Sigyn, built in Gothenburg 1887, now museum ship in Turku, is the last remaining wooden barque used for trade across the oceans. At the time she was built there were thousands of similar vessels, but she was one of the last ones built. She was quite small even for her time, considering she was built for long-distance trade, but well built and considered fast and beautiful.

As merchant ship
In these times the steam ships were taking over the most important routes; the Suez canal was already built and the Panama canal was planned. The tonnage of steam ships passed that of sailing ships in 1890, ten and thirty years later in Sweden and Finland respectively. On the other hand, this was the time when big barques of steel were built. Sigyn was planned for another niche: the small size and small draught made her suited to also use small remote harbours.

The first decade Sigyn sailed on the Atlantic on tramp trade, mostly with wood (pine, spruce, pitch pine, mahogany, cedar), but also e.g. coal, probably sugar, once even hay. In 1897 she made one journey to Bangkok. After 1900 she sailed mostly in European waters.

After being severely damaged while seeking shelter outside Kristiansand 1913, Sigyn was rerigged as a barquentine. She was already old for being a softwood ship and the freight prices on ocean trade were declining, so a cheaper rig suited for coastal trade on the Baltic and North Sea seemed appropriate. This changed with the World War: transatlantic trade became very profitable and she crossed the Atlantic 12 times in 1915 and 1916.

After Sigyn ran aground in 1917 the copper hooding protecting against shipworm was removed and sold. Sigyn was thus no longer fit for the oceans. She was bought by Salsåkers ångsåg, a Swedish sawmill by the Gulf of Bothnia.

In 1927 Sigyn was sold to Finland, like many other sailing ships in these times, when steel and steam were taking over in richer countries. The buyer Arthur Lundqvist from Vårdö in the Åland islands was one of the last big peasant shipowners. The shipping companies of the family remain as Lundqvistrederierna.

As museum ship
As representative for "nautical circles" Otto Andersson, rector of Åbo Akademi, proposed 1936 the foundation of a maritime museum in Turku. A museum ship was needed and Sigyn was soon considered the best alternative. At that time there were only a few museum ships worldwide and Sigyn was to be the first in Finland.

Sigyn was bought 1939 and opened for the public 3 June 1939. Before the end of the year the Winter War begun, followed by the Continuation War. Sigyn was damaged, and there was a severe lack of funds and people for her maintenance.

After the wars there were negotiations about Sigyn sailing as merchant ship again and thus earning the needed money herself. There was a shortage of tonnage after the war, so this would be profitable, but risky. The proposition was eventually turned down and Sigyn was repaired by donated money. 1948 she was again opened for visitors. In 1950 she even sailed on Airisto outside Turku as part of a film, Laivan kannella (Sigyn had had such a role once before, 1916 for Terje Vigen).

Sigyns hull was partly renewed 1971–1972 at the Suomenlinna shipyard. Funds were not sufficient though and not until 1979 was Sigyn reopened for the public, now again as a barque.  By 1994 Sigyn's hull was weakened by constant flexing, and a floating dock called "Loke" was constructed to help reduce the problem. Sigyns hull was again renewed 1998-2001, now to a big part. This work was carried out at Sjökvarteret in Mariehamn, where Albanus and Linden had been built and thus much knowledge about wooden ships acquired. Some work has also been done in Turku, where Sigyn now is moored by Forum Marinum in the Aura River.

References
Jerker Örjans (2007). Sigyn - ett lyckosamt skepp, Första upplagan, Åbo: Stiftelsen för museifartyget Sigyn.

See also
Charles W. Morgan, wooden whaling barque built 1841

Barques
Museum ships in Finland
Ships built in Gothenburg
Tall ships of Finland
Merchant ships of Finland
Tall ships of Sweden
Merchant ships of Sweden
1887 ships
Tourist attractions in Turku
Museum ships in Turku

Sigyn (ship)


A sea wall is a wall built to protect land along the coast from erosion and flooding from the sea. While they do provide protection from the waves and tides, a sea wall may also create more problems. Erosion of beach sand may increase because of the wall, and the wall may change the direction and flow of waves and caused erosion in other places.

Flood control

Sea wall


Little Gidding is the fourth and final poem of T. S. Eliot's Four Quartets, a series of poems that discuss time, perspective, humanity, and salvation. It was first published in September 1942 after being delayed for over a year because of the air-raids on Great Britain during World War II and Eliot's declining health. The title refers to a small Anglican community in Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, established by Nicholas Ferrar in the 17th century and scattered during the English Civil War.

