William Milne (April 1785 – 2 June 1822) was the second Protestant missionary sent by the London Missionary Society to China, after his colleague, Robert Morrison. Milne served as pastor of Christ Church, Malacca, a member of Ultra-Ganges Mission, the first Principal of Anglo-Chinese College, and chief editor of two missionary magazines: Indo-Chinese Gleaner (English), and Chinese Monthly Magazine (). Due to Milne's distinguished role in his missionary field, the University of Glasgow granted him a Doctor of Divinity (D.D.) in 1820.

Early life
Milne was born in Braeside of Cults, a village few miles south to Huntly, in the rural parish of Kennethmont in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. His father died when he was only six years old (1791), and his mother taught him at home. While he was still very young, he worked on a farm for a period of time before being apprenticed to a carpenter under training of Adam Sievwright. While excelling at carpentry, he also was reported to have distinguished himself by his profanity learned when was a shepherd boy.

Conversion
According to Milne, he had "a natural predilection for books." When he was young, Milne memorized the Westminster Shorter Catechism, and Thomas Wilson's Mother's Catechism, but had no impact from them, rather as Milne later said, it was for the purpose of "to be equal with my neighbours, and to avoid the displeasure of the minister of the parish." About thirteen years of age, Milne experienced "a partial reformation," which was effected through: 1) the reading of tracts and Christian books, 2) two pious Christian examples, 3) hope of salvation through prayer, 4) fear of evil and danger, and 5) the sufferings of Christ symbolized through the Lord's Table. From then, Milne started to attend Sunday schools and prayer meetings. In 1801, by the age of sixteen, Milne experienced conversion.

Soon after his conversion, Milne decided to leave the Church of Scotland, and to join "another body of Christians" which was evangelical and with edifying preaching. As a result, in 1804, Milne was received as a member of a Congregational church pastored by George Cowie at Huntly.

Missionary career

About 1809, he applied to the London Missionary Society. After conferring with a group of ministers at Aberdeen, he was sent to Gosport, where he studied under David Bogue for three years. Ordained as a missionary to China on 16 July 1812 at Rev. John Griffin's church at Portsea, Portsmouth, Milne proposed "to go from house to house, from village to village, from town to town, and from country to country, where access may be gained, in order to preach the Gospel to all who will not turn away their ear from it."

Milne was married to Rachel Cowie, daughter of Charles Cowie, Esq. of Aberdeen, at St. Leonard's on 4 August 1812. They soon departed from Portsmouth for the Cape of Good Hope on 4 September 1812. The Milnes stayed at the Cape of Good Hope with John Campbell for a few days, and they did not arrive in Macau until 4 July 1813. Milne, with his wife and infant child were expelled by the Roman Catholic priests there after three days, and he left for Guangzhou, where he was able to begin study of the Chinese language. His observation regarding the difficulty of an English-speaker acquiring the Chinese tongue has been frequently repeated:

"Learning the Chinese language requires bodies of iron, lungs of brass, heads of oak, hands of spring steel, eyes of eagles, hearts of apostles, memories of angels, and lives of Methuselah."

After six months with Robert Morrison as his first and only help that had come to join the work from England, he took Morrison's advice to visit Java and the Chinese settlements in the Indonesian archipelago. Milne agreed and traveled south, distributing tracts and books, finally returning to Guangzhou on 5 September to spend the winter of 1813–1814 there.

Milne spent most of his missionary career in the British Straits Settlements of Malacca, beginning in the Spring of 1815. He set up a printing press and school, continuing to preach the Gospel to the local Chinese.

In January 1816, Milne visited Penang, and established a printing press there also. Milne was also the first Principal of The Anglo Chinese College at Malacca. He collaborated more with Morrison to produce the second complete Chinese version of the Bible, translating the books of Deuteronomy through Job.

Liang Fa, converted to Christianity in 1815 and baptized by Milne, became the first Chinese Protestant minister and evangelist. Liang Fa later became renowned as the author of the Christian literature that inspired Hong Xiuquan and the Taiping Rebellion.

In these years Milne published a translation of the Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor. His 1819 tract "The Two Friends" became the most widely used Chinese Christian tract until the early twentieth century. Milne was remarkably prolific for one who came to literary work so late in life, and twenty-one Chinese works are attributed to him. Several were of substantial length; one was the Chinese Monthly Magazine (察世俗每月統記傳 Chashisu Meiyue Tongjizhuan), the first Chinese language magazine in the modern sense of the word; that ran from 1815 to 1822 and totaled several hundred pages. In addition, he produced two substantial books and a Malacca periodical in English.

Honour
The University of Glasgow conferred on him the honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity (D.D.) on 26 November 1820.

Family
Rachel Cowie Milne gave birth to six children for William, but two of them, David (d. 4 May 1816) and Sarah (d. 10 April 1817) died in infancy. Among the four surviving children, Rachel Amelia is the eldest, and the twin sons, Robert George and William Charles. Farquhar was born when Rachel Cowie Milne was suffering from a serious illness, and was baptized at Rachel's dying bed.

Rachel Cowie Milne died on 20 March 1819 at Klebang, Malacca, leaving her will that her Amelia might receive proper education. William Milne buried Rachel in Malacca.

After William Milne's death in 1822, his four surviving children were sent back to England, to receive further education under the care of Rev. Andrew Reed (1787–1862). Both Robert George and William Charles Milne graduated from Homerton Academy and Marischal College of Aberdeen University. Later, William Charles followed his father's steps and became a missionary to China being sent by London Missionary Society, and a tutor to British translators in China. William Charles died in 1863 and was buried in a Russian cemetery at Beijing. Robert George Milne served as a Dissenting minister in Lancaster, and died in 1882.

Works in Chinese
 A Farewell Address. 3 leaves. Batavia, 1814.
 求世者言行眞史記. "Life of Christ." 71 leaves. Canton, 1814.
 進小門走窄路解論. "Tract on the Strait Gate." 10 leaves. Malacca, 1816.
 崇真實棄假謊略說. "Tract on the Sin of Lying, and the Importance of Truth." 5 leaves. Malacca, 1816.
 幼學淺解問答. "A Catechism for Youth." 37 leaves. Malacca, 1817.
 祈禱眞法注解. "Exposition of the Lord's Prayer." 41 leaves. Malacca, 1818.
 諸國異神論. "Tract on Idolatry." 7 leaves. Malacca, 1818.
 生意公平聚益法. "On Justice Between Man and Man." 10 leaves. Malacca, 1818.
 聖書節註十二訓. "Twelves Short Sermons." 12 leaves. Malacca, 1818.
 賭博明論略講. "The Evils of Gambling." 13 leaves. Malacca, 1819.
 張遠兩友相論. "Dialogues Between Chang and Yuan." 20 leaves. Malacca, 1819.
 古今聖史記集. "Sacred History." 71 leaves. Malacca, 1819.
 受災學義論說. "Duty of Men in Times of Public Calamity." 13 leaves. Malacca, 1819.
 三寶仁會論. "Three Benevolent Societies." 32 leaves. Malacca, 1821.
 全地萬國紀略. "Sketch of the World." 30 leaves. Malacca, 1822.
 鄉訓五十二則. "Twelves Village Sermons." 70 leaves. Malacca, 1824.
 上帝聖教公會門. "The Gate of God's Church." 30 leaves. Malacca.
 靈魂篇大全. "Treatise on the Soul." 183 leaves. Malacca, 1824.
 聖書節解. "Commentary on Ephesians." 104 leaves. Malacca, 1825.
 神天聖書. "The Holy Bible." Malacca, 1824.
 察世俗每月統記傳. "Chinese Monthly Magazine." 7 Volumes, 524 leaves. Malacca, 1815–1821.

