Droid is a font family first released in 2007 and created by Ascender Corporation for use by the Open Handset Alliance platform Android and licensed under the Apache License. The fonts are intended for use on the small screens of mobile handsets and were designed by Steve Matteson of Ascender Corporation. The name was derived from the Open Handset Alliance platform named Android.

Examples

* Unlike other sans fonts, the capital letter I retains its serifs, which is also present in Noto Sans.

Typefaces
The Droid font family consists of Droid Sans, Droid Sans Mono and Droid Serif:

The Droid Sans typeface features Regular and Bold weights. The regular weight includes support for simplified and traditional Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Georgian, Hebrew, and Thai support for the GB2312, Big 5, JIS X0208 and KSC 5601 character sets respectively which the design style for all the Ideographs are using the Simplified Chinese writing style. There is no italic variant of Droid Sans; italics would be synthesized by Android by generating an oblique form in order to save storage space. However, it is present in the fonts Open Sans and Noto Sans. Known variations include:
Droid Sans Arabic [Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Armenian [Bold and Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Devanagari [Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Georgian [Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Hangul [Regular] available from Google Code
Droid Sans Hebrew [Bold and Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Japanese [Regular] available from Google Fonts API or Github
Droid Sans SEMC [Regular] available from Nokia Website
Droid Sans SEMC CJK [Regular] available from HTC website
Droid Sans Subset [Bold and Regular] embedded font in Google Docs
Droid Sans Tamil [Bold and Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Thai [Regular] available from Google Fonts API

Droid Sans Fallback font could be found on other language rich websites, especially those with Hindi or Khmer language support, are listed below:
Droid Sans Fallback Full [Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Fallback Fan Dal [Regular] available from Google Code China
Droid Sans Fallback HTC [Regular] available from HTC website
Droid Sans Fallback Indic [Regular] font support for Hindi, Devanagari, Kannada, Bengali, Oriya, Malayalam, Telugu, Tamil and Punjabi languages
Droid Sans Fallback Khmer [Regular] font support for the Khmer language
Droid Sans Fallback Legacy [Regular] available from Google Fonts API
Droid Sans Fallback QVGA [Regular] font support for old VGA based systems

Designed by Steve Matteson and Terrance Weinzierl of Monotype Imaging, Droid Sans Mono consists of only the Regular font. The design is similar to Matteson's closed source Andalé Mono typeface design. Taking advantage of the license under which the original typefaces were released, modifications of this Droid Sans Mono have appeared on the internet. Of particular note are those modifications that replace the plain zero glyph with dotted or slashed versions. Such modifications are particularly desired by users making heavy use of monospaced typefaces, including software developers, because they provide a more prominent differentiation between the two characters. They include:
Droid Sans Mono Dotted [with dotted zeros]
Droid Sans Mono Slashed [with slashed zeros]
Droid Sans Mono Py [adapted for the Python programming language, with adjacent underscores separated]

The Droid Serif typeface consists of Regular, Bold, Italic, and Bold Italic styles. Other variations of the Droid Serif font includes:
Droid Serif Subset [Regular] embedded font in Google Docs
Droid Serif Thai [Bold and Regular] available from Google Fonts API

Each typeface has an extensive character set including coverage of Western European, Eastern/Central European, Baltic, Cyrillic, Greek and Turkish languages.

Droid Pro (2009)
On 12 February 2009, Ascender Corporation announced the retail version of the Droid fonts under the Droid Pro family. The fonts were sold in OpenType and TrueType font format. The Droid Pro family consists of Droid Sans Pro (Regular, Bold), Droid Sans Pro Condensed (Regular, Bold), Droid Sans Pro Mono (Regular, Bold), Droid Serif Pro (Regular, Italic, Bold, Bold Italic), Droid Sans Fallback. Initial releases include Droid Sans Pro, Droid Serif Pro. OpenType features include Old Style Figures, as well as dotted and plain variants of the zero glyph for Droid Sans Pro Mono (the default zero is slashed). Droid Sans Pro Mono went on sale on 31 July 2009.

Handset Condensed (2010)
Handset Condensed is a condensed version of Droid Sans Pro designed by Ascender Corp's Steve Matteson and released on 1 March 2013 to be compatible with the Droid family of fonts, but without OpenType features. Similar to Droid Sans Pro, the family includes two fonts in Bold and Regular weights without italics. It supports the WGL character set.

Droid Arabic Kufi and Droid Arabic Naskh
In 2009, Ascender Corporation designed specially customed fonts for Google Fonts API as language support for the Arabic and Persian languages. The fonts that were released are available at the Google Fonts website and are Droid Arabic Naskh [both Bold and Regular weights] and Droid Arabic Kufi [both Bold and Regular weights]. Other variations that were found until recently includes the Droid Persian Naskh, a specific font for the Persian Farsi language distributed by Open Font Library in May 2014.

Special Droid typefaces in Android phones
In some Android smartphones that uses Android 4.2 Jellybean, the following fonts have been found in the phone's "/system/fonts" folder. The fonts include:
 Droid Naskh Shift Alt [a font found only in Android phones supporting the Arabic, Urdu, Uighur and Farsi languages]
 Droid Naskh Shift [a font found only in Android phones supporting the Arabic, Urdu, Uighur and Farsi language calligraphies]
 Droid Naskh System UI [a system font found only in Android phones supporting the Arabic and Farsi languages]
 Droid Naskh UI [a system font found only in Android phones supporting the Arabic and Farsi language calligraphies]

Other variations of the Droid font that aimed to depict the Android 'robot' image logo include [Droid Robot Regular font] and [Droid Robot Japanese Regular font – for Japanese language support]. Aims by specific language font designers to adapt fonts for particular Southern Asian languages include Droid Hindi [support for the Hindi language], Droid Telugu [support for the Telugu language] and Droid India [support for the Indian languages all over India]. These fonts could be found on GitHub or in the XDA Developers forum for Android smartphones.

See also
 Roboto, the default font for newer versions of Android
 Noto, the default fallback font for newer versions of Android
 Open-source Unicode typefaces

References

External links

Ascender Corporation Droid font page
29arabicletters page: Droid Naskh (custom) Droid Naskh (retail)
Google Web Fonts page: Droid Naskh, thai-droidsans

Fonts in the GitHub mirror of the Android repository
The Cosmix.org Slashed and Dotted zero modified versions of Droid Sans Mono

Unified serif and sans-serif typeface families
Monospaced typefaces
Free software Unicode typefaces
Android (operating system)
Typefaces and fonts introduced in 2007
Typefaces designed by Steve Matteson
Humanist sans-serif typefaces
Latin-script typefaces
Greek typefaces
Cyrillic typefaces
CJK typefaces

Droid (typeface)


British Airways (sometimes known as just "BA") is the United Kingdom's largest airline, and is the UK's flag carrier. It was formed in 1974 when the UK's two government owned airlines, the British Oversea Airways Corporation and British European Airways were joined. It is now owned by a company called International Airlines Group, which also owns Iberia Airlines, and is one of the largest companies in the United Kingdom. It operates domestic flights within the UK as well as international flights to Europe and the rest of the world.

British Airways has a large fleet of aircraft, including planes built by Boeing, Airbus and Embraer. They are now operating the Airbus A380, the largest passenger plane ever built.
For a while during the 1990s British Airways' planes had tails each painted in a design to symbolize a country of the world. This was called the World Tails scheme, and it wasn't very popular. However, they now have tails that are based on the Union Jack.

British Airways also flew the Concorde, one of only two aircraft types that could fly faster than the speed of sound. However, this plane was taken out of the fleet in 2003 after the crash of Air France flight 4590, after being used for 27 years.

Heathrow Airport

British Airways has its own terminal at Heathrow Airport in London called Terminal 5 or T5. It was opened on 14 March 2008 by the UK monarch Queen Elizabeth II, and cost £4.3 billion ($6.2 billion) to build. It is between Heathrow's two runways- 27L/09R and 27R/09L. The site is 260 hectares in size, and has its own train station. It also has over 100 shops and restaurants.

The only airlines to use terminal 5 are British Airways and Iberia Airlines. Not all of British Airways' flights go through T5. Some flights, such as those to Thailand, Singapore and Sydney in Australia depart from Terminal 3.

In 2011, 26.3 million passengers and 184,616 flights departed from Terminal 5.

Other Airports
British Airways also has many flights from Gatwick Airport, and London City Airport which are both in London. These two airports, along with Heathrow Airport, are British Airways' main airports.

Aircraft
British Airways has a fleet of 253 planes:

Pictures

BA CityFlier and OpenSkies
British Airways also owns two other smaller airlines called BA CityFlier and OpenSkies, which run different services than the large airline.