The poem uses the combined image of fire and Pentecostal fire to emphasise the need for purification and purgation. According to the poet, humanity's flawed understanding of life and turning away from God leads to a cycle of warfare, but this can be overcome by recognising the lessons of the past. Within the poem, the narrator meets a ghost that is a combination of various poets and literary figures. Little Gidding focuses on the unity of past, present, and future, and claims that understanding this unity is necessary for salvation.

Background

Following the completion of the third Four Quartets poem, The Dry Salvages, Eliot's health declined and he stayed in Shamley Green, Surrey while he recovered. During this time, Eliot started writing Little Gidding. The first draft was completed in July 1941 but he was dissatisfied with it. He believed the problems with the poem lay with his own inability to write, and that, precipitated by air raids on London, he had started the poem with too little preparation and had written it too quickly. After the first draft was written, he set the poem aside, and he left in September to lecture throughout Great Britain.

After months of not working on the poem, Eliot began to feel compelled to finish it; it was not until August 1942, however, that he started working on it again. In total, there were five drafts. The poem was finished by 19 September 1942 and published in the October New English Weekly. Little Gidding was intended to conclude the Four Quartets series, summarising Eliot's views expressed in this series of poems.

Little Gidding was the home of an Anglican community established in 1626 by Nicholas Ferrar. The Ferrar household lived a Christian life according to High Church principles and the Book of Common Prayer. The religious community was dispersed during the English Civil War between Parliamentarians and Royalists but re-formed, ending with the death of John Ferrar in 1657. Eliot had visited the site in May 1936.

Unlike the other locations mentioned in the titles of the Four Quartets poems, Eliot had no direct connection to the original Christian community. As such, the community is supposed to represent almost any religious community.

Poem
Critics classify Little Gidding as a poem of fire with an emphasis on purgation and the Pentecostal fire. The beginning of the poem discusses time and winter, with attention paid to the arrival of summer. The images of snow, which provoke desires for a spiritual life, transition into an analysis of the four classical elements of fire, earth, air and water and how fire is the primary element of the four. Following this is a discussion on death and destruction, things unaccomplished, and regret for past events.

While using Dante's terza rima style, the poem continues by describing the Battle of Britain. The image of warfare merges with the depiction of Pentecost, and the Holy Spirit is juxtaposed with the air-raids on London. In the second section, a ghost, representing the poets of the past stuck between worlds, begins talking to the narrator of the poem. The ghost discusses change, art in general, and how humankind is flawed. The only way to overcome the problematic condition of humanity, according to the ghost, is to experience purgation through fire. The fire is described in a manner similar to the medieval mystic Julian of Norwich's writing about God's love and discussed in relationship to the shirt of Nessus, a shirt that burns its wearer. Little Gidding continues by describing the eternalness of the present and how history exists in a pattern. The poem concludes by explaining how sacrifice is needed to allow an individual to die into life and be reborn, and that salvation should be the goal of humankind.

Themes
In terms of renewal, Eliot believed that suffering was needed for all of society before new life could begin. The original Little Gidding community was built for living on monastic lines, but the community was damaged and dispersed by Puritan forces during the English Civil War in 1646. The church, the centre of the community, was restored in 1714 and again in 1853. The image of religious renewal is combined with the image of the London air-raids and the constant fighting and destruction within the world. This compound image is used to discuss the connection of holy places with the Holy Spirit, Pentecost, communion with the dead, and the repetition of history. The theme is also internal to Eliot's own poems; the image of the rose garden at the end Little Gidding is the image that begins Burnt Norton and the journey is made circular. Also, the depiction of time within the poem is similar to the way time operates within The Family Reunion.

Like the other poems making up the Four Quartets, Little Gidding deals with the past, present, and future, and humanity's place within them as each generation is seemingly united. In the second section, there is a ghost who is the compilation of various poets, including Dante, Swift, Yeats, and others. When the ghost joins the poet, the narrator states "Knowing myself yet being someone other". This suggests that the different times merge at the same time that the different personalities begin to merge, allowing a communication and connection with the dead. Later, in the fourth section, humanity is given a choice between the Holy Spirit or the bombing of London; redemption or destruction. God's love allows humankind to be redeemed and escape the living hell through purgation by fire. The end of the poem describes how Eliot has attempted to help the world as a poet. He parallels his work in language with working on the soul or working on society.

