Break action is a type of firearm action in which the barrel(s) are hinged much like a door and rotate perpendicularly to the bore axis to expose the breech and allow loading and unloading of cartridges. A separate operation may be required for the cocking of a hammer to fire the new round. There are many types of break-action firearms; break actions are universal in double-barreled shotguns, double-barreled rifles, combination guns, and are commonly found in single shot pistols (especially derringers), rifles, shotguns, including flare guns, grenade launchers, air guns, and some older revolver designs. They are also known as hinge-action, break-open, break-barrel, break-top, or, on old revolvers, top-break actions.

Description

Break action

The first break-action revolver was patented in France and Britain at the end of December in 1858 by Devisme. A substantial hinge pin joins the two parts of the rifle or shotgun; the stock with its firing mechanism and the fore-piece and barrel, which hold the round to be fired. In some cases the hinging pin may be easily removable, allowing the two portions of the weapon to be compactly and safely stored. In other cases the hinge will consist of a hook over a pin; releasing an auxiliary latch will allow sufficient travel to allow the hinge to be unhooked.

A latch is operated to release the two parts of the weapon, allowing the breech to be exposed. Rounds are inserted into the breech, loading as many barrels (rifle or shotgun) or chambers (revolver) as desired, and the mechanism is closed and latched. The hammer is then pulled back and latched. The weapon can now be fired by squeezing the trigger.

After firing the rounds, the break action is unlatched and the barrel and forearm are allowed to fall forward. This causes an extractor catch to remove the spent shells so that they fall to the ground, leaving the weapon ready for reloading.

Tip-up action

The tip-up was the first revolver design for use with metallic cartridges in the Smith & Wesson Model 1, on which the barrel pivoted upwards, hinged on the forward end of the top strap. On S&W tip-up revolvers, the barrel release catch is located on both sides of the frame in front of the trigger.

Advantages
A break action is one of the most compact firearm actions.  Since there are no parts to reciprocate, it is shorter than repeating designs, and generally more compact than other non-repeating firearms such as falling block and rolling block actions.  This compactness results in reductions in weight and size compared to larger actions; this can also allow a longer barrel in a firearm of similar size.

Since the cartridge extractor or ejector is built into the barrel assembly in break action weapons, the breech face is simply a flat plate with a hole for the firing pin to protrude through.  This makes break actions ideal for interchangeable barrel firearms, such as the popular Thompson/Center Arms Contender and Encore pistols.  The simplicity of the break open design, especially with an external hammer, also reduces the cost of manufacture.  There were a number of companies, such as H&R Firearms, that produced break action rifles at lower costs than comparable bolt-action rifles.

While most firearms are designed for right-handed shooters, break action guns operate identically when fired from either shoulder.

Another advantage of the break action is the ability to insert longer cartridges into the chamber.  This allows cartridges of a length impractical in other designs; as well as easy use of caliber conversion sleeves. It is common to find conversion sleeves for double barrel shotguns, allowing the firing of smaller gauge shells as well as sub-bore pistol and rifle cartridges (and thus allowing the same gun to be used with, for example, 12 gauge through 28 gauge, as well as .410 bore shells).

Disadvantages

The break action design is best suited for non-repeating firearms.  To get multiple shots requires either multiple barrels or a revolver cylinder; while this is fairly simple for shotguns, with double-barreled shotguns being quite common and even four-barreled designs like the FAMARS Rombo are available, double rifles require very precise alignment of the barrels in order to achieve consistent accuracy.  Modern double rifles are very expensive and designed for short-range use; the barrels are often regulated for ranges under  for use against dangerous game.

Wear in the mechanism is focused upon the small contact area of the latch, and the breech is difficult to seal properly once the latch wears. In some firearms, such as Thompson/Center guns, the latch is a removable part that could be replaced when worn. Designs without a replaceable latch may be fixed by building up the worn part with a welder, then filing it back into shape.

Break-open actions are also not as inherently strong as other action types, rendering them capable of withstanding only relatively low pressure pistol and rifle cartridges. The action is usually held closed by a single locking lug, usually below the barrel in a single barrelled gun or between the barrels of a double barreled gun. The single lug must carry all of the force of firing the cartridge. For shotguns shells, which operate at very low pressures, this is not an issue.

Some centerfire pistol and rifle cartridges, however, can generate pressures that may be too great for a single locking lug, if it is not stout enough.  The Thompson/Center Contender, for example, was limited to .30-30 Winchester level cartridges. To fire more powerful cartridges requires a much larger locking lug, such as that which Thomson Center used on the larger Encore model.  By comparison, while bolt-action shotguns may only use a single locking lug, almost all bolt-action rifles use multiple locking lugs around the perimeter of the bolt to provide an even distribution of the forces of firing, providing a much higher intrinsic strength.  Since many break action pistols and rifles, such as the inexpensive H&R models, are built on large frames originally meant for shotguns, the action is very heavily built and capable of handling moderate to high pressures. Still, belted magnum cartridges such as .300 Winchester Magnum are generally only found in the highest-quality break action rifles.

Break open designs work best with rimmed cartridges, which can use a solid extractor.  Rimless cartridges require a spring-loaded extractor, which can slide out of the way for cartridge insertion, and spring back to engage the recessed rim.  While these spring-loaded extractors are found on even inexpensive models, they are not as strong as solid extractors, and increase the likelihood that failures to extract will occur.

Other long gun actions

Bolt action
Falling-block action
Lever action
Pump action
Rolling block
Semi-automatic firearm
Straight-pull action

See also
 Combination gun

References

Firearm actions

Break action


The San Diego and Arizona Railway  was a   short line U.S. railroad founded by entrepreneur John D. Spreckels, and dubbed "The Impossible Railroad" by engineers of its day due to the immense logistical challenges involved. It linked San Diego, its western terminus, with El Centro, its eastern terminus, where passengers could connect with Southern Pacific's transcontinental lines, eliminating the need to first travel north via Los Angeles or Riverside.

The company charter was executed on December 14, 1906, and the groundbreaking ceremony was held the following September. Numerous delays (including government intervention during World War I) delayed the completion of the line to November 15, 1919. Damage to the lines from both natural disasters and sabotage exerted great financial pressure on the company, and in 1932 Spreckels' heirs sold their interests in the railroad to the Southern Pacific, which changed the name to San Diego & Arizona Eastern Railway (SD&AE).

History
The company was chartered on December 14, 1906, and groundbreaking ceremonies held at the intersection of San Diego's Main and 26th Streets on September 7, 1907.  Construction delays, attacks by Mexican revolutionaries, and government intervention during World War I all served to push the construction completion to November 15, 1919 when the "golden spike" was finally driven by John Spreckels.

The first through SD&A passenger train left Campo on the morning of November 30, and made the full run from El Centro to San Diego's downtown Union Station for the official opening of the line on December 1, 1919. The total construction cost of the  of track laid was approximately $18 million, or some $123,000 per mile; the original estimate was $6 million.  The  long segment through Carrizo Gorge (which included  of tunnels, 17 in all) alone cost over $4 million to construct; the three miles (5 km) of tunnels (21 total) along the entire line ran another $1.8 million.  Almost  of bridges and trestles were built as well.

The tracks departed downtown San Diego south where they crossed the U.S.-Mexico border at San Ysidro.  From there the line traversed eastward through Tijuana, then headed northeast through Tecate and back over the border to the town of Campo.  To construct and maintain the 44-mile (72 kilometer) stretch through Mexico the SD&A formed the Ferrocarril Tijuana y Tecate, S.A. de C.V., at the behest of the Mexican government.  East of Campo the road traveled through Clover Flats, across the Coast Range (elevation 3,660 feet), then descended through the breathtaking but treacherous Carrizo Gorge, the builders' most significant obstacle.  Though the SD&A line ended in Seeley, trackage rights gave the railroad the ability to run trains as far east as El Centro and as far south as Calexico.  Branch lines ran from downtown to as far north and east as the community of Lakeside, with a separate line which rounded San Diego Bay to service Coronado Heights, Coronado, and North Island.

Damage to the lines from heavy rainstorms, landslides, and fires took a financial toll on the railroad, as did border closings with Mexico. Clashes with the Industrial Workers of the World resulted in acts of vandalism as well. In 1932, financial difficulties forced Spreckels' heirs to sell their interests in the firm for $2.8 million to the Southern Pacific, which renamed the railroad the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway (SD&AE).

