Ernst Rudolf Johannes Reuter  (29 July 1889 - 29 September 1953) was a German politician.

Reuter was born  in the small Prussian town of Apenrade (today Aabenraa in Denmark).

After getting his abitur in 1907 at the Gymnasium in Leer (East Frisia) he went to Marburg to study philosophy and social sciences. In 1909 he moved to the university in Munich. In Munich he first came in touch with the ideas of socialism. He returned to Marburg in the autumn of 1910 and in 1912 took the state examination there.

Ernst Reuter then worked as a private tutor in Bielefeld. He joined the Social Democratic Party in Bielefeld, but soon went to the SPD party executive to Berlin where he worked in the central education committee.

Reuter did not believe in war. He founded the pacifist, group "Neues Vaterland" .

In 1916 Reuter was ordered into the imperial army. He was a courier on the eastern front. He was seriously wounded and became a Russian prisoner. He studied Russian in the prison camp, followed the Bolsheviks, and was appointed People's Commissar in the Volga German Republic in December 1917.

But Reuter returned to Germany in November 1918. He joined the Communist Party (KPD) and became First Secretary of the Berlin city party in 1920. The KPD expelled him in January 1922, and later that year Reuter returned to SPD.

In 1926, after having been editor of the SPD newspaper "Vorwärts" ("Forwards"), he started working for the Berlin Transport Department. Reuter oversaw the creation of the "Berliner Verkehrs-Aktien-Gesellschaft" (BVG) in 1928. The BVG was a merger of all of the underground, tram, and bus companies in the city. At the time the BVG was the largest public transport company in the world. It still operates today, as part of the Berlin-Brandenburg Transport Group.

Reuter was mayor of Magdeburg from 1931 up to the take-over by the National Socialists; he belonged to the SPD parliamentary group in the Reichstag at the same time. After being arrested several times Ernst Reuter was freed from a concentration camp after help from English friends. He moved to live in the Netherlands, then Great Britain and Turkey. He worked as an adviser for the Turkish government in traffic matters. In 1938 he became a professor for urban development and town planning at the Administration Academy in Ankara.

Ernst Reuter returned to Berlin in November 1946 and became head of the city's traffic department again.

The Soviet veto stopped Reuter from becoming mayor in June 1947. But he played on a central role also under the acting Mayor Louise Schröder.

The elections set for 5 December 1948 could only take place in the western sectors. The SPD gained almost two-thirds of the votes so they were the strongest party. On 7 December the old city council met once again and elected Ernst Reuter as mayor. This choice was confirmed by the new parliament on 14 January 1949. Although the SPD lost about 20 per cent of the votes in the elections on 3 December 1950, Ernst Reuter remained in the office. The vote in parliament between Reuter and the CDU candidate Walther Schreiber had ended with a stalemate. Schreiber withdrew in favour of Reuter who took the new official title of Regierender Bürgermeister, at the head an all-party coalition with the from SPD, CDU and FDP.

Ernst Reuter stayed in charge of Berlin for another two years and eight months. He died of a heart attack in Berlin.

1889 births
1953 deaths
German mayors (Weimar Republic)
Members of the Reichstag (Weimar Republic)
People from former German territories
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Refugees from Nazism

Ernst Reuter


Charles Elson "Buddy" Roemer III (October 4, 1943 – May 17, 2021) was an American politician and banker. He served as the 52nd Governor of Louisiana from 1988 to 1992. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1981 to 1988.

Roemer was a candidate for the presidential nominations of the Republican Party and the Reform Party  in 2012.

In March 1991, while serving as governor, Roemer switched his party from the Democratic to the Republican Party. In 2012, he became a member of the Reform Party. A year later, Roemer switched parties to become a Republican again.

Early life
Roemer was born in Shreveport, Louisiana. His parents were Charles Elson "Budgie" Roemer, II and Adeline McDade. He was raised in Bossier City.

In 1964, he graduated from Harvard College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. In 1967, he received an MBA in finance from Harvard Business School. After college, Roemer returned to Louisiana to work in his father's computer business and later founded two banks. He was elected in 1972 as a delegate to the Louisiana Constitutional Convention held in 1973.

U.S. House of Representatives (1981-1988)
As a member of Congress, Roemer Louisiana's 1st congressional district in the northwestern section of the state, anchored about Shreveport and Bossier City. After his 1980 election victory, Roemer won congressional re-election without opposition in 1982, 1984, and 1986.

In Congress, Roemer frequently supported Reagan policy initiatives and fought with the Democratic congressional leadership, though he remained in the party. He also criticized then Democratic House leader Tip O'Neill of Massachusetts for being "too liberal".

After Roemer left the House to become governor, he was succeeded by his administrative assistant, Republican Jim McCrery.

Governor of Louisiana (1988-1992)

Roemer was one of a large number of Democratic candidates to challenge three-term incumbent governor Edwin Edwards. Roemer won the election by winning 33% of the vote compared to Edwards' 28%.

Roemer entered the governor's office on March 14, 1988. In October 1989, voters rejected a number of Roemer tax initiatives but approved a constitutional amendment for transportation improvements. Facing a $1.3 billion deficit in the state budget, his first job was eliminating the deficit. Roemer called a special session of the legislature to push an ambitious tax and fiscal reform program for state and local governments. He vowed to slash spending, abolish programs, and close state-run institutions. Voters rejected his proposals in a statewide constitutional referendum.

In March 1991, Roemer switched to the Republican Party just months before the state elections, apparently at the urging of Bush White House Chief of Staff John H. Sununu. Roemer lost his re-election after loosing the Republican primary to David Duke. Duke would soon loose to Edwin Edwards.

Roemer left office on January 13, 1992. He would run again for the Republican nomination for governor, but lost to Mike Foster.

2004 U.S. Senate election
In the summer of 2004, Roemer briefly considered entering the race to succeed retiring U.S. Senator John Breaux. Roemer shortly after decided not to run for the senate.

2012 presidential campaign

In January 2011, Roemer told Baton Rouge television station WAFB that he was considering a bid for the U.S. presidency in 2012. On July 21, 2011 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire, Roemer announced his entry as a candidate for the Republican nomination for President. On November 30, 2011, Roemer officially announced that he would seek the Americans Elect nomination. On February 23, 2012, Roemer dropped out of the GOP nomination to seek the Reform Party's nomination. On May 17, 2012, Americans Elect announced that it would not run a candidate in the 2012 presidential elections.

On May 31, 2012, he announced that he was ending his 2012 presidential campaign altogether, citing the lack of ballot access to be the reason

Personal life
Roemer was married to Cookie Delmer until they divorced. Then he married Patti Crocker until they divorced. He was married Scarlett Roemer. Roemer had three children with Delmer.

Roemer died at his home in Baton Rouge, Louisiana from problems caused by diabetes, aged 77.

References

More reading
Bridges, Tyler. The Rise of David Duke. University of Mississippi: Jackson, 1994.
Bridges, Tyler. Bad Bet on the Bayou: The Rise of Gambling in Louisiana, and the Fall of Governor Edwin Edwards. Farrar, Straus & Giroux: New York, 2001.
DuBos, Clancy. "Roemer's Redemption: The Former Governor Takes Another Shot at the Mansion." Gambit Weekly. September 19, 1995.
Gardner, James C., Jim Gardner and Shreveport, Vol. II. Shreveport: Ritz Publications, 2006, 285–288.
Gomez, Ron (2000), My Name Is Ron And I'm a Recovering Legislator: Memoirs of a Louisiana State Representative, Lafayette, Louisiana: Zemog Publishing,
Maginnis, John. Cross to Bear. Darkhorse Press, Baton Rouge, 1992.
 Reeves, Miriam G. The Governors of Louisiana. Gretna: Pelican Press, 1991.

Other websites

Buddy Roemer 2012 official campaign site
Former Governor profile  from the Louisiana Secretary of State
Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
Buddy Roemer (1987–1994), collected coverage at The New York Times
Buddy Roemer: 9 Questions with the GOP Presidential Candidate about Campaign Finance, the 99% and a Possible Split Ticket , Dan O'Mahony, Point Nine Nine, November 28, 2011
Buddy Roemer's Overshadowed New Hampshire Retail Experiment, Tyler Bridges, The Atlantic, December 20, 2011

1943 births
2021 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
American Methodists
Governors of Louisiana
Harvard University alumni
People from Shreveport, Louisiana
2012 United States presidential candidates
United States representatives from Louisiana
Republican Party (United States) politicians

Buddy Roemer


A Lord Protector is a British title for heads of state. It has two different meanings at different times in history.

The title of Lord Protector was first used by royal princes or other nobles who ruled as regent while the English monarch was still too young to rule or was not able to rule for some other reason, in this case the Lord Protector would make all the decisions for the country, and the young monarch would decide whether they agree or not.

The Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland was the title of the head of state during the Interregnum, following the first period of the Commonwealth under Council of State government. It was held by Oliver Cromwell (December 1653 – September 1658), leader of the roundheads and his son Richard Cromwell (September 1658 – May 1659) during what is now known as the Protectorate.

Heads of state
Titles

Lord Protector


The Coat o Airms o Zimbabwe wis adoptit on September 21, 1981, ane year an five month efter the naitional banner wis adoptit.

Description
The Coat o Airms depicts twa kudus on the left an richt, each standin on tap o an earthly moond componed o stalks o wheat, a pile o cotton, an a heid o maize.  At thair feet thare is an' a' a banner emblazoned wi the Zimbabwe naitional motto (Unity, Freedom, Wirk).  The shield itself is green, featurin 14 waves o alternatin white an blue waved lines at tap (chief argent), an an' a' at the centre o the shield a representation o the auncient Kinrick o Great Zimbabwe is shawn.  Placed ahint the shield are an agricultural hoe (tae the left) an an automatic rifle (tae the richt), baith o which are tied wi twistit strips o green an gowd silk.  On the crest, the red star an the Great Zimbabwe Bird, which are an aa depictit in the naitional banner, are shawn.

