Afghan Arabs (also known as Arab-Afghans) are Arab and other Muslim Islamist mujahideen who came to Afghanistan during and following the Soviet–Afghan War to help fellow Muslims fight Soviets and the pro-Soviet Afghans in the DRA Despite being called "Afghan" they were not from Afghanistan nor legally citizens of Afghanistan.

Estimates of the volunteers number are 8,000 to 35,000. The late Saudi Arabian journalist Jamal Khashoggi, the first Arab journalist from a major Arabic media organization to cover the Afghan jihad, estimated their numbers to be at around 10,000. Within the Muslim Arab world they achieved near hero-status for their association with the defeat of the Soviet Union, and on returning home had considerable significance waging jihad against their own and other governments. Their name notwithstanding,  none were Afghans and some were not Arabs, but Turkic or Malay, among others. In the West, the arguably most famous among their ranks was Osama bin Laden.

Origin
One supporter of the Afghan Arabs, General Hameed Gul, the former head of the Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence, explained the recruitment of Muslims to fight in Afghanistan this way: "We are fighting a jihad and this is the first Islamic international brigade in the modern era. The Communists have their international brigades, the West has NATO, why can't the Muslims unite and form a common front?"

Abdullah Yusuf Azzam
Abdullah Yusuf Azzam (1941–1989) is often credited with creating enthusiasm for the Afghan mujahideen cause in the Arab Muslim and greater Muslim world. When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Azzam issued a fatwa, Defense of the Muslim Lands, the First Obligation after Faith declaring defense jihad in Afghanistan fard ayn (a personal obligation) for all Muslims. "Whoever can, from among the Arabs, fight jihad in Palestine, then he must start there. And, if he is not capable, then he must set out for Afghanistan." While Jihad in Palestine was more important, for practical reasons, "it is our opinion that we should begin [Jihad] with Afghanistan before Palestine." The edict was supported by other Sheikhs including Saudi Arabia's Grand Mufti (highest religious scholar), Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz.

Sometime after 1980, Adullah Azzam established Maktab al-Khadamat (Services Office) to organize guest houses in Peshawar just across the Afghan border in Pakistan and paramilitary training camps in Afghanistan to prepare international recruits for the Afghan war front. Using financing of Saudi Arabia and a wealthy young Saudi recruit, Osama bin Laden, Maktab al-Khadamat paid for "air tickets and accommodation, dealt with paperwork with Pakistani authorities and provided other such services for the jihad fighters" from the Muslim world.  During the 1980s, Azam had forged close links with two of the Afghan mujahideen faction-leaders, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar the Pakistan favorite, and Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, an Islamic scholar from Afghanistan whom the Saudis had "sent to Peshwar to promote Wahhabism."

Abdullah Azzam toured not only the Muslim world but the United States, in search of funds and young Muslim recruits. He inspired young Muslims with stories of miraculous deeds, mujahideen who defeated vast columns of Soviet troops virtually single-handed, who had been run over by tanks but survived, who were shot, but unscathed by bullets. Angels were said to ride into battle on horseback, and falling bombs were intercepted by birds, which raced ahead of the jets to form a protective canopy over the warriors. Critics complain these stories proliferated because Sheikh Abdullah paid mujahideen to bring "him wonderful tales."

Estimates of the number of Muslim Afghan Arab volunteers that came from around the world came to fight in Afghanistan include 8,000, 10,000, 20,000 and 35,000.

In the camps of the foreign volunteers Azzam was said to be "able to exercise a strong influence on the unpredictable jihadists". His slogan was "Jihad and the rifle alone: no negotiations, no conferences and no dialogues." He emphasized the importance of jihad: "those who believe that Islam can flourish [and] be victorious without Jihad, fighting, and blood are deluded and have no understanding of the nature of this religion," and that Afghanistan was only the beginning:

This duty [i.e. jihad] shall not lapse with victory in Afghanistan, and the jihad will remain an individual obligation until all other lands which formerly were Muslim come back to us and Islam reigns within them once again. Before us lie Palestine, Bukhara, Lebanon, Chad, Eritrea, Somalia, the Philippines, Burma, South Yemen, Tashkent, Andalusia ...

Sometime after August 1988, Azzam was replaced as the leader of the Arab Afghans in Peshawar by Osama bin Laden.  Azzam himself was assassinated there in November 1989 by roadside bomb that some think was the work of the radical jihadi Egyptian Islamic Jihad and his opponent Ayman al-Zawahiri while others believe was orchestrated by Afghan KhAD agents possibly to cause infighting.

Later volunteers
While there was generous financial aid to Afghan guerillas throughout the 1980s, most foreign Muslim jihad volunteers did not arrive in Afghanistan until the mid-1980s. By 1986 the Soviets were talking about withdrawing from Afghanistan. As it became clear the Mujahideen's fight against the Soviets had been a success, it became more popular with Muslims worldwide, and drew more of them to volunteer in Afghanistan. Consequently, most of the Arab foreign fighters arrived to fight the Soviets  when they were least needed. The late arrivals were reportedly twice the number who came for the war against the Soviet occupation.

Many of the later volunteers were different than the early "Afghan" Arab volunteers inspired by Sheikh Azzam's tours, and have been criticized for being less serious,
Some Saudi tourists came to earn their jihad credentials. Their tour was organized so that they could step inside Afghanistan, get photographed discharging a gun, and promptly return home as a hero of Jihad.

or more sectarian and undisciplined in their violence. Violence escalated in Peshwar Pakistan,  the mujahideen staging area and center of Afghan Arab activity.

These later expatriate volunteers included many sectarian Salafi and Wahhabi who alienated their hosts with their aloof manner and disdain for the Sufi Islam practiced by most Afghans. While the first Arab Afghans were "for the most part" welcomed by native Afghan mujahideen, by the end of the Soviet-Afghan war, there was a great deal of mutual antagonism between the two groups. The Afghan mujahideen resented "being told they were not good Muslims" and called the expatriate volunteers "Ikhwanis" or "Wahhabis", and this resentment is thought by some (Marc Sageman) to have played a role in the relatively easy manner in which the U.S. overthrew the (also very strict) Taliban in 2001.

Religious influence
In the "great gathering" of international Islamists—Arab, Afghan, and other countries—at camps and training centers around Peshawar, ideas were exchanged and "many unexpected ideological cross fertilizations" took place, particularly a "variant of Islamist ideology based on armed struggle and extreme religious vigour" known as Salafi jihadism.

After the war with the Soviets
The departure of the Soviets led to the start of the Afghan Civil War between Afghan Government forces and the so-called "Interim Afghan Government", Osama Bin Laden's Al Qaeda participated in the failed Battle of Jalalabad, Bin Laden personally led 800 Arabs to immobilize the 7th Sarandoy regiment but failed to do so leading to many casualties. At least 300 Arabs were killed by Afghan Forces during the Battle. The President of Afghanistan, Mohammad Najibullah was highly critical of Arab involvement in Afghanistan, claiming Wahabi Arabs would destroy Afghan values and culture and lead to an American invasion in the future. With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Najibullah Government lost its most important trading partner. The new Russian government under Boris Yeltsin cut exports to Najibullah's Government and in 1992 President Najibullah was removed from power by 4 of his Generals and the Homeland Party government in Kabul ceased to exist in April 1992. After this, some foreign mujahideen stayed in Afghanistan participating in the following Civil War caused by the power vacuum left behind from the dissolved Afghan Military.  These Arab foreign fighters served as the essential core of the foot soldiers of Osama bin Laden's Al Qaeda, bin Laden being seen, according to journalist Lawrence Wright, as "the undisputed leader of the Arab Afghans" by fall of 1989.

Others returned "with their experience, ideology, and weapons," to their home (or other Muslim) countries, often proceeding to fight jihad against the government there.  However minimal the impact of the "Afghan" Arabs on the war against the Soviets, the return of the volunteers to their home countries was often not. In Foreign Affairs Peter Bergen writes:
The foreign volunteers in Afghanistan saw the Soviet defeat as a victory for Islam against a superpower that had invaded a Muslim country. Estimates of the number of foreign fighters who fought in Afghanistan begin in the low thousands; some spent years in combat, while others came only for what amounted to a jihad vacation. The jihadists gained legitimacy and prestige from their triumph both within the militant community and among ordinary Muslims, as well as the confidence to carry their jihad to other countries where they believed Muslims required assistance. When veterans of the guerrilla campaign returned home with their experience, ideology, and weapons, they destabilized once-tranquil countries and inflamed already unstable ones.

Three countries where Afghan Arabs had the biggest impact immediately following the war were Bosnia-Herzegovina, where they fought against Bosnian Serbs and Croats, Algeria and Egypt, where they fought the respective governments. According to Compass, 2,000 Egyptians and 2,800 Algerians were trained for combat in the Pakistan border area though not all of these volunteers saw action in Afghanistan.  Several hundred had recently returned home by 1992.

In Bosnia the war ended with peace accords and American peacekeeping troops rather than sharia law. In both Algeria and Egypt after much blood letting the Islamist movement lost popular support and the government prevailed.

Bosnia
Bosnia was a major issue in the Muslim World which saw it as an aggression of Christians against Muslims and proof of Western double standards on human rights. About 4000 Jihadists from Peshawar and new international recruits went to fight in Bosnia, but their calls for Jihad and re-Islamization often fell on deaf ears among Bosnian Muslims which lacked a population explosion among the poor or a pious middle class that most Muslim countries had.

The Afghan Arab veterans formed a El-Mudzahidun regiment in August 1993 but hurt the Bosnian image internationally with "photographs of grinning Arab warriors brandishing the freshly severed heads of 'Christian Serbs'". The volunteers also took upon themselves Hisbah ("commanding right and forbidding wrong") and also attempted to impose the veil on women and the beard on men and in addition engaged in causing disturbances in the ceremonies of [Sufi] brotherhoods they deemed to be deviant, ...  smashing up cafes, and ... [organizing] sharia marriages to Bosnian girls that were not declared to the civil authorities.  After the 1995 Dayton Agreement (which gave Bosniaks control of 30% of the Bosnia and Herzegovina) were signed, all foreign volunteers were invited to leave the territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina and were replaced by NATO peacekeeping forces, a "bitter experience" for Afghan Arab jihadist-salafists. According to Gilles Kepel as of 2003, the only thing left of their presence are "a few naturalized Arab subjects married to Bosnian women."