Works in English
 The Sacred Edict, containing sixteen maxims of the emperor Kang-he, amplified by his son, the emperor Yoong-ching; together with a Paraphrase on the whole, by a Mandarin. pp. 299. London, 1817.
 A Retrospect of the First Ten Years of the Protestant Mission to China, (Now, in Connection With the Malay, Denominated, the Ultra-Ganges Missions.) Accompanied with Miscellaneous Remarks on the Literature, History, and Mythology of China, &c. pp. viii, 376. Malacca, 1820.
 The Indo-Chinese Gleaner. Containing miscellaneous communications on the Literature, History, Philosophy, Mythology, &c. of the Indo-Chinese nations, drawn chiefly from the native languages. Christian Miscellanies; and general news. Malacca, 1817–1822. This Magazine which came out quarterly was edited, and for the greater part written by Dr. Milne.
 Some Account of a Secret Association in China Entitled the Triad Society. The first published paper written in English about the secretive Triad society in Southern China. Published in the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland in 1825 after Milne's death by Robert Morrison.

References

Bibliography

 Robert Morrison, Memoirs of the Rev. William Milne, D.D. (1824)
 Robert Philip, The Life and Opinions of the Rev. William Milne, D.D., Missionary to China (1840).
 Daniel H. Bays, Christian Tracts: The Two Friends, in Suzanne Wilson Barnett and John King Fairbank, eds., Christianity in China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings (1985)
 Brian Harrison, Waiting for China: The Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca, 1818–1843, and Early Nineteenth-Century Missions (Hong Kong University Press, 1979)
 Christopher Hancock, Robert Morrison and the Birth of Chinese Protestantism (T & T Clark, 1979)
 Baiyu Andrew Song, Training Laborers For His Harvest: A Historical Study of William Milne's Mentorship of Liang Fa (Wipf & Stock, 2015).

External links

Milne, A Retrospect of the First Ten Years of the Protestant Mission to China
 Morrison, Memoir of William Milne
William Milne, BDCH
Baiyu Andrew Song, "To the Joy of the Church, and the Honour of Christ": A Case Study of Personal Evangelism in Early Chinese Mission," Journal of Global Christianity 1.2 (August 2015). (In English, Chinese, French, Persian and Spanish)
"Milne: the first missionary at Nanyang" (in Chinese)

Congregationalist missionaries in China
Congregationalist missionaries in Malaysia
Converts to Calvinism
British expatriates in China
English Congregationalist missionaries
Translators of the Bible into Chinese
Missionary educators
1785 births
1822 deaths
British evangelicals
English evangelicals
19th-century translators
Missionary linguists
People from Kennethmont

William Milne (missionary)


In grammar, a content clause is a dependent clause that provides content implied or commented upon by an independent clause. The term was coined by Danish linguist Otto Jespersen. They are also known as noun clauses.

English
In English, there are two main kinds of content clauses: declarative content clauses (or that-clauses), which correspond to declarative sentences, and interrogative content clauses, which correspond to interrogative sentences.

Declarative content clauses
Declarative content clauses can have a number of different grammatical roles. They often serve as direct objects of verbs of reporting, cognition, perception, and so on. In this use, the conjunction that may head the clause, but is often omitted:

He told her (that) she was smart.
She thought (that) he was friendly.
I hear (that) they've started dating.
They wish (that) they had met earlier.

Similarly with certain verb-like adjectives:

I'm not sure (that) he was right.
Convinced (that) he could manage it without help, he decided to proceed.

They also often serve as complements of nouns—both nouns corresponding to the above verbs, and nouns like fact, idea, and so on. Here, that is almost always included:

... our hope that someday the whole world will know peace ...
... the fact that all matter obeys the same physical laws ...
... the idea that a son would do such a thing to his father ...

Finally, they can serve as subjects, as complements of predicative adjectives in clauses with linking verbs or in small clauses or as object complements. In this latter use, they are commonly postponed to the end of their main clause, with an expletive it standing in their original place as subject:It startled me that the students were so advanced.
It is important that we remember this day.
I find it sad that he doesn't know the answer.
It annoys me that she does that.

Here as before, a conjunction is almost always included, although it does not need to be that:

I like (it) when she comes to visit.
It bothers me how she doesn't care what he wants.

Interrogative content clauses

Interrogative content clauses, often called indirect questions, can be used in many of the same ways as declarative ones; for example, they are often direct objects of verbs of cognition, reporting, and perception, but here they emphasize knowledge or lack of knowledge of one element of a fact:

I know what you did.
I can't guess how he managed it.
I wonder whether I looked that bad.
She asked where the files were.

Such clauses correspond to direct questions, which are questions actually asked. The direct questions corresponding to the examples above are What did you do? How did he manage it? Did I look that bad? Where are the files? Notice how, in English (and in some other languages), different syntax is used in direct and indirect questions: direct questions normally use subject-verb inversion, while indirect questions do not. Reported questions (as in the last of the examples) are also subject to the tense and other changes that apply generally in indirect speech. For more information see interrogative mood and English grammar.

Indirect questions can serve as adjective and noun complements. Here, in English, they are generally introduced by a preposition, especially of:
… the question (of) who was responsible …
… his curiosity over how it happened …
… sure of what he had seen …

Like declarative content clauses, they are often postponed to the end of their main clause, with an expletive it standing in their original place, when they serve as the subject of a verb, or as the direct object of a verb that links them to a predicative:

It is not known where they came from.
I find it encouraging how many young women are pursuing careers in science.

See also

Direct discourse
Embedded clause
Propositional attitude
Quotation
Slifting

External links

The difference between the terms content clause and complement clause
The use of the conjunction if to introduce content clauses

Grammar
Syntax
Semantics

Content clause


Josef Korbel (born 20 September 1909 as Josef Körbel – died 18 July 1977 in the United States) was a Czechoslovakian diplomat and U.S. professor.

Korbel is of Jewish descent and was born in Kyšperk (now Letohrad). His daughter is Madeleine Albright, former United States Secretary of State. His student was Condoleezza Rice, also former Secretary of State.

In 1957 he became an American.

1909 births
1977 deaths
Czech Jews
Czechoslovak people
Diplomats
Jewish American academics
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Educators from Colorado

Josef Korbel


A mobile phone (or cellphone) is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area, as opposed to a fixed-location phone (landline phone). The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and therefore mobile telephones are called cellphones (or "cell phones") in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, multimedia messagIng, email, Internet access (via LTE, 5G NR or Wi-Fi), short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), satellite access (navigation, messaging connectivity), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only basic capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City on 3 April 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs). In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world's first cellular network in Japan. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth. In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales. For feature phones (slang: "dumbphones") , the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology. The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places, for example in the UK the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999. Today mobile phones are globally ubiquitous, and in almost half the world's countries, over 90% of the population own at least one.

History

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive "generations", starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System's Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing . The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.  Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT ("Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications", European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard. In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G.  The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard. This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media. Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Types

Smartphone

Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features.  The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.

Feature phone

Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user's wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone, which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging. Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.

