Anthony David Wright (born 12 August 1954) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Great Yarmouth from 1997 until losing his seat at the 2010 election.

Early life
Wright attended to St George's Infant School, Priory Junior School, and Hospital Secondary Modern School.

From 1970 to 1974, he was an engineering apprentice, then a mechanical engineer from 1974 to 1983. He worked originally with ErieElectronics, and then was subsequently employed at Brown and Root and Probe Oil Tools.

It was through his work as an engineer that he became involved in a trade union and entered politics.

Political career

In his political career, Wright first stood for a Council seat in 1979 and missed out losing by 86 votes. He was subsequently voted in 1980 until 1982 when he lost by 15 votes. Wright was then re-elected in 1986 and remained a Councillor until 1998.

In total he served fourteen years for Great Yarmouth Borough Council and was chairman of various committees, Deputy Leader for four years and Leader of the council for over two years from 1995 until 1997.

In addition, in 1983 Wright was employed by Great Yarmouth Labour Party as full-time organiser up until the 1997 general election when he was elected as Member of Parliament for Great Yarmouth and retained his seat at both the 2001 and 2005 elections.

He is a member of Amicus and the GMB Union.

During his time in Parliament, Wright sat on several committees including the Public Administration Committee and Trade and Industry Select Committee. He was active within many All Party Parliamentary Group (APPG's), including chairing the APPG for Sea Cadets and acting as treasurer for the United Kingdom Parliamentary Football Club, which is itself attributed to a great deal of charity work.

Wright lists among his main accomplishments during his parliamentary career as including the securing of Objective 2 status for Great Yarmouth, securing Assisted Area status helping to attract new investment to the area, the increase in funding to Great Yarmouth's schools, police force and hospital and the introduction of SureStart services.

At the 2010 General Election. he lost his parliamentary seat to Conservative candidate Brandon Lewis with a swing over 9% against him.

After his defeat he has since stood for Norfolk County Council in the Gorleston St Andrews wards in both 2013, 2017, as well as at a 2015 by election finishing second each time.

In 2018 he was reelected to Great Yarmouth Borough Council in Nelson ward and was subsequently re-elected in 2019 and 2023.

Controversy

Wright found himself landed in controversy in June 2009 during the British MPs' expenses scandal when it emerged that he had accepted a £10,000 sweetener from the new owners of a rented accommodation in Dolphin Square, London SW1 on the understanding he accepted a £1,000 a month rent increase at the tax payers expense. He justified keeping the money by claiming "he took a financial hit from having to work in London when he was first elected in 1997" and highlighting how the money actually saved the tax payer £10,000 as it was not from the public purse.

Shortly after on 1 June, Wright issued a statement on this issue on his personal website:When I was first elected I decided not to purchase a property in London but to rent instead as it was not my priority to get into the 'housing market' in order to make a potential 'profit'. It was necessary however to have somewhere to stay in London whilst I was carrying out my parliamentary duties and for this reason, I rented. In the first few years the rent and other costs exceeded the allowance at that time but I met these extra costs personally. The lease ownership of this rented flat changed and as a result of this I received a payment from the new owners.

Wright was not asked to repay anything in the results of the Legg Report  but later had to repay a duplicated claim of £3,050.

Personal life
Wright married Barbara "Babs" Marley on 13 August 1988 in Great Yarmouth. They have a son and daughter, and a step daughter. He supports Norwich City F.C.

References

External links
 Tony Wright's Official Website
 ePolitix – Tony D Wright MP official site

 Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle – Anthony Wright MP
 TheyWorkForYou.com – Anthony D Wright MP
 BBC Politics page (incorrect date of birth)
 (1 June 2009): "MP: I'll keep my £10,000 payout", Great Yarmouth Mercury

1954 births
Living people
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
People from Great Yarmouth
Politics of the Borough of Great Yarmouth
Councillors in Norfolk

Tony Wright (Great Yarmouth MP)


The Lost Symbol is a 2009 novel written by American writer Dan Brown. It is a thriller set in Washington, D.C., after the events of The Da Vinci Code, and relies on Freemasonry for both its recurring theme and its major characters.

Released on September 15, 2009, it is the third Brown novel to involve the character of Harvard University symbologist Robert Langdon, following 2000's Angels & Demons and 2003's The Da Vinci Code. It had a first printing of 6.5 million (5 million in North America, 1.5 million in the UK), the largest in Doubleday history. On its first day the book sold one million in hardcover and e-book versions in the U.S., the UK and Canada, making it the fastest selling adult novel in history. It was number one on the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction for the first six weeks of its release, and remained on the list for 29 weeks. As of January 2013, there were 30 million copies in print worldwide.

Plot
Renowned Harvard symbologist Robert Langdon is invited to give a lecture at the United States Capitol, at the invitation apparently from his mentor, a 33rd degree Mason named Peter Solomon, who is the head of the Smithsonian Institution. Solomon has also asked him to bring a small, sealed package which he had entrusted to Langdon years earlier. When Langdon arrives at the Capitol, however, he learns that the invitation he received was not from Solomon, but from Solomon's kidnapper, Mal'akh posing as Solomon's assistant, who has left Solomon's severed right hand in the middle of the Capitol Rotunda in a recreation of the Hand of Mysteries. Mal'akh then contacts Langdon, charging him with finding both the Mason's Pyramid, which Masons believe is hidden somewhere in Washington, D.C., and the Lost Word, lest Solomon be murdered.

Langdon meets Inoue Sato, the head of the CIA's Office of Security. Sato claims that Mal'akh poses a threat to the national security of the U.S. and that his capture is more important than Peter's rescue, although she refuses to elaborate. Examining Solomon's hand, they discover a clue leading them to Solomon's Masonic altar in a room in the Capitol's sub-basement, where they find a small pyramid lacking a capstone, with an inscription carved into it.

Sato then confronts Langdon with the security x-ray taken of his bag when he entered the Capitol which reveals a smaller pyramid in the package Langdon brought in response to the request by the kidnapper posing as Solomon's assistant. Langdon explains that he was unaware of its contents, but Sato, refusing to believe it, attempts to take Langdon into custody. Before she can arrest him, however, she and Capitol Police Chief Trent Anderson are assaulted by Warren Bellamy, the Architect of the Capitol and a Freemason, who then flees with Langdon in the confusion. He later explains to Langdon that he too has been in contact with Mal'akh and wants Langdon's assistance in rescuing Peter.

Mal'akh is revealed to be a Freemason with tattoos covering almost his entire body. He infiltrated the organization in order to obtain an ancient source of power, which he believes Langdon can unlock for him in return for Peter Solomon's life. Several chapters also delve into Mal'akh's history with Peter Solomon: many years earlier, Peter bequeathed a large sum of inheritance money to his rebellious son, Zachary, who then fled the Solomon household and led a reckless life in Europe until he was arrested and imprisoned in Turkey for smuggling drugs. Peter flew to Turkey but decided to have Zachary extradited in a week's time instead of getting him released immediately in order to teach him a lesson. Zachary was apparently murdered by his cellmate who got his hands on Zachary's fortune and fled to the island of Syros in Greece to lead a luxurious life under the name Andros Dareios. Dareios, however, soon grew tired of his life. Apparently having spoken with Zachary about Solomon's life as a Mason, Dareios broke into Solomon's home to find the pyramid, but accidentally killed Peter's mother Isabel and was in turn shot and left to fall into a frozen river by a vengeful Solomon. Surviving the fall, Dareios nursed himself back to health, covered his scars and eventually his entire body with tattoos and set off on a mission to infiltrate the Freemasons and gain access to their secrets, adopting the name Mal'akh.

As Langdon deals with the events into which he has been thrust, Mal'akh destroys the Smithonsonian-sponsored laboratory of Dr. Katherine Solomon, Peter's younger sister, where she has conducted experiments in Noetic Science, in the process ambushing and almost killing Katherine in a cat-and-mouse chase, but Katherine manages to escape and meet up with Langdon and Bellamy. Eventually, when cornered by the authorities, Bellamy is forced to give himself up while Langdon and Katherine escape. Both are later apprehended by Sato's team. Following clues regarding Mal'akh's previous identity as Peter Solomon's psychiatrist, Dr. Christopher Abaddon, Sato allows Langdon and Katherine to rush to his mansion to confront him, but Mal'akh ambushes them and murders their CIA escort. Meanwhile, as he is being interrogated by Sato, Bellamy expresses belief that Sato is working with Mal'akh but Sato assures Bellamy that she is also pursuing Mal'akh in the interest of national security and displays evidence that visibly shocks Bellamy.