Algeria
Several veterans of jihad in Afghanistan were important in the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria or GIA—one of two insurgent groups fighting the government in the Algerian Civil War after the army intervened to prevent the leading Islamist party from winning elections scheduled for January 1992. Sief Allah Djafar, aka Djafar al-Afghani,  spent two years in Afghanistan and in 1993 became "amir" of the GIA. Providing doctrinal justifications for the GIA and a "steady stream of pro-GIA publicity" for Muslims outside Algeria (until June 1996 when GIA atrocities became too much) were two other Afghan veterans, Abu Mousab (a Spanish Syrian) and Abu Qatada (a Palestinian).

The GIA slogan—"no agreement, no truce, no dialogue"—echoed that of Abdullah Azzam. The group was committed to overthrowing the "impious" Algerian government and worked to prevent any compromise between them and the Islamist FIS party.
Under Djafar, the GIA broadened its attacks to include civilians who refused to live by their prohibitions, and then foreigners living in Algeria.  By the end of 1993 26 foreigners had been killed. In November 1993 it kidnapped and executed Sheik Mohamed Bouslimani "a popular figure who was prominent" in the moderate Islamist Algerian Hamas party who refused "to issue a fatwa endorsing the GIA's tactics." Djafar was killed February 26, 1994, but GIA continued to escalate violence, massacring whole villages of peasants for their alleged apostasy from Islam manifested by their failure to support GIA's jihad. Though the "undisputed principal Islamist force" in Algeria in 1994,  by 1996, militants were deserting "in droves", alienated by its execution of civilians and Islamists leaders and believing it to be infiltrated by government agents.  By the end of the 1990s the group was spent, somewhere between 40,000 and 200,000 lives had been lost, and the once broad and enthusiastic support by voters for the anti-government Islamism was replaced "with a deep fear of instability". Algeria was one of the few in the Arab world not to participate in the Arab Spring.

Egypt
In Egypt, "fundamentalists fighting the government in the 1990s included "several hundred 'Afghan' guerrillas". The main group was led by Ayman al-Zawahiri and Mohammed Shawky al-Istambouli—brother of the army lieutenant who led the assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat in October 1981. Al-Istambouli established a base in Jalalabad, in eastern Afghanistan, during the war. (The Islamist terror group al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya still had about 200 men there in 1994.)  A former army colonel and "prominent fundamentalist" who fled Egypt after the Sadat assassination, Ibrahim el-Mekkawi, maintained training camps and other bases near the Afghan-Pakistan border and directed the Islamic campaign in Egypt from Pakistan according to authorities in Cairo.

Egypt's institutions had more political strength and religious credibility than Algeria's, and hundreds rather than thousands were killed in the terror campaign before it was crushed in 1997–8. Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya militants harassed and murdered members of the Coptic Christian minority, and by 1992 had broadened their targets to police and tourists, causing serious harm to Egypt's economy. Violence in Egypt reached its peak in the November 1997 Luxor massacre of 60 people most of whom were tourists.

Taliban era
In the mid- and late-1990s, the Afghan Arabs, in the form of the Wahhabi-oriented Al-Qaeda, became more influential in Afghanistan helping and influencing the Taliban.  Several hundred Arab-Afghans participated in the 1997 and 1998 Taliban offensives in the north and helped the Taliban carry out the massacres of the Shia Hazaras there.  Several hundred more Arab-Afghans, based in the Rishkor army garrison outside Kabul, fought on the Kabul front against General Ahmad Shah Massoud.  At the same time the Taliban's ideology changed. Until the "Taliban's contact with the Arab-Afghans and their [the Taliban's] pan-Islamic ideology was non-existent."

By 1996 and 1998, al Qaeda felt comfortable enough in the sanctuary given them to issue a declaration of war against Americans and later a fatwa to kill Americans and their allies.  "The Arab-Afghans had come full circle. From being mere appendages of the Afghan jihad and the Cold War in the 1980s they had taken centre stage for the Afghans, neighbouring countries and the west in the 1990s." This was followed by al Qaeda 1998 American embassy bombings in African countries and the September 11, 2001 attacks.

Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, America invaded Afghanistan, deposing the Taliban, ending the heyday of the Afghan Arabs.  During the American campaign in Afghanistan in late 2001, many coherent units of Arab fighters were destroyed by JDAMs. Some Arab fighters have been held by Afghan tribesman for ransom paid by Americans.

Characteristics

Helpfulness to the Afghan mujahideen
Perhaps the major contribution of the more serious Afghan Arab volunteers was humanitarian aid —- the setting up of hospitals around Peshawar and Quetta and providing funds for supply caravans to travel to the interior of the country. Abdullah Anas, himself one of the most famous of these Afghan-Arabs fighters, said that "90 percent were teachers, cooks, accountants, doctors [over the border in Pakistan]." The effectiveness of the Afghan Arabs in Afghanistan as a fighting force has been scoffed at, called a "curious sideshow to the real fighting,"  Estimates are there were about 2000 Arab Afghans fighting "at any one time", compared with about a 250,000 Afghan fighters and 125,000 Soviet troops.

Marc Sageman, a Foreign Service Officer who was based in Islamabad from 1987 to 1989, and worked closely with Afghanistan's Mujahideen, says
 Contemporaneous accounts of the war do not even mention [the Afghan Arabs]. Many were not serious about the war. ... Very few were involved in actual fighting. For most of the war, they were scattered among the Afghan groups associated with the four Afghan fundamentalist parties.

One instance where the foreign volunteers did participate in the fighting is reported to have backfired disastrously, hurting the Afghan resistance by prolonging the war against the Afghan Marxist government following the Soviet withdrawal.

The March 1989 the Pakistani/American sponsored Battle for Jalalabad, was supposed to be the beginning of the end for the Afghan Communist government forces, the PDPA Government began negotiations with the "Interim Afghan Government". Unfortunately, radical non-Afghan salafists became involved, executing some 60 surrendering Communists, cutting their corpses into small pieces, and sending the remains back to the besieged city in a truck with the message that this would be the fate awaiting the infidels. Despite apologies and assurances of safety from Afghan resistance leaders, the Communists ended their negotiations of surrender, spurred them on to break the siege of Jalalabad launching over 400 Scud Ballistic Missiles at Mujahedeen(Interim Afghan Government) positions leading them to win the first major victory of the Civil War. The battle was an international embarrassment for the Pakistanis whom had supported the "Interim Afghan Government" causing the sacking of ISI head Hamid Gul In the words of Brigadier-General Mohammed Yousaf, an officer of the ISI, "the jihad never recovered from Jalalabad". Contrary to American and Pakistani expectations, this battle proved that the Afghan Army could fight without Soviet help, and greatly increased the confidence of government supporters. Conversely, the morale of the mujahideen involved in the attack slumped and many local commanders of Hekmatyar concluded truces with the government. Over 300 Arab foreign fighters were killed by Afghan Forces during the Battle.

Composition
According to one source, some "35,000 Muslim radicals from 43 Islamic countries in the Middle East, North and East Africa, Central Asia and the Far East," fought for the Afghan Mujahideen.  Tens of thousand more foreign Muslim radicals came to study in the hundreds of new madrassas in Pakistan and along the Afghan border, that the Pakistan government funded. Eventually "more than 100,000 Muslim radicals were to have direct contact with Pakistan and Afghanistan and be influenced by the jihad."

The Mujahideen of Afghanistan were divided into several factions and the Afghan Arabs helped some factions much more than others.  Factions led by Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar are described as having had good relations with Arab foreign fighters, Bin Laden would personally finance the 1990 Afghan Coup attempt by Hardline Communist Khalqists and Gulbuddin's Hezbi Islami. The faction led by Ahmad Shah Massoud, had good relations with Abdullah Azzam which is why Hekmatyar is one of the suspects for his demise alongside KhAD.

Interest in martyrdom
Afghan Arabs have been described as strongly motivated by hopes for martyrdom. Rahimullah Yusufzai, the Peshawar bureau chief for the Pakistani daily News, remarked on his amazement that one camp of Arab Afghans pitched white tents on the front lines, where they were easy marks for Soviet bombers, then attacking the camp. When he asked the Arabs why, they replied: "We want them to bomb us! We want to die!" Bin Laden himself has said: "I wish I could raid and be slain, and then raid and be slain, and then raid and be slain."

Attitude to the West
The Afghan resistance "had been considerably romanticized in the American press and had made tours through American churches, where they were lauded for their spiritual courage in the common fight against Marxism and godlessness". Some of the Afghan Arabs jihadis who flocked to Afghanistan, however, saw themselves as opponents of the West every bit as much as of Communism.

French writer Olivier Roy, who spent some years in Afghanistan, and served with the United Nations Office for Coordinating Relief in Afghanistan (UNOCA), has written that the jihadis "did not become anti-Western after 1991 – they had always been so."
All westerners, like me, who encountered the so-called "Arabs" inside Afghanistan during the war of resistance were struck (sometimes physically) by their hostility. The Arabs constantly asked the Afghan mujahideen commanders to get rid of the "infidels" and to choose only good Muslims as supporters, and called for the expulsion of Western NGOs ... in many areas the mujahideen had to intervene to prevent physical assaults on westerners.

Author Gilles Kepel writes that in Peshwar Pakistan, some Afghan Arabs attacked "Europe and American humanitarian agencies ... trying to help the Afghan refugees."

In contrast according to former British Defence Secretary Michael Portillo, late Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto told him said Osama bin Laden was initially pro-American.  According to Prince Bandar bin Sultan of Saudi Arabia, on the one occasion he met and talked to Osama bin Laden, bin Laden thanked him for his "efforts to bring the Americans, our friends, to help us against the atheists, he said the communists."

Connection with the CIA

Robin Cook, former leader of the British House of Commons and Foreign Secretary from 1997 to 2001, wrote in The Guardian on Friday, July 8, 2005,
Bin Laden was, though, a product of a monumental miscalculation by western security agencies. Throughout the 80s he was armed by the CIA and funded by the Saudis to wage jihad against the Russian occupation of Afghanistan. Al-Qaida, literally "the database", was originally the computer file of the thousands of mujahideen who were recruited and trained with help from the CIA to defeat the Russians.