Infrastructure

The critical advantage that modern cellular networks have over predecessor systems is the concept of frequency reuse allowing many simultaneous telephone conversations in a given service area. This allows efficient use of the limited radio spectrum allocated to mobile services, and lets thousands of subscribers converse at the same time within a given geographic area.

Former systems would cover a service area with one or two powerful base stations with a range of up to tens of kilometres (miles), using only a few sets of radio channels (frequencies). Once these few channels were in use by customers, no further customers could be served until another user vacated a channel. It would be impractical to give every customer a unique channel since there would not be enough bandwidth allocated to the mobile service. As well, technical limitations such as antenna efficiency and receiver design limit the range of frequencies a customer unit could use.

A cellular network mobile phone system gets its name from dividing the service area into many small cells, each with a base station with (for example) a useful range on the order of a kilometre (mile). These systems have dozens or hundreds of possible channels allocated to them. When a subscriber is using a given channel for a telephone connection, that frequency is unavailable for other customers in the local cell and in the adjacent cells. However, cells further away can re-use that channel without interference as the subscriber's handset is too far away to be detected. The transmitter power of each base station is coordinated to efficiently service its own cell, but not to interfere with the cells further away.

Automation embedded in the customer's handset and in the base stations control all phases of the call, from detecting the presence of a handset in a service area, temporary assignment of a channel to a handset making a call, interface with the land-line side of the network to connect to other subscribers, and collection of billing information for the service. The automation systems can control the "hand off" of a customer handset moving between one cell and another so that a call in progress continues without interruption, changing channels if required. In the earliest mobile phone systems by contrast, all control was done manually; the customer would search for an unoccupied channel and speak to a mobile operator to request connection of a call to a landline number or another mobile. At the termination of the call the mobile operator would manually record the billing information.

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into 'cells'. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events or in disasters. Cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic.

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

Hardware

The common components found on all mobile phones are:

 A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
 A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
 An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
 A display which echoes the user's typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
 Speakers for sound.
 Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
 A hardware notification LED on some phones

Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.

Central processing unit
Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.

Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.

Display

One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device's type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device's front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.

Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below . Phones with screens larger than  are often called "phablets." Smartphones with screens over  in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and "edge-to-edge" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.

Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's "3D Touch" system.

Sound
In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones.  Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls.  Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi. Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.

Battery
The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used. It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.

SIM card

Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the Ki used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.

A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets, and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.

When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.

Software

Software platforms

Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.

Mobile app

A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term "app" is a shortening of the term "software application".

Messaging

A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000, and subsequently many organizations provided "on-demand" and "instant" news services by SMS.  Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.

Application stores

The introduction of Apple's App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google's Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM's BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.

Sales

By manufacturer

As of 2022, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (21%), Apple (16%), Xiaomi (13%), Oppo (10%), and Vivo (9%).

History
From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012. In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia's 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.

Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, to where most technical innovation had shifted. Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.

By mobile phone operator
The world's largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers . Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009. In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.

Use

Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans.  For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.

The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society.  For example:
 A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.
 Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.
 The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.
 Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
 The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.
 In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events.  This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
 The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV. It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
 In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part. It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.

Content distribution
In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.

Mobile banking and payment

In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya's M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.

Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.

Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country's first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.

Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC). Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.

Mobile tracking

Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.

The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.

China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.  In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations.

Hackers have been able to track a phone's location, read messages, and record calls, through obtaining a subscribers phone number.

While driving

Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a US insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving. Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned.  In other countries, including the UK and France and in many US states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.

A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.

Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone's incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.

A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety. In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four. A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.

Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60. This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law. Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices.  New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law. , 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.

Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.

While walking

In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones. Other countries, such as China and the Netherlands, have introduced special lanes for smartphone users to help direct and manage them.

Health effects

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans.  The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.

On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk, classifying mobile phone radiation as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety. The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.

Some recent studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years "approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same ('ipsilateral') side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use".

One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a "40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)". This is a reversal of the study's prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects. However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use. Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties. Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.

In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the US government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.

Educational impact

A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils' academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.

Electronic waste regulation

Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.

The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months, and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste.  Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.

Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.

Theft
According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone. Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones. An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers. On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a "kill switch" on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.

All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry. Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there, another involves altering the phone's IMEI number. Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.

Conflict minerals

Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives. In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: "In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry." The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.

Kosher phones
Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to "immodest" communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of "Kosher" phones with no texting capabilities.  Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.

In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.

Culture and popularity

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology. They have also become culturally symbolic. In Japanese mobile phone culture for example, mobile phones are often decorated with charms. They have also become fashion symbols at times. The Motorola Razr V3 and LG Chocolate are two examples of devices that were popular for being fashionable while not necessarily focusing on the original purpose of mobile phones, i.e. a device to provide mobile telephony.

Some have also suggested that mobile phones or smartphones are a status symbol. For example a research paper suggested that owning specifically an Apple iPhone was seen to be a status symbol.

Text messaging, which are performed on mobile phones, has also led to the creation of 'SMS language'. It also led to the growing popularity of emojis.

See also

 Camera phone
 Cellular frequencies
 Customer proprietary network information
 Field telephone
 List of countries by number of mobile phones in use
 Mobile broadband
 Mobile Internet device (MID)
 Mobile phone accessories
 Mobile phones on aircraft
 Mobile phone use in schools
 Mobile technology
 Mobile telephony
 Mobile phone form factor
 Optical head-mounted display
 OpenBTS
 Pager
 Personal digital assistant
 Personal Handy-phone System
 Prepaid mobile phone
 Two-way radio
 Professional mobile radio
 Push-button telephone
 Rechargeable battery
 Smombie
 Surveillance
 Tethering
 VoIP phone

Notes

References

Further reading

 Agar, Jon, Constant Touch: A Global History of the Mobile Phone, 2004

 Glotz, Peter & Bertsch, Stefan, eds. Thumb Culture: The Meaning of Mobile Phones for Society, 2005
 Goggin, Gerard, Global Mobile Media (New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 176.

 Katz, James E. & Aakhus, Mark, eds. Perpetual Contact: Mobile Communication, Private Talk, Public Performance, 2002
 Kavoori, Anandam & Arceneaux, Noah, eds. The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation, 2006
 Kennedy, Pagan. Who Made That Cellphone? , The New York Times, 15 March 2013, p. MM19
 Kopomaa, Timo. The City in Your Pocket, Gaudeamus 2000
 Levinson, Paul, Cellphone: The Story of the World's Most Mobile Medium, and How It Has Transformed Everything!, 2004
 Ling, Rich, The Mobile Connection: the Cell Phone's Impact on Society, 2004
 Ling, Rich and Pedersen, Per, eds. Mobile Communications: Re-negotiation of the Social Sphere, 2005
 Home page of Rich Ling
 Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Communication: Essays on Cognition and Community, 2003
 Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Learning: Essays on Philosophy, Psychology and Education, 2003
 Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. Mobile Democracy: Essays on Society, Self and Politics, 2003
 Nyíri, Kristóf, ed. A Sense of Place: The Global and the Local in Mobile Communication, 2005
 Nyíri, Kristóf, ed.  Mobile Understanding: The Epistemology of Ubiquitous Communication, 2006
 Plant, Sadie, on the mobile – the effects of mobile telephones on social and individual life, 2001
 Rheingold, Howard, Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution, 2002

External links

 "The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone", 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
 Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world – a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

2000s fads and trends
Embedded systems
Mobile telecommunication services
Mobile telecommunications
New media
Radio technology
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1973
Telephony
Videotelephony
Office equipment

Mobile phone


Tal-y-Cafn (Welsh meaning : "place opposite the ferry-boat")  is a small settlement in Conwy county borough, north Wales, in the community of Eglwysbach.