The ghost, a combination of many literary figures, was originally addressed in the poem as "Ser Brunetto" before being revised as an ambiguous "you". "Ser Brunetto" was Dante's way of addressing Brunetto Latini, a former mentor whom he meets in Hell to which he has been condemned for sodomy. Eliot, in a letter to John Hayward dated 27 August 1942, explained why he changed the wording:
I think you will recognise that it was necessary to get rid of Brunetto for two reasons. The first is that the visionary figure has now become somewhat more definite and will no doubt be identified by some readers with Yeats though I do not mean anything so precise as that. However, I do not wish to take the responsibility of putting Yeats or anybody else into Hell and I do not want to impute to him the particular vice which took Brunetto there. Secondly, although the reference to that Canto is intended to be explicit, I wish the effect of the whole to be Purgatorial which is more appropriate. That brings us to the reference to swimming in fire which you will remember at the end of Purgatorio 26 where the poets are found.
The theme of swimming through flames is connected to the depiction of Guido Guinizelli, a poet who influenced Dante, seeking such a state in Purgatorio XXVI. However, the depiction of swimming was transformed into an image of dancing, an act that appears throughout Yeats's poetry, within purgatorial flames. The critic Dominic Manganiello suggests that, in combining the image of dancing with purgation, Eliot merges Dante's and Yeats's poetic themes.

Sources
At one point in the poem, Eliot used terza rima rhyme in a manner similar to Dante. In a 1950 lecture, he discussed how he imitated Dante within Little Gidding and the challenges that this presented. The lecture also dwelt on keeping to a set form and how Dante's poetry is the model for religious poetry and poetry in general. Besides Dante, many of the images used in Little Gidding were allusions to Eliot's earlier poems, especially the other poems of the Four Quartets.

Eliot included other literary sources within the poem: Stéphane Mallarmé, W. B. Yeats, Jonathan Swift, Arnaut Daniel, Nijinsky's dancing in Le Spectre de la Rose, and Shakespeare's Hamlet. Religious images were used to connect the poem to the writings of Julian of Norwich, to the life and death of Thomas Wentworth, to William Laud, to Charles I, and to John Milton. Eliot relied on theological statements similar to those of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's In Memoriam and Thomas Hardy's The Impercipient. The Bible also played a large role within the poem, especially in discussions on the Holy Spirit and Pentecost. Many commentators have pointed out the influence of George Herbert within the poem, but Eliot, in a letter to Anne Ridler dated 10 March 1941, stated that he was trying to avoid such connections within Little Gidding.

Reception
Critics such as Malcolm Cowley and Delmore Schwartz describe mixed emotions about the religiosity of the poem. Cowley emphasised the mystical nature of the poem and how its themes were closer to Buddhism than Anglicanism while mentioning his appreciation of many of the passages. Schwartz also mentioned the Buddhist images and his admiration for many of the lines in Little Gidding. F. B. Pinion believed that the fourth section of the poem caused "Eliot more trouble and vexation than any passage of the same length he ever wrote, and is his greatest achievement in the Four Quartets."

E. M. Forster did not like Eliot's emphasis on pain and responded to the poem: "Of course there's pain on and off through each individual's life... You can't shirk it and so on. But why should it be endorsed by the schoolmaster and sanctified by the priest until the fire and the rose are one when so much of it is caused by disease and bullies? It is here that Eliot becomes unsatisfactory as a seer." Writing in 2003, Roger Scruton wrote that in Little Gidding Eliot achieved "that for which he envies Dante—namely, a poetry of belief, in which belief and words are one, and in which the thought cannot be prized free from the controlled and beautiful language".

Notes

References

 Ackroyd, Peter. T. S. Eliot: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984.
 Bergonzi, Bernard. T. S. Eliot. New York: Macmillan Company, 1972. OCLC 262820
 Gardner, Helen. The Composition of "Four Quartets". New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
 Gordon, Lyndall. T. S. Eliot: An Imperfect Life. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000.
 Grant, Michael, T. S. Eliot: The Critical Heritage. New York: Routledge, 1997.
 Kirk, Russell. Eliot and His Age. Wilmington: ISA Books, 2008. OCLC 80106144
 Manganiello, Dominic. T. S. Eliot and Dante. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989.

 Pinion, F. B. A T. S. Eliot Companion. London: MacMillan, 1986. OCLC 246986356

1942 poems
Christian poetry
Modernist poems
Poetry by T. S. Eliot
Works originally published in The New English Weekly
British poems
poem

Little Gidding (poem)


Mundilfari or Saturn XXV, is a moon of Saturn. It was found by Brett J. Gladman, et al. in 2000, and given the designation S/2000 S 9.