However the notion that the CIA had any contact with non-Afghan mujahideen and specifically bin Laden is disputed by a number of sources. According to Peter Bergen of CNN the story

that the CIA funded bin Laden or trained bin Laden—is simply a folk myth. There's no evidence of this. In fact, there are very few things that bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri and the U.S. government agree on. They all agree that they didn't have a relationship in the 1980s. And they wouldn't have needed to. Bin Laden had his own money, he was anti-American and he was operating secretly and independently.

The real story here is the CIA didn't really have a clue about who this guy was until 1996 when they set up a unit to really start tracking him.

Bergen quotes Pakistani Brigadier Mohammad Yousaf, who ran ISI's Afghan operation between 1983 and 1987:
It was always galling to the Americans, and I can understand their point of view, that although they paid the piper they could not call the tune. The CIA supported the mujahideen by spending the taxpayers' money, billions of dollars of it over the years, on buying arms, ammunition, and equipment. It was their secret arms procurement branch that was kept busy. It was, however, a cardinal rule of Pakistan's policy that no Americans ever become involved with the distribution of funds or arms once they arrived in the country. No Americans ever trained or had direct contact with the mujahideen, and no American official ever went inside Afghanistan.

According to Peter Beinart,

Vincent Cannistraro, who led the Reagan administration's Afghan Working Group from 1985 to 1987, puts it, "The CIA was very reluctant to be involved at all. They thought it would end up with them being blamed, like in Guatemala." So the Agency tried to avoid direct involvement in the war, ... the skittish CIA, Cannistraro estimates, had less than ten operatives acting as America's eyes and ears in the region. Milton Bearden, the Agency's chief field operative in the war effort, has insisted that "[T]he CIA had nothing to do with" bin Laden. Cannistraro says that when he coordinated Afghan policy from Washington, he never once heard bin Laden's name.

According to Olivier Roy, "the CIA was not in charge (accusing Bin Laden of having been a CIA agent is nonsense) of the program" to enlist Muslim volunteers to fight Soviets in Afghanistan, "but it did not oppose the scheme or worry about it negative consequences."

The US attitude had more to do with benign neglect than Machiavellian strategy. Eagerness to claim absolute victory in Afghanistan, bureaucratic inertia, lack of concern and expertise, overconfidence in the Saudi and Pakistani security services ... all explain why nobody in Washington cared.

However, Sheik Omar Abdel Rahman—a major recruiter of the Afghan Arabs—was given his visas to enter the US on four separate occasions by the CIA. Egyptian officials testified that the CIA actively assisted him. Rahman was a co-plotter of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.

See also
 Osama bin Laden
 Abdullah Yusuf Azzam
 Ayman al-Zawahiri
 Reagan Doctrine
 Soviet–Afghan War
 055 Brigade
 Pan-Islamism
 Religion in the Soviet Union

Chechnya:
 Islamic International Brigade
 Chechen Mujahideen

Yugoslav wars:
 Bosnian mujahideen

Iraqi conflict:
 Kurdish Mujahideen

References

Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)
Pan-Islamism
Salafi jihadists

Afghan Arabs


Clarence Lee Swartz (1868–1936) was an American individualist anarchist, whose best-known work, What is Mutualism? (1927) is a book explaining the economic system of mutualism.

Swartz was a friend of Benjamin Tucker and frequent contributor of signed and unsigned editorials to Tucker's newspaper Liberty. In addition, he worked for a series of anarchist newspapers and journals. He worked in the mechanical department of Liberty beginning in 1891, edited an anarchist journal called Voice of the People and served as assistant editor for Moses Harman's journal Lucifer, the Light-Bearer in 1890. Swartz was arrested in Kansas City, Missouri for distributing a newspaper called Sunday Sun in 1891. The charges were dropped when the prosecutor failed to show in court. He published two individualist anarchist periodicals at the turn of the century, I (beginning in 1898) and The Free Comrade (beginning in 1900). In 1908, Tucker's publishing business, including most of his books and plates, were destroyed in a fire and after Tucker retired from publishing and moved to Europe, "practically all of the literature of individualist anarchism [went] out of print".

Swartz made efforts throughout the 1920s to revive the individualist literature. He prepared and edited Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker (New York: Vanguard Press), a collection of excerpts from Tucker's writing in Liberty, which was the first collection of Tucker's writing since Tucker's own collection Instead of a Book. In 1923 he worked together with Charles T. Sprading and J. William Lloyd on The Libertarian, a magazine opposed to blue laws, Prohibition and the censorship of arts and entertainment. In 1927, Swartz published his own book What is Mutualism?, a new synthesis of individualist and mutualist thought on economics and strategy.

Swartz was a strong proponent of private property in the individualist anarchism sense of the word and critical of anarcho-communism. In his 1927 What is Mutualism, Swartz writes: "One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property".

References

External links
 Clarence Lee Swartz (1898), I (Number One), July 1898.
 Clarence Lee Swartz (1898), I (Number Two), August 1898.
 Clarence Lee Swartz (1923), "Our Purpose and Reason for Being", in The Libertarian Vol. I, No. 1. 1.
 Clarence Lee Swartz (1927). What is Mutualism?.

1868 births
1936 deaths
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American anarchists
American male journalists
American male non-fiction writers
Anarchist theorists
Anarchist writers
Individualist anarchists
Mutualists
Voluntaryists

Clarence Lee Swartz


"Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey for her seventh studio album Rainbow (1999). The song was written by Carey and Diane Warren, and produced by Carey and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. It was released as the fourth single from Rainbow and a double A-side with "Crybaby" on April 17, 2000, by Columbia Records. The song is a ballad, blending pop and R&B beats while incorporating its sound from several instruments including the violin, piano and organ. Lyrically, the song speaks of finding inner strength, and not allowing others to tear away your dreams.

The song was well received by critics, many of whom complimented the lyrics, as well as Carey's vocals. The song was not commercially successful due to its limited release and other factors. It was the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label Sony Music, based on what she perceived to be weak promotion of the single. It peaked at number 40 in Belgium (Wallonia), number 45 in Italy and number 65 in the Netherlands. Stateside, due to Billboard rules at the time, it was not eligible to chart on the Hot 100, though it managed to reach number six on the Dance Club Songs.

Two music videos were filmed for "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)". Both feature personal videos left by five fans, re-telling their stories of pain and emotional abuse and how the song had inspired them. Additionally, a large screen is shown next to Carey throughout the video, playing other inspirational stories from famous athletes. The ending alternates in both videos, with one climaxing on the balcony overlooking the city, while the other by a large indoor window. The song was performed on Today and The View, as well as Carey's Rainbow World Tour (2000) and Charmbracelet World Tour (2002–2003).

Background
According to Carey, writing "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" helped her get through rough emotional moments with her label's management, and even times when she felt overwhelmed by others. During the early stages of the album, Carey said she felt pressured to complete the Rainbow album as quickly as possible, due to the fact that it was the last album under her contract with Columbia. During troubled times for the singer, as well as her divorce from record executive Tommy Mottola, she claimed writing and singing the song helped her get through troubled times and hoped her listeners would get the same message out of it. Carey wrote it to become an anthem for fans and listeners who were going through difficult times in their life and could relate to the song. Additionally, during the taping of the Mariah Carey Homecoming Special, Carey told audience members that after the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, she felt the song would help family members and friends of the victims during the tragedy, and hoped it would give them strength to get by the tragic event. For that reason, Carey included the song on the album, and campaigned for its radio release in mid-2000.

Composition and lyrical content

"Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" is a slow tempo song that blends pop and R&B beats. Additionally, it incorporates its sound from several instruments including the violin, piano and organ. The ballad is set in the signature of common time, with a slowly tempo of 51 beats per minute. It is written in the key of A major, with Carey's vocals spanning almost three octaves, from the low note of A2 to the high note of F#5. The song was written by Carey and Diane Warren. Although there were no conflicts during the recording process, the pair had minor disagreements during the songwriting stages: Carey said that Warren liked to repeat lyrical phrases often. The second song that Carey and Warren wrote together was "There for Me" which was released as a B-side to the "Never Too Far/Hero Medley" charity single Carey recorded in late 2001. The song's protagonist details the struggles of dealing with people who put you down, and how to overcome these struggles through faith, courage, and the power of God. Carey explains in the song's lyrics how although people can try to make her feel down and depressed, no matter what happens, she can't let them win: "There's a light in me that shines brightly. They can try but they can't take that away from me."

Label dispute
As with Butterfly two years prior, Rainbow became the center of a conflict in between Carey and her label. After Carey's divorce with Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola, the working relationship with Carey and her label deteriorated. After the first two singles from Rainbow were released, Carey was gearing up for a third single to be released. She intended for "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" to be the next single, as it held very personal lyrical content. However, after getting wind of her plan, Sony made it clear that the album needed a more up-beat and urban track to warm airwaves. These different opinions led to a very public feud in between them, as Carey began posting messages on her webpage during early and mid-2000, telling fans inside information on the scandal, as well as instructing them to request "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" on radio stations. One of the messages Carey left on her page read:
"Basically, a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive. It's been really, really hard. I don't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don't know if they want you to hear this. I'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain  corporate people. But I am not willing to give up."
Carey's actions were given mixed reception, with critics and executives both commending her bold actions towards a song she felt needed to be heard, while others criticized her for publicizing the scandal further. Soon after, Sony involved themselves further, stripping Carey's webpage of any messages and began trying to reach an agreement with her. Fearing the loss of their label's highest seller, and the best-selling artist of the decade, Sony chose to release the song. Carey, initially content with the agreement, soon found out that the song had only been allowed a very limited and low-promotion release, not allowing the song to chart on the official US chart, and making international charting extremely difficult and unlikely.