It lies in the Conwy valley close to the Roman settlement of Canovium at Caerhun, and was the site of a Roman river-crossing point of the River Conwy.  A medieval ferry, which operated from as early as 1301, was replaced by a steel bridge of rivetted plates and angles on piers of concrete and masonry in 1897. Originally a toll bridge, it is now toll free, and is the only road bridge over the river between Conwy and Llanrwst.

The present bridge dates from 1977-8 following severe rusting of the original structure. The chosen design by A. M. Hamilton is of interest, being a Callender-Hamilton type B10 bridge of unit construction and intended for rapid deployment in civilian and military applications. The pre-fabricated steel sections are hot-dip galvanised for protection against corrosion, and no part is too heavy for two men to carry. The piers of the old bridge were in perfect condition, and it was a stipulation that the footway be available for use at all times during reconstruction. It was therefore decided to adopt an unusual installation method, whereby the new bridge was assembled through and around the old bridge. Once completed, the new bridge was lowered onto the piers by cutting away piece-by-piece the old bridge.

The bridge also carries water in a pipe from Llyn Dulyn and Llyn Melynllyn in the Carneddau mountains to the coastal town of Llandudno.

Tal-y-Cafn is primarily known as the site of the Tal-y-Cafn Hotel, a former coaching inn located on the A470 road, and the adjacent Tal-y-Cafn railway station. A livestock market was situated to the south of the railway level-crossing where there was previously a goods siding and loading dock. Following the livestock movement restrictions brought about by the Foot-and-mouth Disease outbreak of 2001, the market did not re-open. The site is now occupied by a housing development. The shop and post office are also now closed, and demolished. The hotel, which closed in 2010, has been significantly rebuilt and re-opened under the name Tal y Cafn in the summer of 2016.

Nearby lies Bodnant Garden, a National Trust property set in .

A modern housing estate development on the western bank of the river was the location of The Ferry, a former public house. This pub, popular at a time when alcohol could be served on a Sunday (which was not legal across the river), suffered when the Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 was repealed.

References

External links

The Tal-y-Cafn Hotel, including a history
Conwy Valley Railway
Callender-Hamilton lattice girder bridges
www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Tal-y-Cafn and surrounding area

Eglwysbach
Villages in Conwy County Borough

Tal-y-Cafn


In the 1980s, the economists Daniel Khazzoom and Leonard Brookes independently put forward ideas about energy consumption and behavior that argue that increased energy efficiency paradoxically tends to lead to increased energy consumption.  In 1992, the US economist Harry Saunders dubbed this hypothesis the Khazzoom–Brookes postulate, and showed that it was true under neo-classical growth theory over a wide range of assumptions. This effect is comparable to Jevons paradox.

Explanation
In short, the postulate states that "energy efficiency improvements that, on the broadest considerations, are economically justified at the microlevel, lead to higher levels of energy consumption at the macrolevel." This idea is a more modern analysis of a phenomenon known as the Jevons Paradox. In 1865, William Stanley Jevons observed that England's consumption of coal increased considerably after James Watt introduced his improvements to the steam engine. Jevons argued that increased efficiency in the use of coal would tend to increase the demand for coal, and would not reduce the rate at which England's deposits of coal were running out.

Like Jevons Paradox, the Khazzoom-Brookes Postulate is a deduction that is largely counter-intuitive as an efficiency paradox. When individuals change behavior and begin to use methods and devices that are more energy efficient, there are cases where, on a macro-economic level, energy usage actually increases." The effect of higher energy prices, either through taxes or producer-induced shortages, initially reduces demand but in the longer term encourages greater energy efficiency. This efficiency response amounts to a partial accommodation of the price rise and thus the reduction in demand is blunted. The end result is a new balance between supply and demand at a higher level of supply and consumption than if there had been no efficiency response."

Increased energy efficiency can increase energy consumption by three means. Firstly, increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper, thus encouraging increased use.  Secondly, increased energy efficiency leads to increased economic growth, which pulls up energy use in the whole economy.  Thirdly, increased efficiency in any one bottleneck resource multiplies the use of all the companion technologies, products and services that were being restrained by it.  One simple example is that suburban development limited by water use can be doubled if the houses adopt water efficiency measures that cut their water demand in half. That way a small efficiency can have large opposite multiplier effect.  Similarly cars that use less fuel are likely to cause matching increases in the number of cars and trips and companion travel activities rather than a decrease in energy demand. It appears that these latent multipliers of opposite effects may be generally greater than the linear result of the original effect.

The work done by Khazzoom and Brookes began after the OPEC oil crises of 1973 and 1979, when demand for more fuel-efficient automobiles began to rise. Although greater fuel efficiency was achieved for each automobile on average, overall consumption has continued to increase. "The OPEC oil shocks spawned huge improvements in energy efficiency, particularly insofar as oil was concerned. But three decades later, we find that the net effect of all of those efficiency initiatives has been to increase the world's appetite for crude. While oil per unit of GDP has fallen impressively in large energy-consuming economies like the United States, total oil consumption, and indeed, total energy consumption, continue to grow by leaps and bounds. The increase in energy usage has dwarfed the gains in economic efficiency. Hence, instead of capping energy demand, what we observe is that improvements in energy efficiency lead to ever and ever-greater levels of energy usage", or, rather, that improvements in energy efficiency were associated with increased energy usage. Many of the increases that can be seen from empirical data might as well have taken place without efficiency gains, possibly leading to even larger increases.

Further important considerations are the potentials and limits of the efficiency multiplier effect, considering efficiency as a kind of complex system learning process.  At the beginning of the learning curve efficiency and productivity improvements get physically easier to achieve and then later improvement slows as the difficulty of learning increases and the practically achievable level of efficiencies is reached.   In market systems the investor choices may be driven by physical benefits or financial ones independently, so they may conflict.  Promoting efficiencies that accelerate the depletion of resource necessities may raise their monetary value by increasing scarcity.  This may lead in succession to decreasing physical returns on energy returned on energy invested.   Accelerating toward terminal limits of resource utility is a form of tragedy of the commons following the equivalent of a maximum rate of depletion rather than a maximum longevity or utility principle.

The rebound effect will usually be larger if energy costs make up a large share of the total costs of a given product or its consumption, and will also depend on demand elasticities. For example, fuel efficiency of cars will lead to increased mileage to a larger extent than visits to restaurants would be increased by a better energy efficiency at restaurants (e.g. for cooking, fridges, heating): Energy costs make up a smaller amount of total costs for restaurants and will therefore influence their prices to a smaller extent, and thus also not the number of visits to restaurants.

Publications

See also
Energy conservation
Rebound effect (conservation)

References

External links

Economic theories
Energy conservation
Paradoxes in economics

Khazzoom–Brookes postulate


In the Roman Empire of the second to fourth centuries, taurobolium referred to practices involving the sacrifice of a bull, which after mid-second century became connected with the worship of the Great Mother of the Gods; though not previously limited to her cult, after AD 159 all private taurobolia inscriptions mention the Magna Mater.