Timeline
 1873: The Texas and Pacific Railroad fails in an attempt to establish a direct rail link between San Diego and the East during the "Panic of 1873."
 1905: The San Diego and Eastern Railroad (SD&E) conducts a survey for a planned rail line to Arizona but folds prior to commencing track laying.
 December 14, 1906: John D. Spreckels announces he will form the San Diego and Arizona Railway Company (SD&A) and build a  line between San Diego and El Centro.  Spreckels has an agreement with the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP) to silently fund the project (ironically, Spreckels later became an outspoken critic of the Southern Pacific Railroad and their monopolistic practices, and often used his newspaper interests as a platform to denounce the company and its officers).
 September 7, 1907: Groundbreaking ceremonies for the SD&A are held in downtown San Diego at the foot of 26th Street (now known as Dewey Street) and Main Street.  The line will follow in part the route surveyed by the defunct SD&E.
 1909: The Mexican Government orders the SD&A to form the Tijuana and Tecate Railway Company, which will construct and hold a 99-year lease on the  Mexican rail segment.
 July 29, 1910: The first passenger train on the SD&A enters Mexico.
 1911: Mexican revolutionaries mount several attacks on the SD&A construction crews to conscript soldiers and supplies, and cut telephone wires.
 1916: The "Great Flood" washes out several rail lines.  World War I increases the cost of railway construction materials by 50 to 150 percent.
 1917: The U.S. federal government seizes control of all railroads and stops construction of the SD&A as part of its war effort to conserve resources, but later grants Spreckels special exemption on the grounds the SD&A will serve a military installation.  The SD&A absorbs the struggling San Diego and Southeastern Railway (SDSR), assuming operation of the company's steam divisions and gas-electric motor cars.  The San Diego Electric Railway (SDERy) continues to operate the interurban line to Chula Vista under lease.  The remaining SDSR tracks not damaged in the previous year's flooding function as a "bridge" line between the SD&A and SDERy, which allows for the interchange of freight traffic.
 November 15, 1919: The "golden spike" is driven and construction of the SD&A is completed at a cost of $18 million (three times the original estimate).

 December 1, 1919: The first passenger train "arrives" in San Diego from El Centro for the official line opening ceremony.
 December 10, 1919: Through Pullman service to Chicago is initiated; the cars are switched to the Southern Pacific's Golden State passenger train in Yuma.
 1922: A new emblem, depicting a scene in the Carrizo Gorge and lettered "San Diego Short Line," is adopted.
 1926, 1927, and 1929: Heavy rains take out large sections of trackage east of San Diego.
 1928: Motor service to La Mesa and Lakeside is discontinued. The film Beggars of Life is filmed along the line.
 January 1932: Fire breaks out in Tunnel 3 in Baja California, which leads to a collapse.  Repairs take 45 days.
 March 27, 1932: A huge mountain slide, loosened by heavy rains, blocks the line in the vicinity of Tunnel 15.  Repairs are completed and freight and passenger services are re-established on July 6 and 7th.
 October 22, 1932: Tunnel 7 burns and is subsequently abandoned.
 October 24, 1932: Financial problems force Spreckels' heirs to transfer their share of SD&A ownership to the Southern Pacific Transportation Company for $2.8 million.
 January 23, 1933: A bypass track along the cliff at Tunnel 7 is completed and the line is reopened to traffic.
 February 1, 1933: The San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway assumes all operations of the SD&A.
 December 1985, the Pacific Southwest Railway Museum revives the historic San Diego & Arizona Railway name (reporting mark SDAX), inaugurating its Golden State demonstration passenger trains over the railway out of Campo, CA east to Miller Creek and west to Division and tunnel four at the international border. These trips continue to this day.

See also

 Baja California Railroad
 Pacific Imperial Railroad
 Carrizo Gorge Railway
 Pacific Southwest Railway Museum
 San Diego Electric Railway

References

Further reading
 Chamberlin, Eugene K. (1991). San Diego & Arizona Railway and Campo Station 1916-1991 (San Diego, CA).

External links
 "Formidable Places: Building a Railroad in Carriso Gorge" - The Journal of San Diego History
 "John D. Spreckels Solves the Railroad Problem" - The History of San Diego: 1542–1908

Defunct California railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Predecessors of the Southern Pacific Transportation Company
Transportation in Imperial County, California
Transportation in San Diego County, California
History of San Diego
History of San Diego County, California
History of Imperial County, California
Railway companies established in 1906
Railway companies disestablished in 1933
1906 establishments in California
1933 disestablishments in California
Defunct railway companies of Mexico

San Diego and Arizona Railway


Branching is a term in linguistics. It refers to the way a phrase or sentence is made up. There is a head word and various other words to make the phrase or sentence.

Examples
Most languages make phrases with a head word and dependents (modifiers). These examples show the phrase heads in bold.

Examples of left-branching phrases (= head-final phrases):
the house - Noun phrase (NP)
very happy - Adjective phrase (AP)
too slowly - Adverb phrase (AdvP)

Examples of right-branching phrases (= head-initial phrases):
laugh loudly - Verb phrase (VP)
with luck - Prepositional phrase (PP)
that it happened - Subordinator phrase (SP = subordinate clause)

Example of phrases that contain both left- and right-branching (= head-medial phrases):
the house there - Noun phrase (NP)
very happy with it - Adjective phrase (AP)
only laugh loudly - Verb phrase (VP)

Most structures in English are, however, not completely left- or completely right-branching, but rather they combine both. The following trees show a combination of left- and right-branching in English:

There are more right-branching structures than left-branching structures in English. This means that trees usually grow down to the right.

Linguistics

Branching


A Platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron (a three-dimensional shape). It has the following traits:

 Each of their faces is built from the same type of polygons.
 All the edges are the same, and all of them join two faces at the same angle.
 There are the same polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.
 The shape is convex, meaning the faces do not go through each other (intersecting), or span the same range (coplanar).

The Platonic solids
The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

Triangular pyramid, or Tetrahedron, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and is the simplest kind of polyhedron.
Cube, or Hexahedron, has 6 sides, and is made of squares. It is a kind of prism.
Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles. It is a kind of antiprism.
Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons. It has the most vertices.
Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles. It has the most faces.

Uses

There are a lot of uses for Platonic solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair. 6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

Geometry of space frames is often based on Platonic solids.

Other websites
Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
London South Bank University Water structure and behavior
Book XIII of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java

Platonic solid


Marcellino Pipite is a Vanuatuan politician and former school administration, who was first elected to Parliament in 2004. He was the foreign minister of Vanuatu from November 2004 until December 2004, in the government of Serge Vohor. He was previously the minister for comprehensive reform. He lost his position in the cabinet in December 2004 when the Vohor government fell.

He was elected as the Speaker of the Parliament of Vanuatu on 16 June 2015, and served until October 2015.

On October 10, 2015, while serving as acting President, he pardoned himself and 13 other MPs who the Supreme Court had found guilty of bribery. President Baldwin Lonsdale, returning to Vanuatu hours after Pipite's pardon has been issued, declared that nobody is above the law and revoked the pardon, a decision upheld by the Supreme Court of Vanuatu. Pipite and 10 of the other MPs faced charges of conspiracy to pervert the course of justice. Sentencing on the bribery charges went ahead and Pipite was jailed for 3 years, together with most of the other convicted MPs.

References

Living people
Speakers of the Parliament of Vanuatu
Foreign Ministers of Vanuatu
Union of Moderate Parties politicians
Government ministers of Vanuatu
Year of birth missing (living people)
Members of the Parliament of Vanuatu

Marcellino Pipite


Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (March 28, 1793 – December 10, 1864) was an American geographer, geologist, and ethnologist, noted for his early studies of Native American cultures, as well as for his 1832 expedition to the source of the Mississippi River. He is also noted for his major six-volume study of Native Americans commissioned by Congress and published in the 1850s.

He served as United States Indian agent in Michigan for a period beginning in 1822. During this period, he named several newly organized counties, often creating neologisms that he claimed were derived from indigenous languages.

There he married Jane Johnston, daughter of a prominent Scotch-Irish fur trader and an Ojibwe mother, who was the high-ranking daughter of Waubojeeg, a war chief. Johnston lived with her family in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan.

Johnston was bilingual and educated, having grown up in a literate household. She taught Schoolcraft the Ojibwe language and much about her maternal culture. They had several children together, only two of whom survived past childhood. She is now recognized for her poetry and other writings as the first Native American literary writer in the United States.

Schoolcraft continued to study Native American tribes and publish works about them. In 1833, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

By 1846 Jane had died. That year Schoolcraft was commissioned by Congress for a major study, known as Indian Tribes of the United States. It was published in six volumes from 1851 to 1857, and illustrated by Seth Eastman, a career Army officer with extensive experience as an artist of indigenous peoples.

Schoolcraft married again in 1847, to Mary Howard, from a slaveholding family in South Carolina. In 1860 she published the bestselling novel The Black Gauntlet. It was part of the Anti-Tom literature that was written in Southern response to the bestselling Uncle Tom's Cabin by Northern abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe.

Early life and education
Schoolcraft was born in 1793 in Guilderland, Albany County, New York, the son of Lawrence Schoolcraft and Margaret-Anne Barbara (née Rowe) Schoolcraft. He entered Union College at age 15 and later attended Middlebury College. He was especially interested in geology and mineralogy.

His father was a glassmaker, and Schoolcraft initially studied and worked in the same industry. At age 24, he wrote his first paper on the topic, Vitreology (1817). After working in several glassworks in New York, Vermont and New Hampshire, the young Schoolcraft left the family business at age 25 to explore the western frontier.