Critical reception
"Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" was generally commended by contemporary music critics. In his review for Rainbow, Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic named the song one of the album's top three picks. Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly called the song the "emotional center of the album" and wrote "There's a light in me/That shines brightly, she sings. The song (co-written with Diane Warren and co-produced with Jam and Lewis) resonates with new life experience—a kind of truth and uplift." Elysa Gardner, editor from the Los Angeles Times, called the song "earnestly passionate" and felt Carey sounded her "most impressive" on the song. Amy Linden from Vibe also reviewed the song positively, calling Carey's vocal performance in the song "emotional" and "graceful." Additionally, Linden wrote "It could very well be Carey's version of Nas' "Hate Me Now"; she makes it through all the trials and tribulations undaunted."

Chart performance
The release of the song as a single was surrounded by conflict between Carey and Sony Music Entertainment. Due to Billboard rules at the time of the song's release, charting credit was not given to "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" but to "Crybaby", the song it shared a double A-side with. The song managed to chart on the dance single in the United States, reaching the top ten on the Hot Dance Club Play chart. Due to the song's weak promotional release, it was not released together with "Crybaby" outside the United States, where it performed poorly due to its radio-only premiere. It charted for one week in Belgium (Wallonia), where it peaked at number forty on the official singles chart. Similarly in the Netherlands, "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" peaked at number sixty-five on the Dutch Singles Chart, however spending nine weeks fluctuating in the chart.

Music videos and remixes

Two music videos were shot for "Can't Take That Away," both directed by Sanaa Hamri in New York City. The creation of the video involved some of Carey's fans: two weeks prior to filming, they were invited via her website to send in video clips of themselves, telling her of the hardships in their lives and how the song had inspired them to look at life differently, and had given them strength. A contest was held, and video clips from five fans were chosen for inclusion in the video. The clips were featured in the video's introduction, where Carey reacts to her fan's struggles which included personal insecurities, the problems of being part of a racial or social minority, and being victimized by verbal harassment.

The original edit of the music video begins with a message to those fans that sent in their videos; "Thank you to all those who chose to share their stories with the world." Subsequently, a personal message left by Carey is shown, reading "After every storm, if you look hard enough, a rainbow appears..." Five testimonials from fans are shown, each telling of their own personal problems and hardships. In her testimonial, the third girl says "I am fourteen years old, I'm a high school student, there is not one day that goes by that people don't make fun of me about my race. It is about self-confidence, don't be afraid to dream." After the last girl reads her message, Carey is shown lying on pillows on the floor of her sparse living room, watching television. As she tearfully sings, she watches as different empowering messages and events are shown on the screen.  Towards the end of the musical bridge, Carey stands up from the floor and exits onto a large balcony overlooking the city.  Rain begins to fall as Carey waves her arms and cries out singing the song's climax.  Her depression is resolved when the rain stops and a rainbow forms, prompting her to smile.

The video was quickly pulled after its release because it contained technical errors.  The clips of the people on Carey's television had their struggles captioned in dark text on a dark background, making it difficult to read. There were also continuity errors during the rainy balcony scene, as Carey's shirt would alternate between being soaking wet and dry. Consequently, a new music video was completed, which retained the clips of Carey's fans at the beginning but fixed the captions and replaced most of the interior shots of Carey with new footage. Carey, now in a new and more furnished apartment, does not go out into the rain but instead stays in her living room.  She walks over to a large pair of windows aside a mural of large throw pillows and candles, singing and flailing her arms as she completes the song. As with the previous filming of the video, Carey's pain and sadness is resolved with a rainbow, shown at the end of the video.

Most remixes of "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" were released in the US only, although few were found in certain territories. David Morales produced the Morales club mix, which uses the song's original vocals with similar chord progressions to those of the original, and the Morales Triumphant mix, which contains re-recorded vocals and new lyrics which transform the song into a jazz-like mix with harmonica sections. A spoken introduction was also added, featuring Carey's spoken voice before the first verse.

Live performances
Although "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" was never fully released as a single, Carey felt very strongly about the song and therefore promoted it through several live television and award show appearances. Carey's first live performance of the song was on The Today Show as part of a mini-concert which aired live on November 2, 1999, from Rockefeller Center in New York. Following the concert on The Today Show, Carey performed the song live at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards, where she was presented as a featured performer. Carey further promoted "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" with a performance on VH1 Divas 2000: A Tribute to Diana Ross, where she also performed a mashup of "Heartbreaker" with Ross's "Love Hangover" which was added as a track on the single release. After the release of "Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)", the album's final single, Carey sang them both live on The View in mid-2000. On October 30, 1999, Carey filmed a private concert held at her old high school in Huntington, Long Island, where she taped a special for the Fox Broadcasting Company titled Mariah Carey Homecoming Special, which aired in December of that year. Aside from television performances, the song was part of the set-list on both the Rainbow World Tour, which coincided with the release and promotion of Rainbow, as well as the Charmbracelet World Tour in 2002–03. She has performed the song recently in her last two concerts in Marrakech, Morocco, and at the Mawazine Festival, and Monaco. The remix version was the opening number for her concerts in Australia during January 2013. Carey started performing the single for the first time after 5 years on her second concert residency placed in Las Vegas, The Butterfly Returns in 2018. She also performed it at her Caution World Tour in 2019, in its remixed version.

Formats and track listings

 European CD single
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (radio edit)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales club mix edit)

 European CD maxi-single
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (album version)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales club mix)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales Revival Triumphant mix)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales instrumental)

 US and Japanese CD single
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)"
 "Crybaby"
 "Heartbreaker/Love Hangover"

 US CD maxi-single
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales club mix)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales Revival Triumphant mix)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales instrumental)
 "Crybaby" (album version)
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (album version)

 Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme) EP
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (radio edit) – 4:03
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales club mix edit) – 3:58
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales club mix) – 7:37
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales Revival Triumphant mix) – 10:27
 "Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)" (Morales instrumental) – 7:39

Credits and personnel
Credits adapted from the Rainbow liner notes.

 Mariah Carey – co-production, songwriting, vocals
 Diane Warren – songwriting
 Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis – co-production
 Shockley – drums
 Merilee Klemp – oboe
 Mike Scott – guitar
 Daryl Skobba – cello
 Joshua Koestenbaum – cello
 Alice Preves – viola
 Tamas Strasser – viola
 Brenda Mickens – violin
 David Mickens – violin
 Elizabeth Sobieski – violin
 Elsa Nilsson – violin
 James Riccardo – violin
 John Kennedy – violin
 Michal Sobieski – violin
 Thomas Kornacker – violin
 Steve Hodge – mixing
 Dana Jon Chappelle – engineer
 Bob Ludwig – mastering

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Release history

References

Further reading

1990s ballads
2000 singles
Mariah Carey songs
Music videos directed by Sanaa Hamri
Pop ballads
Contemporary R&B ballads
Songs written by Diane Warren
Songs written by Mariah Carey
1999 songs
Columbia Records singles
Sony Music singles

Can't Take That Away (Mariah's Theme)


Elegast (elf spirit) is the hero and noble robber in the poem Karel ende Elegast, an early Middle Dutch epic poem that has been translated into English as Charlemagne and Elbegast. In the poem, he possibly represents the King of the Elves. He appears as a knight on a black horse, an outcast vassal of Charlemagne living in the forest.  The original Dutch poem uses the name Elegast, while translated versions of the poem commonly use the name Elbegast in German and English, or Alegast in the Scandinavian ballad.

Karel ende Elegast

Karel ende Elegast was an original poem in Middle Dutch that scholars think was probably written at the end of the 12th century, otherwise in the 13th century and set in the region of Charlemagne's castle in Ingelheim. It is a Frankish romance of Charlemagne ("Karel") as an exemplary Christian king who was led on a strange quest to be a robber.

Although the poem does not describe Elegast's background, he was an old friend of Charlemagne that had fallen into disgrace, and his banishment to the forest and his name connotes he was elven. Elegast could put people to sleep magically, could open locks without keys, and has a magic herb that when put in his mouth allows him to talk to animals. He lived in the forest, thief to the rich people and kind to poor people.

In summary, Charlemagne has a heavenly vision to go thieving in disguise, so meets with Elegast in the forest at night. Elegast does not recognize the king, as Charlemagne is in disguise as a thief. When Charlemagne suggests they steal from the king's castle, Elegast proves his loyalty to Charlemagne by refusing to steal from the king. Instead, Elegast takes Charlemagne to burgle the castle of Charlemagne's brother-in-law, Eggeric van Eggermonde. Once they break into the castle, Elegast overhears Eggeric scheming to kill Charlemagne to his wife, who is Charlemagne's sister. In this way Charlemagne learns of a traitor in his court. The next day, when Eggeric arrives in Charlemagne's court, Charlemagne has Eggeric searched and finds his weapons. Elegast duels with Eggeric and exposes him as a traitor. Eggeric is therefore killed, and his wife is given in marriage to Elegast. Elegast's reputation is also restored in the Charlemagne court.

Name
The names Elegast and Alegast and Elbegast, are variants of the same Germanic name, as it were Common Germanic *albi-gastiz, composed of the well attested elements *albi- "elf" and *gastiz "guest".

There is one dwarf named Elbegast in Eddic texts.
According to Low German legends, Elbegast was a dwarf who could steal eggs from under birds. In folklore and legends of Northern Europe, Elbegast was called the king of both the elves and dwarfs.

Some scholars propose Elegast is the character Alberich, whose name means "king of the elves". Alberich was a sorcerer in Merovingian epics of the 5th to 8th century.

Context
This poetry is unique in the reference to Charlemagne (the "Christian" King) being friends with a character who could be symbolic of an elf or dwarf figure of the forest, as well Charlemagne trying robbery on divine inspiration. In this friendship, the poem combines Frankish legends of Charlemagne with some Dutch-Germanic mythology. The poem is also unique that a Dutch character Elegast is a hero, most other poems of the time concern Frankish people as the hero. Elegast is possibly symbolic of the Dutch people's pre-Christian myth of an ancient elf or folk hero. In the pre-Christian mythology the dwelling in the forest is a religious and sacred dwelling place.

Historically the epic poem may be about a real insurrection against Charlemagne that occurred (circa 785?), as the following event was noted in 1240 in the Chronica Albrici Monachi Trium Fontium:

"By the Austracians a dangerous plot was hatched against Charlemagne, of which Hardericus was the instigator. At the discovery of the plot many were dismembered and many were banished. [ ... ] And, as is told in a song, in order to discover this plot, Charlemagne, urged by an angel, went out thieving at night."

