was hanged but disputes over whether he was properly convicted have continued to this day. He also represented the Metropolitan Police at the Brabin inquiry into the conviction and subsequent hanging of Timothy Evans for the murders at 10 Rillington Place in 1950. From the mid-1980s, concern grew. On 5 December 1985, Lane quashed the conviction of Anthony Mycock who had been convicted of a robbery which the BBC television programme Rough Justice argued had never occurred. In his judgment, Lane asserted that there had been a robbery and criticised the programme for "outrageous" interview methods. He regarded such programmes as "mere entertainment".

When the Birmingham Six were granted permission to appeal in 1987, Lane presided over what was (at six weeks) the longest criminal appeal in English legal history. The judgment, given on 28 January 1988, adopted all the key parts of the Crown case, dismissed defence witnesses as unreliable, and upheld the convictions. Lane concluded by sending a message to the Home Secretary: "As has happened before in References by the Home Secretary to this court, the longer this hearing has gone on the more convinced this court has become that the verdict of the jury was correct." This implied rebuke and invitation not to refer any more questioned cases was criticised by campaigners. Lane initially refused leave to appeal to Winston Silcott, convicted of the murder of Keith Blakelock in the midst of a strong campaign of vilification from tabloid newspapers. In his findings he concluded that there was "no lurking doubt" in spite of the flimsiness of the prosecution case. Silcott's conviction for the Blakelock murder was ultimately quashed in 1991.

Unfortunately for Lane, in 1989, the appeal of the Guildford Four proved police malpractice conclusively. In this case, Lane overturned the convictions. One observer described his appearance: "The Lord Chief Justice seemed to sniff something nasty in the air. Peering out over half-moon spectacles, Lord Lane's weary face was the mask of Justice embarrassed." Lane refused to free Paul Hill, one of the Four, because of a separate conviction for murder in Northern Ireland, although this later turned out also to have been a wrongful conviction.

The Birmingham Six were granted a further appeal (their third) in 1991, when more evidence established that the police evidence at their trial had been fabricated. The Director of Public Prosecutions announced before the appeal was held that he no longer considered their convictions safe and satisfactory. Lane did not preside over the appeal which formally cleared them. Their successful appeal led to calls for Lane to resign, including a hostile editorial in The Times and a motion in the House of Commons signed by 140 members of parliament. These, and other cases where convictions were overturned, blighted the end of Lane's tenure as Lord Chief Justice.

Retirement
Despite previous thoughts that he would resign before the end of his time to enjoy an active retirement, Lane stayed in office until 1992. Despite remaining in office after the Birmingham Six were released, he nevertheless resigned over a year before he would have been forced to retire at the age of 75. He headed a commission in 1993 which recommended the end of the mandatory life sentence for murder, but otherwise kept a low profile (he never gave press interviews while in office and did not change that policy in his retirement).

He died in 2005 and was buried in the churchyard at St Ippolyts, near Hitchin in Hertfordshire.

References

External links
Obituary (BBC News, 24 August 2005)
Obituary (The Guardian, 23 August 2005)
Obituary (The Telegraph, 24 August 2005)
Obituary (The Times, 24 August 2005)
Obituary (The Independent, 25 August 2005)

1918 births
2005 deaths
20th-century English judges
Knights Bachelor
Law lords
Lord chief justices of England and Wales
Queen's Bench Division judges
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
Members of Gray's Inn
Royal Air Force officers
British World War II pilots
British World War II bomber pilots
Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)
People from Derby
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
People educated at Shrewsbury School
Lords Justices of Appeal

Geoffrey Lane, Baron Lane


The pons is part of the hindbrain, the ancient rear part of the brain. It acts as a bridge, and has nerve fibres connecting the cerebellum to the medulla oblongata. In humans it is above the medulla and below the midbrain.

Mainly, its function is to carry white fibres ("wiring") which conduct signals from the cerebrum down to the cerebellum and medulla, and tracts that carry the sensory signals up into the thalamus.

Anatomy of the brain

Pons


Michelle "Shelly" Zimbalist Rosaldo (1944 in New York City – 1981 in Philippines) was a social, linguistic, and psychological anthropologist famous for her studies of the Ilongot people in the Philippines and for her pioneering role in women's studies and the anthropology of gender.

Life
Born in New York in 1944, Michelle Zimbalist attended Radcliffe College (Harvard College's sister school, formally merged with Harvard in 1999), where she concentrated in English literature. She spent a summer among the Maya in southern Mexico as part of a field trip arranged by Evon Z. Vogt. After receiving her AB, she began graduate study at Harvard in social anthropology.

Michelle Rosaldo and her husband, anthropologist Renato Rosaldo, both carried out their dissertation fieldwork with the Ilongot people in northern Luzon, the Philippines, during 1967–1969. Rosaldo's research focused on Ilongot concepts of emotion (an exercise in ethnopsychology, the study of local or folk concepts of mind), while her husband collected material on the history of Ilongot headhunting practices, which were dying out at the time of their research. Rosaldo received her PhD in social anthropology from Harvard in 1972. After completing their PhDs, Michelle and Renato Rosaldo were both hired at Stanford University. The couple returned again to the Ilongot in 1974 for further research, published as Knowledge and Passion (1980).

Michelle Rosaldo wrote or edited several important works in the anthropology of women and gender relations and co-founded the Program in Feminist Studies at Stanford University. In 1979 she received Stanford's Dinkelspiel Award for outstanding service to undergraduate education.

Michelle Rosaldo died from an accidental fall while conducting fieldwork in the Philippines in 1981. She was survived by her husband and their two sons.

The Michelle Z. Rosaldo Summer Field Research Grant was later established in her memory at the Department of Anthropology at Stanford University to provide funding for undergraduate students to conduct fieldwork.

Selected publications
Rosaldo, Michelle Z. (1971) Context and metaphor in Ilongot oral tradition. PhD thesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Archives.
Rosaldo, Michelle Zimbalist. (1980) Knowledge and Passion: Ilongot Notions of Self and Social Life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Rosaldo, Michelle Z. (1984)   "Toward an anthropology of self and feeling." In Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion. R. A. Shweder and R. A. LeVine, editors. pp. 137–157. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Keohane, Nannerl O., Michelle Z. Rosaldo, and Barbara C. Gelpi, editors. (1982) Feminist theory: a critique of ideology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lamphere, Louise and Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo, editors. (1974) Women, Culture, and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford, California.
Lugo, Alejandro and Bill Maurer, editors. (2000)  Gender Matters: Rereading Michelle Z. Rosaldo. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

References

External links
 Memorial Resolution: Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo

Stanford University Department of Anthropology faculty
Psychological anthropologists
American women anthropologists
Radcliffe College alumni
1944 births
1981 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in the Philippines
20th-century American women scientists
20th-century American scientists
20th-century American anthropologists

Michelle Rosaldo


Avarua is a town and district in the north of Rarotonga Island. The name means "Two Harbors" in Cook Islands Māori. It is the national capital of the Cook Islands.

The downtown area of Avarua is located at sea level. It is below the peaks of Rarotonga (altitude: ). The town has several supermarkets, two banks and several restaurants. It has other shops which sell black pearls and other handicrafts. The town has an open air market on Saturday. The market sells items including brightly coloured pare'u (wrap around dresses), flower garlands, fresh fish and tropical fruits. The town is served by Rarotonga International Airport (IATA Airport Code:  RAR). In 2006 there were 5,445 people living in Avarua. They mainly make their living from tourism, trade, fishing and agriculture. There is one main road in Avarua. It is called Ara Maire Nui. It is also known as Marine Drive or Main Street. It turns into the island-circling ring road called Ara Tapu at both ends of town.

References

Other websites
Photo of Government Radio Station Rarotonga c1950

National capitals in Oceania
Cook Islands

Avarua


The stratosphere () is the second layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is an atmospheric layer composed of stratified temperature layers, with the warm layers of air high in the sky and the cool layers of air in the low sky, close to the planetary surface of the Earth. The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation by the ozone layer.  The temperature inversion is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earth's surface, where temperature decreases with altitude.

Between the troposphere and stratosphere is the tropopause border that demarcates the beginning of the temperature inversion. Near the equator, the lower edge of the stratosphere is as high as , at midlatitudes around , and at the poles about . Temperatures range from an average of  near the tropopause to an average of  near the mesosphere.  Stratospheric temperatures also vary within the stratosphere as the seasons change, reaching particularly low temperatures in the polar night (winter).  Winds in the stratosphere can far exceed those in the troposphere, reaching near  in the Southern polar vortex.