Exploration and geologic survey
From November 18 to February 1819, Schoolcraft and his companion Levi Pettibone made an expedition from Potosi, Missouri, to what is now Springfield. They traveled further down the White River into Arkansas, making a survey of the geography, geology, and mineralogy of the area.  Schoolcraft published this study in A View of the Lead Mines of Missouri (1819). In this book he correctly identified the potential for lead deposits in the region. Missouri eventually became the number one lead-producing state. (French colonists had earlier developed a lead mine outside St. Louis in the 18th century.) He also published Journal of a Tour into the Interior of Missouri and Arkansaw (1821), the first written account of a European-American exploration of the Ozark Mountains.

This expedition and his resulting publications brought Schoolcraft to the attention of John C. Calhoun, the Secretary of War, who considered him "a man of industry, ambition, and insatiable curiosity." Calhoun recommended Schoolcraft to the Michigan Territorial Governor, Lewis Cass, for a position on an expedition led by Cass to explore the wilderness region of Lake Superior and the lands west to the upper Mississippi River. Beginning in the spring of 1820, Schoolcraft served as a geologist on the Lewis Cass expedition. Beginning in Detroit, they traveled nearly  along Lake Huron and Lake Superior, west to the Mississippi River, down the river to present-day Iowa, and then returning to Detroit after tracing the shores of Lake Michigan.

The expedition was intended to establish the source of the Mississippi River. It was also intended to settle the question of the yet undetermined boundary between the United States and British Canada. The expedition traveled as far upstream as Upper Red Cedar Lake in present-day Minnesota. Since low water precluded navigating farther upstream, the expedition designated the lake as the river's headwaters, and renamed it in honor of Cass. (Schoolcraft noted, however, that locals informed the expedition that it was possible to navigate by canoe farther upstream earlier in the year when water levels were higher.) Schoolcraft's account of the expedition was published as A Narrative Journal of Travels Through the Northwestern Regions...to the Sources of the Mississippi River (1821).

In 1821 he was a member of another government expedition, which traveled through Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. In 1832, he led a second expedition to the headwaters of the Mississippi River. Arriving a month earlier than had the 1820 expedition, he was able to take advantage of higher water to navigate to Lake Itasca.

Marriages and family
Schoolcraft met his first wife Jane Johnston soon after being assigned in 1822 to Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, as the first US Indian agent in the region. Two years before, the government had built Fort Brady and wanted to establish an official presence to forestall any renewed British threat following the War of 1812. The government tried to ensure against British agitation of the Ojibwa.

Jane was the eldest daughter of John Johnston, a prominent Scots-Irish fur trader, and his wife Ozhaguscodaywayquay (Susan Johnston), daughter of a leading Ojibwe chief, Waubojeeg, and his wife. Both of the Johnstons were of high status; they had eight children together, and their cultured, wealthy family was well known in the area.

Jane was also known as Bamewawagezhikaquay (Woman of the Sound the Stars Make Rushing Through the Sky). Her knowledge of the Ojibwe language and culture, which she shared with Schoolcraft, formed in part the source material for Longfellow's epic poem The Song of Hiawatha.

Jane and Henry had four children together:
 William Henry (June 1824 – March 1827) died of croup at nearly three. Jane Schoolcraft wrote poems expressing her grief about his loss.
 stillborn daughter (November 1825).
 Jane Susan Ann (October 14, 1827 – November 25, 1892, Richmond, Virginia), called Janee.
 John Johnston (October 2, 1829 – April 24, 1864), served in the Civil War but was wounded at the Battle of Gettysburg and disabled. He died at the age of 34 in Elmira, New York.

The Schoolcrafts sent Janee and John to a boarding school in Detroit for part of their education. Janee at 11 could handle the transition, but John at nine had a more difficult time and missed his parents.

The Schoolcrafts had a literary marriage, producing a family magazine. They included their own poetry in letters to each other through the years. Jane suffered from frequent illnesses. She died in 1842, while visiting a sister in Canada, and was buried at St. John's Anglican Church, Ancaster, Ontario.

On January 12, 1847, after moving to Washington, DC, Schoolcraft married again, at age 53, to Mary Howard (died March 12, 1878). She was a southerner and slaveholder, from an elite planter family of the Beaufort district of South Carolina.  Her support of slavery and opposition to mixed-race unions created strains in her relationship with the Schoolcraft children. They became alienated from both her and their father.

After Schoolcraft's hands became paralyzed in 1848 from a rheumatic condition, Mary devoted much of her attention to caring for him and helping him complete his massive study of Native Americans, which had been commissioned by Congress in 1846.

In 1860, she published the novel The Black Gauntlet: A Tale of Plantation Life in South Carolina (which she said her husband had encouraged). One of many pro-slavery books published in response to Harriet Beecher Stowe's bestselling Uncle Tom's Cabin, such defenses of slavery, published in the decade before the American Civil War, became known as the anti-Tom genre. Hers became a best-seller, although not on the scale of Stowe's.

Indian agent

Schoolcraft began his ethnological research in 1822 during his appointment as US Indian agent at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan.  He had responsibility for tribes in what is now northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.  From his wife Jane Johnston, Schoolcraft learned the Ojibwe language, as well as much of the lore of the tribe and its culture.

Schoolcraft created The Muzzeniegun, or Literary Voyager, a family magazine which he and Jane produced in the winter of 1826–1827 and circulated among friends ("muzzeniegun" coming from Ojibwe mazina'igan meaning "book"). It contained mostly his own writings, although he did include a few pieces from his wife and a few other locals. Although they produced only single issues, each was distributed widely to residents in Sault Ste. Marie, then to Schoolcraft's friends in Detroit, New York, and other eastern cities. Jane Johnston Schoolcraft used the pen names of "Rosa" and Leelinau as personae to write about different aspects of Indian culture.

Schoolcraft was elected to the legislature of the Michigan Territory, where he served from 1828 to 1832.  In 1832, he traveled again to the upper reaches of the Mississippi to settle continuing troubles between the Ojibwe and Dakota (Sioux) nations.  He worked to talk to as many Native American leaders as possible to maintain the peace. He was also provided with a surgeon and given instructions to begin vaccinating Native Americans against smallpox.  He determined that smallpox had been unknown among the Ojibwe before the return in 1750 of a war party that had contact with Europeans on the East Coast. They had gone to Montreal to assist the French against the British in the French and Indian War (the North American front of the Seven Years' War).

During the voyage, Schoolcraft took the opportunity to explore the region, making the first accurate map of the Lake District around western Lake Superior. Following the lead of Ozawindib, an Ojibwe guide, Schoolcraft encountered the true headwaters of the Mississippi River, a lake that the natives called "Omushkos", meaning Elk Lake. which Schoolcraft renamed Lake Itasca, a name which he coined from the Latin words veritas meaning 'truth' and caput meaning 'head'. The nearby Schoolcraft River, the first major tributary of the Mississippi, was later named in his honor.  United States newspapers widely covered this expedition.  Schoolcraft followed up with a personal account of the discovery with his book, Narrative of an Expedition Through the Upper Mississippi River to Itasca Lake (1834).

After his territory for Indian Affairs was greatly increased in 1833, Schoolcraft and his wife Jane moved to Mackinac Island, the new headquarters of his administration.  In 1836, he was instrumental in settling land disputes with the Ojibwe.  He worked with them to accomplish the Treaty of Washington (1836), by which they ceded to the United States a vast territory of more than 13 million acres (53,000 km2), worth many millions of dollars.  He believed that the Ojibwe would be better off learning to farm and giving up their wide hunting lands. The government agreed to pay subsidies and provide supplies while the Ojibwe made a transition to a new way of living, but its provision of the promised subsidies was often late and underfunded. The Ojibwe suffered as a result.

In 1838 pursuant to the terms of the treaty, Schoolcraft oversaw the construction of the Indian Dormitory on Mackinac Island. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It provided temporary housing to the Ojibwe who came to Mackinac Island to receive annuities during their transition to what was envisioned by the US government as a more settled way of life.

In 1839 Schoolcraft was appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the Northern Department.  He began a series of Native American studies later published as the Algic Researches (2 vols., 1839).  These included his collection of Native American stories and legends, many of which his wife Jane Johnston Schoolcraft told him or translated for him from her culture.

While in Michigan, Schoolcraft became a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Michigan in its early years. In this position he helped establish the state university's financial organization.

Founding magazines
Schoolcraft founded and contributed to the first United States journal on public education, The Journal of Education.  He also published The Souvenir of the Lakes, the first literary magazine in Michigan.

Naming places
Schoolcraft named many of Michigan's counties and locations within the former Michigan Territory.  He named Leelanau County, Michigan after his wife's pen name of "Leelinau".  For those counties established in 1840, he made elisions – the process of joining or merging morphemes that contained abstract ideas from multiple languages – to form unique place names he considered as never previously used in North America. In names such as Alcona, Algoma, Allegan, Alpena, Arenac, Iosco, Kalkaska, Leelanau, Lenawee, Oscoda and Tuscola, for example, Schoolcraft combined words and syllables from Native American languages with words and syllables from Latin and Arabic. Lake Itasca, the source lake of the Mississippi River, is another example of his eliding Native American and Latin morphemes. In 1843 the unique names of six counties named in 1840 after Native Michigan chiefs were erased – Kautawaubet County, Kaykakee County,  Keskkauko County, Meegisee County, Mikenauk County and Tonedagana County. But none of the 1840 counties with unique Schoolcraft elisions were changed.