According to legend, Ingelheim (meaning "Angel's Home") was named after the angel that Charlemagne saw in the vision.

Adaptations
Adaptations and translations:
 Dutch: Karel ende Elegast (modern: Karel en Elegast)
 Skandanavian: Alegast Vise (Ballad of Alegast)
 Middle Danish: Krønike by Karl Magnus
 Norse: Karlamagnús saga
 English: Ingelheim: Charlemagne the Robber by Lewis Spencer.
 French epic: Chanson de Basin (a lost manuscript), Vie de Charlemagne
 German: Karlmeinet
 West Frisian: Karel en Elegast (translation by Klaas Bruinsma, 1994).

See also
 Folklore of the Low Countries
 Medieval Dutch literature

References

 Ruiter, Jacqueline de, 'The Guises of Elegast: One story, Differing Genres', in: Carlos Alvar and Juan Perides (eds.), Actes du XVIe Congrès International de la Société Rencesvals, Granada 21-25 juillet 2003, Granada 2005 (prepublication, internet-archive 2007)
 Grimm, Jacob (1835). Deutsche Mythologie (German Mythology); From English released version Grimm's Teutonic Mythology (1888); Available online by Northvegr © 2004–2007, Chapter 17, page 2.
 Guerber, Helene A.Myths of Northern Lands, 1895. File retrieved 2/18/2007.
 Meijer, Reinder. Literature of the Low Countries: A Short History of Dutch Literature in the Netherlands and Belgium. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1971.
 Spence, Lewis. Ingelheim: Charlemagne the Robber - Retold in English version in Hero Tales and Legends of the Rhine, 1915.
 Germanic etymology database, by S. Starostin. (Proto-Germanic derivatives of: *gasti-z.) File retrieved 5/24/07.

External links
 Karel ende Elegast  - Full text in Middle Dutch.
 Ingelheim: Charlemagne the Robber - narrative adaptation in English.
 Karel ende Elegast From the Collections at the Library of Congress

Cultural depictions of Charlemagne
Dutch folklore
Epic poems
European folklore
Fictional elves
Middle Dutch literature
Dutch-language manuscripts
Folklore of the Benelux

Elegast


Diplomatics is a discipline which is concerned with the analysis of historical documents. The word goes back to diploma, which literally means folded (document). Using the term diplomatics for this science is probably due to a work called De re diplomatica, by Jean Mabilon (1632-1707). Note also, that the term is unrelated to diplomacy.

The discipline originally evolved as a tool for studying and determining the authenticity of the official charters and diplomas issued by royal and papal chanceries. It was later found that many of the same underlying principles could be applied to other types of official document and legal instrument, to non-official documents such as private letters, and, most recently, to the metadata of electronic records.

Diplomatics is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It should not be confused (as it often is) with its sister-discipline of palaeography. In fact, its techniques have more in common with those of the literary disciplines of textual criticism and historical criticism.

References

History
Documents

Diplomatics


Jacob Eichholtz (1776–1842) was an early American painter, known primarily for his portraits in the Romantic Victorian tradition. Born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania in a family of prosperous Pennsylvania Germans, he spent most of his professional life in Philadelphia. A coppersmith by trade, he turned to painting and achieved both recognition and success despite being mainly self-taught as an artist. He is known to have painted over 800 portraits over the course of 35 years. Hundreds of his works are housed in art museums, historical societies, and private collections throughout the United States.

Early life

He was born to Leonard and Catharine Eichholtz, who owned and run the Bull's Head Tavern on East King Street in Lancaster; his father took part in the American Revolutionary War. At age 11, Jacob with his brothers attended the English School at Franklin College in Lancaster where he learned the three Rs — reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic. He also took lessons from a sign painter since his parents noticed his inclination to draw, but eventually he was apprenticed as a coppersmith. After his apprenticeship ended, he started as a tinsmith working with sheet iron. By 1805, Eichholtz opened his own shop in Lancaster where he, "mended sugar boxes, tinned copper kettles, and made coffee pots, wash basins, lanterns, stills, and funnels."

Eichholtz married Catharine Hatz Michael (1770–1817), a young widow with two children; they had four children of their own, Caroline, Catharine Maria,  Rubens Mayer, and Margaret Amelia. In 1818, he married Catharine Trissler of Lancaster, and they had nine children, Edward, Anna Maria, Elizabeth Susanna, Benjamin West, Angelica Kauffman, Rebecca, Henry, Robert Lindsay, and Lavallyn Barry.

From tinsmith to painter
From 1808 to 1812, Eichholtz hired several workers to work in the shop, and devoted most of his time to offering his fellow Lancastrians, at first, painted tinware, and then, small profile portraits on wood panels, in order to diversify his business and satisfy his passion for drawing. After developing his abilities as profile painter and gaining enough clients to sustain his family, Eichholtz decided to make painting his main vocation. In 1808, Eichholtz advertised that he "executes Portraits and Profile paintings" in the Lancaster's Intelligencer and Weekly Advertiser. In his own words, "I commenced the coppersmith business on my own account, with pretty good luck; still the more agreeable love of painting continually haunted me."

Two already established painters, James Peale and Thomas Sully, influenced Eichholtz.
In 1808, James Peale visited Lancaster and became acquainted with Eichholtz, who commissioned Peale his portrait. Thomas Sully befriended Eichholtz when he was visiting Lancaster on business and accepted his invitation to work in his painting room. At that time, Sully was not impressed by Eichholtz's attempts in painting calling them hideous; however, he left him his brushes as a gift before leaving Lancaster. Later, Sully wrote that he was surprised and gratified to see how much Eichholtz's painting skills improved, and that, "Eichholtz would have made a first-rate painter had he began early in life with the usual advantages." During the winter of 1811–1812, Eichholtz traveled to Boston where he spent several weeks at the studio of Gilbert Stuart copying his works under Stuart's supervision. Stuart encouraged Eichholtz to continue painting. In 1815, Eichholtz sold his business and turned to painting. In 1820, he visited Baltimore to fulfill portrait commissions; he also worked in Pittsburgh and Delaware.

In 1823, Eichholtz moved to Philadelphia where he, as he later wrote, faced both, "an incessant practice of ten years, and constant employment." He was exhibiting with the Society of Artists at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.

Later life and death
Eichholtz relocated back to Lancaster in 1830 where he died in 1842. He and his family were originally interred at Holy Trinity Lutheran Church on South Duke Street in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. In the early 1850s, Holy Trinity Church sought to expand its churchyard, so the church relocated the majority of gravestones and the remains to the new Woodward Hill Cemetery, Lot 33 of Area B, including the remains of Eichholtz and his family. Eichholtz was reburied in the same grave together with both of his wives and their children. By 2014, Eichholtz's gravestone, which was made of marble, had deteriorated due to age and acid rain, rendering the inscription illegible. Local historians have called for the restoration of his headstone, as well as the installation of a brass plaque at the grave site to mark his achievements.

Recognition
For decades the artistic legacy of Jacob Eichholtz was overlooked. As time passed, a reassessment of the significance of his achievements took place and "his portraits of Thaddeus Stevens and James Buchanan are generally accepted as the best that were done of these statesmen."

Gallery

References

Further reading
Hensel, W. U. Jacob Eichholtz, Painter: Some "loose Leaves" from the Ledger of an Early Lancaster Artist. An Address Delivered at the Opening of an Exposition of the Evolution of Portraiture in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, Under the Auspices of the Lancaster County Historical Society and the Iris Club. Lancaster, Pa: Press of the Brecht printing Co, 1912.

 Rebecca Beal papers, 1949-1982, Eichholtz's great-granddaughter, The Smithsonian Archives of American Art

 Milley, John Calvin. Jacob Eichholtz, 1776–1842, Pennsylvania Portraitist. Master's thesis, University of Delaware, 1960.

External links

 Thomas R. Ryan. Jacob Eichholtz (1776-1842) , Lancaster County Historical Society
List of Jacob Eichholtz Portrait Subjects

1776 births
1842 deaths
18th-century American painters
18th-century American male artists
American male painters
19th-century American painters
American portrait painters
Artists from Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Painters from Philadelphia
Burials at Woodward Hill Cemetery
19th-century American male artists

Jacob Eichholtz


Artemisia palmeri is a rare species of sagebrush known by the common names San Diego sagewort and Palmer sagewort.

Distribution
The plant is native to northwestern Baja California and southwestern California, primarily in San Diego County.

Its natural habitat is sandy coastal ravines in the coastal sage scrub plant community and riparian riverbeds in the Cuyamaca Mountains and other Peninsular Ranges, below  in elevation.  Most of this habitat has been destroyed as the land has been developed for human uses. It is occasionally found farther inland in chaparral plant communities near Redlands and in the San Emigdio Mountains.

It is listed on the California Native Plant Society Inventory of Rare and Endangered Plants as an endangered species, due to the threat of further habitat loss.

Description
Artemisia palmeri is a perennial or biennial herb producing brittle erect or spreading stems  tall. The base is woody.

The gray-green aromatic foliage is made up of long, narrow leaves deeply cut into several narrow, pointed lobes.

The inflorescence contains clusters of flower heads containing pale yellow glandular disc florets. It blooms generally from June to October.

The fruit is a tiny achene about a millimeter long.

References

External links
 Calflora Database: Artemisia palmeri (San diego sagewort)
Jepson Manual eFlora (TJM2) treatment of Artemisia palmeri

palmeri
Flora of Baja California
Flora of California
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Natural history of the Peninsular Ranges
Natural history of San Diego County, California
Plants described in 1876
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Artemisia palmeri


The van Arkel–de Boer process, also known as the iodide process or crystal-bar process, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of pure ductile titanium, zirconium and some other metals. It  was developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. Now it is used in the production of small quantities of ultrapure titanium and zirconium. It primarily involves the formation of the metal iodides and their subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal.

This process was superseded commercially by the Kroll process.