Mal'akh places Langdon into an airtight sensory deprivation tank, where he interrogates Langdon by slowly filling the tank with liquid. He is able to convince Langdon to decipher the code at the pyramid's base, but continues to fill the tank until Langdon drowns and apparently dies. Mal'akh then ties Katherine to a chair and inserts an open-ended transfusion needle into her arm and leaves her to bleed to death then flees with a weakened Peter Solomon to the Temple Room of the Scottish Rite's House of the Temple. He uses the threat of not calling an ambulance for Katherine as further coercion for Peter's cooperation. Sato leads a team of agents to the mansion after Langdon and Katherine's escort fails to check in and are able to save Katherine's life. After a near-death experience, Langdon is revealed to have survived due to the "water" in the tank actually being breathable oxygenated liquid and the tank being a device for meditation. Sato and Langdon race to the House of the Temple where Mal'akh threatens to release a heavily edited video showing government officials performing secret Masonic rituals (the same video that Sato showed to Bellamy), which without context, appears highly disturbing. Mal'akh forces the Word—the unpronounceable circumpunct—out of Peter and tattoos it on his head on the last portion of unmarked skin on his body. Mal'akh then orders Peter to sacrifice him, as he believes that it is his destiny to become a demonic spirit and lead the forces of evil. When Peter claims that he will do so without hesitation to avenge his son and mother, Mal'akh shocks Peter by revealing that he is actually Zachary Solomon himself, having conspired with the prison warden to fake his death by disfiguring the body of another inmate beyond recognition (at the same time, Katherine and Bellamy discover several photos of Zachary in Greece after his supposed death that show his gradual transformation into Mal'akh). With tears in his eyes, Peter prepares to stab Zachary but ultimately cannot bring himself to do so and drops the knife just as Langdon arrives and tackles him. Director Sato arrives at the Temple in a helicopter, which smashes the Temple's skylight, the shards of which fatally impale Zachary. The CIA then thwart Zachary's plan to transmit the video to several leading media channels using an EMP blast, disabling a cell tower in the network path leading from Zachary's laptop computer. Katherine arrives and she and Langdon then share a tearful reunion with Peter and mourn Zachary's death. Zachary is only briefly able to lament his body's mutilation before dying.

Later, Peter informs Langdon that the circumpunct Zachary tattooed on his head is not the Word. He also informs Katherine that he made back-ups of all of her noetic research data on his own computer, meaning her research can continue. Deciding to take Langdon to the true secret behind the Word, Peter leads him to the room atop the Washington Monument and tells him that the Word—a common Christian Bible, the Word of God—lies in the monument's cornerstone, buried in the ground beneath the monument's staircase. Langdon realizes that the words inscribed in the base of aluminum capstone (Masonic pyramid) atop the Monument spelled out Laus Deo which translate to Praise God.

Peter tells Langdon that the Masons believe that the Bible is an esoteric allegory written by humanity, and that, like most religious texts around the globe, it contains veiled instructions for harnessing humanity's natural God-like qualities—similar to Katherine's noetic research—and is not meant to be interpreted as the commands of an all-powerful deity. This interpretation has been lost amid centuries of scientific skepticism and fundamentalist zealotry. The Masons have (metaphorically) buried it, believing that, when the time is right, its rediscovery will usher in a new era of human enlightenment.

Characters
Robert Langdon: A professor of symbology at Harvard University and the protagonist of the novel.
Mal'akh:   Formerly known as Zachary Solomon, the son of Peter Solomon. A Mason whose body is covered with tattoos and the novel's main antagonist. After much growth hormones and steroid indulgence, he began to bore of this life-style and cultivate his mind in the Masonry ideals and practices. He renamed himself Mal'akh. Mal'akh sees himself as a physical manifestation of the angel Moloch, as he worshipped the Black Arts in order to grow stronger and he performed numerous aspects of black magic which allowed the angel to enter his body. Throughout the book, he also uses the name Dr. Christopher Abaddon to gain his father's trust, and Andros Dareios, a name he used while hiding out in Greece before the book's events.
Peter Solomon: A Smithsonian secretary, billionaire philanthropist, Freemason, father of Zachary Solomon, brother of Katherine Solomon, close friend of Robert Langdon and secondary antagonist. Mal'akh's kidnapping of Peter Solomon sets into motion Langdon's race to find the Mason's Pyramid and the Lost Symbol.
Katherine Solomon: Noetic scientist, sister of Peter Solomon, aunt of Zachary Solomon.
Isabel Solomon: mother of Peter and Katherine Solomon and grandmother of Zachary Solomon. She was killed ten years before the events of the book by Zachary, disguised as Andros Dareios.
Warren Bellamy: Architect of the Capitol and fellow Freemason to Peter Solomon. He aids Langdon and Katherine Solomon by helping them escape from Inoue Sato, briefly suspecting her of helping Mal'akh, but he later learns that he and Sato are on the same side.
Inoue Sato: the second-generation Japanese-American Director of CIA's Office of Security, from whom Langdon must flee after she accuses him of criminal acts.
Reverend Colin Galloway: Dean of Washington National Cathedral and fellow Freemason to Peter Solomon and Warren Bellamy.
Trent Anderson: Capitol police chief.
Jonas Faukman: Langdon's New York editor (named for Brown's real-life editor, Jason Kaufman).
 Nola Kaye: CIA analyst, named after Elonka Dunin, Kryptos expert
 Omar Amirana: A taxi driver
 Mark Zoubianis: A hacker hired by Trish and Katherine to hack into an encrypted document.

Publication details
The Lost Symbol had been in development for several years; originally expected in 2006, the projected publication date was pushed back multiple times. When officially announced, the hardcopy book was on pre-order lists for months leading up to its release, being heavily ordered both in the United States and Canada. The book was published on September 15, 2009 with an initial print run of 6.5 million copies, the largest first printing in publisher Random House's history. Electronic versions such as eBook and Audible book versions were also made available on the same date. The American release audio book was read by Paul Michael, who also performed the audio book for The Da Vinci Code.

The book immediately broke sales records, becoming the fastest selling adult-market novel in history, with over one million copies sold on the first day of release. By the end of the first week, a total of two million copies had been sold in the U.S., Canada, and UK. According to the publisher, the rapid sales prompted the printing of an additional 600,000 hardcover copies to the 5 million initially printed for the US market. On its first day the book became the #1 bestseller on Amazon.com, and the Amazon Kindle e-reader edition became the top-selling item on Amazon.com, outselling Amazon's sales of the hardback copy of the novel, which is the sixth best selling book of 2009 on pre-publication orders alone. The Lost Symbol also ranked as the #1 bestseller in Amazon's Canadian and British sites. Both Barnes & Noble and Waterstone's reported the book has broken all previous records for adult fiction in the United Kingdom. According to Nielsen BookScan data, 550,946 copies of The Lost Symbol were sold in its first week of sale, taking $7.49 million. By the end of the second sales week, Transworld intended to have 1.25 million copies printed.

By September 25 the book ranked #1 in the New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover fiction.

Reception
The New York Times praised the book as being "impossible to put down" and claimed Brown is "bringing sexy back to a genre that had been left for dead." Nevertheless, it noted the overuse of certain phrases and italics, as well as the lack of logic behind characters' motivations. It also likened Inoue Sato to Jar Jar Binks. Los Angeles Times said, "Brown's narrative moves rapidly, except for those clunky moments when people sound like encyclopedias." Newsweek called the book "contrived", saying that to get through The Lost Symbol, just like The Da Vinci Code, it was necessary to swallow a lot of coincidences, but the book was still a page-turner, and that Brown "is a maze maker who builds a puzzle and then walks you through it. His genius lies in uncovering odd facts and suppressed history, stirring them together into a complicated stew and then saying, what if?" The National Post'''s review called it a "heavy-handed, clumsy thriller" and that the character of the villain (Mal'akh) "bears an uncomfortably close similarity" to the Francis Dolarhyde character in Thomas Harris' 1981 novel Red Dragon. The Daily Telegraph said the novel was "not quite the literary train-wreck expected." TIME said the plot was fun, if bruising, but "It would be irresponsible not to point out that the general feel, if not all the specifics, of Brown's cultural history is entirely correct. He loves showing us places where our carefully tended cultural boundaries — between Christian and pagan, sacred and secular, ancient and modern — are actually extraordinarily messy." Novelist William Sutcliffe's review in the Financial Times panned the book as "a novel that asks nothing of the reader, and gives the reader nothing back", adding that it "is filled with cliché, bombast, undigested research and pseudo-intellectual codswallop". The digested read by John Crace in The Guardian ends with Robert Langdon begging Dan Brown "Please don't wheel me out again." Slovene philosopher and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek described the book as "a candidate for the worst novel ever".

Adaptation
Cancelled film
Following the worldwide successes of The Da Vinci Code in 2006 and Angels & Demons in 2009, which were both based on Brown's novels, starring Tom Hanks as Robert Langdon and produced and directed by Ron Howard, Columbia Pictures began production on a film adaptation of The Lost Symbol. Hanks and Howard were expected to return for the film adaptation of The Lost Symbol, along with the franchise's producers Brian Grazer and John Calley. Sony Pictures eventually hired three screenwriters for the project, beginning with Steven Knight and then hiring Brown himself. In March 2012, Danny Strong was also hired to collaborate on the adaptation. Howard had eventually bowed out of directing, and Mark Romanek was being looked at to replace him.