Meanings
The meanings o the Zimbabwe Coat f Airms are as follaes:
Kudus: the unity o Zimbabwe's various ethnic groups
Earthly Moond wi plants: the need tae always provide for the Zimbabweans
Motto Banner: the need tae maintain naitional unity an the preservation o freedom
Green Shield: the fertility o the kintra's soil an watter
Great Zimbabwe: the historical heritage o the naition
Hoe an Rifle: Celebrates the struggle for peace an democracy, as well as the proud wirk-ethic o the Zimbabwean fowk. Thay an aa seembolise the transition frae war tae peace.
Strips o Silk o gowd an green: the naitional financial enterprise ad the pertection o the economy
Red Star: hope for the future o Zimbabwe.  Conveys the revolutionary naitur o the 1980 achievement majority rule, an the struggle towards a fair, equal society.
Great Zimbabwe Bird: naitional identity
Blue an White Wavy Lines: Victoria Faws, watter which brings prosperity.

See also
 Coat o airms o Rhodesie

Naitional seembols o Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe

Coat o airms o Zimbabwe


Eléktrostatika mangrupa cabang élmu alam anu neuleuman fénoména éléktrostatik anu diakibatkeun ku muatan listrik stasionér. Fénoména ieu kaasup ti mimiti nu basajan mangrupa némpélna bungkus palastik kana leungeun anjeun sanggeus anjeun ngaleupaskeun éta bungkusan tina objék nu dibungkus nepi ka fénoména ruksakna komponén-komponén éléktronik salila dijieunna alat éléktronik, nepi ka cara gawéna mesin fotokopi. Éléktrostatik lumangsung lantaran numpukna muatan dina luhureun beungeut hiji objék nu paantel jeung beungeut ébjek lianna. Muatan-muatan ieu tetep némpél dina objék kasebut nepi ka maranéhna leupas kana taneuh atawa sacara gancang dinétralkeun ku hiji paleupas muatan: contona fénomena nu kasohor "kagét statik" dilantarankeun ku nétralisasi muatan nu numpuk dina awak akibat padantel jeun beungeut objék non-konduktif.

The electrostatic approximation
The validity of the electrostatic approximation rests on the assumption that the electric field is irrotational:

From Faraday's law, this assumption implies the absence or néar-absence of time-varying magnetic fields:

In other words, electrostatics does not require the absence of magnetic fields or electric currents. Rather, if magnetic fields or electric currents do exist, they must not change with time, or in the worst-case, they must change with time only very slowly. In some problems, both electrostatics and magnetostatics may be required for accurate predictions, but the coupling between the two can still be ignored.

Electrostatic potential
Because the electric field is irrotational, it is possible to express the electric field as the gradient of a scalar function, called the
electrostatic potential (also known as the voltage). An electric field, , points from regions of high potential, φ, to regions of low potential, expressed mathematically as

Konsep dasar

Coulomb's law
The fundamental equation of electrostatics is Coulomb's law, which describes the force between two point charges  and :

The electric field
The electric field (in units of volts per méter) is defined as the force (in newtons) per unit charge (in coulombs). From this definition and Coulomb's law, it follows that the magnitude of the electric field E créated by a single point charge Q is

Gauss's law
Gauss' law states that "the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within the surface". The constant of proportionality is the permittivity of free space.

Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation:

Alternatively, in differential form, the equation becomes

Poisson's equation
The definition of electrostatic potential, combined with the differential form of Gauss's law (above), provides a relationship between the potential φ and the charge density ρ:

This relationship is a form of Poisson's equation.

Laplace's equation
In the absence of unpaired electric charge, the equation becomes

which is Laplace's equation.

Triboelectric series

The triboelectric effect is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged when coming into contact with another, different, material, and are then separated. The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties. It is therefore not very predictable, and only broad generalizations can be made. Amber, for example, can acquire an electric charge by friction with a material like wool. This property, first recorded by Thales of Miletus, suggested the word "electricity", from the Greek word for amber, électròn. Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include glass rubbed with silk, and hard rubber rubbed with fur.

Electrostatic generators

The presence of surface charge imbalance méans that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which yields static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of contact electrification and the triboelectric effect. Rubbing two nonconductive objects generates a gréat amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two nonconductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together incréases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge.  Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith. Conductive objects only rarely generate charge imbalance except, for example, when a metal surface is impacted by solid or liquid nonconductors. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of éach object. Static electric generators, devices which produce very high voltage at very low current and used for classroom physics demonstrations, rely on this effect.

Note that the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultanéously in the same system.

See also: Friction machines, Wimshurst machines, and Van de Graaf generators.

Charge neutralization
Natural electrostatic phenomena are most familiar as an occasional annoyance in séasons of low humidity, but can be destructive and harmful in some situations (e.g. electronics manufacturing). When working in direct contact with integrated circuit electronics (especially delicate MOSFETs), or in the presence of flammable gas, care must be taken to avoid accumulating and suddenly discharging a static charge (see electrostatic discharge).

Charge induction
Charge induction occurs when a negatively charged object repels electrons from the surface of a second object. This créates a region in the second object that is more positively charged. An attractive force is then exerted between the objects. For example, when a balloon is rubbed, the balloon will stick to the wall as an attractive force is exerted by two oppositely charged surfaces (the surface of the wall gains an electric charge due to charge induction, as the free electrons at the surface of the wall are repelled by the negative balloon, créating a positive wall surface, which is subsequently attracted to the surface of the balloon). You can explore the effect with a simulation of the balloon and static electricity.

'Static' electricity

Before the yéar 1832, when Michael Faraday published the results of his experiment on the identity of electricities, physicists thought "static electricity" was somehow different from other electrical charges. Michael Faraday proved that the electricity induced from the magnet, voltaic electricity produced by a battery, and static electricity are all the same.

Static electricity is usually caused when certain materials are rubbed against éach other, like wool on plastic or the soles of shoes on carpet. The process causes electrons to be pulled from the surface of one material and relocated on the surface of the other material.

A static shock occurs when the surface of the second material, negatively charged with electrons, touches a positively-charged conductor.  Or Vice-Versa.

Static electricity is commonly used in xerography, air filters, and some automotive paints.
Static electricity is a build up of electric charges on two objects that have become separated from éach other.
Small electrical components can éasily be damaged by static electricity. Component manufactures use a number of antistatic devices to avoid this.

Static electricity and chemical industry

when different materials are brought together and then separated, an accumulation of electric charge can occur which léaves one material positively charged while the other becomes negatively charged. The mild shock that you receive when touching a grounded object after walking on carpet is an example of excess electrical charge accumulating in your body from frictional charging between your shoes and the carpet. The resulting charge build-up within your body can generate a strong electrical discharge. Although experimenting with static electricity may be fun, similar sparks créate severe hazards in those industries déaling with flammable substances, where a small electrical spark may ignite explosive mixtures with devastating consequences.

A similar charging mechanism can occur within low conductivity fluids flowing through pipelines - a process called flow electrification. Fluids which have low electrical conductivity (below 50 pico siemens/cm, where pico siemens/cm is a méasure of electrical conductivity), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivities above 50 pico siemens/cm are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge generation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pico siemens/cm is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid.

An important concept for insulating fluids is the static relaxation time. This is similar to the time constant (tau) within an RC circuit. For insulating materials, it is the ratio of the static dielectric constant divided by the electrical conductivity of the material. For hydrocarbon fluids, this is sometimes approximated by dividing the number 18 by the electrical conductivity of the fluid. Thus a fluid that has an electrical conductivity of 1 pico siemens /cm will have an estimated relaxation time of about 18 seconds. The excess charge within a fluid will be almost completely dissipated after 4 to 5 times the relaxation time, or 90 seconds for the fluid in the above example.

Charge generation incréases at higher fluid velocities and larger pipe diaméters, becoming quite significant in pipes 8 inches or larger. Static charge generation in these systems is best controlled by limiting fluid velocity. The British standard BS PD CLC/TR 50404:2003 (formerly BS-5958-Part 2) Code of Practice for Control of Undesirable Static Electricity prescribes velocity limits. Because of its large impact on dielectric constant, the recommended velocity for hydrocarbon fluids containing water should be limited to 1 m/sec.

Bonding and éarthing are the usual ways by which charge buildup can be prevented. For fluids with electrical conductivity below 10 pico siemens/cm, bonding and éarthing are not adequate for charge dissipation, and anti-static additives may be required.

Applicable Standards

1.BS PD CLC/TR 50404:2003 Code of Practice for Control of Undesirable Static Electricity

2.NFPA 77 (2007) Recommended Practice on Static Electricity

3.API RP 2003 (1998) Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents

See also
General
Electromagnetism
Electrostatic force
Ionic bond
Electronegativity
Electrostatic discharge

References

External links and further reading
General
RMCybernetics: High Voltage Physics . Homemade projects & experiments.
"Man's static jacket sparks alert". BBC News, 16 September 2005.
Static Electricity and Plastics
"Can shocks from static electricity damage your health? ". Wolfson Electrostatics News pages.
"Can Gravity be an Electrostatic Force? " A Quantum théory of Gravitation, 2005.
invisible wall of static:
"What is static electricity | Static Problems

Essays and books
William J. Beaty, "Humans and sparks; The Cause, Stopping the Pain, and 'Electric People". 1997.
William Cecil Dampier, "The theory of experimental electricity". Cambridge [Eng.] University press, 1905 (Cambridge physical series). xi, 334 p. illus., diagrs. 23 cm. LCCN 05040419 //r33

Konsép fisika dasar

Éléktrostatika


Dualism is the idea or theory that something (an object, an idea or the whole world) is split into two parts. These parts are separate from each other, and the thing cannot be divided up in any other way. The idea or theory that something cannot be split into any parts is called monism. The idea that something can be split into many parts is called pluralism.

In philosophy there are many kinds of dualism.
 In the philosophy of mind dualism means that the mind and the body are two very different things. Nothing that is part of the body can be part of the mind and nothing that is part of the mind can be part of the body. People like this sort of dualism because they think that the mind is too important or too strange to be part of the body. A contrasting idea is that the mind and body are the same thing or that mind is just another word for the brain. (See also René Descartes)
 In epistemology, dualism means that there is a barrier between a person and the world around them. This barrier splits the world into two for that person, into 'myself' and 'the world'. Each person can see, hear, taste, smell and touch the world but cannot know it directly. For example, somebody cannot know just by looking that things are made up of many atoms. This means that something could happen in the world that we would not know about because we could not see, hear, taste, smell or touch it. A non-dualist idea is that a person is just another part of the world and that there is no barrier. For example, it could be said that if somebody cannot see, hear, taste, touch or smell something then it does not affect them.