Later years

When the Whig Party came to power in 1841 with the election of William Henry Harrison, Schoolcraft lost his political position as Indian agent.  He and Jane moved to New York. She died the next year during a visit with a sister in Canada, while Schoolcraft was traveling in Europe.

He continued to write about Native Americans.  In 1846 Congress commissioned him to develop a comprehensive reference work on American Indian tribes.  Schoolcraft traveled to England to request the services of George Catlin to illustrate his proposed work, as the latter was widely regarded as the premier illustrator of Indian life. Schoolcraft was deeply disappointed when Catlin refused.  Schoolcraft later engaged the artist Seth Eastman, a career Army officer, as illustrator. An Army captain and later brigadier general, Eastman was renowned for his paintings of Native American peoples.  He had two extended assignments at Fort Snelling in present-day Minnesota, the second time as commander of the fort, and had closely studied, drawn and painted the people of the Indian cultures of the Great Plains.

Schoolcraft worked for years on the history and survey of the Indian tribes of the United States. It was published in six volumes from 1851 to 1857 by J. B. Lippincott & Co. of Philadelphia. Critics praised its scholarship and valuable content by Schoolcraft, and the meticulous and knowledgeable illustrations by Eastman.  Critics also noted the work's shortcomings, including a lack of index, and poor organization, which made the information almost inaccessible. Almost 100 years later, in 1954, the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution prepared and published an index to the volumes. (It was not until 1928 that the US government conducted another overall study of the conditions of American Indians; it was informally known as the Meriam Report, after the technical director of the team, Lewis Meriam.)

Schoolcraft died in Washington, D.C., on December 10, 1864.  After his death, Schoolcraft's second wife Mary donated over 200 books from his library, which had been published in 35 different Native American languages, to the Boston Athenæum.  Schoolcraft and Mary were each buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, DC.  His papers are archived in the Library of Congress.

Works
 A View of the Lead-Mines of Missouri, including Observations on the Mineralogy and Geology of Missouri and Arkansaw (New York, 1819)
 "Transallegania, or the Groans of Missouri," a poem (1820)
 Journal of a Tour in the Interior of Missouri and Arkansas (1820)
 Travels from Detroit to the Sources of the Mississippi with an Expedition under Lewis Cass (Albany, 1821)
 Travels in the Central Portions of Mississippi Valley (New York, 1825)
 "The Rise of the West, or a Prospect of the Mississippi Valley," a poem (Detroit, 1827)
 "Indian Melodies," a poem (1830)
 The Man of Bronze (1834)
 Iosco, or the Vale of Norma (Detroit, 1834)
 Narrative of an Expedition Through the Upper Mississippi River to Itasca Lake (New York, 1834)
 "Helderbergia, or the Apotheosis of the Heroes of the Anti-Rent War," an anonymous poem (Albany, 1835)
 Algic Researches, a book of Indian allegories and legends (2 vols., 1839)
 Cyclopædia indianensis, of which only a single number was issued (1842)
 "Alhalla, or the Land of Talladega," a poem published under the pen-name "Henry Rowe Colcraft" (1843)
 Oneota, or Characteristics of the Red Race of America (1844-5) Republished as The Indian and his Wigwam (1848)
 Report on Aboriginal Names and the Geographical Terminology of New York (1845)
 Plan for Investigating American Ethnology (1846)
 Notes on the Iroquois, containing his report on the Six Nations (Albany, 1846; enlarged editions, New York, 1847 and 1848)
 The Red Race of America (1847)
 Notices of Antique Earthen Vessels from Florida (1847)
 Address on Early American History (New York, 1847)
 Outlines of the Life and Character of Gen. Lewis Cass (Albany, 1848)
 Bibliographical Catalogue of Books, Translations of the Scriptures, and other Publications in the Indian Tongues of the United States (Washington, 1849)
 American Indians, their History, Condition, and Prospects (Auburn, 1850)
 Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes on the American Frontiers, 1812 to 1842 (Philadelphia, 1851)
 Historical and Statistical Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, with illustrations by Capt. Seth Eastman, published by authority of congress, which appropriated nearly $30,000 a volume for the purpose (6 vols., 1851–7) He had collected material for two additional volumes, but the government suddenly suspended the publication of the work.
 Scenes and Adventures in the Semi-Alpine Region of the Ozark Mountains of Missouri and Arkansas, a revised edition of his first book of travel (1853)
 Summary Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi River in 1820, resumed and completed by the Discovery of its Origin in Itasca Lake in 1832 (1854)
 The Myth of Hiawatha, and other Oral Legends (1856).
 Mentor L. Williams, ed., Narrative Journal of travels Through the Northwestern Regions of the United States Extending from Detroit through the Great Chain of the American Lakes to the Sources of the Mississippi River in the year 1820, East Lansing, Michigan: The Michigan State College Press, 1953.
The Indian Fairy-Book, from Original Legends (New York, 1855), was compiled from notes that he furnished to the editor, Cornelius Mathews.

Memberships
Elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1821.

Legacy and honors

Numerous counties, towns, lakes, streams, roads and other geographic features are named in his honor, including:
 Schoolcraft County in Michigan.
 Schoolcraft Township in Houghton County, Michigan.
 Schoolcraft Township in Kalamazoo County, Michigan.
 Schoolcraft Township in Hubbard County, Minnesota.
 The Village of Schoolcraft in Kalamazoo County, Michigan.
 Schoolcraft River and Schoolcraft Lake in Minnesota.
 Schoolcraft Island in Lake Itasca, Minnesota.
 U.S. Route 65 in the vicinity of Springfield, Missouri is named the Schoolcraft Freeway.
 Schoolcraft Roads are located in Marquette and Wayne Counties, Michigan, and in Dakota County, Minnesota.
 Schoolcraft College in Livonia, Michigan is named in his honor.
 Henry R. Schoolcraft Elementary School in Waterford, Michigan is named in his honor.
 Henry's Food Court on the Schoolcraft College campus in Livonia, Michigan is founded in his name.
 Schoolcraft State Park in Minnesota was established to commemorate his expeditions in 1820 and 1832.
 The Liberty ship SS Henry R. Schoolcraft was launched in 1943.

Citations

Further reading
 Bremer, Richard G. (1987). Indian Agent & Wilderness Scholar: The Life of Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University.

 Lovell, Linda. "Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793–1864)", The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, Central Arkansas Library System, Accessed on January 21, 2007.
 Merrill, George P. (1924) The First One Hundred Years of American Geology. Reprinted by Hafner Publishing Co., 1969.
 Mumford, Jeremy. "Mixed-race identity in a nineteenth-century family: the Schoolcrafts of Sault Ste. Marie, 1824–27", Michigan Historical Review, Mar 22, 1999, accessed Dec 11, 2008
 Osborn,  Chase S. and Stellanova Osborn. Schoolcraft-Longfellow-Hiawatha (1942) online
 Savage, Henry Jr. (1979) Discovering America 1700–1875. Harper & Row, pp. 229–233.
Tanner, Helen Hornbeck. "Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe" American National Biography online
 Toomey, Mary J.  "Schoolcraft College — The Name and its Significance" , Schoolcraft College, Accessed on February 13, 2007.

External links

 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, The Online Books Page, University of Pennsylvania
 Boston Athenæum: Schoolcraft Collection of Books in Native American Languages. Digital Collection.
 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Journal of 1818–1819 Tour of the Ozarks, Missouri State University

1793 births
1864 deaths
People from Guilderland, New York
American anthropologists
American geographers
American geologists
Michigan Territory officials
Pre-statehood history of Minnesota
Pre-statehood history of Michigan
Writers from Michigan
Writers from New York (state)
People from Washington County, Missouri
People from Beaufort County, South Carolina
Members of the Michigan Territorial Legislature
Regents of the University of Michigan
Union College (New York) alumni
Middlebury College alumni
United States Indian agents
People from Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
American male writers
Michigan Democrats
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
19th-century American politicians
Neologists
Michigan State Historic Sites in Mackinac County

Henry Schoolcraft


Carlos Roberto Flores Facussé (born 10 March 1950) is a Honduran politician and businessman who served as the President of Honduras from 1998 to 2002. A member of the Liberal Party, Flores was previously the President of the National Congress from 1994 to 1998.

Background
Flores Facussé is the son of Honduran journalist Oscar Flores Midence and Margarita Facussé de Flores, and is of Palestinian descent. He is the nephew of Miguel Facussé Barjum. He, his brother Oscar Flores and his sister Celsa Flores, an artist, all attended the American School of Tegucigalpa. He then earned a dual degree in industrial engineering and international economics and finance from Louisiana State University. He became a member of Phi Iota Alpha.

Soon after completing his master's degree he returned to Honduras, where he began managing the family business (the newspaper La Tribuna) and participating in private and public committees, including the Honduran Central Bank and the Institute of Social Security.

