Cognitive science of religion is the study of religious thought, theory, and behavior from the perspective of the cognitive and evolutionary sciences. Scholars in this field seek to explain how human minds acquire, generate, and transmit religious thoughts, practices, and schemas by means of ordinary cognitive capacities.

History
Although religion has been the subject of serious scientific study since at least the late nineteenth century, the study of religion as a cognitive phenomenon is relatively recent. While it often relies upon earlier research within anthropology of religion and sociology of religion, cognitive science of religion considers the results of that work within the context of evolutionary and cognitive theories. As such, cognitive science of religion was only made possible by the cognitive revolution of the 1950s and the development, starting in the 1970s, of sociobiology and other approaches explaining human behaviour in evolutionary terms, especially evolutionary psychology.

While Dan Sperber foreshadowed cognitive science of religion in his 1975 book Rethinking Symbolism, the earliest research to fall within the scope of the discipline was published during the 1980s. Among this work, Stewart E. Guthrie's "A cognitive theory of religion" was significant for examining the significance of anthropomorphism within religion, work that ultimately led to the development of the concept of the hyperactive agency detection device – a key concept within cognitive science of religion. The work of Scott Atran on Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science contrasted the cognitive processing of attention-arresting, and therefore memorable and culturally transmissible, aspects of counter-intuitive "mythico-religious beliefs" (e.g., bodiless beings) with counter-intuitive aspects of scientific thinking that also initially violate common-sense ontological assumptions about the structure of the world (e.g., invisible creatures).

The real beginning of cognitive science of religion can be dated to the 1990s. During that decade a large number of highly influential books and articles were published which helped to lay the foundations of cognitive science of religion. These included Rethinking Religion: Connecting Cognition and Culture and Bringing Ritual to Mind: Psychological Foundations of Cultural Forms by E. Thomas Lawson and Robert McCauley, Naturalness of Religious Ideas by Pascal Boyer,  Inside the Cult and Arguments and Icons by Harvey Whitehouse, and Guthrie's book-length development of his earlier theories in Faces in the Clouds. In the 1990s, these and other researchers, who had been working independently in a variety of different disciplines, discovered each other's work and found valuable parallels between their approaches, with the result that something of a self-aware research tradition began to coalesce. By 2000, the field was well-enough defined for Justin L. Barrett to coin the term 'cognitive science of religion' in his article "Exploring the natural foundations of religion".

Since 2000, cognitive science of religion has grown, similarly to other approaches that apply evolutionary thinking to sociological phenomena. Each year more researchers become involved in the field, with theoretical and empirical developments proceeding at a very rapid pace. The field remains somewhat loosely defined, bringing together as it does researchers who come from a variety of different traditions. Much of the cohesion in the field comes not from shared detailed theoretical commitments but from a general willingness to view religion in cognitive and evolutionary terms as well as from the willingness to engage with the work of the others developing this field. A vital role in bringing together researchers is played by the International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion, formed in 2006.

Theoretical basis

Despite a lack of agreement concerning the theoretical basis for work in cognitive science of religion, it is possible to outline some tendencies. Most significant of these is reliance upon the theories developed within evolutionary psychology. That particular approach to evolutionary explanations of human behaviour is particularly suitable to the cognitive byproduct explanation of religion that is most popular among cognitive scientists of religion. This is because of the focus on byproduct and ancestral trait explanations within evolutionary psychology. A particularly significant concept associated with this approach is modularity of mind, used as it is to underpin accounts of the mental mechanisms seen to be responsible for religious beliefs. Important examples of work that falls under this rubric are provided by research carried out by Pascal Boyer and Justin L. Barrett.

These theoretical commitments are not shared by all cognitive scientists of religion, however. Ongoing debates regarding the comparative advantages of different evolutionary explanations for human behaviour find a reflection within cognitive science of religion with dual inheritance theory recently gaining adherents among researchers in the field, including Armin Geertz and Ara Norenzayan. The perceived advantage of this theoretical framework is its ability to deal with more complex interactions between cognitive and cultural phenomena, but it comes at the cost of experimental design having to take into consideration a richer range of possibilities.

Main concepts

Cognitive byproduct
The view that religious beliefs and practices should be understood as nonfunctional but as produced by human cognitive mechanisms that are functional outside of the context of religion. Examples of this are the hyperactive agent detection device and the minimally counterintuitive concepts or the process of initiation explaining Buddhism and Taoism. The cognitive byproduct explanation of religion is an application of the concept of spandrel and of the concept of exaptation explored by Stephen Jay Gould among others.

Minimally counterintuitive concepts
Concepts that mostly fit human preconceptions but break with them in one or two striking ways. These concepts are both easy to remember (thanks to the counterintuitive elements) and easy to use (thanks to largely agreeing with what people expect). Examples include talking trees and noncorporeal agents. Pascal Boyer argues that many religious entities fit into this category. Upal labelled the fact that minimally counterintuitive ideas are better remembered than intuitive and maximally counterintuitive ideas as the minimal counterintuitiveness effect or the MCI-effect.

Hyperactive agency detection device
Cognitive scientist Justin L. Barrett postulates that this mental mechanism, whose function is to identify the activity of agents, may contribute to belief in the presence of the supernatural. Given the relative costs of failing to spot an agent, the mechanism is said to be hyperactive, producing a large number of false positive errors. Stewart E. Guthrie and others have claimed these errors can explain the appearance of supernatural concepts.

Pro-social adaptation
According to the prosocial adaptation account of religion, religious beliefs and practices should be understood as having the function of eliciting adaptive prosocial behaviour and avoiding the free rider problem. Within the cognitive science of religion this approach is primarily pursued by Richard Sosis. David Sloan Wilson is another major proponent of this approach and interprets religion as a group-level adaptation, but his work is generally seen as falling outside the cognitive science of religion.

Costly signaling
Practices that, due to their inherent cost, can be relied upon to provide an honest signal regarding the intentions of the agent. Richard Sosis has suggested that religious practices can be explained as costly signals of the willingness to cooperate. A similar line of argument has been pursued by Lyle Steadman and Craig Palmer. Alternatively, D. Jason Slone has argued that religiosity may be a costly signal used as a mating strategy insofar as religiosity serves as a proxy for "family values".

Dual inheritance
In the context of cognitive science of religion, dual inheritance theory can be understood as attempting to combine the cognitive byproduct and prosocial adaptation accounts using the theoretical approach developed by Robert Boyd and Peter Richerson, among others. The basic view is that while belief in supernatural entities is a cognitive byproduct, cultural traditions have recruited such beliefs to motivate prosocial behaviour. A sophisticated statement of this approach can be found in Scott Atran and Joseph Henrich (2010).

See also

References

Further reading

 Atran, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2004). "Religion's evolutionary landscape: Counterintuition, commitment, compassion, communion". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27, 713–770.
 Barrett, J.L. "Cognitive Science of Religion: What Is It and Why Is It?" Religion Compass 2007, vol 1.
 Barrett, J.L. "Exploring the Natural Foundations of Religion." Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2000, vol. 4 pp 29–34
 Barrett, J.L. Why Would Anyone Believe in God? AltaMira Press, 2004.
 Barrett, J.L. and Jonathan A. Lanman. "The Science of Religious Beliefs." Religion 38, 2008. 109-124
 Barrett, Nathaniel F. Toward an Alternative Evolutionary Theory of Religion: Looking Past Computational Evolutionary Psychology to a Wider Field of Possibilities. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, September 2010, Vol. 78, No. 3, pp. 583–621.
 Boyer, Pascal. The Naturalness of Religious Ideas University of California Press, 1994.
 Boyer, Pascal. Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought Basic Books, 2001
 Boyer, Pascal. "Religious Thought and Behavior as By-Products of Brain Functions," Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7, pp 119–24
 Boyer, P and Liénard, P. "Why ritualized behavior? Precaution Systems and action parsing in developmental, pathological and cultural rituals .Behavioral and Brain Sciences  29: 595-650.
 Cohen, E. The Mind Possessed. The Cognition of Spirit Possession in the Afro-Brazilian Religious Tradition Oxford University Press.
 De Cruz, Helen & De Smedt, Johan. (2015). "A natural history of natural theology. The Cognitive Science of Theology and Philosophy of Religion." MIT Press, 2015.
 Geertz, Armin W. (2004). "Cognitive Approaches to the Study of Religion," in P. Antes, A.W. Geertz, R.R. Warne (Eds.) New Approaches to the Study of Religion Volume 2: Textual, Comparative, Sociological, and Cognitive Approaches. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 347–399.
 Geertz, Armin W. (2008). "From Apes to Devils and Angels: Comparing Scenarios on the Evolution of Religion," in J. Bulbulia et al. (Eds.) The Evolution of Religion: Studies, Theories, & Critiques Santa Margarita: Collins Foundation Press, pp. 43–49.
 Guthrie, S. E. (1993). 'Faces in the Clouds: A new theory of religion  New York: Oxford University Press.
 Knight, N., Sousa, P., Barrett, J. L., & Atran, S. (2004). "Children's attributions of beliefs to humans and God". Cognitive Science 28(1): 117-126.
 Kress, O. (1993). "A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation". Evolution and Cognition 2(4): 319-332.
 Lawson, E. T. "Toward a Cognitive Science of Religion." Numen 47(3): 338-349(12).
 Lawson, E. T. "Religious Thought."  Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science vol 3 (A607).
 Lawson, E. T. and McCauley, RN. Rethinking Religion: Connecting Cognition and Culture Cambridge University Press, 1990.
 Legare, C. and Gelman, S. "Bewitchment, Biology, or Both: The Co-existence of Natural and Supernatural Explanatory Frameworks Across Development." Cognitive Science  32(4): 607-642.
 Light, T and Wilson, B (eds). Religion as a Human Capacity: A Festschrift in Honor of E. Thomas Lawson Brill, 2004.
 McCauley, RN. "The Naturalness of Religion and the Unnaturalness of Science."  Explanation and Cognition (Keil and Wilson eds), pp 61–85. MIT Press, 2000.
 McCauley, RN and Lawson, E. T. Bringing Ritual to Mind: Psychological Foundations of Cultural Forms Cambridge University Press, 2002.
 McCorkle Jr., William W. Ritualizing the Disposal of the Deceased: From Corpse to Concept Peter Lang, 2010.
 Norenzayan, A., Atran, S., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2006). "Memory and mystery: The cultural selection of minimally counterintuitive narratives". Cognitive Science 30, 531-553.
 Nuckolls, C. "Boring Rituals," Journal of Ritual Studies 2006.
 Pyysiäinen, I. How Religion Works: Towards a New Cognitive Science of Religion Brill, 2001.
 Slone, DJ. Theological Incorrectness: Why Religious People Believe What They Shouldn't Oxford University Press, 2004.
 Slone, DJ (ed). Religion and Cognition: A Reader Equinox Press, 2006.
 Slone, DJ, and Van Slyke, J. The Attraction of Religion. Bloomsbury Academic Press. 2015.
 Sørensen, J. "A Cognitive Theory of Magic." AltaMira Press, 2006.
 Sperber, D. Rethinking Symbolism Cambridge University Press, 1975.
 Sperber, D. Explaining Culture Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
 Talmont-Kaminski, K. (2013). Religion as Magical Ideology: How the Supernatural Reflects Rationality Durham: Acumen.
 Taves, A. "Religious Experience Reconsidered: A Building Block Approach to the Study of Religion and Other Special Things" Princeton University Press, 2011.
 Tremlin, T. Minds and Gods: The Cognitive Foundations of Religion Oxford University Press, 2006.
 Upal, M. A. (2005). "Towards a Cognitive Science of New Religious Movements," Cognition and Culture, 5(2), 214-239.
 Upal, M. A., Gonce, L., Tweney, R., and Slone, J. (2007). Contextualizing counterintuitiveness: How Context Affects Comprehension and Memorability of Counterintuitive Concepts, Cognitive Science, 31(3), 415-439.
 Van Eyghen, H., Peels, R., Van den Brink, G. (2018) " New Developments in Cognitive Science of Religion: The Rationality of Religious Belief" London: Springer.
 White, Cliare (2021). An Introduction to the Cognitive Science of Religion, London and New York: Routledge.
 Whitehouse, H. (1995).  Inside the Cult: Religious innovation and transmission in Papua New Guinea  Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 Whitehouse, H. (1996a). "Apparitions, orations, and rings: Experience of spirits" in Dadul. Jeannette Mageo and Alan Howard (eds). Spirits in Culture, History, and Mind New York: Routledge.
 Whitehouse, H. (1996b).  "Rites of terror: Emotion, metaphor, and memory in Melanesian initiation cults"  Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 2, 703-715.
 Whitehouse, H. (2000).  Arguments and Icons: Divergent modes of religiosity Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Whitehouse, H. (2004). Modes of Religiosity: a cognitive theory of religious transmission Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
 Xygalatas, D and McCorkle Jr., W.W. (eds). Mental Culture: Classical Social Theory and The Cognitive Science of Religion Durham: Acumen.
 Ovsepyan Mari,  The Anatomy of Unbelief, Towards a Materialist Approach to the Cognitive Science of (Non)Religion, Pages 15 . Ed. Sollereder, B., & McGrath, A. (Eds.). (2022). Emerging Voices in Science and Theology: Contributions by Young Women (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003251446

