C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) is an Oort cloud comet discovered on 3 January 2013 by Robert H. McNaught at Siding Spring Observatory using the  Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope.

At the time of discovery it was 7.2 AU from the Sun and located in the constellation Lepus. Comet C/2013 A1 probably took millions of years to come from the Oort cloud. After leaving the planetary region of the Solar System, the post-perihelion orbital period (epoch 2050) is estimated to be roughly 1 million years.

C/2013 A1 passed the planet Mars very closely on 19 October 2014, at a distance of . After its discovery, there was thought to be a chance of a collision with Mars, but this possibility was excluded when its orbit was determined with about a 200 day observation arc.

All NASA Mars orbiters—including 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and MAVEN—as well as ESA's orbiter, Mars Express, and ISRO's orbiter, the Mars Orbiter Mission, reported a healthy status after the comet flyby on 19 October 2014. During the flyby, orbiters around Mars detected thousands of kilograms per hour of comet dust composed of magnesium, iron, sodium, potassium, manganese, nickel, chromium and zinc. In addition, the comet nucleus was determined to be between , much smaller than originally assumed. The nucleus rotates once every eight hours.

Discovery

The comet was discovered on 3 January 2013 by professional astronomer Robert McNaught at the Siding Spring Observatory at Coonabarabran NSW Australia and received the official designation C/2013 A1. It was named Siding Spring based on a tradition to identify the observatory that discovered it. Three images were obtained through the use of a CCD camera mounted on the Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope with a spherical mirror of 0.5 meters in diameter. Comet Siding Spring had an apparent magnitude of 18.4 to 18.6. At the time of its discovery, it was  from the Sun.

Precovery images by the Catalina Sky Survey from 8 December 2012 were found quickly and announced with the discovery giving Comet Siding Spring a 29-day observation arc. On 3 March 2013, Pan-STARRS precovery images from 4 October 2012 were announced that extended the observation arc to 148 days.

Encounter with Mars

Comet Siding Spring passed extremely close to Mars on 19 October 2014 at 18:28 ± 0:01 UTC. Initial observations by Leonid Elenin on 27 February 2013, suggested that it might pass  from the center of Mars. With an observation arc of 733 days, the nominal pass is  from the center-point of Mars and the uncertainty region shows that it would not come closer than .

For comparison, Mars's outer moon Deimos orbits it at a distance of . Due to the uncertainty region, there was the possibility that it could pass Mars as far away as . It actually passed by at a distance of , at a relative velocity of . As seen from Mars, C/2013 A1 peaked at approximately apparent magnitude −6.

Predicted effects

The main body of the comet's tail was projected to miss Mars by some 10 Mars diameters. As a result, only higher-than-average-velocity meteoroid dust, ejected earlier in the approach of the comet, allow for impacts on Mars, its moons, and orbiting spacecraft. Dust particles ejected from the nucleus of the comet, at more than double the expected velocity when the comet was 3 AU from the Sun, could reach Mars approximately 43 to 130 min after the closest approach of the comet. There is a possibility for millimeter- to centimeter-size particles released more than 13 AU from the Sun, however, this is considered unlikely, although massive ejections from farther out have been deduced.

In 2013 it was thought possible that Comet Siding Spring would create a meteor shower on Mars or be a threat to the spacecraft in Mars orbit. Studies in 2014 showed the threat to orbiting spacecraft to be minimal. The greatest threat would be about 100 minutes after closest approach. Mars passed about  from the comet's orbit around 20:10 UT.

The coma of the comet is projected to more than double the amount of hydrogen in the high atmosphere for a period of several tens of hours and to warm it by about 30 K for a few hours—the combination increasing the effect of atmospheric drag on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and MAVEN spacecraft causing a measurable increase in orbital decay because of atmospheric ram pressure. These spacecraft will be approaching Mars to minimum altitudes of 250 km and 150 km and orbital periods of 3 and 4 hours, respectively. The amount of drag cannot be narrowed down greatly until the production rate of the comet is known, but it could be from 1.6 to 40 times normal drag. MAVEN, in particular, also has instruments to observe any changes to the gas composition of the atmosphere. The closer moon of Mars, Phobos, orbits far higher, at a minimum distance of , more than 10 times the height of Mars's atmosphere.

Estimates for the diameter of the nucleus have varied from , but now the nucleus is known to be only approximately  in diameter, roughly the diameter of asteroid  that approached Mars on 29 July 2014. Based on early upper-limit size estimates, the resulting upper-limit energy of a hypothetical impact with Mars was 24 billion megatons. The diameter of such a hypothetical impact crater would be roughly ten times the diameter of the comet's nucleus. A 700-meter impactor would create around a  crater.

The odds of an impact with Mars were 1 in 1250 in March 2013, 1 in 2000 in late March 2013, 1 in 8000 by April 2013, and 1 in 120,000 by 8 April 2013. The 8 April 2013 JPL Small-Body Database 3-sigma solution was the first estimate to show that the minimum approach by Comet Siding Spring would miss Mars.

Actual effects

MAVEN detected an intense meteor shower. Comet Siding Spring has a rotation period of approximately 8 hours. Debris from Comet Siding Spring added a temporary, but strong layer of ions to Mars's ionosphere (the first time such a phenomenon has been observed on any planet), and 85 tonnes of cometary dust were vaporized high in Mars's atmosphere. Magnesium, iron, and other metals were observed to have been deposited. An observer on the surface would have seen a few tens of meteors during the plane crossing.

During the flyby of Mars at a proximity of 140,000 km, Comet Siding Spring's magnetic field, generated by its interaction with the solar wind, caused a violent turmoil that lasted for several hours, long after its flyby. Its coma washed over Mars with the dense inner coma, reaching or almost reaching the planet's surface. The cometary magnetic field temporarily merged with and overwhelmed Mars'  weak magnetic field.

Observation

As seen from Earth, on 19 October 2014, Mars was in the constellation Ophiuchus, near globular cluster NGC 6401, and 60 degrees from the Sun. Mars and C/2013 A1 were  from Earth. As of October 2014, C/2013 A1 had an apparent magnitude of roughly 11 and was the third-brightest comet in the sky at that time. At an apparent magnitude of 0.9, Mars was estimated to be about 11,000 times brighter than the diffuse-looking comet with a low-surface brightness. To observe C/2013 A1 visually from Earth would have required a telescope with an optical mirror at least  in diameter. By November 2014 the comet had dimmed to magnitude 11.6 and was only around the fifth-brightest comet in the sky.

Mars and Comet Siding Spring were visible to the STEREO-A spacecraft during the 2014 encounter. In orbit around Mars were the spacecraft Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 2001 Mars Odyssey, ESA's Mars Express, MAVEN, and the Indian Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan). The last two missions had arrived less than one month before the closest approach of C/2013 A1 to Mars. All these artificial satellites may have been exposed to potentially damaging particles. The level of exposure will not be known for months, but NASA had taken several "precautionary measures" as it prepared to study C/2013 A1. Two key strategies to lessen the risk were to place the orbiters on the opposite side of Mars at the time of the highest risk and to orient the orbiters so that their most vulnerable parts were not in the line of impact. On the ground, the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers obtained images as well. Results from the observations will be discussed during a special session "Comet C/2013 A1 Siding Spring at Mars" at the 2014 AGU Fall Meeting in San Francisco on 18 December 2014.

Gallery

Before comet flyby

During comet flyby

References

External links

 C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) – Elements and Ephemeris – Minor Planet Center
 C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) – Seiichi Yoshida @ Aerith.net
 C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring) – CometBase
 C/2013 A1 Siding Spring and Mars  – Virtual Telescope Project (19 October 2014)
 NASA – Official WebSite – Comet Siding Spring.
 NASA – VIDEO (02:19) – Overview of Comet Flyby of Mars (9 October 2014).
 NASA – VIDEO (56:15) – Press Briefing of Comet Flyby of Mars (9 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 and Mars – 80mm f4 refractor/Pentax K-5 (17 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 and Mars – 200mm f5.6 telephoto/Canon 650D (composite; 17 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 and Mars – Sormano Astronomical Observatory (19 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 passes Mars – Curiosity rover view (enlarged upper-left; 19 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 passes Mars – NASA APOD (20 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 passes Mars – Hubble Space Telescope (22 October 2014).
 Comet C/2013 A1 passes Mars – Collection of images (posted 3 November 2014).

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Discoveries by SSS
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C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)


Francisco Infante-Arana (), born 1943 in Vasilievka, Saratov Oblast, Soviet Union) is a Russian artist.

Background
Francisco Infante-Arana was born to a Spanish father and Russian mother, who raised him. Eventually he moved to Moscow and enrolled in the Moscow College of Decorative and Applied Arts. In the 1960s and early 1970s, he was a member of the artists' collective known as the Movement Group, founded by Lev Nussberg. He was and continues to be one of the premier Russian avant-garde artists. Some of his work is currently on display at the Cold War Modern exhibition at the V & A in London.

Work's holders
 International Symposium in the Urals (1989), in Nepal (Kathmandu), Tibet (Lhasa, 2000), on Lake - (artists Francisco Infante-Arana and Nonna Goryunova,  Alexander Evgenievich Ponomarev, Vladimir Nasedkin, Tatiana Badanina, Tishkov, Leonid, Shaburov, Alexander E., Porto, Ivan B., Chernyshev, Aristarchus A., Vladislav Yefimov, Batynkov, Konstantin, Olga Chernysheva)

External links
 Biographies: , .
 Photos of  Infante-Arana's works: , .

1943 births
Living people
20th-century Russian painters
Russian male painters
21st-century Russian painters
Soviet Nonconformist Art
Russian avant-garde
Russian people of Spanish descent
Soviet artists
Soviet people of Spanish descent
20th-century Russian male artists
21st-century Russian male artists

Francisco Infante-Arana


Paul James Cosgrove,  (born December 30, 1934), is a former Canadian jurist as well as a former politician.

Political career
A lawyer by profession, Cosgrove entered municipal politics and served as mayor of the Toronto suburb of Scarborough, Ontario from 1973 until 1978.

Cosgrove entered federal politics running as the Liberal Party candidate in York—Scarborough in a 1978 by-election for a seat in the House of Commons of Canada. He was defeated in that run, as well as in the 1979 election.

In the 1980 election, however, Cosgrove was elected, and was appointed Minister of Public Works, Minister responsible for Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation and Minister responsible for National Capital Commission in the Canadian Cabinet of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.