Political career
During the 1970s, Flores became involved in Honduran political life, joining the Liberal Party. He later became a congressman, representing the department (political division equivalent to a province) of Francisco Morazán. He served as Minister of the Presidency under the rule of Liberal president Roberto Suazo from 1982 to 1984.

In the 1989 general election he ran for the presidency, eventually losing to Rafael Leonardo Callejas, the candidate of the National Party.

In 1994, Flores became president of the National Congress, serving until 1998.

1997 Honduran general election

Flores won the 1997 general election, defeating Nora Melgar Castro of the National Party. He served as president of Honduras from 1998 to 2002.

Presidency (1998–2002)

During Carlos Flores' presidency, Honduras was struck by Hurricane Mitch, one of the worst natural disasters in decades. It caused thousands of deaths and left the national economy in shambles.

President Flores solicited international aid from several financial institutions and countries. The response was strong, and funds were directed at reinforcing Honduras' infrastructure and the agricultural and industrial economic sectors.

As recommended by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, Flores imposed strict financial guidelines: deflationary monetary fund policies, fiscal austerity, and privatization of the airports and the national communications company, Hondutel, the latter with mixed outcome.

He also limited the power held by the military forces, forcing them to relinquish some power to the presidency.

On 26 August 1998, Flores instituted the Ministry of Public Security under the provisions of the National Plan to combat crime and criminality. This was a response to the ominous growth of violent gangs, particularly the Mara Salvatrucha. Government initiatives in this area did not produce significant results, and completely ignored murderous activity in the country, particularly the actions of a series of armed death squads that extrajudicially killed homeless children and adolescents living in the margins of society. Reports from Human Rights Commission United Nations, the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras (CODEH) and other NGOs indicate that the casualties caused by such violence on children barely improved during the four years of Flores' presidency.

Personal life
Flores is married to Mary Flake de Flores, whom he met while a student at Louisiana State University. Their daughter, Mary Elizabeth Flores Flake, is the permanent representative of Honduras to the United Nations.

Footnotes

External links
Extended biography of Carlos Roberto Flores at the Fundación CIDOB

1950 births
Living people
Presidents of the National Congress of Honduras
Presidents of Honduras
Louisiana State University alumni
Government ministers of Honduras
Liberal Party of Honduras politicians
Honduran Roman Catholics
Deputies of the National Congress of Honduras
People from Tegucigalpa
Honduran people of Palestinian descent

Carlos Roberto Flores


An alpha particle is a radioactive particle that is made up of two protons and two neutrons. It is a helium nucleus: that is a helium atom without electrons. Radioactive elements give out alpha particles when they go through a kind of radioactive decay, known as alpha decay.

During alpha decay, the atomic nucleus releases an alpha particle. The nucleus will lose two protons and two neutrons when this happens. After the decay, the atom will change to another element, because the atom loses two protons.  For example, when americium goes through alpha decay it changes into neptunium because neptunium is defined to have two protons less than americium.  Alpha decay usually happens in heavy elements, those containing more neutrons and protons, such as uranium, thorium, plutonium, and radium.

Alpha particles cannot even go through a few centimetres of air. Alpha radiation cannot hurt humans when the alpha source is outside the human body, because human skin does not let the alpha particles go through, it cannot penetrate it. Alpha radiation can be very harmful if the source is inside the body, such as when people breathe dust or gas containing materials which decay by emitting alpha particles.

To look at americium again, the isotope americium-241 gives off alpha radiation.  This radiation can be very harmful if it is inside someone's body because it can change the DNA in the cells. But it is not harmful when it is outside of the body because alpha radiation does not travel through the outside layers of the skin very well.

When scientists write equations about nuclear reactions they use the Greek letter Alpha. Ernest Rutherford started this when he discovered and named three kinds of ionizing radiation.

Subatomic particles

Alpha particle


A doll is a child's toy that looks like a baby or other human being. Dolls have been around since the beginning of human civilization, and have been made from many different types of materials, like stone, clay, wood, bone, cloth and paper, to porcelain, china, rubber and plastic.

While dolls are usually for children, they are also collected by adults, for remembering things from the past, their beauty, their historical importance or their financial value (being worth money). In ancient times, dolls were used as symbols of a deity (god), and played an important role in religious ceremonies and rituals.

Lifelike or anatomically correct dolls are used by health professionals, medical schools, and social workers to train doctors and nurses in different health procedures or to find out about cases of sexual abuse of children. Artists sometimes use jointed mannequins or ball-jointed dolls in drawing the human body. Action figures are types of dolls that represent superheroes and military people are particularly popular among boys. There are baby dolls, paper dolls, rag dolls, talking dolls, fashion dolls and many others.

Doll


The Coat o airms o Croatie consists o ane main shield an five smawer shields which form a croun ower the main shield. The main coat o airms is a checkerboard (chequy) that consists o 13 reid an 12 siller (white) fields. It's commonly kent as šahovnica ("chessboard", frae šah, "chess" in Croatian) or grb (literally coat o airms). The five smawer shields represent five different historical regions that comprise Croatie.

Croatie

Naitional seembols o Croatie

Coat o airms o Croatie


Jefferson Cardoso dos Santos (15 February 1986 in São Vicente, Brazil) is a Brazilian football player. He plays for F.C. Red Bull Salzburg in the Austrian Bundesliga. He is a defender.

He started playing football with his local club  São Vicente Atlético Clube and then went on to Jabaquara Atlético Clube in Brazils 4th league. He became Champion with this team and then went on to Red Bull Brasil. With this team he was two times promoted. In summer 2011 he and his team mate Alex Rafael were invited to train with F.C. Red Bull Salzburg. He played two test matches for Salzburg (Bayer 04 Leverkusen, Olympique Lyon). He convinced the club and so he was signed for Red Bull Salzburg. After some matches as substitution he played his first match in the starting team on 21 August 2011 in a league match versus S.K. Sturm Graz.

Honours
 1x Champion Campeonato Paulista Série B (4th league): 2009
 1x Champion Campeonato Paulista Série A3 (3rd league): 2010
 1x Finale Copa Paulista: 2010

1986 births
Living people
Brazilian footballers
FC Red Bull Salzburg players

Jefferson Cardoso


Signed Number representations are used to solve the problem of representing negative integers in binary. The problem of trying to store the negative sign (−) of a binary number is that there are no states left to use with which to represent the negative assignment. It is not possible to just use 'off' for minus and 'on' for plus because the computer would have no way of knowing whether it was a digit or a sign.

To overcome this issue computer designers invented two methods for storing negative binary numbers: sign-and-magnitude and 2's complement. These produce alternative representations for signed numbers.

Sign-and-magnitude
Sign and Magnitude works by changing the most significant bit (MSB - the first digit) to a 1 if the number is negative, and reduce the number by one, for example:

0000 0010 (2)
will become...
1000 0010 (-2)

This method of storing negative binary numbers does not work because binary arithmetic won't work.

1's complement

1's Complement works by swapping 1s for 0s and the 0s for 1s for example:
0000 0010 (2)
will become...
1111 1101 (-2)

Much like the sign-and-magnitude method this is easily defined as a negative number because its most significant bit is 1

2's complement
2's Complement is a more difficult way of storing negatives. There are four steps for it:

 Your number must not be using the most significant (leftmost) bit. If it is, you need another bit to represent it.
Find the positive binary number (e.g. 8base 10 = 0000 1000base 2).
 Swap the 1s for 0s and the 0s for 1s (e.g. 0000 1000base 2 becomes 1111 0111base 2).
This is known as "flipping the bits", or applying logical NOT to the original base 2 representation.
 Add 1 (e.g. 1111 0111base 2 + 1base 2 = 1111 1000base 2).

This method is liked because:

 It's like sign and magnitude; a negative number starts with a 1 and a positive number starts with a 0.
 The binary arithmetic will work.
 There is only one value for 0 (0000 0000base 2).

Computer science
Binary arithmetics

Signed number representations


A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well.  Some boots are held on with bootstraps or bootlaces.  Some also have spats or gaiters to keep water out.  Most have a very strong boot sole, the bottom part of a boot.

Types of boots
 Rain boots (or rubber boots) are made from rubber or plastic. Rain boots protect a person's feet from water and rain. People who work on fishing boats and farmers wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in chemical factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals.

 Winter boots are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as Canada and Sweden wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as leather, fabric, or plastic. Winter boots are insulated with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry.

 Work boots (or "construction boots") are designed for people who work in construction or factory jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of steel in the sole to protect the foot from sharp nails. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site.

 Fashion boots are boots that are worn for style than for protection. Usually the term is used for women's boots. These kind of boots come in many heights, where the top ends at the ankle, the knee, or the thigh. The ones that are tall are usually closed by a zipper or can stretch for putting it on easily. This is because using shoe laces would take time for the taller types.

Other websites

Basic English 850 words

Boot


Albiorix is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by Holman, et al. in 2000, and given the designation S/2000 S 11.

Albiorix is the biggest member of the Gallic group of non-spherical moons.

It was named in August 2003 from one of the Celtic names for the god of tribal unity, better known as Toutatis.