According to a January 2013 article in Los Angeles Times, the final draft of the screenplay was due sometime in February, with pre-production expected to start in the mid-2013. In July 2013, Sony Pictures announced they would instead adapt Inferno for an October 14, 2016, release date with Howard as director, David Koepp adapting the screenplay and Hanks reprising his role as Robert Langdon.

Television series

In June 2019, the project was announced to be re-conceived as a television series tentatively titled Langdon. The series will serve as a prequel to the film series, with Dan Dworkin and Jay Beattie serving as co-creators, showrunners and executive producers. Dan Brown, Ron Howard, Brian Grazer, Francie Calfo, Samie Falvey and Anna Culp will act as additional executive producers. The show will be a co-production between Imagine Television Studios, CBS Studios, and Universal Television Studios and was ordered to series on NBC. In March 2021, it was announced that the series was picked up to series by Peacock. In January 2022, the series was canceled after one season.

See also

 Lynne McTaggart, cited in the novel as a source of inspiration for Katherine Solomon
 Almas Temple, a Shriner temple and location in the story

References

 Further reading
Brown, Jeffrey, "Decoding the Hidden Secrets of Dan Brown's D.C.", The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, September 24, 2009. Transcript.
Hodapp, Christopher, "Deciphering The Lost Symbol: Freemasons, Myths and the Mysteries of Washington D.C.", January, 2010.
 Mendis, Patrick, "TRADE for PEACE: How the DNA of America, Freemasonry, and Providence Created a New World Order with Nobody in Charge", February, 2009.
McTaggart, Lynne, A list of some the things Brown borrowed from McTaggarts Intention Experiment-research in regard of the scientific research of Katharine Solomon , October, 2009

External links

 Official website
 The Lost Symbol website

 The Keys to Dan Brown's The Lost Symbol
 The Lost Symbols ISBN decoded
 Washington Post'', November 1, 2005, "The man who's riding Dan Brown's 'code' tails"
 Dan Brown's Letter to Scottish Rite Freemasonry

2009 American novels
American novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Dan Brown
Sequel novels
Freemasonry in fiction
Novels set in Washington, D.C.
Doubleday (publisher) books
American mystery novels
American thriller novels
Transworld Publishers books
Moloch in literature and popular culture

The Lost Symbol


Maxine Swann (born February 11, 1969) is an American fiction author.

Life
Swann grew up on a farm in southern Pennsylvania, before attending Phillips Academy and then Columbia College, where she studied Comparative Literature (French and German) and creative writing with Mary Gordon, graduating in 1994.

She pursued her graduate studies at the Sorbonne, Université de Paris VII, earning her master's degree in 1997 with a thesis on the style of Marcel Proust. She now lives in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Insights into her 2001 move to Argentina, divorce and life as an ex-pat writer were the subject of a "At Home Abroad" column of The New York Times on June 19, 2008.

Work
Swann's work first appeared in Ploughshares, in an issue guest-edited by Mary Gordon, and she won a Cohen Award for that short story, "Flower Children", in 1997.  The same story won her an O. Henry Award, the Pushcart Prize and selection by The Best American Short Stories.

At the time, Ploughshares quoted her: "All stories, I think, are in the end a very dense mixture of memory and imagination, with the doses varying each time. 'Flower Children,' I see now, was a story I'd been trying to write since I'd begun writing. It is, in a sense, a condensation of nearly all the stories, pages, and even poems that I wrote in grade school, high school, and then college. In her writing class at Columbia, Mary Gordon, taking my efforts seriously, pressed me further towards it, also introducing me to the Austrian writer Ingeborg Bachmann, whose work eventually led me to find the form in which to say what I wanted to say."

Her first novel, Serious Girls, was published by Picador in 2003 and focused on the coming of age of two boarding school girls, Maya and Roe. Swann's second novel, Flower Children, appeared in May 2007, published by Riverhead Books and won the Harold D. Vursell Memorial Award from The Academy of Arts and Letters honoring "recent writing in book form that merits recognition for the quality of its prose style." Her third book, The Foreigners [August 2011, Riverhead], which traces the lives of four foreigners living in Buenos Aires, was called "a fearless novel," by Joseph O'Neill (author of "Netherland"), "beautifully written, sensual, seductive," by Kirkus Review and "atmospheric, evocative literary fiction that ruminates on what it means and how it feels to be foreign" by Booklist.

Swann's journalism has appeared in the New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, the Huffington Post and the Buenos Aires Herald. Her March 2013 story for The New York Times Magazine, "The Professor, the Bikini Model and the Suitcase Full of Trouble" was optioned for a feature film by Fox Searchlight.

She is a Founding Editor of the bilingual literary magazine The Buenos Aires Review.

Swann has taught creative writing at Barnard College and also works as a private writing coach.

Flower Children
Flower Children is a series of linked short stories written by Swann over the course of a decade, published ten years before in Ploughshares. The stories are written from different points of view; the first chapter follows a collective, fused third person, i.e. the "they" of the children growing up; others are told in the first person by Maeve, whom, given the parallels between Swann's fiction and her life, the reader may assume to be her proxy.

The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in "The New York Times" as "a gem of a novel, a novel that showcases [Swann's] eye for detail, her psychological acuity, her ability to conjure up a particular place and time," and summarized in the "Newly Released" column of The New York Times, where Amy Virshup wrote, "In this slim volume she returns to the story, about four young children being raised by their hippie parents on a farm in rural Pennsylvania (which tracks closely Ms. Swann's own childhood). The eight chapters take the children from the paradise of their early childhood ... to young adulthood when they return to the farm as visitors."

The tone of the short stories varies, interfering, as one reviewer has noted, with the coherence of the work.

References

External links
"The Professor, the Bikini Model and the Suitcase Full of Trouble" by Maxine Swann, New York Times Magazine, March 2013
"Crisis and Renewal" by Maxine Swann, New York Times, June 19, 2008
NYT review by Michiko Kakutani
"Flower Children" story on Boldtype
"Beauty and Trash" a photo tour of Buenos Aires by Maxine Swann
"The Coast of Utopia" on Cabo Polonio, Uruguay by Maxine Swann
"On Befriending a Fellow Expat in BA" by Maxine Swann

1969 births
American expatriates in Argentina
American women writers
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Living people
Writers from Pennsylvania
University of Paris alumni
American emigrants to Argentina

Maxine Swann


Dynamic-link library (also written as Dynamic Link Library or DLL), is Microsoft's implementation of shared libraries used by the Microsoft Windows operating systems. These libraries usually have the file extension DLL, OCX (for libraries containing ActiveX controls), or DRV (for Windows legacy system drivers).

Any of the Microsoft Windows data files having the same file format as that of the Dynamic-link library can be called a resource DLL. Examples of such DLLs include icon libraries, sometimes having the extension ICL, and the font files, having the extensions FON and FOT.

Software

Dynamic-link library


"When Aliens Attack" is the twelfth episode in the  first season of the American animated television series Futurama. It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 7, 1999. This episode was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Brian Sheesley. The episode features an attack by aliens from Omicron Persei 8, when the planet's ruler Lrrr is outraged when the final episode of the Earth show Single Female Lawyer is interrupted by technical difficulties.

Plot
The episode opens in the year 1999, with Fry making a pizza delivery to the control booth of WNYW, New York's Fox flagship station. While there, Fry spills beer on the console (later in the episode, Amy did some research, saying it was a Coke), interrupting the broadcast of Single Female Lawyer (a spoof of Ally McBeal). As the technician panics, Fry ominously states, "Like anyone on Earth cares." The camera pulls back from the broadcast tower, away from Earth, and through the depths of space, settling on Omicron Persei 8, a thousand light-years away and a thousand years later. Incensed that they do not get to see the end of the episode, the Omicronians launch an invasion fleet.

Back on Earth in the year 3000, the off-duty Planet Express crew decides to take a trip to Monument Beach for Labor Day, where most of the world's monuments have stood since the 27th century (thanks to the activities of New New York's supervillain governor), when the Omicronians begin to invade, destroying them all one after another. Lrrr, ruler of Omicron Persei 8, demands that the Earth produce "the one called McNeal". President McNeal, fearing for his own safety, orders Zapp Brannigan to lead an assault against the alien invaders, enlisting the Planet Express crew and thousands of other ships, and turning on the Robot's patriotism circuits, to Bender's annoyance. However, they only succeed in blowing up the Hubble Space Telescope while suffering heavy casualties: the fleet stands no chance against the actual alien mother ship. After the attack predictably ends in disaster, Earth's government hands over President McNeal. Lrrr announces that he is the wrong McNeal, and vaporizes the President. Lrrr shows the world a photo of the McNeal they want, and Fry recognizes her as Jenny McNeal, the title character of Single Female Lawyer. The Omicronians demand the broadcast of the television show, or they will destroy the Earth. Unfortunately, most videotapes were destroyed in 2443, during the second coming of Jesus. The Planet Express crew decides to fake the show in order to save the world.