He was reassigned in a 1982 cabinet shuffle to the position of Minister of State for Finance. He was dropped from the Cabinet in August 1983 but remained an MP until the dissolution of parliament the next year.

Judicial career
Cosgrove retired from the House of Commons to accept an appointment by John Turner to the bench of the Ontario Superior Court on July 9, 1984, shortly after Parliament was dissolved for the 1984 election. Cosgrove's judicial circuit was in eastern Ontario with his court based in Brockville, Ontario.

In 1999, Judge Cosgrove stayed charges of murder against Julia Elliott after a 22-month trial. He ruled that the Crown attorney, police and a deputy attorney general had committed 150 constitutional violations, findings that were unanimously rejected by the Ontario Court of Appeal in the fall of 2003 with the Court ordering a new trial. Julia Elliott subsequently pleaded guilty to manslaughter.

As a result, the attorney-general of Ontario, Michael Bryant filed a complaint against Cosgrove, calling him unfit to be a judge, and accusing him of sullying reputations and of having "vilified the state". As a result of the complaint, Cosgrove was suspended pending a hearing into his conduct that was scheduled for December 2004. Cosgrove complained to the Canadian Judicial Council that the scheduled hearing was unconstitutional and damaging to judicial independence. His lawyer claimed that Bryant's action created a situation in which the Attorney-General could punish judges for making controversial decisions, since a complaint by an Attorney-General automatically would result in suspension pending a hearing. According to Cosgrove's lawyer:

It creates a 'chilling effect' that will undermine the ability of judges to adjudicate fearlessly cases, as justice requires. This chilling effect undermines and is wholly inconsistent with judicial independence.

According to The Globe and Mail newspaper, Cosgrove's affidavit warned that judges might become afraid to criticize or rule against the Crown if they thought a vindictive attorney-general could, in effect, end their careers simply by lodging a complaint. The consequences of this were argued to be so negative that the process effectively permitted an attorney-general to become "the judge in his own cause". .

Both the Canadian Superior Courts Judges Association and the Ontario Criminal Lawyers' Association supported Cosgrove's case.

In October, 2005, the trial division of the Federal Court of Canada ruled in favor of Judge Cosgrove and stripped the attorney-general of the power to force the Canadian Judicial Council to conduct hearings that could remove judges from the bench.

The federal court ruling temporarily halted the proceedings against Judge Cosgrove who had been on a paid leave of absence since Bryant's April 2004 request for a disciplinary hearing.  On March 12, 2007, however, the appellate division of the Federal Court of Canada reversed the trial division, and found against Justice Cosgrove.  The Federal Court of Appeal set aside the decision of the Federal Court, dismissed the application for judicial review, and referred the matter back to the Inquiry Committee of the Canadian Judicial Council.

On December 4, 2008, in a 4-1 decision, a committee of the Canadian Judicial Council found grounds for recommending to the federal justice minister that Cosgrove be removed from office.

The full Canadian Judicial Council, made up of the 22 of Canada's chief justices and senior judges, met to consider the committee's recommendation and, on March 31, 2009, formally recommended to Parliament that Cosgrove be removed saying that "We find that Justice Cosgrove has failed in the execution of the duties of his judicial office and that public confidence in his ability to discharge those duties in the future has been irrevocably lost." The decision also stated that "We find that there is no alternative measure to removal that would be sufficient to restore public confidence in the judge in this case." This was the second time in the council's history that it has recommended the removal of a judge. The same recommendation was made in 1996 in regards to then Justice Jean Bienvenue who resigned rather than wait for Parliament to decide his fate.

On April 2, 2009, Cosgrove resigned from the bench. If he had not done so, and had also not taken the option of making an application to the Federal Court for a judicial review of the finding, the House of Commons and Senate would have had to vote on whether to remove him from office, something which has never happened since Canadian confederation.

References
Court trims provinces' power over judges: ruling favours Paul Cosgrove from the Ottawa Citizen October 28, 2005.

External links

Metropolitan Toronto councillors
1934 births
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Judges in Ontario
Lawyers in Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Mayors of Scarborough, Toronto

Paul Cosgrove


St Just in Penwith (or St Just) is a town and parish in the far west of Cornwall, United Kingdom. The parish includes the town of St Just and the nearby settlements of Trewellard, Pendeen and Kelynack: it is bounded by the parishes of Morvah to the north-east, Sancreed and Madron to the east, St Buryan and Sennen to the south and by the sea in the west. The town of St Just is the most westerly town in mainland Britain and is about eight miles (12.7 km) west of Penzance along the A3071 road. St Just parish has a population of 4690. The parish church is a fine 15th century building.

Mining
St Just is one of the most ancient mining districts in Cornwall and remains of ancient pre-industrial and more modern mining activity have had a considerable impact on the nearby landscape. The area was during the 19th century one of the most important mining districts in Cornwall both for copper and tin.  Mines within the area included Levant Mine, Botallack, and Geevor Tin Mine (which closed in 1990) It was announced in July 2006 that the St Just mining district and the rest of the historic mining areas of Cornwall had become the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Site.

References

Gallery

Towns in Cornwall
Civil parishes in Cornwall

St Just in Penwith


Cultural assimilation, or absorption (but that word also has other meanings), is an intense process of consistent integration in which members of an ethno-cultural group, typically immigrants or other minority groups, are "absorbed" into an established, generally larger community, with the intent to change one culture to make them similar to another. That causes a loss of all or many of the characteristics that make the newcomers different. A region or society where assimilation is occurring sometimes referred to as a "melting pot." In essence, cultural Assimilation is many different cultural groups working towards one unified goal.

From a historical perspective, assimilation is how an individual or minority group loses its original culture when absorbed into another culture. In the context of colonialism, it is a policy of total integration of colonies into the colonizing country. Assimilation is often remembered as a painful or coercive.

Related pages
Syncretism

Other websites
Asian-Nation: Asian American Assimilation & Ethnic Identity
From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation


Susannah Martin (baptized September 30, 1621 – July 19, 1692) — born Susannah North — was one of fourteen women executed for witchcraft during the Salem witch trials of colonial Massachusetts.

Biography

Early life
The English-born Martin was the fourth daughter, and youngest child, of Richard North and Joan North (née Bartram). Her mother died when she was a child. Her stepmother was Ursula North. Martin was baptized in Olney, Buckinghamshire, England on 30 September 1621. Her family moved to Salisbury, Massachusetts around 1639 when she was about 18 years old.

On August 11, 1646 at Salisbury, Susannah married a widower George Martin, a blacksmith with whom she had eight children, including a daughter Jane, a great-great-great-great grandmother of United States President Chester A. Arthur.

In 1669, Susannah was first formally accused of witchcraft by William Sargent, Jr. In turn, George Martin sued Sargent for two counts of slander against Susannah, one for accusing her of being a witch, and another for claiming one of her sons was a bastard and another was her "imp". Martin withdrew the second count, but the Court upheld the accusation of witchcraft. A higher court later dismissed the witchcraft charges.

By 1671, the Martin family was again involved in legal proceedings dealing with the matter of Ursula North's inheritance, most of which Ursula had left to her granddaughter, Mary Jones Winsley. The court sided against Susannah and George, although Susannah was able to bring five further appeals, each being decided against her.

Trial and accusation
George died in 1686, leaving Susannah an impoverished widow by the time of the second accusation of witchcraft in 1692. Inhabitants of nearby Salem Village, including Joseph and Jarvis Ring, had named Susannah a witch and stated she had attempted to recruit them into witchcraft. She was also accused by John Allen of Salsbury, a man who claimed that she had bewitched his oxen and drove them into the river nearby where they later drowned. She was tried for these charges, during which process she proved by all accounts to be pious and quoted the Bible freely, something a witch was said incapable of doing. Cotton Mather countered Susannah's defense by stating in effect that the Devil's servants were capable of putting on a show of perfect innocence and Godliness.

Susannah Martin was found guilty, and hanged on July 19, 1692 in Salem. Some interesting excerpts from the transcript of Susannah's trial are below: (spelling, punctuation, capitalization as original)To the Marshall of the County of Essex or his lawful Deputies or to the Constable of Amesbury: You are in their Majesties names hereby required forthwith or as soon as may be to apprehend and bring Susanna Mertin of Amesbury in þ county of Esses Widdow at þ house of Lt. Nathaniel Ingersolls in Salem village in order to her examination Relating to high suspicion of sundry acts of Witchcraft donne or committed by her upon þ bodies of Mary Walcot, Abigail Williams, Ann Putnam, and Mercy Lewis of Salem village or farms whereby great hurt and damage hath been donne to þ bodies of said persons.... etc.At the preliminary trial for the crime of "Witchcraft and sorcery" Susanna pleaded not guilty. The original court record book has been lost, but the local Puritan minister, Cotton Mather, recorded the testimony. Susanna and the others accused were not allowed to have counsel.As soon as she came in, Marcy had fits
Magistrate: Do you know this woman?
Abigail Williams saith it is goody Martin, she hath hurt me often.
Others by fits were hindered from speaking.
Marcy Lewis pointed at her and fell into a little fit.
Ann Putnam threw her glove in a fit at her.

................ Susanna laughed ................
Magistrate: What! Do you laugh at it?
Martin: Well I may at such folly.
Mag: Is this folly? The hurt of persons?
Martin: I never hurt man or woman or child.
Marcy: She hath hurt me a great many times and pulls me down.

Then Martin laughed again.Susannah Martin was twice forced to submit to physical examination for evidence of a "witch's tit or physical protuberance which might give milk to a familiar." No such deformity was found in Susannah Martin but it was noted that "in the morning her nipples were found to be full as if the milk would come", but by late afternoon "her breasts were slack, as if milk had already been given to someone or something." This was an indication that she had been visited by a witch's familiar, and was clear evidence of guilt.

Legacy
Lone Tree Hill, a famous historical site, bore a tablet on its westerly side marking the site of George and Susannah's home. The boulder which marked their homestead has been moved to make room for a highway, and it can be found on the map where the highway crosses Martin Road in Amesbury. The marker lies nearby. George was one of the largest landowners in Amesbury. The inscription on the marker reads: "Here stood the house of Susannah Martin. An honest, hardworking Christian woman accused of being a witch and executed at Salem, July 19, 1692. She will be missed! A Martyr of Superstition. T.I.A. 1894."