Mundilfari is about 5.6 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 18,360,000 km in 928.806 days, at an inclination of 170° to the ecliptic (150° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.198.

Mundilfari may have formed from debris knocked off of Phoebe by big impacts at some point in the solar system's history.

It was named in August 2003 from Norse mythology, where Mundilfari is a Jotun or giant who is the father of the goddess Sol and the god Mani.

References
 IAUC 7538: S/2000 S 7, S/2000 S 8, S/2000 S 9 2000 December 7 (discovery)
 MPEC 2000-Y15: S/2000 S 1, S/2000 S 2, S/2000 S 7, S/2000 S 8, S/2000 S 9 2000 December 19 (discovery and ephemeris)
 IAUC 8177: Satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus 2003 August 8 (naming the moon)

Saturn's moons

Mundilfari (moon)


Walter George Tarrant (8 April 1875 – 18 March 1942) was a builder born in Brockhurst in the north of the port town of Gosport, Hampshire, England. He is best known as a Surrey master builder and developer of St Georges Hill and the Wentworth Estate in Surrey.

Biography
In 1895, aged 20, he set up his own building company, W G Tarrant Ltd, in the village of Byfleet, Surrey and in the early 1900s built extensively in adjoining Pyrford, West Byfleet and Woking. The company almost certainly constructed some of the first buildings at nearby Brooklands. By 1911 his premises in Byfleet covered over five acres and included workshops for joinery, wrought iron and leaded lights, a stonemason's yard, and a timber mill with drying sheds. He also owned nurseries in Addlestone and Pyrford and brickfields in Chobham and Rowlands Castle.

In 1911 he bought  of Surrey scrubland from the Egertons, the family of Lord Ellesmere which he developed into the St George's Hill estate. Tarrant was subsequently responsible for constructing housing in Weybridge, Byfleet, Pyrford, Woking and also Virginia Water where he launched the Wentworth Estate in 1923.

During World War One, his company manufactured large numbers of prefabricated wooden huts for military use on the Western Front and also designed and constructed the Tarrant Tabor six-engined triplane bomber, which crashed at Farnborough aerodrome when attempting its first flight on 26 May 1919.

The company employed 5,000 people at Byfleet in the 1920s but towards the end of the decade the Depression reduced the demand for large expensive houses. However, Tarrant continued to win contracts for many new council houses in the Woking area.

In August 1931, W G Tarrant Ltd entered receivership but the building department survived, reforming as Tarrant Builders Ltd with Tarrant's eldest son Percy as a director. This company built many houses in Virginia Water before and after World War II and the original company's land became owned by Wentworth Estates Ltd.

Around 1940, Tarrant purchased Hafod Estate at Eglwys Newydd, near Cwmystwyth above Aberystwyth in Wales and moved to live there soon afterwards. He soon began felling trees for use as pit-props for the war-effort and also started to plan the restoration of the neglected mansion there. He died on 18 March 1942 at Hafod Mansion, as a result of a coronary thrombosis and was buried in the Hafod churchyard.

Biographer
Extensive research into the housebuilding was carried out by Mavis Swenarton who in 1992 described Tarrant as 'a man of vision and enterprise... with a reputation for high quality materials and good workmanship... an imposing figure, over six ft tall and a thick beard which gave him a striking resemblance to King Edward VII'.

Aircraft
Tarrant Tabor

References
Bibliography
 Norris, Richard (2008) 'The Life and Works of Walter George Tarrant' (self-published)
 Swenarton, Mavis (1992) 'Inventory of Tarrant-Built Houses on St George's Hill' (Walton & Weybridge Local History Society).
 Swenarton, Mavis (1994) 'Tarrant-Built Houses in Pyrford Woods' (apparently self-published).
Citations

External links
The houses that Tarrant built article on findaproperty.com
Elmbridge Museum - Article 'WG Tarrant: Master Builder and Developer'

British construction businesspeople
People from Gosport
1875 births
1942 deaths
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
Burials in Wales

Walter George Tarrant


The Labrador Peninsula is a large peninsula in eastern Canada. It is bounded by the Hudson Bay to the west, the Hudson Strait to the north, the Labrador Sea to the east, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the southeast. The peninsula includes the region of Labrador, which is part of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the regions of Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, Côte-Nord, and Nord-du-Québec, which are in the province of Quebec. It has an area of .