Fry's script comes up short (he explains that it took an hour to write, so he assumed it would take an hour to perform), and Leela (as Jenny), is forced to improvise. She proposes marriage to the judge (played by Professor Farnsworth). During a commercial break, an aggravated Fry tells Leela that people do not watch TV for clever and unexpected situations because they get scared and confused by the unfamiliar and the unexpected. Lrrr makes a public statement backing up Fry's assertion. Fry quickly writes an ending where the judge (Farnsworth) dies (even though Farnsworth does not know what was going on and tests his pulse), leaving Jenny McNeal as a single female lawyer again. The Omicronians, satisfied with the ending, give the episode a C+, saying the show was good enough for them to spare the planet, though not good enough for them to give humans their secret to immortality (Fry blames it on Zoidberg "overacting"). The episode ends with the aliens departing Earth to watch a 1000-year-old Jay Leno monologue and Fry stating that the secret to a successful television show is that everything ends up back to normal at the end of each episode. Ironically, the camera pans out to a view of New New York burning in ruins.

Production
The broadcast of "Single Female Lawyer" takes 1000 years to reach Omicron Persei 8, but the Omicronians are able to travel to Earth in much less time.  In the DVD commentary for this episode, executive producer David X. Cohen explains that the writers had decided that the speed of light would be increased in the future and that massive particles would still not be able to travel faster than light, but that electromagnetic waves from the past would still travel at their regular, lower speed.

Though his coworker Linda appears, Morbo is absent from this episode. According to the DVD commentary, the writers try to avoid putting Morbo into episodes that have a large focus on aliens. They also discuss the similarities of Morbo's voice to that of Lrrr.

Cultural references
The title of the episode is a parody of When Animals Attack!, which was a popular Fox program in the mid-1990s.

As the Planet Express ship intercepts the Omicron mothership, Fry compares himself to Uhura, Captain Janeway, and Xena while dressed as Red Squadron leader Garven Dreis from the Star Wars franchise. The following scene then parodies the Battle of Yavin from Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope.

The show Single Female Lawyer, as well as Earth President McNeal, is a reference to Ally McBeal, a popular contemporary Fox program.

The spaceship destroying the White House at Monument Beach is a reference to the film Independence Day.

The anthology series Tales from the Darkside featured a similar plot-line in episode 31, "Distant Signals", where aliens who have been viewing a cancelled TV show come to Earth 20 years after the show's demise in order to ensure the unresolved plot-lines of the show are resolved by filming a last episode.

Reception
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A−, stating, "The show's writers aren't trying to change the way people approach the medium. They're just finding humor by acknowledging truths that typically go unspoken. Sure, the last shot shows a city laid to waste by the invaders, in direct contradiction to the usual 'and everything was the same in the end' conclusion that Fry is praising, but it's not like the destruction is going to carry over into next week. As satire goes, this is more of a resigned guffaw than a scream."

References

External links

 When Aliens Attack  at About.com
 When Aliens Attack at HuffPost TV
 When Aliens Attack at The Infosphere.

Futurama (season 1) episodes
1999 American television episodes
Fiction set around Omicron Persei
Television episodes about alien invasion
Television episodes written by Ken Keeler
Fictional female lawyers

When Aliens Attack


Homo sacer (Latin for the 'sacred man' or 'accursed man') is a phrase taken from Roman law. It is
used to describe someone who is banished, and may be killed by anybody but not used in a religious killing
(sacrifice). Described by Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben in his book Homo Sacer; 'sovereign
power and bare life' as a person who is living a 'naked life' and is an outcast of society.

Occurrence
Someone becomes Homo Sacer by breaking a legal agreement or oath; people who
illegally cross the borders between countries have often been referred to and treated as Homo
Sacer. In Shahram Khosravi's book Illegal traveller he talks about how someone
forced to leave their country to find a better life elsewhere can become 'homo sacer', which can
lead to a feeling of separation from the rest of society.

Consequences
This makes the person an outlaw; they have no civil rights and lose their protection
from the state. They are often victims of abuse and unfair treatment both through this loss of rights
but also from everyday citizens.

References
http://definitions.uslegal.com/h/homo-sacer/
http://www.16beavergroup.org/monday/archives/000374.php
Giorgio Agambens' 'Homo Sacer: Sovereign power and bare life, Stanford University Press; 1 edition (April 1, 1998)
Shahram Khosravi's 'illegal traveller' first published 2010 by Palgrave Macmillan

Legal terms
Society

Homo sacer


A vein is a type of blood vessel in the body. All veins carry blood to the heart. Most veins carry blood that is low in oxygen, except for the pulmonary vein and the umbilical veins which carry blood that is high in oxygen.

A vein has a large lumen (width) and less pressure than an artery. There are smaller amounts of smooth muscle and elastic fibres in the vessel wall. Most veins have one-way valves that keep blood from going backwards.

Veins carry blood to the heart and move to the heart through the vena cava, the biggest vein in human body Other important veins are the coronary veins(veins on the heart) and renal veins(veins on the kidney).
Veins are mainly seen just below the skin, and could easily be seen from the outside, where they look blue because of the lack of oxygen.
The blood carried by veins is dark red, but when a vein is cut or pierced, the dark blood immediately reacts with the oxygen in the air and becomes bright red colored. The vein appears blue because of the scattering of light through the skin and the way the eye perceives color and light.

Blood vessels

Vein


Newton's Law of Cooling describes how the temperature of an object changes. It states that the rate of change of its temperature depends on how much hotter it is than its surroundings. Since it includes both temperature and the time derivative of temperature, is a first-order differential equation. It was made by physicist Sir Isaac Newton.

The law requires that the Heat transfer coefficient is independent of the temperature difference between the object and its surroundings. This is the case in some situations, but not in others. The best example is the simple mechanics used in an air conditioning unit.

References

Laws of physics

Newton's Law of Cooling


Ferdinand Gregorovius (; 19 January 1821, Neidenburg, East Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia – 1 May 1891, Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria) was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome.

Biography
Gregorovius was the son of Neidenburg district justice council Ferdinand Timotheus Gregorovius and his wife Wilhelmine Charlotte Dorothea Kausch. An earlier ancestor named Grzegorzewski had come to Prussia from Poland. Members of the Gregorovius family lived in Prussia for over 300 years, and produced many jurists, preachers and artists. One famous ancestor of Ferdinand's was Johann Adam Gregorovius, born 1681 in Johannisburg, district of Gumbinnen.

Ferdinand Gregorovius was born at Neidenburg, East Prussia (now Nidzica, Poland), and studied theology and philosophy at the University of Königsberg. In 1838, he joined the student association, the Corps Masovia. After teaching for many years, Gregorovius took up residence in Italy in 1852, where he remained for over twenty years. In 1876, he was made an honorary citizen of Rome, the first German to be awarded this honor. A street and a square are named after him. He eventually returned to Germany, where he died in Munich.

He is best known for Wanderjahre in Italien, his account of the travels on foot that he took through Italy in the 1850s, and the monumental Die Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter (History of Rome in the Middle Ages), a classic for Medieval and early Renaissance history. He also wrote biographies of Pope Alexander VI and Lucrezia Borgia, as well as works on Byzantine history and medieval Athens, and translated Italian authors into German, among them Giovanni Melis. According to Jesuit Father John Hardon, S.J. Gregorovius was "a bitter enemy of the popes."

Works
 Der Ghetto und die Juden in Rom, Mit Einem Geleitwort von Leo Baeck, Im Schocken Verlag/Berlin, 1935 (originally published, 1853)
 Der Tod des Tiberius ("Tiberius' Death", 1851)
 Geschichte des römischen Kaisers Hadrian und seiner Zeit ("History of the Roman Emperor Hadrian and His Times", 1851)
 The Emperor Hadrian (1898 translation by Mary E. Robinson)
 Siciliana (1853)
 Corsica (1854); Corsica (1855 trans. by Edward Joy Morris)
 Göthe's Wilhelm Meister in seinen socialistischen Elementen entwickelt. Schwäbisch Hall: E. Fischhaber, 1855.
 Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter (1859–1872) Translated into English 'The History of Rome in the Middle Ages' (1894–1902). (reissued by Italica Press, 2000–2004.); (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. )
 Anne Hamilton's trans. of the 4th German edition
 Wanderjahre in Italien (1856–1877)
 Die Insel Capri (1868); The island of Capri (1879 trans. by Lilian Clarke)
 Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter. Von der Zeit Justinians bis zur türkischen Eroberung ("History of Athens in the Middle Ages. From Justinian to the Turkish Conquest", 1889)
 Lucretia Borgia und ihre Zeit (Lucrezia Borgia: a chapter from the morals of the Italian Renaissance, 1874)
 John Leslie Garner's trans. of the 3rd German edition
 Die Grabmäler der Römischen Päpste (The Tombs of The Roman Popes), first edition 1857 in German (Google books link), later in 1881 as Die Grabdenkmäler der Päpste (The Tombs of The Popes) (Open Library link)  and in English as The Tombs of the Popes (tr: Louisa W. Terry) Victoria Press, Rome 1904 (Google books link)
 Die Insel Capri. Idylle vom Mittelmeer (1897)
 M. Douglass Fairbairn's trans.