In the 19th century, poet John Greenleaf Whittier composed "The Witch's Daughter" about Martin.

On Aug 29, 1957 the State of Massachusetts voted to wipe from the books the convictions of six women that had been unjustly accused of being witches 265 years earlier. Then Gov. Foster Furcolo signed the legislative intended to clear Susannah Martin, as well as: Ann Pudeator, Bridget Bishop, Alice Parker, Margaret Scott and Wilmot Redd. All had been convicted in a colonial court and hanged during the 17th century.

However, while taking a graduate course on Salem witchcraft during the late 1990s, Paula Keene discovered that, although the legislators intended to pardon all six of the women in 1957, only Ann Pudeater's name was listed on the official documents. Susannah Martin, Bridget Bishop, Alice Parker, Margaret Scott and Wilmot Redd were simply listed as "five others convicted of witchcraft." Keene and state representative Michael Ruane worked together to redress the issue.

On Halloween 2001, due to Keene and Ruane's efforts, as well as the efforts of many of the descendants of the accused witches, Susannah Martin, Bridget Bishop, Alice Parker, Margaret Scott and Wilmot Redd were finally, and truly exonerated by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Descendants of Susannah Martin's, Ethel Mae Hilton and grandchildren Douglas and Madrey Margaret Hilton were the only members of their family interested in the history of their accused witch ancestor.

References

1621 births
1692 deaths
Executed English people
People from Buckinghamshire

Susannah Martin


Wild Arms 3, known in Japan as , is a role-playing video game developed by Media.Vision for the PlayStation 2. It is a sequel to Wild Arms and Wild Arms 2. Sony Computer Entertainment released it in Japan and North America in 2002 and Ubi Soft published it in Europe in 2003. In May 2016 the game was released for PlayStation 4 through PlayStation Network.

The story follows Virginia Maxwell, an amateur Drifter (adventurer) looking for adventure on Filgaia, a desert planet with wild west motifs. After foiling an attempted train robbery of a valuable treasure, Virginia joins forces with three other Drifters as they travel the world and unravel a mysterious plot involving the ancient history of the planet.

Gameplay
Wild Arms 3 is the first game in the Wild Arms series in which all party members are able to use ARMs (magical firearms). It also replaces equippable armor and weapons with Personal Skills via Guardian (Mediums) invocation.

The battle graphics use the same background effects as the previous two games in series, but this time the camera can turn 360 degrees around the battle room and the characters can run while battling. As in the past two games, combat utilizes a turn-based system, but this can be modified on a battle-by-battle basis.

Unlike traditional RPGs, locations on the world map are not immediately visible. In order to discover new towns and dungeons, the player must ask for information or learn of them during the plot and then manually search for them using a GPS-like system. The world map, which the player must buy, assists the players in finding new locations.

Plot
The game takes place on a version of the planet Filgaia from the Wild Arms series, a place that is desolate to the point of even its seas consisting of sand, supposedly the result of an ancient war. Four Drifters find themselves chosen to wield the power of the planet's spiritual protectors, the Guardians, to stop a prophesied but unknown menace to their world. As they adventure together, they are opposed by other Drifter teams, a trio of fanatical scientists called the Prophets, and the Demons of Filgaian legend. The four adventurers eventually make startling discoveries about their world's true history, and their personal connections to it.

Characters

Playable characters
Virginia Maxwell is an 18-year-old Drifter who is searching for her long-lost father, whom she believes to still be alive. It is her life's wish to know and live the Drifter life, as her father did. Her ARMS are two revolvers given to her by her father.
Jet Enduro is a cold-blooded boy who suffers from amnesia and who lets nothing get in his way. It is learned at Leyline Observatory that Jet's original name was "Adam Kadmon" (which refers to "Primal Man" in Kabbalah), as stated by Werner Maxwell. His ARM is a machine gun; and unknown to Jet, it was designed to be usable only by him. He has a connection to Virginia's father.
Clive Winslett is a 30-year-old, cool-headed bounty-hunter with a soft spot for his family, consisting of his wife, Katherine, and their young daughter, Kaitlyn. Clive is tormented by an event in his past in which his mentor, Professor Berlitz, was killed during an excursion to delve into the mystery of Filgaia's past. Berlitz sacrificed himself to save Clive, to whom his daughter Katherine was engaged. Clive's ARM is a sniper rifle, which was one of many inventions of his mentor.
Gallows Carradine is a 24-year-old native of the Baskar tribe seemingly intent on escaping his hometown and his priestly bloodline, by working as a low-rent Drifter bandit. His grandmother, Halle, gives the party hints and direction throughout the game, while disparaging her "useless" grandson. Gallows' younger brother Shane is a dream-seer for the tribe, and his predictions are known to always come true. His latest vision was of a "Blue Menace" who would seek to destroy Filgaia, and was eventually revealed to be Siegfried. His ARM is a sawed-off shotgun and the only of the four main characters' weapons that is never discussed in the plot.

Janus' Gang
Two teams of Drifters oppose the heroes: one is formed by Janus Cascade, a ruthless but charismatic bandit, and his lackeys, Romero and Dario; Janus later reveals himself to have been working for the Prophets. He is the villain for the first and second parts of the game. The Prophets inject him with Gias, which allows them to keep tabs on him, and punish him for failure via an electric shock. Janus ultimately attempts a not-too-subtle betrayal of the prophets, but it is revealed Janus was intended to be sacrificed by Siegfried, to allow the demon to have a corporeal form.

Schrödinger Family
The other Drifter team is composed of Maya Schrödinger, her brother Alfred, their stylish afro-ed bodyguard, Todd Dukakis, and a mysterious cat named Shady. Maya feels a rivalry with Virginia, and both helps and hinders Virginia at times. Maya has a unique ability among Filgaians to absorb information from books and to use it to improve battle techniques, hence her Calamity Jane persona. She also appears as a witch and martial artist as well. Alfred is an explosives expert who always uses his trademark bombs. Todd eschews firepower in favor of a sword, the Black Fenrir, used by Jack Van Burace of the original Wild Arms, as well as a few of Jack's techniques. Todd mentions having learned "Flash Draw", or iaido, techniques from Maya and Alfred's father, whom Todd repays by protecting his children after he dies. Shady was apparently summoned by a Schrödinger of a previous generation, and subsequently locked in a box for some reason. Maya found it in her family's estate and released him, earning his loyalty. It is never explained what exactly Shady is, besides "Cat", in the game, but it is a likely reference to Schrödinger's cat.

Prophets
The Prophets are a trio of scientists: Leehalt Alcaste, Melody Vilente, and Malik Bendict, who are obsessed with restoring Filgaia's decaying environment, but they do not care who suffers as a result. Each also has a personal agenda: Leehalt wants to rule, Melody wants to retain her beauty, and Malik wants to resurrect his dead mother. Following the advent of Siegfried, the trio gain more demonic forms. They are villains for the second and third parts of the game, and each demonstrates the ability to summon monsters at will, often resulting in a boss-battle for the heroes.

A golem named Asgard is made by the prophets. He eventually gains feelings and personality, due to being programmed to absorb data from every battle. His name is a reference to the "Earth Golem" of the first Wild Arms, as its name was Asgard in the Japanese version, and the PS2 remake, Alter Code: F.

Lombardia
The mythical dragon Lombardia allies herself with the party after they decide to look into acquiring aerial transportation. She joins them under the condition that she will be able to fight once again, and quench her thirst for battle. Lombardia's transformation into a jet-like form has likened her to that of the Transformers robots.

Demons
The Metal Demon Zeikfried from the first Wild Arms game returns, though his name is respelt Siegfried. He is the villain for the third part of the game, after he is revived by the Prophets at the Yggdrasil facility. He is also referred to as the "Blue Menace" of Shane's dreams. He acquires the three shields collected by Janus earlier, "Andro", "Crio", and "Hieraco", and applies their power to the prophets, making himself three new demon followers, akin to Alhazad, Harken, and Belselk of the first game.

A Dream Demon named Beatrice appears near the end of the game, and is the villain for the final part of the game. Contrary to the way she apparently shows up out of nowhere, she can be encountered as a random NPC in some of the game's towns, but can't be addressed, as she will be gone if the party reaches where she is. Beatrice ultimately reveals herself to be playing the role of the great manipulator, as every major event in the game can somehow be attributed to her. She is responsible for Shane's "dream sight", as well as for guiding Lamium, the chairman of the members at the Ark of Destiny. She had used members of the Council of Seven to attempt to sabotage the Yggdrasil, and create her Filgaia, ten years prior, which led to the defoliation of the planet, after which she removed everyone's memory of the event. Her ultimate goal is to build a "new Filgaia", and propagate a new lineage of demons there. Strangely, after she is defeated at the end of the game, her voice is still heard, hinting that she may not be through with Filgaia after all.

While never alluded to outside of a few books in the game, and never affecting the plot, Wild Arms series' staple optional boss, Ragu O Ragla, appears once again as the ultimate boss of the Abyss optional dungeon. He is described as the King of the Monsters and as so terrible that he was sealed in the depths of the Abyss, so he would never return to savage Filgaia. He is fought in two battles in this game, once at floor 100 of The Abyss, and once again, stronger, when he blocks the parties' exit from the area back on the first floor.

Council of Seven
The game continually makes references to a group called the Council of Seven, a team of scientists who, ten years prior to the start of the game, were conducting experiments to restore the pulse of life to Filgaia in a facility known as the Yggdrasil. The experiment went awry and did the exact opposite, sucking most of the remaining life from the planet, leaving most of it an expansive desert. Notable members of this group are each of the Three Prophets, as well as Virginia's father, Werner Maxwell. Rounding out the group are Jet's adoptive father/creator, Elliot Enduro, as well as Pete Inkapilia, and Duran Bryant, about whom little is revealed, but their notes detail that they were repeatedly visited by Beatrice in dreams. Virginia's mother, Ekatrina, was also working with the Council at some point in the past.

Development and release

The game's introduction and event animations were produced by Bee Train Production Inc. with P.A. Works, directed by Koichi Mashimo with Kazuya Tsurumaki.

The game was re-released for the PlayStation 4 via PSN on May 17, 2016, which includes improved resolutions and trophies.

Reception

Wild Arms 3 received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.  Critics praised the cel-shaded graphics along with the deep story and characters, while criticizing the frequent battles and world map searching system. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of 32 out of 40.

During the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, Wild Arms 3 received a nomination for "Console Role-Playing Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.

