The University of Bath is a public research university in Bath, England. It received its royal charter in 1966, along with a number of other institutions following the Robbins Report. Like the University of Bristol and University of the West of England, Bath can trace its roots to the Merchant Venturers' Technical College, established in Bristol as a school in 1595 by the Society of Merchant Venturers. The university's main campus is located on Claverton Down, a site overlooking the UNESCO World Heritage city of Bath, and was purpose-built, constructed from 1964 in the modernist style of the time.

In the 2021 Research Excellence Framework, 40% of Bath's submitted research activity achieved the highest possible classification of 4*, defined as world-leading in terms of originality, significance and rigour. 92% was graded 4*/3*, defined as world-leading/internationally excellent. The annual income of the institution for 2021–22 was £361.8 million of which £40.5 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £388.3 million.

The university is a member of the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the Association of MBAs, the European Quality Improvement System, the European University Association, Universities UK and GW4.

History

The University of Bath can trace its roots to the Merchant Venturers' Technical College (whose alumni include the physicists Paul Dirac and Peter Higgs), an institution founded as a school in 1595 and a technical school established in Bristol in 1856 which became part of the Society of Merchant Venturers in 1885. Meanwhile, in the neighbouring city of Bath, a pharmaceutical school, the Bath School of Pharmacy, was founded in 1907. This became part of the Technical College in 1929.

The college came under the control of the Bristol Education Authority in 1949; it was renamed then the Bristol College of Technology, and in 1960 the Bristol College of Science and Technology, when it became one of ten technical colleges under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education. The college was mainly housed in the former Muller's Orphanage at Ashley Down in Bristol, which still houses part of the City of Bristol College whilst the remainder has been converted into residential housing.

University status
In 1963, the Robbins Committee report paved the way for the college (along with a number of other institutions) to assume university status as Bath University of Technology.

Although the grounds of Kings Weston House, in Bristol, were briefly considered — which then, and until 1969, accommodated the college's School of Architecture and Building Engineering — the City of Bristol was unable to offer the expanding college an appropriately sized single site. Following discussions between the College Principal and the Director of Education in Bath, an agreement was reached to provide the college with a new home in Claverton Down, Bath, on a greenfield site, purchased through a compulsory purchase order from the Candy family of Norwood Farm, overlooking the city.

Construction of the purpose-built campus began in 1964, with the first building, now known as 4 South, completed in 1965, and the royal charter was granted on 25 October 1966. In November 1966, the first degree ceremony took place at the Assembly Rooms in Bath.  Over the subsequent decade, new buildings were added as the campus took shape.

In the mid-19th century, there were plans to build a college on the site.

The university logo features the so-called Gorgon's head which is taken, via the university's coat of arms, from a Roman sculpture found in the city. The university pays a peppercorn a year to the city for rent of a  parcel of land.

Until 30 October 2012, it was also a member of the 1994 Group.

A report by the Higher Education Funding Council for England into governance at the university was published on 20 November 2017.

Controversies

In November 2017, frustration with the governance of the university grew, especially concerning the Vice Chancellor, Glynis Breakwell's remuneration. The HEFCE carried out an enquiry and recommended 13 changes to the governance of the university. In November 2017, Breakwell's salary rose by 3.9% (£17,589) to over £468,000 and she was reported as the highest paid Vice Chancellor in the country.
The university and College Union had an "emergency meeting" of all staff to discuss the issue and the students' union organised a vote of no confidence involving all undergraduate and postgraduate students.

By August 2017, four MPs had resigned from the advisory board at the University of Bath in protest against the vice-chancellor's pay package. In November 2017 Breakwell agreed to retire, taking a sabbatical on full pay from September 2018 until retirement in February 2019 when a £31,000 car loan to her would be written off. In January 2018 the University Court voted for her immediate departure and demanding the chair the governing council and remuneration committee should step down, though this decision could not override the existing contractual agreement with Breakwell.

On 5 March 2018, at 13:30, a group of 10 Bath students supporting the UCU strike action occupied the vice chancellor's suite in protest of the university's support for UUK's proposed pension reforms. The occupation was endorsed by Bath MP Wera Hobhouse. The university was criticised for its initial response to the protesters, blocking the entrance to the only freely accessible toilets in the occupied area for the first 21 hours of the occupation. The university's response was criticised by local councillor Joe Rayment, alumnus Marcus Sedgwick, NUS Black Students' officer, and prompted the resignation of an external examiner.

In September 2018, it was announced that Ian H. White would take over from Glynis Breakwell as Vice-Chancellor in April 2019.

Campus and facilities

Main campus
The university's main campus is located on Claverton Down, approximately 1.5 miles from the centre of Bath. The site is compact; it is possible to walk from one end to the other in fifteen minutes. The design involved the separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, with road traffic on the ground floors and pedestrians on a raised central thoroughfare, known as the Parade. Buildings would line the parade and student residences built on tower blocks rise from the central thoroughfare. Such plans were mostly followed.

At the centre of the campus is the Library, a facility open round the clock offering computing services, information and research assistance as well as books and journals. A number of outlets are housed around the parade, including restaurants, bars and fast-food cafés, plus two banks, a union shop and two small supermarkets, as well as academic blocks. Building names are based on their location and distance vis-à-vis the library (e.g. 1 East, 2 East). Odd-numbered buildings are on the same side of the parade as the Library, and even-numbered buildings are on the opposite side.

Buildings along the east–west axis are mostly directly accessible from the parade, which is generally considered to be "level two", but later additions, such as 7 West, 9 West, 3 West North and 8 East, follow the rule less strictly. 7 West is generally accessible only via 5 West or 9 West, and 3 West North, 9 West and 8 East have entrances at ground level at varying distances from the main parade. Buildings on the south of the campus, 1 South to 4 South, are accessible via roads and pedestrian walkways by the university lake and gardens.

Buildings, as in many of the so-called  plate glass universities, were constructed in a functional modernist style using concrete, although such designs were later derided for lacking the charm of the  Victorian  red-brick universities or the  ancient and medieval ones. In Bath, there is a particular contrast between the concrete campus and the  Georgian style architecture of the  World Heritage City of Bath.

The eastern part of the campus is dominated by the Sports Training Village, built in 1992 and enhanced in 2003 with an extension.

The northern perimeter of the university is bounded by student residences Brendon Court, Eastwood, Marlborough Court, Solsbury Court, Norwood House, Osborne House, Polden Court, The Quads, Westwood, and Woodland Court. The original plan for students to be housed in tower blocks above the parade continues with the small number of rooms (110) in Norwood House. However, the second tower block, Wessex House, now hosts offices rather than residences.

The university also owns buildings in the city of Bath, mostly student accommodation dotted around town, including Canal Wharf, Carpenter House, Clevelands Building, John Wood Building and John Wood Court, Pulteney Court and Thornbank Gardens.

There is also an Innovation Centre that provides work space, practical support and expertise to local technology enterprises and entrepreneurial companies that emerge from the university's student and academic research base

Two new buildings were opened in 2017. The Virgil Building, adapted from a former police station, offers a hub and support for students and staff in the centre of Bath, including professional, counselling and careers services, Joblink, a skills centre and learning commons. The university also opened a centre at 83 Pall Mall in central London, with a stated aim of building partnerships and engaging with business, politics and Bath's alumni community in the UK's capital.

Over several years, the grounds have received recognition for their outstanding beauty with awards from Bath in Bloom.

Campus developments
The university continually upgrades its Claverton Down campus with new teaching blocks. A proposal to move the boundary of the green belt away to the edge of the campus to facilitate further development was agreed in October 2007 by the local council following a public inquiry, although the boundary of the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty still crosses the site. In July 2005, building 3 West North (officially opened on 27 October) was completed. The deconstruction of the asbestos-contaminated 4 West was completed in mid-2005 and the 4 West building opened in April 2010, providing additional teaching and office space.

Completed projects

4 West, complete with Cafe, completed March 2010
A new Student Centre, completed October 2010
The East Building, a multifunction building (offices and teaching rooms), completed May 2011
The Chancellors' Building, new teaching facilities, completed October 2013
The Quads is a new student accommodation building on campus with 703 en-suite bedrooms, completed summer 2014
The Edge opened in early 2015 and has teaching facilities, theatre, gallery, performance and rehearsal studios
 1 West refurbishment to add new learning and research facilities and computer laboratories and offices
 4 East South, a new building providing research and teaching space for the Faculty of Engineering & Design as well as a cutting edge computing data centre. Opened June 2016
 10 West, a multifunction building which will allow the expansion of the Department of Psychology, a new home for the Institute of Policy Research as well as providing dedicated postgraduate study space. Formally opened on 20 July 2016 by Professor Dame Vicky Bruce.
 The Virgil Building, a £4.5million investment to transform the former police station on Manvers Street into a learning zone with office space for student-facing services including study space, training rooms and a coffee bar. Office Space is also provided for the Careers Service, Student Services and others for advice and guidance.
 The Milner Centre for Evolution, a £7 million development dedicated to evolution research. The centre formally opened in September 2018.
Polden Corner, to provide 300 postgraduate bed spaces on the Western edge of campus close to existing campus accommodation.

University of Bath in Swindon
The university opened a second site, Oakfield Campus, in 2000 on Marlowe Road Swindon, on a site leased from the council. Formerly Oakfield School, the site was jointly funded by the university and Swindon Council. Officially The University of Bath in Swindon, the campus offered undergraduate courses in childhood studies and social work.
The campus was closed in the summer of 2008.

Under the Gateway Project, the university had planned to build a major new campus next to the Great Western Hospital and the Coate Water nature reserve. The project had met opposition from environmentalists and locals but had met with Government approval. The university withdrew from the project in March 2007 citing "prevailing planning and funding conditions".