Albiorix orbits Saturn at a distance of about 16,000,000 km and its diameter is estimated at 32 kilometers, assuming an albedo of 0.04. A day on Albiorix is 13 hours and 19 minutes long.

The diagram illustrates its orbit in relation to other prograde non-spherical moons of Saturn. The eccentricity of the orbits is represented by the yellow segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre.

Different colours seen recently suggest a possibility of a big crater, suggesting that Erriapo and Tarvos could be pieces of Albiorix following a near break-up collision with another body.

Other websites
 David Jewitt pages

Saturn's moons

Albiorix (moon)


The power spectrum of a signal is the power or more simply the energy of the signal at each frequency that it contains. It can also be considered as the range or spectra of energy or power of the given signal derived from the signals' range of frequencies. For example, white noise, which contains all frequencies at the same power, has a flat power spectrum. The power spectrum of the sound of the bottom key on a piano would have a high value at the frequency corresponding to its note, and low values elsewhere.

Electronics

Power spectrum


Sheffield is a big city in a region called South Yorkshire in the North of England. There are 534,500 people living there. Sheffield is in the middle of lots of hills. The city centre is where the River Sheaf meets the River Don, and Sheffield gets its name from the River Sheaf. The city is east of the Peak District National Park. It is estimated that Sheffield has over two million trees, which is more than any city in Europe per each person. 61% of the city is green space, such as parks and forests.

The area of Sheffield used to be the Anglo-Saxon shire of Hallamshire, the city itself was founded later.

Industry
Sheffield is famous for making cutlery (like knives and spoons). People in Sheffield have made cutlery for a very long time (a Sheffield-made knife is referred to in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales", a book from the Middle Ages). Sheffield is also famous for making steel. Benjamin Huntsman discovered the crucible technique for making steel in 1740. In 1856, Henry Bessemer invented the Bessemer converter steelmaking furnace. Henry moved to Sheffield to make steel. Later, in 1912, Harry Brearley invented stainless steel in Sheffield.

Sports
The first football team in the world is from Sheffield, Sheffield F.C., set up in 1857. Sheffield currently has two big professional football teams, Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United.

Bands
There are lots of famous bands from Sheffield. Some of them are Pulp, the Human League, Def Leppard and the Arctic Monkeys. Michael Palin is also from Sheffield.

There is a big arena called the Motorpoint Arena in Sheffield. WWE have visited this arena to do live shows.

Other websites

Sheffield


Filipe Samuel Magaia (7 March 1937 – 10/11 October 1966) was a Mozambican politician, guerrilla leader and Secretary of Defense for the Mozambican FRELIMO organisation during the Mozambican War of Independence. After a number of years fighting, Magaia was assassinated by a Frelimo soldier in the employ of the Portuguese.

Magaia was born in Mocuba, in the Zambezia Province of Mozambique, the son of Samuel Guenguene Magaia, a health practitioner, and his wife Albinic Ana Perreira Magaia. During his years as commander of the FRELIMO forces, Magaia sought assistance from Algeria in training his men. He outlined the strategy of the guerrilla forces as one of the "gradual wearing down, morally, psychologically and materially, of the enemy forces, and of the entire machinery that sustained the colonisation of Mozambique". He commanded forces during the initial attacks at Xai Xai, and later in the provinces of Niassa and Tete, using groups of ten to fifteen soldiers in quick guerrilla raids, advancing south towards Meponda and Mandimba, linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the Republic of Malawi. Enjoying freedom to move in the countryside, Magaia was able to increase his attack forces to the size of 100 soldiers in some cases, however on 10 or 11 October 1966, on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines, Magaia was shot dead by Lourenço Matola, a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese.

Notes

1937 births
1966 deaths
People from Zambezia Province
Mozambican independence activists
FRELIMO politicians
Assassinated Mozambican politicians
People murdered in Tanzania
Deaths by firearm in Tanzania
1966 murders in Africa
Murder in Tanzania
1960s assassinated politicians

Filipe Samuel Magaia


An arborist, tree surgeon, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.

Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry).  An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.

Scope of work

In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).

Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.

An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem.  These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.

Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.

Qualifications

Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others.  Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential.  Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or perhaps consultation and report writing.  All these disciplines are related and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, but not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.

Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location.  An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure continuous improvement of skills and techniques.

In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.  There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.

In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.

In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.

In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA).  The USA and Canada also have college-based training which if passed will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist.  The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.

Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ) designed by the International Society of Arboriculture was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.

In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship program have to meet the provincial regulations (for example in BC WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.

Cultural practices

Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes.  Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").   Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work.  To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.

There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers who simply "trim trees".  Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees.  One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs.  Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.

Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of some photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.

In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing

Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.

Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past.  Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.

Legal issues
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value; and "neighbor" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees.

Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.  Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed, or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.  In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities, and can result in legal action including fines. Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborist's professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.  Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example.  Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case.  Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.

Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are afforded particular legal protection.  In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.

Organizations
Australia Limited, a non-profit organisation, is the peak national organisation promoting and representing tree workers, arborists, professional tree management and urban forestry throughout Australia and the Asia Pacific region.
The Tree Care Industry Association, formerly the National Arborist Association, is a public and professional non-profit organization for the arboriculture field. It has more than 2,000 member companies representing over a dozen countries. TCIA's Accreditation program certifies that tree care companies that have been inspected and accredited based on adherence to industry standards for performance and safety; maintenance of trained, professional staff; and dedication to ethics and quality in business practices.  In addition, they provide safety and educational programs, guidelines for tree service operations, ANSI A300 tree pruning standards, and consumer resources.
The International Society of Arboriculture, a non-profit organization, maintains a list of ISA Certified Arborists who have passed a written exam and demonstrated a basic level of knowledge in arboriculture.  There are also additional classifications of certified arborists with Certified Arborist/Utility Specialist for those who work near power lines, and Certified Arborist/Municipal Specialist for those who deal mostly with community trees. Other certifications exist for Certified Tree Workers, and the highest level of certification, the Board Certified Master Arborist.
The American Society of Consulting Arborists is an organization whose membership is exclusive to those with either a certain level of industry experience, plus higher educational experience or continuing education; some members may achieve a higher status by fulfilling the requirements to become a Registered Consulting Arborist. Consulting arborists generally specialize in the areas of ethics, law, land planning and development, and tree valuation, among others. Consulting arborists are often called on for legal testimony and report writing in various instances where a particular authority on trees is necessary for consequent actions.
In the UK, the professional body representing the sector is the Institute of Chartered Foresters. The trade body representing arborists is the Arboricultural Association. The association maintain a register of consultants who have demonstrated a high level of technical arboricultural knowledge, and operate an Approved Contractor scheme. This scheme assesses both the technical competence and business practices of arboricultural contractors.
The European Arboricultural Council is a European group of arboriculture organizations from various countries.
 Plant Amnesty is a public education and advocacy group, based in Seattle, dedicated to promoting proper pruning methods.  Founded in 1987, Plant Amnesty became an international resource for arborists and their clients in the mid-1990s.

In literature
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside.  As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.

Notable arborists
Some noteworthy arborists include:
 Francis A. Bartlett – founded The Bartlett Tree Experts Co., the world's leading scientific tree and shrub care company in 1907.
 John Chapman – pioneering U.S. frontier nurseryman and orchardist, commonly known as Johnny Appleseed.
 Canopy Cat Rescue – rescues domestic cats from tall trees, appears on Treetop Cat Rescue.
 Sebastian Junger – author of Perfect Storm and War, before becoming a journalist, was an arborist in Massachusetts.
 Chuck Leavell – two-time recipient of the Georgia Tree Farmer of the Year award, and author of the children's book, The Tree Farmer. In 2006 Leavell was appointed by Governor Sonny Perdue to the Georgia Land Conservation Council.  He is also an accomplished jazz pianist and keyboardist for the Rolling Stones.
 Alex Shigo – the father of modern arboriculture.

Gallery

See also

 Chainsaw safety clothing
 Lumberjack
 Master arborist
 Tree shaping

References

External links
 American Society of Consulting Arborists
 International Society of Arboriculture
 Arboricultural Association
 Tree Care Industry Association
 Arboriculture Australia Limited

 01
Botanists by field of research
.
Forestry occupations
Forest management
Trees

Arborist


The Irish Singles Chart is the Republic of Ireland music industry standard singles popularity chart issued weekly by the Irish Recorded Music Association and compiled on behalf of the IRMA by Chart-Track. Chart rankings are based on sales, which are compiled through over-the-counter retail data captured electronically each day from retailers' EPOS systems. Currently all major record stores and over forty independents submit data for the charts, accounting for over 80% of the market, according to Chart-Track. A new chart is compiled and officially released to the public by the Irish Recorded Music Association on Friday at noon. Each chart is dated with the "week-ending" date of the previous Thursday (i.e. the day before issue).

Singles Chart

Irish Singles Chart


The black-headed heron (Ardea melanocephala) is a wading bird of the heron family Ardeidae, common throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. It is mainly resident, but some west African birds move further north in the rainy season.