Process
As seen in the diagram below, impure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, thorium or protactinium is heated in an evacuated vessel with a halogen at 50–250 °C. The patent specifically involved the intermediacy of TiI4 and ZrI4, which were volatilized (leaving impurities as solid). At atmospheric pressure TiI4 melts at 150 °C and boils at 377 °C, while ZrI4 melts at 499 °C and boils at 600 °C. The boiling points are lower at reduced pressure. The gaseous metal tetraiodide is decomposed on a white hot tungsten filament (1400 °C). As more metal is deposited the filament conducts better and thus a greater electric current is required to maintain the temperature of the filament. The process can be performed in the span of several hours or several weeks, depending on the particular setup.

Generally, the crystal bar process can be performed using any number of metals using whichever halogen or combination of halogens is most appropriate for that sort of transport mechanism, based on the reactivities involved. The only metals it has been used to purify on an industrial scale are titanium, zirconium and hafnium, and in fact is still in use today on a much smaller scale for special purity needs.

References

Industrial processes
Zirconium
Dutch inventions
Methods of crystal growth

Van Arkel–de Boer process


A submersible bridge is a type of movable bridge that lowers the bridge deck below the water level to permit waterborne traffic to use the waterway. This differs from a lift bridge or table bridge, which operate by raising the roadway. Two submersible bridges exist across the Corinth Canal in Greece, one at each end, in Isthmia and Corinth. They lower the centre span to 8 metres below water level when they give way to ships crossing the channel.

The submersible bridge's primary advantage over the similar lift bridge is that there is no structure above the shipping channel and thus no height limitation on ship traffic. This is particularly important for sailing vessels.  Additionally, the lack of an above-deck structure is considered aesthetically pleasing, a similarity shared with the Chicago-style bascule bridge and the table bridge.  However, the presence of the submerged bridge structure limits the draft of vessels in the waterway.

The term submersible bridge is also sometimes applied to a non-movable bridge that is designed to withstand submersion and high currents when the water level rises. Such a bridge is more properly called a low water bridge.

See also
 Low water crossing, a non-moving bridge that is sometimes submerged
 Moveable bridges for a list of other moveable bridge types
 Table bridge, a similar bridge that moves upward
 Underwater bridge, a non-moving military bridge that is always submerged

References

External links
Popular Science, November 1943,  "Ducking Bridge" Lowers Span To Allow Ships To Pass built in Iraq in 1943 (bottom-right hand side of page)
Video of the operation of a submersible bridge at the entrance of the Corinth Canal

Bridges
Moveable bridges
Bridges by structural type

Submersible bridge


Baumhauerite (Pb3As4S9) is a rare lead sulfosalt mineral.  It crystallizes in the triclinic system, is gray-black to blue-gray and its lustre is metallic to dull. Baumhauerite has a hardness of 3.

Baumhauerite occurs as small crystals embedded in dolomitic marble. It is found primarily in the Lengenbach Quarry, Binnental, in the Valais region of Switzerland, the mineral is named after German mineralogist Heinrich Adolph Baumhauer (1848–1926), who discovered it at Lengenbach, famous among mineralogists for its array of rare minerals, in 1902. Baumhauerite has also been reported at Sterling Hill, New Jersey, United States, typically in association with molybdenite, and in aggregates at Hemlo, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada.

See also
List of minerals
List of minerals named after people

References

Lead minerals
Arsenic minerals
Sulfosalt minerals
Triclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 1

Baumhauerite


Botanic Gardens MRT Station (CC19/DT9) is an interchange MRT station in Singapore. It is one of four stations where commuters can transfer from the Circle MRT Line to Downtown MRT Line,

This station is located near the Singapore Botanic Gardens at the intersection of Bukit Timah Road and Cluny Park Road, hence its name. It is also near the National University of Singapore Bukit Timah campus and is behind Serene Centre.

As Bukit Brown Station will only be operational after the Bukit Brown area has been developed enough, the section of track between Botanic Gardens and Caldecott is the longest on the Circle Line.

As the distance between the Circle Line and Downtown Line platforms is relatively long, it has travelators, the fourth station after Dhoby Ghaut, Serangoon and Bugis to have travelators within the paid area.

History
The Downtown Line station (DT09) was designed by AEP Consultants and Geoconsult Asia and was constructed by Sembawang Engineers & Constructors. Botanic Gardens station is one of only two MRT stations in Singapore to have an official Malay name. The other station will be the future Gardens by the Bay MRT Station.

Prior to the opening of the station, it was named Adam. Public consultation of the station began in January 2006 and only two names were selected - Botanic Gardens and Cluny Road. Botanic Gardens was eventually selected because this station also goes to the popular UNESCO World Heritage Site. Cluny Road was also selected because it was served by the railway station "Cluny Road" that was closed down in 1930s. On 12 September 2006, the final name is renamed to Botanic Gardens.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Botanic Gardens MRT station


Carnegie Mellon University in Australia is the Australian campus of Carnegie Mellon University's H. John Heinz III College established in 2006 in the city centre of Adelaide, South Australia.

The move by Heinz to establish a campus in Australia was announced in Pittsburgh in 2005 by South Australian Premier Mike Rann, following negotiations with Carnegie Mellon President Jared Cohon.

Facilities and courses
The campus has students, faculty and staff from more than 29 countries throughout the Asia-Pacific, United States, Europe, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East. The university offers two masters degree programs: the Master of Science in Public Policy and Management, and the Master of Science in Information Technology and Management. Both programs are available as a 12-month or 21-month program, depending on the student's work experience, and can be undertaken full-time or part-time. Carnegie Mellon University Australia also offers students the opportunity to undertake Global Programs, whereby they undertake their studies at both the campus in Pittsburgh and Adelaide.

Other programs offered include an executive education program for executives and professionals and specialisations in business intelligence and data analytics and digital transformation.

In August 2011, the Software Engineering Institute (SEI) launched their Asia-Pacific operations at Carnegie Mellon University – Australia's campus in Adelaide. Through this location, the SEI will offer their advanced courses and certifications to the Australian market, and collaborate with local companies and organisations on software development and cybersecurity.

Carnegie Mellon University is the first American university to open a campus in Australia. The university chose to open a campus in Adelaide as part of the South Australian Government's vision to establish Australia's first international university precinct around Victoria Square in the Adelaide city centre. The university is guided by a Joint Advisory Board of influential leaders from around Australia and the Asia-Pacific region. The precinct is situated in the heart of the city; Carnegie Mellon University – Australia is co-located with the University College London's School of Energy and Resources (Australia), research and policy institutes including the Torrens Resilience Institute and The Australian Centre for Social Innovation, and adjacent to the Flinders University's city facilities.

See also

List of universities in Australia

References

Schools and departments of Carnegie Mellon
Education in Adelaide
Universities and colleges established in 2006
2006 establishments in Australia
Universities in South Australia
Campuses in South Australia

Carnegie Mellon University, Australia


Drive-Thru is a 2007 horror movie, directed by Brendan Cowles and Shane Kuhn, starring Leighton Meester and Nick D'Agosto. It is set in Orange County, California and involves a serial killing clown mascot Horny the Clown. The movie was released on May 29, 2007.

2007 movies
American horror movies
English-language movies
Lionsgate movies

Drive-Thru (movie)


In telecommunications, cleartext is the form of a message or data which is in a form that is immediately understandable to a human being without additional processing. In particular, it implies that this message is sent or stored without cryptographic protection. The phrases, "in clear", "en clair" and "in the clear" are the same.

It is close to, but not entirely the same as, the term "plaintext". Formally, plaintext is information that is fed as an input to a coding process, while  ciphertext is what comes out of that process.  Plaintext might be compressed, coded, or otherwise changed before it is converted to ciphertext, so it is quite common to find plaintext that is not cleartext.

Websites using insecure HTTP send using cleartext, with all data supplied (including usernames and passwords) being sent from the user's computer through the internet using cleartext. Anyone with access to the medium used to carry the data (the routers, computers, telecommunications equipment, wireless transmissions, and so on) may read the password, username, and anything else sent to the website.

Related pages
 Plaintext
 Ciphertext

References

Cryptography

Cleartext


Academia Mihăileană was an institution of higher learning based in Iași, Moldavia, and active in the first part of the 19th century. Like other Eastern European institutions of its kind, it was both a high school and a higher learning institute, housing several faculties. Academia Mihăileană was the predecessor of the Iași National College and the University of Iași.

History
Academia Mihăileană's founder is intellectual Gheorghe Asachi, who obtained the permission and support of the ruling Prince Mihail Sturdza. It derived its Mihăileană name from the monarch's first name (literally: "Michaelian Academy"). Sturdza issued the official decision which authorized the founding of the Academy in 1834. Because the institution was not assigned a building of its own, courses began at the Vasilian Gymnasium, a school founded by the same Asachi in 1828. On June 6, 1835, the academy had its official inauguration on separate premises, with the participation of Prince Sturdza. A dedication liturgy was held in the nearby Talpalari Church, which thenceforth served as the academy's chapel.

Although Academia Mihăileană no longer provided faculty courses after 1847, it was not legally abolished, and temporarily suspended its activity (during a time of political turmoil caused by the frequent Ottoman–Russian clashes on Moldavia's soil, and the periods of Russian occupation).

In 1860, Alexandru Ioan Cuza (Domnitor of the Principality of Moldavia) decided to disestablish the institution and split its patrimony. Its faculties were set up as a nucleus for the newly established University of Iași, while the inferior courses were re-created as the Iași National College (where studies lasted 7 years). Many of the academy's professors continued their activity within the University.

Organisation
Academia Mihăileană was organized in three faculties, of Law, Philosophy and Theology, following the model of its predecessor, the Princely Academy from Iaşi (1707–1821), where Asachi had been a teacher of Applied Sciences and Engineering from 1813 to 1819. The program of study in the faculties of Philosophy and Theology lasted two years, while the Faculty of Law took three years. In order to be admitted into the Faculty of Law, one had to first graduate from Philosophy.

The Academy delivered certificates of study, but not specific academic degrees. Like present-day graduates of the French , students who completed courses at Academia Mihăileană only received a certificate that gave them the right to work in the service of the state, in administration, justice or education. Due to the quality of the study programs and to the qualification of the professors (most of them had a PhD from Austrian or Hungarian universities and were members of various academic associations), the Western universities readily recognized the Academy's study certificates. Their possessors could enlist directly in a doctoral program, similar to graduates of any Western university in the period.