History
Originating in Asia Minor, its earliest attested performance in Italy occurred in AD 134, at Puteoli, in honor of Venus Caelestis, as documented by an inscription.

The earliest inscriptions, of the second century in Asia Minor, point to a bull chase in which the animal was overcome, linked with a panegyris in honour of a deity or deities, but not an essentially religious ceremony, though a bull was sacrificed and its flesh distributed. The addition of the  taurobolium and the institution of an archigallus were innovations in the cult of the Magna Mater made by Antoninus Pius on the occasion of his vicennalia, the twentieth year of his reign, in 158 and 159. The first dated reference to Magna Mater in a taurobolium inscription dates from 160. The vires, or testicles of the bull, were removed from Rome and dedicated at a taurobolium altar at Lugdunum, 27 November 160. Jeremy Rutter makes the suggestion that the bull's testicles substituted for the self-castration of devotees of Cybele, abhorrent to the Roman ethos.

Public taurobolia, enlisting the benevolence of the Magna Mater on behalf of the emperor, became common in Italy, as well as in Gaul, Hispania and Africa. The last public taurobolium for which there is an inscription was carried out for Diocletian and Maximian at Mactar in Numidia at the close of the third century.

Description
The best-known and most vivid description, though of the quite different taurobolium as it was revived in aristocratic pagan circles, is the notorious one that has coloured early scholarship, which was provided in an anti-pagan poem by the late 4th-century Christian Prudentius in Peristephanon: the priest of the Great Mother, clad in a silk toga worn in the Gabinian cincture, with golden crown and fillets on his head, takes his place in a trench covered by a platform of planks pierced with fine holes, on which a bull, magnificent with flowers and gold, is slain. The blood rains through the platform onto the priest below, who receives it on his face, and even on his tongue and palate, and after the baptism presents himself before his fellow-worshippers purified and regenerated, and receives their salutations and reverence. Prudentius does not explicitly mention the taurobolium, but the ceremony, in its new form, is unmistakable from other contemporaneous sources: "At Novaesium on the Rhine in Germania Inferior, a blood pit was found in what was probably a Metroon", Jeremy Rutter observes.

Recent scholarship has called into question the reliability of Prudentius' description. It is a late account by a Christian who was hostile to paganism, and may have distorted the rite for effect. Earlier inscriptions that mention the rite suggest a less gory and elaborate sacrificial rite. Therefore, Prudentius' description may be based on a late evolution of the taurobolium.

Purpose

The taurobolium in the second and third centuries was usually performed as a measure for the welfare (salus) of the emperor, Empire, or community; H. Oppermann denies early reports that its date was frequently 24 March, the Dies Sanguinis ("Day of Blood") of the annual festival of the Great Mother Cybele and Attis; Oppermann reports that there were no taurobolia in late March. In the late third and the fourth centuries its usual motive was the purification or regeneration of an individual, who was spoken of as renatus in aeternum, "reborn for eternity", in consequence of the ceremony. While its efficacy was not eternal, its effect was considered to endure for twenty years, as if the magic coating of the blood wore off after that time, the initiate having taken his vows for "the circle of twenty years" (bis deni orbis). It was also performed as the fulfilment of a vow (votum), or by command of the goddess herself, and the privilege was not limited by sex or class. In its fourth-century revival in high pagan circles, Rutter has observed, "We might even justifiably say that the taurobolium, rather than a rite effectual in itself was a symbol of paganism. It was a rite apparently forbidden by the Christian emperors and thus became a hallmark of the pagan nobility in their final struggle against Christianity and the Christian emperors." The place of its performance at Rome was near the site of St Peter's, in the excavations of which several altars and inscriptions commemorative of taurobolia were discovered.

A criobolium, substituting a ram for the bull, was also practiced, sometimes together with the taurobolium;.

Modern interpretation
The classicist Grant Showerman, writing in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition suggested: "The taurobolium was probably a sacred drama symbolizing the relations of the Mother and Attis (q.v.). The descent of the priest into the sacrificial foss (pit) symbolized the death of Attis, the withering of the vegetation of Mother Earth; his bath of blood and emergence the restoration of Attis, the rebirth of vegetation. The ceremony may be the spiritualized descent of the primitive oriental practice of drinking or being baptized in the blood of an animal, based upon a belief that the strength of brute creation could be acquired by consumption of its substance or contact with its blood. In spite of the phrase renatus in aeternum, there is no reason to suppose that the ceremony was in any way borrowed from Christianity."

See also
Tauroctony
Tauromachy
Taurocathapsy

References

Sources
 Duthoy, Robert. The Taurobolium: Its Evolution and Terminology. (Leiden: E.J. Brill) 1969.
 Espérandieu, Émile. Inscriptions antiques de Lectoure (1892), pp.  494 if.
 Hepding, Hugo. Attis, Seine Mythen und Sein Kult (Giessen, 1903), pp. 168 if., 201
 Showerman, Grant. "The Great Mother of the Gods", Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 43; Philology and Literature Series, 1.3 (1901).
 Rutter, Jeremy B. The Three Phases of the Taurobolium, Phoenix, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Autumn, 1968), pp.  226-249, Classical Association of Canada (DOI: 10.2307/1086636)
 Zippel, Festschrift zum Doctorjubilaeum, Ludwig Friedländer, 1895, p. 489 f.

Further reading

External links

Animal welfare
Animal sacrifice
Roman animal sacrifice
Christianity in the Roman Empire
Cybele
Cattle in religion

Taurobolium


Pietro Musumeci (born 18 May 1920) was a general and deputy director of Italy's military intelligence agency, SISMI.

Musumeci was born in Catania on 18 May 1920. A member of Propaganda Due, Musumeci was convicted in 1985, along with other SISMI officers Francesco Pazienza and Giuseppe Belmonte, for embezzlement and criminal association. Musumeci and Belmonte were also convicted for possessing and transporting explosives. They tried to sidetrack the  investigations on the 1980 Bologna train station bombing by simulating an attempt with explosives on a Taranto-Milan train, in January 1981 (the bombing was voluntarily thwarted by order of Musumeci).

A further conviction came in 1988, when he was also sentenced for slandering said investigation. Although acquitted on appeal, the sentence was upheld by the Italian Supreme Court in 1995.

A 1984 parliamentary inquiry indicated that irregularities at SISMI included the charge that Musumeci used the Camorra to negotiate the release of Ciro Cirillo, a Christian-democratic politician who was kidnapped by the Red Brigades.

One of the members of Musumeci's office, colonel Camillo Guglielmi, was in the same street in which former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro was kidnapped, on 16 March 1978.

References

1920 births
Possibly living people
People from Catania
Italian generals
SISMI
Fellows of the American Physical Society

Pietro Musumeci


Belper North Mill, also known as Strutt's North Mill in Belper, is one of the Derwent Valley Mills, given UNESCO World Heritage Status in 2001.

The mill is sited in Belper, a town in Derbyshire, England, roughly halfway between Derby and Matlock.

The original North Mill, completed in 1786 by Jedediah Strutt, was destroyed by fire in 1803. Its replacement was built in 1804 by his son, William Strutt, on the foundations of the old mill and is one of the oldest surviving examples of an iron-framed 'fire-proof' building in the world.

In 2015 a report by Amber Valley Borough Council said the North Mill (and the Grade II listed East Mill) were in need of repair as they had suffered "significant damage", and the council was said to be considering a compulsory purchase order.