Organisation
The university is divided into four faculties and each faculty into various departments.

Faculty of Engineering & Design
Architecture and Civil Engineering
Chemical Engineering
Electronic & Electrical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences
Economics
Education
Health
Politics, Languages & International Studies
Psychology
Social & Policy Sciences

Faculty of Management
School of Management

Faculty of Science
Life Sciences
Chemistry
Computer Science
Mathematical Sciences
Natural Sciences
Physics

Academic profile
The university's major academic strengths have been engineering, the physical sciences, mathematics and technology. Today, the university is also strong in management, humanities, architecture and the social sciences. Courses place a strong emphasis on vocational education; the university recommends students to take a one-year industry placement in the penultimate year of the course, although there is no formal recognition of these placements on students' final degree certificates.

According to the latest government assessments, Bath has 15 subjects rated "excellent", the highest on the scale. These are: Pharmacy and Pharmacology; Business and Management (AMBA accredited); Architecture and Civil Engineering; Economics; Computer Science; Electronic and Electrical engineering; Mechanical Engineering (IMechE accredited); Mathematics, Statistics and Operational research; Education; Molecular Biosciences; Biosciences; Physics and Astronomy; Politics; Sport; Social Policy and Administration.

Research
Bath was ranked joint 25th amongst multi-faculty institutions in the UK for the quality (GPA) of its research and 28th for its Research Power (the grade point average score of a university, multiplied by the full-time equivalent number of researchers submitted) in the 2021 Research Excellence Framework. Bath was ranked joint 12th in the UK amongst multi-faculty institutions for the quality (GPA) of its research and 33rd for its Research Power in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework. Over half of the submissions were ranked in the top 10 nationally in their Units of Assessment. 6 out of 13 submissions were ranked in the top 20.

Bath has been awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize twice. In 2011, the university received the award for the Department of Social & Policy Sciences' 'Influential research into child poverty and support for vulnerable people'. The university also received the prize in 2000 to recognise the 'invaluable services to industrial and scientific communities' of the Centre for Power Transmission & Motion Control.

Rankings and reputation

National
The University of Bath received a Gold award as part of the UK Government's Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF). The framework evaluates universities on criteria including teaching quality, learning environment and student outcomes, taking into account factors such as student satisfaction, retention rates and employment.

Bath is ranked 11th in the Complete University Guide 2018 League table and has 18 subjects placed within the top 10 in the UK. Architecture and Marketing are ranked number one. The university is ranked 5th in The Guardian University Guide 2018. Bath is ranked 12th of 128 universities across the UK in the Good University Guide.

In The Sunday Times 10-year (1998–2007) average ranking of British universities based on consistent league table performance, Bath was ranked 12th overall in the UK. Bath was one of only eight universities (along with the G5, St Andrews and Warwick) to have never left the top 15 in one of the three main domestic rankings between 2008 and 2017. Bath has been named as the 'University of the Year' by The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2023.

According to data released by the Department for Education in 2018, Bath was rated as the 7th best university in the UK for boosting male graduate earnings with male graduates seeing a 22.2% increase in earnings compared to the average graduate, and the 8th best university for females, with female graduates seeing a 15.2% increase in earnings compared to the average graduate. Bath was ranked 13th out of 122 UK institutions in the 2017 Times Higher Education (THE) Student Experience Survey. Bath students were joint most likely to recommend the university to their friends.

International
Globally, Bath was ranked #148 in the QS WUR 2024, #251–300 in the Times WUR 2023, #401–500 in the ARWU 2022, #167 in the 2017 Leiden Ranking, and #409 in the USNWR Best Global Universities Rankings 2022-2023.

Admissions

In the 2020/21 academic year 19,041 students studied at the university, of whom 13,589 were undergraduates and 5,452 were postgraduates. Around 32% of students are international students (those with non-British domicile), representing 147 nationalities with the largest number coming from China (including Hong Kong), France, India and Malaysia.

27.4% of Bath's undergraduates are privately educated, the eleventh highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016–17 academic year, the university had a domicile breakdown of 71:10:19 of UK:EU:non-EU students respectively with a female to male ratio of 47:53.

Applications outside the EU to the university for undergraduate courses dropped 18.5% at a time early in the recruitment cycle that these applications to competing universities grew by 11.5% for the 2018/19 academic year.

Student life

Sports and TeamBath

Students' Union

The University of Bath Students' Union, (formerly BUSU), now known as The SU University of Bath has been recognised by the NUS as one of the top three in the UK. The current SU president is Jimena (Jiji) Alamo. The SU runs over 100 clubs and societies including sports clubs, cultural, arts, interest and faith societies. Some notable examples are:

 Bath RAG collects money for local and national charities, raising over £1 million since 1966
 The Arts Societies (including student theatre, musicals, dance, and various musical groups) performs plays and other shows to audiences both on campus and in the town, with support provided by Backstage Technical Services.
 The Students' Union faith groups include Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, Islamic, Jewish societies as well as an Atheists, Humanists & Secularists society.
 Three student media outlets: a fortnightly student newspaper, Bath Time; a radio station, University Radio Bath; and a television station, Campus TV (CTV).

Notable alumni

Arts and media
Ash Atalla, TV producer
Tom Bewick, chief executive, Creative & Cultural Skills (2004-2010)
Rob Bell, TV presenter
Keith Christmas, English folk/rock musician
Paul Barbier, also known as Ian Cognito, comedian
Nigel Dick, pop music video producer
Rob Fisher keyboardist and songwriter with Naked Eyes and Climie Fisher
Neil Fox, radio DJ and TV presenter
Mike Graham, journalist and radio broadcaster for TalkSport
Gareth Gwynn, comedy writer and presenter for radio and TV
Sean Li, Hong Kong film actor
Chuck Pfarrer, American screenwriter, novelist, former US Navy SEAL
Katherine Roberts, author
Russell Senior, formerly of the band Pulp
Jonty Usborne, radio engineer

Politicians, lawyers, and civil servants
Sir Stephen Dalton, Chief of Air Staff, RAF
Don Foster, Liberal Democrat former MP for Bath
Sandra Gidley, Liberal Democrat former MP for Romsey
Mohamed Fahmy Hassan, Chairman of Maldives Civil Service Commission
Mansoor Hekmat, Iranian Communist Leader
Yang Jiechi, Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China
Eric Joyce, Labour MP for Falkirk
T S Krishnamurthy, former Chief Election Commissioner of India
David Kurten, UKIP Member of the London Assembly
Edward Lowassa, former Prime Minister of the United Republic of Tanzania
Anne McClain, member of the 2013 NASA Astronaut Class
Mohammad Tufik Rahim, former Iraqi Minister of Industry and Mines
Julia Reid, UK Independence Party MEP
Tom Rivett-Carnac lobbyist for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Karin Smyth, Labour MP for Bristol South
Falah Mustafa Bakir, Foreign Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan
Hassan Diab, former Prime Minister of Lebanon.
Tony Kerpel, retired Conservative politician and adviser.

Business people
Robert Fry, Executive Chairman of the McKinney Rogers Group, former Vice President of Hewlett-Packard, served as Commandant General Royal Marines
Tan Hooi Ling, co-founder and Chief Operating Officer of Grab Holdings Inc.
Sir Julian Horn-Smith, former COO of Vodafone
Justin King, former CEO of Sainsbury's
Kieran O'Neill, entrepreneur
Stewart Till, Chairman of United International Pictures and Millwall FC
Bob Wigley, former Chairman Merrill Lynch, Europe, Middle East and Africa; Chairman of Yell Group plc

Academics
Doug Altman, founder and Director of Centre for Statistics in Medicine and Cancer Research UK Medical Statistics Group
Nigel Healey, Vice Chancellor at Fiji National University
Elena Korosteleva, Director of the Institute for Global Sustainable Development at the University of Warwick
Florence Wambugu, African plant pathologist and virologist
Philippe B. Wilson, clinical chemist, medical researcher and academic, and Chief Scientific Officer of NHS Willows Health
Salleh Mohammad Yasin, Director of International Institute for Global Health at the United Nations University and Former Vice-Chancellor of the National University of Malaysia

Sports personalities

Sandy Abi Elias, Lebanon international footballer
Marcus Bateman, former British rower
Steve Borthwick, former Bath and England rugby union player
Luke Charteris, Wales international rugby union player
Pamela Cookey, a member of the England netball team that won bronze at the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games
Rachel Dunn, international English netball player
Joe El-Abd, RC Toulonnais rugby union player
Morgan Evans, Gloucestershire All Golds rugby league player
Kelly Gallagher, alpine skier, won Britain's first ever Winter Paralympic gold medal during Sochi 2014 Paralympic Games
Sean Gelael, Indonesian racing driver who was a Formula One test driver between 2017 and 2018 for Scuderia Toro Rosso
Mark Hardinges, cricketer
Kate Howey, British judo player, represented Great Britain at four Olympiads; winning bronze at Barcelona in 1992 and silver in Sydney
James Hudson, London Irish and England Saxons rugby union player
Michael Jamieson, swimmer, won the silver medal in the 200-metre breaststroke at the London 2012 Summer Olympics
Katy Livingston, modern pentathlon, competed in Beijing Olympics and won individual bronze at the 2008 World Championships.
Richard Mantell, played for the GB hockey team at the Beijing Summer Olympics
Samantha Murray, modern pentathlete, won the silver medal at the London 2012 Summer Olympics
Marilyn Okoro, 400m and 800m runner who made her Olympic debut in Beijing
Craig Pickering, Olympic 100m sprinter, World Championship medalist and bobsleigher
Gareth Rees, Glamorgan CCC cricketer
Ben Rushgrove, T36 100m silver medal at the Beijing 2008 Paralympic Games
Jon Sleightholme, former English Rugby player
Heather Stanning, gold medal for British women's rowing at the London 2012 Summer Olympics
Matt Stevens, Bath, England and British and Irish Lions rugby union player
Sam Underhill, England international rugby player and Bath rugby.
Sam Weale, modern pentathlon, represented Great Britain at the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics
Amy Williams, British skeleton gold medalist at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Lloyd Wallace, British freestyle skier, competed in the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea.