External links
 Religion as Anthropomorphism with Stewart Guthrie.
 Religion is Natural and Science is Not with Robert McCauley.
 God's Mind, Your Mind, and Theory of Mind with Will Gervais.
 Method and Theory in the Cognitive Sciences of Religion with Robert McCauley.
 "Practice What You Preach" : CREDs and CRUDs with Jonathan Lanman.

Psychology of religion
Religion and science
Spirituality

Cognitive science of religion


A File system (or filesystem) is a way of storing all data on a data storage device. The data is usually organized in computer files in directories. Below the file system there is usually a physical device where the files are stored.  This might be a hard disk, USB flash drive, compact disc, or DVD. The file system might also talk to a remote server over a network where the file is stored. The file system might also only use RAM to store the files.

The underlying storage mechanism usually has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers).

The file system does the translation between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.

More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:
Data that holds the files
Data that is used to describe what state the files are in. This is called metadata.
It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called journaling.

References
software
Systems

File system


Gopala Dasa (1721–1769) was a prominent 18th-century Kannada language poet and saint belonging to the Haridasa tradition. With other contemporary Haridasas such as Vijaya Dasa and Jagannatha Dasa, Gopala Dasa propagated the Dvaita philosophy of  Madhvacharya in South India through Kirtans ("Songs of God") known as Dasara Padagalu with the pen-name (ankita nama or mudra) "Gopala Vittala".He is Ganesa Amsha.

Gopala Dasa was named "Bhaganna" at birth. He was born in a Deshastha Madhva Brahmin family in Mosarakallu  a village in  Raichur district of Karnataka state, India. After his initiation into the Madhwa order as Dasa, he became a disciple of Vijaya Dasa and is credited to being a prolific composer. He is known to have been an astrologer as well. Later Gopala Dasa inspired the well known woman saint Helavanakatte Giriyamma to compose melodious songs in praise of the Hindu god Vishnu.

Legend has it that once Vijaya Dasa, a leading Haridasa of the 18th century, invited Jagannatha Dasa to attend a religious ceremony and dine with his devotees. Jagannatha Dasa, who was known for his scholarship in Sanskrit, thought it unnecessary to mingle with the Kannada Haridasas and pretended to have severe stomach pain. Another account claims Jagannatha Dasa even excused himself by feigning sickness due to Tuberculosis. Soon Jaganatha Dasa actually began to suffer from acute stomach pain. Unable to find a suitable remedy, he went to Vijaya Dasa who advised him to approach Gopala Dasa. Jagannatha Dasa's problem was solved by Gopala Dasa. Realizing his mistake and wrong attitude toward the Haridasas, Jaganatha Dasa joined the Madhwa order and went on to become one of its foremost proponents.

Notes

Bibliography

18th-century Indian philosophers
Madhva religious leaders
Dvaita Vedanta
Carnatic musicians
Haridasa
Scholars from Karnataka
Dvaitin philosophers
People from Raichur district
1762 deaths
1722 births
18th-century Indian musicians
Musicians from Karnataka

Gopala Dasa


Dazed and Confused is a 1993 American comedy movie. It is about the lives of teenagers during their last days of high school in May 1976 in Austin, Texas. Milla Jovovich plays Michelle. Parker Posey plays Darla Marks. This movie was released on September 24, 1993 in the United States. It made only $7.9 million, though reviews were extremely positive thanks to its cult status.

1993 comedy movies
1990s coming-of-age movies
1990s high school movies
1990s teen comedy movies
American coming-of-age movies
American high school movies
American teen comedy movies
Austin, Texas
Coming-of-age comedy movies
Cult movies
English-language movies
Movies about drugs
Movies about suburbia
Movies set in Texas
Movies set in the 1970s
American independent movies

Dazed and Confused


Erebus is the god of darkness in Greek mythology. He came out of Chaos. He was also known to be the god fire; and he was that until Hephaestus took his place along with the ability of metal works. He is the twin of Nyx, the Goddess of Night.

Mount Erebus and a small crater on Mars are named after the Greek God.

Greek gods and goddesses

Erebos


A Munro is a Scottish mountain with a height over 3,000 feet (914.4 metres). They are named after Sir Hugh Munro (1856–1919), who produced the first attempt at a catalogue of such hills, known as Munro's Tables, in 1891.

Munro did not set any measure of relative height by which a peak qualified as a separate mountain, and much debate has since taken place over how distinct two hills must be if they are to be considered as two separate Munros.

Despite their modest height, walking and climbing in the Scottish mountains may be made dangerous by their latitude and exposure to Atlantic weather systems. Even in summer, conditions can be very bad; thick fog, strong winds, driving rain and freezing summit temperatures are not unusual.

Winter ascents of certain Munros are widely accepted to provide among the most challenging ice climbs in Europe. Some walkers are unprepared for the often extreme weather conditions on the exposed tops and many fatalities are recorded every year, often resulting from slips on wet rock or ice.

Other websites
Scottish Mountaineering Club official Munros page , including completionists.
MunroMagic – details and route descriptions for all Munros. (Some content requires registration.)
The Munros and Tops 1891-1997  - Spreadsheet showing changes in successive versions of Munro's Tables.

Mountains of Scotland

Munro


1118 was a common year.

Events
 January 24 – Pope Gelasius II succeeds Pope Paschal II as the 161st pope.
 March 10 – Gregory VIII is elected antipope.
 June 11 – Roger of Salerno, Prince of Antioch, captures Azaz from the Seljuk Turks.
 December 18 – Alfonso the Battler expels the Moors from Zaragoza.

Europe
 Þorlákur Runólfsson becomes Bishop of Skálholt.
 Enna mac Donnchada mac Murchada becomes King of Dublin.
 Cu Faifne mac Congalaig becomes King of Ui Failghe.
 Maelsechlainn Ua Faelain becomes King of the Déisi Muman.
 The cantrefs of Rhos and Rhufoniog are annexed by Gruffydd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd.
 The Archbishop of York is no longer required to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
 Reconstruction begins on Peterborough Cathedral, destroyed by fire in 1116.
 Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona captures Tarragona from the Moors.
 A rebellion against Henry I of England breaks out in Normandy.
 Alberich of Rheims becomes Master at the school of Rheims.
 Charles I, Count of Flanders marries Margaret of Clermont.
 Amaury IV of Montfort divorces his wife Richilde, daughter of Baldwin II, Count of Hainaut.
 Wulgrin III becomes Count of Angoulême.
 Gervais becomes Count of Rethel.
 The castle of Montlhéry is dismantled by Louis VI of France.
 The cathedral of Ferentino is completed.
 Restoration of Santa Maria in Cosmedin begins.
 Magdeburg is almost destroyed by fire.
 Reichenbach Abbey is founded.
 Zwickau, Eisenstadt, Kirchgandern, and Wolfenbüttel are first mentioned.
 Otto of Bamberg is suspended by the Pope, and Norbert of Xanten defends himself against charges of heresy at the Synod of Fritzlar.
 Đorđe, Vojislavljevic´ ruler of Serbia, is overthrown by Uroš I of Raška.
 George of Duklja is overthrown by his cousin Grubeša.
 Radostl becomes Bishop of Krakow.
 Zbraslav, now part of Prague, is founded.
 Sylvestr becomes bishop of Pereyaslavl Yuzhniy.
 The Knights Templar are founded, with Hughes de Payens serving as the first Grand Master.