Ozone layer

The mechanism describing the formation of the ozone layer was described by British mathematician Sydney Chapman in 1930, and is known as the Chapman cycle or ozone–oxygen cycle. Molecular oxygen absorbs high energy sunlight in the UV-C region, at wavelengths shorter than about 240 nm. Radicals produced from the homolytically split oxygen molecules combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone. Ozone in turn is photolysed much more rapidly than molecular oxygen as it has a stronger absorption that occurs at longer wavelengths, where the solar emission is more intense. Ozone (O3) photolysis produces O and O2. The oxygen atom product combines with atmospheric molecular oxygen to reform O3, releasing heat. The rapid photolysis and reformation of ozone heat the stratosphere, resulting in a temperature inversion. This increase of temperature with altitude is characteristic of the stratosphere; its resistance to vertical mixing means that it is stratified. Within the stratosphere temperatures increase with altitude (see temperature inversion); the top of the stratosphere has a temperature of about 270 K (−3°C or 26.6°F).

This vertical stratification, with warmer layers above and cooler layers below, makes the stratosphere dynamically stable: there is no regular convection and associated turbulence in this part of the atmosphere. However, exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops in severe supercell thunderstorms, may carry convection into the stratosphere on a very local and temporary basis. Overall, the attenuation of solar UV at wavelengths that damage DNA by the ozone layer allows life to exist on the surface of the planet outside of the ocean. All air entering the stratosphere must pass through the tropopause, the temperature minimum that divides the troposphere and stratosphere. The rising air is literally freeze dried; the stratosphere is a very dry place. The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, above which the temperature decreases with height.

Formation and destruction

Sydney Chapman gave a correct description of the source of stratospheric ozone and its ability to generate heat within the stratosphere; he also wrote that ozone may be destroyed by reacting with atomic oxygen, making two molecules of molecular oxygen. We now know that there are additional ozone loss mechanisms and that these mechanisms are catalytic meaning that a small amount of the catalyst can destroy a great number of ozone molecules. The first is due to the reaction of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) with ozone. •OH is formed by the reaction of electrically excited oxygen atoms produced by ozone photolysis, with water vapor. While the stratosphere is dry, additional water vapor is produced in situ by the photochemical oxidation of methane (CH4). The HO2 radical produced by the reaction of OH with O3 is recycled to OH by reaction with oxygen atoms or ozone. In addition, solar proton events can significantly affect ozone levels via radiolysis with the subsequent formation of OH. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced by biological activity at the surface and is oxidised to NO in the stratosphere; the so-called NOx radical cycles also deplete stratospheric ozone. Finally, chlorofluorocarbon molecules are photolysed in the stratosphere releasing chlorine atoms that react with ozone giving ClO and O2. The chlorine atoms are recycled when ClO reacts with O in the upper stratosphere, or when ClO reacts with itself in the chemistry of the Antarctic ozone hole.

Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 for their work describing the formation and decomposition of stratospheric ozone.

Aircraft flight

Commercial airliners typically cruise at altitudes of  which is in the lower reaches of the stratosphere in temperate latitudes. This optimizes fuel efficiency, mostly due to the low temperatures encountered near the tropopause and low air density, reducing parasitic drag on the airframe. Stated another way, it allows the airliner to fly faster while maintaining lift equal to the weight of the plane. (The fuel consumption depends on the drag, which is related to the lift by the lift-to-drag ratio.) It also allows the airplane to stay above the turbulent weather of the troposphere.

The Concorde aircraft cruised at Mach 2 at about , and the SR-71 cruised at Mach 3 at , all within the stratosphere.

Because the temperature in the tropopause and lower stratosphere is largely constant with increasing altitude, very little convection and its resultant turbulence occurs there. Most turbulence at this altitude is caused by variations in the jet stream and other local wind shears, although areas of significant convective activity (thunderstorms) in the troposphere below may produce turbulence as a result of  convective overshoot.

On October 24, 2014, Alan Eustace became the record holder for reaching the altitude record for a manned balloon at . Eustace also broke the world records for vertical speed skydiving, reached with a peak velocity of 1,321 km/h (822 mph) and total freefall distance of  – lasting four minutes and 27 seconds.

Circulation and mixing
The stratosphere is a region of intense interactions among radiative, dynamical, and chemical processes, in which the horizontal mixing of gaseous components proceeds much more rapidly than does vertical mixing. The overall circulation of the stratosphere is termed as Brewer-Dobson circulation, which is a single-celled circulation, spanning from the tropics up to the poles, consisting of the tropical upwelling of air from the tropical troposphere and the extra-tropical downwelling of air. Stratospheric circulation is a predominantly wave-driven circulation in that the tropical upwelling is induced by the wave force by the westward propagating Rossby waves, in a phenomenon called Rossby-wave pumping.

An interesting feature of stratospheric circulation is the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) in the tropical latitudes, which is driven by gravity waves that are convectively generated in the troposphere. The QBO induces a secondary circulation that is important for the global stratospheric transport of tracers, such as ozone or water vapor.

Another large-scale feature that significantly influences stratospheric circulation is the breaking planetary waves resulting in intense quasi-horizontal mixing in the midlatitudes. This breaking is much more pronounced in the winter hemisphere where this region is called the surf zone. This breaking is caused due to a highly non-linear interaction between the vertically propagating planetary waves and the isolated high potential vorticity region known as the polar vortex. The resultant breaking causes large-scale mixing of air and other trace gases throughout the midlatitude surf zone. The timescale of this rapid mixing is much smaller than the much slower timescales of upwelling in the tropics and downwelling in the extratropics.

During northern hemispheric winters, sudden stratospheric warmings, caused by the absorption of Rossby waves in the stratosphere, can be observed in approximately half of winters when easterly winds develop in the stratosphere. These events often precede unusual winter weather <ref>M.P. Baldwin and T.J. Dunkerton. 'Stratospheric Harbingers of Anomalous Weather Regimes , Science Magazine.</ref> and may even be responsible for the cold European winters of the 1960s.

Stratospheric warming of the polar vortex results in its weakening. When the vortex is strong, it keeps the cold, high-pressure air masses contained in the Arctic; when the vortex weakens, air masses move equatorward, and results in rapid changes of weather in the mid latitudes.

 Life

 Bacteria
Bacterial life survives in the stratosphere, making it a part of the biosphere. In 2001, dust was collected at a height of 41 kilometres in a high-altitude balloon experiment and was found to contain bacterial material when examined later in the laboratory.

 Birds

Some bird species have been reported to fly at the upper levels of the troposphere. On November 29, 1973, a Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppelli) was ingested into a jet engine  above the Ivory Coast. Bar-headed geese (Anser indicus'') sometimes migrate over Mount Everest, whose summit is .

Discovery

In 1902, Léon Teisserenc de Bort from France and Richard Assmann from Germany, in separate but coordinated publications and following years of observations, published the discovery of an isothermal layer at around 11–14 km (6.8-8.7 mi), which is the base of the lower stratosphere. This was based on temperature profiles from mostly unmanned and a few manned instrumented balloons.

See also
 Le Grand Saut
 Lockheed U-2
 Overshooting top
 Ozone depletion
 Paris Gun (projectile was the first artificial object to reach the upper stratosphere)
 Perlan Project
 Project Excelsior, world record for highest recorded jump 1961-2012
 Red Bull Stratos, world record for highest recorded jump 2012-2014
 RQ-4 Global Hawk
 Service ceiling
 Upper-atmospheric lightning

References

External links

 Current map of global winds and temperatures at the 10 hPa level.

Atmosphere
Atmosphere of Earth
Meteorological phenomena

Stratosphere


The Private Repress é um álbum de remixes de DJ Shadow lançado em 2003 exclusivamente no Japão. Contem faixas remixadas e lados b do álbum The Private Press.

Faixas
"Intro" – 1:19
"Six Days (Soulwax Mix)" – 5:18
"GDMFSOB (UNKLE Uncensored) Feat. Roots Manuva" – 6:25
"Interlude" – 0:20
"Walkie Talkie (Extended Radio Edit)" – 3:15
"Six Days (Remix) Feat. Mos Def" – 3:52
"Disavowed" – 4:29
"Interlude" by DJ Krush – 0:36
"Right Thing (Tokio Ghetto Tech Remix)" – 6:44
"Mashin' On The Motorway (Radio Edit)" – 2:39
"Right Thing (Z-Trip 'Get The Party Off Mix' In Three Parts)" – 6:19
"Outro" – 0:55
"Walkie Talkie" (Vídeo)
"Six Days" (Vídeo)

Samples
"(Letter from Home)"
 A recorded letter (a "Recordio-Gram") by Nubella Johnson.