Notes

External links

 Ferdinand Gregorovius
 Latian Summers (1903 English translation of part of Wanderjahre in Italien)

1821 births
1891 deaths
People from Nidzica
People from East Prussia
German Protestants
20th-century German historians
Historians of the Catholic Church
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century German male writers

Ferdinand Gregorovius


Johann Christian Bach (born Leipzig, 5 September 1735; died London, 1 January 1782) was a composer of the Classical period. He was the eleventh and youngest son of the composer Johann Sebastian Bach. He is often called the "London Bach" or the "English Bach", because he spent many years living in London. He became internationally famous, both as a composer and as a performer. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart liked his music, and learned a lot about how to write good concertos by looking at the concertos of J. C. Bach.

Life

Childhood
Johann Christian Bach's parents were Johann Sebastian Bach and Anna Magdalena Bach. He was born in Leipzig, Germany. His father was one of the last composers of the Baroque period. His father was already 50 when J. C. Bach was born, so it is not surprising that by the time Johann Christian had grown up the style of music had changed a lot since Johann Sebastian had been writing his works. Johann Christian belonged to the Classical period. He was 15 when his father died. He moved to Berlin and his half-brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who was already a famous composer, gave him more music lessons.

Italy
Johann Christian lived in Italy for many years from 1756, first studying counterpoint with Padre Martini in Bologna and later with Giovanni Battista Sammartini. He became an organist at the cathedral in Milan in 1760. However, he soon started to become successful as an opera composer and he left his cathedral job so that he could work in the theatre and travel more in Italy.

Johann Christian had been brought up in the Lutheran church, but in Italy he became a Catholic. He married the Italian soprano Cecilia Grassi. She was about eight years older than Johann Christian and, perhaps because of this, they never had children.

London years
In 1762 he moved to London. He was very successful there, and earned plenty of money to live comfortably. He knew the royal family and many important aristocratic people as well as famous people such as the painter Gainsborough and the musician and writer Charles Burney. King George III and Queen Charlotte went to hear his first London opera Orione in 1763. He gave the Queen music lessons.

He lived at a time when the piano was becoming a popular instrument and the harpsichord was becoming old-fashioned. J. C. Bach wrote a lot of music for the piano and gave the very first concert of piano music in London in 1768. He wrote 6 keyboard concertos and dedicated them to the Queen. The last movement of Concerto no 6 was a set of variations on God Save the King. This became a very popular piece of music at the time. He wrote many songs that became popular in his time. They were often performed in Vauxhall Gardens, a park where many people went to be entertained.

He gave many concerts together with Carl Friedrich Abel, a well-known player of the viola da gamba. Abel and Bach may have known one another as children because both their fathers had worked together in Cöthen in Germany. In April 1764 J. C. Bach met the 8-year-old Mozart who visited London with his father Leopold. They played duets on the harpsichord together.

He composed cantatas, chamber music, keyboard and orchestral works, operas, symphonies and songs. He had many works published in London and Paris.

During his last years he lost a lot of money. The Bach-Abel concert series lost money, and one of Bach's servants stole £1000 from him which was a very large sum on those days. His health started to become bad and, when he died, he left his wife with a lot of debt. Queen Charlotte helped to pay a lot of the debt, and his widow went back to Italy.

He was buried in St Pancras churchyard, London.

1735 births
1782 deaths
Johann Christian
Classical era composers
18th-century German composers
Musicians from Leipzig

Johann Christian Bach


Green Cross Corporation (株式会社ミドリ十字; Kabushiki Gaisha Midori Jūji) was one of the premier pharmaceutical companies in Japan. The company merged into Yoshitomi Pharmaceutical Industries, Ltd. (吉富製薬株式会社) on April 1, 1998, and renamed to Welfide Corporation (ウェルファイド株式会社) on April 1, 2000. And finally Welfide Corporation and Mitsubishi-Tokyo Pharmaceutical Inc. (三菱東京製薬株式会社) were merged to form Mitsubishi Pharma Corporation (三菱ウェルファーマ株式会社) on October 1, 2001.

Green Cross was founded in 1950 as Japan's first commercial blood bank and became a diversified international pharmaceutical company producing ethical drugs for delivery or administration by doctors and healthcare workers. Its founders included war criminals such as Kitano Masaji who performed torture and experiments on humans in the Japanese military's notorious Unit 731 during World War II.

Its products were extensively used in the treatments of a wide range of ailments. As well as supplying whole blood for transfusions, Green Cross was also active in developing blood derivative products such as coagulation factors, immunoglobulin and albumin. In the mid 1960s, it expanded into the non-plasma sector. Cardiovascular agents, coagulation/fibrinolytic agents, immunological agents, anti-inflammatory agents, albumin-based agents, blood plasma components and parenteral nutrition accounted for 71% of fiscal 1998 unconsolidated revenues; wholesale of diagnostic reagents, 14% and other, 15%. Unconsolidated revenues accounted for 59.5% of fiscal 1998 consolidated revenues. The company had eleven consolidated subsidiaries, three each in the United States and Japan, and one each in Germany, the United Kingdom, Barbados, China and Hong Kong. Overseas sales accounted for 41.9% of fiscal 1998 consolidated revenues.

In the late 1980s, Green Cross and Takeshi Abe were at the center of a scandal in which up to 3,000 Japanese people contracted HIV through the distribution and use of blood products which were known to be unsafe.

See also
 HIV-tainted blood scandal (Japan)

References

Contaminated haemophilia blood products
Defunct companies of Japan
Pharmaceutical companies of Japan

Green Cross (Japanese company)


The Olympic Games () is an important international event featuring summer and winter sports. Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games are held every four years. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece at Olympia. The first games were in 776 BC. They were held every four years until the 6th century AC. The first "modern" Olympics took place in 1896 in Athens, Greece. Athletes participate in the Olympics Games to represent their countries.

Over time the Olympics have become bigger. In old times, women were not allowed, but now there are women's events. The Winter Games were created for ice and snow sports. The Paralympic Games were created for athletes with physical disabilities. As well, the Olympics became bigger with the addition of the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. World War I and World War II led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. As the decision-making body, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The IOC is also responsible for choosing what sports are in the games. The creator of modern Olympics is Baron Pierre de Coubertin.

The celebration of the Games includes many rituals and symbols, such as Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive, respectively, gold, silver, and bronze medals.

Ancient Olympics

The Olympics of Ancient Greece featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic Games all struggles among the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished. The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years. The most widely accepted date for the beginning of the Ancient Olympics is 776BC; based on inscriptions of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting then. The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events.

There is no agreement on when the Games officially ended, but many historians think it is 393AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all Pagan religious practices should end. Another date might be 426AD, when the next emperor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples. After the Olympics stopped, they were not held again until the late 19th century.

The Growth of the Olympics

An attempt to copy the ancient Olympic Games was the L'Olympiade de la République annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France. The competition had several sports from the ancient Greek Olympics.

Greek interest in bringing back the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833. Evangelis Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games. Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in Athens. Athletes from Greece and the Ottoman Empire participated. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.

Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. It was created by John Hulley and Charles Melly, with support from Dr. Brookes. These games were unfair in nature since only Men could compete.Ingomar Weiler (2004). The predecessors of the Olympic movement, and Pierre de Coubertin European Review, Vol. 12, No. 3, Cambridge University Press In 1865 Hulley, Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.

Dr. Brookes copied the sports which were in the Olympics held in Athens in 1859 in future Wenlock Olympian Games (Brookes created this first as a class in 1850 and then as an event in 1856.). In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized by Dr. Brookes at London's Crystal Palace.

The Panathinaiko Stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875. Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, although no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games. In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin created the International Olympic Committee. Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of creating an Olympic Games that would occur every four years in a different country. He presented these ideas during the first meeting of the newly created International Olympic Committee (IOC). This meeting was held from June 16 to June 23, 1894, at the Sorbonne University in Paris. On the last day of the meeting, it was decided that the first Olympic Games, to be controlled by the IOC, would take place two years later in Athens. The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.

 1896 Games

The first Games held under the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896. These Games brought 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events. Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government money to fund future Olympic Games. This money was used to pay for the 1896 Games.L'affaire Zappa – Paris 1894, by G. Streit George Averoff paid for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games. The Greek government also provided money, which was paid back through the sale of tickets. Money was also paid back through the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.

The Greek officials and public were excited about hosting these Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the host of the Olympic Games on a permanent basis. The IOC did not approve this request. The IOC stated that each games would be held in a different country.

 Changes and adaptations

Following the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World's Fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side-shows. The Games at Paris did not have a stadium, however this was the first time women took part in the games. The St. Louis Games hosted 650 athletes, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement. The Games rebounded when the Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within an Olympiad, a period of time lasting four years) were held in Athens. These Games are not officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. These Games were hosted at the Panathenaic stadium in Athens. The games attracted an international field of participants and generated great public interest.

Between 1912 and 1948 art competitions were a part of the Olympics. Medals were awarded for works of art inspired by sport, divided into five categories: architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture. The juried art competitions were abandoned in 1954 because artists were considered to be professionals, while Olympic athletes were required to be amateurs. The competitions were part of the original intention of the Olympic Movement.