The peninsula is very sparsely populated, especially in the north.

Peninsulas of Canada
Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador
Geography of Quebec

Labrador Peninsula


Trotskyism is the form of communism that is based on the ideas of Leon Trotsky. Trotsky described himself as an "orthodox Marxist". This is a different way of seeing the ideas of Karl Marx than the way other communists like Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin saw them. The biggest difference is in Trotsky's idea that there needs to be an international "permanent revolution". Permanent revolution is the idea that proletarian revolution needed to spread in countries worldwide, even where capitalism was not as advanced as only the proletarian revolution could carry out the tasks of the unfinished bourgeois revolutions in these countries. This is different to the Stalinist idea of trying to preserve a single nation's revolution from within. Trotsky also supported a less authoritarian government and more democracy.

The largest Trotskyist organizations today are the  Reunified Fourth International, International Socialist Tendency, International Marxist Tendency, the International Communist League, and the  Committee for a Workers' International.

Communism
Marxism

Trotskyism


Rubber is a type of material called a polymer. It can be produced from natural sources (e.g. natural rubber) or can be synthesised on an industrial scale. Many things are made from rubber, like gloves, tires, plugs, and masks. A few things can be made only from rubber. Sometimes the word means only natural rubber (latex rubber). Natural rubber is made from the white sap of some trees such as the Hevea brasiliensis (Euphorbiaceae). Other elastomers, called synthetic rubbers, are made by chemical processes.

Properties
Rubber can stretch and shrink. Rubber can also contain gases. It is an insulator, which means that it does not conduct electricity.

Producers

Hevea brasiliensis is the tree that most rubber comes from. Other plants that have the special sap (called latex) are figs (Ficus elastica), Castilla (Panama rubber tree), euphorbias, lettuce, the common dandelion, Taraxacum kok-saghyz (Russian dandelion), Scorzonera tau-saghyz, and Guayule.

In the 1800s, most sap to make rubber came from South America. In 1876, Henry Wickham got seeds from rubber trees in Brazil, and took them to Kew Gardens, England, and sent them to Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Indonesia, Singapore and British Malaya. Later, Malaya (now Malaysia) made the most rubber. People tried to grow rubber in India, in year 1873 at the Botanical Gardens, Kolkata. The first Hevea farms in India were made at Thattekadu in Kerala in 1902. The Congo Free State in Africa also grew a lot trees for rubber at the start of the 20th century, and most of the people who worked on those farms were forced labor. Liberia and Nigeria also started growing trees to make rubber.

Industrial development
Charles Marie de La Condamine presented samples of rubber to the Académie Royale des Sciences of France in 1736. In 1751, François Fresneau read a paper to the Académie (eventually published in 1755), which described many of the properties of rubber. This has been referred to as the first scientific paper on rubber.

In 1770, British chemist Joseph Priestley noticed that rubber was very good for removing pencil marks on paper. Natural rubber melts in heat and freeze in the cold.

In 1844, Charles Goodyear found a way to improve natural rubber, in a chemical process known as vulcanization, which made it useful in many more products including, decades later, tires.

Synthetic material
In the 20th century, synthetic (artificial) rubbers such as Neoprene began to be used. They were much used when World War II cut off supplies of natural rubber. They have continued to grow because natural rubber is becoming scarce and also because for some uses they are better than natural rubber.

Uses of rubber
Rubber moulded products are widely used industrially (and in some household applications) in the form of rubber goods and appliances. Rubber is used in garden hoses and pipes for small scale gardening applications. Most of the tyres and tubes used in automobiles are made up of rubber. Therefore, rubber plays a very important role in the automobile industry and the transportation industry. Rubber products are also employed in matting and flooring applications.

References

Natural materials
Polymers

Rubber


A Complexity class is a concept from theoretical computer science and mathematics: All problems that have the same complexity are in the same complexity class. This means, that for a given input, they need about the same amount of resources, such as compute time, or memory. The most often used models for complexity are time complexity, which measures the time needed to calculate a result, or space complexity, which looks at the amount of memory or storage needed. When talking about complexity classes, a worst case scenario is usually assumed.

Mathematics

Complexity class


General semantics is a philosophy that deals with how people react to things that happen around them based on meaning. It was created by Alfred Korzybski during the 1920s and early 1930s.

The goal of general semantics is for people to know that when we simplify something, either mentally or in language, that simplification is not the same thing as the thing simplified. How people understand reality is not the same as what reality is because people do not know everything about reality. General semantics teaches that there is always more to something than what is seen, heard, felt, or believed.