References

External links
 Wild Arms 3 at PlayStation.com

2002 video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Network games
Single-player video games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Michiko Naruke
Video games set on fictional planets
Video games with cel-shaded animation
Western (genre) video games
Wild Arms video games
Media.Vision games
PlayStation 2-only games

Wild Arms 3


Remus J. Lupin is a character in the Harry Potter book series written by J. K. Rowling. In the Harry Potter movies, he is played by actor David Thewlis.

Remus John Lupin was an only son of Lyall and Hope Lupin (née Howell). At the age of 4, he was bitten by the foul werewolf Fenrir Greyback when his father-Lyall Lupin- insulted all werewolves. Fenrir tried to kill him but Remus got saved by his father. However he became a fully fledged werewolf. His parents were both upset by this, because it meant he could not go to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. However, when Albus Dumbledore became headmaster, he let Lupin go to Hogwarts. He had a tunnel built so that Lupin could sneak out of the school during the times when he became a werewolf. This tunnel had the Whomping Willow (a violent tree that attacks those who get near it) built over it, so nobody could get to him by mistake. The tunnel led to the Shrieking Shack, a building in the wizarding village of Hogsmeade, said to be the most haunted of them all. When Lupin was in the Shrieking Shack as a werewolf, he had no humans to bite, so he often bit himself. These bites led to cries of pain that led the villagers to believe that the building was haunted.

During his time at Hogwarts, he became good friends with three other boys his age: James Potter, Sirius Black, and Peter Pettigrew. These four came to be known as the Marauders, infamous for their mischievous antics. They knew Hogwarts and the grounds like the back of their hands, and actually created a magical map that showed the location of everyone on the grounds and in the castle. The map also revealed the many secret passages hidden in the school. His friends knew of his lycanthropy, but did not seem to mind. They simply referred to it as his "furry little problem". Later on, they even became Animagi (a person that can turn into an animal) so that they could accompany him on the full moon and make his transformations more fun.

On the 31st of October, 1981, Remus lost all of his friends at once, through betrayal, jail and death.

He was a wizard during Voldemort's first and second rises to power. He was member of the First and Second Order of the Phoenix

Remus was having trouble getting a job as there was an anti-werewolf litigation so he had no money and therefore could not buy wolfsbane potion (a potion created by Damocles Belby which lets a werewolf keep his mind during a full moon), so he locked himself up in rooms every full moon so that he didn't hurt anyone. Albus Dumbledore knew of his struggles and found Remus living in a semi-derelict cottage in Yorkshire. Dumbledore offered Remus a job for the Defence Against The Dark Arts post at Hogwarts and Lupin immediately accepted. He resigned at the end of the year when Severus Snape let it slip to students that he was a werewolf.

He was killed along with his wife Nymphadora Tonks in the Final Battle for Hogwarts. Their son, Edward Remus Lupin survived, who was left in the care of Tonks' mother, Andromeda Tonks, and his godfather, Harry Potter.

Harry Potter characters

Remus Lupin


The banded kestrel (Falco zoniventris) is a bird of prey belonging to the falcon family Falconidae. It is endemic to Madagascar and is also known as the Madagascar banded kestrel, barred kestrel or Madagascar barred kestrel. Its closest relatives are the grey kestrel and Dickinson's kestrel of mainland Africa and the three are sometimes placed in the subgenus Dissodectes.

It is 27–30 cm long with a wingspan of 60–68 cm. The upperparts are grey and the tail is dark. The underparts are whitish with dark grey streaks on the throat and upper breast and dark grey barring on the lower breast and belly. The feet, eyes and cere are yellow and there is bare yellow skin around the eye. Juvenile birds are browner than the adults with darker eyes and less bare skin around the eye.

The species has a shrill, staccato, chattering call and a sharp, screaming call but is usually silent outside the breeding season.

It is fairly common in the southern and western parts of Madagascar but more local in the north and east and absent from the central plateau. It occurs from sea level up to 2000 metres. It inhabits clearings and edges in forest and woodland.

It rarely hovers, preferring to hunt from a perch. It feeds on small reptiles such as chamaeleons and day geckos, large insects such as grasshoppers and beetles and occasionally on birds. Prey is caught on the ground or snatched from a branch or tree trunk.

Breeding takes place from September to December. The nest is a simple scrape, usually in the old nest of another bird, especially the sickle-billed vanga. The nest is located in a tree hole or amongst epiphytic growth. Three yellowish eggs are laid.

References

Ferguson-Lees, James & Christie, David A. (2001) Raptors of the World, Christopher Helm, London.
Global Raptor Information Network (2007) Species account: Banded Kestrel Falco zoniventris. Downloaded from http://www.globalraptors.org on 2 Aug. 2007.
Sinclair, Ian & Langrand, Olivier (1998) Birds of the Indian Ocean Islands, Struik, Cape Town.

External links

Banded kestrel (Falco zoniventris) pictures

banded kestrel
Endemic birds of Madagascar
Birds of prey of Madagascar
banded kestrel
banded kestrel

Banded kestrel


William Thomas Seawell (January 27, 1918 – May 20, 2005) was a brigadier general in the United States Air Force and former head of Pan Am.

Seawell (pronounced SOO-uhl) left the University of Arkansas before graduating to enter the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where he earned his undergraduate degree in 1941. He later earned a law degree from Harvard University in 1949.

Upon his graduation from West Point, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army Air Corps. He earned his pilot wings in 1942. During World War II, he commanded a bomber unit in the European Theatre. After the war, he became an officer in the U.S. Air Force when it became a military service separate from the United States Army.

In the European Theater, he led a bomber squadron and earned many U.S. and foreign decorations, including the Silver Star, the Distinguished Flying Cross with three Oak Leaf Clusters, and the Croix de Guerre with Palm. After more postwar air commands, he was named military assistant to the secretary of the Air Force in 1958. He was Commandant of Cadets at the United States Air Force Academy from 1961 to 1963.

After two years with the Air Transport Association, in 1965 he served as senior vice president for operations at American Airlines, then as president of Rolls-Royce Aero Engines.

Pan American World Airways recruited him in 1971 as president and Chief Operating Officer. A year later he was named Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Pan Am, where he served until his retirement in 1981.

External links
Official Air Force Biography
Obituary from Robinson & Son Funeral Directors
New York Times Obituary

1918 births
2005 deaths
Recipients of the Silver Star
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
University of Arkansas alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Air Force generals
Harvard Law School alumni
United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II
United States Army Air Forces officers
Use mdy dates from August 2011
Pan Am people
American chief operating officers

William Seawell


See also Palazzo Doria Pamphilj and Pamphilj Palace (Albano)
Palazzo Pamphilj, also spelled Palazzo Pamphili, is a palace facing onto the Piazza Navona in Rome, Italy. It was built between 1644 and 1650.

Since 1920, the palace has housed the Brazilian Embassy in Italy. In October 1960, it became the property of the Federative Republic of Brazil in a purchase negotiation led by Ambassador Hugo Gouthier de Oliveira Gondim.  The roof terrace is open to the public, with a renowned restaurant and bar that showcases the Roman skyline, and frequent concerts, often featuring Italian opera.

History
In 1644, Cardinal Giambattista Pamphilj of the powerful Pamphilj family, who already owned a palace between the Piazza Navona and the Via Pasquino, became Pope Innocent X. With this election came the desire for a larger more magnificent building to reflect his family's increased prestige. Further land was bought, the architect Girolamo Rainaldi received the commission and construction began in 1646. The new project was to incorporate some existing buildings, including the former palace of the Pamphilj (whose decoration by Agostino Tassi was partially preserved) and the Palazzo Cibo. The building work was overseen and managed by Pope Innocent X:s sister-in-law, Olimpia Maidalchini. While the Pope had his apartment facing the Piazza Navona, Olimpia had her apartment on the opposite side facing the Piazza di Pasquino - both with a direct connection to the huge gallery going through the whole width of the building.

In 1647, the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini was consulted about the design and he made a series of new proposals for the palace. However, the prevailing preference was for Rainaldi's more staid and conservative design. Borromini's limited contributions included the stucco decoration of the salone (the main room) and design of the Gallery, located at first floor level between the rest of the palace and the church of St. Agnese next door. The Gallery extends through the width of the block with a large Serliana window at either end.

Between 1651 and 1654, the painter Pietro da Cortona was commissioned to decorate the Gallery vault. His secular fresco cycle depicts scenes from the life of  Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome, as recounted by Virgil.  The Pamphili claim to be descended from Aeneas. Unlike the large spacious volume of the Palazzo Barberini in which he had painted his fresco celebrating the reign of Innocent's predecessor, Urban VIII Barberini, the Pamphilj Gallery was long with a low vault which meant that a single viewpoint to see the frescoes was not possible. So Cortona devised a series of scenes around a central painted framed 'Apotheosis of Aeneas' into the Olympian heavens. The elaborate doorframes regularly spaced along the longer walls of the Gallery display a combination of motifs typically used by Borromini and by Cortona

The plan has three courtyards. The rooms on the piano nobile (the first floor) have frescoes and friezes by artists such as Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini, and Pier Francesco Mola.

Carlo Rainaldi, the son of Girolamo, completed the building around 1650.

The new palazzo was also the home of Innocent's widowed  sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini, who was his confidante and advisor and, more scurrilously, reputed to be his mistress. She was the mother of Camillo Pamphilj, the one time cardinal, who through his marriage came into the possession of the Palazzo Aldobrandini, now known as the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj.

Confusingly, until the unification of the Doria and Pamphilj surnames both palazzi were known as Palazzo Pamphilj, or in the case of today's Doria Pamphilj sometimes "Palazzo Pamfilio".  Both spellings Pamphilj and Pamphili are in common Italian usage, even though the family prefers Pamphilj.