Dualism is also a common sense idea. For example, it is a form of dualism to say that a thing is either hot or cold, good or bad, mine or somebody else's, with no allowance for possible states in between.

Ditheism
In theology, dualism may also refer to duotheism, bitheism or ditheism. This the doctrine or belief that there are two independent divine beings or eternal principles, one good and the other evil. Examples of ditheism include Zoroastrianism, Wicca and Marcionism. Although the Bible mentions Satan, this is not ditheism as he is not equal to God, but merely an angel. (See Epistle of Jude, verse 6). Ditheism is not the same as dualism, but they are similar. Ditheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not imply any -theism (belief in a god) whatsoever. The Old Dualist-Religion of the Roma people called Romanipen is a simple belive in Devla-God and Beng-Satan.

References

Philosophical movements and positions
Theology

Dualism


Arthur Ashkin (September 2, 1922 – September 21, 2020) was an American scientist and Nobel laureate who worked at Bell Laboratories and Lucent Technologies. Ashkin has been considered by many as the father of optical tweezers,
for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics 2018 at age 96, becoming the oldest Nobel laureate until 2019 when John B. Goodenough was awarded at 97. He resided in Rumson, New Jersey.

Ashkin started his work on manipulation of microparticles with laser light in the late 1960s which resulted in the invention of optical tweezers in 1986. He also pioneered the optical trapping process that eventually was used to manipulate atoms, molecules, and biological cells. The key phenomenon is the radiation pressure of light; this pressure can be dissected down into optical gradient and scattering forces.

Early life and family
Arthur Ashkin was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1922, to a family of Ukrainian-Jewish background.  His parents were Isadore and Anna Ashkin. He had two siblings, a brother, Julius, also a physicist, and a sister, Ruth. One older sibling, Gertrude, died while young. The family home was in Brooklyn, New York, at 983 E 27 Street. Isadore (né Aschkinase) had emigrated to the United States from Odessa (then Russian Empire, now Ukraine), at the age of 18. Anna, five years younger, also came from today's Ukraine, then Galicia, Austro-Hungarian Empire. Within a decade of his landing in New York, Isadore had become a U.S. citizen and was running a dental laboratory at 139 Delancey Street in Manhattan.

Ashkin met his wife, Aline, at Cornell University, and they were married for over 60 years with three children and five grandchildren. She was a chemistry teacher at Holmdel High School, and their son Michael Ashkin, is an art professor at Cornell University.

Education
Ashkin graduated from Brooklyn's James Madison High School in 1940. He then attended Columbia University and was also a technician for Columbia's Radiation Lab tasked with building magnetrons for U.S. military radar systems. He joined the U.S. Army reserves on July 31, 1945. He continued working in the Columbia University lab. During this period, by Ashkin's own account, three Nobel laureates were in attendance.

Ashkin finished his course work and obtained his BS degree in physics at Columbia University in 1947. He then attended Cornell University, where he studied nuclear physics. This was during the era of the Manhattan Project, and Ashkin's brother, Julius Ashkin, was successfully part of it. This led to Arthur Ashkin's introduction to Hans Bethe, Richard Feynman and others who were at Cornell at the time.

He received his PhD degree at Cornell University in 1952, and then went to work for Bell Labs at the request and recommendation of Sidney Millman, who was Ashkin's supervisor at Columbia University.

Career
At Bell Labs, Ashkin worked in the microwave field until about 1960 to 1961, and then switched to laser research. His research and published articles at that time pertained to nonlinear optics, optical fibers, parametric oscillators and parametric amplifiers. Also, at Bell Labs during the 1960s, he was the co-discoverer of the photorefractive effect in the piezoelectric crystal.

Within various professional society memberships, Ashkin attained the rating of fellow in the Optical Society of America (OSA), the American Physical Society (APS), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He retired from Bell Labs in 1992 after a 40-year career during which he contributed to many areas of experimental physics. He authored many research papers over the years and held 47 patents. He was recipient of the Joseph F. Keithley Award For Advances in Measurement Science in 2003 and the Harvey Prize in 2004. He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1984 and to the National Academy of Sciences in 1996. He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2013. He continued to work in his home lab.

Besides optical tweezers, Ashkin is also known for his studies in photorefraction, second harmonic generation, and
non-linear optics in fibers.

Recent advances in physics and biology using optical micromanipulation include achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in atomic vapors at submillikelvin temperatures, demonstration of atom lasers, and detailed measurements on individual motor molecules.

Ashkin's work formed the basis for Steven Chu's work on cooling and trapping atoms, which earned Chu the 1997 Nobel Prize in physics.

Nobel Prize
On October 2, 2018, Arthur Ashkin was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on optical trapping. Ashkin "was honoured for his invention of 'optical tweezers' that grab particles, atoms, viruses and other living cells with their laser beam fingers. With this he was able to use the radiation pressure of light to move physical objects, 'an old dream of science fiction', the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said." He was awarded half of the Prize while the other half was shared between Gérard Mourou and Donna Strickland for their work on chirped-pulse amplification, a technique "now used in laser machining [that] enables doctors to perform millions of corrective laser eye surgeries every year".

At 96, Ashkin was the oldest Nobel Prize laureate to be awarded the prize, until John B. Goodenough received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2019 at the age of 97. He died on September 21, 2020, at the age of 98.

See also

 List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References

External links

Frontiers in Optics 2010. The Optical Society.

National Academy of Engineering: Member listing
National Academy of Sciences: Member listing
Ashkin's Book on Atom Trapping
Frederic Ives Medal
  including the Nobel Lecture on 8 December 2018 Optical Tweezers and their Application to Biological Systems

1922 births
2020 deaths
Scientists from Brooklyn
Nobel laureates in Physics
American Nobel laureates
21st-century American physicists
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Optical physicists
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Cornell University alumni
Scientists at Bell Labs
Laser researchers
Fellows of Optica (society)
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Jewish physicists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
People from Rumson, New Jersey
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army reservists

Arthur Ashkin


Russell Alan Hulse (born November 28, 1950) is an American physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with his thesis advisor Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr., "for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation".

Biography
Hulse was born in New York City and graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and the Cooper Union. He received his PhD in physics from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1975.

While working on his PhD dissertation, he was a scholar in 1974 at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico of Cornell University. There he worked with Taylor on a large-scale survey for pulsars.  It was this work that led to the discovery of the first binary pulsar.

In 1974, Hulse and Taylor discovered binary pulsar PSR B1913, which is made up of a pulsar and black companion star. Neutron star rotation emits impulses that are extremely regular and stable in the radio wave region and is nearby condensed  material body gravitation (non-detectable in the visible field). Hulse, Taylor, and other colleagues have used this first binary pulsar to make high-precision tests of general relativity, demonstrating the existence of gravitational radiation. An approximation of this radiant energy is described by the formula of the quadrupolar radiation of Albert Einstein (1918).

In 1979, researchers announced measurements of small acceleration effects of the orbital movements of a pulsar. This was initial proof that the system of these two moving masses emits gravitational waves.

Later years

After receiving his PhD, Hulse did postdoctoral work at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia. He moved to Princeton, where he has worked for many years at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. He has also worked on science education, and in 2003 joined the University of Texas at Dallas as a visiting professor of physics and of mathematics and science education.

In 1993, Hulse and Taylor shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the first binary pulsar.

Hulse was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2003, and is cited in the American Men and Women of Science.

In 2004, Hulse joined University of Texas at Dallas and became the Founding Director of UT Dallas Science and Engineering Education Center (SEEC).

In July 2007 Hulse joined the Aurora Imaging Technology advisory board.

References

External links
  including the Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1993 The Discovery of the Binary Pulsar

1950 births
Living people
20th-century American astronomers
American relativity theorists
American Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Physics
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
The Bronx High School of Science alumni
Cooper Union alumni
University of Texas at Dallas faculty
University of Massachusetts Amherst College of Natural Sciences alumni
Scientists from New York City

Russell Alan Hulse


Wood grain describes the ,  and appearance of the wood . This is often important in its effect on woodworking techniques (e.g. against the grain).

In describing the alignment of the wood in the tree a distinction may be made. Basic grain descriptions and types include:
 straight - grain which runs in a single direction along the cut wood, a product of a straight growing tree
 cross - grain in which some cells grow out from the major growth axis of the tree
 spiral - grain which develops as the trunk of the tree twists in development
 interlocked (roey grain) A step beyond spiral grain occurring when growth rings in a twisting trunk develop misaligned grain

In addition, there are a few special grain alignments. Their rarity often promotes the value of both the raw material, and the finished work it becomes a part of. These include:

 bird's eye
 quilted
 fiddleback
 curly
 tiger

In describing the application of a woodworking technique to a given piece of wood, the direction of the technique might be:
 with the grain
 against the grain
 across the grain

In a wider sense, the term grain may also be applied to the orientation of the cut, the way a given piece of wood has been sawn:
 flat-grain: flat-sawn or plain sawn,
 edge grain: quarter-sawn or rift-sawn or straight-grained, and
 end grain.

Wood

Wood grain


The Inter-American Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials  (CIFTA), originally the Inter-American Convention Against Illicit Firearms Trafficking in the Americas, is an international firearms control treaty.

History
CIFTA as a program was approved during the First Plenary Session of the OAS held on November 13, 1997. Its purpose was to establish a regional standard for the control of the illicit manufacturing and trafficking in firearms: the Inter-American Convention against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives and Other Related Materiales. CIFTA emphasizes the need for authorizations or licenses of export, imports and transit; the reinforcement of the checkpoints for exports, amongst other things. The Convention thus seeks to promote and facilitate the cooperation and exchange of information and experiences between OAS Member States. The Convention established a Consultative Committee gathering a representative for each State Party in order to guarantee its implementation, to promote the exchange of information, to facilitate cooperation and foster training between States.