"Fixed Income"
"She's Gonna Grow on You" by Sensations' Fix
"Million Grains of Sand" by Marcus
"Bright Shadows" by Beaver and Krause
"Voyage to Cleavland" by Saint Steven
"Love Eyes" by Phluph
"Beacon from Mars" by Kaleidoscope
"With Cat-Like Thread" by Spindrift Liberate

"Un Autre Introduction"
"Jingle Overture (Discoteque)" by François Bernard and Roby

"Walkie Talkie"
"Life Story" by The Hellers
"Gangster Rap" by Hollywood
"Feel the Heartbeat" by Treacherous Three
"My Philosophy" by Boogie Down Productions

"Giving Up the Ghost"
"Bound to Be" by The Dream Academy

"Six Days"
"I Cry in the Morning" by Dennis Olivieri
"Six Day War" by Colonel Bagshot
"Drummer's Salute" by  The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards

"Mongrel...Meets His Maker"
"Strange About Your Hands" by Sensations' Fix
"Little Waterfalls" by The Facedancers
"Thoughts" by Iliad
"Fantasy World" by James Knight and the Butlers

"Right Thing/GDMFSOB"
"Ask Me Why the Tape Wobbles" by Barry O'Brian
"What's on Your Mind (Pure Energy)" by Information Society
"Mooses Saloon" by Smile
"Work the Box" by The Children
"Disco Duck (Part 1)" by Rick Dees and His Cast of Idiots
"Here (In the Garden)" by Gypsy
"Techno Scratch" by Knights of the Turntables

"Monosylabik"
"Plenty Action" by Soft Touch

"Mashin' on the Motorway"
"Sunshine" by David Wertman
"All Along the Watchtower" by Savage Grace
"Diálogo do filme Roger and Me ("He just wanted us to call him Captain Da. He said you could call me Da-Da. Whatever that meant.")

"Blood on the Motorway"
"Pissing in a River" by Patti Smith
"It's Easy" by Marc Z
"Gli Uccelli" by Franco Battiato

"You Can't Go Home Again"
"Life is a Gamble" by Preacher
"El Condor Pasa" by Los Incas

Ligações externas
Site Oficial

Álbuns de 2003

The Private Repress


Gonzalo Edward Buxton Jr. (May 13, 1880 – March 15, 1949) was a colonel in the American Expeditionary Force in World War I and the commanding officer of Sergeant Alvin C. York. In later life he was the first assistant director of the OSS.

Early life

Buxton was born in Kansas City, Missouri, on May 13, 1880, to Dr. G. Edward and Sarah A. (Harrington) Buxton. In 1884 his family moved to National City, San Diego County, California, where he received his early education before moving back to the family home of Rhode Island in 1895. Ned had one sibling, a brother, Bertram Harrington Buxton (June 11, 1883 – February 9, 1947) born in Worcester, Massachusetts.

Buxton completed his preparatory education at the Highland Military Academy, of Worcester, Massachusetts, where he attended from 1895 to 1898. Buxton graduated in 1898 as valedictorian of his class and as captain and senior officer of the school battalion.
In 1902 he graduated from Brown University, where he earned a Bachelor of Philosophy degree (Ph. B.).

For fourteen months after his graduation from Brown University, he was a staff reporter and assistant telegraph operator at The Providence Journal.

In 1906, Buxton completed a three-year course at Harvard Law School, earning an L.L. B. degree.

On January 19, 1910, Buxton married Aline Houston Armstrong of Louisville and Bardstown, Kentucky. They had one son, Coburn Allen, born in Providence on June 6, 1912 (died March 21, 1984).

In September 1912, Buxton returned to The Providence Journal Company and worked in many capacities.  From 1912 to 1914 he worked as treasurer and business manager, and was a member of the newspaper's board of directors.  In August 1914, Buxton took a leave of absence from his duties as treasurer to serve as war correspondent for the paper. Engaged in the European Theater, he sent in articles from England, Germany, France, and Belgium.

Early military career
While attending Brown University, Buxton enlisted as a second lieutenant with Company C,  First Regimental Brigade, Rhode Island Militia. In 1901 he held the rank of first lieutenant, resigning in 1903 to attend Harvard University. Lt. Buxton was cited as, "not only one of the most popular officers in the regiment but one of the most efficient."

After graduating from Harvard Law School, Buxton enlisted in the Third Company, Coast Artillery Corps, Rhode Island National Guard as a first lieutenant, being elected captain of that command in 1908 and serving through 1911. Buxton saw service as a captain with the 28th Infantry (part of Major-General William H Carter's Maneuver Division) on the Mexican border in 1911 with the Rhode Island National Guard, serving with other regular army units.

From 1912 to 1916 he was major and judge advocate (JAG) of the Rhode Island National Guard.

World War I
Buxton resigned from the National Guard in October, 1916, and was immediately commissioned Major of infantry in the Reserve Corps of the United States Army. He was assigned to active duty at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, on May 8, 1917, where he was assigned command of the Second Battalion of the First Officers' Training Camp.

On August 26, 1917, he was assigned to the command of the 2nd Battalion, 328th Infantry Regiment, of the 82nd Division at Camp Gordon, Georgia. It was here where he first met one of his charges, then
Private Alvin Cullum York from the Valley of the Three Forks of the Wolf River in Pall Mall, Tennessee.

During this time York began to communicate and share some of his concerns and doubts about the role of the military and questioned his ability to take the life of another human being. Company Commander Captain Edward Danforth and Buxton were both impressed with York's honesty and willingness to address his moral dilemma, not to mention the promise he showed in his basic training. Alvin  began meeting with Major Buxton and Captain Danforth. They discussed the Bible's teachings with York, citing scriptural passages from the Old and New Testaments, with the intent to convince York there are times when the sword is the instrument of peace and divine justice. In addition, Buxton, an American history scholar, shared his perspectives on freedom and the premise of self-determination.

After this discussion, Buxton allowed York a ten-day pass to go home to the mountains of Tennessee in order to sort out his feelings. Upon his return Major Buxton was ready to give York his discharge or reassign him as a non-combatant if he still espoused concerns. In the end, however, York returned refreshed and ready to engage the Germans, reassured by his faith in God. York confided years later about Buxton, "He was the first New Englander I ever knowed… I was kinder surprised at his knowledge of the Bible. It made me happy to know my battalion commander was familiar with the word of God."

In November 1917, Buxton was promoted to acting lieutenant-colonel of the regiment though he resumed command of his battalion when the 328th left for overseas duty on April 30, 1918. The regiment continued their training with the British in the Somme Sector, near Abbeyville, France, in the latter part of May and the first two weeks of June. During this period Buxton, always leading by example, spent a week in the front-line trenches before Albert, with the famed British Tenth Essex Battalion (The Essex Regiment, 18th Division) from May 20 to June 18, 1918.

From June 20 to August 7 the 328th Regiment was engaged in the Lagny Sector, north of Toul, and from August 15 to September 12 occupied a portion of the Marbache Sector (on Moselle). The 328th participated in the great St. Mihiel offensive, September 12–16, 1918 which straightened out the salient made by the Germans in 1914. Buxton's battalion led the attack of the 328th Infantry along the west bank of the Moselle River, capturing the town of Norroy and the commanding ridge north of that town.

On September 18, 1918, two days after the close of this action, Buxton was appointed to and served as inspector-general of the 82nd Division until January 16, 1919, when he saw continuing action as a commander and combatant in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive from September 25 to November 1. This was the crowning American contribution that brought about the Armistice of November 11, 1918.

On January 16 Buxton was assigned to "special duty" at general headquarters under General Pershing.

On February 28, 1919, Buxton was formally promoted to lieutenant-colonel of the 328th Infantry Regiment and returned to the United States (Camp Upton, New York) on May 8, 1919, where he was discharged from active service.

In 1921, following his return to Rhode Island, Buxton went on the Organized (Inactive) Reserve list and in 1922 was promoted to colonel and officer commanding of the 385th Rhode Island Infantry, 76th Division. He served in that capacity until his retirement from military service in 1932.