Asia
 John II Comnenus succeeds Alexius I as Byzantine emperor.
 The Byzantine general Philocales captures Sardis from the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm.
 Baldwin I of Jerusalem invades Egypt.
 Baldwin of Le Bourg succeeds his cousin Baldwin I as king of Jerusalem.
 Roman of Le Puy becomes lord of Oultrejordain.
 Joscelin I succeeds Baldwin of Le Bourg as Count of Edessa.
 Garmond of Picquigny becomes Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem.
 Suleyman I ibn al-Ghazi becomes emir of Aleppo.
 David IV of Georgia captures Lorri from the Seljuk Turks.
 David IV of Georgia settles a number of Kipchaks in Georgia.
 Ahmed Sanjar and Mahmud II proclaim themselves rival Seljuk sultans upon the death of Mehmed I of Great Seljuk.
 Al-Mustarshid becomes Abbasid caliph.
 Bahram Shah becomes Ghaznavid emperor.

 The Hoysala Empire defeats the Chalukya at the Battle of Kennagal.
 The Zenghe era of Emperor Huizong of Song China ends, and the Chonghe era begins.
 The Yongning era of Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia ends.
 Start of the Genei era in Japan.

Births
 November 28 – Manuel I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1180)
 December 21 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1170)
 Gualdim Pais, Portuguese Grand-Master of the Templars (d. 1195)
 Eudes II, Duke of Burgundy
 Gertrude, daughter of Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor and wife of Henry X, Duke of Bavaria
 Christina, daughter of Canute Lavard, wife of Magnus IV of Norway
 Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1185)
 Nur ad-Din, ruler of Syria (d. 1174)
 Ahmed ar-Rifa'i, founder of the Rifa'i Sufi order
 Taira no Kiyomori, Japanese general (d. 1181)
 Saigyo, Japanese poet

Deaths
 January 21 – Pope Paschal II
 April 2 – King Baldwin I of Jerusalem
 April 16 – Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, mother of Roger II of Sicily, queen of Baldwin I of Jerusalem
 May 1 – Edith of Scotland, queen of Henry I of England
 June 5 – Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester
 July 7 – Florence of Worcester, long thought to be the writer of the chronicle of John of Worcester
 August 15 – Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor (b. 1048)
 Gissur Ísleifsson, Bishop of Skálholt
 Muircheartach Ua Briain, High King of Ireland
 Domnall mac Muirchertaig ua Briain, King of Dublin
 Rogan mac Domnaill meic Conchobair, King of Ui Failghe
 William, Count of Évreux
 William III, Count of Angoulême
 Lithuise of Blois
 Milo II, lord of Montlhéry
 Hugh I, Count of Rethel
 Gerberge I, Countess of Provence
 Philip Halsten, King of Sweden
 Maur, Bishop of Krakow
 Basil the Physician, Bogomil leader
 Arnulf of Chocques, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
 Mehmed I of Great Seljuk, Seljuk sultan
 Al-Mustazhir, Abbasid caliph
 Arslan Shah, Ghaznavid emperor

1118

1118


Heber Jeddy Grant (November 22, 1856 – May 14, 1945) was an American religious leader who served as the seventh president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Grant worked as a bookkeeper and a cashier, then was called to be an LDS apostle on October 16, 1882, at age 25.  After the death of Joseph F. Smith in late 1918, Grant served as LDS Church president until his death.

The first president born after the exodus to Utah, Grant was also the last LDS Church president to have practiced plural marriage. He had three wives, though by the time he became church president in 1918 only his second wife, Augusta Winters, was still living.

In business, Grant helped develop the Avenues neighborhood of Salt Lake City. In 1884, he served a term as a representative to the Utah Territorial Legislature.

Early life

Grant was born in Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, the son of Rachel Ridgeway Ivins and Jedediah Morgan Grant. His father was a counselor in the First Presidency to Brigham Young. Rachel Grant was a native of New Jersey, where she had converted to the LDS Church at about 20. Her cousin and later brother-in-law (he married her older sister Anna), Israel Ivins, was the first person baptized a Latter-day Saint in New Jersey.

Jedediah Grant died when Heber J. Grant was nine days old. After Jedediah's death, Rachel married Jedediah's brother, George Grant, but he fell into alcoholism so she divorced him. Rachel became the dominant influence in Heber's life. She served for many years as president of the 13th Ward Relief Society in downtown Salt Lake City.

He was known for his determination to achieve goals that were seemingly beyond his reach. As a child, he wanted to join the baseball team that would win the Utah territorial championship, but others believed him to be too physically awkward to be successful. In response, he purchased a baseball and practiced throwing the ball for hours against his barn to improve. The team he joined later won the championship. In similar fashion, Grant expressed a desire to be a successful bookkeeper although many of his associates criticized his penmanship. He practiced his writing to the point that he was invited to teach penmanship at one of the local academies.

There were no free public schools in Salt Lake City when Grant was a child, but his mother kept him enrolled in various schools while he was growing up.

Business activities
After working as a bookkeeper in the insurance business in 1877, Grant became an assistant cashier with Zion's Savings Bank and afterwards opened an insurance business with Nephi Clayton. Later, Grant became a partner with D. W. Jennings. He later founded an additional insurance agency in Ogden and, for a time, owned the Ogden Vinegar Works.

In the late 1890s, Grant served as the business manager for the newly-formed official LDS magazine, the Improvement Era. Grant's insurance company advertised in the publication.

Grant continued to be involved in business activities after his call as an apostle. He founded many new businesses, including a bank. He was a founder of the Utah Sugar Company and the main founder of the Salt Lake Theatre.

Grant lost a large amount of money in the Panic of 1893 and never recovered from its adverse financial effects. He was also the main person to negotiate new financing to the LDS Church in New York at the time. His efforts kept the church going until Lorenzo Snow's late-1890s call for tithing placed the church in a better financial situation.

Early LDS Church service
Grant was made a block teacher (similar to the modern position of home teacher) when he was still a youth, which was rare at the time. He was ordained a seventy at 15, which was also rare at the time.

In June 1875, when the first Young Men's Mutual Improvement Association (YMMIA) was organized in the Salt Lake 13th Ward, Grant, then 19, was called to serve as a counselor to Junius F. Wells in its presidency.

At 26, he served a mission to the Native Americans from 1883 to 1884.

Grant's early church assignments included service on the Church Salary Committee and the Sunday School General Board. Grant was made Second Assistant in the Superintendency of the General YMMIA in 1898. When Joseph F. Smith became president of the church and head of the YMMIA, Grant was made First Assistant, where he served until he became church president.

In 1880, Grant became president of the Tooele Utah Stake, moving there with his wife, Lucy, and their children. Around then, Lucy began to develop health problems.

In 1882, Grant was called as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve. Early in his service in the quorum, he made many trips to Arizona, earning the title "The Arizona Apostle". Grant twice served missions among the Yaqui in Mexico.

In 1901, Grant was sent to Japan to open the church's Japanese Mission. He served as the mission president until 1903, when he returned home but was almost immediately sent to preside over the British and other European missions of the church. He returned from the British mission in 1906.

During the ensuing decade and later, Grant oversaw church education programs, the Genealogical Society of Utah and the Improvement Era.

Church president
Grant succeeded Joseph F. Smith as church president in November 1918. He was not sustained in the position by the general church membership, however, until June 1919 because of the influenza pandemic of 1918, which forced a delay of the church's traditional springtime general conference.

During his tenure as church president, Grant enforced the 1890 Manifesto outlawing plural marriage and gave guidance as the church's social structure evolved away from its early days of plural marriage. In 1927, he authorized the implementation of the church's "Good Neighbor" policy, which was intended to reduce antagonism between Latter-day Saints and the US government. Grant dedicated the first temples outside of Utah since Kirtland. The first was the Hawaii Temple, followed by the Alberta Temple, the first outside the United States, and the Arizona Temple. The church also began the Idaho Falls Temple, which was not completed until after his death.

Also under Grant, the first stakes outside the Intermountain West were organized. The first stake in Los Angeles was organized in the 1920s. Grant still operated on old methods, such as personally asking LeGrand Richards to move to California with the intention of calling him as a stake president there. He also personally negotiated the purchase of the land on which the Los Angeles Temple would be built.

In the 1930s, stakes were organized in New York and Chicago and in the 1940s in Portland, Oregon, and Washington, DC. Grant presided at the dedication of an LDS chapel in Washington, DC, in 1933, which was seen to mark a new phase of nationwide expansion in the church.

In 1935, Grant excommunicated members of the church in Short Creek, Arizona, who refused to sign the loyalty pledge to the church that included a renunciation of plural marriage. That signaled the formal beginning of the Mormon fundamentalist movement, and some of the excommunicated members went on to found the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.

One of Grant's greatest legacies as president is the church's welfare program, which he instituted in 1936: "our primary purpose was to set up, insofar as it might be possible, a system under which the curse of idleness would be done away with, the evils of a dole abolished, and independence, industry, thrift and self-respect be once more established amongst our people. The aim of the Church is to help the people help themselves." Grant also placed strong emphasis on the importance of sacrament meeting attendance and oversaw expansion of the seminary program and the creation of the institute of religion.

His administration also emphasized the practice of the LDS health code known as the Word of Wisdom. During the early 1900s, general authorities differed in their observance of the proscription against beer, wine, tobacco, coffee and tea, but among the apostles, Grant was one of the most vocal in opposing such substances. In 1921, Grant's administration made adherence to the health code compulsory for advancement in the priesthood or for entrance to temples. Grant also spoke out in favor of Utah's Prohibition movement, which occurred around the same time.

Despite being a Democrat, Grant was opposed to the election of U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt and wrote a front-page editorial for the Deseret News urging church members not to vote for him during the 1936 election. Grant shared the view of J. Reuben Clark and David O. McKay that the New Deal was socialism, which they all despised. Roosevelt greatly alienated Grant also for opposing Prohibition, another subject.

Roosevelt still won Utah in each of his four presidential elections. Grant regarded that as "one of the most serious conditions that has confronted me since I became President of the Church." Later, when Utah voters agreed by plebiscite to become the 36th state to ratify the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution, thus completing the process of ratification and repealing prohibition, Grant was devastated. In a general conference, he told the Latter-day Saints, "I have never felt so humiliated in my life over anything as that the State of Utah voted for the repeal of Prohibition."

Under Grant's administration, the position of Assistant to the Quorum of the Twelve was created.

Death
Grant died in Salt Lake City, Utah at age 88, from cardiac failure as a result of arteriosclerosis. As the final surviving member of the church's Council of Fifty, his death marked the formal end of the organization. He was buried at Salt Lake City Cemetery.