References

Bibliography
Leonie Stephanie. The Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona: Constructing Identity In Early Modern Rome (Studies in Baroque Art), 2008, Harvey Miller.
Magnuson Torgil. Rome in the Age of Bernini, volume II, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1986, Chapter 1 Innocent X (1644-1655)

External links
 Brazilian Embassy in Rome Official website
 Palazzo Pamphilj Virtual tour

Brazil–Italy relations
Houses completed in 1650
Pamphilj
Pamphili family
Rome
Brazil
Rome R. VI Parione
1650 establishments in Italy
1650 establishments in the Papal States

Palazzo Pamphilj


Tropical waves, or easterly waves, also known as African easterly waves in the Atlantic Ocean, are a type of atmospheric trough, an extended area of moderately low air pressure, leaning north to south, which move from east to west across the tropics creating areas of cloudiness and thunderstorms. West-moving waves can also form from the tail end of frontal zones in the subtropics and tropics and may be called to as easterly waves, but these waves are not properly called tropical waves; they are a form of inverted trough sharing many characteristics with fully tropical waves. All tropical waves form in the easterly flow along the southern side of the subtropical ridge or belt of high pressure which is north and south of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).  Tropical waves are normally carried westward by the prevailing easterly winds along the tropics and subtropics near the equator. They can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the north Atlantic and northeast Pacific Oceans. They can also lead to tropical storms which can also lead to hurricanes.

Characteristics
A tropical wave is usually preceded by an area of sinking, intensely dry air, sloping as a northeast wind. With the passage of the trough line, the wind turns to the southeast, the humidity suddenly rises, and the atmosphere destabilizes, producing widespread showers and thunderstorms, sometimes severe. As the wave moves off westward, the showers slowly stop.

A notable exception to the general characteristic of widespread precipitation behind a tropical wave occurs in the Atlantic.  Periodically, a surge of intensely dry air known as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL) is entrained behind a tropical wave, resulting in cloudless or nearly cloudless skies as convection is limited by the dry layer inversion. Also, any dust which may be present within the SAL reflects solar radiation, slightly cooling the atmosphere below it.

Atlantic
Tropical waves in the Atlantic Ocean form from disturbances which drift off the continent of Africa onto the Atlantic Ocean. These are generated or enhanced by the African Easterly Jet. The clockwise circulation of the large transoceanic high-pressure cell or anticyclone centered near the Azores islands impels easterly waves away from the coastal areas of Africa to North America. About 60% of Atlantic tropical cyclones originally form from tropical waves, while about 85% of intense Atlantic hurricanes (Category 3 and greater) form from tropical waves.

Tropical cyclones can sometimes degenerate back into a tropical wave. This normally happens if upper-level wind shear is too strong. The storm can redevelop if the upper level shear decreases or stops. If a tropical wave is moving quickly, it can have strong winds of over tropical storm force, but is not considered a tropical storm unless it has a closed circulation.

East Pacific
It has been suggested that eastern Pacific Ocean tropical cyclones are formed out of tropical waves that come from North Africa as well.  During the summer months, tropical waves can go northward as far as the desert southwest of the United States, producing spells of intensified shower activity surrounded within the current monsoon area.

Related pages
 Tropical cyclones

References

Other websites
Tropical Waves Presentation
African Easterly Wave Variability and Its Relationship to Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity

Weather

Tropical wave


William Raines Battle III (born December 8, 1941) is an American former college athletics administrator and football coach.  He was the athletic director of the University of Alabama from 2013 to 2017.  He was appointed by University President Judy L. Bonner and approved by the board of trustees March 22, 2013.  He succeeded long-time director Mal Moore, who stepped down for health reasons at age 73.

Career
Battle was formerly a licensing executive and a college football player and coach.  He was the head football coach at the University of Tennessee from 1970 to 1976.  At the time he began as head coach, he was at 29 the youngest college head coach in the country.  A native of Birmingham, Alabama and a graduate of the University of Alabama, Battle was one of many of Bear Bryant's former players and assistant coaches who would later become head coaches.

Despite a 59–22–2 record in seven seasons in Knoxville in an era in which Alabama dominated the Southeastern Conference and annually contended for the national championship, Battle was forced out after the 1976 season, allowing Volunteer legend Johnny Majors to return to his alma mater after leading Pittsburgh to the 1976 national championship.

Battle is the founder and chairman of The Collegiate Licensing Company (CLC). In 1981, while working for Golden Eagle Enterprises in Selma, Alabama, Battle signed Paul "Bear" Bryant to a licensing agreement. The University of Alabama signed on as CLC's first university client. In 1983, Battle moved the newly formed company to Atlanta, Georgia.

Battle is also a member of the group that votes in the Harris Interactive College Football Poll.

Personal life
Battle was born in Birmingham, Alabama. Battle's father, William Raines "Bill" Battle Jr., was athletic director at Birmingham–Southern College from 1952 to 1974. His grandfather William Raines Battle was a Methodist minister. Battle was also inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa - the National Leadership Honor Society at the University of Alabama in 1962.

Head coaching record

References

1941 births
Living people
American football ends
Alabama Crimson Tide athletic directors
Alabama Crimson Tide football players
Army Black Knights football coaches
Tennessee Volunteers football coaches
Sportspeople from Birmingham, Alabama
Players of American football from Birmingham, Alabama

Bill Battle


Genera is a commercial operating system and integrated development environment for Lisp machines created by Symbolics. It is essentially a fork of an earlier operating system originating on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) AI Lab's Lisp machines which Symbolics had used in common with Lisp Machines, Inc. (LMI), and Texas Instruments (TI). Genera was also sold by Symbolics as Open Genera, which runs Genera on computers based on a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Alpha processor using Tru64 UNIX. In 2021 a new version was released as Portable Genera which runs on DEC Alpha, Tru64 UNIX, x86-64 and Arm64 Linux, x86-64 and  Apple Silicon M Series macOS. It is released and licensed as proprietary software.

Genera is an example of an object-oriented operating system based on the programming language Lisp.

Genera supports incremental and interactive development of complex software using a mix of programming styles with extensive support for object-oriented programming.

MIT's Lisp machine operating system
The Lisp Machine operating system was written in Lisp Machine Lisp. It was a one-user workstation initially targeted at software developers for artificial intelligence (AI) projects. The system had a large bitmap screen, a mouse, a keyboard, a network interface, a disk drive, and slots for expansion. The operating system was supporting this hardware and it provided (among others):

 code for a frontend processor
 means to boot the operating system
 virtual memory management
 garbage collection
 interface to various hardware: mouse, keyboard, bitmap frame buffer, disk, printer, network interface
 an interpreter and a native code compiler for Lisp Machine Lisp
 an object system: Flavors
 a graphical user interface (GUI) window system and window manager
 a local file system
 support for the Chaosnet (CHAOS) network
 an Emacs-like Editor named Zmacs
 a mail program named Zmail
 a Lisp listener
 a debugger

This was already a complete one-user Lisp-based operating system and development environment.

The MIT Lisp machine operating system was developed from the middle 1970s to the early 1980s.

In 2006, the source code for this Lisp machine operating system from MIT was released as free and open-source software.

Genera operating system
Symbolics developed new Lisp machines and published the operating system under the name Genera. The latest version is 8.5. Symbolics Genera was developed in the early 1980s and early 1990s. In the final years, development entailed mostly patches, with very little new function.

Symbolics developed Genera based on this foundation of the MIT Lisp machine operating system. It sells the operating system and layered software. Some of the layered software has been integrated into Genera in later releases. Symbolics improved the operating system software from the original MIT Lisp machine and expanded it. The Genera operating system was only available for Symbolics Lisp machines and the Open Genera virtual machine.

Symbolics Genera has many features and supports all the versions of various hardware that Symbolics built over its life. Its source code is more than a million lines; the number depends on the release and what amount of software is installed. Symbolics Genera was published on magnetic tape and CD-ROM. The release of the operating system also provided most of the source code of the operating system and its applications. The user has free access to all parts of the running operating system and can write changes and extensions. The source code of the operating system is divided into systems. These systems bundle sources, binaries and other files. The system construction toolkit (SCT) maintains the dependencies, the components and the versions of all the systems. A system has two numbers: a major and a minor version number. The major version number counts the number of full constructions of a system. The minor version counts the number of patches to that system. A patch is a file that can be loaded to fix problems or provide extensions to a particular version of a system.

Symbolics developed a version named Open Genera, that included a virtual machine that enabled executing Genera on DEC Alpha based workstations, plus several Genera extensions and applications that were sold separately (like the Symbolics S-Graphics suite). Also, they made a new operating system named Minima for embedded uses, in Common Lisp. The latest version is Portable Genera, which has the virtual machine ported to x86-64, Arm64 and Apple M1 processors - additionally to the DEC Alpha processor. The virtual machine then runs under the Linux and macOS, additionally to Tru64 UNIX.

The original Lisp machine operating system was developed in Lisp Machine Lisp, using the Flavors object-oriented extension to that Lisp. Symbolics provided a successor to Flavors named New Flavors. Later Symbolics also supported Common Lisp and the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS). Then Symbolics Common Lisp became the default Lisp dialect for writing software with Genera. The software of the operating system was written mostly in Lisp Machine Lisp (named ZetaLisp) and Symbolics Common Lisp. These Lisp dialects are both provided by Genera. Also parts of the software was using either Flavors, New Flavors, and Common Lisp Object System. Some of the older parts of the Genera operating system have been rewritten in Symbolics Common Lisp and the Common Lisp Object system. Many parts of the operating systems remained written in ZetaLisp and Flavors (or New Flavors).

User interface
The early versions of Symbolics Genera were built with the original graphical user interface (GUI) windowing system of the Lisp machine operating system. Symbolics then developed a radically new windowing system named Dynamic Windows with a presentation-based user interface. This window system was introduced with Genera 7 in 1986. Many of the applications of Genera have then been using Dynamic Windows for their user interface. Eventually there was a move to port parts of the window system to run on other Common Lisp implementations by other vendors as the Common Lisp Interface Manager (CLIM). Versions of CLIM have been available (among others) for Allegro Common Lisp, LispWorks, and Macintosh Common Lisp. An open source version is available (McCLIM).

Dynamic Windows uses typed objects for all output to the screen. All displayed information keeps its connection to the objects displayed (output recording). This works for both textual and graphical output. At runtime the applicable operations to these objects are computed based on the class hierarchy and the available operations (commands). Commands are organized in hierarchical command tables with typed parameters. Commands can be entered with the mouse (making extensive use of mouse chording), keystrokes, and with a command line interface. All applications share one command line interpreter implementation, which adapts to various types of usage. The graphical abilities of the window system are based on the PostScript graphics model.

The user interface is mostly in monochrome (black-and-white) since that was what the hardware console typically provided. But extensive support exists for color, using color frame buffers or X Window System (X11) servers with color support. The activities (applications) use the whole screen with several panes, though windows can also be smaller. The layout of these activity windows adapts to different screen sizes. Activities can also switch between different pane layouts.