Notable faculty and alumni
 Simion Bărnuțiu (1808–1864), philosopher and jurist
  (1820–1868), mathematician
 Damaschin Bojincă (1802–1869), professor, politician, historian
  (1800–1888), medical doctor, professor of natural history
 Vasile Conta (1845–1882), philosopher, poet, and politician
  (1812–1872), architect engineer
 Nicolae Culianu (1832–1915), mathematician and astronomer
 Nicolae Dabija (1837–1884), general and politician
 Anastasie Fătu (1816–1886), medical doctor and naturalist, founder of the Iași Botanical Garden
  (1785–1843), jurist, legislator, professor of Law
 Ion Ghica (1816–1897), revolutionary, politician, diplomat, writer, professor
 Dimitrie Gusti (1818–1887), writer, politician, professor
 Ion Ionescu de la Brad (1818–1891), revolutionary, agronomist, professor, scholar
 Mihail Kogălniceanu (1817–1891), politician, historian, professor
 Gheorghe Lemeni (1813–1848), painter
 Petre Maler-Câmpeanu (1809–1893), professor of philosophy, philologist
 Eftimie Murgu (1805–1870), revolutionary, politician, professor of philosophy
 Gheorghe Năstăseanu (1812–1864), painter
 Gheorghe Panaiteanu Bardasare (1816–1900), painter and graphician
 Constantin Petrescu-Conduratu (1844–1900), typographer, printer, writer
 Petru Poni (1841–1925), chemist and mineralogist
 Elie Radu (1853–1931), civil engineer and academic
 Gheorghe Săulescu (1798–1864), philologist, poet, professor of universal history and logic
 Filaret Scriban (1811–1873), theologian, translator, professor of rhetoric, poetry and mythology
 Neofit Scriban (1808–1884), theologian, writer
 Teodor Stamati (1812–1852), physicist and mathematician
 Anton Velini (1812–1873), professor of philosophy, pedagogue

See also
 Academia Vasiliană
 The Princely Academy
 Alexandru Ioan Cuza University
 Gheorghe Asachi Technical University

Sources

 Academia Mihaileană – Prima instituţie de învăţământ superior modern din Moldova (1835 – 1847).
 Colegiul Național - Scurt Istoric.
 Clădirea Academiei Mihăilene sub iminenţa demolării. Un memoriu ignorat.

External links
 Mihail Kogălniceanu, Cuvânt pentru deschiderea cursului de istorie națională, Iași, 1843

History of Moldavia (1822–1859)
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University
Educational institutions established in 1834
1834 establishments in Europe
1834 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
19th-century establishments in Moldavia
1860 disestablishments in Romania

Academia Mihăileană


Jand Tehsil is one of the six tehsils (subdivisions) of Attock District in the Punjab province of Pakistan.

Administration

The tehsil is administratively subdivided into 12 Union Councils, these are:

Notice of important sites in the tehsil
 The village of Thatta, here in Jand Tehsil, has been one of the most important and historical villages of the Attock District. It is believed to have been founded by Sher Shah Suri, while some believe that it was founded much earlier, in the time of Alexander's invasion. At present, the Khattar family of this village is known to have played a very important role in the progress of the country and the region.
 The village of Mukhud or Makhad, is the location of a famous local Sufi shrine, of the Peer-e-Mukhud (The Saint of Mukhud) which is a popular place of pilgrimage in the area.
 The village Saghri or Sagri, is home to a colony of 'Sagri Pathans', or settlers of the Pathan (Pashtun) tribe of Khattaks, who came from their original homeland across the Indus River some centuries ago and settled here. They are well known for their active role as soldiers in the British Indian Army and now the Pakistan Army.
 The village of Khunda was the birthplace of the late member of parliament Malik Allahyar Khan (1927-2008), of the Jodhra tribe, a well-known political personality of the Punjab (Pakistan).

References

Tehsils of Attock District

Jand Tehsil


In passing through matter, charged particles ionize and thus lose energy in many steps, until their energy is (almost) zero. The distance to this point is called the range of the particle. The range depends on the type of particle, on its initial energy and on the material through which it passes.

For example, if the ionising particle passing through the material is a positive ion like an alpha particle or proton, it will collide with atomic electrons in the material via Coulombic interaction. Since the mass of the proton or alpha particle is much greater than that of the electron, there will be no significant deviation from the radiation's incident path and very little kinetic energy will be lost in each collision. As such, it will take many successive collisions for such heavy ionising radiation to come to a halt within the stopping medium or material. Maximum energy loss will take place in a head-on collision with an electron.

Since large angle scattering is rare for positive ions, a range may be well defined for that radiation, depending on its energy and charge, as well as the ionisation energy of the stopping medium. Since the nature of such interactions is statistical, the number of collisions required to bring a radiation particle to rest within the medium will vary slightly with each particle (i.e., some may travel further and undergo fewer collisions than others). Hence, there will be a small variation in the range, known as straggling.

The energy loss per unit distance (and hence, the density of ionization), or stopping power also depends on the type and energy of the particle and on the material. Usually, the energy loss per unit distance increases while the particle slows down. The curve describing this fact is called the Bragg curve. Shortly before the end, the energy loss passes through a maximum, the Bragg Peak, and then drops to zero (see the figures in Bragg Peak and in stopping power). This fact is of great practical importance for radiation therapy.

The range of alpha particles in ambient air amounts to only several centimeters; this type of radiation can therefore be stopped by a sheet of paper. Although beta particles scatter much more than alpha particles, a range can still be defined; it frequently amounts to several hundred centimeters of air.

The mean range can be calculated by integrating the inverse stopping power over energy.

Scaling
The range of a heavy charged particle is approximately proportional to the mass of the particle and the inverse of the density of the medium, and is a function of the initial velocity of the particle.

See also
 Stopping power (particle radiation)
 Attenuation length
 Radiation length

Further reading

Particle physics
Radiation

es:Alcance de la radiación

Range (particle radiation)


Blackall Woolscour is a heritage-listed wool scour at Evora Road,  northeast of Blackall, Queensland, Australia. It was built from 1908 to 1920s circa. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.

History
The Blackall Woolscour, a collection of large sheds containing shearing and scouring equipment built for the Blackall Proprietary Woolscouring Company, commenced operations in 1908 at a cost of about . Situated  outside Blackall adjacent to the newly opened branch railway line the scour continued to operate until its closure in 1978.

Wool scouring, one of the methods for cleaning impurities from wool after shearing, began as an alternative to sheep washing in Australia (e.g. Beaconsfield Station Sheep Wash) in the 1840s and had almost replaced it by the 1890s . Initially scouring was done by manual methods such as pot and stick or hand box, but by the early 1890s steam driven mechanised scouring dominated the industry.

In Australia the large mechanical scours were generally located in the major urban centres. Western Queensland was the exception with the construction of mechanical scouring plants in Charleville, Barcaldine, Ilfracombe, Blackall, Longreach, Winton, Julia Creek, Richmond, Maxwelton and Alba near Hughenden between the late 1890s and the early 1920s. Of these Blackall scour is the only one to remain intact and was the last to cease operating.

Scouring, probably using the hand box method, began in Blackall in 1893 when William Henry Banks established a scour near the town bore. Operations were transferred in 1900, after disputes with the town council over water leases, to Duneira, Banks's property.

Construction of the railway line to Blackall began in 1905, based on the understanding that local businessmen would establish a woolscour. The same year the Blackall Proprietary Woolscour Company was founded by five members of the local grazing and business community with John Henry Hart as chairman and in December tenders were advertised for the sinking of a bore "not more than three miles from the township of Blackall"; in February 1906 the tender of the Intercolonial Deep Well-Boring Company was accepted. In September 1906, the Blackall Proprietary Woolsour Company contracted Renshaw and Ricketts, Rockhampton builders, to erect in four months the scouring and shearing shed was using hoop pine from Maryborough.

The plant, offered for sale in 1913, was acquired by Western Queensland Meat Export Company. The Melbourne-based company which already owned a boiling down works and a wool scour in Barcaldine made progressive improvements and modifications to the machinery to increase the efficiency of the scour and therefore its capacity, more than doubling the 1913 output by 1918 to 7640 bales, the largest output in its history. The years of peak production were 1916 to 1920. Business declined in the 1920s with other scours in the region closing temporarily or permanently. The general management of the scour was overseen by Allan Martin Ferguson from 1913 until his death in 1933. Members of the Ferguson family continued to manage the complex until 1957.

The Western Queensland Meat Export Company continued to operate the scour, mostly at a profit, until 1964 when it was sold to K Austin of Glencoe Station. In 1974 CF Thomas Pty Ltd bought the scour and it was closed in 1978 after a storm caused damage to the boiler. Subsidiary activities of the scour included fellmongering, the removal of wool from dead sheep skins; selling petrol for the C.O.R. Company and farming in the 1950s. Shearing was also carried out as a separate activity and wool could be classed and pressed without being scoured. The shearing board is still in use.

In 1988 Blackall Shire Council (now the Blackall-Tambo Regional Council) took out a 99-year lease. The site has since been subdivided to allow the Historic Woolscour Association to purchase most of the buildings and a substantial amount of associated property. The wool storage shed, on an adjoining property, is currently used by a pet food manufacturer. The bore remains the property of R Politch.

From 1998, Brisbane architectural firm Conrad Gargett has undertaken conservation work to stabilise the buildings and provide safe visitor access. The work won an RAIA conservation award in 2003.

Description
Located in a rural setting approximately  north-northeast of Blackall on the eastern side of the railway line, the woolscour complex consists of a number of timber framed corrugated iron sheds, varying in size and complexity and serviced by an artesian bore, settling ponds, a railway spur line and sheepyards.

The major structures are the centrally positioned main building where the shearing, scouring and associated processes took place, an adjacent wool storage shed situated on the western side of the main building, extensive sheepyards adjoining the northeast corner of the main building and a dispersed group of accommodation and service buildings located about  to the southeast of the central group of buildings.

The main building, a large L-shaped conglomeration, consists of a series of attached sheds with timber trussed gable roofs. These sheds form a sequence of spaces through which the wool passed, beginning on the sheep's back in the northeast corner and ending in the southwest part of the building as baled wool. Areas associated with the successive phases of the wool processing, the shearing, classing, scouring and drying and pressing, are defined by changes in floor level and separate roofs.