See also

 Armorial of UK universities
 College of advanced technology (United Kingdom)
 List of universities in the United Kingdom
 University of Bath Department of Psychology
 University of Bath School of Management

Notes

References

External links

University of Bath Students' Union

Educational institutions established in 1966
1966 establishments in England
Universities and colleges established in 1966
Universities UK

University of Bath


In medicine, distress is a situation when a person is unable to completely adapt to stress. As a result, the person shows a set of behaviours which are not adapted to the situation. Very often, the person is aware of the situation, and feels bad about not being able to fully adapt.

People often find ways of dealing with distress, in both negative and positive ways. Examples of positive ways are listening to music, calming exercises, sports and similar healthy distractions. Negative ways can include but are not limited to use of drugs including alcohol, and expression of anger, which are likely to lead to complicated social interactions, thus causing increased distress.

Anxiety disorders

Distress (medicine)


The Story of the Kelly Gang is a 1906 Australian bushranger film that traces the exploits of 19th-century bushranger and outlaw Ned Kelly and his gang. It was directed by Charles Tait and shot in and around the city of Melbourne. The original cut of this silent film ran for more than an hour with a reel length of about , making it the longest narrative film yet seen in the world. It premiered at Melbourne's Athenaeum Hall on 26 December 1906 and was first shown in the United Kingdom in January 1908. A commercial and critical success, it is regarded as the origin point of the bushranging drama, a genre that dominated the early years of Australian film production. Since its release, many other films have been made about the Kelly legend.

As of 2020, approximately 17 minutes of the film are known to have survived, which, together with stills and other fragments, have undergone restoration for theatrical and home video releases. In 2007, The Story of the Kelly Gang was inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register for being the world's first full-length narrative feature film.

Plot

Film historian Ina Bertrand suggests that the tone of The Story of the Kelly Gang is "one of sorrow, depicting Ned Kelly and his gang as the last of the bushrangers." Bertrand identifies several scenes that suggest considerable film-making sophistication on the part of the Taits. One is the composition of a scene of police shooting parrots in the bush. The second is the capture of Ned, shot from the viewpoint of the police, as he advances. A copy of the programme booklet has survived, containing a synopsis of the film, in six 'scenes'. The latter provided audiences with the sort of information later provided by intertitles, and can help historians imagine what the entire film may have been like.

According to the synopsis given in the surviving programme, the film originally comprised six sequences. These provided a loose narrative based on the Kelly gang story.
 Scene 1: Police discuss a warrant for Dan Kelly's arrest. Later, Kate Kelly rebuffs the attentions of a Trooper.
 Scene 2: The killings of Kennedy, Scanlon and Lonigan at Stringybark Creek by the gang.
 Scene 3: The hold-up at Younghusband's station and a bank hold–up.
 Scene 4: Various gang members and supporters evade the police and the gang killing of Aaron Sherritt.
 Scene 5: The attempt to derail a train and scenes at the Glenrowan Inn. The police surround the hotel, Dan Kelly and Steve Hart "die by each other's hands" after Joe Byrne is shot dead.
 Scene 6: The closing scenes. Ned Kelly fights hard but is shot in the legs. "He begs the Troopers to spare his life, thus falls the last of the Kelly Gang…"

Some confusion regarding the plot has emerged as a result of a variant poster dating from the time the film was re-released in 1910. The similar (but different) photos suggest that either the film was being added to for its re-release, or an entirely new version was made by Johnson and Gibson, as the poster proclaims. In addition, a film fragment (" the Perth fragment ") exists, showing Aaron Sherritt being shot in front of an obviously painted canvas flat. This is now thought to be from a different film altogether, perhaps a cheap imitation of The Story of the Kelly Gang made by a theatrical company, keen to cash in on the success of the original, or an earlier bushranger short.

Origins
Australian bushranger Ned Kelly had been executed only twenty-six years before The Story of the Kelly Gang was made, and Ned's mother Ellen and younger brother Jim were still alive at the time of its release. The film was made during an era when plays about bushrangers were extremely popular, and there were, by one estimate, six contemporaneous theatre companies giving performances of the Kelly gang story. Historian Ian Jones suggests bushranger stories still had an "indefinable appeal" for Australians in the early 20th century. Stephen Vagg wrote that "bushranger films are their own, uniquely Australian genre, deriving from local history and literary tradition rather than simply copying American tropes... Kelly Gang... , was adapted from an Australian stage play, based on an Australian historical event, and featured many traditions and tropes that are grounded more in Australian than American literary traditions – miscarriage of justice, Protestant-Catholic sectarianism, class warfare, feisty "squatter's daughters", etc."

Cast
There is considerable uncertainty over who appeared in the film and a number of unsubstantiated claims have been made regarding participation. According to the Australian National Film and Sound Archive, the only actors positively identified are;
 John Forde as Dan Kelly
 Elizabeth Tait as the stunt double for the actress playing Kate Kelly
Others thought to be in the film include
 Frank Mills, as the title character Ned Kelly
 John and Frank Tait, Harriet Tait, members of Charles Tait's family.
 J. (Jack) Ennis, as Steve Hart
 Will Coyne, as Joe Byrne

In her memoirs, Viola Tait claimed the part of Ned was played by a Canadian stunt actor, who deserted the project part way through.

A 1944 article said the actors came from Cole's Dramatic Company. This article claims the Taits were not in the film. (However another article the following year from the same publication confirms that Taits involvement.)

Production

Shooting of the film reportedly involved a budget variously estimated between £400 (Gibson) and £1,000 (Tait) and took six months. While it is now commonly accepted that the Tait's experienced older brother Charles directed the film, only ten years after it was made, pioneer Australian director W. J. Lincoln claimed it was actually "directed by Mr Sam Crews [sic], who... worked without a scenario, and pieced the story together as he went along." Lincoln also claimed that "the principal characters were played by the promoters and their relatives, who certainly made no pretensions to any great histrionic talent."

Viola Tait's memoirs, published in the early 1970s, identifies Charles as being chosen as director because of his theatrical experience. Her account confirmed that many of the extended Tait family and their friends appeared in scenes.

Much of the film was shot at Charterisville, a property leased by Lizzie Tait's family as a dairy farm and artists' colony near Heidelberg, now a suburb of Melbourne. Other scenes in the film may have been shot in the suburbs of St Kilda (indoor scenes), and possibly Eltham, Greensborough, Mitcham, and Rosanna. The Victoria Railways Department assisted by providing a train.

Costumes were possibly borrowed from E. I. Cole's Bohemian Company, and members of the troupe may have also performed in the film. According to Viola Tait, Sir Rupert Clarke loaned the suit of Kelly armour his family then owned for use in the film.

The Story of the Kelly Gang was made by a consortium of two partnerships involved in theatre—entrepreneurs John Tait and Nevin Tait, and pioneering film exhibitors Millard Johnson and William Gibson. The Tait family owned the  Melbourne Athenaeum Hall and part of their concert program often included short films. Melbourne film exhibitors Johnson and Gibson also had technical experience, including developing film stock. Credit for writing the film scenario is generally given to brothers Frank, John and sometimes Charles Tait. At a time when films were usually shorts of five to ten minutes duration, their inspiration for making a film of at least sixty minutes in length, and intended as a stand-alone feature, was undoubtedly based on the proven success of stage versions of the Kelly story.

Film historians Andrew Pike and Ross Cooper have noted that at the time, the filmmakers were unaware of the historical importance of the film they were making, and only much later "poured forth their memories." Unfortunately, "with the passage of time and the desire to make a good story of it" they "created a maze of contradictory information."

For example, in later years, William Gibson claimed that while touring through New Zealand showing the bio-pic Living London, he noticed the large audiences attracted to Charles McMahon's stage play The Kelly Gang. Film historian Eric Reade claimed the Taits themselves owned the stage rights to a Kelly play, while actors Sam Crewes and John Forde later also claimed to have thought of the idea of a making a film of the Kelly Gang's exploits, inspired by the success of stage plays.

There is evidence that at least one other bushranging film had been made before 1906. This was Joseph Perry's 1904 short Bushranging in North Queensland, made by the Salvation Army's Limelight Department in Melbourne, one of the world's first film studios.

Release and reception

The film was given a week of trial screenings in country towns in late 1906. This proved enormously successful and the movie recouped its budget for these screenings alone.

Its Melbourne debut was made at the Athenaeum Hall on 26 December 1906. It ran for five weeks to full houses, local papers noting the extraordinary popularity of the film. Although the country screenings had been silent, when the film was screened in Melbourne it was accompanied by live sound effects, including blank cartridges as gunshots and coconut shells beaten together to simulate hoofbeats. At later screenings a lecturer would also narrate the action. These additions were well-received by the theatre critic for Melbourne Punch, who stated that they greatly enhance the film's realism. He went on to say:

Comparing the film to other artistic depictions of the Kelly saga, one Adelaide critic wrote that it conveys "a far more vivid impression of the actual life and deeds of the Kellys than letterpress and stagecraft combined."