Legacy
Grant's teachings as an apostle were the 2004 course of study in the LDS Church's Sunday Relief Society and Melchizedek priesthood classes.

Wives
Grant was the last LDS Church president to practice plural marriage. He married a first time in 1877 and then twice more in 1884. However, by the time he became church president, only one of his wives, Augusta, was still alive.

One of his grandchildren was longtime CBS News producer Leslie Midgley, last husband of Betty Furness.

Lucy Stringham
Grant married Lucy Stringham (1858–1893) on November 1, 1877. She was a daughter of Briant Stringham, who came to the Salt Lake Valley with Brigham Young in 1847.

Lucy had been closely associated with Grant essentially from her birth, and they attended Mary Cook's school together.  Like Grant, she was a member of the 13th Ward. It was not until Grant broke off his courtship with Emily H. Wells (see below) that he started actively courting Lucy. Lucy was initially reticent to fully accept Grant's advances, seeing herself as just a temporary replacement for Emily, but after he regularly walked her home from church services for several weeks without being invited into the Stringham home, she gave up and invited him in. They married a few months later. For a time, Lucy was a school teacher.

Grant felt very close to Lucy. On an early assignment as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve in Arizona, he surprised his traveling companion, Brigham Young Jr., with how many letters he wrote to Lucy.

Lucy and Grant would become the parents of six children. He praised her "business foresight and judgment" and credited her with much of his business success.  She died in 1893, after a long illness during which he gave constant, tender devotion to her, as he had throughout their marriage.

Augusta Winters
Grant married Hulda Augusta Winters (1856–1952) on May 26, 1884. She was a school teacher for a time and was described as the ablest school teacher in Utah Territory. In the late 1880s, Augusta took up residence in New York City to try and prevent Grant's arrest on polygamy charges. Augusta bore one daughter. She accompanied Grant to Japan when he was sent to open the Japanese mission in 1901. She would often travel with him when he was president of the church, especially when he went to address non-Mormon audiences. She died in 1952.

Emily H. Wells
Grant married Emily Harris Wells (1857–1908) on May 27, 1884. She was a daughter of Daniel H. Wells.

Emily and Grant were five months apart in age and from Emily's birth she had been Grant's next-door neighbor. They were among the most prominent young orators in Salt Lake society in the 1870s, both connected with the Wasatch Literary Association and Grant was a counselor to Emily's brother in the 13th Ward YMMIA presidency. The marriage of Grant and Emily was expected by all who knew them. However, Emily then announced publicly her opposition to polygamy, which caused a falling out between Grant and Emily.

Emily was a full sister of Briant H. Wells, who was a Major General in the United States Army. Another of her brothers, Heber M. Wells, later the first governor of the state of Utah, stayed with her for part of the time of her exile in Manassa.

Emily attended the University of Deseret. For a time, she was a school teacher. In 1883, Grant asked Emily to marry him. Since she had not renounced her dislike for polygamy and he was already married to Lucy, that was in many ways a very daring move on his part, and she initially declined his request. Emily then had a change of heart and she and Grant married on May 27, 1884. Since the Edmunds Act had been enacted in 1882, the situation of Mormon polygamists was far worse than it had been a decade earlier when Emily had first renounced polygamy. To avoid Grant having to go to prison on charges of unlawful cohabitation, Emily went to England to live at the LDS mission home to have her first child. She returned to the United States 16 months later and moved between multiple locations in Utah Territory and Idaho to avoid capture.

In 1889, to avoid being forced to testify in pending unlawful cohabitation charges against her husband, Emily went to Manassa, Colorado, where she stayed for a year and a half. Grant accompanied her on the train-ride from Pueblo, Colorado, to Manassa, having been on a different train on the previous part of the journey to avoid arrest. Grant stayed two weeks, setting up for Emily the most comfortable house in the town, and leaving his mother to help Emily. She remained in Manassa until March 1891, when she returned to Salt Lake City.

Emily and Grant were the parents of four daughters and a son. The son, Daniel Wells Grant, died while he was still a child. Emily's last child was born in 1899, when she was 42, the same year Grant pleaded guilty to unlawful cohabitation and paid a $100 fine.

Emily accompanied Grant when he served as mission president in England, bringing her four daughters and two of Lucy's daughters. Because of their daughters' presence, the Grants relocated the mission home to a more respectable part of Liverpool.

Emily developed stomach cancer in 1907, which caused her death in 1908. At the time of her death, she was considered one of the most prominent women in Salt Lake City.

Ancestry

Works

See also

Second Manifesto

References

Further reading

External links

 Grampa Bill's G.A. Pages: Heber J. Grant
 Diary Excerpts of Heber J. Grant, 1887-1899
 Heber J. Grant Papers, MSS 433 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Brigham Young University

1856 births
1945 deaths
20th-century Mormon missionaries
American general authorities (LDS Church)
American Mormon missionaries in England
American Mormon missionaries in Japan
American people convicted of bigamy
American temperance activists
Apostles (LDS Church)
Businesspeople in the sugar industry
Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery
Counselors in the General Presidency of the Young Men (organization)
Members of the Utah Territorial Legislature
19th-century American politicians
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
Mormon missionaries in Europe
Politicians from Salt Lake City
Presidents of the Church (LDS Church)
Presidents of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)
Utah Democrats
Religious leaders from Salt Lake City
American members of the clergy convicted of crimes

Heber J. Grant


Ket (kojemu ime dolazi od engleske riječi cat za mačku) je naziv za brod, odnosno čamac na jedra koji se sastoji od jednog jarbola s jednim jedrom.

Eksterni linkovi
 Cape Cod Shipbuilding builders of fine sailboats for over 100 years.
 The Catboat Association a non-profit organization dedicated to preserving the history, and promoting the use, of catboats.
 MengerCat.com a resource for information about Menger Catboats built between 1976 and 2005. Now owned and supported by Wagner Boat Works.
 Selina II the largest surviving vintage catboat.
 Beetle, Inc. manufacturer of the Beetle catboat.
 New England Beetle Cat Boat Association a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting the maintenance, restoration, preservation and just plain sailing the Beetle Cat Boat.
 Howard Boats  manufacturer of the Barnstable catboat, a fiberglass version of the traditional wooden Beetle catboat.
 "Catboat moments"  an article about catboats in the August 2005 issue of Soundings Magazine.

Jedrenjaci

Ket


Prince  was a Japanese Imperial court noble and statesman at the time of the Meiji Restoration. He held many high-ranking offices in the Meiji government.

Biography

Born in Kyoto, Sanjō was the son of Naidaijin Sanjō Sanetsumu. He held several important posts in Court and became a central figure in the anti-Western, anti-Tokugawa sonnō jōi ("Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarian") movement.

When the coup d'état of September 30, 1863, brought the more moderate Aizu and Satsuma factions into power, he fled to Chōshū. He returned to Kyoto after the resignation of shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu in 1867.

The first administrative offices (Sanshoku) of the Meiji government were established on January 3, 1868: the Sōsai (President), Gijō (Administration) and San'yo (Office of Councilors).  These offices were abolished on June 11, 1868, with the establishment of the Dajō-kan (Grand Council of State). In the new Meiji government, Sanjō was head of the Gijo, Minister of the Right (右大臣) (June 11, 1868 – August 15, 1871), and Chancellor of the Realm (Dajō-daijin) (August 15, 1871 – December 22, 1885).

Sanjō was awarded Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1882. On July 7, 1884, his title was changed to that of koshaku (prince) under the kazoku peerage system.

Sanjō served until the abolition of the dajōkan system in 1885. After the Cabinet system was established, he became Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan.

In 1889, when Prime Minister Kuroda Kiyotaka and his cabinet resigned en masse, Emperor Meiji only accepted Kuroda's resignation and formally invited Sanjō to head the government. The Emperor refused to appoint a new prime minister for the next two months, making Sanjō the only Prime Minister of Japan (albeit interim) who also concurrently held the post of Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.

In 1890, he assumed a seat in the new House of Peers in the Diet of Japan established by the Meiji Constitution. On his death in 1891, he was accorded a state funeral. His grave is at the temple of Gokoku-ji in Bunkyō, Tokyo.

Honours
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (29 December 1876)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (11 April 1882)
Prince (7 July 1884)

Order of precedence
Junior fifth rank (31 January 1850)
Fifth rank (4 July 1854)
Fourth rank (22 May 1855)
Senior fourth rank (29 January 1856)
 Third rank (6 November 1862; degraded 1863, restored 2 January 1868)
First rank (12 June 1868)
Senior first rank (18 February 1891)

Ancestry

Notes

References
 Beasley, William G. (1972). The Meiji Restoration. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ;  OCLC 579232
 Jansen, Marius B. and Gilbert Rozman, eds. (1986). Japan in Transition: from Tokugawa to Meiji. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ;  OCLC 12311985
 Keene, Donald. (2002). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912. New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 46731178
 Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan. [Translated by Fujiko Hara]. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ;  OCLC 45363447

External links

National Diet Library biography and photo
Meiji Dignitaries is a portrait of Sanetomi and others from 1877

|-

1837 births
1891 deaths
19th-century prime ministers of Japan
Kazoku
Kuge
Meiji Restoration
Members of the House of Peers (Japan)
Politicians from Kyoto Prefecture
People of Meiji-period Japan
Prime Ministers of Japan
Sanjō family
Deified Japanese people

Sanjō Sanetomi


An exclave is strip of land that belongs to an entity (like a country or a region) but that is not connected to it by land (islands are not counted). The strip of land is surrounded by other political entities. A good example is Kaliningrad Oblast (the region around the Russian city Kaliningrad). It belongs to the Russian Federation, but is separated from the rest of that country by territory belonging to Lithuania and Poland.

Although both meanings are close, an exclave might not be an enclave.  An enclave is completely surrounded by one other country.   For example, Kaliningrad is surrounded not by one state, but by two: Lithuania and Poland. It also borders the Baltic Sea. It is not an enclave.  On the other hand, the Spanish exclave of Llivia is an enclave in France.

Many exclaves today have some of idea of becoming independent, especially if the exclave is far away from the mainland.

A much more obscure use means, in medical discussion, a detached part of an organ, as of the pancreas, thyroid, or other gland.

The lists below are of various types of exclaves that are not enclaves.