Genera provides a system menu to control windows, switch applications, and operate the window system. Many features of the user interface (switching between activities, creating activities, stopping and starting processes, and much more) can also be controlled with keyboard commands.

The Dynamic Lisp Listener is an example of a command line interface with full graphics abilities and support for mouse-based interaction. It accepts Lisp expressions and commands as input. The output is mouse sensitive. The Lisp listener can display forms to input data for the various built-in commands.

The user interface provides extensive online help and context sensitive help, completion of choices in various contexts.

Documentation
Genera supports fully hyperlinked online documentation. The documentation is read with the Document Examiner, an early hypertext browser. The documentation is based on small reusable documentation records that can also be displayed in various contexts with the Editor and the Lisp Listener. The documentation is organized in books and sections. The books were also provided in printed versions with the same contents as the online documentation. The documentation database information is delivered with Genera and can be modified with incremental patches.

The documentation was created with a separate application that was not shipped with Genera: Symbolics Concordia. Concordia provides an extension to the Zmacs editor for editing documentation records, a graphics editor and a page previewer.

The documentation provides user guides, installation guidelines and references of the various Lisp constructs and libraries.

The markup language is based on the Scribe markup language and also usable by the developer.

Genera supports printing to postscript printers, provides a printing queue and also a PostScript interpreter (written in Lisp).

Features
Genera also has support for various network protocols and applications using those. It has extensive support for TCP/IP.

Genera supports one-processor machines with several threads (called processes).

Genera supports several different types of garbage collection (GC): full GC, in-place GC, incremental GC, and ephemeral GC. The ephemeral collector uses only physical memory and uses the memory management unit to get information about changed pages in physical memory. The collector uses generations and the virtual memory is divided into areas. Areas can contain objects of certain types (strings, bitmaps, pathnames, ...), and each area can use different memory management mechanisms.

Genera implements two file systems: the FEP file system for large files and the Lisp Machine File System (LMFS) optimized for many small files. These systems also maintain different versions of files. If a file is modified, Genera still keeps the old versions. Genera also provides access to, can read from and write to, other, local and remote, file systems including: NFS, FTP, HFS, CD-ROMs, tape drives.

Genera supports netbooting.

Genera provides a client for the Statice object database from Symbolics.

Genera makes extensive use of the condition system (exception handling) to handle all kinds of runtime errors and is able to recover from many of these errors. For example, it allows retrying network operations if a network connection has a failure; the application code will keep running. When errors occur, users are presented a menu of restarts (abort, retry, continue options) that are specific to the error signalled.

Genera has extensive debugging tools.

Genera can save versions of the running system to worlds. These worlds can be booted and then will contain all the saved data and code.

Programming languages
Symbolics provided several programming languages for use with Genera:

 ZetaLisp, the Symbolics version of Lisp Machine Lisp
 Common Lisp in several versions: Symbolics Common Lisp, Future Common Lisp (ANSI Common Lisp), CLtL1
 Symbolics Pascal, a version of Pascal written in Lisp (Lisp source is included in Genera distribution)
 Symbolics C, a version of C written in Lisp (Lisp source is included in Genera distribution)
 Symbolics Fortran, a version of Fortran written in Lisp (Lisp source is included in Genera distribution)

Symbolics Common Lisp provides most of the Common Lisp standard with very many extensions, many of them coming from ZetaLisp.

Other languages from Symbolics
 Symbolics Prolog, a version of Prolog written and integrated in Lisp
 Symbolics Ada, a version of Ada written in Lisp

It is remarkable that these programming language implementations inherited some of the dynamic features of the Lisp system (like garbage collection and checked access to data) and supported incremental software development.

Third-party developers provided more programming languages, such as OPS5, and development tools, such as the Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE) from IntelliCorp).

Applications
Symbolics Genera comes with several applications. Applications are called activities. Some of the activities:

 Zmacs, an Emacs-like text editor
 Zmail, a mail reader also providing a calendar
 File system browser with tools for file system maintenance
 Lisp Listener with command-line interface
 Document Examiner for browsing documentation
 Restore Distribution to install software.
 Distribute Systems, to create software distributions
 Peek to examine system information (processes, windows, network connections, ...)
 Debugger
 Namespace Editor to access information about objects in the network (users, computers, file systems, ...)
 Converse, a chat client
 Terminal
 Inspector, for browsing Lisp data structures
 Notifications
 Frame-Up, for designing user interfaces
 Flavor Examiner, to examine the classes and methods of the Flavor object-oriented extension to Lisp

Other applications from Symbolics
Symbolics sold several applications that run on Symbolics Genera.

 Symbolics Concordia, a document production suite
 Symbolics Joshua, an expert system shell
 Symbolics Macsyma, a computer algebra system
 Symbolics NS, a chip design tool
 Symbolics Plexi, a neural network development tool
 Symbolics S-Graphics, a suite of tools: S-Paint, S-Geometry, S-Dynamics, S-Render
 Symbolics S-Utilities: S-Record, S-Compositor, S-Colorize, S-Convert
 Symbolics Scope, digital image processing with a Pixar Image Computer
 Symbolics Statice, an object database

Third-party applications
Several companies developed and sold applications for Symbolics Genera. Some examples:

 Automated Reasoning Tool (ART), an expert system shell from Inference Corporation
 ICAD, 3d parametric CAD system
 Illustrate, graphics editor
 Knowledge Engineering Environment (KEE), an expert system shell, from IntelliCorp
 Knowledge Craft, an expert system shell, from Carnegie Group
 Metal, machine translation system from Siemens

Highlights
 Genera is written fully in Lisp, using ZetaLisp and Symbolics Common Lisp, including all low-level system code, such as device drivers, garbage collection, process scheduler, network stacks, etc.
 The source code is more than a million lines of Lisp, yet relatively compact, compared to the provided functions, due to extensive reuse. It is also available for users to inspect and change.
 The operating system is mostly written in an object-oriented style using Flavors, New Flavors, and CLOS
 It has extensive online documentation readable with the Document Examiner
 Dynamic Windows provides a presentation-based user interface
 The user interface can be used locally (on Lisp Machines and MacIvories) and remotely (using X11)
 Groups of developers can work together in a networked environment
 A central namespace server provides a directory of machines, users, services, networks, file systems, databases, and more
 There is little protection against changing the operating system. The whole system is fully accessible and changeable.

Limits
Genera's limits include:
 Only runs on Symbolics Lisp Machines or the Open Genera emulator.
 Only one user can be logged in at once.
 Only one Lisp system can run at once. Data and code is shared by applications and the operating system. However, multiple instances of Open Genera can run on one DEC Alpha.
 Development effectively stopped in the middle 1990s.

Releases
 1982 – Release 78
 1982 – Release 210
 1983 – Release 4.0
 1984 – Release 5.0
 1985 – Release 6.0, introduces Symbolics Common Lisp, the Ephemeral Object Garbage Collector, and Document Examiner
 1986 – Genera 7.0, introduces Dynamic Windows
 1990 – Genera 8.0, introduces CLOS
 1991 – Genera 8.1, introduces CLIM
 1992 – Genera 8.2
 1993 – Genera 8.3
 1993 – Open Genera 1.0, introduces the Virtual Lisp Machine
 1998 – Open Genera 2.0
 2021 – Portable Genera 2.0, the Virtual Lisp Machine ported to additional platforms

A stable version of Open Genera that can run on x86-64 or arm64 Linux, and Apple M1 MacOS has been released.

A hacked version of Open Genera that can run on x86-64 Linux exists.

References

External links

 Symbolics Genera Integrated Development Environment
 "Symbolics Technical Summary"
 "Genera Concepts" web copy of Symbolics' introduction to Genera
 Symbolics software documents at bitsavers.org
 A page of screenshots of Genera
 Screenshots of the award-winning Symbolics Document Examiner
 "The Symbolics Virtual Lisp Machine, Or, Using The Dec Alpha As A Programmable Micro-engine"
 "2013 Video Demonstration by Symbolics programmer Kalman Reti"

Common Lisp implementations
Common Lisp (programming language) software
Computing platforms
Integrated development environments
Lisp (programming language)-based operating systems
Object-oriented operating systems

Genera (operating system)


A candle is a stick made of wax with a string (a thin piece of rope) straight in the middle. If someone puts the string on fire, the flame burns slowly but for a long time.

Fire can burn string very fast. But in a candle, the string does not burn fast, because the fire melts the wax instead. The wax sometimes drips down the side of the candle. When the melted wax is far from the flame, it gets hard again, and can be used again in a new candle.

The flame is very hot, since it is a very small, real fire. The light blue part of the flame can be as hot as . It can still burn people and things. If the fire spreads, it can grow into a very big fire and even burn down a house or building.

If the flame is kept on the candle long enough, the candle will slowly get shorter and shorter until it is gone. The fire on a candle can be put out by blowing air on it. There is also a special tool called a "candle snuffer" that covers the fire with a small metal cup and puts it out. Today, candle snuffers are usually only used in churches or in places where candles are up very high. Stopping the fire stops the candle from burning until it is all gone.

Before light bulbs, candles were used so people could see at night. Some people still use candles today when electricity is down, or because they like the little amount of light that candles make. Some people also like candles because they look nice, or because they smell nice. A special kind of candle called "citronella" can help keep bugs away.

Related pages
 Lantern
 Electric light
 Advent

References

Light sources
Fire
Christian symbols

Candle


The Las Cienegas National Conservation Area is a National Conservation Area of Arizona, located in the transitional zone between the Sonoran Desert and the Chihuahuan Desert.

Description
Facing housing and commercial development, more than  of rolling grasslands and woodlands in Arizona's Pima and Santa Cruz counties was protected as a National Conservation Area.  The region's rolling grasslands, oak-studded hills that connect several "sky island" mountain ranges, and lush riparian corridors attract both people and wildlife. Ciénega Creek, with its perennial flow and riparian corridor, supports a diverse plant and animal community.

The Empire and Cienega ranches, along with portions of the adjacent Rose Tree and Vera Earl ranches, were put under public ownership and managed by Bureau of Land Management (BLM) under the principles of multiple-use and ecosystem management for future generations to use and enjoy.  The BLM has formed a partnership with the nonprofit Empire Ranch Foundation, which is dedicated to preserving the historic buildings and surrounding landscapes.