Many groups at the time, including some politicians and the police, interpreted the film as a glorification of criminality. Scenes depicting the gang's chivalrous conduct towards women received criticism, with The Bulletin stating that such a portrayal "justifies all Ned Kelly's viciousness and villainies". The film was banned in "Kelly Country"—regional centres such as Benalla and Wangaratta—in April 1907, and in 1912 bushranger films were banned across New South Wales and Victoria.

Despite the bans, the film toured Australia for over 20 years and was also shown in New Zealand, Ireland and Britain. When Queen's Royal Theatre was rebuilt in Dublin in 1909, it opened with a program headed by The Story of the Kelly Gang. The backers and exhibitors made "a fortune" from the film, perhaps in excess of £25,000.

Restoration

The film was considered lost until 1976, when five short segments totalling a few seconds of running time were found. In 1978 another  of the film was discovered in a collection belonging to a former film exhibitor. In 1980, further footage was found at a rubbish dump. The longest surviving single sequence, the scene at Younghusband's station, was found in the UK in 2006. In November 2006, the National Film and Sound Archive released a new digital restoration which incorporated the new material and recreated some scenes based on existing still photographs.

The restoration is now 17 minutes long and includes the key scene of Kelly's last stand and capture.

In popular culture
In director Warwick Thornton's 2017 film Sweet Country, a "travelling picture show" in 1920s Northern Territory shows The Story of the Kelly Gang to residents of an outback town, who cheer for the bushranger. The film's protagonist, an Aboriginal outlaw, is also named Kelly, but vilified and hunted by the same townspeople. According to The Australian, Thornton, an Aboriginal, "has little time" for depictions of Ned Kelly as a larrikin folk hero and Irish victim of British colonisation. "When there was a raiding party," said Thornton, "and a massacre happened, the Scottish, the Irish and the British were all shooting us. It doesn't equate for me".

Other Ned Kelly films
 The Kelly Gang (1920)
 When the Kellys Were Out (1923)
 When the Kellys Rode (1934)
 A Message to Kelly (1947)
 The Glenrowan Affair (1951)
 Stringybark Massacre (1967)
 Ned Kelly (1970)
 Reckless Kelly (1993) (satire)
 Ned Kelly (2003)
 Ned (2003) (satire)
 True History of the Kelly Gang (2019)

See also
 Ned Kelly in popular culture
 List of Australian films before 1910
 List of incomplete or partially lost films

References

External links

The Story of the Kelly Gang preserved and released on DVD in Australia
 The Story of the Kelly Gang at Australian Screen Online
 Sally Jackson and Graham Shirley describe the restoration of The Story of the Kelly Gang

1900s Australian films
1906 films
1906 Western (genre) films
1900s biographical drama films
1900s crime films
1906 drama films
1900s English-language films
1900s historical films
Articles containing video clips
Australian biographical drama films
Australian black-and-white films
Australian historical films
Bushranger films
Cultural depictions of Ned Kelly
Films set in 1880
Films set in colonial Australia
Films set in the Victorian era
Films shot in Melbourne
Lost Australian films
Lost Western (genre) films
Memory of the World Register
Silent Australian Western (genre) films
Silent drama films
Memory of the World Register in Australia

The Story of the Kelly Gang


In law, codification is the process of collecting and restating the law of a jurisdiction. They are listed, usually by subject, forming a legal code (a codex  or book of law). Codification is the defining feature of civil law jurisdictions.

History
Ancient Sumer's Code of Ur-Nammu was compiled  2100-2050 BC. It is the earliest known surviving civil code. Three centuries later, the Babylonian king Hammurabi enacted the set of laws named after him.

Religious laws such as the Torah were codified. Important codifications were developed in the ancient Roman Empire, with the compilations of the Lex Duodecim Tabularum. Much later the Corpus Iuris Civilis was assembled. These codified laws were the exceptions rather than the rule. During much of ancient history the Roman laws were left mostly uncodified.

The first permanent system of codified laws could be found in China. This was with the compilation of the Tang Code in AD 624. This formed the basis of the Chinese criminal code. This was then replaced by the Great Qing Legal Code. This code was in turn abolished in 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China. The new laws of the Republic of China were inspired by the German codified work, the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch. A very influential example in Europe was the French Napoleonic code of 1804.

Another early system of laws is Hindu law framed by Manu and called as Manu Smriti. They date back to the 2nd century BC. The use of civil codes in Islamic Sharia law began with the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century AD.

References

Legal terms
International law

Codification (law)


American Cinematographer is a magazine published monthly by the American Society of Cinematographers. It focuses on the art and craft of cinematography, covering domestic and foreign feature productions, television productions, short films, music videos and commercials.

The emphasis is on interviews with cinematographers, but directors and other filmmakers are often featured as well. Articles include technical how-to pieces, discussions of tools and technologies that affect cinematography, and historical features.

History
The American Society of Cinematographers was founded in 1919. It began publishing American Cinematographer on November 1, 1920, as a twice-monthly four-page newsletter about the ASC and its members. In 1922, the publication went monthly. In 1929, editor Hal Hall started to change the publication; he reformatted it to standard magazine size, increased the page count, and included more articles on amateur filmmaking. For a while during the 1930s, the magazine was devoted to professional cinematography and amateur moviemaking in equal measure. In 1937, the ASC purchased a Spanish bungalow, near Grauman's Chinese Theatre, at 1782 North Orange Drive in Hollywood, California, which remains the headquarters of the ASC.

Modern era
Contributors to the magazine include its staff editors, freelance writers, cinematographers (including ASC members) and other filmmakers. The magazine has won several Maggie Awards and Folio: Eddie Awards for editorial excellence, and several awards for individual articles.

In 2006, the magazine introduced a digital edition. An app for iOS is currently available, and other versions of the app are in the works. The magazine's website (please see External Links for Official Website) features a blog by John Bailey, ASC, and occasional blogs by contributing writers.

Chronology of executive editors
 "Captain Jack" Poland (1920–1921)
 Mary B Howe (1921)
 Silas Edgar Snyder (1921–March 1922, September 1927–April 1929)
 Foster Gross (August 1922–August 1927)
 Hal Hall (May 1929–September 1932, September 1943–December 1945)
 Charles J. VerHalen (October 1932–February 1937)
 George Blaisdell (March 1937–December 1940)
 William Stull, ASC (January 1941–August 1943)
 Walter R. Greene (January 1946–June 1948)
 Arthur Gavin (July 1948–January 1965)
 Herb Lightman (February 1965, February 1966–June 1982)
 Will Lane (March 1965)
 Don C. Hoefler (April 1965–January 1966)
 Richard Patterson (July 1982–April 1985)
 George Turner (May 1986–January 1992)
 David Heuring (February 1992–June 1995)
 Stephen Pizzello (July 1995–present)

See also
 List of film periodicals

References

Sources
 Birchard, Robert S. "Shaping Cinematography's 'Magazine of Record'". American Cinematographer Magazine, August 2004, Vol. 85, No 8. pp. 66–75.
 Katz, Ephraim. The Film Encyclopedia, Second edition. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994. p. 54. .
 Konigsberg, Ira. The Complete Film Dictionary. New York: Signet, 1987. p. 11. .
 Mitchell, George. "The ASC Is an Honor Society, Not a Trade Union, of Cinematographers". Films in Review, August–September 1967. pp. 385–397.
 Slide, Anthony. The American Film Industry: A Historical Dictionary. New York: Limelight Editions, 1990. p. 17. .
 Williams, Whitney. "Society of Cinematographers Marks 50 Years of Achievement". Daily Variety, January 17, 1969. pp. 10, 16.

External links

 Archived American Cinematographer magazines on the Internet Archive

American Society of Cinematographers
Film magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1920
Magazines published in Los Angeles
Monthly magazines published in the United States

American Cinematographer


The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an important part of the endocrine system.  It is at the base of the brain between the eyes. The pituitary is attached to the hypothalamus, which is also a gland. The pituitary controls a whole range of vital functions by secreting hormones.

The pituitary gland consists of two parts: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. It is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibulum).

The hypothalamus releases factors down the pituitary stalk to the pituitary gland where they cause the release of pituitary hormones. Although the pituitary gland is known as the 'master' endocrine gland, both of the lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus.
Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.

Hormones released
The gland releases several kinds of hormones.

Anterior pituitary
The endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by neurosecretion from the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary cells synthesizes and secretes these important endocrine hormones:

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): released under conditions of stress. Increases corticosteroids.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): regulates thyroid gland.
Growth hormone ('HGH'): stimulates cell division and growth.
Prolactin (PRL): stimulates milk production in breasts.

The two gonadotropins;
Luteinizing hormone (LH): in females, it triggers ovulation. In males it stimulates testosterone (acts with next).
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): regulates development, growth, puberty, reproduction.

Intermediate lobe
Here one hormone is produced:
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates the production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair. MSH signals to the brain have effects on appetite and sexual arousal.

Posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary is actually an extension of the hypothalamus. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus have axons that go right down into the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary stores and secretes the hormones produced by these neurosecretory cells:
Oxytocin, most of which is released from the hypothalamus: has effects on nerve transmission, and on females during and after birth. Has a role in pair-bonding, mating and maternal behaviour. Functions not yet entirely understood.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin): controls the reabsorption of molecules in the tubules of the kidneys. Increases arterial blood pressure. It plays a key role in homeostasis, and the regulation of water, glucose, and salts in the blood.

Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a positive feedback loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues throughout birth labour.

References

Glands
Hormones
Endocrine system

Pituitary gland


Gabriel Aresti Segurola (October 14, 1933 – June 5, 1975) was one of the most important writers and poets in Basque language in the 20th century.