True exclaves
 Angola: Cabinda
 Azerbaijan: Nakhichevan
 Belgium: Baarle-Hertog
 Brunei: Temburong
 Croatia: Dubrovnik
 East Timor: Oecussi-Ambeno
 Germany: Büsingen am Hochrhein
 Italy: Campione
 Netherlands: Baarle-Nassau (parts)
 Oman: Musandam
 Russia: Kaliningrad
 Spain: Llivia
 Northern Cyprus: Kokkina (de facto).
 United States: Alaska

Subnational exclaves
Exclaves of administrative divisions below the national level.

Many of the cantons of Switzerland have exclaves:
Bern has two small exclaves, Münchenwiler and Clavaleyres; the first is entirely surrounded by Fribourg, the second by Fribourg and Vaud's exclave.
Lucerne has two pieces separated from the main territory by the Vierwaldstättersee; one borders Schwyz, the other Nidwalden.
The "half-canton" of Obwalden is in two large pieces, separated by a strip of Nidwalden.
Nidwalden's district of Hergiswil is separated by an arm of the Vierwaldstättersee.
Fribourg is a large exclave bounded by Vaud and Lake Neuchâtel; two enclaves, Surpierre and Vuissens, within Vaud; and another enclave, Wallenbuch, within Bern.
Solothurn has two exclaves, Dorneck and Thierstein, both bounded on the south by Basel-Country and on the north by France; as well as the enclave of Steinhof which is entirely surrounded by Bern.
Schaffhausen, the only canton lying mostly on the north bank of the Rhine, is cut into three parts by German territory that links Germany to the Rhine.  The middle part is the largest, and surrounds the German enclave of Büsingen.  The upper and middle parts border on Thurgau, the middle and lower parts on Zürich.
The divided canton of Appenzell is surrounded by Sankt-Gallen.  Since its partition on religious lines in 1597, Appenzell Innerrhoden has three small exclaves, one enclave in Appenzell Ausserrhoden and two bordering also on Sankt-Gallen.
Vaud has one exclave, Avenches, bordered by Lake Neuchâtel, Fribourg and the tiny Bernese exclave of Clavaleyres.  The coast of Lake Neuchâtel is thus in seven pieces belonging to four cantons: clockwise from the north they are Neuchâtel, Bern (main), Vaud (Avenches exclave), Fribourg (main), Vaud (main), Fribourg (exclave), Vaud (main).
Geneva has two small exclaves within Vaud, together making the commune of Céligny.  The larger has a shoreline on Lake Geneva.
The secession of the new canton of Jura in 1979 left Bern temporarily with an exclave bounded by Jura, Solothurn (main and both exclaves), Basel-Country and France.  The exclave, Laufental, joined Basel-Country in 1994.

United States:
Kentucky: The westernmost part of the state, a piece of land known as the Kentucky Bend, is surrounded on three sides by the Mississippi River, with Missouri on the opposite shore. Road access to the rest of Kentucky is only available by first going south into Tennessee.  This exclave exists because the Mississippi, which forms the boundary between Missouri (right bank) and Kentucky/Tennessee (left bank), crosses latitude 36°30', which is part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee, three times.
Louisiana: St. Martin Parish has an exclave which is separated from the main part of the parish by Iberia Parish.
Massachusetts: Norfolk County is not in one piece.  The towns of Brookline and Cohasset are part of Norfolk County, but are surrounded on all sides by other counties: Brookline by Suffolk and Middlesex, Cohasset by Plymouth.
California: The City and County of San Francisco has an exclave on Alameda Island, across San Francisco Bay and adjoining Alameda County. The exclave came into being as land on the border between the two counties was reclaimed from the Bay to build the Naval Air Station Alameda, now decommissioned. This small piece of open space cannot be reached from San Francisco (except by boat) without passing through Oakland and Alameda.
Michigan: The "Lost Peninsula" in Monroe County, Michigan, can only be reached via Toledo, Ohio. It is surrounded by Maumee Bay in Lake Erie. (Map)
Sandoval County, New Mexico: During World War II, Los Alamos County was created out of parts of Sandoval and Santa Fe Counties, for the convenience of the Manhattan Project.  That portion of Sandoval County which is within the San Ildefonso Indian Reservation, about 3 km², became an exclave bounded by Los Alamos County on the southwest, Santa Fe County on the east and Rio Arriba County on the north.

"Practical" exclaves
Some territories are not geographically detached from their motherland. Nevertheless, they are more easily reached by entering a foreign country. Very often, this is because of their location in a hilly area. It may also be because the only road enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country.  These territories may be called "practical exclaves," "pene-exclaves" or "quasi-exclaves" and can be found along many borders, particularly those that are not heavily defended. They will only be attached to the motherland via an extremely small or thin slice of land.

Canada: St. Regis, Quebec: Part of the Akwesasne Mohawk Nation on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River, it is attached by land to the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation in New York State; road access to the rest of Canada is only available through New York State.
United States:
 Alaska: The Alaska Panhandle, though connected geographically, is inaccessible by road from the rest of the state.  One must drive through Canada to reach the area from elsewhere in the state
Minnesota: The Northwest Angle is attached by land to the Canadian province of Manitoba; road access to the rest of the United States is only available through Manitoba
Washington: Point Roberts is at the southern end of a peninsula; land access to the rest of the United States is only available through the Canadian province of British Columbia

"Practical" subnational exclaves
United States:
Virginia :The Eastern Shore, comprising Accomack County and Northampton County, is located at the southern tip of the Delmarva Peninsula.  It is connected to the rest of Virginia via the 23 mile (37 km) long Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel.
Iowa: Carter Lake, a part of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, is surrounded by Omaha, Nebraska on three sides and the Missouri River on the fourth; road access to Iowa is only available through Nebraska.
Michigan: The Upper Peninsula is attached by land to Wisconsin.  It can be reached from the Lower Peninsula of Michigan by the 5 mile (8 km) long Mackinac Bridge.

United Kingdom:
England: Pentreheyling can only be reached by road through Wales.

Historical exclaves
East Prussia, a German exclave during the Weimar Republic: it was separated from Germany after World War I, when Poland regained access to the Baltic sea.  East Prussia (essentially the old Duchy of Prussia) is now divided into Kaliningrad Oblast in Russia (see above) and the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship in Poland.
later became part of Poland and Russia (see Kaliningrad above).
East Bengal (1947-1955) / East Pakistan (1955-1971), now Bangladesh, was an exclave separated from West Pakistan by 1600 kilometres of India's territory. East Pakistan accounted for 70% of the exports of the country and was more populous than West Pakistan, and so in a sense it was actually the physically larger and politically more influential West that was the enclave and East Pakistan that was the Mainland.
Walvis Bay was a South African exclave in Namibia, before being incorporated with Namibia upon its independence.

Related pages
Enclave
Panhandle
List of countries that border only one other country

Other websites
 Enclaves of the world
 Jan S. Krogh's Geosite
 Article 'Tangled Territories' on European exclaves by Nicky Gardner of hidden europe magazine
 exclave.info

Exclave


The Earl was an automobile manufactured in Jackson, Michigan by Earl Motors Incorporated from 1921 to 1923.  The Earl was a continuation of the Briscoe.  The Model 40 offered both open and closed models with a four-cylinder engine. Approximately 2,000 vehicles were produced.  When the Earl debuted in 1921, the tourer cost just $1285. The company also claimed that $100 worth of "extras", such as linoleum floor boards and carpets front and rear were included in the base price.

Benjamin Briscoe appointed Clarence A. Earl as president of Briscoe Motor Corporation in March 1921.  Earl had previously been vice-president of Willys-Overland.  Briscoe suddenly left in October of the same year, tired of all the misfortune he had suffered in the automotive field to date.  He left his car and company to Earl.  Earl then announced to the press that he would be forming Earl Motors and bringing out a new four-cylinder car.  This was really just the Briscoe car with small modifications to solve some of its problems, as well as being slightly larger and more powerful.

Earl assumed many problems with the company, not least of which was one and a  half million dollars of debt.  Luckily, Clarence Earl easily raised more capital from bankers.  On the Earl Motors board were several bankers, as well as executives from various supplier firms.  Included in the latter group was George C. Scobie, who had been with Price-Waterhouse and Hayes Wheel Company, and was now vice-president of the new organization.  Clarence Earl  developed disagreements with all these board members over the future path of his company, and resigned in November 1922.  He then became president of National.  Earl had wanted to become a high-volume producer, while the rest of the board preferred a lower-volume, more fiscally conservative approach.

The bankers and supplier executives now took over the company, with George Scobie as president. They promptly reorganized as the Earl Motor Manufacturing Company in early 1923.  The new company was capitalized at one million dollars.  Soon, this group failed in pursuing their favored lower-volume approach, taking the company down with them.  Early in 1924, servicing rights to the now defunct Earl were sold to Standard Motor Parts Company of Detroit. Total Earl production was approximately 1,900 cars.

Rarity
There are only a handful of Earl Custom Roadsters left in the world. There have been persistent incorrect reports that an Earl Roadster is on display at the Ella Sharp Museum in Jackson, Michigan.  The museum curator has reported that people have driven as far as South Carolina to see the vehicle.  However the museum does not have such a vehicle  (as of 4 August 2011).  Private owners of Earl Roadsters are thought to exist in Jackson.

References

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Vintage vehicles
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1921
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1923
1921 establishments in Michigan
1923 disestablishments in Michigan
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan

Earl (automobile)


The Xserve is a server made by Apple Inc. which started in 2002. It was Apple's first server since the Apple Network Servers that they made in 1996. It first came with one or two PowerPC G4 processors. Later, new PowerPC G5 were added. Now, the server runs on two quad-core Intel Nehalem CPUs.

The Xserve can be used for many things, such as a file server and web server. It can even be used for high-performance computing applications using clustering—a dedicated cluster Xserve, the Xserve Cluster Node. This means there are many Xserves linked together so they can combine their power. For this, it was available without a video card or optical drive.

References

Apple hardware

Xserve


The Missouri General Assembly is the state legislature of the U.S. state of Missouri. The bicameral General Assembly is made up of a 32-member Senate, and a 163-member House of Representatives. Members of both houses of the General Assembly are subject to term limits. Senators are limited to two four-year terms. Representatives are limited to four two-year terms. This is a total of 8 years for members of both houses. The General Assembly meets at the State Capitol in Jefferson City.

Qualifications
Members of the House of Representatives must be 24 years of age to be elected. Representatives also must be a qualified Missouri voter for two years, and a resident of the county or district they are to represent for one year. Senators must be 30 years of age, a qualified Missouri voter for three years. They must be a resident of the area they are to represent for one year prior to their election.