The American Legion
With the cessation of hostilities, Buxton became swept up in the fervor to organize a fraternity composed of all parties, all creeds, and all ranks who served in the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF). This effort was initially motivated by General Pershing who wanted to, "better the conditions and development of contentment" in the army stationed in France and to address the welfare of enlisted AEF personnel. Buxton assumed a leadership role engaging those AEF members who wished to perpetuate American ideals and the relationships formed while in the military and national service, all united into one permanent national organization.

On February 16, 1919, he attended a dinner at the Allied Officers' Club, Rue Faubourg St. Honoré in Paris along with nineteen other AEF luminaries. At that dinner the American Legion was born.

Buxton chaired the Constitution Committee that crafted the Preamble and Constitution of The American Legion.

Buxton worked diligently in the American Legion following his return to civilian life, having been one of the incorporators, national committeeman for Rhode Island, and the first chairman of the Providence Post of the American Legion. Buxton attended and participated in the St. Louis Caucus and the first American Legion's first Annual Convention in Minneapolis, MN.

Return to the private sector
Upon his return to Providence, Buxton assumed senior management responsibilities (VP and treasurer 1920–26, president 1926–1935) with the new B. B. & R. Knight Co., which at one time, with 22 mills, was the largest producer of cotton products in the world. With headquarters in New York City, they owned many textile plants and brands in New England, to include Dan River and the famous Fruit of the Loom labels, among others.

From 1932 to November 6, 1939, while still president and later chairman of the board of B. B. & R. Knight Co, Buxton was elected president of a group of five Maine textile plants, to include Androscoggin Mills, Bates Manufacturing Company, Edward Manufacturing Company, Hill Manufacturing Company and York Manufacturing Company, all owned by New England Industries, affiliated with the New England Public Service Company.

Office of Strategic Services
President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed William J. Donovan on 11 July 1941 as the coordinator of information (COI), and the head of a new, civilian office attached to the White House charged with keeping the president informed on all the intelligence activity of the army, navy, State Department and FBI.  Donovan then formally charged Buxton as his second in command in the development and administration of the office of coordinator of information (COI), which evolved into the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).

When the OSS was formally created on June 13, 1942, Donovan appointed Buxton first assistant director of the OSS and tasked him with handling the procedural and operational aspects of running the organization. Buxton also frequently served as acting director, as necessary.

Buxton's duties took him to Canada, England, Scotland and Ireland in 1942 and later to the European continent and the Mediterranean theaters of operation in order to inspect OSS activities.

Buxton, as the OSS Planning Group and action director of strategic services, was a key figure in all policy as well as operational decisions. He addressed and approved strategic issues, projects and communications to President Roosevelt and General Eisenhower, directed activities key to the Normandy Invasion and offered a critical post-war assessment of Russian weaknesses. Of note, Buxton was a key figure in Operation Alsos, the capture of the ten key scientists working toward completion of Nazi Germany's atomic bomb. At one point during the operation, Buxton was asked what to do if the OSS operative and Werner Heisenberg were captured by Swiss authorities while traveling through the country.  He replied, "You deny the enemy his brain – and we have never heard of you."

Anthony Cave Brown, OSS biographer, has extolled Buxton as, "A leading American of his time whose greatest achievement was to co-found with "Wild Bill" Donovan the modern American intelligence and special operation service, the OSS."

Buxton received many acknowledgements for his service in the OSS, of note this included the Order of the British Empire (OBE) presented to him by King George VI on November 12, 1945. Buxton had worked closely with British intelligence services including British Naval Intelligence  MI6, and Britain's Secret Intelligence Service (SIS). Buxton and Donovan worked closely with Commander Ian Fleming (later of James Bond fame) and two of Britain's top spymasters, Admiral John Godfrey, the British Director of Naval Intelligence (DNI) and Sir William Stephenson, director of British Security Coordination (BSC) in the western hemisphere. Buxton's citation declared that he was the "Assistant Director of the OSS" and further that, "Prior to and after Pearl Harbor he always cooperated fully and he showed the greatest sympathy in dealings with British problems. Throughout he was a most valuable ally."

With the German surrender and the anticipated surrender of the Japanese, Buxton resigned as assistant director and second in command of the OSS on June 30, 1945. Buxton's resignation was accepted by Director Donovan, "with keenest personal regret". Donovan further noted that, "Colonel Buxton has tirelessly and ably served the war effort. And now when he finds that he must return to private life, no words of mine can express the vast extent of our debt and indeed, that of our country to him."

Much of Buxton's career in the OSS remains, out of necessity, archived, classified and undisclosed.  Many OSS documents used code words as substitution in case they fell into enemy hands.  In these documents Buxton was known simply as "106"

Post-World War II career
Following World War II Buxton saw further service in the business sector heading boards and companies, campaigns and great enterprises.

He served as a director with the Fruit of the Loom Mills, business consultant and director with Bache and Company (now Prudential Securities) and director and chairman of the board of the Panhandle Production & Refining Company. From 1946 to 1948 Buxton was president of Knight Finance Corporation of Providence.

Buxton died at the age of 68 on March 15, 1949, in Providence, Rhode Island. He was buried in the Buxton plot in the Swan Point Cemetery in Providence.

Awards and legacy
Buxton received much recognition for his military service as part of the record of the 82nd and the OSS.

Buxton received three citations for bravery, the Purple Heart for wounds received in battle and the Distinguished Service Medal, among other decorations. Following World War II Buxton received the Medal for Merit from the US Government, the Order of Polonia Restituta from the Polish Government in exile and the previously mentioned Commander of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).

Buxton also received posthumous recognition from the government of Thailand via the Order of the White Elephant, second class and the Thailand Peace Medal, all presented by Prince Wan Waithayakon, ambassador to the United States and later president of the Eleventh Session of the United Nations General Assembly in 1955.

In civilian life, Buxton was awarded the Captain Bucklin Scout Award in 1948 while Buxton's alma mater, Brown University, awarded the colonel an honorary Doctor of Laws degree and the Brown Bear Award in recognition of outstanding and wide-ranging personal service rendered to the university and the nation over a period of many years. The Buxton International House (Hall) on Brown's Providence campus is named in his honor. Appropriately, his home at 85 Power Street in Providence is now owned by Brown University and houses a member of the Brown faculty.

Of special significance to Buxton was the gesture offered by the members of the Infantry Lodge which consisted of twelve World War I officers that included Buxton. The surviving members of the lodge deeded thirty acres of land in Rehoboth, Massachusetts, to include one building (now Buxton Lodge) and a significant stand of red pine in honor of the memory of Buxton to the Narragansett Council of the Boy Scouts of America. That acreage is now Camp Buxton.

Buxton was played by Stanley Ridges in the 1941 Warner Brothers production of Sergeant York. Buxton and Sergeant York attended the premiere of the movie together at the Astor Theater in New York City. Buxton served as an advisor and consultant for the Sergeant York film.

Further reading

See also
Alvin C. York
Office of Strategic Services
Operation Alsos
Order of the British Empire

References

External links

1880 births
1949 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War I
Brown University alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Organization founders
Military personnel from Kansas City, Missouri
United States Army colonels
Burials at Swan Point Cemetery

G. Edward Buxton Jr.


The Summer Palace is a palace in Beijing, China. It is mainly dominated by Longevity Hill (60 meters high) and the Kunming Lake. It covers an expanse of 2.9 square kilometers, three quarters of which is water. The palace is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Between 1750 and 1764 the Qing Emperor Qianlong created the Garden of Clear Ripples (Summer Palace), extending the area of the lake and carrying out other improvements based on the hill and its landscape. During the Second Opium War (1856-60) the garden and its buildings were destroyed by the allied forces. Between 1886 and 1895 it was reconstructed by Emperor Guangxu and renamed the Summer Palace, for use by Empress Dowager Cixi. It was damaged in 1900 by the international expeditionary force during the suppression of the Boxer Rising and 24 years later, it became a public park in 1924.

There are many buildings in the Summer Palace including The Cloud-Dispelling Hall, the Temple of Buddhist Virtue and the Sea of Wisdom Temple.

World Heritage Sites in China
Palaces in China
Buildings and structures in Beijing

Summer Palace


The grammar o a leid is a set o rules tae produce sentences in thon leid.

The term refers baith tae rules that descrives whit fowk actually says (descriptive grammar), an thaim that prescrives whit fowk shuid say (prescriptive grammar). The term grammar whan uised in schuils for ordinar refers tae prescriptive grammar, but linguists mair aften uises grammar wi the first o thae meanins. Linguists uises the seimilar term seentax tae refer tae the internal structur o sentences produced bi a grammar.