BA CityFlier runs flights from London City Airport to other major cities in the UK (such as Edinburgh and Glasgow) and the rest of Europe (such as Nice in France, Dublin in Ireland, Frankfurt in Germany, Madrid in Spain and Zurich in Switzerland). It began flying passengers in March 2007. It is also a much smaller airline than British Airways, and has 14 Embraer E-Jet family planes.

OpenSkies in an even smaller airline with only two aircraft- old Boeing 757s from that used to belong to British Airways. At the moment, the airline only flies to/from Paris in France and New York in the United States of America. The two Boeing 757s have enough room for 110 passengers, and have 20 Business class seats, 24 Premium Economy class seats and 66 Economy class seats.

Oneworld

British Airways is a member of Oneworld. Oneworld is a partnership between 11 airlines: American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia Airlines, Japan Airlines, LAN, Malaysia Airlines, Qantas, Royal Jordanian Airlines, S7 Airlines and British Airways. Smaller airlines that are owned by these 12 member airlines are also part of Oneworld- for example BA CityFlier. There is one exception- OpenSkies however is not part of Oneworld.

Being part of Oneworld means that the airlines sell tickets for their own flights as well as for other members' flights (for example, British Airways sells tickets for American Airlines flights). This is good for the airlines because the customers can get their tickets in one place and it lets the airlines use flights that they wouldn't normally have. Also, Oneworld has a frequent flier program, where all the separate member airlines' airmiles can be used, so they can be used across all the member airlines. The three levels are Oneworld Ruby (lowest), Oneworld Sapphire (middle) and Oneworld Emerald (highest). It is up to the airlines to decide how many air miles a passenger needs to get rewards from their own scheme. A passenger is awarded one air mile for each mile that they fly with the airline for.

Other facts about British Airways

 It was the first airline to introduce flat beds in Business Class, although many airlines now have this feature
 It is shown in the James Bond movie series.
 The airline was awarded 'Airline of the Year 2015'
 It formerly operated more Boeing 747s than any other airline (however with the introduction of the B777 and the A380 that number is predicted to drop). As a result of the global COVID-19 Pandemic and subsequent drop in air travel, British Airways permanently retired its 747 Fleet in 2020.
 In 1989, the airline launched a 90-second advert known as Face which has become a classic. It features groups of people in the shape of parts of the face which forms together by the end of the advert, as well as scenes of people uniting. Other versions of the advert soon followed.

References

Other websites
 British Airways Official Site

1974 establishments in the United Kingdom
Airlines of the United Kingdom

British Airways


The Motion Picture Editors Guild (MPEG; IATSE Local 700) is the guild that represents freelance and staff motion picture and television editors and other post-production professionals and story analysts throughout the United States. The Motion Picture Editors Guild (Union Local 700) is a part of the 500 affiliated local unions of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE), a national labor organization with 104,000-plus members. There are more than 6,000 members of the Editors Guild.

Function
The MPEG negotiates collective bargaining agreements (union contracts) with producers and major motion picture movie studios and enforces existing agreements with employers involved in post-production. The MPEG provides assistance for securing better working conditions, including but salary, medical benefits, safety (particularly "turnaround time") and artistic (assignment of credit) concerns.

History
On April 12, 1937, the US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the National Labor Relations Act.

On May 20, 1937, the Society of Motion Picture Film Editors was founded by I. James Wilkinson (sound editor), Ben Lewis (film editor) and Philip Cahn (film editor), when film editors earned a mere $100 per week.

On June 7 1937, membership totaled 571, men and women, as picture editors, sound editors, assistants, apprentices and librarians.

In 1938, the first contract talks garnered a 10% wage increase.

In 1943, film editors and assistant editors are offered their own local by the IATSE. Many Society members sought to align themselves with this larger national organization, hoping for greater negotiating clout. The editors, assistant editors, and sound and music editors voted to join IATSE.

In 1944, the Society of Motion Picture Film Editors underwent a name change and became the Motion Picture Editors Guild, Local 776 of the IATSE.

In 1998, at the direction of the IATSE, the Sound Technicians Union, Local 695 ceded jurisdiction of post-production sound mixers, recordists and engineers, to the Motion Picture Editors Guild. A year later Local 771 representing editors working in New York merged with, and Locals 780 and 52 ceded their respective jurisdictions of editors and sound technicians to Local 776. The greatly expanded Editors Guild now Local 700, is only the second local granted a national rather than a regional charter. By the year 2000 their ranks had been joined by the Story Analysts local and the Laboratory Film /Video Technicians-Cinetechnicians local in late 2010. Today the Motion Picture Editors Guild, Local 700 has offices in New York and Hollywood and represents more than 7000 post-production media professionals nationwide making it the second largest local in the IATSE.

Publications
CineMontage Magazine is the Journal of the Motion Picture Editors Guild, IATSE Local 700. The Leader, the quarterly bulletin of the Society of Motion Picture Film Editors, was first published January 1, 1943. The Editors Guild Newsletter was launched in 1979, later changed to a magazine, and in 2000, was retitled Editors Guild Magazine.

Archive
The Academy Film Archive houses the Motion Picture Editors Guild Legacy Archive Collection. The collection includes interviews focusing on the life and career history of Motion Picture Editors Guild members.

References

External links
 Motion Picture Editors Guild website
 Post, Proud, the website of the Editors Guild's organizing department

International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees
Entertainment industry unions
Film editing
Trade unions established in 1937

Motion Picture Editors Guild


Wolfgang Drechsler (born June 6, 1963 in Marburg, West Germany) is a Public Administration and Management, Innovation Policy and Political Philosophy scholar. He is Professor of Governance, and one of the founders and directors of the Technology Governance program, at the Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia, where between 2010 and 2016 he also served as Vice Dean for International Relations at its Faculty of Social Sciences. Since 2017, he is also affiliated with Harvard University, as a Davis Center Associate and for six years a member of the center's Advisory Board, and since 2019, with University College London, where he is Honorary Professor at the Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose (IIPP) and Principal Investigator of the John Templeton Foundation "Islamic Public Value" project.

Drechsler holds degrees from Bridgewater College, the University of Virginia, the University of Marburg, and the German Post-Graduate School of Public Administration Speyer. Between 1993 and 2006, he was Professor of Public Administration and Government at the University of Tartu. Before coming to Estonia, and during this time, he taught at Universities of Marburg, Giessen, and Frankfurt am Main, all Germany. He was Visiting Professor of Sociology in Lund, Sweden, in 1997, of Governance at the University of Erfurt, Germany, in 2007, of Public Management at the Collegium Civitas, Warsaw, Poland, in 2011, and at the University of Malaya, Malaysia in 2013, and during the same year, of Public Administration at the Central University of Finance and Economics in Beijing, China, as well as in 2015 at Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, and at Gadjah Mada University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, in 2016 at the National Institute of Development Administration in Bangkok, Thailand, and in 2017 at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore. In 2012-2014, he served as the André Molitor Chair of Political, Administrative and International Reforms (as professeur invité) at the Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium. He has served as Advisor to the President of Estonia, as Executive Secretary with the German Wissenschaftsrat during German reunification, and, as an American Political Science Association Congressional Fellow, a Senior Legislative Analyst in the United States Congress. He was the Vice Chairman of the executive board of Praxis, Estonia's pre-eminent public policy think-tank, and a member of the Innovation Policy Council of the Estonian Ministry of Economics.

In Public Administration, Drechsler emphasizes the non-technocratic, non-managerial, "state sciences" approach that focuses on effectiveness rather than efficiency. He is also especially interested in Non-Western Public Administration (Confucian, Islamic, and Buddhist). In economics and public policy, he is a strong protagonist of the role of the state in economic growth and of innovation and industrial policy. Philosophically, Drechsler is a classical Hermeneutician, as one of the last students of the late Hans-Georg Gadamer.

Drechsler serves or has served as an advisor, especially in the areas of public management reform and innovation policy as well as e-governance, for national governments and international organizations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Council of Europe, SIGMA, World Bank, European Union (Lisbon Strategy), Inter-American Development Bank, and United Nations Development Program; he has worked, in different capacities, on the national development plans of, e.g., Estonia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Peru, Brazil, and Norway.

In 2000, Drechsler co-founded The Other Canon, a center and network for heterodox economics research, with - amongst others - main founder and executive chairman Erik Reinert.