 Winter Games

The Winter Olympics were created for snow and ice sports that were not part of the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. At the 1921 Olympic Congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. The IOC ruled that the Winter Olympic Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as the summer games. This pattern continued until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France. After this, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held on the third year of each Olympiad.

 Youth Games

Starting in 2010, Youth Games help to develop young athletes for the Olympic Games. Athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 compete. The Youth Olympic Games were created by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th meeting of the IOC. The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010. The first Winter Games was hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, in 2012. These Games are shorter than the Olympic Games. The summer version will last twelve days and the winter version will last nine days. The IOC will allow 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to take part at the Summer Youth Games. 970 athletes and 580 officials will take part at the Winter Youth Games. The sports to be played will be the same as at the Olympic Games.

 Olympic Movement

The Olympic Movement includes a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations. As the group in charge of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city. Overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games. Changing the sports involved. Agreeing sponsorship and broadcasting rights.

The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:
 International Federations (IFs) are the governing bodies that supervise a sport at an international level. For example, the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) is the IF for football (soccer), and the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) is the international governing body for volleyball. There are 35 IFs in the Olympic Movement, representing each Olympic sport.
 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) represent and regulate the Olympic Movement within each country. For example, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the NOC of the United States. There are currently 205 NOCs recognized by the IOC.
 Organizing Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) are the temporary groups responsible for the organization of a specific Olympic Games. Each group is dissolved (taken apart) after each Games, once the final report is delivered to the IOC.

French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country.

 Controversy
In 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. This was done to make sure that Salt Lake City won. The IOC investigated and four members resigned and six people were sacked.

A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics. The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games, Parisian Mayor Bertrand Delanoë accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee of breaking the bid rules.

The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.

 Symbols

The Olympic logo also known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (America, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. The flag has since been flown during every Games. The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius'', a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger".

Before each Games, the Olympic flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, lights a torch with the use of the sun. The woman then lights the torch of the first relay bearer. Starting the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium. The flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928 and the torch relay was introduced at the 1936 Summer Games.

The Olympic mascot was introduced in 1968. The mascot is either an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country.

Ceremonies

Opening

As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture.

After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language. The host country's athletes are always the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece. The Greek flag entered the stadium first and last. When it came in to the stadium for the second time it was followed by the athletes. Speeches are then given formally opening the Games. Finally the athletes oath said. Following this the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier who lights the cauldron.

Closing

The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium. They are followed by the athletes who enter together without any national distinction.
Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played. The flag of Greece to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games. The flag of the current host country. The flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games is also flown.
The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches. The Games are officially closed and the Olympic flame is put out.
In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony (as this tradition was started in Antwerp), the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC. The president then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games.
After these compulsory elements, the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.

Medal presentation

A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.

Sports
The Olympic Games program consists of 26 sports, 30 disciplines and nearly 300 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women. Each event represents a different weight class. The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports.

Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC. Changes can happen to the list of sports in the Olympics. Sports can be added or removed from the list on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC.

The 114th IOC meeting, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes. Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major change to the list was performed. This resulted in the removal of baseball and softball from the list of sports for the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program will feature just 26 sports. The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.

Amateurism and professionalism

The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds. As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.

Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.
As of 2004, the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees. In men's football (soccer), only three professional players over the age of 23 are eligible to participate per team in the Olympic tournament.

Controversies

Boycotts

There have been many countries deliberately missing the Olympics in order to make political statements. The most famous examples of countries missing the Olympics happened in 1980 and 1984. The Cold War opponents missed each other's Games. 65 nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania) countered by missing the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. The countries stated that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States".

Politics

The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the Nationalist Socialist Party as benevolent and peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games. The Games were also intended to show the superiority of the Aryan (white) race. This goal was not met due in part to the achievements of athletes such as Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals at this Olympics.

Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200meter sprint race, performed the Black Power salute on the podium. The runner up Peter Norman wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. IOC President Avery Brundage then told the United States, to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The United States chose to send the pair home.

Use of performance enhancing drugs

In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach. The only Olympic death linked to doping happened at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines. By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The IOC did likewise in 1967. The IOC created the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations around the world attempt to emulate. The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use.

Violence
The Olympics have not brought lasting peace to the world, even during the Games. Three Olympic Games were not held due to war. The 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. Terrorism has also threatened the Olympic Games. In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the terrorist group Black September. This event is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed rescue attempt. A German police officer and 5 terrorists also died. During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed 2 and injured 111 others. Eric Robert Rudolph is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing.

Host nations and cities

The host city for an Olympic Games is chosen seven years ahead of the event. The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two-year period. The process starts when a city wanting to host the games applies to its country's Olympic group. If more than one city from the same country gives a proposal to its NOC, the national group chooses which city will run for host. The first step once the deadline passes (To tell the IOC that you want to hold the Games), is to ask the cities to complete a questionnaire which covers many key points in the organization of the Olympic Games. The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a group provides the IOC with an idea of each cities project and their potential to host the Games. On the basis of this evaluation, the IOC chooses the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage.

Once the candidate cities are chosen, they must give to the IOC a bigger presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is analyzed by an evaluation group. This group will also visit the cities. The group give a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC's final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it can fund the Games. The IOC members gathered in the meeting have the final vote on the host city.

By 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries. The United States has hosted four Summer and four Winter Olympics, more than any other nation. Among Summer Olympics host nations, the United Kingdom has been the host of three Games, and hosted its third Olympics in 2012 in London. Germany, Australia, France, and Greece are the other nations to have hosted the Summer Olympics twice. Among host cities, only Los Angeles, Paris, Athens and London have played host to the Olympic Games more than once, with each holding that honor twice. With the 2012 Games that took place in London, the British capital holds the distinction of hosting the modern Olympics Games three times, more than any other city. Paris will be the second city to host the modern Olympics Games three times in 2024, while Los Angeles will be the third city in 2028.

In the Winter Olympics, France has hosted three Games, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, and Italy have hosted twice. The most recent Games were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea's first Winter Olympics and second overall. The next Winter Games will be in Beijing, China in 2022, which will be the first time this nation has hosted.

And Youth Olympic Games in a separate list.

Summer Olympics (with successors)

Related pages
 Paralympic Games
 Special Olympics
 World Games
 Youth Olympic Games

Notes

References

Further reading

Other websites

 New York Times Interactive of all the medals in the Modern Olympics
 All the daily program and the results of the Olympics (personal website)
 ATR – Around the Rings – the Business Surrounding the Olympics
 Database Olympics
 Dicolympic  – Dictionary about the Games from Olympia to Sochi 2014
 Reference book about all Olympic Medalists of all times

Multi-sport events

Olympic Games


Amphibians are members of the class Amphibia. The living ones are frogs (including toads), salamanders (including newts) and caecilians. They are four-legged vertebrates which are cold blooded.

Amphibians lay their eggs in water, usually in a foam nest. After hatching they are tadpoles, which live in the water and have gills. The tadpoles change into adults in a process called metamorphosis.  When they are adult, they have lungs to breathe instead of gills, and legs. Adult amphibians also use their skin to take in oxygen, and some species of salamanders do not have lungs.

The earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian from lobe-finned fish which had jointed leg-like fins with digits. They could crawl along the sea bottom. Some had developed primitive lungs to help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if necessary.

For tens of millions of years, during the Carboniferous and early Permian, amphibia were top predators on land, especially in the low-lying tropical river systems.  In drier conditions, they were less effective, and the ancestors of mammals and reptiles (the Synapsids and Sauropsids) gradually took over the land. They laid cleidoic eggs, which had hard shells, and could be laid out of water. Most of the early large amphibians went extinct in the Triassic period; a few survived to the Lower Cretaceous.

The only living amphibiana today are the Lissamphibia. These include the Anura (frogs and toads), Caudata (salamanders and newts) and Gymnophiona (caecilians). They are all rather small, compared with mammals or reptiles. The smallest frog and vertebrate in the world is the New Guinea frog (Paedophryne amauensis). The biggest amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus).

Amphibia are found everywhere in the world, except Antarctica, and there are about 5,565 different species: 88% of them are in the Anura. In number of species, they are more successful than mammals, though they occupy a smaller range of habitats. However, it is said that amphibian populations have been declining all over the world. Conservation is therefore an important concern.

Living amphibia

Anura: Frogs (including toads)
Caudata: Salamanders (including newts)
Gymnophiona: Legless amphibia, similar to earthworms or snakes

Adaptations

Respiration
Amphibians like to live near freshwater in warm weather. There have also been species which live in forests, deserts and arctic conditions. Adult amphibians use lungs, and they also get oxygen through their skin, so long as it is moist.

Defences
Amphibians may be camouflaged in brown and green, and if so they are prey for birds and reptiles. Their colour gives them camouflage, which is their main defence.

Alternatively, many other amphibia have toxic skin, which is harmful to predators. These are poisonous to eat. This is an important defence against predation. Connected to this is the use of warning colouration. They may be in vivid colours of red, black, and yellow. Research into the rough-skinned newt and the garter snake shows this is a typical case of co-evolution. Where they live in the same area, the newts get more poisonous, and the snakes develop more resistance to the poison.