Baith linguists an computer scientists, specially thaim in the field o naitural langage processin, ettles tae pit thegither grammars that wad generate aa an juist the grammatical sentences o a leid. Whit a grammatical sentence is in an artifeicial leid, sic as a programmin leid, can be strickly defined; for normal, whit a grammatical sentence is in a naitural leid can be jaloused bi native spaekers o thon leid juist.

Relatit airticles
 phrase structur grammar
 transformational-generative grammar

Leid

Grammar


Lachung is a town and hill station in northeast Sikkim, India. It is located in the North Sikkim district near the border with Tibet. Lachung is at an elevation of about  and at the confluence of the Lachen and Lachung Rivers, both tributaries of the River Teesta. The word Lachung means "small pass". The town is approximately  from the capital Gangtok.

The Indian Army has a forward base in the town. Before the Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1950, Lachung  was a trading post between Sikkim and Tibet, after which it was closed down. The town's economy has been boosted by tourism in recent years as the region has been opened up by the Indian government. Tourists come from all over the world to visit the town between October and May, mostly on their way to the Yumthang Valley and the Lachung Monastery. Most of Lachung's inhabitants are of Lepcha and Tibetan descent. Languages spoken here are Nepali, Lepcha and Bhutia. During winter the town is usually covered in snow. Lachung is also the base camp for Rhododendron Valley Trek  which starts from Yumthang Valley and ends at Lachen Valley.

Lachung has been described as the "most picturesque village of Sikkim" by British explorer Joseph Dalton Hooker in his definitive, The Himalayan Journal (1855). Skiing is conducted in Phuni near this town.

Climate

Banking Facilities in Lachung

State Bank of India is operating a branch in Lachung.

State Bank Of India, Lachung

References

Cities and towns in Mangan district
Ski areas and resorts in India

Lachung


Sino-Japanese vocabulary, Chinese-based Japanese words, or kango (kanji: 漢語, hiragana: かんご), are Chinese loanwords in the Japanese language. The two languages are unrelated to each other, since Chinese is a Sino-Tibetan language while Japanese is a language isolate (meaning that no known languages are related to it). However, Chinese has had a major influence on Japanese and has effected many parts of it, including its phonology (how it organizes sounds) and its vocabulary. Including Chinese words into Japanese lead to allowing words to have closed syllables (syllables ending in a consonant), like the words san (kanji: 三, hiragana: さん, meaning: three) and udon (kanji:饂飩, hiragana: うどん) and for words to have long vowels and long consonants, like nō (kanji:能, hiragana: のう) and gakkō (kanji: 学校, hiragana: がっこう). Before Chinese words came into the Japanese language syllables in Japanese words only had open syllables (words that end in a vowel) like katana (kanji:刀, hiragana: かたな) and shinobi (kanji and hiragana: 忍び, hiragana only: しのび).

It is one of the three main sources of Japanese words, along with yamato kotoba (kanji: 大和言葉, hiragana: やまとことば), also known as wago (kanji: 和語, hiragana: わご), or native Japanese words, and gairaigo (kanji: 外来語, hiragana: がいらいご), or loanwords borrowed from languages other than Chinese (especially English since the post-WWII era).

Chinese loanwords in Japanese vs. French and Latin loanwords in English
It is said that about 60-70% of Japanese words come from Chinese. Like how French and Latin are to English, Chinese loanwords are used to create formal vocabulary and technical terms in Japanese. For example, while the native English words are "moon" and "horse", the Latin terms "luna" and "equus" is used to create technical terms like "lunar calendar", a calendar that is based on the moon, and "equine science", the study of horses. Likewise, the native Japanese word for horse is uma (kanji: 馬, hiragana: うま) while the Chinese term is ba (kanji:馬, hiragana: ば), which is used in terms like basha (kanji:馬車, hiragana: ばしゃ, meaning: horse carriage), jōba (kanji:乗馬, hiragana: じょうば, meaning: horse riding), and gunba (kanji:軍馬, hiragana: ぐんば, meaning: warhorse).

Most Chinese loanwords are nouns, and they are often made up of more than one kanji (Chinese characters used in Japanese). Most kanji have two different kinds of pronunciation, on'yomi (the pronunciation of the kanji borrowed from Chinese) and kun'yomi (the native pronunciation of Japanese words that use the kanji). Yamato kotoba words use the kanji's kun'yomi. While Japanese usually use the kun'yomi for words of just one kanji, like 火 (on'yomi: ka, meaning: fire) which is pronounced hi, and 山 (on'yomi: san, -zan, meaning: mountain) which is pronounced yama, when you put together the two kanji, 火山, the word will not be pronounced by their kun'yomi as hiyama, but rather they will be pronounced by their on'yomi as kazan, which the compound word fire+mountain means "volcano".

Sino-Japanese parts of speech
While most Chinese loanwords in Japanese are nouns, they can also be used to make verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as well. While most Japanese verbs are native Japanese words, Chinese loanwords can be made into verbs using the -suru form. For example, the Chinese loanword kinshi (kanji: 禁止, hiragana:きんし) is a noun that means "prohibition" or "ban", but if you add -suru afterwards, as in kinshi-suru (kanji and hiragana: 禁止する, hiragana only: きんしする), it becomes a verb that means "to prohibit" or "to ban". Also, adjectives can be formed from nouns by adding the suffix -teki (的) to it. For example, while the word shikaku (kanji: 視覚, hiragana: しかく) is a noun that means "vision" or "sense of sight", adding -teki afterwards makes it into the word shikaku-teki (kanji:視覚的, hiragana: しかくてき) which is an adjective that means "visual".

Sino-Japanese vocabulary invented in Japan
Even though kanji a Chinese invention, Japanese has also created many Chinese-based words itself that were adopted into Chinese. These words are called wasei-kango (kanji:和製漢語, hiragana: わせいかんご) which means "Japanese-made Chinese words". Many of these words describe things that are uniquely Japanese, such as Shintō (kanji:神道, hiragana: しんとう), dōjō (kanji:道場, hiragana:どうじょう), Bushidō (kanji:武士道, hiragana:ぶしどう), matcha (kanji:抹茶, hiragana:まっちゃ), and seppuku (kanji:切腹, hiragana:せっぷく).

Since Japan was the first East Asian country to modernize, the Japanese were the first people in East Asia to be exposed to new technologies and fields of study, and therefore the first to develop Chinese-based names for such things, such as telephone (denwa, kanji:電話, hiragana: でんわ), science (kagaku, kanji:科学, hiragana:かがく), and philosophy (tetsugaku, kanji:哲学, hiragana: てつがく), and each of these terms have been adopted into Chinese as diànhuà, kēxué, and zhéxué in the same order. This phenomenon is called reborrowing.

Chinese language
Japanese language

Sino-Japanese vocabulary


Jacques Marescaux (born August 8, 1948) is a French doctor. He is Chairman of the digestive and endocrine surgery at the University Hospital, Strasbourg.

Biography
 1948: Born in Clermont
 1971: Major in the contest for the Internat
 1977: Doctor in surgery
 1980: He obtained a chair professor at the Universities digestive surgery. He was only 33 years old.
 1989 - 1992: Director of special education Visceral surgery at the Medical School of Strasbourg.
 1989 - 1992: Vice President of the regional council of the Inserm.
 Since 1989: Head of digestive and endocrine surgery University Hospitals of Strasbourg.
 Since 1994: Founding Director of the IRCAD and the EITS
 On September 7, 2001, he made New York a world first in TeleSurgery operating in the gallbladder of a patient who was in Strasbourg. This was the Lindbergh Operation.
 Since 2002: Founding member of WeBSurg
 In March 2005, he participated, with prestigious colleagues: Pierre Chambon, Jean-Marie Lehn, Pascal Neuville and Charles Woler, the draft pole of competitiveness "Innovation Therapeutics", in the context of Alsace BioValley.
 On April 2, 2007, he is believed to be the first in the world to operate a person without leaving a scar, removing the gallbladder of a patient older than 30 years without making incision of the skin and through a natural orifice.

References

Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
French surgeons
Living people
1948 births
Officers of the Ordre national du Mérite
Commanders of the Legion of Honour

Jacques Marescaux


The All-India Muslim League   was a political party in British India. It was founded at Dacca (now Dhaka, Bangladesh), in the Bengal Presidency, in 1906. The League played an important role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement. It  was a driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state on the Indian subcontinent.