Sessions and quorum
According to Article III, Section 20 of the Constitution of Missouri, the General Assembly must convene (meet) on the first Wednesday after the first Monday in January following the state general election. It adjourns on May 30, with no consideration of bills after 6:00 p.m. on the first Friday following the second Monday in May. No appropriation bill may be considered after 6:00 p.m. on the first Friday after the first Monday in May. If the Governor returns a bill with his objections after adjournment, the General Assembly is automatically reconvened on the first Wednesday following the second Monday in September for a period not to exceed ten days to consider vetoed bills.

The Governor may call the General Assembly in special session for a maximum of 60 calendar days at any time. Only subjects recommended by the Governor in his call or a special message may be considered. The President Pro Tem and the Speaker may convene a 30-day special session upon petition of three-fourths of the members of each chamber.

Neither the House nor Senate, without the consent of the other chamber, adjourn for more than ten days at any one time. They may not be called to any other place than that in which the two houses may be sitting.

As a part-time legislature, compensation is low with the General Assembly. Most senators and representatives hold jobs outside their legislative duties. Law makers are paid $35,915 per legislative year and receive $104 per day in expenses. They also receive full health benefits

Related pages
Missouri State Capitol
Missouri House of Representatives
Missouri State Senate

References

Other websites
Official General Assembly Website
Missouri Senate Website
Missouri House of Representatives Website

State legislatures of the United States
1821 establishments in Missouri
Organizations based in Missouri
Bicameral legislatures

Missouri General Assembly


Johann Theile (29 July 1646 – 24 June 1724) was a German composer of the Baroque era, famous for the opera Adam und Eva, Der erschaffene, gefallene und aufgerichtete Mensch, first performed in Hamburg on 2 January 1678.

Life
After studying law in Leipzig and Halle, Theile took instruction in composition in Weißenfels. His teacher there was the great Heinrich Schütz, the most prominent German composer of the 17th century. Theile is believed to have been one of his last pupils, and is considered one of the most gifted among them.
Between 1673 and 1675 he held the position of Court Kapellmeister for  Duke Christian Albrecht of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp. Some years later he held the position of Kapellmeister in Wolfenbüttel, where he commenced a musical apprenticeship to Johann Rosenmüller, who by this time had permanently returned to Northern Germany after having spent most of his career in Italy. He also worked in Naumburg, where he likewise held the position of Kapellmeister; Berlin, where he was active as a music teacher to the royal court; as well as Lübeck and Stettin, where he also served a music instructor. In 1673 he wrote his Matthäuspassion (St. Matthew Passion) in Lübeck.

In 1694, Theile returned from a stint as a musical advisor to the Duke of Zeitz to his home town of Naumburg, where he died in 1724.

Theile's compositions encompass Singspiele, operas, masses, psalm settings, passion oratorios, arias, canzonettas, and sonatas, as well as motets. His sacred opera Adam und Eva was the first work to be performed at the Goosemarket Opera in Hamburg – the first civic opera house in Germany. He also wrote a number of works on music theory, particularly on counterpoint. He also had an outstanding career as a practitioner and theorist in musical pedagogy. Theile taught Johann Mattheson. Dietrich Buxtehude was his most important pupil (despite having been nine years older and having pre-deceased him by more than a decade).

References

Notes

Sources
Article of the same name on German Wikipedia

External links

1646 births
1724 deaths
18th-century German composers
18th-century classical composers
18th-century keyboardists
18th-century German male musicians
German Baroque composers
German male classical composers
German opera composers
Male opera composers
German male organists
Organists and composers in the North German tradition
People from Naumburg (Saale)
Pupils of Heinrich Schütz
Male classical organists

Johann Theile


A Deluge myth or Flood myth is a mythical story about a flood. Usually this flood is sent by a deity to destroy a civilisation as a punishment. The theme can be found in many cultures. Well-known examples that are believed to be myths include the story of Noah's Ark in the Bible, the Hindu Puranic story of Manu, Deucalion in Greek mythology or Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Theology
Mythology

Deluge myth


Alexander Alexandrovich Vasiliev (; 4 October 1867 (N.S.) – 30 May 1953) was considered the foremost authority on Byzantine history and culture in the mid-20th century. His History of the Byzantine Empire (vol. 1–2, 1928) remains one of a few comprehensive accounts of the entire Byzantine history, on the par with those authored by Edward Gibbon and Fyodor Uspensky.

Biography
Vasiliev was born in Saint Petersburg.  He studied under one of the earliest professional Byzantinists, Vasily Vasilievsky, at the University of St Petersburg and later taught Arabic language there. Between 1897 and 1900, he furthered his education in Paris. In 1902, he accompanied Nicholas Marr in his trip to Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai.

During his stay at the Tartu University (1904–12), Vasiliev prepared and published a highly influential monograph, Byzantium and the Arabs (1907). He also worked in the Russian Archaeology Institute, established by Fyodor Uspensky in Constantinople. In 1912, he moved to the St Petersburg University as a professor. He was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1919.

In 1925, during his visit to Paris, Vasiliev was persuaded by Mikhail Rostovtsev to emigrate to the West. It was Rostovtzeff who ensured a position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison for him. Several decades later, Vasiliev moved to work in Dumbarton Oaks. Towards the end of his life, he was elected President of the Nikodim Kondakov Institute in Prague and of the Association Internationale des Études Byzantines.

Bibliography
Slavs in Greece (1898)
The Latin Sway in the Levant (1923)
History of the Byzantine Empire: Vol. 1: Constantine to the Crusades (1925 Russian; 1929 & many more English)
History of the Byzantine Empire: Vol. 2: From the Crusades to the Fall of the Empire (1935 & many more)
Byzantium and the Arabs, Vol. 1: Political relations between Byzantines and Arabs during the Amorian Dynasty (1900 Russian, 1935 and 1950 French, as Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La Dynastie d'Amorium (820–867))
Byzantium and the Arabs, Vol. 2: Political relations between Byzantines and Arabs during the Macedonian Dynasty (1900 Russian, 1935 and 1950/1968 French, as Byzance et les Arabes, Tome II: La dynastie macédonienne (867–959), in two parts)The Goths in the Crimea (1936)
"The Opening Stages of the Anglo-Saxon Immigration to Byzantium in the Eleventh Century" in Seminarium Kondakovianum (1937)The Russian Attack on Constantinople in 860 (1946)The 'Life' of St. Peter of Argos and its Historical Significance (1947)The monument of Porphyrius in the Hippodrome at Constantinople (1948, 1967)Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople (1949)
"The Historical Significance Of the Mosaic of Saint Demetrius at Sassoferrato", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 5 (1950) p. 29-39Justin, the First: An Introduction to the Epoch of Justinian the Great (1950)The Second Russian Attack on Constantinople (1951, 1967)Hugh Capet Of France And Byzantium (1951)The Iconoclastic Edict of the Caliph Yazid II, A. D. 721 (1956, 1967)A Survey of Works on Byzantine HistoryThe Life of St. Theodore of EdessaMedieval Ideas of the End of the World: West and EastPrester John and Russia'' (1996, ed. W. F. Ryan)

References

Citations

Sources

External links

American Byzantinists
Byzantinists from the Russian Empire
Soviet defectors
Soviet emigrants to the United States
Expatriates from the Russian Empire in France
1867 births
1953 deaths
Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Foreign members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Soviet historians
Historians from the Russian Empire
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Historians of Byzantine art
Scholars of Byzantine history
20th-century American male writers
Residents of the Benois House

Alexander Vasiliev (historian)


Metric is a Canadian band. This band started in 1998 in Toronto, Ontario.

Metric is made up of Emily Haines, a singer, and also plays the Synthesizer), James Shaw, who plays the guitar, Josh Winstead, who plays bass guitar, and drummer Joules Scott-Key. Their first CD, called Old World Underground, Where Are You Now?came out in 2003. Their new CD, Live It Out, was released on October 4, 2005.

Haines and Shaw are part of a band called Broken Social Scene, and Haines has been a guest on albums by Stars, KC Accidental, Delerium, The Stills, and Jason Collett.

Their songs "Monster Hospital" and "Police and the Private" have been used on the television show Grey's Anatomy. "Monster Hospital" has been used in the television show CSI: Miami.

Metric continued to work on their first CD in the first few months of 2001.  The album under construction included uptempo songs such as the title track "Grow Up and Blow Away", "Raw Sugar", and "Soft Rock Star", and downtempo songs like "White Gold", "The Twist", and "Rock Me Now".  "Parkdale",   Haines and Shaw finished the CD in April and by this time had found a new label — Restless Records, the L.A. indie record company that supported They Might Be Giants, Agent Orange, and The Dead Milkmen.

Metric was heard for the first time by many in August 2001 with the advertisement "Be Afraid", advertising Polaroid's I-Zone Pocket Fortune film.  The music used for the advertisement was taken from the song "Grow Up and Blow Away", with the line "Why does it feel so good to die today?" changed to  "Why does it feel so good to fly away?".

Old World Underground and Live It Out
In 2003, Metric's first album, Old World Underground, Where Are You Now? came out in stores.  The album got mostly positive reviews.  The group released six songs individually from the album, the most successful being "Combat Baby", which was  a free song on iTunes in 2004.  As of December 12, 2005 the album went gold in Canada.

Two years later, Metric released their second studio album on October 4, Live It Out.  During this time, Metric was asked and agreed to open for the Rolling Stones in New York City. Live It Out has been a success in Canada, already selling twice as many copies as Old World Underground, Where Are You Now?. The album has gone two times platinum in Canada, selling over 200,000 copies.

Present
The band is currently recording their third album, to come out in October 2007 in Toronto. Information about the album without a name is not yet out to the public.
On June 26, 2007, Last Gang Records bought the songs from Metric's 1999 album Grow up and Blow Away, which had been put off due to delays.