He grew up in Bilbao, which was a Spanish-speaking environment. Although his father talked to his parents in Basque language, the child Gabriel did not have Basque as mother language. He was a self-taught student of the language, at the age of 21 he collaborated in some magazines. His literary career began with a work influenced by the symbolism, Maldan Behera (Downhill). His most important works are, however, Harri eta Herri (Stone and Country, 1964), Euskal Harria (The Basque Stone, 1968) and Harrizko Herri Hau (This Country of Stone, 1971), related to the social realism. He also cultivated other genres, like the novel, the short story and theatre. He was an excellent translator of Basque; he translated authors like Federico García Lorca, T. S. Eliot and Giovanni Boccaccio.

Very critical and controversial, he published many articles, which brought him problems not only with Franco's regime but also with some of the mainstream Basque nationalism tendencies, because of his leftist social ideas. Gabriel Aresti was one of the greatest inspirers of the modern culture in Basque language (though he always found the sources in the popular culture and the daily talking, opposing to the purists of the language), and as a Member of the  Academy of the Basque language, he defended the unified Basque language, which he also used before it was adopted by the academy in 1968. He founded the publishing house Lur, allowing new authors in the Basque language like Ramon Saizarbitoria, Arantxa Urretabizkaia or Xabier Lete to publish their first works.

External links
  Azurmendi, Joxe 1985: Aresti: sentsibilitate konkretu bat, Jakin, 36: 5-30.
  Azurmendi, Joxe 1991: Arestiren tintazko bataioaz, Jakin, 62: 129–142.
  Poems of Gabriel Aresti

1933 births
1975 deaths
Writers from Bilbao
Basque-language writers
Basque-language poets
20th-century Spanish poets

Gabriel Aresti


The National Security Council (NSC) ( HaMateh leBitachon Leumi) is Israel's central body for coordination, integration, analysis and monitoring in the field of national security and is the staff forum on national security for the Israeli Prime Minister and Government. However, national security decisions typically made by national security councils in other countries are handled by the Security Cabinet. The Council draws its authority from the government and operates according to guidelines from the Prime Minister.

The NSC was established in 1999 by the office of Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu following Government Resolution 4889, in the framework of drawing lessons from the Yom Kippur War. Its responsibilities were anchored in law starting in July 2008, partly as a response to the Second Lebanon War.

Basis for operations
Article 7 of the Government Law of 2001 states that "the Government will have a staff, established by the Prime Minister, to provide professional consulting in the fields of national security; the Prime Minister is authorized to entrust the staff with additional consulting fields."

Government Resolution 4889, dated March 7 1999, established the National Security Council. The Government resolution specified, among others, that:
 The objective of the NSC is to serve as a centralized advisory body to the Prime Minister and the Government regarding issues of national security.
 The NSC derives its authority from the Government and operates in accordance with directives issued by the Prime Minister.

Roles
The National Security Council is the Prime Minister's and the Government's staff forum in the field of national security. The roles of the NSC, as stipulated in the Government Resolution, are as follows:

 To hold senior council forums for the Prime Minister and the Government regarding issues of national security.
 To coordinate integrative assessments of processes and trends in all aspects of national security.
 To direct integrative staff operations between offices and authorities dealing with national security in order to increase coordination and integration between them.
 To prepare for deliberations by the government, ministerial committee for national security and the Prime Minister.
 To advise the government on policies relating to national security.
 To plan, based on a long-term perspective, national security components, with the assistance of existing planning bodies in State offices and organizations dealing with national security.
 To follow up and provide updates regarding activities and implementation of resolutions related to national security.
 To maintain coordination and cooperation with parallel national security authorities in selected countries.

Among the Council's functions are: strategic advisement to the Prime Minister, offering security recommendations to the government, joint direction and coordinations of the security arms as well as inspection and supervision of decision-making related to the security bodies. Other functions include long-term planning of security approaches, and maintaining cooperative and coordinative relations with the national security elements of selected countries.

The NSC also maintains high-level diplomatic communications with world powers.

Major areas of activity
The NSC formulates alternatives for Israeli policy on the political process and relationships with:
 Middle East countries, especially with the Palestinians, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Jordan and other countries.
 Great powers: the United States, Russia, European Union, China and India.
 Key countries: Turkey and India
 Major international organizations such as the United Nations, NATO and OECD.

The Council has engaged in issues such as the planning of the West Bank barrier and supervision over its implementation, the Gaza disengagement plan, and the agreement with Egypt over the Philadelphi Route.

A new area of activity relates to energy issues, based on a comprehensive national security perspective, including:
 Energy providers
 Strategic reserves
 Source combination

Structure
The National Security Council is part of the Prime Minister's Office and reports to him directly about issues related to national security.

The Council comprises three wings: Security Policy, Foreign Policy, and the Counter-Terrorism Bureau. It has two advisors: legal and economic.

Since the end of December 2006, the office of the head of the NSC and the staff of the Foreign Policy Division, the Security Division and the Legal Advisor have been located in the Prime Minister's building in Jerusalem. The remaining staff of the NSC and the Counter-Terrorism Bureau headquarters are located at the NSC facility in Ramat Hasharon.

The Council's work is considered secret, and is done outside the public's eye. Its authority is vague and the Prime Minister is not obligated to accept its recommendations, unlike with those of the Attorney General, for example.

Head
The first National Security Advisor and Head of NSC was General (in reserve) David Ivri. The current Head is Tzachi Hanegbi.

Historical heads were:
 David Ivri, 1999–2000
 Gideon Sheffer, (Acting) 2000
 Uzi Dayan, 2000–2002
 Ephraim Halevi, 2002–2003
 Israel Michaeli, 2003–2004
 Giora Eiland, 2004–2006
 Ilan Mizrahi, 2006–2007
 Dani Arditi, (Acting) 2007–2009
 Uzi Arad, 2009–2011
 Yaakov Amidror, 2011–2013
 Yossi Cohen, 2013–2016
 Yaakov Nagel, (Acting) 2016–2017
 Eytan Ben-David, 2017
 Meir Ben-Shabbat, 2017–2021
 Eyal Hulata, 2021–2023
 Tzachi Hanegbi, 2023-present

Foreign Policy Wing
The National Security Council's Foreign Policy Division is in charge of planning, integration and coordination of policy on major issues of national security. The Division's roles:

 Formulation of political situation assessments
 Formulation of recommendations for Israeli policies
 Conducting strategic dialogs with National Security Councils of leading countries

References

External links
 Official website of the NSC

Israeli Security Forces
National security councils
1999 establishments in Israel

National Security Council (Israel)


The coat of arms of Turkmenistan was created after Turkmenistan gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The eight-point green starburst (known as the star of Rub El Hizb (۞), a symbol of Islam, to which a majority of Turkmen profess) with golden edges features in its center a red circular disc which carries sheaves of wheat, five carpet guls, and centered upon that a smaller blue circle with a lifelike (rather than heraldized) depiction of an Akhal-Teke horse, a source of pride for the Turkmen people. A variant of the emblem, which included different colors and rounded, was used from 1992 until 2003.

The five traditional carpet motifs on the red disc represent the five major tribes or houses, and stand for the traditional and religious values of the country. These Turkmen tribes in traditional order are Teke (Tekke), Yomut (Yomud), Arsary (Ersary), Chowdur (Choudur), and Saryk (Saryq). The Salyr (Salor), a tribe that declined as a result of military defeat before the modern period, are not represented, nor are several smaller tribes or subtribes.

The green and red colors appear in this shield because they have been venerated historically by the Turkmen. The central elements are surrounded by sheaves of wheat that allude to the custom to welcome to guests with salt and bread. Atop the wheat and the red circle appear a waxing crescent moon of white, typical of Turkic symbology, and five five-pointed stars also of white. The waxing crescent moon symbolizes the hope of the country for a shining future and the stars represent the five provinces (Welayatlar) of Turkmenistan-Ahal, Balkan, Dashhowuz, Lebap, and Mary. Most of the elements of the coat of arms are present in the national flag.

Before independence from the USSR, Turkmenistan had a coat of arms similar to all other Soviet Republics. A single carpet gul, not matching any of the tribal patterns, was represented on the Coat of arms of the Turkmen SSR.

Related pages
 Flag of Turkmenistan

National symbols of Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan

Coat of arms of Turkmenistan


Just cause is a common standard in employment law, as a form of job security. When a person is terminated for just cause, it means that they have been terminated for misconduct, or another sufficient reason. A person terminated for just cause is generally not entitled to notice severance, nor unemployment benefits depending on local laws.

Labor union contracts (United States)
The standard of just cause provides important protections against arbitrary or unfair termination and other forms of inappropriate workplace discipline. Just cause has become a common standard in labor arbitration, and is included in labor union contracts as a form of job security. Typically, an employer must prove just cause before an arbitrator in order to sustain an employee's termination, suspension, or other discipline. Usually, the employer has the burden of proof in discharge cases or if the employee is in the wrong.

In the workplace, just cause is a burden of proof or standard that an employer must meet to justify discipline or discharge. Just cause usually refers to a violation of a company policy or rule. In some cases, an employee may commit an act that is not specifically addressed within the employers' policies but one of which the employer believes warrants discipline or discharge. In such instances, the employer must be confident that they can defend their decision.

When an arbitrator looks at a discipline dispute, the arbitrator first asks whether the employee's wrongdoing has been proven by the employer, and then asks whether the method of discipline should be upheld or modified. In 1966, an arbitrator, Professor Carroll Daugherty, expanded these principles into seven tests for just cause. The concepts encompassed within his seven tests are still frequently used by arbitrators when deciding discipline cases.