This species usually breeds in the wet season in colonies in trees, reedbeds or cliffs. It builds a bulky stick nest, and lays 2–4 eggs.

It often feeds in shallow water, spearing fish or frogs with its long, sharp bill. It will also hunt well away from water, taking large insects, small mammals, and birds. It will wait motionless for its prey, or slowly stalk its victim.

The black-headed heron is a large bird, standing 85 cm tall, and it has a 150 cm wingspan. It is nearly as large as the grey heron, which it resembles in appearance, although it is generally darker. Its plumage is largely grey above, and paler grey below. It has a powerful dusky bill.

The flight is slow, with the neck retracted. This is characteristic of herons and bitterns, and distinguishes them from storks, cranes, and spoonbills, which extend their necks. The white underwing coverts are striking in flight.

The call is a loud croaking.

References

External links
 Black-headed heron – Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds

Gallery

Ardea (genus)
Herons
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
Birds described in 1826
Taxa named by John George Children

Black-headed heron


The Year without a Summer was 1816.  The year before that, in 1815, a volcano had erupted in the Dutch East Indies.  The volcano's name was Mount Tambora.  The volcanic ash from the eruption spread across the world.  It darkened the sky, and made the Earth's surface colder.

In much of Europe and northern North America, summer never came. In New England and Germany, there were frozen lakes in the middle of June.  Flowers never bloomed, and every day was cold. These places and China suffered famine.

1816
Weather by year

Year without a Summer


Henry V of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (; 10 November 1489 – 11 June 1568), called the Younger, (Heinrich der Jüngere), a member of the House of Welf, was Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and ruling Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1514 until his death. The last Catholic of the Welf princes, he was known for the large number of wars in which he was involved and for the long-standing affair with his mistress Eva von Trott.

Life
He was born at Wolfenbüttel Castle, the son of Duke Henry IV of Brunswick-Lüneburg, known as Henry the Elder, and his consort Catherine, a daughter of the Griffin duke Eric II of Pomerania. His father had received the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the course of a subdivision of the Brunswick lands in 1495.

Henry V succeeded as ruling Prince of Wolfenbüttel when his father was killed in a 1514 battle during the Saxon feud. He soon entered into the Great Diocesan Feud with the Prince-Bishopric of Hildesheim under John IV of Saxe-Lauenburg, against whom he lost the Battle of Soltau in 1519. However, the duke profited from his support of Charles V in the succession as Holy Roman Emperor, and in 1523 the Bishopric had to cede large territories to Wolfenbüttel. Henry remained loyal to the Imperial authority during the German Peasants' War, and in 1528 he assisted Emperor Charles V in the War of the League of Cognac against King Francis I of France in Italy.

While Henry initially leaned towards Protestantism and supported parts of the Augsburg Confession in 1530, he remained Catholic. He was involved in an ongoing conflict with the Protestant Electorate of Saxony, and strongly protested when the Calenberg branch of Brunswick-Lüneburg switched to Protestantism. In 1541, under a pretext but actually to gain the fertile mines of Rammelsberg, Henry attacked the Protestant Imperial City of Goslar. When in 1542 Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Landgrave Philip I of Hesse as members of the Protestant Schmalkaldic League came to the help of Goslar, they managed to occupy the complete Principality of Wolfenbüttel. Henry fled to the Duchy of Bavaria.

In 1545, Henry recruited an army with the support of Emperor Charles and managed to take control of parts of Wolfenbüttel. But in October he was captured by Hessian troops and kept prisoner, until the Emperor finally defeated the Schmalkaldic League at the Battle of Mühlberg, freed Henry and reinstated him in 1547. In 1550 the mercenaries of Count Volrad of Mansfeld occupied Wolfenbüttel, and Henry again fled, this time to the Emperor's troops at Metz. But Mansfeld soon left, and Henry returned. In 1553, he allied himself with Elector Maurice of Saxony against Margrave Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, who had attacked Wolfenbüttel. This conflict culminated in the bloody Battle of Sievershausen, in which Maurice as well as Henry's two eldest sons were killed. The battle, however, ended in a victory for Henry.

Henry finally converted to Protestantism under the influence of his only remaining son, Julius, and died in 1568 at Wolfenbüttel.

Family

Henry firstly married Maria (died 1541), daughter of Henry, Count of Württemberg, former Count of Montbéliard, in 1515. They had the following children:
 Margaret (1516–1580), married John of Poděbrady, Duke of Münsterberg and Oels, in 1561
 Andrew (c. 1517–c. 1517)
 Catherine (c. 1518–1574), married Margrave John of Brandenburg-Küstrin, son of Elector Joachim I Nestor of Brandenburg in 1537
 Mary (c. 1521–1539), became Abbess of Gandersheim in 1532
 Charles Victor (1525–1553), killed in the Battle of Sievershausen
 Philip (1527–1553), killed in the Battle of Sievershausen
 Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1528–1589), Prince of Wolfenbüttel from 1568
 Clara (1532–1595), succeeded her sister Mary as Abbess of Gandersheim in 1539, later married Duke Philip II of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Prince of Grubenhagen, in 1560

In 1556 Henry secondly married Sophia Jagiellon (died 1575), daughter of King Sigismund I of Poland, in 1556. The second marriage remained childless.

Henry's affair with his mistress Eva von Trott (1506–1567), a lady-in-waiting to his consort Maria of Württemberg, produced ten children [1522-1558]. When rumours about his amour spread, he pretended she had died and arranged for a feigned funeral at Gandersheim Abbey, while she hid in Liebenburg Castle. Eva and the duke continued to meet even after Maria's death. She likewise had to flee from the Brunswick lands during the Schmalkaldic War in 1543, but returned and retired to Hildesheim. The ducal affair inspired Martin Luther to write his libel Wider Hans Worst in 1541.

References

Sources
  Zedlers Universal-Lexicon, vol. 12, p. 777-778
 Braunschweigische Landesgeschichte im Überblick, Braunschweig 1977
  At the House of Welf site

1489 births
1568 deaths
German Lutherans
Princes of Wolfenbüttel
Converts to Lutheranism from Roman Catholicism
Middle House of Brunswick

Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg


Skinheads, named after their short haircuts, are members of a subculture that originated in Britain in late 1960s, where they were closely tied to the Rude Boys and the Mods. They shave their heads, because originally most of them were workers in factories and they had to be bald, so their hair could not get caught in the machines.

Traditional skinheads identify with the original skinhead movement ("The Spirit of '69") in music, style, and/or working class pride. Skinheads listen to ska, rocksteady, reggae, Oi! and punk music.

People who are not part of the group often see Skinheads as being politically close to the Neo-Nazi (or White Power) movement. Often Skinheads are seen as part of that movement. This is wrong, given that there are many young people in the movement who have no political views at all. Many Skinheads are also not violent, unless they are provoked.

Other websites
 Libcom.org: A Brief History of Skinhead Culture
 Reggae, Reggae, Reggae  The Skinhead Movement and Reggae Music
 Papaskin American skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Aussie Skins Australian skinhead web site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Oi! the Truth  History of Oi! according to Garry Bushell
 SHARP Skinheads  UK skinhead site with news, images, forum, etc.
 Skins and Punks in Indonesia! 1400 Photos

Lifestyles
Subculture

Skinhead


The Consegi declaration is a joint letter issued in September 2008 at a free and open technology convention, in which a number of government open source software representatives for the developing world (Brazil, South Africa, Venezuela, Ecuador, Cuba and Paraguay) state disappointment in the appeals by several of their ISO/IEC national bodies being dismissed by the ISO and IEC technical management boards in the Standardization of Office Open XML, and criticize the ISO/IEC for "inability to follow its own rules".

As a consequence of this, the signers assert that they will re-assess the credibility of ISO/IEC, and that they will no longer consider ISO standards to be automatically valid for government use.

See also
Standardization of Office Open XML

External links

Computer file formats
Free software culture and documents
ISO standards
XML-based standards

Consegi declaration


Typhoon Bopha (aka Typhoon Pablo) was a severe tropical cyclone in December 2012. It hit the Philippines. The typhoon struck Palau first. It destroyed homes and caused power outages.

The storm did a lot of damage to the Philippine island of Mindanao. Over 600 deaths were reported.

The names Pablo and Bopha were retired because of the large number of deaths and the great destruction.

2012 disasters
2012 in Asia
2012 in weather
2010s in the Philippines
Pacific typhoons
Deadly storms
Retired tropical cyclone names

Typhoon Bopha


Nigel Barker (born April 27, 1972 in London, England) is a fashion photographer most popular for being on America's Next Top Model since Cycle 2. He is still a judge and the 2nd main judge (only after Tyra Banks). Barker is a married man.

America's Next Top Model
Barker has been a judge on television show America's Next Top Model since Cycle 2, which premiered in 2004. He is a permanent judge. He is memorably known for being offended by several contestants, especially winners.

Cycle 7
Barker was offended by contestant CariDee English when she made a joke that he had stuck a stick inside his anus. English later apologized to Barker during judging, having written a letter that she read out. Barker forgave her but still made her enter the bottom two to teach her a lesson.