The largest space, a long rectangular skylit shed, contains machinery and equipment for scouring, fellmongering and drying and a small office in the southwestern corner. To the east of this space, at the northern end, are the classing area and adjoining shearing board. These three attached sheds form the triple gable of the northern facade. The raised timber floor of the shearing board which is reached from the sheepyards by a timber ramp, steps down gradually to an earth floor in the scouring area.

On the southeast side of the main building, the inside corner of the L, are a number of ancillary structures. These include a free standing gable roofed work area and attached to the eastern wall of the scouring shed, a blacksmith's room, an engine room and a roofed area associated with the boilers. Further to the east is a large ash heap and the remnants of a trolley way, once used to cart timber to the boilers.

At the southern end of the scouring area is the only two storeyed part of the complex. Roughly square in plan it consists of an upper level wool room; a central open space bounded on the east and west by individual compartments; and an open plan lower level containing a wool press. A timber loading platform is located just outside between the western wall of the two storeyed section and the railway spur line. The spur line runs through the centre of the complex between the wool storage shed, a rectangular building with a double gable roof supported by rows of columns and the main building.

The scour buildings contain extensive machinery and equipment, including steam engines, boilers, cast iron tanks, dryers, wool presses, and a complex system of belts, pulleys and shafts.

The group of smaller scale buildings to the south east of the main building consists of a kitchen, shearer's quarters, toilet block, shower block and meat preparation shed. Excepting for the meat preparation shed which is a square planned, hipped roof enclosure, these buildings have simple gable roofs. The shearer's quarters has a verandah on the western side. The kitchen has attached skillion roofed spaces on the northern and eastern sides. A water tank and stand is located beside the shower block.

A shallow pitched corrugated iron roof on timber posts situated just south of the main building, shelters the head of the artesian bore and the generating plant. Bore water which falls into an adjacent settling pond is distributed via a series of drains.

A fuel depot, an elevated timber and corrugated iron shed, is sited southwest of the main complex where the spurline rejoins the railway line.

The former manager's residence, a single-storeyed gable roofed timber building with skillion roofed verandahs, is located on a nearby property, to the west of the railway line. The front verandah has wide overhangs and is enclosed with insect screens. A number of structures are attached to the rear verandah, the largest being a gable roofed wing with verandah.

Nearly all of the structures associated with the Blackall Woolscour remain largely as built in their original position. The building fabric shows signs of age and wear including the accumulation of dust and lanolin, the effects of weathering and some decay of structural elements.

Heritage listing
Blackall Woolscour was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

The Blackall Woolscour is important in demonstrating the pattern and evolution of Queensland's history being part of a once flourishing secondary industry which developed in western Queensland in the late 19th and early 20th century in conjunction with the spread of the railway.

The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.

The place demonstrates rare aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage (i) as the only known surviving example of an early 20th century mechanised woolscour in Australia; (ii) for the unusual intactness in an early 20th century rural industrial complex of machinery and equipment which is still substantially in situ.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

The Blackall Woolscour demonstrates the principal characteristics of mechanised woolscours in western Queensland including: (i) an abundant supply of bore water (ii) the rural setting adjacent to the railway line (iii) the dispersed character of the complex with large scale central buildings and scattered outbuildings.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

The Blackall Woolscour exhibits aesthetic characteristics valued by the community including: (i) the evocative character of the buildings, machinery and setting due to the intactness of the site, the extensive use of timber and iron construction and the visible effects of age and use on the building fabric (ii) the contrast between the simple utilitarian building forms set in an open landscape and the complex internal arrangements of spaces, levels and intricate machinery
(iii) the well detailed construction of the main building and the examples of bush carpentry in the ancillary structures.

The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.

As a well designed and efficiently organised example of the first generation of fully mechanical scours, the Blackall Woolscour demonstrates a high degree of technical achievement at the time of its construction.

The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.

As a place of interaction between the rural and town communities the Blackall woolscour has a special association with the people of Blackall and the surrounding Shire providing a social, cultural and economic focus in the district.

Engineering heritage
Blackall Woolscour received an Engineering Heritage National Marker from Engineers Australia as part of its Engineering Heritage Recognition Program.

References

Attribution

External links

Queensland Heritage Register
Blackall, Queensland
Agricultural buildings and structures in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
Recipients of Engineers Australia engineering heritage markers

Blackall Woolscour


The Gamburtsev Mountain Range (also known as the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains) is a subglacial mountain range located in East Antarctica, just underneath the lofty Dome A, near the Southern Pole of Inaccessibility. The range was discovered by the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1958 and is named for Soviet geophysicist Grigoriy A. Gamburtsev. It is approximately  long, and the mountains are believed to be about  high, although they are completely covered by over  of ice and snow. The Gamburtsev Mountain Range is about the same size as the European Alps. As of 2008, it was unknown how the mountains were formed due to the lack of data.  Studies conducted during the International Polar year demonstrated that ancient plate collisions produced a core that was rejuvenated in the early to mid-Mesozoic .  The main features of the range formed before 34 million years ago, when the area was covered by the present ice sheet. Current models suggest that the East Antarctic ice sheet was formed from the glaciers that began sliding down the Gamburtsev range at the end of the Eocene. Vostok Subglacial Highlands form an east extension of Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains.

As part of the 2007–09 International Polar Year, so called, the AGAP project was a multinational effort to gather information about the Gamburtsev mountain chain.

Completion
Scientists announced the completion of their mission on 25 February 2009. Modern-day remote-sensing technology revealed a very jagged landscape. The gathered data will be analysed by researchers in the following months. Dr Fausto Ferraccioli from the British Antarctic Survey said: "We can confirm they are there; we've seen them under the ice. Not only are they similar in dimension to the European Alps, but they are also similar in aspect: we see very sharp peaks and valleys which are remarkably similar to the Alps themselves. It all adds to the mystery – from the tectonic perspective of how these mountains were created; and from the glacial history perspective of how the East Antarctic ice sheet was formed and didn't erode these peaks."

The AGAP project comprised scientists, engineers, pilots and support staff from Australia, Canada, China, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.  Two field camps were established deep within the Antarctic interior and aircraft flew across the ice, mapping the shape of the sub-glacials using an ice-penetrating radar. The local gravitational and magnetic fields were also measured. 120,000 km were flown, with over 20% of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet being explored during the course of the mission.

Information was recorded on a network of seismometers that picked up earthquake signals passing through the rock from the opposite side of the planet. Despite the extreme temperatures — around -30 °C at the two base camps as reported by AGAP US co-leader Dr Robin Bell — liquid water was detected in the valleys three kilometres beneath the team. Ferraccioli added: "Up until now we just had an ambitious plan. Now we have all this remarkable data to pore over."

By December, 2009, data analyzed so far from the AGAP project indicate the mountain range is generally oriented southwest to northeast, and arose from tectonic plate activity.

The team's next goal is to drill through the ice and collect the first Gamburtsev rock samples. "Amazingly, we have samples of the moon but none of the Gamburtsevs," said Robin Bell, a geophysicist at Columbia University's Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. "With these rock samples we will be able to constrain when this ancient piece of crust was rejuvenated and grew to a magnificent mountain range."

Origin
The result of the 2007-2009 study has found that the Gamburtsev  are very old, first forming around a billion years ago when continental drift pushed two plates together to form the super-continent of Rodinia. This early range was eroded above the surface but left a deep cold root, which is visible today in seismic images, reaching down into the Earth's mantle. About 250-100 million years ago,  the crust started to pull apart in a series of rifting events close to the east of this old root. A forked rift valley runs along the northern side of the mountains containing lakes Sovetskaya and 90East within it. This rifting warmed and rejuvenated the root, giving it the buoyancy to be lifted up  to re-establish the mountains as an 800 km long massif.
Further uplift still was achieved as deep valleys were later cut erosion lightening the overall  mass of the system. Around 35 million years ago, the glaciers merged to form the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, burying the Gamburtsev Range in the process.

References

External links
 British Antarctic Survey
 National Science Foundation
 Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory
 Australian Antarctic Division
Map of Antarctica, showing Dome A and the Gamburtsev Mountain Range
 A BBC article about the mountain range
 A SciencePoles.org interview of Dr Robin Bell
 BBC article on recent results

Mountain ranges
Mountain ranges of Antarctica
East Antarctica

Gamburtsev Mountain Range


Salinas is a coastal ceety locatit in the Province o Santa Elena in Ecuador. It is the seat o the canton that bears its name. The wastrenmaist ceety on mainland Ecuador, Salinas is an important tourist center. Recently, Salinas wis the centre o controversy durin the contentious "mair fun, less sun," debate.  It is the site o the ISA Warld Junior Surfing Gemmes Ecuador 2009. Thare are twa major yacht clubs in Salinas, the first is Salinas Yacht Club, which is a guid bit smawer than the impressive Puerto Lucia Yacht Club, in Santa Elena, in an aurie kent as 'La Libertad' which, in Spainyie means; 'The Freedom Toun'. Puerto Lucia boasts a hotel, several guid places tae eat, a private beach an apairtment block biggins, as well as the lairge marina an port, it wis developed bi Ricardo Palau.

Poleetical diveesion
Salinas is dividit intae fower urban parishes. Thay are:

Alberto Enriquez Gallo
Carlos Espinoza Larrea
Santa Rosa
Vicente Rocafuerte

Economy
The economy o Salinas is lairgely tourist based. Wi an average year-roond temperature o 27 °C (80 °F) an its location on the Paceefic Ocean, the beaches o Salinas are a popular resort destination in Ecuador. Beaches near Salinas include San Lorenzo, Las Palmeras, Chipipe, Mar Bravo, an Punta Carnero. Popular tourist activities in Salinas include gemme fishin, wake-boardin, watter skiin, yachtin, sky divin, an layin on the beach. The ceety affers a nummer o restaurants an cafes on its boardwalk, as well as airtisan crafts mercats. A smaw naval archeological museum wi airtifacts frae pre-Columbian Ecuador is an aa in Salinas.

References
 www.inec.gov.ec

Freemit airtins
 Salinas Ecuador Area Road Map

Populatit places in Santa Elena Province
Beaches o Ecuador

Salinas, Ecuador