Discography

Albums
 Grow Up and Blow Away (Recorded 1999   or 2001  ) (Released 2007)
 Old World Underground, Where Are You Now? (2003)
 Live It Out (2005)
 Fantasies (2009)
 Synthetica (2012)

EPs
 Mainstream EP (1998)
 Static Anonymity EP (2001)
 Live at Metropolis (2007)
 Plug In Plug Out (2009)
 Spotify Acoustic EP (2010)
 Spotify Covers EP (2010)
 iTunes Session EP (2011)

Singles
Grow Up And Blow Away (unreleased)
 Grow Up And Blow Away (UK remix promo cd) (2002/Restless Records(*acquired by Rykodisc 2001))  (4:12/UNGR203)  (Produced by Metric Remixed by Uncle Grant)

Old World Underground, Where Are You Now?
 Combat Baby
 Succexy (promo)
 Dead Disco (promo) (Top 10 on Edge 102 Toronto)

Live It Out
 Monster Hospital UK #55/CAN #1
 Poster of a Girl CAN #3
 Handshakes (radio promo) CAN #17
 Empty (Digital and Vinyl single released Feb 12/07)

Other websites
 Official Site
 Metric on MySpace
 Last Gang Records
 Animated music video for the song "Dead Disco (live)"  taken from KUOM's Stuck on AM, volume 5
 A great acoustic piano session By Emily Haines
 Last.fm page for Metric
 Complete Lyric Database
 Lazy-i Interview: October 2005

1990s music groups
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Canadian rock bands
Indie rock bands
New wave bands
Musical groups from New York City

Metric (band)


The hermit crab is a type of crab that does not have a hard shell. They use old shells for protection. They especially like old whelk shells. When the hermit crab grows in size, it finds a larger shell.

Description
The hermit crab is a crustacean, but it is very different from other crustaceans. While most crustaceans are covered from head to tail with a hard exoskeleton, the hermit crab is missing part of its exoskeleton. The back part where its abdomen is located, is soft and squishy. Thus, the minute a hermit crab molts into an adult, it sets out to find a shell in which to live.

To get into the shell, the hermit crab squeezes in backwards, using its four back legs to enter the shell. The back legs have hooks that anchor the hermit crab into the shell without difficulty. The next four legs are used for walking, while the front two are its chelipeds. The chelipeds are not equal in size: one is big and other is small. The larger one is used for grabbing prey and guarding the entrance to its shell. All together, hermit crabs have a total of ten legs, including the chelipeds and the rear legs used to anchor to the shell.

There are about 500 different species of hermit crabs around the world, and they have different colors, often with patterns like stripes and dots on their bodies. Most hermit crab species live on the ocean floor, but many live on land. Female terrestrial (land based) hermit crabs must return to the sea to breed.

Diet
Hermit crabs are omnivores (eating plants and animals) and scavengers (eating dead animals that they find). They eat worms, plankton, lime chips, and organic debris.

Fossil Record
Hermit crabs first appeared in the Cretaceous period, before the Dinosaurs became extinct (died out). Fossils have been found where they have used Ammonite shells.

Reproduction

The reproductive (sexual) organs of hermit crabs are located near and just below the animal's heart and open to the outside at the base of the last pair of walking legs in the male. In the female, they are located at the base of the middle pair of walking legs. Female hermit crabs usually lay their eggs shortly after copulating (mating) but they can also store sperm (male sexual cells) for many months. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid by passing through the chamber holding the sperm. The eggs are carried and hatched in a mass attached to the abdomen inside the shell. The number of eggs is usually large, but depends on the animal's size.

As pets
Basic needs to keep pet Hermit Crabs:
 Humidity gauges (humidity: 75- relative)
 Temperature gauges (temperature: 70-75 °F)
 Substrate: sand, coconut fiber (must be deep and soft enough to dig in so that crabs can molt)
 Minimum of a 5 gallon tank for one crab; and 10 gallon tank for about 20 crabs
 Shells (shells are changed during growth)
 Separate molting tank[dubious – discuss]
 Fresh water dish
 Salt water pool for submerging (aquarium salt)

References

Crabs

Hermit crab


Jo Chen (; born July 4, 1976) is an American comic book artist and writer best known for her highly detailed painted comic book covers. In the Japanese comic industry she is also known by the pen name TogaQ and is known as Jun Togai ("Togai Jun" 咎井淳).

Early life
Chen was born in Taipei, Taiwan and emigrated to the United States in late 1994.

Career
Working professionally in the Asian comic book industry since age fourteen, she began her career in the U.S. comic book industry with her art work for the Racer X mini-series, part of the Speed Racer series published by Wildstorm/DC Comics in 2000.

She established herself producing interiors and covers for titles including Darkminds: Macropolis, Battle of the Planets, Robotech, Fight For Tomorrow, Taskmaster, The Demon, Thor, and (Batman &) Robin. Currently she is most well known to American comic readers as the cover artist of Runaways, and Joss Whedon's Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season 8 and the current Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine comics published by Dark Horse Comics.  She will also participate on the Whedon-Dark Horse Angel book.

In other media, Chen has also produced packaging artwork for Microsoft's popular Xbox Fable, Fable: The Lost Chapters, Fable II and Fable III RPGs, and done covers for PlayStation Magazine (a Final Fantasy cover for the January 2002 issue and a Tomb Raider cover for the February 2003 issue).

Under the pseudonym TogaQ, she and author Kichiku Neko (aka, Narcissus) created the yaoi doujinshi-turned manga series, In These Words. The title was eventually picked up by Japanese publisher, Libre Publishing and serialized in the yaoi comic anthology, Be x Boy Gold.

She is the younger sister of artist Christina Chen, and lives with her family outside of Washington, D.C.

Bibliography

Interior work
 Racer X #1-3 (DC/Wildstorm, 2000). 3-issue miniseries.
 Darkminds: Macropolis #1-4 (Dreamwave, 2002). By Jo Chen and Christina Chen.
 Robotech: Love and War (DC/Wildstorm, 2003). Jo Chen drew "Little White Dragon", a back-up story included in every issue of the miniseries.  Also drew a cover for the back-up story of #6.
 Battle of the Planets / Witchblade (Top Cow).  Jo Chen assists her sister Christina Chen in the pencils of this one-shot crossover. Talking about the series in The Pulse in 2002, she said "Christina is the lead artist and I am only assisting with some minor peripheral characters that pop up in a panel crowd scene."
 The Other Side of the Mirror volumes 1 & 2 (TokyoPop (English version), JPOP (Italian version), 2007–2008)
 Speed Racer & Racer X: The Origins Collection trade paperback collection of DC/Wildstorm series (IDW Publishing, 2008)
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight: Always Darkest (Dark Horse Presents, Dark Horse 2009)
 In These Words volumes 1 and 2 (Digital Media: 801 Media (English version), Libre Publishing (Japanese version), TokyoPop (German version), Taifu Comics (French version), ImageFrame (Korean version), Guilt Pleasure (Chinese version), HongSamut (Thai version) by Jo Chen (TogaQ) and Kichiku Neko.
 Cruel to be Kind Guilt Pleasure (Chinese and English versions) by Jo Chen (TogaQ) and Kichiku Neko 2010.
 Father Figure Guilt Pleasure (Chinese and English versions), Libre Publishing (Japanese version), ImageFrame (Korean version) by Jo Chen (TogaQ) and Kichiku Neko 2010 - 2014.
 Maybe Someday Guilt Pleasure (Chinese and English versions), Libre Publishing (Japanese version), ImageFrame (Korean version) by Jo Chen (TogaQ) and Kichiku Neko 2015.

Cover work
 Speed Racer Presents: Racer X: #1 (DC/Wildstorm, 2000).
 Darkminds Macropolis: #1-#5 (Image and Dreamwave Productions, 2001-2003).
 Warlands: The Age of Ice: #2 (Dreamwave Productions, 2001).
 Battle of the Planets: Battle Book: #1 (Top Cow, 2002).
 Darkminds Macropolis: trade paperback (Dreamwave Productions, 2003).
 The Demon: Driven out #1 (DC Comics, 2003). The cover of the #2 of this miniseries was drawn by her sister, Christina Chen.
 Fight for Tomorrow #5 (DC/Vertigo)
 Robin #115-117,119-120 (DC Comics)
 The Taskmaster #2 of mini-series (Marvel, 2002).
 Runaways Vol. 1 #1-6, 8-10, 13-18 (Marvel, 2003–2004) & Runaways Vol.2 #1-6, 9-10 & 19-30 (Marvel, 2005–2008).
 World Mythology: An Anthology of the Great Myths and Epics (third edition) (NTC Publishing Group, 2004)
 Thor: Son of Asgard #7-12 (Marvel, 2004–2005)
 Street Fighter. Jo Chen has done several covers for the "power foil" variant covers of the Street Fighter comic-book series produced by the UDON studios.  Some of these covers were also used in some Street Fighter merchandising (at least in prints and control pads).
 Serenity: Those Left Behind #2 - Kaylee (Dark Horse, 2005).
 Eva: Daughter of the Dragon (Dynamite Entertainment, 2007).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight #1-10, 16-30 (Dark Horse, 2006-2010).
 Serenity: Better Days trade paperback edition (Dark Horse, 2008).
 Rex Mundi (Dark Horse Comics) #16 (Dark Horse, 2009).
 Incarnate #1-3 (Radical Publishing, 2009-2010).
 Darkstalkers Tribute hard and trade paperback covers (UDON Entertainment, 2009).
 Star Wars: Invasion #1-6 (Dark Horse, 2009-2010).
 Roaming Cadenza (A Bard's Folktale) Kindle edition (Aramis Barron, 2010).
 Serenity: Float Out one-shot (Dark Horse, 2010).
 Serenity: Better Days hard cover edition (Dark Horse, 2011).
 From the Pages of Hellboy: B.P.R.D. The Dead Remembered #1-4 (Dark Horse, 2011).
 Samurai's Blood #1-6 (Benaroya Publishing - Image, 2011).
 Kull: The Cat and the Skull #1-4 (Dark Horse, 2011).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine #1 (Dark Horse, 2011).
 Angel and Faith #1 (Dark Horse, 2011).
 Superman: Grounded Vol 1 #707 (DC Comics, 2011).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 1: Freefall TPB (Dark Horse, 2012).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 2: On Your Own TPB (Dark Horse, 2012).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 3: Guarded TPB (Dark Horse, 2013).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 4: Welcome to the Team TPB (Dark Horse, 2013).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine: Spike—A Dark Place TPB (Dark Horse, 2013).
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 5: The Core TPB (Dark Horse, 2014).

References

External links

Jo Chen at deviantART
Preview of the Robotech: Love and War miniseries, with several pages of the back up stories drawn by Jo Chen.
99 Roses - NY Magazine previews Jo's short story from TokyoPop's release of The Other Side of the Mirror.