Cycle 9
Barker was supportive of Saleisha Stowers, a contestant that eventually became the winner. Stowers dated Barker so that he would put in good words for her in front of Tyra. Sometime another week was shown that Barker blinked at Stowers, which also make Stowers having a seducing action.

1972 births
Living people
British photographers

Nigel Barker


A Storage area network (SAN) is a computing solution for accessing and storing data. To the user, Storage Area Networks appear to be local to the operating system, but they are actually remote.

To understand the difference between a SAN and Network Attached Storage (NAS), the difference between the file system and storage must be made clear.

The file system is the interface that allows the user to access their data that is stored in physical storage (such as hard disks). From the point of view of the user, their data is saved as files. The file system takes care of storing the file data, which might actually be broken up into pieces and stored in different locations in storage.

On a personal computer, the file system and storage are on the same machine (Direct Attached Storage). In Network Attached Storage, the file system and storage are on a remote server. In a Storage Area Network, the file system is on the local machine, and the storage is on a remote machine.

Computing

Storage area network


Mikhail Alekseevich Kuzmin () ( – March 1, 1936) was a Russian poet, musician and novelist, a prominent contributor to the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.

Biography
Born into a noble family in Yaroslavl, Kuzmin grew up in St. Petersburg and studied music at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. He did not graduate, however, later explaining his move towards poetry thus: "It's easier and simpler. Poetry falls ready-made from the sky, like manna into the mouths of the Israelites in the desert." But he did not give up music; he composed the music for Meyerhold's famous 1906 production of Alexander Blok's play Balaganchik (The Fair Show Booth), and his songs were popular among the Petersburg elite: "He sang them, accompanying himself on the piano, first in various salons, including Ivanov's Tower, and then at The Stray Dog. Kuzmin liked to say of his work that 'it's only little music, but it has its poison.'"

One of his closest friends and major influences as a young man was the polyglot Germanophile aristocrat Georgy Chicherin (who later entered the diplomatic service and after the October Revolution became People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs), a passionate supporter of Wagner and Nietzsche. Another strong influence was his travels, first to Egypt and Italy and then to northern Russia, where he was deeply impressed by the Old Believers. Settling down in St. Petersburg, he became close to the circle around Mir iskusstva (World of Art). His first published writings appeared in 1905 and attracted the attention of Valery Bryusov, who invited him to contribute to his influential literary magazine Vesy (The Balance), the center of the Symbolist movement, where in 1906 he published his verse cycle "Alexandrian Songs" (modeled on Les Chansons de Bilitis, by Pierre Louÿs) and the first Russian novel with a homosexual theme, Wings, which instantly achieved notoriety and made him a widely popular writer. In 1908 appeared his first collection of poetry, Seti (Nets), which was also widely acclaimed. In the words of Roberta Reeder, "His poetry is erudite and the themes range from Ancient Greece and Alexandria to modern-day Petersburg."

In 1908 he was living with Sergei Sudeikin and his first wife Olga Glebova, whom he had married just the year before; when Olga discovered her husband was having an affair with Kuzmin, she insisted Kuzmin move out. "But in spite of this contretemps, Kuzmin, Sudeikin, and Glebova continued to maintain a productive, professional relationship, collaborating on many ventures—plays, musical evenings, poetry declamations—especially at the St. Petersburg cabarets." Kuzmin was also one of the favorite poets of Sudeikin's second wife, Vera, and her published album contains several of his manuscript poems.

Kuzmin met Yuri Yurkun, a poet, in 1913. The two men lived together with Yurkun's mother, and Yurkun's wife, Olga Arbenina, joined them, for a short while. Kuzmin and Yurkun's relationship lasted until Kuzmin's death. Kuzmin died in 1936 of pneumonia, two years before Yurkun and many other writers were arrested under the Stalinist regime and shot.

Kuzmin's association with the Symbolists was never definitive, and in 1910 he helped give rise to the Acmeist movement with his essay "O prekrasnoi yasnosti" (On beautiful clarity), in which he attacked "incomprehensible, dark cosmic trappings" and urged writers to be "logical in the conception, the construction of the work, the syntax... love the word, like Flaubert, be economical in means and niggardly in words, precise and genuine -- and you will find the secret of an amazing thing — beautiful clarity — which I would call clarism." He was no more a member of the group than he had been of the Symbolists, but he was personally associated with a number of them; in the years 1910-12 he lived in the famous apartment (called the Tower) of Vyacheslav Ivanov, who was another formative influence on the Acmeists, and he was a friend of Anna Akhmatova, for whose first book of poetry, Vecher [Evening], he wrote a flattering preface. (In later years Kuzmin incurred Akhmatova's enmity, probably because of a 1923 review she took as condescending, and she made him a prototype of one of the villains in her "Poem Without a Hero".)

The last volume of poetry Kuzmin published during his lifetime was The Trout Breaks the Ice (1929), a cycle of narrative poetry.

In the 1920s and 1930s Kuzmin made his living primarily as a literary translator, most notably of Shakespeare's plays. He died in poverty in Leningrad.

Legacy
Contemporary poet and critic Alexei Purin thinks the openly "tragic," socially oriented tradition of Russian literature has been exhausted and it needed to reorient itself along the more personal and artistic tradition exemplified by Kuzmin and Vladimir Nabokov. He quotes Innokenty Annensky as saying it was important to avoid "the persistent embrace of the 'like everyone'" and writes: "It is precisely the poetry of Annensky and Kuzmin that at the beginning of the twentieth century took the first and decisive step away from this 'like everyone' — in the direction of psychologically interpreted details and the everyday word, in the direction of living intonation — a step to be compared, perhaps, only with the Pushkin revolution. All succeeding Russian lyric poetry is unimaginable without it."

Mandelstam, in his 1916 review "On Contemporary Poetry," wrote:Kuzmin's classicism is captivating. How sweet it is to read a classical poet living in our midst, to experience a Goethean blend of "form" and "content," to be persuaded that the soul is not a substance
made of metaphysical cotton, but rather the carefree, gentle Psyche. Kuzmin's poems not only lend themselves easily to memorization, but also to recall, as it were (the impression of recollection after the very first reading), and they float up to the surface as if out of oblivion (Classicism)...And in his essay "A Letter about Russian Poetry" (1922), he said "Kuzmin brought dissident songs from the Volga shores, an Italian comedy from his own native Rome, and the entire history of European culture insofar as it had become music—from Giorgione's "Concert" at the Pitti Palace to the most recent tone poems of Debussy."

References

Translations
 Александрийские песни|Canções alexandrinas, Oleg Almeida (Trans.),  (n.t.) Revista Literária em Tradução, nº 2 (mar/2011), Fpolis/Brasil, ISSN 2177-5141.
 Canções alexandrinas: Tradução, apresentação e notas explicativas de Oleg Almeida. Arte Brasil: São Paulo, 2011, 50 p. .
M. Kuzmin, Wings, tr. H. Aplin (2007)
M. Kuzmin, 'The Venetian Madcaps', tr. M. Green, in Russian Literature Triquarterly; 7 (1973), p. 119-51.
M. Kuzmin, Wings: prose and poetry, tr. N. Granoien, M. Green (1972)
M. Kuzmin, Alexandrinische Gesange, tr. A. Eliasberg (1921).

External links

  Collection of Poems by Mikhail Kuzmin
  The Kuzmin collection compiled by John Barnstead
  Mikhail Kuzmin Selected Writings. Translated by Michael A. Green and Stanislav A. Shvabrin. Lewisburg: Bucknell UP: 2005
  Collection of Kuzmin's texts
  Essay on homosexual love in Russian literature, including in Kuzmin's writings, by Professor Simon Karlinsky

1872 births
1936 deaths
People from Yaroslavl
People from Yaroslavsky Uyezd
Male poets from the Russian Empire
Novelists from the Russian Empire
Translators from the Russian Empire
Members of the Union of the Russian People
Symbolist dramatists and playwrights
Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni
Musicians from the Russian Empire
Russian gay musicians
Russian gay writers
Russian LGBT dramatists and playwrights
Russian LGBT poets
Dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire
Gay dramatists and playwrights
Gay poets

Mikhail Kuzmin


The uvula is the punchbag-shaped object on the back of a throat, in the middle of the soft palate. Massaging the uvula causes the gag reflex which makes someone vomit.

Use
The uvula functions with the back of the throat, the palate, and air coming up from the lungs to create a number variety of different sounds.  Consonants involving sound from the uvula are not found in most dialects of English, though they are found in many Semitic, Caucasian, and Turkic languages, as well as several languages of Western Europe such as German, French and a few Celtic languages, where it is used to make a sound called the uvular trill.

Head (body part)

Uvula


Value is how much something is worth. Often the best way to find the value of something is to use the price that it can be sold for. However Oscar Wilde wrote that 'people know the price of everything but the value of nothing'- in other words true value does not depend on money alone.

In math, a value is a number which is concrete, something everyone can agree upon.  However people may disagree on the value of water, depending if you live in a desert or next to a river. Disagreements on the value of things can create fights between nations, political parties, religions, etc.

Basic English 850 words
Economics

Value