Branches of philosophy
Reality

General semantics


Otto Brahm (born Otto Abrahamsohn on 5 February 1856 in Hamburg; died 28 November 1912 in Berlin) was a German drama and literary critic, theatre manager and director. His productions were noted for being accurate and realistic. He was involved in the foundation of the progressive Die Freie Bühne (English: Free Stage) company, of which he became president and producer. He also edited the company's weekly magazine of the same name, but later changed its name to Die neue Rundschau.

Brahm also managed the Deutsches Theater in Berlin, and was responsible for modernising its output.

From Heinz Herald's memoir of Max Reinhardt entitled Bildnis Eines Theater-Mannes, regarding the birth of modern theatre:
In Germany, the explosion came in 1889, embodied by Otto Brahm. Her place was the newly grounded vacant stage, her occasion is the premiere of a young unknown poet. His name was Gerhart Hauptmann, his play Before Sunrise. Opinions collapsed, as the representatives of a tradition-bound art calcified with the glowing, indomitable, new style. A well-known Berlin doctor swung a symbolic and a little rude noose after the curtain had fallen. A battle raged, but soon it became clear as day that naturalism had triumphed here on the whole line.

The confirmation of this victory occurred when Brahm shortly afterwards took over the direction of the Deutsches Theater, which at that time was still considered to be the leader in Berlin and the Reich. But even Otto Brahm could not fulfill the theoretical ideal of consistent naturalism because it was and is unfulfillable. . . . Art, even naturalistic art, is a choice, omission. The verdict that was literally painted on Brahm's stage, "art and nature are one only," could not be realized.

Brahm saw this too soon. His house-poets, led by Ibsen and Hauptmann, supplied him with pieces that one could by no means call naturalistic. They used more naturalistic means, but they also omitted and increased. . . . . [However] there was no longer a stilted language, no idealized decoration, no off-the-ground stage style. The Brahms theater was true, honest, decent, manly. One did not pretend in Brahm's theatre, one played as lifelike as possible. A great ensemble helped Otto Brahm with this effort. Every time an elementary new stage personality appears, a keen actor seems to form itself around this center. Here were the best Rittner, Sauer, Hermann Muller, Bassermann and Else Lehmann: performers who met exactly the Brahmian style of the naturalness, truthfulness, sober behavior. Through hotly controversial Hauptmann's first performances and many pieces of the naturalistic period, Brahm and his cast rose to what they undoubtedly considered to be the pinnacle of their achievement: the peculiar and pompous cycle of Ibsen.

[However], Brahm was not a director. This position, which is unknown in our current sense, was more the role of a subaltern. Brahm sat in on the rehearsals in the dark auditorium and tried to bring his actors to where he wanted them by talking after rehearsing. He was a brilliant dramaturg. He was in close contact with his authors, selected the pieces for his playing schedule, occupied them, found and hired new ensemble members. A young actor of his theater, who had noticed him on a short visit to Salzburg and stayed with him for almost a decade, was called Max Reinhardt." 12-14

See also
 Oskar Seidlin

External links
 Jewish Encyclopedia

1856 births
1912 deaths
19th-century theatre
19th-century German Jews
German literary critics
German theatre directors
German theatre managers and producers
Writers from Hamburg
German male non-fiction writers
German magazine founders

Otto Brahm


Charles Wreford-Brown (9 October 1866 – 26 November 1951) was an English sportsman. He captained the England national football team and was a county cricketer during the Victorian age, and later acted as a sports legislator during the 20th century. Wreford-Brown is usually credited with inventing the term soccer as an abbreviation for association football.

Upbringing and amateur status
Wreford-Brown was born in Bristol went to Charterhouse School before studying at Oriel College, Oxford. Given his privileged economic status at the time of the rise in the popularity of football, Wreford-Brown was one of a select few who were able to play sports for no monetary gain whatsoever.

The educated belief in the purity of a noble athletic spirit untainted by the corrupting influence of money was embodied within the rise of the Corinthian football club who Wreford-Brown played for in the 1890s. Indeed, in 1906 Wreford-Brown was one of the leading figures in the movement to create the Amateur Football Alliance in London in order to keep the amateur game separate from the Football Association, an organisation that the amateur clubs found to be increasingly driven by the financial gain of the professional clubs.