Drechsler received the 1997 Estonian National Science Award, Social Science category, the 2001 Alena Brunovskà Award for Teaching Excellence in Public Administration, the 2002 Outstanding Alumnus Award from Bridgewater College, where he also delivered the annual W. Harold Row Endowed Lecture, in 2004, the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (Maarjamaa Rist), Estonia's Order of Merit, and in 2005, the German one, the Bundesverdienstkreuz. In 2013, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Social Sciences by the Corvinus University Budapest, Hungary, and in 2017, the Senator Peter B. Boorsma Award from SECoPA, the Southeastern regional association of the American Society for Public Administration, for his merits in international public administration theory and practice. The Academy of Management's (AOM) 2023 George R. Terry Award for "the book judged to have made the most outstanding contribution to the global advancement of management knowledge during the last two years" went to his book, with Rainer Kattel and Erkki Karo, How to Make an Entrepreneurial State: Why Innovation needs Bureaucracy (Yale University Press).

Books
The Neo-Weberian State, Max Weber Studies 23:1 (2023, co-ed. with Sam Whimster)
How to Make an Entrepreneurial State: Why Innovation Needs Bureaucracy, with Rainer Kattel and Erkki Karo (Yale University Press 2022)
Gadamer in Marburg (3rd edition 2016)
Islamic Public Administration; First Explorations in the Second World (and Beyond), Administrative Culture (2014, co-ed.)
Techno-Economic Paradigms: Essays in Honour of Carlota Perez (2009, co-ed.)
A Distinctive European Model? The Neo-Weberian State, The NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration and Policy (2009, co-ed.)
 Friedrich Nietzsche 1844-1900: Economy and Society (2006, co-ed. with Jürgen Backhaus), contributions by among others Sophus Reinert, M.A.G. van Meerhaeghe
 Kaiserliche Universität Dorpat 200 - Academia Gustaviana 370 - Das Jubiläum der Universität Tartu (2004, co-ed.)
Enhancing the Capacities to Govern: Challenges Facing the CEE Countries (2004, co-ed.)
Good and Bad Government (2001; on Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Siena frescoes)
Die selbstverwaltete Gemeinde (1999, ed.)
Paradiama (Otto Kaiser 75), Trames (1999, ed.)
On the Eminence of the Social Sciences at the University of Dorpat (1998, also in Estonian)
Foundations of Public Administration (1997, ed., in Estonian)
Johann Ulrich v. Cramer's Opuscula (5 vols., 1996, ed.)
Estonia in Transition, World Affairs (1995, ed.)
Reforming Higher Education and Research in Eastern Germany, World Affairs (1992, ed.)
Andrew D. White in Germany (1989)

References

External links

Homepage
Publications for download
Official Estonian scholarship entry
Google Scholar entry

1963 births
Living people
University of Virginia alumni
University of Marburg alumni
Recipients of the Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 5th Class
Hermeneutists
Bridgewater College alumni
Academic staff of the Tallinn University of Technology

Wolfgang Drechsler


Mursili II (also spelled Mursilis II) was a king of the Hittite Empire (New kingdom) –1295 BC (middle chronology) or 1321–1295 BC (short chronology).

King of the Hittites

Mursili was the third born son of King Suppiluliuma I, one of the most powerful men to rule over the Hittite Empire,  and Queen Henti. He was the younger brother of Arnuwanda II, he also had a sister and one more brother.

Mursili assumed the Hittite throne after the premature death of Arnuwanda II who, like their father, fell victim to the plague which ravaged the Hittites in the 1330s BC. He was greeted with contempt by Hatti's enemies and faced numerous rebellions early in his reign, the most serious of which were those initiated by the Kaskas in the mountains of Anatolia, but also by the Arzawa kingdom in southwest Asia Minor and the Hayasa-Azzi confederation in the Armenian Highlands. This was because he was perceived to be an inexperienced ruler who only became king due to the early death of Arnuwanda. Mursili records the scorn of his foes in his Annals:

While Mursili was a young and inexperienced king, he was almost certainly not a child when he took the Hittite throne and must have reached an age to be capable of ruling in his own right. Had he been a child, other arrangements would have been made to secure the stability of the Empire; Mursili after all had two surviving elder brothers who served as the viceroys of Carchemish (i.e.: Sarri-Kush) and Aleppo respectively.

Mursili II would prove to be more than a match for his successful father, in his military deeds and diplomacy. The Annals for the first ten years of his reign have survived and record that he carried out punitive campaigns against the Kaska tribes in the first two years of his reign in order to secure his kingdom's northern borders. The king then turned to the West to resist the aggression of Uhhaziti, king of Arzawa, who was attempting to lure away Hittite allies into his camp. During his ninth year his cupbearer Nuvanza decisively defeated Hayasan forces at the Battle of Ganuvara, after which the Hayasa-Azzi would be reduced to Hittite vassals. The Annals also reveal that an "omen of the sun," or solar eclipse, occurred in his tenth year as king, just as he was about to launch his campaign against the Hayasa-Azzi.

While Mursili II's highest confirmed date was his twenty-second year, he is believed to have lived beyond this date for a few more years and died after a reign of around 25 to 27 years. He was succeeded by his son Muwatalli II.

The eclipse

Mursili's Year 10 solar eclipse is of great importance for the dating of the Hittite Empire within the chronology of the Ancient Near East. There are only two possible dates for the eclipse: 24 June 1312 BC or 13 April 1308 BC. The earlier date is accepted by Hittitologists such as Trevor R. Bryce (1998), while Paul Åström (1993) has suggested the later date. However, most scholars accept the 1312 BC event because this eclipse's effects would have been particularly dramatic with a near total eclipse over the Peloponnese region and Anatolia (where Mursili II was campaigning) around noon. In contrast, the 1308 BC astronomical event began in Arabia and then travelled eastwards in a northeasterly direction; it only reached its maximum impact over Mongolia and Central Asia. It occurred over Anatolia around 8:20 in the morning making it less noticeable.

Family
Mursili is known to have had several children with his first wife Gassulawiya including three sons named Muwatalli, Hattusili III and Halpasulupi. A daughter named Massanauzzi (referred to as Matanaza in correspondence with the Egyptian king Ramesses II) was married to Masturi, a ruler of a vassal state. Mursili had further sons with a second wife named Tanuhepa. The names of the sons of this second wife have not been recorded however.

Through his son Muwatalli he had a grandson who also ruled the kingdom, Mursili III, Queen Maathorneferure and Tudhaliya IV were also grandchildren of Mursili II.

See also

 History of the Hittites

In fiction
 Janet Morris wrote a detailed biographical novel, I, the Sun, whose subject was Suppiluliuma I. Mursili II is an important figure in this novel, in which all characters are from the historical record, which Dr. Jerry Pournelle called "a masterpiece of historical fiction" and about which O.M. Gurney, Hittite scholar and author of The Hittites, commented that "the author is familiar with every aspect of Hittite culture". Morris' book was republished by The Perseid Press in April 2013.
 Chie Shinohara wrote the manga series Red River (also known as Anatolia Story), about a fifteen-year-old Japanese girl named Yuri Suzuki, who is magically transported to Hattusa, the capital of the Hittite Empire in Anatolia. She was summoned by Queen Nakia who means to use Yuri as a human sacrifice. Yuri's blood is the key element needed in placing a curse upon the princes of the land so that they will perish, leaving Nakia's son Juda as the sole heir to the throne. As the story progresses, however, Yuri not only repeatedly manages to escape Nakia's scheming, she also becomes revered as an incarnation of the goddess Ishtar and falls in love with prince Kail. Mursili II is portrayed as Prince Kail Mursili. In the end, Yuri decides to stay in the past, and after Juda renounces his claim out of disgust towards his mother, Kail and Yuri ascend as the rulers of Hattusa.
 Mursili II is a major figure in all three books of the Amarna Trilogy by Grea Alexander. In the series, Mursili becomes obsessed with appeasing the gods and regaining their favor after his father's betrayal of the Telepenus's Proclamation and the disasters that befall the Hittites following the so-called Zannanza affair.
 Mursili II is an important presence in Gordon Doherty's novel, Empires of Bronze: Son of Ishtar (2019), whose protagonist is Mursili's third son, Hattusilis III.

References

Sources

External links

1290s BC deaths
Hittite kings
14th-century BC monarchs
Year of birth unknown

Muršili II


A penal colony is a settlement used to hold prisoners and use them for working in part of the state's (usually colonial) territories. This is much bigger than a prison farm. A famous penal colony was Devil's Island in French Guiana. The British Empire used its colonies in North America as penal colonies for more than 150 years. The first British settlements in Australia were started as penal colonies.