The treaty entered into force in 1998.

Membership
As of 2013, the treaty has been ratified by 31 of the 34 states in the OAS. The states that have not ratified the treaty are Canada, Jamaica, and the United States. Each of the three non-ratifying states are signatories to it.

United States

U.S. President Barack Obama has proposed that the U.S. Senate ratify CIFTA.
Opponents are concerned that the measures contained within CIFTA could criminalize activities such as reloading ammunition if they are done without a license. Other provisions make unlicensed modification to any weapon a serious crime. Furthermore, there are provisions that expand infractions to larger groups of people effectively holding an organization responsible for the actions of a single member.

See also
 Arms trafficking
 Assault Weapons Ban and Law Enforcement Protection Act of 2007
 Firearm case law
 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act
 Gun (Firearm) laws in the United States (by state)
 Gun Control Act of 1968
 Gun politics in the United States
 Political arguments of gun politics in the United States
 Organization of American States

References

External links
 OAS Disarmament Page Committee on Hemispheric Security

Treaties concluded in 1997
Organization of American States treaties
Treaties entered into force in 1998
Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of the Bahamas
Treaties of Barbados
Treaties of Belize
Treaties of Bolivia
Treaties of Brazil
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Dominica
Treaties of the Dominican Republic
Treaties of Ecuador
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Grenada
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Guyana
Treaties of Haiti
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Peru
Treaties of Saint Kitts and Nevis
Treaties of Saint Lucia
Treaties of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago
Treaties of Suriname
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of Venezuela
Arms trafficking treaties
Firearm laws
1997 in Washington, D.C.

CIFTA


The term "mileage" refers to distance traveled. It often refers to distance per unit of fuel, such as miles per gallon (mpg) or litres per 100 kilometres (L/100 km). In the U.S., the fuel efficiency of motorized vehicles (such as cars, trucks, or motorcycles) is measured in mpg, as miles per U.S. gallon of gasoline. However, in the UK, the fuel efficiency is often measured in litres of fuel used per 100 kilometres, or in miles per imperial gallon.

Related pages
 U.S. customary units
 imperial units

Measurement

Mileage


Ann Margaret Veneman (born June 29, 1949) is an American attorney who served as the fifth executive director of UNICEF from 2005 to 2010. She previously served as the 27th United States secretary of agriculture from 2001 to 2005. Veneman served for the entire first term of President George W. Bush, and she left to take the UNICEF position. Appointed by the U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan on January 18, 2005, she took over the post on May 1, 2005. A lawyer, Veneman has practiced law in Washington, DC and California, including being a deputy public defender. She has also served in other high-level positions in both the state and the federal government of the United States, including being appointed secretary of the California Department of Food and Agriculture, serving from 1995 to 1999, as well as United States deputy secretary of agriculture, serving from 1991 to 1993. Throughout her public career, Veneman was the first woman to serve in a number of positions, including secretary of agriculture, deputy secretary of agriculture, and California's secretary of food and agriculture. She was also just the second woman to lead UNICEF, following her predecessor, Carol Bellamy.

Veneman serves as a co-leader of the Nutrition and Physical Activity Initiative at the Bipartisan Policy Center. She is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.

Early life and education
Veneman was raised on a peach farm in Modesto, California. Her father, John Veneman, was former undersecretary of Health, Education and Welfare and member of the California State Assembly.  She earned her bachelor's degree in political science from the University of California, Davis, a Master of Public Policy from the Richard & Rhoda Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California, Berkeley, and a Juris Doctor degree from the University of California, Hastings College of the Law.  She has also been awarded honorary doctoral degrees from California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo (2001); Lincoln University (Missouri) (2003); Delaware State University (2004) and Middlebury College (2006).

Legal, political and corporate career

Veneman began her legal career as a staff attorney with the General Counsel's office of the Bay Area Rapid Transit District in Oakland, California, in 1976.  In 1978, she returned to Modesto, where she served as a Deputy Public Defender.  In 1980, she joined the Modesto law firm of Damrell, Damrell and Nelson, where she was an associate and later a partner.

Veneman joined the United States Department of Agriculture's Foreign Agricultural Service in 1986, serving as Associate Administrator until 1989. During this time she worked on the Uruguay Round talks for the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). She subsequently served as Deputy Undersecretary of Agriculture for International Affairs and Commodity Programs from 1989 to 2020. From 1991 to 1993, she served as United States Department of Agriculture's Deputy Secretary, the first woman appointed as the Department's second-highest-ranking official. At this point Veneman took a break from political and administrative office to practice with the law firm and lobby group Patton, Boggs & Blow and also served on several boards of directors and advisory groups.

In 1995, Veneman re-entered government, when she was appointed Secretary of the California Department of Food and Agriculture, again being the first woman to hold the position. From 1999 to 2001, Veneman was an attorney with Nossaman LLP, where she focused her attention on food, agriculture, environment, technology, and trade related issues. On 20 January 2001 she was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate and sworn in as Secretary of Agriculture, a position she held until January 20, 2005.

Personal life and distinctions

Veneman has received several awards and distinctions throughout her career.  In 2009, Veneman was named to the Forbes 100 Most Powerful Women list, ranking 46th.

In 2009, she received the Award of Distinction from the University of California Davis College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Veneman is an Honorary Member of Rotary International (2008), received Sesame Workshop's Leadership Award for Children (2006), and a Humanitarian Award from the United Nations Association of New York (2006). In 2004, Veneman was honored with an Honorary Membership with the U.S. State Department's U.S.-Afghan Women's Council and an Honorary Membership with Sigma Alpha Sorority, the national professional agriculture sorority. She was also awarded the Main Street Partnership John Chaffee Award for Distinguished Public Service, the American PVO Partners Award for Service to People in Need, and the Grape & Wine Public Policy Leadership Award.  Additional awards include the Richard E. Lyng Award for Public Service (2005), the UC Berkeley Goldman School of Public Policy Alumni of the Year Award (2003), the California State Fair's Agriculturalist of the Year Award (2003), and the National 4-H Alumni Recognition Award. In 2002, Veneman received the California Council for International Trade Golden State Award, the Dutch American Heritage Award, Junior Statesman Foundation Statesman of the Year Award and the United Fresh Fruit & Vegetable Distinguished Service Award.  In 2001, Veneman received the Outstanding Woman in International Trade Award, the UC Davis Outstanding Alumna of the Year Award and the Food Research and Action Center Award.  In 1995, she received a Cal Aggie Alumni Citation for Excellence and the Kiwanis Club of Greater Modesto National Farm-City Week Award.

Veneman is currently a board member of Malaria No More, a New York-based nonprofit that was launched at the 2006 White House Summit with the goal of ending all deaths caused by malaria.  Veneman is also co-chair of Mothers Day Every Day, along with former U.S. President Bill Clinton's Health and Human Services Secretary Donna Shalala. The "campaign was launched by CARE and the White Ribbon Alliance supporting access of basic health care and maternal services for women around the world." Veneman also serves as a board member of the Close Up Foundation, a civic education organization, and has served previously on a number of advisory councils and committees, particularly those involving higher education.

In 2002, Veneman was diagnosed with breast cancer and received successful treatment. Veneman is also a second cousin of Star Wars creator George Lucas.

Record as Secretary of Agriculture

As the 27th Secretary of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Veneman managed a department of 111,000 employees. Sworn in as the first female Secretary of USDA on January 20, 2001, her tenure included record farm income, record agricultural exports and the creation of stronger pest and disease protection systems for the country.

U.S. Senator Tom Harkin said at Veneman's confirmation hearing, "I was encouraged by the nomination of Ann Veneman to serve as Secretary of Agriculture. …She has solid experience and credentials in administering food and agriculture programs both here in Washington, rising to Deputy Secretary of Agriculture, and in her home state of California, where she served as Secretary of the California Department of Food and Agriculture."

BluePrint for Agriculture

To help lead USDA into the 21st century, in 2001 Veneman released a blueprint for agriculture, Food and Agricultural Policy: Taking Stock for the New Century. "This publication outlines emerging trends in agriculture, with a focus on farm-sector policy, trade expansion, infrastructure enhancement, conservation and the environment, rural communities, nutrition and food assistance, and USDA program integration."

Protection of Agriculture and the Food Supply

Within weeks after taking office, Veneman confronted the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in Europe, prompting stronger sanitary and phytosanitary measures. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, additional protections were implemented.  She also provided strong leadership in protecting public health and animal health during outbreaks of avian influenza and exotic Newcastle disease in poultry, both of which were quickly eradicated. USDA also confronted various food safety recalls, prompting Veneman to take several actions to strengthen USDA's regulatory oversight and protections.

On December 23, 2003, Veneman announced the discovery of a single cow with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or mad cow disease, in Washington State.  This would be the very first incident of mad cow disease in the United States. The cow was determined to be of Canadian origin. After taking initial steps in response, one week later, on December 30, 2003, Veneman announced additional protective measures to be put into place. [4] These included a ban on "downer," or nonambulatory cattle, from the human food supply; additional food-safety measures in the processing of beef and related products; and an acceleration of "the development of the technology architecture" for a national system to track and identify livestock.

BSE proved to be a complex issue on the international-trade front.  U.S. trading partners made sometimes-conflicting demands on the United States, while public-interest, consumer and farm groups called for differing protection measures and responses.

Japan, the leading U.S. beef-export market, had been demanding 100 percent testing of all cattle for export, a position it has since altered.

Public-interest groups also called for the closing of loopholes in the so-called "animal-feed ban," which prevented the feeding of ruminant products back to ruminants, which had been discovered as a key-pathway for BSE transmission.  The feed ban falls under the purview of the Food and Drug Administration.

International Trade

Veneman, was widely praised for her knowledge and leadership in advancing international trade. "She worked closely with U.S. Trade Representative Robert Zoellick, helping lead to the successful launch of a new round of trade negotiations for the World Trade Organization" in Doha.  She played a key role in helping eliminate trade barriers and expanding opportunities for U.S. farmers through new export markets. U.S. agricultural exports in 2004 rose to a record $62.3 billion.