Construction
The iron-framed mill is  long by  wide,  high. It had two  wings.

Cotton mills were prone to fire as cotton dust ignites easily and the resulting fire burns through ceiling and floor timbers. This had happened to the earlier mill. In an attempt to prevent this happening experiments were made to construct a fireproof mill. The wooden beams supporting the floor timbers were replaced with beams of cast iron, (steel was not available till after 1860) and between them were low vaults made of brick with a  span. Above this rubble was used to level the floor which was made of brick. The floor arches over the wheel pit were of a hollow clay construction.

The beams were cast in a "turtle back profile" to give the required strength, at minimum weight. They were supported by cast iron columns, erected on top of each other. The lateral thrust of the brick arches was resisted by concealed wrought iron ties between the column tops. The building was 15 bays wide, and the wings six bays wide.

The mill is one of the first iron framed buildings. The technology is the precursor of the steel frames used in high rise buildings. The roof was made of slate and had internal gutters.

The waterwheel
A breast-shot waterwheel,  wide, was built by Thomas Hewes. It was a suspension wheel with the power taken off at the edge by a spur wheel, making it lighter than a clasp wheel. The power was transmitted to the machines by a vertical shaft, geared to horizontal shafts on each floor. Leather belts were used to connect the shafts to individual machines.

Processes
Each of the mill's five floors housed different stages of the cotton spinning processes.

Raw cotton bales were unloaded from carts at the ground floor loading bay. The opening and cleaning machines broke the bales down and prepared the cotton into 'lap' form which was taken to the third and fourth floor carding rooms, housing three rows of carding engines, over 130. Carding machines disentangle the cotton fibres to produce a long continuous 'sliver'. Sixteen drawing frames, sometimes called lantern frames, straightened the fibres and pulled the 'slivers' into 'rovings' putting in a slight twist so they were ready for spinning. The rovings were coiled into large cans which were taken to the first and second floor.

Both the first and second floors originally housed thirty-four Arkwright water frames which spun 4236 ends simultaneously. This meant that 4236 rovings were continuously twisted together to become threads that were collected on small bobbins. Later mule spinning machines were introduced to produce finer thread types which were in demand. The bobbins were sent to the fifth floor.
On the fifth floor, reeling frames wound the spun thread into 'skeins' ready for dyeing at a factory in Milford. Doubling frames twisted two or more single spun thread together to make thicker and stronger thread. The amount of twist imparted determined the thread's properties.

The attic was later used as a schoolroom.

Machinery
Machinery contained in this mill:-

80 spinning frames with 4236 spindles each
136 carding engines
16 draw frames
4 stretching frames
Plus reeling, doubling and twisting frames

Hydro-electric plant

In 1998 a hydro-electric power generator was installed in the mill, producing 350 kW of power. This consists of 2 x 175 kW grid-connected low head Gilkes water turbine sets. It was installed by Derwent Hydroelectric Power Limited.

See also

Grade I listed buildings in Derbyshire
Listed buildings in Belper

References

External links

Derwent Valley Visitor's Centre - official site
Information and photos

Textile mills in Derbyshire
Museums in Derbyshire
Industry museums in England
Textile museums in the United Kingdom
Cotton mills
Textile mills completed in the 18th century
Industrial Revolution in England
Industrial buildings completed in 1804
Hydroelectric power stations in England
Grade I listed buildings in Derbyshire
Grade I listed industrial buildings
Belper

Belper North Mill


The Smurfs: A Christmas Carol is an American computer-animated short film, based on The Smurfs comic book series and A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. It was directed by Troy Quane and it stars voices of George Lopez, Jack Angel, Melissa Sturm, Fred Armisen, Gary Basaraba, Anton Yelchin, and Hank Azaria. The special was produced by Sony Pictures Animation with the animation by Sony Pictures Imageworks and Duck Studios. The Smurfs: A Christmas Carol was released on DVD on December 2, 2011, attached to The Smurfs.

Synopsis
When Grouchy Smurf (voiced by George Lopez) behaves badly to everyone and refuses to celebrate Christmas, the Smurfs of Christmas Past, Present, and Future teach him to appreciate Christmas.

Cast
 George Lopez as Grouchy Smurf (voice)
 Jack Angel as Papa Smurf (voice) (replacing Jonathan Winters)
 Melissa Sturm as Smurfette / The Smurf of Christmas Past (voice)
 Fred Armisen as Brainy Smurf / The Smurf of Christmas Present (voice)
 Gary Basaraba as Hefty Smurf / The Smurf of Christmas Future (voice)
 Anton Yelchin as Clumsy Smurf (voice)
 Hank Azaria as Gargamel

References

Other websites
 Official website

2011 movies
American comedy movies
English-language movies
Smurfs

The Smurfs: A Christmas Carol


The Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley is a series of musical mystery videos starring twin actresses Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen. The series was also written as children's books. A set of books was written as a companion piece to the show, showing the twins on the cover.
The video series was distributed by BMG Kidz and KidVision.

Format
Each video begins with the girls singing the theme song. Following the theme song, the girls receive a phone call, informing them of some urgent mystery that needs to be solved. Their motto is "We'll solve any crime by dinnertime." Each video features the girls singing multiple songs about the mystery they are working on. They never fail to solve the mystery with their sidekick, Clue (a Basset Hound), and, indeed, the solution is usually something either very obvious or very trivial, to give the video a humorous ending.

Plot outlines
Each episode is named "The Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley" followed by the name of the mystery.

1. The Case of Thorn Mansion (1994)
A ghost is supposedly haunting a mansion in Transylvania, and the girls must figure out who or what is actually behind it. The "ghost" ends up being the caretaker of the mansion who is also a beekeeper. (The trip to Transylvania was about 9,000 miles from their attic)

2. The Case of the Logical I Ranch (1994)
Pungent smells and weird noises plague the "Logical I Ranch". Some employees of the ranch think it is being caused by a dragon running loose. (The trip to Dead Gulch USA was about 1,372 miles from their attic)

3. The Case of the Sea World Adventure (1995)
The girls' parents work at Sea World as over-worked dolphin trainers. One day, the girls run into a dead body in the woods that eventually leads them and their parents to a cruise ship while trying to solve the rigged mystery. The boss of the girls' parents had planted evidence to get them all on the cruise, so they could take a much-needed family vacation.

4. The Case of the Mystery Cruise (1995)
The sequel to The Case of the Sea World Adventure. Mary-Kate and Ashley's father has a laptop containing vital information. It gets stolen while on a cruise ship and must be retrieved. The twins believe a friend of their father's was responsible, but it later turned out to be a staged occurrence.