Common Features

Life in penal colony was often very hard, sometimes including severe physical punishment. Some prisoners were sentenced for the rest of their natural lives. Many died from hunger, disease, neglect, working too hard, or trying to escape.

In the penal colony system, prisoners were sent far away to stop escapes and to make it hard to get home after their prison term finished.  Penal colonies were often in unsettled lands, especially places where no else wanted to work or live. The prisoners' unpaid work would help the government develop new areas without spending a lot of money.

British Empire
The British used parts of North America as a penal colony. Convicts would be transported by private companies and sold by auction to plantation owners. About 50,000 British convicts were sent to colonial America. This was about one quarter of British settlers during the 1700s.

After the American Revolution, Britain had to find somewhere else to send its prisoners. They established Sydney, Norfolk Island, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia as big penal colonies.

In colonial India, the British had made various penal colonies.  Two of the most infamous ones are on the Andaman islands and Hijli Detention Camp.  In the early days of settlement, Singapore was sent Indian convicts. Their job was to clear the jungles for settlement and early public works.

Related pages
 Convict
 Prison

References

Punishments

Penal colony


Mahabharata
Babruvahana (also known as Babhruvahana or Babhnu Vahana) is a character in Veda Vyasa's epic, the Mahabharata. He is one of the sons of Arjuna, a Pandava. Chitrangada, the princess of Manipur was his mother. She bore him during the period of his (Arjuna's) exile at Manipura (refer Arjuna Vanavasa Parva of Mahabharata). Arjuna leaves Chitrangada bercause  Arjuna's wife Uloopi from the Naga Clan betrays him.  Uloopi was envious of Arjuna's marriage to Chitrangada. Babruvahana was adopted as the son of his maternal grandfather and reigned at Manipur as his successor. He dwelt there in a palace of great splendour, surrounded with wealth and signs of power. Later he came to know Arjuna was his father, and when he came to see his father, Arjuna did not recognise him and said he was a wanderer. He had a wife,Kimveka,from whom he had a son named Aarusha and a daughter named Aarushi.

Babruvahana


Matthias Flacius Illyricus (Latin; ) or Francovich () (3 March 1520 – 11 March 1575) was a Lutheran reformer from Istria, present-day Croatia. He was notable as a theologian, sometimes dissenting strongly with his fellow Lutherans, and as a scholar for his editorial work on the Magdeburg Centuries.

Biography

Early life and education
Flacius was born in Labin (Albona) in Istria, son of Andrea Vlacich (Andrija Vlačić) alias Francovich and Jacobea (Jakovica) Luciani, daughter of a wealthy and powerful Albonian civic family. Her family was related by marriage to the local Lupetino (Lupetina) family: Jacobea's brother, Luciano Luciani, married Ivanka Lupetina, the sister of the friar Baldo Lupetino (Lupetina), likewise born in Labin, who later was condemned to death in Venice for his Lutheran sympathies.

Andrea Vlacich was a small landowner, who died during his son's early childhood. Flacius went also by the name Franković. He matriculated at the University of Basel in 1539 under the name Mattheus de Francistis [Franković] de Albona. Further, he himself signed a payment slip at the University of Wittenberg as Mathias Francovich Illyricus. The origin of the double surname is not clear, but it might have been a double last name resulting from marriage, his or some of his ancestors'. Likewise, the 'Illyricus' is of uncertain origin, likely in reference to his place of origin, the historical province of Illyricum.

At the age of sixteen, Flacius went to study in Venice, where he was taught by the humanist Giambattista Cipelli (Baptista Aegnatius / Battista Egnazio). At the age of seventeen, he intended to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His intention, however, was diverted by his uncle-in-law, Baldo Lupetina, provincial of the Franciscans and sympathetic to the Reformation cause, who convinced him to start a university career.

Flacius continued his studies in Basel in 1539, then went to Tübingen and finally ended up in Wittenberg, where in (1541) he was welcomed by Philip Melanchthon. In Tübingen, Flacius was received into the house of Matthias Garbitius (Matija Grbac) a humanist and a professor of Greek at the University of Tübingen, who, like Flacius, was from Istria, and was called "fellow countryman" (conterraneous) by Flacius. There he came under the influence of Martin Luther. In 1544, Flacius was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He finished his master's degree on 24 February 1546, ranking first among the graduates.

Career and teachings
Soon, Flacius was prominent in the theological discussions of the time, strenuously opposing the Augsburg Interim, and the compromise of Melanchthon known as the Leipzig Interim. Melanchthon wrote of him with venom as a renegade (aluimus in sinu serpentem, "we have nourished a snake in our bosom"). In 1549, Flacius moved to Magdeburg. On 7 May 1557, he was appointed professor of New Testament at the theological faculty in Jena but was soon involved in controversy with his colleague Victorinus Strigel on the synergistic question (relating to the function of the will in the conversion). He remained at the university between 1557 and 1562.

Affirming the natural inability of man, he adopted a position on sin as not being an accident of human nature, but involved in its substance, since The Fall of Man. Holding to a strong view of what Calvinists later called total depravity, Flacius insisted that human nature was entirely transformed by original sin, human beings were transformed from goodness and almost wholly corrupted with evil, making them kin to the Devil in his view, so that within them, without divine assistance, there lies no power even to cooperate with the Gospel when they hear it preached.  Human acts of piety are valueless in themselves, and humans are entirely dependent on the grace of God for salvation. Those who agreed with him on this point, for example, Cyriacus Spangenberg, were termed Flacians.

Resisting ecclesiastical censure, he left Jena in December 1561 to found an academy at Regensburg. That assignment was not successful, so in October 1566 he accepted a call from the Lutheran community at Antwerp. Thence he was driven in early 1567 by the exigencies of war, and went to Frankfurt, where the authorities stood against him. He proceeded to Strasbourg where he was well received by the superintendent Johannes Marbach. Here again, his religious views caused controversies. The authorities ordered him to leave the city by May Day 1573. The prioress Catharina von Meerfeld of the  secretly harboured him and his family in Frankfurt where he fell ill and died on 11 March 1575.

Impact and aftermath
Flacius' life was eventful in a turbulent epoch. He represents in some sense a move in the direction of the scientific study of church history in the modern sense and similarly of hermeneutics, though no doubt his impelling motive was not dispassionate but polemical, namely to prove the false premises of Roman Catholicism. His characteristic formula, historia est fundamentum doctrinae, is better understood now than in his own day.

According to Emil Petru Rațiu, the Moldovan president of the Andrei Glavina Cultural Association of the Istro-Romanians, Flacius could have been an ethnic Istro-Romanian. He based these claims on the fact that there used to be a notorious Istro-Romanian presence in Labin during the times in which Flacius lived, in the surname of his father ("Vlacich", which could originate from "Vlach" and have been Latinized as "Flacius") and other arguments.

Family life
In 1545, while at Wittenberg, Flacius married a pastor's daughter. He had twelve children with his first wife before she died in 1564. He remarried the same year in Regensburg and had six more children with his second wife. His son  was professor of logic and medicine at Rostock.

Works

 De vocabulo fidei (1549)
 De voce et re fidei (1555)
 Antilogia Papae: hoc est, de corrupto Ecclesiae statu et totius cleri papistici perversitate, Scripta aliquot veterum authorum, ante annos plus minus CCC, et interea: nunc primum in lucem eruta, et ab interitu vindicata (1555)
 Catalogus testium veritatis, qui ante nostram aetatem reclamarunt Papae (1556)
 Confessio Waldensium (1568)
 Konfutationsbuch (1559)
 Ecclesiastica historia, integram Ecclesiae Christi ideam ... secundum singulas Centurias, perspicuo ordine complectens ... ex vetustissimis historicis ...congesta: Per aliquot studiosos et pios viros in urbe Magdeburgica (1559–1574)
 Clavis Scripturae Sacrae seu de Sermone Sacrarum literarum (1567)
 Glossa compendiaria in Novum Testamentum (1570)

Notes

References

 Luka Ilić,  Theologian of Sin and Grace. The Process of Radicalization in the Theology of Matthias Flacius Illyricus (2014)
 Oliver K. Olson, Matthias Flacius and the Survival of Luther's Reform (2000)
 Matthias Flacius Illyricus, Leben & Werk: Internationales Symposium, Mannheim, February 1991
 J. B. Ritter, Flacius's Leben u. Tod (1725)
 M. Twesten, M. Flacius Illyricus (1844)
 W. Preger, M. Flacius Illyricus u. seine Zeit (1859—1861)
 "Flacius, Matthias," in P. Schaff and J.J. Herzog, eds. New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, vol. 4 (1952), pp. 321–323.