After the independence of India and Pakistan, the Muslim League was split. The major part went to Pakistan and continued politics as the Muslim League there. The Muslim League remained as a minor party in India, especially in Kerala.

In Pakistan, the League formed the country's first government. The League disintegrated into a number of factions during the 1950s after an army coup by General Ayub Khan. One or more functions of the Muslim League have been in power in most of the civilian governments of Pakistan since 1947.

In Bangladesh, the party gained strength in 1976 and won 14 seats in 1979 parliamentary election. Its importance has decreased since then. The League no longer holds any major or significant role in Bangladesh.
In Pakistan, the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) is still one of the major political parties. It has split into a number of separate groups now, like the PML-N, PML-Q and others.

References

Political parties in India
Muslim League
Nationalist organizations in India
1906 establishments in Asia

All-India Muslim League


The River Shannon is the longest river in Ireland. It runs mainly in a north/south direction, dividing Ireland geographically between east and west. It is thought to rise in Shannon Pot in County Cavan, and enters the sea in the Shannon Estuary at Limerick. The river represents a major physical barrier between east and west.

Rivers of Ireland
County Cavan

River Shannon


Tristan () is a legendary character from Cornish folklore. He was one of the main characters of the story of Tristan and Isolde. He was also one of the Knights of the Round Table in the Matter of Britain. He is son of Meliodas and Elizabeth the king and queen of lioness. He is sent to Ireland by his uncle the King of Cornwall, to bring back Isolde so that the king can marry her. However, Tristan and Isolde accidentally fall in love. As a Knight of the Round Table, Sir Tristan was a well-known archer and a close friend to King Arthur.

Arthurian legend
Fictional knights

Tristan


Hazrat Sheikh Abul Hassan Ali Ibn Usman al-Jullabi al-Hajvery al-Ghaznawi, or Abul Hassan Ali Hajvery (sometimes also spelt as Hujwiri, Hajweri, Hajveri), more popularly known as Hazrat Daata Ganj Bakhsh (Persian/Punjabi, lit. The master who bestows treasures) or even simply as Daata Sahib (Persian/Urdu), was a famous Afghan Sufi mystic,  saint and scholar during the 11th century. He made a significant contribution both to the spreading of Islam in South Asia and to promoting a more liberal, tolerant society in the region.

Life
He was born around 990 AD near Ghazni, Afghanistan during the era of the Ghaznavid Kingdom and moved to Hindustan (or India) to settle in Lahore (now in present-day Punjab (Pakistan)) in 1077 AD.

Work
His most famous written work is the  Revelation of the Veiled (Kashf Al Mahjub) (کشفُ المحجوب), written in the Persian language. This is one of the earliest and most respected treatises of Sufism in Persian, and it debates Sufi doctrines of the past.

Legacy
Al-Hajvery was interred in a famous mausoleum in Lahore, which is surrounded by a large marble courtyard, a mosque and other buildings. It is the most frequented of all the shrines in that old city, and indeed one of the most famous in Pakistan and the entire region. He is venerated as the Patron Saint of Lahore, where his name is a household word, and his mausoleum the object of pilgrimage from distant places, by people of all religious beliefs. Along with Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chishti, Farid-ud-din Ganj Shakar, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar and Jalal-u-din Surkh Bukhari, he is deemed in popular Punjabi  literature and culture, as one of the Panj Peer (Five Sages/Holy Ones) who exert mystic control and authority over all of the South Asia. These five saints or sages are thus invoked for help by many people, too.

Related pages
 List of notable Lahoris

References

990 births
1077 deaths
Punjabi people
Afghan writers
Lahore

Ali al-Hajvery


Patricia Medina (19 July 1919 – 28 April 2012) was an English actress. She began acting as a teen in the late 1930s. Medina later moved to Hollywood. She acted in period melodramas, such as The Black Knight. Her more memorable movies were Stranger at My Door and Mr. Arkadin. She was very prolific in the early 1950s, though her career faded toward the end of the decade. However, around 1968, she returned and starred in the lesbian themed movie The Killing of Sister George.

Medina was born in Liverpool, England. She was married to Joseph Cotten from 1960 until his death in 1994. Medina died at age ninety-two due to natural causes in Los Angeles.

English television actors
English movie actors
1919 births
2012 deaths
Actors from Liverpool

Patricia Medina


The Einstein field equations, or Einstein-Hilbert equations, or simply Einstein equations are equations that describe gravity in the classical sense. They are named after Albert Einstein and David Hilbert. The basic idea is to use geometry to model the effects of gravity. The usual form of the equations is that of nonlinear partial differential equations. Such equations are usually solved by approximation. An exact solution can be obtained in special cases, where certain assumptions are dropped, or simplified.

Mathematical Interpretation
Einstein used mathematical objects called tensors to describe the curvature of spacetime to define gravity. The equation below is the general form of the EFE  :

Where Rμv is known as the Ricci curvature tensor, gμv is the metric tensor, R is the scalar curvature, Λ is the cosmological constant, G is the gravitational constant, π is pi, c is the speed of light, and Tμv is called the stress-energy tensor.

A simpler way for non-math people to understand this is to place a large leaden ball on a rubber sheet suspended between four poles. The rubber sheet will sag from the weight of the lead ball, and if you spin a marble on the sheet it will circle the lead ball, just as the earth circles the sun. The reason is not that there is any attraction between the sun and the earth but that the earth follows the straightest path it can follow in curved space-time.

Equations

Einstein field equations


Aquaman is a fictional comic book superhero published by DC Comics. Aquaman was created by Paul Norris and Mort Weisinger and first appeared in More Fun Comics #72 in November, 1941.

During the Silver Age of Comic Books, Aquaman was a founding member of the Justice League of America.

Aquaman's biography and origin has been reinvented several times since 1941. Aquaman has several superhuman powers. He can breathe underwater and swim at very high speeds. Aquaman has super strength and is very hard to injure. Aquaman's most famous ability is to communicate and command marine animals.

Aquaman has appeared in several cartoon series, such as the Super Friends, and also in the live-action TV series Smallville, with Superman. Jason Momoa played Aquaman in the 2016 movie Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the 2017 movie Justice League, the 2018 movie Aquaman and the 2021 movie Zack Snyder's Justice League.

DC Comics superheroes
DC Comics adapted into movies
Fictional characters introduced in 1941
Justice League

Aquaman


Visibility is a word used in meteorology. It is used to talk about how far a normal person can see depending on the weather. If there is low visibility, such as in a blizzard, a person will not be able to see far. If there is high visibility, such as on a bright, sunny day, a person will be able to see a long way.

Visibility less than  is often called zero. When it is this low, roads may be closed, or lights and signs are turned on to warn drivers. These are put in areas that often have very low visibility. Warning lights help stop accidents. Automobile crashes with many cars happen often in places like this if the warning lights and signs are not put up.

Visibility is said to be good when a person can see farther than about 10 kilometers.

An advisory is put out by meteorologists to warn of low visibility, such as a dense fog advisory from the U.S. National Weather Service. These tell drivers to not travel until the fog leaves. Airport travel sometimes is delayed, or slowed down, by low visibility.

References

Weather

Visibility


Margaret Lockwood (September 15, 1916 – July 15, 1990) was an English actress who starred in melodramatic movies and television series. She acted as Annie Ridd in the 1935 movie adaptation for Lorna Doone and as Iris Henderson in the 1938 comedy and thriller movie The Lady Vanishes. Her best success was in The Wicked Lady, a movie in which Lockwood played a wicked woman.

Lockwood was born in Karachi and raised in London. She died due to complications of cirrhosis at 73.

1916 births
1990 deaths
English television actors
English movie actors
Deaths from cirrhosis
Disease-related deaths in England

Margaret Lockwood


A Halkett boat is a type of lightweight inflatable boat. The boat was first created by  (1820–1885) during the 1840s. Halkett had been interested in the problems of travelling in the Canadian Arctic. He wanted to make a boat that was light enough to be carried over bad terrain, but strong enough to be used in very bad weather conditions.

Halkett's first design was a boat that was made using cloth combined with rubber. This boat could be filled with air (inflated) to float on water or the air could be removed (deflated) so it would be smaller and lighter to carry. When deflated, the hull of the boat could be worn as a cloak. The oar used as a walking stick and the sail could be used as an umbrella. Next, he created a two-man boat that was small enough to fit into a knapsack. When it was deflated, It could be used as a waterproof blanket.