Sight
Amphibians have colour vision and depth of focus for clear sight. They also have eyelids, glands and ducts which keep the eyes moist. These are adaptations to life on land: amphibia were the first vertebrates to have these features.

Development
Some amphibia, such as the frog known as the common coquí, lay eggs out of water (in this case, on palm leaves). The eggs develop directly into adult frogs, by-passing the tadpole stage. Others, like mudpuppies and olms, have a different development. In a process called neoteny, they become sexually developed as tadpoles with gills. They continue to live in the water.

Anura

The order Anura includes the frogs and toads. There is no fundamental difference between frogs and toads. Frogs have a short body, webbed digits (fingers or toes), protruding eyes, forked tongue and no tail. They are exceptional jumpers: many of their features, particularly their long, powerful legs, are adaptations to improve jumping performance. They often live in semi-aquatic or inhabit humid areas.

A popular distinction is often made between frogs and toads on the basis of their appearance. Toads' warty skin is an adaptation for making their toxic slime. Apart from these glands, their skin is dry, and that is an adaptation to drier habitats. These features have evolved a number of times independently: convergent evolution. The distinction has no taxonomic basis. The only family exclusively given the common name "toad" is Bufonidae (the "true toads"), but many species from other families are commonly called "toads".

Caudata

The order Caudata is the salamanders.

Newts are salamanders which spend their life in the water even though they are adults. They are classified in the subfamily Pleurodelinae of the family Salamandridae.

Respiration differs between species of salamanders. Species that lack lungs respire through gills. In most cases, these are external gills, visible as tufts on either side of the head. Some salamanders that are terrestrial have lungs that are used in respiration, although these are simple and sac-like, unlike the more complex organs found in mammals. Many species, such as the Olm, have both lungs and gills as adults.

Some terrestrial species lack both lungs and gills and perform gas exchange through their skin. Even some species with lungs also respire through the skin in this manner.

The skin of salamanders secretes mucus. This helps to keep the animal moist when on dry land, keeps their salt balance while in water, and lubricates during swimming. Salamanders also secrete poison from glands in their skin, and some additionally have skin glands for secreting courtship pheromones.

Axolotls, from  the genus Ambystoma (or mole salamanders),  are neotenic amphibians. This means they get to sexual maturity and reproduce while still in a larval form.

Defence mechanisms
Most salamanders and newts have some defence against predators, usually a poison which makes them uneatable. Their bright colours are warning colouration. If, instead, they are camouflaged, this means they are probably not protected by a toxin.

The second line of defence is to shed their tail, which can grow again. The tail wriggles a bit, attracts the predator while the business part of the salamander moves off.

Other characteristics
There are over 350 lungless salamanders. Most of them are terrestrial and are active in daytime. Lungless salamanders may communicate with their nose.p168 Slender salamanders are found in the Pacific Coast. They are sometimes called "worm salamanders". This is because they have slimmer (skinny) bodies than most salamanders.p182 If touched, slender salamanders will bounce on the ground and then run away.

Gymnophiona

The order Gymnophiona includes the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals that look like snakes or worms. Their skin has circular folds, increasing their similarity to the segments of earthworms. Some are aquatic, but most live underground in burrows they hollow out. Many caecilians give birth to live young. In species which lay eggs, the eggs may undergo metamorphosis before they hatch. Caecilians are found in tropical Africa, Asia and Central and South America. There are 171 different species.

Their skins make a mucus that makes them slippery enough to slip through the earth.  They can make a toxic material in their skins, as many frogs and toads do.

Reproduction

Amphibians are the only vertebrates to go through metamorphosis. This means that their young look different from their adult.p8 Amphibians usually reproduce in early spring to late summer, though some reproduce in winter and fall.p156 Most frogs and toads, such as the common frog (Rana temporalis), gather in large groups to ponds, rivers, swamps and lakes to breed.p10 Male frogs and toads may croak to attract a female. When a female frog has chosen a mate, the male frog hops on top of her. They swim together as she lay eggs in the water. Sometimes, males fight to mate with a female.p7 Frogs can lay up to 100 to 60,000 eggs in one clutch. This is called "frogspawn".

It is a fundamental feature of amphibia that their reproduction is, one way or another, tied to water. This is because their eggs, although covered by jelly, cannot survive long in dry conditions.

Eggs

Most female amphibians lays her eggs in water. Males release sperm to fertilize them. The eggs are laid one by one or in batches. Batches of eggs can look like a long chain or a ball of foam. They may wrap their eggs around plants in the water. They do this so their eggs will not drift away.p8

Tree frogs usually lay their eggs on a leaf in a rainwater pool. Bullfrogs, such as the male American bullfrog and the male African bullfrog, stay with their tadpoles and protect them from predators. They also move their tadpoles by using their nose to dig a channel to another place where there is more water.p9 They do this so their tadpoles do not dry up. Most amphibians leave their eggs to look after themselves. Fish and other animals eat most of their eggs. Male midwife toads carry their eggs on their backs. When they are ready to hatch, the toad goes back to the water and release them.p10

Tadpoles

Tadpoles do not have lungs when they hatch and instead have gills. Because gills have a large surface area, tadpoles can get more oxygen by using them. Young tadpoles have their gills exposed. When they get older, their gills are covered over by skin.p6  When they hatch, tadpoles eat constantly. The tadpoles eat what is left of their eggs, this is usually their first food.p8

Frog, toad and newt tadpoles eat plants such as algae and pondweed or filter feed. When they get older, they may start to feed on tiny animals in the water. Salamander tadpoles and surinam horned toad tadpoles are carnivorous throughout their tadpole stage.p9 Surinam horned toad tadpoles are very aggressive. They eat other tadpoles if food is nowhere to be found. The eggs of the spadefoot toad hatches in three days. Their tadpoles complete their metamorphosis in six to eight days. This is because spadefoot toads lay their eggs in places where water will dry up soon.p13

Tadpoles of frogs and toads start to grow their back legs first. They then grow front legs a few weeks later. When tadpoles grow their limbs they are called "froglets". This is because they look rather like a smaller version of adult frogs and toads. Tadpoles will also start to grow a backbone after growing their front limbs. After this, their mouths get bigger and their eyes will stick out more. After a tadpole has grown its hands, their tails continue to get shorter until there is nothing left of them.p11

Habitats

Salamanders and newts can be found living in streams. Salamanders can be found in rotten logs, holes or underground places that are wet such as under leaves.p152 Web-toed salamanders live in habitats where there are a lot of rocks. They like to hide under rocks and stones.p195 The tailed frogs, like to live in cold water habitats.p199 In their habitat, amphibians like to live where there are a lot of places to hide. These include nearby small trees, logs and plants. While underwater they like to hide near aquatic plants and rocks. Tree and dart frogs like to live in forests on trees, plants and on the ground under leaves.

Some amphibia can be found living in the desert or the arctic.p12 The desert froglet lives in the desert. They are only active at night, when temperatures are much cooler. It rarely rains in the desert and because of this, desert frogs will burrow to keep cool. They use their mucus to keep them wet. They will spread it all over their bodies. The mucus will harden to keep the water it produces from escaping. Once the desert frog has done this, it will stay in its cocoon and will not move. They will stay like this for several months to years until a rainstorm. Desert frogs and toads lose water more quickly. The spadefoot toad will spit on the ground. Once they have done this, they will lay on it. Their bodies will take in the water. Their bodies are thin and have a lot of blood vessels, this helps them to be able to take water through their skin. The California newt can survive a fire by spreading its mucous over its body.p12

Arctic frogs such as the wood frog, moor frog and the common frog has to live with freezing temperatures for a long time. They will burrow in places where they can get into a cocoon. Like every living organisms, amphibians must have water to survive. Amphibians however, need freshwater. Some frogs such as burrowing frogs can keep water in their bladders. This allows them to stay underground without drying up. The crab-eating frog lives near water that is somewhat salty. They will eat saltwater crabs. Torrent salamanders lives in cold waters. Because of this they have shorter lungs. Short lungs helps them to float easily.

Distribution
Amphibia are world-wide, though restricted in distribution by their need for moist or watery habitats to reproduce.

Anatomy

Skin

Many amphibia have secretions in their skin which makes them toxic. They do not produce toxins themselves. They get toxins from what they eat. They eat insects in their habitat. These insects get the poison from a plant. The toxin has been discovered in beetles. This means that they are likely the cause of poisons found in amphibians. Amphibians do not produce batrachotoxin in captivity, which means that it is not harmful to touch them. The American Indian tribe comechingóns used the toxins of the arrow dart frogs when hunting.

Newts in the genus Taricha has a poison called tetrodotoxin, a neurotoxin. Scientists believe that toxins in newts are caused by bacteria in the genera Pseudoalteromonas, Pseudomonas and Vibrio. Because of this, the newts do not have a lot of predators. However, some species of snakes have develop a resistance. This means that they can eat newts without the toxin hurting them. It is a case of co-evolution.