External links

Life and work of Matthias Flacius
 Biography of Istrian-born Matthias Flacius (in Croatian, German, English and Italian
 Flacius, Matthias (New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge)
 Matthias Flacius in the Lutheran Cyclopedia (1899)
 Matthias Flacius in the Christian Cyclopedia (2000)
 supplemento.htm at riforma.net
 Website dedicated to Matthias Flacius Illyricus (in Croatian, German, English and Italian)

1520 births
1575 deaths
16th-century apocalypticists
16th-century Croatian people
16th-century German Protestant theologians
16th-century German male writers
Croatian Lutheran clergy
Croatian theologians
German Lutheran theologians
German male non-fiction writers
People from Labin

Matthias Flacius


Charming Hostess is a band that grew out of the avant-rock scene of Oakland, California, in the mid-1990s.

Current work
The music of Charming Hostess primarily springs from three women with an emphasis in the body—voices and vocal percussion, handclaps and heartbeats, sex-breath and silence. The work grows from diaspora consciousness: both Jewish and African. Stylistically, Charming Hostess incorporates doo-wop, Pygmy counterpoint, Balkan harmony and Andalusian melody. Contemporary influences on the band include Meredith Monk and Reinette l'Oranaise. The music often explores existing text and overlays the composer's (Jewlia Eisenberg) own questions of authenticity, montage, and the effect of music on non-verbal languages.

The Bowls Project Album (Release Summer 2010):
Based on inscriptions from ancient Babylonian Jewish amulets, The Bowls Project, as Charming Hostess. (Tzadik Records, Radical Jewish Culture, 2010) sings of mysticism and magic, angels and demons, and the trials and joys of love and sex. Especially audible are the voices of Talmudic-era women: their work, hopes and dreams. Weaving together Babylonian devotional songs, apocalyptic American folk music and a radical take on ritual power. Honored guests on 2010 The Bowls Project album include:
Marc Ribot, Jenny Scheinman, Megan Gould, Jessica Troy, Nils Frykdahl, Dawn McCarthy, Ganda Suthivarakom, Boris Martzinovsky, Aaron Kierbel, and Nir Waxman.

The Bowls Project Installation & Sound Sculpture:
As a performance installation and interactive sound sculpture that takes place in a 40' Catalan vault designed by architect Michael Ramage. Featuring new music composed and performed by Jewlia Eisenberg and Charming Hostess, The Bowls Project is based on texts from ancient Babylonian amulets. The culmination of five years of research, The Bowls Project was exhibited at Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in 2010.

The Bowls Project Background:
Bowl amulets also known as Incantation bowls were common 1500 years ago in the area that is now Iraq. Simple bowls were inscribed with a householder's secrets and desires and then buried under the doorway to protect the home. The bowl texts are about "secrets of the home": love and intimacy, angels and demons, and the trials and joys of daily life. Audible in these texts are the individual voices of women from this period - their work, hopes, and dreams. These spiraled inscriptions are among the few existing records of female voices during the time and place of the Babylonian Talmud.

The 2002 CD Trilectic (Tzadik Records) explored the political/erotic nexus of Walter Benjamin and his Marxist muse, Asja Lācis. The 2004 CD Sarajevo Blues (Tzadik) sets Bosnian poetry by Semezdin Mehmedinović as a form of love and resistance to the brutalization of war.

Their self-described genre is "Nerdy-Sexy-Commie-Girly". Charming Hostess is Jewlia Eisenberg, Marika Hughes, Cynthia Taylor and often Ganda Suthivarakom and Pameliya Kursten (all vocals).

Early work
The pre-2002 Charming Hostess (also known as Charming Hostess Big Band) was a rock band that embraced a  genderfuck sensibility (the women often wore mustaches while the men wore dresses). Early Charming Hostess music drew on women's vocal traditions (primarily from Eastern Europe and North Africa) and integrated them with American folk forms both white and black. Charming Hostess was founded in the fertile anarchy of Barrington Co-op (aka Barrington Hall), and nurtured by the West Oakland arts community, along with other coeval bands such as Fibulator and Eskimo. Half of Charming Hostess was also in Idiot Flesh/Sleepytime Gorilla Museum. The final effect was of a hoedown where bodacious babes belted the blues in Bulgarian while a punk-klezmer band rocked out in accompaniment.

The genre of this incarnation of ChoHo is described by the band as "Klezmer-Punk/Balkan-Funk". Recordings of Charming Hostess Big Band include Eat (Vaccination, 1998) and Punch (ReR, 2005). Charming Hostess Big Band was: Jewlia Eisenberg (voice, direction), Carla Kihlstedt (voice, fiddle), Nina Rolle (voice, accordion), Wes Anderson (drums), Nils Frykdahl (guitar, flute, saxophone, percussion), and Dan Rathbun (bass).

References

 Hooper, Joseph. "Monk, Eisenberg and Banhart: Oh Me, Oh My, They're So Unusual", The New York Observer, December 2, 2002.
 Cowley, Julian. "Soundcheck: Jewlia Eisenberg Trilectic", The Wire. March 2002.
 Weisberg, Rob. "Transpacific Sound Paradise",-2:19:30, WFMU, New York, NY, June 5, 2010.

External links
Charming Hostess official website

BBC interview with Charming Hostess Founder/Composer Jewlia Eisenberg
2010 Transpacific Sound Paradise Interview with Charming Hostess Founder/Composer Jewlia Eisenberg, WFMU, NY, NY.

Dark cabaret musicians
Gypsy punk
Musical groups established in 1999
Tzadik Records artists
American experimental musical groups
1999 establishments in California

Charming Hostess


La clemenza di Tito is an opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The text of the opera was written by Caterino Mazzolà. It is based on an earlier libretto by Pietro Metastasio.

The story of the opera

Act 1
Vitellia, is the daughter of Vitellius who has lost his position of emperor.  Vitellius wants revenge against Titus.  Vitellia asks Titus's friend Sextus, who is in love with her, to act against him. But when she hears that Titus has sent Berenice of Cilicia, of whom she was jealous, back to Jerusalem, Vitellia tells Sextus to wait a while before doing what she had asked, hoping Titus will choose her (Vitellia) as his empress.

Titus, however, decides to choose Sextus's sister Servilia to be his empress, and tells Annius (Sextus's friend) to take the message to Servilia.  Annius and Servilia are in love, although Titus does not know this, so neither of them like this news.  Servilia decides to tell Titus the truth but also says that if Titus still insists on marrying her, she will obey. Titus thanks the gods for Servilia's truthfulness and immediately promises to give up the idea of coming between her and Annius.

In the meantime, however, Vitellia has heard the news about Titus's interest in Servilia and is again very jealous.  She urges Sextus to kill Titus. He agrees, singing one of the opera's most famous arias, "Parto, parto." Almost as soon as he leaves, Annius and the guard Publius arrive to take Vitellia to Titus, who has now chosen her as his empress. She is torn with feelings of guilt and worry over what she has sent Sextus to do.

Sextus, meanwhile, is at the Capitol, which he and his friends are going to burn down.  Sextus cannot think what is the right thing to do.  The other characters (except Titus) enter and are horrified to see  the burning Capitol. Sextus comes in again and says that he saw Titus being killed, but Vitellia stops him giving away the fact that he was the killer.  The others lament Titus in a slow, sad end to Act I.

Act 2
Begins with Annius telling Sextus that Emperor Titus is in fact alive and has just been seen.  In the smoke and chaos, Sextus thought he has seen Titus, but it was someone else. Soon Publius arrives to arrest Sextus, bringing the news that it was one of Sextus' friends who dressed himself in Titus's robes and was stabbed by Sextus, but he did not die.  The Senate take a court case against Sextus as Titus waits impatiently, sure that his friend will be found not guilty; but the Senate finds him guilty, and a terribly sad Titus must sign Sextus' death papers.

He decides to send for Sextus first, trying to get further details about the plot. Sextus takes all the guilt on himself and says he deserves death, so Titus tells him he shall have death,  and sends him away. But after a lot of painful thinking, Titus tears up the execution papers for Sextus and decides that, if the world wants to accuse him (Titus) of anything, then people can say that he allowed too much mercy, insteady of saying that he always wanted revenge.

Vitellia feels terrible about what has happened and decides to tell all the truth to Titus, giving up her hopes of empire.  In the amphitheater, the condemned (including Sextus) are waiting to be thrown to the wild animals. Titus is about to show mercy when Vitellia explains that she started Sextus's plot. Though shocked, the emperor includes her in the general clemency (forgiveness) he offers. The opera finishes with all the people praising the kindness of Titus, while he himself asks the gods to end his life if he ever stops caring for the good of Rome.