Many people who explored Canada liked his ideas but they were not very useful to most other people. He tried to show the  Royal Navy that the boats could be useful to them but did not succeed. He also could not sell them fishermen and people that hunted duck. They were commercially unsuccessful. Only two Halkett boats are still known to exist. One belonged to Orcadian explorer John Rae. The other is in the Hudson's Bay Company Museum Collection at the Manitoba Museum.

Peter Halkett
Peter Halkett was a Lieutenant in the Royal Navy in the 1840s. He was the son of John Halkett, a director of the Hudson's Bay Company who had lived in Canada for many years before returning to England. Peter Halkett was interested in the exploration of the Canadian Arctic for a long time. He was very interested in John Franklin's Coppermine Expedition of 1819–1822. This expedition had many problems.

Franklin explored the northern coast of Canada for three years. He was looking for the Northwest Passage. His search ended very badly. It was said that people killed other members of the expedition and that some even ate the other people.  11 of the 20 members of the group were killed. The people that were not killed had to eat lichen, their own boots, and the remains of dead animals left by wolves. They had become stranded on the wrong side of the Coppermine River after their boats had been destroyed in a storm. John Richardson tried to swim to safety. This caused him very bad hypothermia. One person in the party built a small canoe from canvas and willow. They had to cross the river one at a time using the canoe.

Halkett was an amateur inventor. During his spare time while in the navy, he worked on building a boat that would be small and light enough to be carried through wilderness, but strong enough to carry people in safety across wide bodies of water. He chose to build a boat in which all parts could also be used as clothing or items that the user would normally carry with them.

Boat-cloak

Halkett made a waterproof cloak. It was created from an early form of Macintosh cloth. This cloth was made of cotton combined with India rubber. The inside of the cloak was an airtight and watertight inflatable ovoid. It was made of four different airtight sections. If one section was damaged and could not hold air, the others would still keep the boat floating. The cloak had a pocket that held a paddle blade and a small bellows. The person wearing the cloak would carry a walking stick. This stick was also used as the handle for the paddle. There was also a large umbrella which was used as a sail for the boat. The cloak weighed about . It took three to four minutes to inflate the boat. Once the boat was inflated, it could carry six to eight people.

In early 1844, Halkett tested the first boat-cloak on the River Thames. He paddled it  without taking on any water. His test went very well. Because of this, he took the boat-cloak with him while on naval service. He used it whenever he could to test it under many different sea conditions. In November 1844, Halkett wanted to test the boat-cloak in bad weather conditions. The seas of the Bay of Biscay were usually very bad, but the weather was unusually calm when he got there. The boat-cloak was very well liked by explorers. John Richardson (who had almost died during the 1819–1822 Coppermine expedition) wrote that "Had we been possessed of such a contrivance in our first expedition, I have little doubt of our having brought the whole party in safely".

Halkett's boats in the Canadian Arctic

Because of how well the boat-cloak did during his tests, Halkett built a larger version. This boat could be folted into a knapsack. When inflated, it could carry two men. Each man would use a paddle on each side of the boat. When deflated, the boat could be used as a waterproof blanket. This would allow the users to sleep on wet ground. The people in charge of the Royal Navy though the boat could be useful to some people but was not likely to be useful to the Navy. On 8 May 1845 Lord Herbert, First Secretary to the Admiralty wrote to Halkett that "My Lords are of an opinion that your invention is extremely clever and ingenious, and that it might be useful in Exploring and Surveying Expeditions, but they do not consider that it would be made applicable for general purposes in the Naval Service".

Although the Navy saw no use for Halkett's boats in general naval service, this larger boat was liked very much by explorers. John Franklin bought one to take on the 1845 expedition. This expedition ended badly. All 129 men and their two ships were lost and never found. Franklin believed that Halkett boats were very needed to travel in Canada. He gave the boat that was to be used for his expedition to Sir George Simpson, Governor-in-Chief of Rupert's Land so that Simpson could use in his travels in the region. He got another boat from Halkett to be used on his last expedition.

Orkneyman John Rae, known by the Inuit as  (, "He who takes long strides"), was a Hudson's Bay Company surgeon. He became a surveyor of the Canadian Arctic. Unlike most Europeans of that time, Rae believed that the local people knew the best ways to deal with the very bad weather conditions. He travelled Inuit-style, using sledges and snowshoes. He slept in snow igloos. Rae took a Halkett boat on his first expedition in 1846. He said that it was "most useful in crossing and recrossing the river at Repulse Bay". He also said that "although in constant use for upwards of six weeks on a rocky coast it never required the slightest repair" and "ought to form part of the equipment of every expedition".

In 1848, the Royal navy sent out people to find out what had become of the ships and men of Franklin's expedition. The search party was led by John Richardson and John Rae. They had a Halkett boat bought by the government. The party did not find Franklin, but they learned that the Halkett boat very useful. During the search, they used the single boat to move their entire party across a river in 14 trips. Rae said that although the rubber of the boat became stiff from the cold, it was not hard to warm it to soften the material when needed. Halkett boats were also taken on 6 other expedition that were sent to look for Franklin. During these they were used for fishing.

In 1851 French explorer Joseph René Bellot led another expedition to find Franklin. This was paid for by Franklin's wife. Bellot took a Halkett boat-cloak on the journey. He said that it was "of immense value in a country where the want of wood renders it impossible to form any sort of raft". Bellot's expedition did not find Franklin. It was not until 1853 that an expedition led by Rae (using with "two beautiful Halkett boats") found a group of Inuit who told them that they saw men dragging a boat four years earlier. Their bodies were found soon after that.

Commercial failure
Even though the boats were said to be very good for lake-fishing and duck-shooting and were shown in the Great Exhibition of 1851, they did not sell well.  Halkett's boat were not widely used except in the field of Canadian exploration. Halkett died on 23 March 1885, aged 65, and the building of his boats stopped. John Rae gave his boat from the 1853 expedition to a Miss Peace of Kirkwall. Many years later it was found and is now in the Stromness Museum at Orkney. A second boat is in the Hudson's Bay Company Museum Collection at the Manitoba Museum.

References
Notes

References

History of Canada
Boats

Halkett boat


A voluntary controlled school (VC school) is a state-funded school in England and Wales in which a foundation or trust (usually a Christian denomination) has some formal influence in the running of the school.  Such schools have less autonomy than voluntary aided schools, in which the foundation pays part of any building costs.

Characteristics
Voluntary controlled schools are a kind of "maintained school", meaning that they are funded by central government via the local authority, and do not charge fees to students. The majority are also faith schools.

The land and buildings are typically owned by a charitable foundation, which also appoints about a quarter of the school governors.
However, the local authority employs the school's staff and has primary responsibility for the school's admission arrangements. Specific exemptions from Section 85 of the Equality Act 2010 enables VC faith schools to use faith criteria in prioritising pupils for admission to the schools.

Pupils at voluntary controlled schools follow the National Curriculum.

History
Prior to the Education Act 1944, voluntary schools were those associated with a foundation, usually a religious group. That Act imposed higher standards on school facilities, and offered voluntary schools a choice in funding the costs this would incur.

 Voluntary controlled schools would have all their costs met by the state, but would be controlled by the local education authority.
 Voluntary aided schools would have all of their running costs met by the State, but their capital costs would only be partially state funded, with the foundation retaining greater influence over the school.

The Roman Catholic Church chose to retain control of its schools, while more than half of Church of England schools became voluntary controlled.

By 2008, in England, approximately 15% of primary schools were voluntary controlled, almost all of them associated with the Church of England.  Only 3% of secondary schools were voluntary controlled, of which about half were Church of England schools.

In 2012, the Fair Admissions Campaign began to encourage local authorities to stop using faith criteria in admissions policies for VC schools.

See also
 Voluntary aided school
State-funded schools (England)
Education in Wales
Education in Northern Ireland

References

State schools in the United Kingdom
Voluntary controlled
Education in England
Education in Northern Ireland
Education in Wales
Education finance in the United Kingdom
Public education in the United Kingdom
Religious schools in the United Kingdom
Schools in England
Schools in Northern Ireland
Schools in Wales

Voluntary controlled school


The nitrogen cycle is the way that nitrogen in nature is changed into many different forms that are used by living organism[s].

Air is about 78% nitrogen. Nitrogen chemicals are needed for life. Nitrogen is a necessary part of proteins, DNA, and RNA. In plants, nitrogen is needed for photosynthesis and growth.  However, living things cannot use the elemental nitrogen in the air for these things. Nitrogen fixation is needed to change the nitrogen in air (N2) into forms that can be used by life. Most nitrogen fixation is done by microorganisms called bacteria. These bacteria have an enzyme that combines N2 with hydrogen gas (H2) to make ammonia (NH3).