Child Nutrition and Food Programs

During Veneman's tenure, the Food Stamp Program and child nutrition program were reauthorized and funding increased, strengthening the ability of USDA to provide services to recipients and provide additional accountability to taxpayers.  In 2004, Veneman finalized the transition from paper food stamps to electronic debit cards in an effort to reduce fraud and increase availability of these programs to more families in need. Under Veneman, after a comprehensive scientific review, new Dietary Guidelines for Americans were released, which formed the basis for USDA's MyPyramid.

Carol Tucker-Foreman of the Consumer Federation of America said of Veneman, "Secretary Veneman recognized the increasing problem of obesity in this country and took some steps to begin to address it. Under her direction USDA updated the Dietary Guidelines and is revising the food guide pyramid."

As Secretary, Veneman focused on new approaches to help feed the hungry around the world. To help meet the international goal of reducing global hunger by half by 2015, she organized and hosted in 2003 the Ministerial Conference on Science and Technology, which brought together ministers from 120 nations to California, to discuss how science and technology can reduce hunger and poverty in the developing world. The conference, as well as subsequent regional conferences and follow-up activities, helped recapture the momentum of the World Food Summit.

USDA Management and Programs

As part of several actions to implement the President's Management Agenda (PMA), Veneman began USDA's e-Government Initiative, which made an unprecedented array of programs and services available electronically.  In addition, USDA for the first time ever received a clean financial audit, a status the department attained three years in a row.

Veneman established USDA's 'Leaders of Tomorrow' initiative to support agriculture education and related mentoring.  She increased the number of internships available at USDA, and encouraged young people to seek career opportunities at USDA and across the food and agricultural spectrum.

Record as UNICEF Executive Director

In her tenure as executive director from 2005 to 2010, Veneman like her predecessors, continued to foster a culture of improvement working to strengthen the results-based focus of the organization to most effectively and sustainably achieve the rights of children, in line with the convention on the Rights of the Child. Veneman continued the work of her predecessors to enhance the following:

Child-mother health

Veneman has highlighted the inextricable link between the health of the mother and the health of the child in UNICEF.  Along with WHO, the World Bank and UNFPA, UNICEF is accelerating maternal health interventions in the highest burden countries.  Nutrition is now widely recognized as integral to both health and food security, with particular attention to children under age two whose cognitive ability will likely be permanently diminished without adequate nourishment in those formative years.

Malnutrition

UNICEF has significantly contributed to accelerating the use of ready-to-use therapeutic foods for treatment of acute malnutrition, with UNICEF purchases of the product increasing from 100 metric tons in 2003 to over 11,000 metric tons in 2008.  Vitamin A and zinc supplementation, salt iodization, and flour fortification have all been scaled up and rates of exclusive breastfeeding have improved.  UNICEF has strategically invested in nutrition programs when global food prices rose, and its recently released nutrition scorecard report provides data and evidence on the nutritional status of children.

Protecting children

In February 2007 UNICEF co-hosted a worldwide conference with France, bringing together representatives from 58 countries including those most affected by the use of child soldiers to end this practice. According to UNICEF over 27,000 children in different parts of the world are believed to have been used on the frontlines during armed conflicts in 2006 alone. To address this, the Conference resulted in the release of what is known as The Paris Principles, a detailed set of guidelines for protecting children from recruitment and for providing effective assistance to those already involved with armed groups or forces.

Women and girls

Veneman has helped bring more awareness to the plight of women and girls.  Saying, "if we care about the health and well-being of children today and into the future, we must work now to ensure that women and girls have equal opportunities to be educated, to participate in government, to achieve economic self-sufficiency and to be protected from violence and discrimination."  UNICEF has launched key interventions to enhance gender equality around the world. "Despite progress in women's status in recent decades, the lives of millions of girls and women are still overshadowed by discrimination, disempowerment and poverty." "Millions of women...are subject to physical and sexual violence, with little recourse to justice."

In 2007, Veneman helped launch a partnership with renowned US playwright and 'V-Day' founder Eve Ensler in 2007, to bring awareness and change to the sexual abuse and violence of women in the DRC.  'Stop Raping our Greatest Resource' is a campaign initiated by the women of eastern DRC along with UNICEF and V-Day, a global movement to end violence against women and girls. UNICEF estimates that hundreds of thousands of women and girls have been raped since the conflict began in eastern DRC more than a decade ago.

Veneman has also called for greater efforts to end female genital mutilation.  In February 2009, marking the International Day against the harmful practice that three million girls and women endure each year, Veneman said, "Some 70 million girls and women alive today have been subjected to female genital cutting. While some communities have made real progress in abandoning this dangerous practice, the rights, and even the lives, of too many girls continue to be threatened."

Organizational effectiveness

UNICEF's financial and organizational position has continued to improve due to its reputation.  Between 2004 and 2008, total income, including trust funds, has increased more than 60%, to over $4 billion.  The organization's accountability mechanisms have been strengthened, audit compliance has improved, an office of investigation established, and an ethics officer appointed.

In December 2009, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said of Veneman, "She has fulfilled her mandate with immense dedication, and I have been impressed by her extraordinary energy and determination to improve children's health, education and well-being around the world.  Under her leadership, UNICEF has become a catalyst for global action to help children reach their full potential, promoting collaborations that deliver the best possible results for children based on expert knowledge, sound evidence and data.  She has been a champion of United Nations coherence and a strong voice for children as well as Millennium Development Goal implementation.  Her legacy is an organization that is financially and intellectually strong and well-equipped to meet the challenges children face in the twenty-first century."

In 2009, Veneman was named to Forbes Magazine's List of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women, ranking #46.  Forbes cited Veneman in part because she "played a key role in the joint effort by UNICEF, the World Health Organization, the United Nations Population Fund and the World Bank to help accelerate progress on maternal and newborn health in the 25 countries with the highest rates of infant mortality worldwide."

Mrs. Veneman was succeeded by Anthony Lake on May 1, 2010.

Nestlé
After her time with UNICEF, Veneman served as an adviser to Nestlé and took a seat on Nestlé's board of directors. Nutrition campaign groups criticized Veneman's involvement with Nestlé because of the company's violation of a global code restricting advertising of breast milk substitutes.

Gay rights
In 2015, Veneman signed an amicus brief asking the United States Supreme Court to nationally recognize same-sex marriage.

See also
 List of female United States Cabinet members
 List of first women lawyers and judges in California

References

External links
Executive Director Ann M. Veneman  at UNICEF
White House biography
USDA biography

Articles
Secretary puts experience to work in mad cow case
Video | UNICEF chief Ann Veneman on refuting those who "undermine" vaccination programs and speaking against child marriage.
Secretary-General Praises Ann Veneman's Immense Dedication, Energy, Determination
Ann Veneman on The Washington Post On Leadership Series
Lancet-Ann Veneman: getting UNICEF back to basics
BigThink Interview with Ann Veneman on Children's Rights
Agriculture Veteran Gets Job of Her Dreams: Washington Post
Bush Makes Peach of an Appointment, Los Angeles Times

|-

|-

1949 births
Living people
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
American officials of the United Nations
American nonprofit executives
George W. Bush administration cabinet members
California Republicans
Goldman School of Public Policy alumni
People from Modesto, California
Public defenders
State cabinet secretaries of California
UNICEF people
Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations
United States Deputy Secretaries of Agriculture
United States Secretaries of Agriculture
University of California, Davis alumni
University of California College of the Law, San Francisco alumni
Women business executives
Women in California politics
Women members of the Cabinet of the United States
Women nonprofit executives

Ann Veneman


Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is another name for a web address. URLs are made of letters, numbers and other symbols in a standard form. People use them on computers, to make the computer fetch and show some specific resource (usually a web page) from another computer (web server) on the Internet. They do this by typing the URL into a web browser, or more often clicking a link, for example one on a web page that they are already seeing.

URLs consist of several parts:
 A protocol. Very often, this is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Some separation characters: ://
 The other computer's name or address. It is very common for names to start with www. (which stands for World Wide Web), but the entire name is up to that computer's administrator.

In some cases, the URL may also contain
 The path to a document or script.
 In the case of a script, additional parameters after a question mark (?)
 Username and password needed to access a certain page
 Some text after a pound sign (#), naming a spot to skip ahead to.

The URL of this page is https://simple.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uniform_Resource_Locator
 https is the protocol
 simple.wikipedia.org is the web site
 /w/index.php is a script. That script gets parameters, title=Uniform_Resource_Locator

A shorter form, called a ("relative") URL, is used when a computer could correctly fill in the full ("absolute") URL from context. For example, of /wiki/URL only works for a link on Wikipedia to this page on Wikipedia. Absolute URLs can be shared outside of computers, even with little or no explanation.

URLs is URI. URI is Uniform Resource Identifier. URL vs URI  is basically same. So, you don't need to confuse in it.

URL Anatomy

URLs are composed of multiple elements.

 Protocol
 Subdomain
 Domain
 TLD
 SubFolders
 Slug

Extensions
These are at the end of the domain name which has a period mark before it. At first there were six main extensions:
 .com - Commercial use
 .net - network / Internet service provider use
 .org - Organizational use
 .edu - Educational use (Schools and universities)
 .mil - Military use
 .gov - Governmental use

Today, there are many other URL extensions. These are usually either a top level domain or interest grouping. Each country has its own top level domain, for example, .ca for Canada, .us for the United States of America or .co.uk for the United Kingdom. Many countries have a government-only extension, for example the United States uses .gov or .fed.us, .gc.ca for Canada and .gov.uk for the United Kingdom. Interest group domains would include .tv (television), .pro (professionals) and .xxx (pornography). These are not used as often as the original extensions.

References

Internet

Uniform Resource Locator


West Indies Associated States was the collective name for a number of islands in the Eastern Caribbean whose status changed from being British colonies to states in free association with the United Kingdom in 1967. These states were Antigua, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent.

Associated statehood between these six territories and the UK was brought about by the West Indies Act 1967. Under the Act each state had full control over its constitution (and thus internal self-government), while the UK retained responsibility for external affairs and defence. The British monarch remained head of state, but the Governor now had only constitutional powers, and was often a local citizen. Many moved to change their flags from modified versions of the Blue Ensign to unique designs, with three – St. Vincent, St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, and Grenada – adopting blue, green and yellow flags.