Sporting Achievement
He was a keen sportsman at the University of Oxford and played both cricket and football for the university. He also later played cricket for Gloucestershire. His younger brother, Oswald (who died during the first World War in 1916) and son Anthony would, like him, also play for first-class cricket but none were stand-outs with the willow.

However it is as a footballer that he is more recognised. He first played as a goalkeeper but played initially as a stop-gap but later as the mainstay centre-half for the Old Carthusians (the club for ex-Charterhouse boys) (appearing against them in the 1896 London Charity Cup final, Clifton Association (the Association which took in Bristol and its environs and with whom he played in the inaugural Gloucestershire Cup), as well as the Corinthians and captained England twice against Wales in 1894 and 1895 (when the team consisted entirely of amateur players).

Steve Bloomer, one of the leading "players" (professionals) on the England team, recorded in a memoir that, as captain, the patrician Wreford-Brown on one occasion took to the field with a deep pocket in his shorts filled with gold sovereigns and pressed one of the coins into the hand of each professional goalscorer after the man had netted.

Corinthian FC

Charles Wreford-Brown was a leading figure for the era's most prominent football club, Corinthian FC. A constant figure throughout the club's golden era, he played 161 games for the club, scoring 8 goals. In 1894, Corinthian FC became the only club still to this day, to ever fully represent the England National side, and Charles Wreford-Brown would Captain the side. He would too, when the extraordinary feat was repeated a year later.

Corinthian FC were strict amateurs who believed in fair play and who had the "Corinthian Spirit" named in their honour. They are the team credited with having popularised the sport around the world with many tours and with them, Wreford-Brown travelled to S.Africa, USA, Canada, Sweden & Denmark.

A strong defender, Wreford-Brown played in some of the club's famous victories over professional opponents such as Liverpool, Southampton, Sunderland and Spurs.

Legislator
He was first appointed to the council of The Football Association to represent the Old Carthusians in 1892 but soon after served as the representative for Oxford University, a position he held until his death some 59 years later. He later became Chairman of the International Selection Committee for England within the Football Association.

He was in attendance at the first meeting of the Athenian League on 27 May 1914. He served as a vice-president of the FA from 1941 until his death in 1951, under Sir Stanley Rous, secretary of the Association. They have been credited with guiding the Association toward a more educated position, promoting youth coaching and training just before hostilities in 1939.

He was also a keen chess player. In 1924, in Paris Charles Wreford-Brown participated in unofficial Chess Olympiad. He took part in the 1933 British Chess Championship, though he had to drop out through illness after two rounds (he had won the first game and drawn the second).

References

External links

Bibliography

Further reading

1866 births
1951 deaths
Cricketers from Bristol
England men's international footballers
English men's footballers
Clifton Association F.C. players
Oxford University A.F.C. players
Corinthian F.C. players
English cricketers
Gloucestershire cricketers
Oxford University cricketers
People educated at Charterhouse School
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
Footballers from Bristol
Old Carthusians F.C. players
Men's association football defenders
Charles
Lord Hawke's XI cricketers
English chess players

Charles Wreford-Brown


Songara or Songira is the name of a branch of the Chauhan clan of Rajputs.Songara or Songira is the name of a branch of the Chauhan clan of Agnivanshi Rajputs. They had their seat of power at Jalore in the state of Rajasthan, India. Kanhad Dev Sonigara is perhaps the most famous of the Sonigara rulers of Jalore. Ambliara Princely state is a Songara dynasty rajputs in Gujarat establishing state in reign of Mughal Emperoe Aurangzeb in 1619 through maharaj Krishnadasji Sonigara descended of Rani Popadevi of Jalore now Ambliara in sabarkantha agency in Gujarat.

A prominent Rajput race and bastion in Rajasthan reduced by Alauddin was Chauhan Khanhad dev Sonigara's Kingdom of Jalore. The first penetration of the Khalji forces into Jalore was conducted as early as the third year of Sultans reign. The objective however, was the invasion of Gujarat. On their return march from Gujarat, there was a serious uprising in the Muslim army near Jalore over the issue of distribution of one – fifth of the spoils. Many rebellious Muslims, when hard pressed, fled to join the adjoining Raos and Rajas.

References

Rajput clans

Songara


Alessandro Piccinini (1566 – 1638) was an Italian lutenist and composer.

Piccinini was born in Bologna into a musical family: his father Leonardo Maria Piccinini taught lute playing to Alessandro as well as his brothers Girolamo (died 1615) and Filippo (died 1648). He held appointments at the Este court in Ferrara (from 1582 to 1597) and with Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini, papal legate at Bologna and Ferrara. Piccinini died around 1638, probably in Bologna.