5. The Case of the Fun House Mystery (1995)
Something is making scary noises inside the fun house at an amusement park, and the girls must figure out who or what it is. Using the clue of "Monster Mush" and "bananas", they find out the monster lurking inside the fun house is really an orangutan. (The trip to Tons-Of-Fun was about 1,379 miles from their attic)

6. The Case of the Christmas Caper (1995)
Hackers break into Santa's computer to steal the "Spirit of Christmas", the plane Santa uses to fly to deliver all the presents to the children of the world on Christmas Eve. It is up to girls to show what the holiday is all about. (The trip to North Pole Drive was about 1,000 miles from their attic)

7. The Case of the U.S. Space Camp Mission (1996)
A space shuttle has been grounded, due to a mysterious tapping sound coming from its outer surface. Unless the girls can figure out what is going on, the space shuttle will be not be able to lift-off. To figure out the mystery, they get help learning about space travel through the U.S. Space Camp program. (The trip to Huntsville was about 1,643 miles from their attic)

8. The Case of the Shark Encounter (1996)
Three pirates claim that the sharks at a Sea World exhibit are singing, and the girls must figure out where the strange sounds are coming from. (The trip to Orlando was about 2,500 miles from their attic)

9. The Case of the Hotel Who-Done-It (1996)
The girls travel to Hawaii, where they meet a hotel manager who has been dealing with a string of recent disappearances around the hotel. (The trip to Hawaii was about 2,556 miles from their attic)

10. The Case of the Volcano Mystery (1997)
The girls receive a call from some miners of marshmallows that a snowball-throwing monster has been "terrorizing" them. The girls eventually find out that the "snow" is really ash, and the "monster" is actually a geologist warning them that an active volcano is not a safe place to work. (The trip to Jelly Island was about 1,759 miles from their attic)

11. The Case of the United States Navy Adventure (1997)
Unidentified flying objects have been seen flying overhead. In this case, the girls get help from the United States Navy to solve the mystery. The "UFOs" ended up being a satellite that was flying too low in orbit. (The trip to The Edge of the World was about 3,528 miles from their attic)

Compilation releases

Other than the eleven episodes, there were two compilation videos made.

The Amazing Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley

Includes The Case of the SeaWorld Adventure, The Case of the U.S. Space Camp Mission, and The Case of the Hotel Who-Done-It.

The Favorite Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley

Includes The Case of the Volcano Mystery, The Case of the Fun House Mystery, and The Case of the Logical I Ranch.

Mary-Kate and Ashley's Christmas Collection

Includes You're Invited to Mary-Kate and Ashley's Christmas Party, The Case of the Christmas Caper, and The Case of the Mystery Cruise.

References

Direct-to-video film series
American children's films
1990s mystery films
1990s musical films
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen
Films about children
Films about twin sisters
1990s children's films
Twins in fiction
1990s American films

The Adventures of Mary-Kate & Ashley


Isabel Marshal (9 October 1200 – 17 January 1240) was a medieval English countess. She was the wife of both Gilbert de Clare, 4th Earl of Hertford and 5th Earl of Gloucester and Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall (son of King John of England). With the former, she was a great grandmother of King Robert the Bruce of Scotland.

Family
Born at Pembroke Castle, Isabel was the seventh child, and second daughter, of William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke and Isabel de Clare. This means that she was a member of the Marshal Family. She had 9 siblings: 4 sisters and 5 brothers, who included the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th Earls of Pembroke; each of her brothers dying without a legitimate male heir, thus passing the title on to the next brother in line. Her last brother to hold the title of Earl of Pembroke died without legitimate issue, and the title was passed down through the family of Isabel's younger sister Joan. Her sisters married, respectively, the Earls of Norfolk, Surrey, and Derby; the Lord of Abergavenny and the Lord of Swanscombe.

First marriage
On her 17th birthday, Isabel was married to Gilbert de Clare, 4th Earl of Hertford and 5th Earl of Gloucester, who was 20 years her senior, at Tewkesbury Abbey. The marriage was an extremely happy one, despite the age difference, and the couple had six children:
 Agnes de Clare  (b. 1218)
 Amice de Clare (1220–1287), who married the 6th Earl of Devon
 Richard de Clare, 5th Earl of Hertford (1222–1262)
 Isabel de Clare (2 November 1226 – 10 July 1264), who married the Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale; through this daughter, Isabel would be the great grandmother of Robert the Bruce
 William de Clare (1228–1258)
 Gilbert de Clare (b. 1229), a priest

Isabel's husband Gilbert joined in an expedition to Brittany in 1229, but died 25 October 1230 on his way back to Penrose, in that duchy. His body was conveyed home by way of Plymouth and Cranborne, to Tewkesbury, where he was buried at the abbey.

Second marriage

Isabel was a young widow, only 30 years old. She had proven childbearing ability and the ability to bear healthy sons; as evidenced by her six young children, three of whom were sons. These were most likely the reasons for both the proposal of marriage from Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, and Isabel's acceptance of it, despite the fact that her husband had been dead for only five months. The two were married on 30 March 1231 at Fawley Church, much to the displeasure of Richard's brother King Henry, who had been arranging a more advantageous match for Richard. Isabel and Richard got along well enough, though Richard had a reputation as a womanizer and is known to have had mistresses during the marriage. They were the parents of four children, three of whom died in the cradle.
 John of Cornwall (31 January 1232 – 22 September 1233), born and died at Marlow, Buckinghamshire, buried at Reading Abbey
 Isabella of Cornwall (9 September 1233 – 10 October 1234), born and died at Marlow, Buckinghamshire, buried at Reading Abbey
 Henry of Almain  (2 November 1235 – 13 March 1271), murdered by his cousins Guy and Simon de Montfort, buried at Hailes Abbey.
 Nicholas of Cornwall (b. & d. 17 January 1240 Berkhamsted Castle), died shortly after birth, buried at Beaulieu Abbey with his mother

Death and burial
Isabel died of liver failure, contracted while in childbirth, on 17 January 1240, at Berkhamsted Castle. She was 39 years old.

When Isabel was dying she asked to be buried next to her first husband at Tewkesbury Abbey, but Richard had her interred at Beaulieu Abbey, with her infant son, instead. As a pious gesture, however, he sent her heart, in a silver-gilt casket, to Tewkesbury.

Media
 Isabel and her husband Richard appear as characters in Virginia Henley's historical novels, The Marriage Prize and The Dragon and the Jewel.

Notes

References
 volume II, page 359 & volume III, page 244

 Denholm-Young, Noel. Richard of Cornwall, 1947

1200 births
1240 deaths
Deaths in childbirth
Hertford
Daughters of British earls
People from Pembrokeshire
13th-century English women
13th-century English people
Deaths from liver failure

Isabel Marshal


The Bombay Presidency was a former province of British India. It began in the 17th century as trading posts of the British East India Company, but later grew to include much of western and central India, as well as parts of Pakistan and the Arabian Peninsula.

At its greatest extent, the Bombay Presidency was made up of the present-day state of Gujarat, the western two-thirds of Maharashtra state, including the regions of Konkan, Desh, and Kandesh, and northwestern Karnataka state of India; It also included Pakistan's Sindh province and the British territory of Aden in Yemen. It consisted partly of districts, which were directly under British rule, and partly of native or princely states, which were ruled by local rulers under the administration of a governor.

Early history
The first British settlement in the Bombay Presidency was in 1618, when the East India Company established a factory at Surat. The British were protected by a charter from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Bombay at the time was under the control of Portugal. In 1661 Bombay was given to the British government, as part of the dowry of  Catherine of Braganza when she  married Charles II of England. In 1668 Bombay was given to the East India Company for a yearly payment of £10. In 1687 Bombay became the capital of the Company's territories in India. However, in 1753 Calcutta was in charge of the Government of Bombay.

Expansion
During the 18th century, the Maratha Empire grew quickly, conquering Konkan and much of eastern Gujarat from the Mughal Empire. In western Gujarat, including Kathiawar and Kutch, the weakening Mughal control allowed lots of local rulers to become independent. The first battle between the British and the Marathas was the First Anglo-Maratha War which began in 1774 and resulted in the 1782 treaty of Salbai. The treaty meant that the island of Salsette, next to Bombay island, was given to the British. The British took over Surat in 1800. British territory became bigger in the Second Anglo-Maratha War which ended in 1803.