During the period of free association, all of the states participated in the West Indies Associated States Council of Ministers, the East Caribbean Common Market and Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) (now superseded by the Caribbean Community). Cooperation between the eastern Caribbean states continued after the West Indies Associated States achieved separate independence, in the form of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (the successor organisation).

*Anguilla left the Union of St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla officially on 29 October 1980 and remained a British territory, leaving St Kitts and Nevis to achieve fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth.

Over time, the associated states moved to full independence, the first being  Grenada in 1974. This was followed by Dominica in 1978, Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent both in 1979, Antigua and Barbuda in 1981 and Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1983.

The moves towards independence were not always smooth, with separatist movements/campaigns occurring in Barbuda, Nevis and Anguilla. In Anguilla, this resulted in the secession of Anguilla from Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla in 1969 and its reversion to British rule as a separate colony. During the 1970s, Nevis' local council wished to follow Anguilla's example, rather than become independent with Saint Kitts; however, the UK was opposed to Nevis becoming a separate colony and eventually the federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis became independent in 1983. In Barbuda, there was a campaign for separate independence from Antigua, but this was unsuccessful. All former associated states went on to keep the British monarchy and became Commonwealth realms, with the exception of Dominica from 1978. All former associated states also kept the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal, with the exception of Dominica, which abolished it as the final court of appeal in 2015 with a constitutional amendment.

Of all of these islands that were once associated states, all are now independent, except for Anguilla within the former St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, which is still a British Overseas Territory.

See also

 British West Indies
 Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique
 Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
 West Indies Federation (1958–1962)

References

External links

1967 in Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla
1967 establishments in Antigua and Barbuda
1960s establishments in Dominica
History of Grenada
History of British Saint Christopher and Nevis
History of British Saint Lucia
History of British Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
British West Indies
Antigua and Barbuda–United Kingdom relations
Dominica–United Kingdom relations
Grenada–United Kingdom relations
Saint Kitts and Nevis–United Kingdom relations
Saint Lucia–United Kingdom relations
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–United Kingdom relations
Associated states
Organizations established in 1967
Organizations disestablished in 1983
States and territories established in 1967
States and territories disestablished in 1983
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas

West Indies Associated States


A game controller is a device used to play video games.

Types of game controllers

Gamepad
A gamepad, also known as a joypad, is a common type of game controller. They are held in both hands with thumbs and fingers used to press buttons on the gamepad. Gamepads can have a number of action buttons with one or more control sticks. Gamepads is part of playing a video game console. A player must use a gamepad in order to play any video game. Gamepads were first used on early computers.

On a Nintendo gamepad, the action buttons are colored with letters (A, B, X, Y). There is a start and a select option on the gamepad. On the left of the gamepad, there are arrows which the player uses to move in the video game.

Paddle
A paddle is a game controller with a round wheel and one or more fire buttons. The wheel is used to control movement in a video game. The paddle was not liked by many gamers. This type of controller was used on the Atari 2600 and Indy 500.

Joystick

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video games and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick.

The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft, particularly military fast jets, where centre stick or side-stick location may be employed. Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.

Other websites
 An article about pioneering games and controllers designed for disabled gamers
 Simulation game controller comparison.

Game controller


, originally a publisher known as Alfa Music Ltd. and later succeeded by record company Alfa Music Inc., was established in 1969 by composer and record producer Kunihiko Murai. It was formed into an independent record label known as Alfa Records in 1977. A short-lived American subsidiary operated from 1980 to 1982.

History
In December 1980, Alfa Records opened a U.S. subsidiary in Los Angeles, planning to specialize in a "global approach to music". The label had some U.S. Top 40 successes in 1981 with Lulu, whose two-year-old recording of "I Could Never Miss You (More Than I Do)" became a Top 20 hit on Alfa, as well as former The Guess Who singer Burton Cummings ("You Saved My Soul") and Billy Vera and the Beaters ("I Can Take Care Of Myself"). Vera's "At This Moment" was also originally released on Alfa and reached No. 79 on the Billboard chart in late 1981, five years before it was re-released on Rhino Records and became a nationwide No. 1 smash. Other U.S. Hot 100 success came with singles by Yutaka featuring Patti Austin ("Love Light") and The Monroes ("What Do All The People Know?"), and the label also branched out into country music with the Corbin/Hanner Band.  However, the American subsidiary ceased operations in July 1982 due to "slow market conditions," and although the shutdown was intended to be temporary, the subsidiary never reopened.

Back home in Japan, the company faced much hardship in the 1990s. Due to financial troubles from the collapse of their previous diversification into foreign automobile dealerships, the record label was reformed into a new company "Alfa Music" in 1994. 1995 saw the closure of their Shibaura "A" Studio (as used by Yellow Magic Orchestra and other artists). In October 1998, operations were scaled back and Alfa withdrew from record production.

In April 2001, Sony Music Publishing (Japan) Inc. (a subsidiary of SMEJ)  gained worldwide distribution rights for Alfa's back catalogue - re-issues have appeared on the Sony Music Direct (Japan) Inc. label for domestic releases and Epic for international sales. In April 2019, Alfa became a wholly owned subsidiary, and an internal division, of Sony Music Publishing (Japan) Inc.

Alfa were partners with A&M Records, Zomba Music and Mute during the 1980s and 1990s for Japanese domestic distribution.

Imprint labels

Yen Records
Yen Records (often printed as "¥EN") was an imprint that ran from 1982 to 1985 fronted by Haruomi Hosono and Yukihiro Takahashi of Yellow Magic Orchestra. Most albums were produced by Hosono or Takahashi, and mainly focused on Japanese new wave music.

Alfa International
Alfa International was a sublabel which mainly published international (mostly European) releases of various music styles, including Italo disco, eurobeat (Italo disco and Hi-NRG), Europop, synthpop and Eurodance.

GMO Records
GMO (Game Music Organisation) was a label for chiptune and video game music releases. Several albums were released including music from Sega, Konami, Hudson, Capcom, and Tecmo games. The album Video Game Music (featuring music from Namco games), and the related Super Xevious 12" single by former Happy End and Yellow Magic Orchestra member Haruomi Hosono, were released on Yen before the formation of GMO.

Spin

Spin primarily released remix collections of material from the Alfa back catalogue and licensed albums from British labels. Active between 1990 and 1994.

Notable signed artists

Japanese artists
 Yumi Arai (1972–1976)
 Akai Tori (1969-1974) and its offshoots:
 Hi-Fi Set (1975–1978)
 Kamifusen (1974-1976)
 Casiopea
 Garo
 Ayumi Ishida
 Izumi Yukimura
 Chiharu Matsuyama
 The Stalin
 P-MODEL (1985–1986)
 Soft Ballet
 Yuzo Koshiro
 Hiroshi Sato (1982–1993)
 Yellow Magic Orchestra
 Haruomi Hosono (1978–1982)
 Ryuichi Sakamoto (1980–1981)
 Yukihiro Takahashi (1981–1985)
 Minako Yoshida (1978-1983)

Yen Records
 Sandii & the Sunsetz
 Miharu Koshi
 Hajime Tachibana (from Plastics)
 Guernica
 Jun Togawa
 Koji Ueno
 Inoyama Land
YMO, Hosono and Takahashi solo albums were also released on Yen during 1982–1985

Foreign acts licensed by Alfa

This list includes artists with records released on Alfa's short-lived U.S. subsidiary.
 Alessandra Mussolini
 Chris Connor
 Corbin/Hanner Band
 DVC
 Depeche Mode
 Erasure
 The Police
 Falco
 Lulu
 Max Q (Michael Hutchence & Ollie Olsen)
 Kylie Minogue
 The Monroes
 PIG
 Billy Vera & the Beaters
 Elegy (1992–1995)
 Swamp Terrorists
 Telex
 Parish (Former members of Crimson Glory)
 George Benson
 Yutaka Yokokura

References

Record labels established in 1969
Record labels disestablished in 2000
Japanese record labels
Defunct record labels of Japan

Alfa Records


2012 (MMXII) wis a lowp year stairtin on a Sunday in the Gregorian calendar.

Events

Januar
 1 Januar — The warks o James Joyce entered the public domain.
 15 Januar — Presidential elections in Finland
 23 Januar — Cheenae new year an scheduled new muin.lift abune 47°n 7°e at tue 2008 mar 25 1:52 this time o year is associate wi the watter-draigon in Cheenae astrology.the beauty o cheenae astrology
 31 Januar — 433 eros, the seicont-lairgest Naur Yird Object on record (size 13x13x33 km) is expected tae pass the Yird at 0.1790 astronomical unit (~26.8 million kilometer; ~16.6 million mile). NASA studied Eros wi the Naur Shoemaker probe launched on 1996-02-17.near Yird object fact sheet

Februar
 5 Februar — Super Bowl XLVI wis played.
 6 Februar — Queen Elizabeth II celebratit her diamond jubilee. A series o festivities athort the Unitit Kinrick an the Commonweel o Nations will likely rin throu oot the year.

Aprile
 1 Aprile — The Unitit States census o 1940 is released tae the public.
 15 Aprile - 100t anniversity o the sinkin o the R.M.S. Titanic
 17 Aprile — the Unitit States will cede control o the militar o the Republic o Korea efter 50 year.

Mey
 20 Mey — annular solar eclipse, a sunday.
 main - French preses election (if the incumbent's term hud normally finished in Mey).
 main - Irish general election is due tae be held if the current govrenment remains in office fur a foo term.

Juin
 6 Juin — seicont an lest solar transit o the planit Venus o thes century; the next pair is predictit tae occur in 2117 an 2125 (see transit o venus, 2012).
 9 Juin–1 Julie — 2012 European Fitbaa Championship will be played in Poland/Ukraine.

Julie
 Julie 1 — preses elections in mexico.
 Julie 27 — openin' ceremony o the 2012 Simmer Olympics begins in Lunnon at 7:30 pm UTC, 8:30pm bst.homepage - Lunnon 2012

August
 12 August — closin' ceremony o the 2012 Simmer Olympics in Lunnon, Unitit Kinrick, a sunday.
 29 August — stairt o the 2012 Simmer Paralympics

September
 9 September — end o the 2012 Simmer Paralympics

October
 24 October — the Unitit Kinrick's 5-yeir-lang region-bi-region process to cease analogue telly broadcasts an ainly permit deegital telly broadcasts (Scots: deegital cheenge ower) ends. Meridian Broadcasting, ITV Lunnon, Tyne Tees Television an UTV war the lest auries tae switch aff analogue.