1976 births
American female comics artists
American comics writers
American people of Taiwanese descent
American women artists of Chinese descent
Living people
Female comics writers
Artists from Taipei
Women manga artists
21st-century American women

Jo Chen


Ring is a 1994 science fiction novel by British author Stephen Baxter. The novel tells the story of the end of the universe and the saving of mankind from its destruction. Two parallel plots are followed throughout the novel: that of Lieserl, an AI exploring the interior of the sun, and that of the Great Northern, a generation ship on a five-million-year journey.

Plot summary
The AI Lieserl is abandoned for five million years, leaving her to observe the sun's interior. She discovers dark matter-based life, which she names "photino birds". These birds gradually drain the energy from the core of a star, ending fusion and causing premature aging into a stable white dwarf—the birds' preferred habitat, as it has no risk of going supernova and destroying them.

A generation ship is sent with one end of a wormhole to explore the future and investigate the whereabouts of Michael Poole. It will be a round-trip journey, returning to the Solar System after five million years, though only a thousand years will elapse on board, due to relativistic time dilation effects. The crew is broken into three factions—the primitives, the virtuals, and a survivalist faction, Superet. Among the factions, the primitives are a eugenics project for Garry Uvarov who hopes to lengthen the lives of humanity without the use of Anti-Senescence (anagathic or life-extension) technology. The Superet faction relies heavily on failing technology and maintains a totalitarian government which refuses to acknowledge the existence of other decks on the ship; the virtuals remain aloof.

Upon their arrival, their end of the wormhole is destroyed leaving them trapped in the future. They observe that the entire universe is full of red stars, so the stars have aged far faster than expected. The Great Northern makes contact with Lieserl, who explains her observations of the photino birds. The birds do not just exist in the Sun but every star, helioforming them to an amenable habitat. The Xeelee, masters of baryonic matter, have known about the photino birds and have been striving to thwart them. The baryonic universe is doomed, but the Xeelee create a 'Ring', an escape hatch. A cosmic string is made into a loop and creates the phenomenon of the Great Attractor. The function of the Ring is to create a Kerr metric at its centre, which creates a portal to other universes. Whenever humans have met up with the Xeelee and pursued war, this was merely an annoyance since the Xeelee were thinking on a larger scale about more potent enemies. The crew of the Great Northern and Lieserl discover the folly of their species.

A Xeelee nightfighter is discovered in Callisto (referenced in the later story "Reality Dust"), rigged to piggyback the Great Northern to the Great Attractor.  Fifty days later, they discover that the Xeelees' project has been destroyed, but a recently awakened virtual of Michael Poole shows Spinner-of-Rope, a primitive, how to pilot around the fragmented cosmic strings and travel into the past, using a closed time-like path. These last humans return to the Ring, in an era in which it was not destroyed; the Xeelee allow them through, and they briefly attempt to pick universes and find sanctuary in another younger universe, after passing through the Ring, and get to work on starting a new world.

Michael Poole remains in the universe and witnesses the deaths of the last stars, and the decay of the last protons—the final victory of the dark matter lifeforms over the baryonic Xeelee and lesser races. Eventually, his consciousness disperses, and history ends.

References

External links

1994 British novels
1994 science fiction novels
British science fiction novels
Novels by Stephen Baxter
Xeelee Sequence
Generation ships in fiction
HarperCollins books
Hard science fiction

Ring (Baxter novel)


The Duke of Norfolk is an aristocrat or peer in the United Kingdom. He is Earl Marshal in the House of Lords. He has a family home at Arundel Castle in West Sussex. His family have long been Catholic. They paid for the building of Arundel Cathedral. The title dates to 1397. As of 2013 the holder of the title is the 18th Duke, Edward Fitzalan-Howard. He took the title in 2002.

British Dukes and Duchesses

Duke of Norfolk


In music, voice refers to several melodic lines being sung or played at the same time.  These lines are called "voices", even if they are not being sung but being played on instruments.  Another word for the same thing is "part", but the word "part" can also mean a "section" of a piece, so it can be confusing.

The word "part" meaning "voice" is often used when describing polyphonic music.  For example: a 3-part fugue would have three "voices".  It might be sung by three people, or it might be played by three instruments, or just by one keyboard instrument playing all three parts.

Related pages
polyphony
partsong
fugue

Music theory

Voice (polyphony)


An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer. Or, equally good, an oncogene is a gene which brings about uncontrolled cell division.

Oncogenes in tumor cells are often mutated or expressed at high levels.

Most normal cells undergo a programmed form of death (apoptosis). Activated oncogenes can cause those cells designated for apoptosis to survive and proliferate instead. Most oncogenes require an additional step, such as mutations in another gene, or environmental factors, such as viral infection, to cause cancer. Since the 1970s, dozens of oncogenes have been identified in human cancer. Many cancer drugs target the proteins coded by oncogenes.

In 1976 J. Michael Bishop and Harold E. Varmus of the University of California, San Francisco showed that oncogenes were activated proto-oncogenes, found in many organisms including humans. For this discovery Bishop and Varmus were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1989.

The history of a mistake
The work of Bishop and Varmus corrected a long-standing error. The Nobel citation includes this explanation:
"The term oncogene was introduced in the middle of the 1960s to denote special parts of the genetic material of certain viruses. It was believed that this part of the genetic material could direct the transformation of a normal cell into a tumor cell... The favourite theory of the time was that virus-mediated cell-to-cell transmittance of oncogenes was the origin of all forms of cancer. This view was later proven to be incorrect".

In fact, the reverse transcription of the virus RNA into DNA had the effect that the oncogenes become integrated into the chromosomal DNA in the cells. It was then found that oncogene-like material could be detected in different species throughout the animal kingdom, in fact even in simple organisms with only a few cells. Furthermore, it was shown that the gene had a fixed position in the chromosomes of a certain species, and that the gene, when it constituted part of the cellular genetic material, was divided into fragments.

Proto-oncogene
A proto-oncogene is a normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations or increased expression. The resultant protein can be called an oncoprotein. Proto-oncogenes code for proteins that help to regulate cell growth and differentiation. Proto-oncogenes are often involved in signal transduction and execution of mitogenic signals, usually through their protein products. Upon activation, a proto-oncogene (or its product) becomes a tumor-inducing agent, an oncogene.

Examples
The MYC gene is implicated in Burkitt's Lymphoma. This starts when a chromosomal translocation moves an enhancer sequence close to the MYC gene. The MYC gene codes for widely used transcription factors. When the enhancer sequence is wrongly placed, these transcription factors are produced at much higher rates. Another example of an oncogene is the Bcr-Abl gene found on the 'Philadelphia Chromosome'. This is a piece of genetic material seen in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia, caused by the translocation of pieces from chromosomes 9 and 22. Bcr-Abl codes for a receptor tyrosine kinase, which is active, causing uncontrolled cell proliferation.

References

Viruses
Cancer
Genetics

Oncogene


A liturgical language or sacred language or holy language is any language that is used in the religious service, by people who speak another primary language in their daily lives.

Some of the examples of the sacred languages are given below:
 Arabic - Islam and Tanwirism (pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism)
 Coptic - Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
 Koine (common language version of Ancient Greek) - widely used in Christianity at various times and places.
Irish - Neo-paganism (especially Celtic polytheism)
Latin - Roman Catholicism

Dharmic Religions
Sanskrit and Old Tamil - Hinduism, Jainism
Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan and Tamil - Buddhism.
Punjabi, Sanskrit - Sikhism
 Classical Meitei - Sanamahism (Meitei religion) and Manipuri Vaishnavism

References

Related pages
Language death

Languages
History of religion

Sacred language


Gunpowder (or gun powder) is a mix of chemical substances (75%  saltpeter, 15% charcoal and 10% sulfur). It is used primarily in firearms, burns very quickly, and creates gases. Those gases use up more space than the gunpowder they come from, so they push outward. If the gunpowder is in a small space, the gases will push on the walls of the space, building up pressure. In a gun, the pressure pushes against a bullet, causing it to fly out at high speeds. If the pressure became too high, it could destroy the gun barrel.

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. The first references of black powder, the original form of gunpowder, date to the 9th century. According to legend, Chinese alchemists were looking for a formula to create the elixir of life, or the mythical potion that causes whoever drinks it to become immortal, when they accidentally created gunpowder. Because the powder was highly flammable, or burned very easily, they decided to call it "fire medicine" (Simplified Chinese: 火药 / Traditional Chinese: 火藥). The Chinese soon weaponized the substance, or made weapons out of it. In later centuries they made many weapons using gunpowder, including rockets, bombs, flamethrowers, and land mines, before making cannons and guns. The oldest weapon that uses gunpowder dates back to a bronze handheld cannon made in northeastern China in 1288. The first mention in Europe was in the 13th century when Roger Bacon described the formula of black powder. Gunpowder was extremely valuable to the Chinese civilization, in fact so valuable that sometimes it was traded for gold.

Other websites
 Gunpowder -Citizendium

References

Firearms

Gunpowder


Córdoba is a city in Andalusia, Spain. It is the capital of Córdoba province. It had a population of about 326,000 in 2017.

Córdoba was the capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba, an Islamic empire in the Middle Ages, when the city was the biggest in Europe, with 250,000 people.

Córdoba is 138 kilometers (86 miles) northeast of the city of Seville and is on the Guadalquivir river. Córdoba has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa in the Köppen climate classification) with the hottest summers of all European cities.

History
The Romans occupied Córdoba in 206 B.C. The city was very important in the 900s CE as a famous center of Moorish art and culture.  The Mezquita de Córdoba is the city's chief landmark. It was built as a mosque (Muslim house of worship) in the 700s and was made into a Roman Catholic cathedral in 1238.  More than 1,000 pillars of stone including granite, onyx, marble and jasper support its arches.

Economy
A soft, fine-grained leather called cordovan is made in Córdoba. Córdoba is the center of an agricultural region. The farms there produce grain, grapes, olives, and vegetables.

References

Capital cities in Spain

Córdoba, Andalusia


Gilles-François Closson (1796–1842), born in Liège, was a landscape painter, known as the Corot of Liège. In 1817, he went to Paris for seven years, where he was educated by Antoine-Jean Gros. In 1825 he went to Rome where he specialized in landscapes. He returned to Liège at the end of 1829. He became professor at the Academy of Liège in 1837 until his death.

Works

External links

1796 births
1842 deaths
Artists from Liège
Belgian painters

Gilles-François Closson