In 1803 the Bombay Presidency included only Salsette, the islands of the harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot (since 1756); but 1803 and 1827 the presidency grew even more. The Gujarat districts were taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 and made larger in 1818. The small states of Kathiawar and Mahikantha were organised into princely states under British control between 1807 and 1820.

After the Revolt of 1857, the British East India Company rule ceased, and India came under the direct control of the British government. In 1932, Aden was separated from Bombay and made a separate province, and Sind became a separate province on April 1, 1936.

People
The Bombay Presidency had a large and diverse population. The census of 1901 gave a total of 25,468,209 people. By religion the population was 19,916,438 Hindu, 4,567,295 Muslim, 535,950 Jain, 78,552 Zoroastrian, and about 200,000 Christian.

In Sindh Islam had been the main religion since the Arab conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the main religion is Hinduism, although Muslim kingdoms have left their influence in many parts of the province. The Deccan is the home of the Marathi, who were 30% of the population. The Konkan had various Christian castes, because of the rule of the Portuguese.

The main languages of the Presidency were Sindhi in Sindh, Kutchi in Kutch, Gujarati and Hindustani in Gujarat, Marathi in Thana and the central division, Gujarati and Marathi in Khandesh, and Marathi and Kannada in the southern division. There were also Bhil (120,000) and Gipsy (30,000) dialects.

After independence
In 1947 Bombay Province became part of newly-independent India, and Sindh Province became part of Pakistan. In 1950 Bombay Province was reorganised into Bombay State, which included the princely states.

References

Provinces of British India

Bombay Presidency


The Mazique Archeological Site (22 AD 502), also known as White Apple Village, is a prehistoric Coles Creek culture archaeological site located in Adams County, Mississippi. It is also the location of the historic period White Apple Village of the Natchez people and the Mazique Plantation. It was added to the NRHP on October 23, 1991, as NRIS number 91001529.

Description
The site is located on the west bank of Second Creek, a tributary of the Homochitto River and consisted of three platform mounds and a central plaza. It was occupied during both the Coles Creek period (700–1000 CE) and the later Plaquemine Mississippian period (1000–1680 CE), when it was recorded in historic times as the White Apple village of the Natchez. Mound A sits directly on the bank of Second Creek and more than half of its mass has been lost due to the creek eroding into it. It is currently  in height but was recorded as being  in height and  in circumference by Montroville W. Dickeson in 1841 and  in height and  in length on the top by Calvin Brown in 1916. Mound B is located to the southeast and is  in height and has a historic cemetery on its summit. It still retains its flat topped shape. Dickeson was the only one to mention the third mound, which he described as smaller than the others and being further reduced by cultivation of its surface. By the time of the other surveys and investigations it is no longer mentioned and its location is still under investigation. The site is named for a local African-American family from southern Adams County who once owned the land.

Excavations
Mazique was visited in 1927 and 1929 by James A. Ford and Moreau B. Chambers, who performed a site survey and surface collection of ceramic fragments of Plaquemine culture pottery. Analysis of these fragments were used to date the site to the Coles Creek period. The first archaeological excavations at the site were in 1940 by the Natchez Historical Association at the instigation of local tourism promoter and entrepreneur Jefferson Davis Dickson Jr. Dickson then had a short-lived "archaeological museum" built on the site during the early 1940s, which caused serious damage. The site was again excavated in 1948 by John L. Cotter and W. P. Lancaster.

White Apple Village
White Apple Village had three different actual sites, which were each occupied at different times. The first was near Washington, Mississippi, the second in Franklin County, Mississippi, and the third at the present location of the Mazique site. By the early 1700s, the Natchez had developed internal pro-British and pro-French factions. The pro-French faction was led by the tribal chief The Great Sun and his brother the Tattooed Serpent, and was based in the Grand Village of the Natchez and supported by the villages of Flour and Tioux. These villages were in the southwestern part of Natchez territory near the Mississippi River and closer to the location of French contact. The pro-English faction's villages lay to the northeast, closer to the Chickasaw and English contact, and further from the river.

The pro-English villages included White Apple, Jenzenaque, and Grigra. When violence broke out between the Natchez and the French, the village of White Apple was usually the main instigator of the hostility. This factional infighting was a holdover of pre-European local politics, when various groups vied for supremacy over the polity. This had caused the main Natchez political leadership to switch amongst various sites throughout the years; at times being located at Anna, Emerald, Foster, Mazique, or the Fatherland sites.

The First Natchez War (1716) began when raiders from White Apple killed four French traders. After the war, the French built Fort Rosalie near the Grand Village, considered the beginning of Natchez, Mississippi. In 1722 and 1723, war (Second and Third Natchez Wars) again broke out when in White Apple an argument over a debt resulted in a French trader's murder of one of the Natchez villagers. Unsatisfied with the French commander's reprimand of the murderer, the warriors of White Apple retaliated by attacking nearby French settlements until Tattooed Serpent's diplomatic efforts restored the peace. Within a year, a French army intent on punishing the warriors of White Apple demanded the surrender of a White Apple chief as recompense for the earlier Natchez attacks. Under pressure from the French and other Natchez villages, White Apple turned the chief over. When in the late 1720s both the elder Great Sun and Tattooed Serpent died, the chief of White Apple became the eldest Sun chief and had more political clout than the newly installed Great Sun, nephew of the previous Great Sun. The French continued to hold this new Great Sun responsible for the conduct of all Natchez villages and insisted on dealing with the Natchez people as a unified nation ruled from its capital, even though in reality this was not the situation.

In 1729, the new French commander, Sieur de Chépart, ordered the emptying of White Apple so that he could use its land for a new tobacco plantation. This was the final affront to the Natchez. The chiefs of White Apple sent emissaries to potential allies, including the Yazoo, Koroa, Illinois, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. They also sent messages to enslaved Africans of nearby French plantations, inviting them to join the Natchez in rising up to drive out the French. The Natchez destroyed the French settlements in their territory.  In retaliation, the French eventually killed or enslaved most of the Natchez people. Overshadowing the first three in scale and importance, this war is usually called simply the Natchez War.

References

External links
 White Apple Village ruins -- Natchez
 The location of the historic Natchez villages (PDF)
 Mazique Archeological Site Historical Site

Natchez
Archaeological sites of the Coles Creek culture
Plaquemine Mississippian culture
Mounds in Mississippi
Geography of Adams County, Mississippi
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Mississippi

Mazique Archeological Site


Maria Holl (* 1549 in Altenstadt near Geislingen an der Steige, in Germany; † 1634) was an inn-keeper in Nördlingen. She was accused of witchcraft, but she did not confess to a crime, despite the torture. After this, she was released, and cleared of the accusations.

Because she was very successful running the tavern, she was accused of witchcraft. In total, she was tortured 56 times. At all times she only confessed to God. No matter what was done to her, she could not be made to say to have a pact with the devil. Many citizens of Nördlingen were in favor of her. She was cleared of the accusations on October 11, 1594. She was among the last people to be tried for Witchcraft, in Nördlingen.

Maria Holl died in 1634, probably from the Plague.

1549 births
1634 deaths
German people

Maria Holl