November
 6 November — the Unitit States preses, senate, an hoose o representatives elections.
 6 November — Puertae Rico general election
 13 November — tot solar eclipse (visible in northren Australie an the sooth paceefic).
 28 November — penumbral lunar eclipse

December
 3 December — Jupiter oppositions.
 21 December — the mesoamerican lang coont calendar, notably uised bi the Meya civilization amang ethers o pre-columbian mesoamericae, completes its thirteent b'ak'tun cycle syne the calendar's meethical startin' pynt (equivalent tae 3114 bc August 11 in the proleptic gregorian calendar, accordin' tae the "gmt-correlation" jdn= 584283).see finley (2002), hooston (1989, pp. 49–51), miller an taube (1993, pp. 50–52), voss (2006, p. 138), wagner (2006, pp. 281–283). note 'at hooston 1989 mistakenly writes "3113 bc" (when "-3113" is meant), an miller an taube 1993's mention o "2 August" is a (presumed) erratum. the lang coont b'ak'tun date o thes startin' pynt (126.96.36.199.0) is repeated, fur the first time in a span o approximately fife,125 solar years. the significance o thes period-endin' tae the pre-columbian Meya themselves is unclear, an thaur is an incomplete inscription (tortuguero monument 6) 'at graphite loons thes date. it is tae be foond carved oan the walls o the temple o inscriptions in palenque an aa, whaur it functions as a base date frae which ither dates ur computed.wagner (2006, p. 281; an aa nae weel.443). houiver, it is conjectured 'at thes main represent in the Meya belief seestem a transition frae the current creation warld intae the next.
 the 2012 winter solstice will occur oan thes day at 11:11 UTC forby.
 December 23 — the alternatife date fur the completion o the thirteent b'ak'tun cycle in the Meya calendar, usin' a version o the gmt-correlation based oan a jdn o 584285 (a.k.a. the "astronomical" ur "loonsbury correlation"), which is supported by a smawer nummer o Meyanist researchers.efter a modified proposal championed by floyd loonsbury; soorces 'at hae uised thes correlation include hooston (1989, p. 51), an in parteecular schele an freidel (1990, pp. 430 it seq.). see an aa commentary by finley (2002), fa althoogh makin' an assessment 'at the "[584285 correlation yieldin' end-date o December 23] is noo mair aw the gang wi Meyanists", expresses a personal preference fur the 584283 correlation.
 31 December — expiration o the Kyoto Protocol.

Unkent dates
 the replacement eastern span o the san francisco-oaklain bay bridge will open tae traffeck, replacin' the auld eastern cantilever span 'at wis damaged in the loma prieta earthquake in 1989, awmaist a quarter century (23 year) efter the span wis damaged newbaybridge.org - the new eest span: history in the making
 Indie's 11t five-year plan (2007–2012) ends an the 12t a body (2012–2017) starts.
 Australie an Ireland will cease analogue tele broadcasts.
 californiaws ban oan the production o foie gras will tak' effect.
 NASA's new orion spacecraft will acome fully operational fur International Space Station support flights.
 Cheenae is tae complete the construction o the Kuafu spacecraft.
 Freedom Touer in New York Ceety: construction will be finished.
 secht & soond magazine will conduct its tap ten films o aw-time poll fur the seivent decade syne 1952.
 the Hallandsas ridge tunnel will be completit, 17 year behin' the oreeginal plan.
 the Canberra class lecht aircraft carriers/lairge amphibioos ships, the lairgest ships ever tae be operated by the Ryal Australie Navy, will be in service.
 the sin will reverse its ain magnetic poles durin' 2012 as result o reachin' the end o the current 11-year sunspot cycle.the sin diz a flip
 the Canadian Navy recei'es the delivery o the first joint support ship.

Majur religioos holidays
 Januar 7 — Christenmas day bi Julian calendar (celebrated bi eastern orthodox Christians) * Februar 1 — imbolc, a cross-quarter day (celebrated oan Februar 2 in some places)
 Februar 5 — Mawlid an nabi - Islam
 Mairch 8 — Pureem - Judaism
 Mairch 20 — sprin' equinox, cried ostara an aa
 Aprile 7 — Passowre - Judaism
 Aprile 8 — Easter - christianity
 Mey 1 — Beltane, a cross-quarter day
 Mey 27 — Shavuot - Judaism
 Juin 17 — Lailat al miraj - Islam
 Juin 20 — Simmer solstice, cried midsimmer ur litha an aa
 Julie 20 — Ramadan begins - Islam
 August 1 — Lammas, a cross-quarter day
 August 19 — Id al fitr - Islam
 September 17 — Rosh hashanah - Judaism
 September 21 — faa equinox, cried mabon an aa
 October 1 — Sukkot - Judaism
 November 1 — Samhain, a cross-quarter day, neopagan Hogmanay an christian aw saints' day
 November 15 — Hogmanay - Islam
 December 9 — Hanukkah - Judaism
 December 21 — Winter solstice, cried yule an aa
 December 25 — Christenmas

Metaphysical predictions
2012 is whiles claimed tae be a great year o spiritual transformation (ur apocalypse). mony esoteric soorces interprit the completion o the thirteent b'ak'tun cycle in the lang coont o the Meya calendar (which occurs oan December 21 by the maist widely held correlation) tae pure techt thaur will be a majur chynge in warld order. accordingly, several eclectic authors claeem 'at a majur, world-changin' event will tak' place in 2012:
 the 1997 beuk the bible code claims 'at, accordin' tae certaint algorithms o the bible code, a meteur, asteroid ur comit will collide wi the Yird.
 the 2006 beuk 2012: the return o quetzalcoatl bi Daniel Pinchbeck discusses theories o a possible global awakenin' tae psychic connection bi the year 2012, creatin' a noosphere. ither prophecies an apocalyptic writins an hypotheses fur thes year include:
 Terence McKenna's novelty theory suggested the end o time an a pynt o singularity in which humankin will hae a shift in conscioosness.

Literature
 methuselah's children (1941/1958) an time enaw fur love (1973) bi Robert A. Heinlein: a crucial meetin' o the howard families takes place, followin' the election o nehemiah scudder fur president o the usa. in baith novels, viewpoint character lazarus long is speart whit happened at thes meetin' as he is the lest livin' eyewitness; in baith novels he declines tae answer. nehemiah scudder establishes a religioos dictatorship in the usa.
 "domain" an "resurrection" bi authur Steve Alten: a feectional series 'at tells the events o the gabriel twins efter discoverin' the mystery behin' 2012.
 "2012: the war fur sools" bi authur Whitley Strieber is a feectional novel abit thee parallel warlds an the occurrences leadin' up tae December 21, 2012 in each as the walls atween them begin tae thin an allaw passage ben gateways tae the others.

Comics
 the invisibles ("the invisible kingdom," 1999–2000): the invisibles' "fictional" universe expands intae the meta-context o the "higher universe," possibly uir ain.

Music
 "A Certain Shade o Green," a sang frae the Incubus album s.c.i.e.n.c.e., references 2012 in the followin' lines: aur ye gonna stain aroond till 2012 a.d.? / whit ur ye waitin' fur, a certain shade o green?. December 21, 2012 appears tae be the date when the video fur the sang "warning" is supposed tae tak' place.
 Genesis's sang Get'em it bi Friday frae thair 1972 album Foxtrot, sets "18/9/2012" (on the printed operistic-dialog lyrics) as the date when "genetic control" woods sit a heecht restriction oan human beings sae 'at twice as mony fowk coods fit oan real estate properties.
 "Pesky Solar Flares", bi Angie Strange haes lyrics relatin' tae coronal mass ejections occurrin' durin' the winter solstice o 2012. the sang wis available as a free download oan the wabsteid o the aw the gang american conspiracy gab radio shaw coest tae coest am.
 the Hed Pe sang "i.f.o." (tae be foond oan thair seicont, self-titled album), which is abit ufo sightings an governmental conspiracies tae cowre them up, references the year 2012: "prepaur tae meit yer maker in the skies ower the pyramids / check stonehenge / gang ask the Meyans / 2012 suin come / Ah will be waitin' sayin' Ah tauld ye sae / when the skies ur ripped open / an the mothership lands oan yer cynical ass".
 (hed) p.e. references 2012 in "killin' time" frae thair seicont album "broke". come twintie twal, come twal tribes, come twal strands, come twal li'es twal steps, twal months, twal drug dealers
 stones flin' records airtist Dudley Perkins released his lp, entitled 'expressions (2012 a.u.)', in 2006
 the instrumental sang "December 21, 2012" bi Frodus, which appears as a b-side tae thair best-sellin' 7" vinyl single o thair devo cowre "explosions" (released 1997).
 the Anaal Nathrakh sang "Timewae Zero" is abit the apparent end o the warld oan December 21, 2012. the lyrics ur translated as "the 21st o December, 2012, the time will come"
 the A Day Tae Remember sang "Fest Forward Tae 2012" refers tae the warld endin' in 2012 as a warnin' fur friends tae dae somethin' tae prepaur.
 british nu-rae ootfit klaxons sin' abit apocalyptic horsemen in thair sang "foor horsemen o 2012" frae the 2007 album myths o the near future.
 the sang "2012 — demise o the 5th sun" by the melodic daith metal bain scar symmetry is a reference tae the year 2012. "fur the lines oan the fractal wae / fit the coorse o history / they're created tae wark as a body till the end / when the winter solstice comes / actualizin' the prophecy / the demise in 2012 realized"
 the testament sang "3 days in darkness", aff o the gaitherin' album is a sang abit 2012, an speaks o the Yird bein' swallowed in molten fire.
 vnv nation's album praise the fallen" haes the subtitle "ptf 2012", which is forby the nam o a track in the album, which seems tae be predominantly abit an upcomin' war. the sang, "honoor" starts wi the line, "passife fields, januar 2012..."
 hivy metal bain burnt by the sun's tois albums baith deal wi prophecies concernin' the year 2012.
 "2012" is the nam o the 2005 album by the experimental rock bain auld time relijun, an several sangs mak references tae auncient Meyan cultur, sic' as "burial moond" an "the kin' o tint lecht."
 oan the bain hella's album There's nae 666 in ooter space thaur is a track cried "2012 an coontless" in which the anly words ur "there's nae 666 in ooter space" repeated.
 metal bain Ewigkeit's album Radio Ixtlan haes a track entitled "life at palenque 2012" referencin' baith the Meyan calendar date an the site at which the temple o inscriptions whaur it is carved.
 canibus mentions the year 2012 an December 21, 2012 oan his poit laureate infinity vocals an oan his 2007 album fur whom the beat tolls.