History
In July 1791 Mozart was asked to write an opera seria.  He had been asked by Domenico Guardasoni who lived in Prague and who had the job of finding someone to compose an opera for the celebrations of the coronation of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor as King of Bohemia.  The ceremony would take place on September 6, so Mozart had to work quickly.

Guardasoni had asked Antonio Salieri to write the opera, but Salieri was too busy, so he then asked Mozart.  Mozart was glad to accept, because he was paid twice as much as when he wrote an opera for Vienna.

Other websites
Manuscript of La Clemenza di Tito on Google Books – URL accessed 17 March, 2009

Sources

Operas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
1790s operas

La clemenza di Tito


Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics. It deals with the behavior of systems. The desired output of a system is called the reference. In that context, a system can be influenced by certain input values. Depending on the input values, the system may change its state or its behavior. Common questions control theory asks:

 Is a system in a stable state?
 How sensitive is the system to changed of input parameters?
 Are all variables within a given range?
 Is it possible to reach a predefined target state?
 If the target state can be reached, what must the input variables be set to, so that the target state is reached?

One of the first modern people to talk about control theory was James Clerk Maxwell. In his work On Governors, of 1868, he looked at the dynamic properties of centrifugal governors, as they were used by steam engines. Such governors were already used to regulate the speed of windmills.

Mathematical model
A system is a model used to describe the behaviour of something in the real world that takes inputs and produces outputs. For example, a car is a system in that the driver chooses how hard to press on the gas pedal (the input) and the car drives along the road at a certain speed (the output). In the case of a car, the input to the gas pedal does not fully determine the speed of the car. The weight in the car, the incline of the road, the traction of the tires, the current speed of the car, and other factors can all change the output received for a particular input. Control theory attempts to determine what inputs will result in a desired output, or reference. This is accomplished using differential equations, linear algebra, and other branches of math. Control theory relies heavily on computational models and software.

Control system
In a control system a controller manipulates the inputs to a system. In the control systems one or more output variables of a system need to follow a certain reference over time. By manipulating the input, the controller wants to obtain the desired effect on the output of the system. If we were to take a system without a controller it would simply have an input and an output. As there is no way to track the output relative to the input then the system is practically useless. If we add a controller, by feeding the output through the controller back to the input the output can be manipulated to meet the desired criteria. For example, if a kettle did not have a controller and it were switched on it would continue to boil the water indefinitely. By adding a controller, the boiling water (reference) is fed back to the input through the controller. The controller then tells the input to turn off the power as the water is already boiling. The system without the controller is called the open-loop system. When you add a controller in a feedback loop you create a closed-loop system. Open-loop systems are rarely ever considered stable as they cannot be controlled based on their output. Closed-loop systems incorporate a controller or series of controllers which, depending on the current output, configure the input such that the output will have the desired response.

References

Systems
Systems theory

Control theory


Chagas disease is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The disease is also known as American trypanosomiasis.  It is common in Central and South America.

Carlos Chagas first described it in 1909. Humans are usually infected because they are bitten by a blood-sucking bug of the subfamily Triatominae. The disease can also be spread by blood transfusion, organ transplantation, or by eating food contaminated with the parasite. Pregnant women may spread it to the fetus.

The disease has four stages. It can be cured by anti-parasitic drugs. Between eight and eleven million people may suffer from the disease, but many do not know they are infected. Strategies of controlling the disease are mostly focused on eliminating the insect vector, and on preventing contamination from other sources.

Footnotes

Diseases caused by parasites

Chagas disease


Knud Baade (28 March 1808  -  24 November 1879)  was a Norwegian  painter, mostly of portraits and landscapes. He was particularly known for his moonlight paintings which are characterized by strong and dramatic contrasts between light and shadow.

Biography
Knud Andreassen Baade was born in Skjold, a former municipality now in Vindafjord  in Rogaland county, Norway. He was the son of Andreas Baade (1775–1852) and Johanne Margarethe Magnus (1788–1851).
While still a boy he moved to Bergen with his family.

He began his artistic education at the age of fifteen, under the  Danish-Swedish painter, Carl Peter Lehmann (1794-1876).  In 1827 he went to Copenhagen, where he studied at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts for about three years, until financial difficulties forced him to move to Christiania (now Oslo) and take up portrait-painting. When, however, his father became a magistrate in Sogn, he followed his family to  the parish of Solvorn  in Luster. The mountains, fiords and rocky bays offered ample subjects for his work. He also traveled northward to Trondheim and as far north as Bodø in search of material for his pictures.

In 1836 he was persuaded by the well-known landscape painter, J.C. Dahl  to go to Dresden, where he studied for three years. There that he  met Caspar David Friedrich and was strongly influenced by  him. He returned to Norway in 1839 due of a disease in his eyes. In 1846 he moved to Munich, where he soon earned  a reputation as a landscape painter,  producing views of his native country and the scenes around its coasts, mostly depicted with moonlight effects. Though but an invalid, he worked at Munich continually until his death there in 1879.

Baade was painter to the Court of Sweden, and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts. He painted some fine portraits, especially in younger years, including portraits of his parents (1836). In addition to several trips to Sogn and Hardanger, Baade traveled widely in Germany. He also painted landscape scenes from Bavaria, Saxony, Tyrol and Switzerland. He is represented in the National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design with 52 paintings.

Gallery

Selected works
Oslo. National Gallery. Wood at North Kyst
London. Victoria and Albert Museum.The Wreck
Munich. Pinakothek. Scene from Norse Mythology
Stockholm. Nationalmuseum. Ship by Moonlight

References

Bibliography
Knut Ljøgodt (2012)  Moonlight Romantic: Knud Baade (1808-1879)  (Oslo: Orkana Forlag)

Other Sources

1808 births
1879 deaths
People from Vindafjord
19th-century Norwegian painters
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Norwegian male painters
Norwegian expatriates in Germany
19th-century Norwegian male artists

Knud Baade


A low Earth orbit (LEO) is usually described as an orbit inside the area which comes from the Earth's surface up to an altitude of . Other definitions use other numbers such as orbital eccentricity and orbital period. Satellites in LEO go around the Earth many times per day.

Satellites are put in low Earth orbit if the things they do must be done in outer space but need not be far away. Some satellites are in LEO to photograph the Earth, for example some weather satellites and Earth resource satellites. Most space telescopes are in LEO since they only have to be above the Earth's atmosphere. The International Space Station is in LEO.

Spaceflight

Low Earth orbit


Estée Lauder, (July 1, 1908 - April 24, 2004), was an American businesswoman. She was the co-founder of the cosmetics company named after her, Estée Lauder. In 1998, she was be the only woman on TIME magazine's list of the 20 most influential business geniuses of the 20th century. Lauder died on April 24, 2004 at age 95.

Businesspeople from New York City
1908 births
2004 deaths

Estée Lauder


The Essex Institute (1848–1992) in Salem, Massachusetts, was "a literary, historical and scientific society." It maintained a museum, library, historic houses; arranged educational programs; and issued numerous scholarly publications. In 1992 the institute merged with the Peabody Museum of Salem to form the Peabody Essex Museum.

On December 8, 2017, much to the dismay of Salem residents, Dan L. Monroe, PEM's Rose-Marie and Eijk van Otterloo Director and CEO, issued a press release announcing that the 42,000 linear feet of historical documents will be permanently relocated to Rowley, MA and Plummer Hall and Daland House, the two historic buildings which had housed the Phillips Library, will be utilized as office and meeting space.

History
The Essex Institute was "formed by the union of the Essex Historical Society and the Essex County Natural History Society." Daniel Appleton White, the former Judge of Probate for Essex County, was appointed in 1848 as the first president of the institute until his death in 1861. Around 1879 the institute housed its "scientific collections" in Salem's East India Marine Hall and its library in Plummer Hall. According to an 1880 travel guide, "its objects are general and varied. Perhaps the most important is that of local historical discoveries and the preservation of everything relating to Essex County history."

In addition to operating a library and museum, the institute arranged educational programs. In the 1880s, for example: "1. Every winter season lectures are given to an almost unlimited extent. Besides a regular course on general subjects, several courses are given on special subjects — Literature, History, Languages, Travel, the Sciences — and various papers are read before the regular meetings. 2. A regular course of musical entertainments is given every season, besides which there are several miscellaneous concerts. 3. Art exhibitions are given once or twice each year, at which are exhibited paintings, statuary, decorations, fancy work and the like by Essex county people. Also, exhibitions of horticulture and agriculture. 4. During the summer season a half dozen "field meetings" are held in different parts of the county. At these meetings addresses are made on the local history of the place visited, and on its flora and geology. In addition, it is customary to have one or more distinguished scientists or historians to speak on a specially assigned topic."