Daugherty's seven tests are as follows:
 Was the employee forewarned of the consequences of his or her actions?
 Are the employer's rules reasonably related to business efficiency and performance the employer might reasonably expect from the employee?
 Was an effort made before discipline or discharge to determine whether the employee was guilty as charged?
 Was the investigation conducted fairly and objectively?
 Did the employer obtain substantial evidence of the employee's guilt?
 Were the rules applied fairly and without discrimination?
 Was the degree of discipline reasonably related to the seriousness of the employee's offense and the employee's past record?

The last test, the degree of discipline, is important because arbitrators want to ensure that the "punishment fits the crime." An employer's use of progressive discipline often gives the employer an advantage in arbitration.

The culture of the community or community standards sometimes play an important role in how just cause is defined, especially if there are issues of immorality. What is accepted in an urban and liberal community may not be accepted in a rural and religiously conservative community. The courts or arbitrator who will rule on a challenge to the discipline may be a product of those communities. Just cause can become controversial in instances when the employer's personnel policies do not address a specific act but the employer believes that just cause exists. For example, if an employee is arrested and charged with a misdemeanor, the employer may deem that sufficient cause for dismissal, even if the employee is not incarcerated or convicted.

See also
Dismissal (employment)

Notes

Termination of employment
Labor relations

Just cause (employment law)


Liquid nitrogen is nitrogen at a very low temperature. It is usually produced by a process known as fractional distillation of air. At atmospheric pressure (normal pressure) nitrogen boils at −196 °C  (77 K; −321 °F).
Nitrogen was first made into a liquid at Jagiellonian University on 15 April 1883. Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski were the first scientists to liquefy nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. During World War II the production of liquid nitrogen became common. This lowered the cost to produce it. After the war new uses were found for liquid gases. Liquid nitrogen became a major gas in the US.

Uses
Liquid nitrogen has a variety of uses, as it is easy to transport, and compact.
 Removal of warts
In Cryosurgery
 Storage and preservation of cells
 Shrink welding
 In food preparation, for foods such as ice cream
To cool electronics, such as infrared sensors
 In Cryogenics

References

Nitrogen

Liquid nitrogen


Montmin là một xã trong tỉnh Haute-Savoie thuộc vùng Rhône-Alpes đông nam Pháp.

Geography
The seven hamlets occupy a four-mile long valley which is bordered on the west by Mont Chenevier, and on the east by the impressive and snow-capped Tournette massif. According to locals, Noah's Ark landed at the Col de l'Aulp, whose valley is indeed shaped like a ship; Noah, Biblical father of viticulture, would have planted the lakeside vineyards of Talloires, which produced wines and brandy until the 1950s. The mean elevation of the village is 1000 meters, or 3250 feet above sea level.

History
First settled in the early Middle Ages, shortly after the year 1000, the hamlets were farming communities that existed almost entirely independently of the outside world until the advent of modern transportation.

Tourism
With the arrival of modern roads and vehicles, Montmin has become a tourist attraction renowned for the scenic Col de la Forclaz mountain pass, one of the premier hang gliding và paragliding sites in Europe. Montmin hosted the 1995 Hang Gliding Championships of France. And in July 1997 Montmin watched the Tour de France bicycle race come through the community, up from Faverges, over the Col de la Forclaz and back down toward Bluffy and the high Alps to the east.

Unlike its neighbors in the high Alps (La Clusaz, Megève, etc.), Montmin has not become a vast urbanized winter playground crisscrossed with ski lifts and dotted with large hotels and apartment buildings. Cautious zoning and deliberately limited development have allowed Montmin to retain much of its charm as a quiet agricultural community, even though it is a mere twenty phút from downtown Annecy.

In the winter, Montmin's small ski lifts are known as a good place for beginning and intermediate skiers; many of the villagers are certified ski instructors, and many children of the Annecy and Faverges area first learned to ski in Montmin. In the summer, the same lifts are used for summer gliding sports. Montmin's principal claim to fame is as the starting point of several popular hiking trails, including the scenic climb up Mt. Tournette, the tallest of the mountains overlooking Lake Annecy.

A hotel and several restaurants at the Col de la Forclaz mountain pass receive thousands of tourists who come to enjoy the excellent view of Lake Annecy. These facilities offer comfortable accommodations and traditional Savoy country cooking.

Miscellaneous
The local cheese dairy farms produce the renowned Tomme và Reblochon cheeses for which the area is famous.

At the dawn of the 21st century, Montmin's population is beginning to grow again as the village finds a new role as a dormitory for the cities of Annecy and Faverges, though it retains much of its rustic charm.

Xem thêm
Xã của tỉnh Haute-Savoie

Tham khảo
INSEE

Liên kết ngoài
Montmin
Montmin/Lake Annecy Webcam
Reblochon Cheese

Xã của Haute-Savoie

Montmin


The Trichoptera is an order of insects, also known as caddisflies, sedge-flies, or rail flies. They are usually identified by the setae (hairs) that cover their entire bodies, including their wings. The larvae of many caddisflies species use silk to make protective cases of gravel, sand, twigs or other debris which can be found in clean rivers and streams.

Insects

Trichoptera


Sir Pelham Grenville Wodehouse, KBE (/ˈwʊdhaʊs/ WOOD-howss; 15 October 1881 – 14 February 1975) was an English author and one of the most widely read humorists of the 20th century. His creations include the feather-brained Bertie Wooster and his sagacious valet, Jeeves; the immaculate and loquacious Psmith; Lord Emsworth and the Blandings Castle set; the Oldest Member, with stories about golf; and Mr Mulliner, with tall tales on subjects ranging from bibulous bishops to megalomaniac movie moguls.

Born in Guildford, the third son of a British magistrate based in Hong Kong, Wodehouse spent happy teenage years at Dulwich College, to which he remained devoted all his life. After leaving school he was employed by a bank but disliked the work and turned to writing in his spare time. His early novels were mostly school stories, but he later switched to comic fiction. Most of Wodehouse's fiction is set in his native United Kingdom, although he spent much of his life in the US and used New York and Hollywood as settings for some of his novels and short stories. He wrote a series of Broadway musical comedies during and after the First World War, together with Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern, that played an important part in the development of the American musical. He began the 1930s writing for MGM in Hollywood. In a 1931 interview, his naive revelations of incompetence and extravagance in the studios caused a furore. In the same decade, his literary career reached a new peak.

In 1934 Wodehouse moved to France for tax reasons; in 1940 he was taken prisoner at Le Touquet by the invading Germans and interned for nearly a year. After his release he made six broadcasts from German radio in Berlin to the US, which had not yet entered the war. The talks were comic and apolitical, but his broadcasting over enemy radio prompted anger and strident controversy in Britain, and a threat of prosecution. Wodehouse never returned to England. From 1947 until his death he lived in the US, taking dual British-American citizenship in 1955. He died in 1975, at the age of 93, in Southampton, New York.

Wodehouse was a prolific writer throughout his life, publishing more than ninety books, forty plays, two hundred short stories and other writings between 1902 and 1974. He worked extensively on his books, sometimes having two or more in preparation simultaneously. He would take up to two years to build a plot and write a scenario of about thirty thousand words. After the scenario was complete he would write the story. Early in his career Wodehouse would produce a novel in about three months, but he slowed in old age to around six months. He used a mixture of Edwardian slang, quotations from and allusions to numerous poets, and several literary techniques to produce a prose style that has been compared to comic poetry and musical comedy. Some critics of Wodehouse have considered his work flippant, but among his fans are former British prime ministers and many of his fellow writers.

Inspiration
Wodehouse claims to have gotten inspiration for his characters by being like them: born into a rich family, and inheriting much money, making him rich and financially free.

1881 births
1975 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
English novelists
English playwrights
Writers from Surrey

P.G. Wodehouse


Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children (1779) is an oil on canvas portrait by Joshua Reynolds. It hangs in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. The sitters in the picture are Lady Elizabeth Delmé and her children John and Isabella Elizabeth. They sat for their portraits in April and June 1777. Reynolds was paid three hundred pounds for the work in 1780, and touched up and re-varnished the picture in 1789.

Reynolds believed in the what was called the "Grand Manner". The two years involved in completing the portrait would have aged the children. "But Reynolds worked from abstract principles of design rather than observation of nature," the National Gallery of Art writes, "One of his conceptions for Grand Manner likenesses was: Each person should have the expression which men of his rank generally exhibit. Reynolds therefore suppressed psychological individuality to gain a grandeur appropriate for these aristocrats."

Reynolds alluded to the Madonnas of Raphael (such as the Madonna of the Goldfinch) in the triangular configuration of the sitters.  This was another attempt to evoke the Grand Manner. Rembrandt and Titian are hinted at in the browns of the background.

Cynthia Saltzman writes in Old Masters, New Worlds (2009) that "Lady Delmé has a long, elegant face, heavy-lidded eyes, and towering powdered hair. She wears a white dress and a cloak that covers her knees in a cascade of rose-colored satin that speaks both to her beauty and to the luxury at her command." Saltzman writes that Lady Delmé is one of the finest representatives of Reynolds's intent to raise portraiture to the level of history painting. English portraiture of the period "flattered the sitter", Saltzman explains, by depicting the sitter as a member of a powerful ruling class whose very existence made the world a better place.

References
 NGA: Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children
 British Paintings of the Sixteenth through Nineteenth Centuries. Oxford University Press. pp. 213–215
 Saltzman, Cynthia. 2009. Old Masters, New Worlds: America's Raid on Europe's Great Pictures. Viking. Unpaged.

1770s paintings
Paintings in the National Gallery of Art, Washington DC
Paintings by Joshua Reynolds
1779

Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children


Dariusz Tomasz Michalczewski (May 5, 1968) better known as Tiger is a Polish boxer. He was World Boxing Organization, World Boxing Association, International Boxing Federation and Lineal champion in light heavyweight for nine years. He was undefeated for twelve years.