Some of these bacteria live in the roots of plants (mostly legumes). In these roots, they make ammonia for the plant and the plant gives them carbohydrates. Other plants take nitrogen compounds out of the soil through their roots. All nitrogen in animals comes from eating plants.

Ammonium (NH4) in soil is made by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and decomposers, bacteria and fungi that break down dead life into its parts. This process is called ammonification. Ammonium has a positive charge. It easily joins to clay and humus in the soil. Ammonia and ammonium are poisonous to fish and other animals. Sewage and other waste-water is regularly measured because of this. If ammonia levels are too high, nitrification must happen.

Nitrification is the oxidation of ammonia and ammonium to nitrite (NO2−) and then to nitrate (NO3−) by bacteria. Because nitrite and nitrate have a negative charge they do not easily join to soil and will wash out of the soil during rain and irrigation.  High nitrate levels in drinking water are harmful for babies and can cause blue-baby syndrome.   High nitrate levels can also cause too much algae growth in lakes and pools.  This eutrophication can be harmful to fish and other water animals.  The use of fertilizers is controlled because of this.

Where there is no oxygen, some bacteria will make nitrate into nitrogen gas (N2) to extract energy. This starts the nitrogen cycle over again. This process is called denitrification.

References

Ecology
Nitrogen

Nitrogen cycle


Ruth apRoberts (1919 – March 26, 2006) was a Canadian scholar of Victorian and religious literature. Her work focused on 19th-century British literature as it intersected with philosophical issues and spiritual traditions.

Biography
Born as Ruth Heyer in 1919 in Vancouver, British Columbia, she received her bachelor's degree from the University of British Columbia and her master's degree from UC Berkeley. After raising her four children, she received her PhD in English from UCLA. She was the widow of Robert apRoberts, a scholar of Welsh descent who taught medieval literature at California State University in Northridge.

At the University of California in Riverside, Ruth apRoberts held the positions of Graduate Advisor and Chair of the English Department. She taught courses in Victorian literature, the Aesthetic Movement, and the Bible as literature. She held a Guggenheim Fellowship (1978–79).

She was awarded the UCR Distinguished Teaching Award in 1977, and the Distinguished Emeritus Award in 1995.

She was the author of four books: The Moral Trollope (1971), which explored the aesthetic and ethical dimensions of the novels of Anthony Trollope; Arnold and God (1983) which probed the anti-literal understandings of religion that permeate all of Matthew Arnold's poetry and social criticism; The Ancient Dialect (1988) which analyzed the writing of Thomas Carlyle in relation to the study of comparative religions; and The Biblical Web (1994) which provided a purely literary analysis of the Christian Bible and the Hebrew Torah, focusing on the resonances and influence of their language.

At the time of her death, Katherine Kinney, chair of the Department of English at UC Riverside had this to say: "Ruth apRoberts helped shape the intellectual culture of our department. As a scholar of the highest reputation and accomplishment, she led by example. She was a generous colleague and committed teacher whose passion for literature and intellectual inquiry exemplified our shared mission."

Publications
The Moral Trollope (Ohio University Press, 1971)
Arnold and God (University of California Press, 1983; selected by Choice as an Outstanding Book of 1983)
The Ancient Dialect (University of California Press, 1988)
The Biblical Web (University of Michigan Press, 1994)

References

External links
 The Independent obituary by David R. Sorenson

1919 births
2006 deaths
University of British Columbia alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian literary critics
Canadian women literary critics
Writers from Vancouver
University of California, Riverside faculty
Canadian women non-fiction writers
Canadian women academics

Ruth apRoberts


Naresuan University is a university in Phitsanulok, Thailand.

Symbols of Naresuan University

NU stands for Naresuan University.
The first symbol of this university is the statue of King Naresuan the great. The second is the King Naresuan's elephant.
The school flower is Lagerstroemia loudonii Binn. The school colors are gray and orange. Gray means the color of wisdom. Orange means the color of braveness and goodness.

Vision
Naresuan University is the sources of acknowledgement and we support pupils to be the good people in Thai society.

Philosophy

Naresuan University's ideology is to make pupils have educations, goodnesses and ethical behaviors to live with other people in society happily.

Determination
The determinations of Naresuan University are not only to be the head of academy in south north region which developing the pupils to be the good pundit and can live happily with the other people in society, but also reduce the environment.

Other websites
 Naresuan University Homepage

Colleges and universities in Thailand

Naresuan University


The Treaty of Paris of 15 May 1796 was a treaty between the French Republic and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia during the War of the First Coalition.

After four years of fighting, the French under Bonaparte had finally beaten the Piedmontese army in the Battle of Montenotte, and on 21 April 1796 in the Battle of Mondovi. This forced King Victor Amadeus III of Savoy to sign an armistice at Cherasco one week later, abandoning the First Coalition against the French Republic.

In the following treaty, King Victor Amadeus III recognized the French Republic, ceded the original Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice to France and gave the French Army free passage through his territory towards the rest of Italy.
The King died a few months after signing the treaty.

The French interest in Savoy had already been demonstrated in 1792 when the revolutionaries had annexed these lands as the 84th French Département under the name Mont-Blanc. This had provoked the war with Piedmont-Sardinia.

Piedmont-Sardinia never accepted these losses and in the Treaty of Paris (1814) they retrieved part of Savoy, and one year later in the Treaty of Paris (1815), the rest of these territories. They would be regained by France under Napoleon III.

Bibliography

1796 treaties
Treaties of the Kingdom of Sardinia
History of Piedmont
Peace treaties of the French Revolutionary Wars
1796 in Italy
1796 in France
1790s in Paris
Treaties of the French First Republic
France–Kingdom of Sardinia relations
18th century in the Kingdom of Sardinia

Treaty of Paris (1796)


A beach movie or beach party movie is a movie genre. The genre was popular in the late 1950s. It flourished during the early 1960s. The genre was launched in 1959 with Gidget starring Sandra Dee, and came to an end in 1967 with Catalina Caper featuring Tommy Kirk and Little Richard. This movie is generally thought to be the "last gasp" of the genre, the final beach-themed movie.

Beach movies are about happy-go-lucky teenagers frolicking on the sun-drenched beaches of California and Hawaii. Genre elements include girlfriend/boyfriend relationships, motorcycles, cars, food, muscles, bikinis, rock and roll, surf music and surfing. Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon set the pace for the genre as teen sweethearts in a string of seven beach movies from AIP.

Movie genres

Beach movie


Antonio de Salazar (or Zalazar) (c.1650–1715) was a Novohispano composer.

Salazar was born in Puebla de los Angeles, current Mexico. In 1698 he turned into the master of the chapel of Puebla Puebla Cathedral, then later held his final position at Mexico City Cathedral. It is unknown if he had any direct connection to Oaxaca Cathedral though some of his compositions are found in manuscript there.  He died in Mexico City, Viceroyalty of New Spain, current Mexico.

In his sacred Latin works Salazar was noted for a strict contrapuntal style harking back to Palestrina. The musicologist Bruno Turner considers that Salazar "represents the last of the truly conservative Hispanic composers before the all-conquering Italian style took Spain and its Empire by storm".

Salazar also composed lighter pieces including Christmas villancicos, including several in the negrillo genre imitating the dialects and dances of African slaves.

Works
Motets
 Credidi quod locutus sum
 O sacrum convivium
 Joseph fili David
 Gloriosa virginum
 Te Joseph celebrent
 Vexilla Regis prodeunt

Villancicos
 Tarará tarará qui yo soy Antoniyo

References

Links
 Free scores by Antonio de Salazar in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)

Spanish Baroque composers
1650s births
1715 deaths
Mexican classical composers
Mexican male classical composers
18th-century classical composers
18th-century male musicians
Spanish male musicians

Antonio de Salazar (composer)


Rodeo is a ballet. The story and dances were designed by Agnes de Mille. The music was written by Aaron Copland. The ballet was first performed on October 16, 1942 at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. It was a great success. The ballet consists of five sections: "Buckaroo Holiday", "Ranch House Party", "Corral Nocturne", "Saturday Night Waltz", and "Hoe-Down". The ballet tells the story of an awkward cowgirl's romance.

Ballets
Compositions by Aaron Copland

Rodeo (ballet)