Gallery

See also
Empire Ranch
List of protected grasslands of North America

References

External links

 Las Cienegas National Conservation Area - official site

Santa Cruz River (Arizona)
National Conservation Areas of the United States
Protected areas of Arizona
Grasslands of Arizona
Protected areas established in 2000
Protected areas of Pima County, Arizona
Protected areas of Santa Cruz County, Arizona
Bureau of Land Management areas in Arizona
Units of the National Landscape Conservation System
Protected areas of the Sonoran Desert
Protected areas of the Chihuahuan Desert
Geography of Pima County, Arizona
Geography of Santa Cruz County, Arizona
2000 establishments in Arizona

Las Cienegas National Conservation Area


Sea surface temperature (SST) is the water temperature at the surface. In practical terms, the exact meaning of "surface" will vary according to the measurement method used. A satellite infrared radiometer indirectly measures the temperature of a very thin layer (about 10 micrometres thick) or skin of the ocean (leading to the phrase skin temperature) representing the top millimeter; a thermometer attached to an already fastened or wandering buoy in the ocean would measure the temperature at a specific depth (e.g. the top 1 meter below the sea surface); the measurements regularly made from ships are often from the engine water intakes and may be at various depths in the upper 20 m of the ocean. Note that the depth of measurement in this case will vary with the cargo aboard the vessel.

Oceans

Sea surface temperature


Bruce L. Benson (born March 18, 1949) is an American academic economist who is recognized as an authority on law and economics and a major exponent of anarcho-capitalist legal theory. He is chair of the department of economics, DeVoe L. Moore Professor, distinguished research professor and courtesy professor of law at Florida State University and the recipient of the 2006 Adam Smith Award, the highest honor bestowed by the Association of Private Enterprise Education. He is a senior fellow at the Independent Institute and has recently been a Fulbright Senior Specialist in the Czech Republic, visiting professor at the university de Paris Pantheonon Assas, a Property-and-Environment-Research-Center Julian Simon Fellow, and visiting research fellow at the American Institute for Economic Research.

Education
Benson received his Ph.D. from Texas A&M University in 1978.

Publications
Benson is the author of four books, co-editor of another, author of over 125 peer-reviewed academic articles, author of over 65 chapters in edited books and has presented numerous scholarly papers. He has written some of the leading libertarian law and economics perspectives on regulation, criminalization, commercial law, and Native American law (see also: private law, polycentric law). His books include:
 American Antitrust Law in Theory and in Practice (with Melvin L. Greenhut), Aldershot, England: Avebury, 1989, 265 plus xiii pages.
 The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without the State, San Francisco: Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy, 1990, 397 plus viii pages (Award: 1991 Honorable-Mention Runner-up (among 5 finalists), Free Press Association "H. L. Mencken National Book Award.").
 The Economic Anatomy of a Drug War: Criminal Justice in the Commons (with David W. Rasmussen), Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994, 265 plus viii pages.
 To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice, New York: New York University Press, 1998, 372 plus xxvii pages; with a foreword by Marvin E. Wolfgang, director, Center for Studies in Criminology, University of Pennsylvania.  Edited Series: "Political Economy of the Austrian School" series, Mario Rizzo, general editor (Award: The Atlas Economic Research Foundation's 2000 Sir Antony Fisher International Memorial Award recognizing "the institute that publishes a book ... in 1998 or 1999 that, in the opinion of the judges, made the greatest contribution to public understanding of the free economy" (book was written for the Independent Institute)).
 Justicia Sin Estado (Madrid: Unión Editorial, 2000) (Spanish translation of The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without the State, translated into Spanish by José Ignacio del Castillo and Jesús Gomez)
 Self Determination: The Other Path for Native Americans, an edited volume (co-edited with Terry Anderson and Tom Flannagan), Stanford University Press, 2006, 332 plus xv pages.

Notes and references

External links
 Florida State University faculty profile
 Bruce L. Benson archive at The Independent Institute

1949 births
Living people
American anarcho-capitalists
American libertarians
Austrian School economists
Florida State University faculty
Mises Institute people
Libertarian economists
Philosophers of law
People from Havre, Montana
Economists from Montana
21st-century American economists

Bruce L. Benson


Justina Kristina Casagli, (1794-1841), was a famous singer and actor. She was born in Sweden, but worked in all Europe, especially in Italy and Germany, where she became famous.

Birth
She was born with the name Justina Kristina Wässelius. Her sister, Jeanette Wässelius, also became a singer, but she only worked in Sweden. Justina went to the theatre school Dramatens elevskola in 1805. When she graduated in 1812, she began to work at the theatre Royal Swedish Opera. The same year, she married the Italian dancer Ludovico Casagli, and got the name Justina Casagli.

Works
She left Sweden with her husband in 1818 and went to Italy. In Italy, she played in the play "Cerentola" in Turino in 1818, in the play "Donna del Lago" in Rome in 1823 and in Lucca 1827 in the play "Matrimonio Segreto". She was a great success, and then worked in Munich in Germany for several years. After that, she tried to get work in the Opera in Sweden again, but her place there was occupied by a new singer, Henriette Widerberg.

The last years, she lived in Parma, where she died after she had fallen from a window.

Swedish singers
Swedish actors
1794 births
1841 deaths

Justina Casagli


Li chiamarono... briganti! (They called them... brigands!) is a 1999 Italian film, directed by Pasquale Squitieri. It tells the story of Carmine Crocco, a 19th-century Italian brigand who gained recognition when he came to the forefront of the brigandage during the Italian unification, by opposing the army of King Victor Emmanuel II. It stars Enrico Lo Verso, Claudia Cardinale, Franco Nero, Remo Girone, Giorgio Albertazzi, among others. The movie was quickly suspended from its cinema run and it is not available on VHS or DVD. Some people  think this was for the censorship of the Italian army.

Plot
Carmine Crocco (Enrico Lo Verso) is an outlaw native of Rionero in Vulture (Basilicata), who was forced to the bandit's life after killing a man who had harassed his sister. He joined Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand against the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies hoping for a pardon, because the Savoy's government promised to forgive deserters in exchange for military service. But the promise wasn't kept and Crocco was arrested. He also noted that the economic situation was getting worse, with new taxes and growing unemployment.

He is soon released with the help of the local clergy and, disappointed by the unfulfilled promise of the new government, Crocco is persuaded by the cleric Don Pietro (Remo Girone) to become the leader of the resistance against Victor Emmanuel II, promising him money and weapons. Thus Crocco joins the Bourbon side, forming an army composed mainly of poor people.

The brigand and his men conquer the Vulture region in the name of king Francis II, gaining the support of the local population. The new Italian government is worried about this rebellion and General Enrico Cialdini (Benoît Vallès) is assigned to suppress it. The repression is cruel; Cialdini orders the shooting of the brigands and anyone who deals with them, mass killings (where even women and children are not spared) and confiscation of basic necessities.

Meanwhile, the Bourbon government in exile sends the Spanish General José Borjes (Francesco Mazzini) to Basilicata, to reinforce and discipline the bands. Crocco does not trust Borjes from the start because he is worried about losing his leadership, but he accepts the alliance. After some victorious battles, Crocco breaks the alliance with Borjes because he does not want to serve under a foreigner.

Crocco's lieutenant, Caruso (Ennio Coltorti), betrays him hoping for clemency, revealing to the authorities the hideouts of the brigands. After his betrayal, Crocco's army suffers many casualties and many of his men are captured and executed by firing squad. In the face of a losing battle, the only way to save himself is escape.

Cast
Enrico Lo Verso as Carmine Crocco: a labourer forced to flee after a crime of honour. He fought for Garibaldi in the hope of an amnesty but, disappointed by the unkept promise, joined the Bourbon side against the Savoy's government.
Branko Tesanovic as Ninco Nanco: Crocco's loyal lieutenant. He participates in the conquest of the Vulture territories, demonstrating brilliant guerilla tactics.
Roberta Armani as Filomena: a cold blooded female brigand, she is also Crocco's fiancée.
Claudia Cardinale as Assunta: a peasant, mother of two children who are members of Crocco's army.
Ennio Coltorti as Caruso: Crocco's lieutenant. He later betrays his boss in exchange for forgiveness.
Benoît Vallès as Enrico Cialdini: general of the Savoy Royal Army sent to choke the rebellion. He applies any method to achieve his purpose, and was criticized by other militaries of the Italian government.
Remo Girone as Don Pietro: a priest who helps Crocco providing weapons and money. He is the intermediary between the brigands and the Papal States.
Franco Nero as Nerza: a corporal of carabiniers. A quiet and conscientious man, he is the main opposition to Cialdini's methods, although he is obliged to respect them.
Carlo Croccolo as Don Vincenzino: a cobbler who supports the Crocco's resistance.
Francesco Mazzini as José Borjes: a Spanish General sent by the Bourbon government to reinforce the brigands but the alliance did not last.
Giorgio Albertazzi as Cardinal Antonelli: a cardinal of the Papal States who financed the brigands' rebellion.

Setting
Although the film is set in the Vulture area in Basilicata, it was filmed in Artena, in the province of Rome.

Reception
Li chiamarono... briganti! received poor reviews and earned only 107 million lire. It was suddenly and inexplicably withdrawn from cinemas only three days after its release. While some would attribute this to its "low earning" at the box office, others, such as the writer Lorenzo Del Boca, known for his revisionist books about the Italian unification, stated that It was boycotted to be watched by as few people as possible. Adolfo Morganti, director of the publishing company Il Cerchio and national coordinator of the association Identità Europea, told that the "Medusa" company, owner of the film, refuses to assign the broadcasting rights.

See also
Carmine Crocco
Ninco Nanco
Enrico Cialdini
Brigandage in the Two Sicilies
Italian unification
List of banned films

References

External links

Risorgimento, Anti-Risorgimento & Bandits

1999 films
Italian drama films
1990s Italian-language films
Censorship in Italy
Films directed by Pasquale Squitieri
Biographical films about Italian bandits
Films set in Basilicata
Films set in the 1860s
Film controversies in Italy

Li chiamarono... briganti!


A logarithmic scale is a scale used when there is a large range of quantities. Common uses include earthquake strength, sound loudness, light intensity, spreading rates of epidemics, and pH of solutions.

It is based on orders of magnitude, rather than a standard linear scale. The value of each mark on the scale is the value at the previous mark multiplied by a constant.

Logarithmic scales are also used in slide rules for multiplying or dividing numbers by adding or subtracting lengths on the scales.