By the 1930s the institute owned "two fine Samuel McIntire houses in Salem - the Peirce-Nichols House, built in 1782, and the Gardner-Pingree House, built in 1804, both ... open to the public."

Images

See also
 Peabody Essex Museum, successor to the Essex Institute (1992)

References

Further reading

Issued by the institute
 Proceedings of the Essex Institute. 1848-1868
 Act of incorporation, constitution and by-laws of the Essex Institute, incorporated February, 1848: With a catalogue of the officers and members. W. Ives and G.W. Pease, Printers, 1855
 Essex Institute Historical Collections. 1859-1993
 Bulletin of the Essex Institute. 1869-1898
 "Essex Institute," in: Charles Stuart Osgood, Henry Morrill Batchelder. Historical sketch of Salem, 1626-1879. Salem: Essex Institute, 1879
 Annual report of the Essex Institute. 1899-1960

About the institute
 essex institute, in: griffin. "bibliography of historical societies of the united states and british america." Annual report of the American Historical Association, 1892. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1893

 Howard Corning. The Essex Institute of Salem. Bulletin of the Business Historical Society, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1933), pp. 1–5
 Norman R. Bennett, George E. Brooks, Alan R. Booth. Materials for African History in the Peabody Museum and Essex Institute. African Studies Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Oct., 1962), pp. 13–22
 Robert P. Spindler, Gregor Trinkaus-Randall, Prudence Backman. Format for Cooperation: Cooperative Collection Registers at the Peabody Museum of Salem and the Essex Institute. American Archivist, Vol. 51, No. 1/2 (Winter - Spring, 1988), pp. 115–119

External links

 Digital Public Library of America. Items related to Essex Institute, various dates

1848 establishments in Massachusetts
Libraries in Essex County, Massachusetts
Museums in Salem, Massachusetts
Historical societies in Massachusetts
History of Salem, Massachusetts

Essex Institute


Katy Jurado (16 January 1924 – 5 July 2002) was a Mexican actress. She had a successful career in both Mexico and Hollywood. She made seventy-one movies. She was the first Latin American actress nominated for an Academy Award (for a 1954 movie, Broken Lance). She also received a Golden Globe Award.

Jurado was often typecast to play ethnic roles when acting in American movies. She received more varieties of roles in Mexican movies. She was one of several Mexican actresses to succeed in Hollywood. Notable movies included Broken Lance, High Noon and The Badlanders.

Jurado died at 78 from kidney failure and lung problems.

Mexican television actors
Mexican movie actors
1924 births
2002 deaths
Golden Globe Award winning actors

Katy Jurado


Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a US Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. As of January 1, 2007, Fermilab is operated by the Fermi Research Alliance, a joint venture of the University of Chicago, Illinois Institute of Technology and the Universities Research Association (URA). Fermilab is a part of the Illinois Technology and Research Corridor.

Fermilab's Tevatron was a landmark  particle accelerator; at  in circumference, it was the world's second largest energy particle accelerator (CERN's Large Hadron Collider is 27 km in circumference), until being shut down on September 30, 2011. In 1995, two teams at Fermilab (CDF and DØ, detectors which utilize the Tevatron) announced the discovery of the top quark.

In addition to high energy collider physics, Fermilab is also host to a number of smaller fixed-target and neutrino experiments, such as MiniBooNE (Mini Booster Neutrino Experiment), SciBooNE (SciBar Booster Neutrino Experiment) and MINOS (Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search). The MiniBooNE detector is a  diameter sphere which contains 800 tons of mineral oil lined with 1520 individual phototube detectors. An estimated 1 million neutrino events are recorded each year.  SciBooNE is the newest neutrino experiment at Fermilab; it sits in the same neutrino beam as MiniBooNE but has fine-grained tracking capabilities. The MINOS experiment uses Fermilab's NuMI (Neutrinos at the Main Injector) beam, which is an intense beam of neutrinos that travels  through the Earth to the Soudan Mine in Minnesota.

A large piece of land was reserved for Fermilab, but much of the equipment is underground.  The Fermilab scientists decided to use the land surface as an experiment in restoring Illinois original prairie.  They also started a farm to raise al herd of American bison. The Fermilab Nature Areas is a separate non-profit group that administers these programs.

Asteroid 11998 Fermilab is named in honor of the laboratory.

History

Between World War II and the 1960s, the federal government funded different particle accelerators at competing universities to build high-energy physics experiments. Most notable were the Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC), which sent particles in a straight line,  the Brookhaven National Laboratory at SUNY Stoney Brook and the Cornell University synchrotron, which sent particles around in a circle to have the same magnets work on the particles many times.  By the 1960s, the cost of building bigger atom smashers were too high to fund each individual campus, and the size of ring for the next circular accelerator would be too large to fit on an existing college campus.  So, the federal government decided to start a new location to be run by physicists from several universities.  They held a competition to pick a site, but politicians fought for it to be in Illinois.

Weston, Illinois was a community next to Batavia. It was a subdivision of pre-fabricated homes started in the early 1960s.  Sales were very slow, so the land developers tried to attract Fermilab to be a new employer on the edge of the new town.  However, it turned out that the amount of land needed would swallow up the entire town.  So, the town voted to sell all of the land, including the houses that had been built to Fermilab.  The town then dissolved.

The laboratory was founded in 1967 as the National Accelerator Laboratory; it was renamed in honor of Enrico Fermi in 1974. The lab's first director was Robert Rathbun Wilson. Wilson made many of the sculptures on the campus. He is attributed as being responsible for it being finished ahead of time and under budget. The high rise laboratory building on the site, the unique shape of which has become the symbol for Fermilab, is named in his honor, and is the center of activity on the campus.

Before the new buildings could be finished, the scientists moved into the Weston houses and also moved all of the farm houses on Fermilab to that location for use as office space. They renamed Weston, "Fermilab Village." It still houses visiting scientists.

Wilson brought in the team that had built the Cornell synchrotron to help build the original 200 GeV accelerator.  Two important inventions made this accelerator obsolete: superconducting magnets and using the same acclerator ring to send two groups of particles around in opposite directions so that when the collide they would have twice the energy.

After Wilson stepped down in 1978 to protest the lack of funding for the lab, Leon M. Lederman took on the job. It was under his guidance that the original accelerator was replaced with the Tevatron accelerator. The new accelerator was capable of colliding proton and an antiproton at a combined energy of 1.96 TeV. Lederman stepped down in 1988 and remains Director Emeritus. The on-site science education center (which serves students and the general public) was named in his honor.

From 1988 to 1998, the lab was run by John Peoples. From that time until June 30, 2005, the lab was run by Michael S. Witherell. On November 19, 2004 Piermaria Oddone, formerly of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, was announced as Fermilab's newest director. Oddone began his term as director July 1, 2005.

Fermilab continues to participate in the work in the LHC including serving as a Tier 1 site in the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid. The State of Illinois is funding a new Illinois Accelerator Research Center building at Fermilab for scientists and industrial partners.

Accelerators

The first stage in the acceleration process takes place in the Cockcroft–Walton generator. It involves taking hydrogen gas and turning it into H− ions by introducing it into a container lined with molybdenum electrodes: a matchbox-sized, oval-shaped cathode and a surrounding anode, separated by 1 mm and held in place by glass ceramic insulators. A magnetron is used to generate a plasma to form H− near the metal surface. A 750 keV electrostatic field is applied by the Cockcroft–Walton generator, and the ions are accelerated out of the container. The next step is the linear accelerator (or linac), which accelerates the particles to 400 MeV, or about 70% of the speed of light. Right before entering the next accelerator, the H− ions pass through a carbon foil, becoming H+ ions (protons).

The next step is the booster ring. The booster ring is a 468 m circumference circular accelerator that uses magnets to bend beams of protons in a circular path. The protons coming from the Linac travel around the Booster about 20,000 times in 33 milliseconds so that they repeatedly experience electric fields. With each revolution the protons pick up more energy, leaving the Booster with 8 GeV. The Main Injector is the next link in the accelerator chain. Completed in 1999, it has become Fermilab's "particle switchyard" with three functions: it accelerates protons, it delivers protons for antiproton production, and it accelerates antiprotons coming from the antiproton source. The final accelerator was the Tevatron. It was the second most powerful particle accelerator in the world (CERN's Large Hadron Collider being the most powerful). Traveling at almost the speed of light, protons and antiprotons circle the Tevatron in opposite directions. Physicists coordinate the beams so that they collide at the centers of two 5,000-ton detectors DØ and CDF inside the Tevatron tunnel at energies of 1.96 TeV, revealing the conditions of matter in the early universe and its structure at the smallest scale.  The Tevatron is being converted into a museum.