Michalczewski started his career in 1991. He won the World Boxing Association title against Leeonzer Barber, who was undefeated for 3 years. After that he combined the World Boxing Organization title and the Lineal title. He also won the Wold Boxing Organization title against Nestor Hipolito Giovannini in Cruiserweight. In 1996 he fought against Graciano Rochigani, who was one of the best Light Heavyweight boxer at this time. Michalchewski won at round 7. He combined the World Boxing Organization, World Boxing Association, International Boxing Federation and Lineal after a win against Virgil Hill, who was one of the world's best boxers at that time. In 2000 he fought the second time against Graciano Rocchigani. He won the fight in the tenth round by knockout. After the fight against Derrick Harmon, he needed one win to stop the record of Rocky Marciano, who was undefeated for 49 fights in a row. In his fortyninth fight, he fought in the Color Line Arena, Hamburg against Julio Cesar Gonzalez. Michalchewski wasn't trained and lost by split decision. In 2005 he made a comeback against the World Boxing Association Champion Fabrice Tiozzo. He lost the fight by knockout in round five. After that, he said that he never will fight again. In his best time, he counted with Roy Jones Junior as the best light heavyweight fighter of all time.

References

Polish boxers
1968 births
Living people

Dariusz Michalczewski


Sénsor nyaéta salah sahiji tipe transduser, gunana nyaéta pikeun ngarobah énerji tina hiji bentuk ka bentuk lainna, husuna ngarobah jadi énerji listrik. ku kituna, sénsor bisa dipasi jadi gumantung kana énerji anu bisa didetéksina.

Thermal
 temperature sensors: thermometers, thermocouples, temperature sensitive resistors (thermistors and resistance temperature detectors), bi-metal thermométers and thermostats
 heat sensors: bolometer, calorimeter

Electromagnetic
 electrical resistance sensors: ohmmeter, multimeter
 electrical current sensors: galvanometer, ammeter
 electrical voltage sensors: leaf electroscope, voltmeter
 electrical power sensors: watt-hour meters
 magnetism sensors: magnetic compass, fluxgate compass, magnetometer, Hall effect device
 metal detectors
 RADAR

Mechanical

 pressure sensors: altimeter, barometer, barograph, pressure gauge, air speed indicator, rate-of-climb indicator, variometer
 gas and liquid flow sensors: flow sensor, anemometer, flow meter, gas meter, water meter, mass flow sensor
 gas and liquid viscosity and density: viscometer, hydrometer, oscillating U-tube
 mechanical sensors: acceleration sensor, position sensor, selsyn, switch, strain gauge
 humidity sensors: hygrometer

Chemical
 Chemical proportion sensors: oxygen sensors, ion-selective electrodes, pH glass electrodes, redox electrodes, and carbon monoxide detectors.

Optical radiation

 light time-of-flight. Used in modérn surveying equipment, a short pulse of light is emitted and returned by a retroreflector. The return time of the pulse is proportional to the distance and is related to atmospheric density in a predictable way - see LIDAR.
 light sensors, or photodetectors, including semiconductor devices such as photocells, photodiodes, phototransistors, CCDs,  and Image sensors; vacuum tube devices like photo-electric tubes, photomultiplier tubes; and mechanical instruments such as the Nichols radiometer.
 infra-red sensor, especially used as occupancy sensor for lighting and environmental controls.
 proximity sensor-  A type of distance sensor but less sophisticated. Only detects a specific proximity. May be optical - combination of a photocell and LED or laser. Applications in cell phones, paper detector in photocopiers, auto power standby/shutdown mode in notebooks and other devices. May employ a magnet and a Hall effect device.
 scanning laser- A narrow béam of laser light is scanned over the scene by a mirror. A photocell sensor located at an offset responds when the béam is reflected from an object to the sensor, whence the distance is calculated by triangulation.
 focus. A large aperture lens may be focused by a servo system. The distance to an in-focus scene element may be determined by the lens setting.
 binocular. Two images gathered on a known baseline are brought into coincidence by a system of mirrors and prisms. The adjustment is used to determine distance. Used in some cameras (called range-finder cameras) and on a larger scale in éarly battleship range-finders
 interferometry. Interference fringes between transmitted and reflected lightwaves produced by a coherent source such as a laser are counted and the distance is calculated. Capable of extremely high precision.
 scintillometers méasure atmospheric optical disturbances.
 fiber optic sensors.
 short path optical interception - detection device consists of a light-emitting diode illuminating a phototransistor, with the end position of a mechanical device detected by a moving flag intercepting the optical path, useful for determining an initial position for mechanisms driven by stepper motors.

Ionising radiation

 radiation sensors: Geiger counter, dosimeter, Scintillation counter, Neutron detection
 subatomic particle sensors: Particle detector, scintillator, Wire chamber, cloud chamber, bubble chamber. See :Category:Particle detectors

Acoustic
 acoustic : uses ultrasound time-of-flight echo return. Used in mid 20th century polaroid cameras and applied also to robotics.  Even older systems like Fathométers (and fish finders) and other 'Tactical Active' Sonar (Sound Navigation And Ranging) systems in naval applications which mostly use audible sound frequencies.
 sound sensors : microphones, hydrophones, seismometers.

Other types

 motion sensors: radar gun, speedometer, tachometer, odometer, occupancy sensor, turn coordinator
 orientation sensors: gyroscope, artificial horizon, ring laser gyroscope
 distance sensor (noncontacting) Several technologies can be applied to sense distance: magnetostriction

Non Initialized systems
 Gray code strip or wheel- a number of photodetectors can sense a pattern, créating a binary number. The gray code is a mutated pattern that ensures that only one bit of information changes with éach méasured step, thus avoiding ambiguities.

Initialized systems
These require starting from a known distance and accumulate incremental changes in méasurements.
 Quadrature wheel- A disk-shaped optical mask is driven by a géar train. Two photocells detecting light passing through the mask can determine a partial revolution of the mask and the direction of that rotation.
 whisker sensor- A type of touch sensor and proximity sensor.

Classification of measurement errors
A good sensor obeys the following rules:
 the sensor should be sensitive to the méasured property
 the sensor should be insensitive to any other property
 the sensor should not influence the méasured property

idéal sensors are designed to be linear. The output signal of such a sensor is linéarly proportional to the value of the méasured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and méasured property. For example, if a sensor méasures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linéar because the ratio is constant at all points of méasurement.

If the sensor is not idéal, several types of deviations can be observed:
 The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error, but the sensor is still linéar.
 Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually réach a minimum or maximum when the méasured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines the maximum and minimum values of the méasured property.
 If the output signal is not zero when the méasured property is zero, the sensor has an offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.
 If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity. Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from idéal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.
 If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the méasured property over time, there is a dynamic error. Often, this behaviour is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the méasured property, this is defined as drift.
 Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor properties over a long period of time.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.
 Hysteresis is an error caused by when the méasured property reverses direction, but there is some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, créating a different offset error in one direction than in the other.
 If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the méasured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.
 If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a dynamic error.
 The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being méasured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors.
Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by méans of some kind of calibration strategy.
Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the dynamic behaviour of the sensor.

Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the quantity that it is méasuring. Often in a digital display, the léast significant digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the méasurement is made.
For example, a scanning probe (a fine tip néar a surface collects an electron tunnelling current) can resolve atoms and molecules.

Biological sensors
All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to those of the mechanical devices described. Most of these are specialized cells that are sensitive to:
 light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration, pressure, electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external environment;
 physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of the organism, and position of appendages (proprioception);
 an enormous array of environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones;
 many aspects of the internal metabolic milieu, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or osmolality;
 an equally varied range of internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cytokines;
 and even the differences between proteins of the organism itself and of the environment or alien créatures.

Artificial sensors that mimic biological sensors by using a biological sensitive component, are called biosensors.

The human senses are examples of specialized neuronal sensors.  See Sense.

Geodetic sensors
Géodetic méasuring devices méasure géoreferenced displacements or movements in one, two or three dimensions. It includes the use of instruments such as total stations, levels and global navigation satellite system receivers.

See also

 Actuator
 Car sensor: reversing sensor and rain sensor.
 Data acquisition
 Data acquisition system
 Data logger

 Detection theory
 Fully Automatic Time
 Hydrogen microsensor
 Lateral line
 Limen

 List of sensors
 Machine olfaction
 Receiver operating characteristic
 Sensor network
 Sensor Web

Tumbu luar

 Capacitive Position/Displacement Sensor Theory/Tutorial
 Federal Standard 1037C, August 7, 1996: transducer
 American National Standard for Telecommunications - Telecom Glossary 2000: sensor
 C. A. Grimes, E. C. Dickey, and M. V. Pishko (2006), Encyclopedia of Sensors (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-056-X
 SensEdu; how sensors work
 "Overview of Sensors and Needs for Environmental Monitoring" Clifford K. Ho, Alex Robinson, David R. Miller and Mary J. Davis Sensors 2005, 5, 4-37  (open access) article
 The art of detection: UGS systems make a quantum leap in reliability and utility International Defence Review, 3 August 2006
 Military Sensing Information Analysis Center at Georgia Tech
 A simple tutorial: Build your own Infra-Red Based proximity sensor
 Overview of sensors on DirectIndustry

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William "Smokey" Robinson (born February 19, 1940 in Detroit, Michigan) is an American R&B singer-songwriter. Most of his hit records were on Motown Records or one of its labels, and many of them were performed with The Miracles, his longtime band.