The logarithmic scale can be helpful when the data cover a large range of values – the logarithm reduces this to a more manageable range.

Some of our senses operate in a logarithmic fashion (multiplying the actual input strength adds a constant to the perceived signal strength, see: Stevens' power law). That makes logarithmic scales for these input quantities especially appropriate. In particular, our sense of hearing perceives equal multiples of frequencies as equal differences in pitch.

On most logarithmic scales, small multiples (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to small (possibly negative) values of the logarithmic measure.

Examples

Well-known examples of such scales are:

 Richter magnitude scale and moment magnitude scale (MMS) for strength of earthquakes and movement in the earth.
 bel and decibel and neper for acoustic power (loudness) and electric power;
 counting f-stops for ratios of photographic exposure;
 rating low probabilities by the number of 'nines' in the decimal expansion of the probability of their not happening: for example, a system which will fail with a probability of 10−5 is 99.999% reliable: "five nines".
 Entropy in thermodynamics.
 Information in information theory.
 Particle size distribution curves of soil

Some logarithmic scales were designed such that large values (or ratios) of the underlying quantity correspond to small  values of the logarithmic measure. Examples of such scales are:

 pH for acidity;
 stellar magnitude scale for brightness of stars;

A logarithmic scale is also a graphical scale on one or both sides of a graph where a number x is printed at a distance c·log(x)  from the point marked with the number 1. A slide rule has logarithmic scales, and nomograms often employ logarithmic scales. On a logarithmic scale an equal difference in order of magnitude is represented by an equal distance. The geometric mean of two numbers is midway between the numbers.

Logarithmic graph paper, before the advent of computer graphics, was a basic scientific tool. Plots on paper with one log scale can show up exponential laws, and on log-log paper power laws, as straight lines (see semilog graph, log-log graph).

Logarithms

Logarithmic scale


Parmigiana is a Southern Italian dish made with a shallow-fried sliced filling, with cheese and tomato sauce on top, then baked. Eggplant parmigiana is the earliest version. Other kinds made with breaded meat cutlets, such as veal and chicken parmigiana, are popular in other countries, usually in areas with a lot of Italian immigrants.

History
The dish is claimed by both Campania and Sicily. While "parmigiana" means "from Parma" (in Northern Italy), the dish is not part of Parma food. It is based on melanzane alla parmigiana (alt. parmigiana di melanzane) or eggplant parmigiana (or eggplant Parmesan), a classic Southern Italian dish.

Along with the many Italian versions, different kinds of Parmigiana have been developed across the world, most often in countries where large numbers of Italians immigrated. Examples of dishes developed outside of Italy from the early parmigianas include veal (Veal Parmigiana) or chicken breast (Chicken Parmigiana) dipped in beaten eggs, breaded, shallow-fried and topped with a marinara sauce (red Sicilian tomato sauce) and mozzarella. It is then usually baked until the cheese is bubbly and brown.  The veal dish is known in Italian as Cotolette alla Bolognese.

Parmigiana is also used as an adjective in the names of other unrelated dishes from Parma food, such as Trippa alla Parmigiana (Parma-style tripe).

Cooking
The dish consists of a sliced filling pan fried in oil, layered with tomato sauce and cheese, and baked in an oven.  In some kinds, the sliced filling is first dipped in beaten eggs and covered in flour or breadcrumbs before frying.  Some recipes use hard grated cheeses such as Parmesan or Pecorino Romano, while others use softer melting cheeses like Mozzarella or Caciocavallo, or a combination of these.

International variations

In the United States and Canada, veal parmigiana or chicken parmigiana is commonly served as a grinder or a submarine sandwich.  It is also popular with a side of or on top of pasta.  Diced onions or green bell peppers, sautéed or raw, are sometimes added.

Chicken or veal parmigiana has become very popular in Australia as a pub dish, often served with chips and salad. It may also contain a lot of toppings, including sliced ham or fried eggplant slices. This dish is often referred to as a  parma or parmi, a simple shortening of the name. However, as Italian pronunciations are phonetic and do not use long vowel sounds, "parma" is incorrect.

A similar dish, the Parmo, which uses either pork or chicken, has been made within the country of England.

Name
There are several theories for the origin of the name parmigiana.

One common theory says the name is from Parmigiano-Reggiano (Parmesan cheese).

Another theory says the name is an alteration of the Sicilian word parmiciana:
This is an ancient Sicilian dish which, in all cookbooks, is erroneously stated as obtaining its name from Parmesan cheese, which is one of the ingredients. Nothing could be further from the truth. The name "parmigiana" does not derive from that of the cheese but is the Italianization of the Sicilian dialectal word "parmiciana", which refers to the slats of wood which compose the central part of a shutter and overlap in the same manner as the slices of eggplant in the dish."

As with Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese, the word Parmigiana is often rendered as "Parmesan" in English-speaking countries, from the French word for "from Parma."

References

Other websites

 Veal Parmegiana Recipe
 Eggplant Parmegiana Recipe
 Eggplant Parmesan  the way it is done in Catania (Sicily)
 Parma Daze Chicken parmigiana reviews in Melbourne, Australia
 Discover Downunder Parma Rating  The team from Discover Downunder travel around Australia in search for the best parma!
 parmi.com.au  ratings for South Australia.

Cheese dishes

Parmigiana


Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900) wis an Erse writer, poet, an prominent aesthete; who, efter writin in different forms throughoot the 1880s, became ane o Lunnon's maist popular playwrichts in the early 1890s. The day he is remembered for his epigrams, plays an the tragedy o his impreesonment an early daith.

Wilde's parents wur successfu Dublin intellectuals, an frae an early age he wis tutored at hame, whaur he showed his intelligence, becomin fluent in French an German. He attendit boardin schuil for sax year, then matriculatit tae varsity at seiventeen years o age. Readin Greats, Wilde proved hissel tae be an ootstandin classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. His intellectual horizons wur broad: he wis deeply interestit in the risin philosophy o aestheticism (led bi twa o his tutors, Walter Pater an John Ruskin) tho he an aa profoondly splored Roman Catholicism an finally convertit on his daithbed.

Efter varsity Wilde moved tae Lunnon, intae fashionable cultural an social circles. As a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his haund at various literary activities: he published a beuk o poems, lectured Americae an Canadae on the new "Inglis Renaissance in Airt", an returned tae Lunnon tae wirk prolifically as a jurnalist for fower year. Kent for his bitin wit, flamboyant dress, an glitterin conversation, Wilde wis ane o the best kent personalities o his day. At the turn o the 1890s, he refined his ideas aboot the supremacy o airt in a series o dialogues an essays; tho it wis his ae novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, which brocht him maie lastin recognition. The opportunity tae big aesthetic details precisely, combined wi lairger social themes, drew Wilde tae writin drama. He wrote Salome in French in Paris in 1891, but it wis refused a licence. Unperturbed, Wilde produced fower society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him ane o the maist successfu playwrichts o late Victorian Lunnon.

At the heicht o his fame an success—his masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest, wis still on stage in Lunnon—Wilde sued his lover's faither for libel. Efter a series o trials, Wilde wis convictit o gross indecency wi ither men an impreesoned for twa year, held tae haurd labour. In preeson he wrote De Profundis, a lang letter which discusses his spiritual journey throu his trials, formin a daurk coonterpoint tae his earlier philosophy o pleasure. Upon his release he left immediately for Fraunce, niver tae return tae Ireland or Breetain. Thare he wrote his last wirk, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a lang poem commemoratin the hairsh rhythms o preeson life. He dee'd destitute in Paris at the age o fowerty-sax.

1854 births
1900 daiths
19t-century Erse fowk
19t-century theatre
Alumni o Magdalen College, Oxford
Alumni o Trinity College, Dublin
Anglo-Erse airtists
Anglo-Erse fowk
Aphorists
Bisexual writers
Buirials at Père Lachaise Seemetry
Converts tae Roman Catholicism
Erse anarchists
Erse dramatists an playwrichts
Erse expatriates in Fraunce
Erse fantasy writers
Erse horror writers
Erse jurnalists
Erse novelists
Erse pacifists
Erse fowk o Italian strynd
Erse poets
Erse socialists
Individualist anarchists
LGBT Christians
LGBT fowk frae Ireland
Old Portorans
Oscar Wilde
Fowk associatit wi Trinity College, Dublin
Fowk frae Dublin (ceety)
Fowk prosecutit unner anti-homosexuality laws
Victorian pederasty
Victorian poets

Oscar Wilde


Carle or Charles-André van Loo (; 15 February 1705 – 15 July 1765) was a French painter, son of the painter Louis-Abraham van Loo, a younger brother of Jean-Baptiste van Loo and grandson of Jacob van Loo. He was the most famous member of a successful dynasty of painters of Dutch origin. His oeuvre includes every category: religion, history painting, mythology, portraiture, allegory, and genre scenes.

Life

He was born in Nice, then part of the Duchy of Savoy. Van Loo followed his brother Jean-Baptiste to Turin, and then to Rome in 1712, where he studied under Benedetto Luti and the sculptor Pierre Le Gros. After leaving Italy in 1723, he worked in Paris, studied at the Académie Royale, where he gained first prize for drawing in 1723, and received the first prize for historical painting in 1727—as did his future rival François Boucher. In 1724 he won the Prix de Rome.

After again visiting Turin in 1727, he was employed by king Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, for whom he painted a series of subjects illustrative of Torquato Tasso. In 1734 he settled in Paris, and in 1735 became a member of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture and rose rapidly in the hierarchy of the academy. Madame de Pompadour and the French court were taking the artist under their patronage. He was decorated with the Order of Saint Michael and named First Painter to king Louis XV of France in 1762. He was a most successful court painter but his portraits as well as history paintings also enjoyed an enormous success throughout all Europe. He died in Paris on 15 July 1765.

Work
By his simplicity of style and correctness of design, the result of his study of the great Italian masters, he did much to purify the modern French school; but the praise that was later lavished upon his productions now appears undue and excessive. His patrons included members of the court, the Gobelins factory, private individuals, and the church. In the ensuing centuries, Van Loo's critical fortune has plummeted, although his ability remains admirable, and the quality and variety of his work command respect. His Marriage of the Virgin is preserved in the Louvre.

Paintings

References

External links

1705 births
1765 deaths
18th-century French painters
French male painters
Orientalist painters
Prix de Rome for painting
Premiers peintres du Roi
18th-century French male artists

Charles-André van Loo