The linear accelerator also has a medical treatment facility.  Doctors treat people with cancer by shooting protons or neutrons from the accelerator into their tumors.

Experiments
 Holometer interferometer
 Tevatron proton-antiproton collider: DØ and Collider Detector at Fermilab
 MiniBooNE: Mini Booster Neutrino Experiment
 Sciboone: SciBar Booster Neutrino Experiment
 MINOS: Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search
 MINERνA: Main INjector ExpeRiment with νs on As
 NOνA: NuMI Off-axis νe Appearance
 MIPP: Main Injector Particle Production

Notes and references

Other websites

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory
Fermilab Today Daily newsletter
Other Fermilab online publications
Fermilab Virtual Tour
Architecture at the Fermilab campus
Fermilab site in Google Maps

Buildings and structures in Chicago

Fermilab


Neal Cassady (February 8, 1926 - February 4, 1968) was an American writer. He was a member of the Beat Generation circle of writers and poets, of the 1950s and 1960s. He was a close friend of Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, and was the main inspiration behind Kerouac's breakthrough novel On the Road. Later he was the bus driver of Ken Kesey's "Merry Pranksters", during the hippie era.

Early life
Cassady was born in Salt Lake City, literally "on the road", as his mother gave birth to him while his parents rode in a car. They later separated, with his father raising young Cassady in Denver, Colorado. He got into trouble often as a boy, and spent part of his teen years in a juvenile facility. While locked up, he began to write letters back and forth with Hal Chase, another member of the (then-future) Beat Generation. Chase told his friends Kerouac and Ginsberg about Cassady, who wanted to meet him.

After he was released, Cassady traveled to New York, marrying sixteen-year-old LuAnne Henderson on the way. He met Ginsberg, and began a homosexual relationship with him (despite Cassady's marriage), and a friendship with Kerouac, recently divorced, who began to teach Cassady about writing. Kerouac's mother, whom he lived with, did not like Cassady, sensing he was just a con artist.

Kerouac knew this was at least partly true, but he did not mind, since he enjoyed Cassady's company. They looked a little like each other, and strangers who met them often guessed the two were brothers. They became very close personally, and felt that they really were brothers, though they came from different parents.

Cassady was a restless person, and his wife got tired of him not giving their marriage the attention it needed. She left him, and returned to her family. Cassady soon forgot about her, and started relationships with other women, and also with men. (He and LuAnne got back together later, but their reconciliation did not last.) Before long, he decided he wanted to travel. Cassady was an expert driver, and had no trouble driving cars at over 100 miles per hour, over long stretches of highway. Kerouac left his mother behind, and joined Cassady on many road trips, across the United States and even into Mexico. When Kerouac got sick in Mexico City, Cassady could not wait for him to get better, and left Kerouac behind at a hospital. Kerouac had to find his own way home, and was angry at Cassady, while Kerouac's mother thought it just proved her suspicions about him. Cassady turned up later, asking Kerouac's forgiveness, which he gave him. Good or bad, Kerouac's experiences with Cassady were what he needed to finish a novel about cross-country travel, which he had wanted to write for years.

Kerouac was married again to Joan Haverty, and in trying to explain his friendship with Cassady to his new wife, he typed a long narrative, using a roll of teletype paper so he did not have to stop to change pages. He spent three weeks working on the narrative almost non-stop. It became the manuscript for his new novel, which he called On the Road.

His wife was bothered by the fact that he spent more time working on the manuscript than with her, and separated from him not long after it was finished. Kerouac spent the next six years making changes and improvements to the manuscript, until a publisher agreed to print it as a book. Cassady's name was changed to "Dean Moriarty", to make the book appear more fictional than it really was. Kerouac delivered one of the first printed copies of On the Road in person to Cassady, who did not give Kerouac the reaction he expected. Instead of being happy and proud, Cassady seemed disturbed and scared, by knowing that part of his life was now in print, and his character documented for the public to see.

Works
On the Road was published in 1957, and it made both Kerouac and Cassady famous. It did not do much to help their personal lives, however. Both men suffered from public overexposure, as the book became a best-seller. A mistake on the book's jacket made readers think that both men were much younger than they were. Their adventures in the book had happened years earlier, but many people thought they were recent. Some readers wanted to travel with them, or invite them to wild parties, or have sexual intercourse with them. Cassady enjoyed the attention for awhile, but it took its toll on him personally. Fame did not help his second marriage, to Carolyn Robinson, or the family they had together. Kerouac himself hated all the attention he got, and spent most of his time at home with his mother, working on new books, or drinking alcohol. In time, he became an alcoholic, and it ruined his health.

Cassady also partly inspired Allen Ginsberg's Howl, and was mentioned in the poem as "N.C.", the "secret hero" of Ginsberg's latest writings. Howl became a landmark work of the 1950s, and added to Ginsberg's and Cassady's fame. Ginsberg handled fame more easily than either Cassady or Kerouac, and had a long public career.

Cassady himself wanted to become a writer, or a jazz musician, but he was not a success at either. He tried to take saxophone lessons, but did not stay with them very long. He mostly worked as a laborer or a brakeman on railroads, before and after On the Road was published. Some of what he did write was published as a memoir, titled The First Third, but it was his only book. He was more successful at writing letters to friends. One was about his seductions of different women during a train trip. He recorded long talks with Kerouac and Carolyn, about their lives and thoughts, and parts of these went into a later book by Kerouac, titled Visions of Cody. ("Cody Pomeray" became Cassady's new fictional name, as Kerouac changed publishers.)

Cassady also sold marijuana to help pay his bills. One customer turned out to be an undercover policeman, who arrested Cassady. He spent a long time in jail. Carolyn had to both work, and try to raise their children alone.

Later life
Freed from jail, Cassady began to travel again. During the 1960s, he joined Ken Kesey's Merry Pranksters, who traveled back and forth across the United States in a bus, holding "acid tests", a name for LSD parties. Cassady drove the bus. He acted as merrily as anyone, and as full of energy as a young man, when the Pranksters were around. In private, though, he was not enjoying his life, and old friends noticed he looked very tired.

Cassady had tried to commit suicide a few times when he was younger, and was unhappy. Once he tried to freeze himself to death, waiting outside in cold temperatures during a car trip, but it took too long, and he got back in the car. Early in 1968, while revisiting Mexico, he was found lying alongside a railroad track, where he had been for a long time. Exposure to harsh weather caused his death, just days short of his 42nd birthday. Nobody knew if he was trying to kill himself or not, this time. A few people who knew him felt that he wanted to die, and had for awhile as he got older, and that Cassady finally got his wish.

Legacy
Cassady left an indelible mark on the world of the 1950s and 1960s, through his documented adventures in the works of Kerouac, Ginsberg, and their friends. He also turned up in Kesey's writings about the Merry Pranksters. He inspired later bohemian characters, like Jim Morrison of The Doors. People today still read about his life and times, and wish they were able to meet Cassady, or make friends with him. The people who knew Cassady remembered him fondly later, even if he let them down personally, because he was such a unique (special) person. People loved watching Cassady live his life to the fullest, while he encouraged them to do the same with theirs.

Sources
Kerouac: A Biography, by Ann Charters (St. Martin's Press)
Kerouac and Friends: A Beat Generation Album, by Fred W. McDarrah (William Morrow and Company)

References

Other websites
Neal Cassady: Behind the Myth  (official site)

Bisexual people
Beat Generation
American LGBT writers
Writers from Salt Lake City, Utah
Writers from Colorado
1926 births
1968 deaths

Neal Cassady


A nanosecond (ns) is one billionth of a second. It is equal to 10−9 seconds.

One nanosecond contains 1000 picoseconds. 1000 nanoseconds is equal to one microsecond. Ten nanoseconds are sometimes called a shake.

Some things that take between one nanosecond and ten nanoseconds are listed below
 Light travels about 29.9 centimeters in 1 nanosecond. That is 3.33564095 nanoseconds to move 1 meter.
 It takes a fusion reaction between 20 and 40 nanoseconds to finish in a hydrogen bomb.
 It takes a nuclear reaction 10 nanoseconds to finish one generation with fast neutrons.
 The half-life of a K meson is 12 nanoseconds.

Units of time
Orders of magnitude

Nanosecond