Robinson is an African American. His mother died when he was young; his sister raised him afterwards. Robinson met Berry Gordy when Motown first became famous. He showed Gordy the lyrics to a song he had written. When Gordy asked if Smokey had any other songs, the young man pulled out a notebook with nearly a hundred of them. Few of the songs had potential, but Gordy liked what he saw in Robinson, and signed him and his band to Motown. Gordy helped Robinson become a better songwriter, and sometimes they wrote together. Some of Robinson's songs, like "My Girl" and "My Guy", were hits for other Motown artists.

Robinson's hits with the Miracles included "Goin' to a Go-Go", "You Really Got a Hold On Me", "Shop Around", "Ooh Baby Baby", "Mickey's Monkey", and "Baby, Baby Don't Cry". Stevie Wonder gave Robinson an unfinished song he'd begun in the studio, to see if he could add lyrics and a tune. The song reminded Robinson of circus music, and he remembered I Pagliacci, an opera about clowns. The finished song was called "The Tears of a Clown", and it became another hit.

Robinson left the Miracles during the 1970s, and began a solo career. The Miracles still had hits (like "Love Machine"), and so did Robinson, with songs like "Cruisin'" and "Being With You".

In the 2000s, Robinson went into the frozen food business, with a line of gumbos and similar cuisine.

Other websites

1940 births
Living people
African American musicians
American R&B musicians
American singer-songwriters
Singers from Detroit

Smokey Robinson


Falstaff is an Italian opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi, on a libretto by Arrigo Boito, based on William Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor. It was first performed in Milan, on February 9, 1893. Verdi's last opera and perhaps greatest masterpiece, composed when he was 80, and only his second comedy since his earlier attempt Un giorno di regno in 1840.

The composition of the opera
When Verdi composed Falstaff he was not writing it for a commission.  He was just writing it for his own pleasure, without a performance in mind.  When he had finished it he felt that it would be his last work and that his life's work had finished.  It was almost true.  It was indeed his last opera and his last big work.

When composers turn plays into operas they usually have to make some changes in the drama to make it suitable to be sung.  Verdi had already turned two other Shakespeare plays into opera: Otello and Macbeth.  When he composed these he worked with librettists to create something as close to Shakespeare's plays as possible, but when writing Falstaff he took more freedom.  The character of Falstaff is very close to the way he is shown in Shakespeare's Henry IV plays, rather than the Falstaff of The Merry Wives of Windsor.

Principal roles
 Falstaff - baritone
 Ford - baritone
 Alice - soprano
 Nanetta - soprano
 Fenton - tenor
 Mistress Quickly -  contralto
 Meg Page - mezzo-soprano

The story of the opera

Act I
This takes place in the Garter Inn ().  Dr Caius, who is a rich man with servants, complains that Falstaff has beaten his servants and that Falstaff's two friends Bardolfo and Pistola made him drunk and then stole his money.  Falstaff laughs at him.  He says he will never get drunk again unless he is in the company of good, religious people.  Bardolfo and Pistola in the background sing "Amen" until Falstaff stops them, complaining that they sing out of tune.

Falstaff complains that his bill for the drinks is very high.  He says that his two friends drink so much that he won't have enough to eat and he'll get thin and then he cannot be his proper self.  He says he is in love with two ladies: Mrs Ford and Mrs Page.  He has written love letters to them both.  He asks his two friends to take the letters to them, but they refuse.  Falstaff is cross and gets a page boy to take them instead.  Then he chases his friends with a broom.

The next scene changes to the garden of Ford's house.  Four ladies are in the garden: Alice Ford and Meg Page and also Mistress Quickly and Anne Ford, the daughter of Mr and Mrs Ford.  Verdi calls her "Nannetta".  The four of them look at the two letters that Alice and Meg have received and find they are exactly the same except for the address.  They are amused and a bit annoyed, so they decide to tease Falstaff.

Mr Ford is walking with Dr Caius, Fenton and Falstaff's two friends.  Fenton is a young man who is in love with Nannetta, but Ford does not want him to marry his daughter.  Bardolfo and Pistola have deserted Falstaff.  They tell Ford that Falstaff is in love with his wife.  He is cross, of course, and plans revenge.  The music of the four ladies and the music of the five men is sometimes heard separately, and sometimes it is combined.  Fenton and Nannetta stay behind to kiss and they sing a love duet.  When the men and ladies come back they each sing their own music again.  This is a famous ensemble: the way Verdi has combined the two songs is very clever.

Act II
Bardolfo and Pistola are back in the Garter Inn with Falstaff.  They pretend they are very sorry to have deserted Falstaff.  They tell him that there is an old woman outside who wants to speak to him.  It is Mistress Quickly, who comes in and curtseys very low to Falstaff.  She gives him the message that Alice would love to see him, but that Meg's husband is guarding her and never leaves her by herself.  He can see Alice when her husband is out between two and three o' clock ().  Falstaff is pleased and gives Mistress Quickly a tip (some money) as she leaves.  He sings to himself "Alice is mine" ("").

The next visitor Falstaff has is Ford.  Falstaff does not know who he is.  Ford says his name is Master Brook (Signor Fontana).  He gives Falstaff a purse with silver and tells him that he is in love with Mistress Ford (Alice).  He asks Falstaff to get her for him.  Falstaff says he will be seeing her that very afternoon.  Ford asks him whether he knows Alice's husband (i.e. himself).  Falstaff says he does and he describes to him what a terrible man Ford is.  It is a very comic scene with a lot of very clever humour.

When Falstaff goes out to change his clothes Ford shows his anger.  When Falstaff returns the two men go out arm in arm like friends, arguing about who shall go through the door first.

Back in Ford's house the four women are getting ready to tease Falstaff.  From the conversation we learn that Ford wants Nannette to marry Dr Caius who is a fussy old man.  Nannette of course wants to marry young Fenton.

When Falstaff comes Alice is playing the lute.  He sings to her accompaniment.  When Quickly says that Ford is coming they hide Falstaff behind a screen.  Ford and his men start to search another part of the house, and the women hide Falstaff inside a big laundry basket with dirty clothes.  Ford comes back, he hears the sound of kissing and thinks it is his wife with Falstaff, but he finds it is Nannetta and Fenton.  Ford goes out furiously, and the women quickly throw the laundry basket out of the window into the river Thames below.  When Ford comes back his wife takes him to the window and he sees Falstaff, who is very wet, getting out of the river.

Act III
Falstaff is recovering in the Inn.  He is very grumpy, although he starts to cheer up when wine is brought.  Mistress Quickly comes in and says he can meet Alice, but Falstaff is not really in a mood for this.  In the end Quickly manages to persuade him to meet Alice at Herne the Hunter's Oak in Windsor forest.  There is a legend about a black hunter who hanged himself from this tree, and so the spot is haunted by witches and sprites.  Falstaff is told he must disguise himself as the black hunter.

The men and women sing an ensemble in which they describe the plot they have made to tease Falstaff.  Ford also plots to announce that Caius will marry Nannette.

The last scene takes place at night under Herne's Oak.  The moon shines.  Fenton sings an aria.  Falstaff appears in his disguise, wearing a pair of antlers on his head and wrapped in a big cloak.  Midnight strikes.  For a moment he is alone with Alice, but then she leaves him by himself.  Nannetta is disguised as the Queen of Fairies.  She and her friends sing beautiful music.  Falstaff has hidden his face in his cloak, but everyone goes to him and torments him.  When people take off their masks Falstaff feels really stupid, although he tries to say that his wittiness helped the joke.  Ford announces that Nannetta will marry Caius.  Alice leads another couple to him and he announces that they too will marry.  When they take off their masks he finds that Bardolfo was disguised as Nannetta, so he will marry Caius!  The other couple were Fenton and Nannetta in disguise.  Now it is Ford who looks stupid, and Falstaff takes the opportunity to tease him.  They finish by singing "" ("Joking is man's vocation.  Wise is he who is jolly").  The music is a fugue, which is usually thought of as being a serious academic form, but the mood here is jolly.

An engravement was made in favour of Falstaff's existence; ("Where 'o where shall the holly be on the night of song, more for thee to ascend in me.")

Sources
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
"The New Kobbé's Opera Book" edited by The Earl of Harewood and Antony Peattie

1890s operas
Compositions by Giuseppe Verdi

Falstaff (opera)


Prudence Crandall (September 3, 1803 – January 28, 1890) was an American teacher. She was born on September 3, 1803 to Quakers. She went to the New England Friends' Boarding School in Providence, Rhode Island. In October 1831, she opened a private girls' school in Canterbury, Connecticut. In 1833, an African American girl was admitted to the school.  The parents of the white girls in the school wanted the black girl expelled. Crandall refused. She opened a school for African American girls in April 1833.

The Connecticut legislature passed the "Black Law". This law made it illegal to open a school that taught African American pupils from a state other than Connecticut.  Crandall was arrested, tried, and convicted of violating this law. She was put in jail.  A higher court reversed the decision. Crandall was freed, but neighbors harassed her. They smashed the windows in the school.  Crandall feared for the students' safety. She closed the school in 1834.

Crandall married Baptist minister and abolitionist Calvin Philleo. In 1835, the couple and his three children left Connecticut for Philleo's farm in New York State. They later moved to Illinois. Here Crandall ran a school from her home. She also took part in women's rights activities.  When Philleo died in 1874, Prudence moved to Kansas to live with her brother. In 1886, the Connecticut legislature gave her a pension.  Crandall died on January 28, 1890. She was buried in Kansas. Her old school house in Canterbury is now the Prudence Crandall Museum. In 1995, Crandall was named Connecticut's state heroine.

References

American teachers
1803 births
1890 deaths
American abolitionists
American civil rights activists
Politicians from Providence, Rhode Island
Educators from Rhode Island

Prudence Crandall