Senses and skeletal system
Amphibians' eyes have lids, glands and ducts. They have good colour vision  Caecilian eyes are small and dark. Most of them are blind. Most amphibians have a good sense of smell, even underwater.

The skeletal system of amphibians are similar to other four-legged animals. They have a spine, rib cage, long bones such as the humerus and femur. They also have short bones such as the phalanges, metacarpals, and metatarsals. Most amphibians have four limbs, except for caecilians. The bones in amphibians are hollow and do not weigh much.

Diet

Amphibia are predators. They mostly eat live invertebrates and animals that do not move too quickly. These include caterpillars, earthworms, crayfish, water beetles, snails and dragon fly larvae.p667 Many amphibians use their sticky tongues to catch their prey. They swallow the animal whole, but may chew it just a bit for it to go down their throats. The Ranidae family and the Ceratophrys genus eat almost anything they can fit into their mouths.p668 These include rodents, birds, ducklings, small fish and small mammals. Most frogs are cannibalistic, and may eat each other if food is nowhere to be found. Some amphibians may even eat their own tadpoles and eggs if there is no food for them.

Feeding in captivity
In captivity, pet frogs will be given crickets, worms, small fish, rodents and fruit flies. Adult amphibians can help decrease the mosquito population by eating most of their larvae.

Caecilians eat earthworms, termites and beetle larvae, and also small lizards.p31 Caecilians rely on their smell to find food. They like to eat earthworms and will find them by picking up their chemical signals. Salamanders and newts are fed a lot of different types of worms. These include blood worms and earthworms. They can eat small fish such as goldfish, fathead minnows and guppies. Salamanders also eat crickets and pinkies, which are baby rats.p771

Conservation

The amphibian population have been decreasing from all locations in the world. Scientists have said that the declining of amphibians is one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. A number of causes are believed to be involved. These include habitat destruction, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, climate change, destruction of the ozone layer, and diseases like chytridiomycosis. Ultraviolet radiation damages the skin, eyes and eggs of amphibians. However, the declines of amphibian population are still not understood.

The Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) have released a global strategy to help the amphibian population. It was developed by over 80 leading experts. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) are working on another global strategy to help amphibian populations. The Amphibian Ark (AA) is an organization that was created to help the public be aware of the decline in amphibian populations. They have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world. They try to encourage them to create a natural habitat for threatened amphibians. Another project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project (PARCP) which are trying to spread awareness about chyridiomycosis. The disease is spreading into eastern Panama and threatening all amphibians living there.

On January 21, 2008, Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) released a statement to the public. It was created by Helen Meredith, who identified nature's most endangered species. Meredith explains that 85% of the top 100 endangered amphibians list are receiving little or no conservation attention.

Human use

As food

Bullfrog legs are a source of food for Southern United States and the Midwestern United States. People hunt bullfrogs at night near rivers. The bullfrogs' legs are cooked, while their backs are fried.p9 In China, bullfrogs are sold alive for eating. However, they are later cooked dead with vegetables. In the state of California, people must have a license to catch bullfrogs for food.p256 In schools, bullfrogs are dissected in biology classes. Usually, this is done in grammar school.p85 The dissecting is a method for teaching students the anatomy of a bullfrog.p85 The emperor newt is hunted in China for food. They are also used there for medicine. Burrowing frogs are able to hold water in their bladder, because of this indigenous Australians use them to drink water.p13

As pets
Amphibians are also kept as pets.p4 They are kept in aquariums or a terrarium. A terrarium is a tank that is decorated with plants and soil on one side. On the other side, there is water. Most amphibians would need one place for land and another for water.p8 Each type of amphibian should have its special needs taken care of. Semi-aquatic amphibians need both land and water divided in the tank. Tropical frogs would need mist and high humidity in their terrariums.p7 Water for amphibia needs dechlorination. The chlorine in tap water can kill amphibia. Some amphibians popular exotic pets, and are found in pet stores that sell reptiles.p22

Related pages
List of amphibians
Frogs as pets

References

Reference books

Other websites

 Amphibian Specialist Group
 AmphibiaWebEcuador
 Amphibian Ark
 AmphibiaWeb
 EDGE
 Global Amphibian Assessment
 USGS—Online Guide for the Identification of Amphibians in North America north of Mexico
 General amphibian biology information—Living UnderWorld
 Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project
 Atlanta Botanical Garden Amphibian Conservation Program
 Froglife (British conservation charity)
 A guide to Amphibians

Amphibian


Hacktivismo is an offshoot of Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), whose beliefs include access to information as a basic human right. It was founded in 1999.

The group's beliefs are described fully in The Hacktivismo Declaration, which seeks to apply the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to the Internet. Oxblood Ruffin, the director of Hacktivismo, has argued forcefully against definitions of hacktivism that include web defacements or denial-of-service attacks. Hacktivismo has also authored its own software license agreement, the Hacktivismo Enhanced-Source Software License Agreement (HESSLA). The HESSLA prohibits use or modification that would violate human rights or introduce features that spy on the user.

Connection to cDc
In 1999 Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), a loose network of individuals, announced the formation of Hacktivismo. The group set to explore ways of preventing censorship of the Internet. In particular Hacktivismo focused on firewalls or censoring mechanisms of national governments. Press releases made it clear that cDc and Hacktivismo were different groups; however Hacktivismo was also described as "special operations group" of cDc. A press release in early 2002 described Hacktivismo as "an international cadre of hackers founded by the cDc's Oxblood Ruffin".

The Hacktivismo Declaration
The group's beliefs are described fully in the "Hacktivismo Declaration" which is a list of "assertions of liberty in support of an uncensored internet" and seeks to apply the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) to the Internet. The Declaration recalls the duty of member states to the ICCPR to protect the right to freedom of expression with regards to the internet and in this context what is called the "freedom of information". The Hacktivismo Declaration states:

"...such member states continue to willfully suppress wide-ranging access to lawfully published information on the Internet, despite the clear language of the ICCPR that freedom of expression exists in all media,"
"...that transnational corporations continue to sell information technologies to the world's most repressive regimes knowing full well that they will be used to track and control an already harried citizenry,"
"...that the Internet is fast becoming a method of repression rather than an instrument of liberation,"
"...that in some countries it is a crime to demand the right to access lawfully published information, and of other basic human rights,"
"...that denying access to information could lead to spiritual, intellectual, and economic decline, the promotion of xenophobia and destabilization of international order."

The Hacktivismo Declaration recognizes "the importance to fight against human rights abuses with respect to reasonable access to information on the Internet" and calls upon the hacker community to "study ways and means of circumventing state sponsored censorship of the internet" and "implement technologies to challenge information rights violations".
The Hacktivismo Declaration does however recognize that the right to freedom of expression is subject to limitations, stating "we recognized the right of governments to forbid the publication of properly categorized state secrets, child pornography, and matters related to personal privacy and privilege, among other accepted restrictions." However, the Hacktivismo Declaration states "but we oppose the use of state power to control access to the works of critics, intellectuals, artists, or religious figures."

Projects

Camera/Shy
Camera/Shy was the first Hacktivismo project released.  It debuted in 2002 at the H.O.P.E. 2k2 convention in New York City.  Written by The Pull, Camera/Shy is a steganographic tool that scans for and delivers decrypted content directly from the World Wide Web. It is a stand-alone, Internet Explorer-based web browser.  It interprets and displays hidden information stored in the junk bits in GIF files.

The Six/Four System
The Six/Four System was written by Mixter.  The software is a censorship resistant network proxy.  It works by using "trusted peers" to relay network connections over SSL encrypted links.  As an example, the distribution includes a program which will act as a web proxy, but where all of the connections will be hidden until they reach the far end trusted peer.

Hacktivismo and the cDc further gained notoriety in 2003 when the Six/Four System became the first product of a hacker group to receive approval from the United States Department of Commerce for export of strong encryption.

ScatterChat
ScatterChat is an encrypted instant messaging client based on Gaim.  It was written by J. Salvatore Testa II and released at the H.O.P.E. Number Six conference in New York City on July 22, 2006.  The source code is available, licensed under the HESSLA.  It provides encryption as well as integrated onion routing with Tor, and secure file transfers.  Scatterchat's security features include immunity from replay attacks and limited resistance to traffic analysis. Various flaws in the software have been elaborated by researchers.

Torpark

XeroBank Browser (formerly known as Torpark) is a variant of the Portable Firefox web browser with Tor built into it. XeroBank is intended for use on portable media such as a USB flash drive but it can also be used on any hard disk drive.  cDc/Hacktivismo co-released v.126.96.36.199 along with Steve Topletz on September 19, 2006.

Notable members
 Oxblood Ruffin
 Mixter
 AnonymousPEF
 bronc buster

References

Further reading

Still, Brian. "Hacking for a cause."  First Monday volume 10, number 9 (September 2005).  Retrieved 17 September 2006.

External links
Hacktivismo homepage

Advocacy groups in the United States
Cult of the Dead Cow
Hacker groups
Politics and technology
Human rights organizations based in the United States

Hacktivismo