Film
 i am legend: the events o the 2007 film tak' place in thes year.

Televeesion
 Doctor Who

 "dalek," 2005: a dalek breaks loose unner the utah salt plains, an plans tae kill every livin' hin' oan the yird.
 "Fear her," 2006: the episode is sit durin' the lead-up tae the 2012 summer olympics in Lunnon.
 Futurama
 Xmas story," 1999: the war o 2012 occurs, durin' which talk-shaw host conan o'brien tint his "freakishly lang legs."
 Jurassic bark," 2002; philip j. fry's dug seymoor dies in thes year.
 The x-files ("the truth," 2002): oan December 22, aliens invade the Yird.

Gemmes
 Shadowrun: wi the sixth Meyan warld beginning, magic returns tae the warld in an event called "the awakenin'."
 escape 2012: the player's mission is tae escape frae alien captivity.
 in Dark•matter, a campaign settin' fur the alternity an d20 modern roleplayin' gemmes, the institute 'at the protagonists belang tae believe 'at 2012 will be the end o the warld.
 s.t.a.l.k.e.r — shadaw o chernobyl is sit in thes year
 Psychic force 2012 is sit durin' thes year.
 in Universe at war: earth assault, the hierarchy invasion oan the Yird begins.
 an in-gam document frae the secrit world conteens the date 2012 circled an underlined but the significance o thes is yit unkent.
 in Shattered union, ye.s. president david jefferson adams accepts his seicont term in office efter the supreme coort disqualifies aw ither presidential candidates.
 a body o the dual storylines in assassin's creed is sit in 2012
 events o mega cheil iii, mega man's soccer, wily an right's rockboard an mega cheil v ur sit in thes year.
 a body o the puzzles later oan in la mulana (a freewaur pc gam based oan mony o the aulder msx gemmes released) states ye need tae 'walk the end year o the aztec's fift age.' the player main 'en lecht anly the torches o the gates 'at correspond tae the numbers in the year '2012'.

See awso

:Category:2012 albums
:Category:2012 daiths

Notes

References

 :hancock, graham. (1995) fingerprints o the gods. new york, ny: thee rivers press.

 :morrison, grant, an varioos artists (1995–2000) the invisibles, vol. yin issues 1–25, vol. tae issues 1–22, vol. thee issues 12–14. new york, ny: vertigo comics. :pinchbeck, daniel. (2006) 2012: the return o quetzalcoatl. new york, ny: penguin crew. :satinowre, jeffrey, m.d. (1997) crackin' the bible code. new york, ny: harpercollins press.
 :stray, geoff. (2005) beyond 2012: catastrophe ur ecstasy. sussex uk: vital signs publishin'.

See Finley (2002), Houston (1989, pp. 49–51), Miller an Taube (1993, pp. 50–52), Voss (2006, p. 138), Wagner (2006, pp. 281–283). Note that Houston 1989 mistakenly writes "3113 BC" (when "-3113" is meant), an Miller an Taube 1993's mention o "2 August" is a (presumed) erratum. The Long Count b'ak'tun date o this stairtin pynt (126.96.36.199.0) is repeated, for the first time in a span o approximately 5,125 solar years. The significance o this period-endin tae the pre-Columbian Meya themselves is unclear, an there is an incomplete inscription (Tortuguero Monument 6) that records this date. It is tae be foond carved on the walls o the Temple o Inscriptions in Palenque an aa, whaur it functions as a base date frae which ither dates are computed.Wagner (2006, p. 281; ill.443 an aa). Houiver, it is conjectured that this Mey represent in the Meya belief seestem a transition frae the current Creation world intae the next.

2012


Philip Langridge  (born Hawkshurst, Kent, 16 December 1939; died 5 March 2010 was a British tenor.  He sang in many operas.  He also sang in many concerts and recitals.

Life

Langridge studied the violin at the Royal Academy of Music from 1958.  Two years later he started singing lessons with Bruce Boyce.

He gave his first concert in 1961, singing in Handel's Messiah at Surbiton.  He sang in the John Alldis Choir, and in the chorus at Glyndebourne Opera.  Soon he was singing many solo roles in operas.

Langridge had a very good sense for drama as well as an excellent singing voice. He sang a wide variety of roles including parts in operas by Claudio Monteverdi, Mozart,  Ravel, Stravinsky, Janáček,  Schoenberg and, especially, Benjamin Britten.  Later in life he sang just one role from a Wagner opera: the part of Loge in Das Rheingold.

Langridge was a fine concert singer.  He often sang in the sacred music of Bach and Handel. He was well known for singing the title role in Elgar's oratorio, The Dream of Gerontius.

Benjamin Britten wrote much of his vocal music and main operatic roles for his friend Peter Pears.  Langridge had the same sort of lyrical tenor voice as Pears, and he became famous for his singing of Britten's music, e.g. the title role in Peter Grimes, Peter Quint in The Turn of the Screw, Captain Vere in Billy Budd and Aschenbach in Death in Venice.

Langridge sang in several operas by Harrison Birtwistle: he sang The Lawyer in the first recording of Punch and Judy (1989) and he sang the part of Kong in the first performances of The Second Mrs Kong at Glyndebourne in 1994.and Hiereus in The Minotaur at the (Royal Opera House in 2008). April 2008)

Langridge was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) for his services to music in 1994. He was married twice.  His second wife was the Irish mezzo-soprano Ann Murray.

Langridge died of cancer in 2010.

References
 Philip Langridge, Obituary, The Independent, 10 March 2010

1939 births
2010 deaths
British tenors
British opera singers

Philip Langridge


Epenthesis is a term in phonology. It refers to adding one or more sounds to a word.

If it is added at the beginning, it is called prothesis. If added at the end of the word, it is called paragoge. There are two types of epenthesis:  when a consonant is added, and  when a vowel is added. The opposite process where one or more sounds are removed is called elision.

Uses
Epenthesis can happen for many reasons. The rules of how sounds are placed in a language may not allow vowels next to each other, but in different syllables. Some consonant clusters may not be allowed. In this situation a consonant or vowel can be added to make pronunciation easier. Epenthesis may be shown in writing or may happen in spoken language.

Separating vowels
A consonant can be added to separate spoken vowels in hiatus. This happens with linking and intrusive R, which is a rule that puts an 'r' in a place where it doesn't normally happen.

 drawing →  drawring (in speech).

Linking consonant clusters
A consonant can be placed between consonants in a consonant cluster where the place of articulation is different (e.g.,  where one consonant is labial (pronounced with the lips) and the other is alveolar.

 something → somepthing (but not in standard English).

Breaking consonant clusters
A vowel can be placed between consonants to separate them.

 Hamtramck  →  Hamtramick

Regular examples in English are -i-, used in making words from Latin such as equidistant, and -o-, used in making words from Greek roots or general compound words, as in speedometer.

Sound change in history
 Latin  > French  ("to tremble")
 Old English  > English thunder
 French ,  > English messenger, passenger
 French ,  > Portuguese ,
 Latin  > homne > homre > Spanish  ("man")

Rules in present-day languages
In French,  is placed in inverted interrogative phrases between a verb that ends in a vowel and a pronoun that begins with a vowel:  ('he has') >  ('has he?').  Because the  come from Latin  ('he has') there is no epenthesis from the point of view of history. This is because the  is the original third-person verb inflection. However it is correct to call it epenthesis in the modern language because the modern basic form of the verb is , so the way the process works in the mind is to add a  to the basic form.

A similar example is the English indefinite article a, which becomes an before a vowel. It comes from Old English ān ("one, a, an"), which kept an n in all positions. From a diachronic (historical) analysis, the original n disappears, except if a following vowel needs for it to stay: an > a. However, with a synchronic analysis people can also see it as epenthesis: a > an. This is how most native speakers see it.

In Dutch, when the suffix -er (which has several meanings) is placed after a word which already ends in -r, another  is put in the middle. For example, the comparative form (the form people use to compare things) of the adjective zoet ("sweet") is zoeter, but the comparative of zuur ("sour") is zuurder and not the expected *. The same happens with the agent (someone who does something) noun form of verkopen ("to sell") which is verkoper ("salesperson"), but the agent noun of uitvoeren ("to perform") is uitvoerder ("performer").

Variable rule
In English, people often add a stop consonant in nasal + fricative combinations:

 English hamster /ˈhæmstər/ often pronounced with an added p sound, GA:  or RP:
 English warmth  /ˈwɔːrmθ/  often pronounced with an added p sound, GA:  or RP:
 English fence /ˈfɛns/  often pronounced

Sources

 Crowley, Terry. (1997) An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.

Other websites
 Definition at BYU

Figures of speech
Linguistics

Epenthesis


An envelope is a form of packing. Envelopes are used for sending letters or documents using regular postal mail. Envelopes are usually made of paper or hardened paper.

An envelope may be small enough to make you need to fold the paper going into it, or it can be as large as the paper so that you do not need to fold it. A large envelope is called a manila envelope, usually colored a color in between yellow and orange, and is used to send several pages of papers when a regular envelope would be too small. Another reason a manila envelope would be used would be to send important papers (e.g. birth certificates) that are better left unfolded.

To pay to send the mail, a stamp is usually attached to the envelope.

Related pages
 Electronic mail
 Letter (paper)
 Letter box
 Postcard
 Telegram

Other websites

Stationery
Paper

Envelope