He is best known for his two volumes of lute music: Intavolatura di Liuto et di Chitarrone, libro primo (Bologna, 1623) and Intavolaturo di Liuto (Bologna, 1639), the latter published posthumously by his son Leonardo Maria Piccinini. The 1623 collection is of particular importance because of Piccinini's lengthy preface, which includes a detailed manual on performance, as well as claims to have invented the archlute (Piccinini also made important modifications to the chitarrone). Piccinini concentrated on toccatas, courantes and galliards, as well as different kinds of variations. No other works by Piccinini are known; his music for La selva sin amor, the first opera performed in Spain, composed by his brother Filippo Piccinini is lost.

Works
Intavolatura di liuto, et di chitarrone, libro primo, nel quale si contengano dell'uno, & dell'altro stromento arie, baletti, correnti, gagliarde, canzoni, & ricercate musicali, & altre à dui, e trè liuti concertati insieme; et una inscrittione d'avertimenti, che insegna la maniera, & il modo di ben sonare con facilità i sudetti stromenti (Bologna, 1623).
Intavolatura di liuto, nel quale si contengono toccate, ricercate musicali, corrente, gagliarde, chiaccone, e passacagli alla vera spagnola, un bergamasco, con varie partite, una battaglia, & altri capricci (Bologna, 1639, published posthumously).

References

External links
Biography by Dinko Fabris
Piccinini's music in tablature in Fronimo 2 and PDF formats.

1566 births
1630s deaths
Composers for lute
Italian male classical composers
Italian Baroque composers
Italian lutenists
Renaissance composers
17th-century Italian composers
17th-century male musicians

Alessandro Piccinini


Hyrrokkin or Saturn XLIV (provisional designation S/2004 S 19) is a moon of Saturn. Its discovery was announced by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Jan Kleyna, and Brian G. Marsden on June 26, 2006, from observations taken between December 12, 2004, and April 30, 2006.

Hyrrokkin is about 8 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 18,168,300 km in 914.292 days, at an inclination of 153.3° to the ecliptic (154.3° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.3604.

It was named in April 2007 after Hyrrokkin, a giantess (female giant) from Norse mythology, who launched Hringhorni, Baldr's funeral ship. It was originally listed as being spelled Hyrokkin, but the spelling was later corrected.

References
 Institute for Astronomy Saturn Satellite Data
 IAUC 8727: Satellites of Saturn 2006 June 30 (discovery)
 MPEC 2006-M44: S/2004 S 19 2006 June 26 (discovery and ephemeris)
 IAUC 8826: Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn (subscription-only) 2007 April 5 (Naming the moon)
 IAUC 8860: Saturn XLIV (Hyrrokkin) (subscription-only) 2007 July 31 (correcting the name)

Saturn's moons

Hyrrokkin (moon)


Binoculars are a kynd o tuil that lats fowk see hyne awa things mair clear, uisin a technology cried optics. Thay are makkit frae a pair o tubes that are haudden afore a body's een. The tubes is prospects that haes lenses that focus licht uisin preesms, a process cried magnification.  This wey, whan a body leuks throu the binoculars at a hyne awa object, it leuks a hantle closer. Thay are maist aften uised for birdwatchin an amateur astronomy.

Some Scots leid enthusiasts hae cleckit the neologism faur-keekers for binoculars.

Optical devices

Binoculars


Reliquary is the 1997 New York Times best-selling sequel to Relic, by American authors Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child. The legacy of the blood-maddened Mbwun lives on in Reliquary, but the focus is shifted from the original museum setting to the tunnels beneath the streets of New York City. The book is the second in the Special Agent Pendergast series.

Plot summary
The story picks up where the epilogue of Relic left off. Two headless skeletons are found in the Humboldt Kill.  When further decapitated bodies follow, there is suspicion of a second Mbwun monster. Major characters from the original book team up with new ones to solve the puzzle. The mystery soon leads underground to the Mole people, and even deeper towards enigmatic beings called the Wrinklers. In the end, it is revealed that the Wrinklers are led by Frock, who has refined a modified version of the Mbwun plant, created by Kawakita to regain the use of his legs. Kawakita also gave the drug to the people who were to become the Wrinklers, later made into his tribe by Frock. After going underground, the group kills them with an explosion, vitamin D infused water and a flood.

Characters
Many major characters from Relic return:
 Police Captain Vincent D'Agosta - New York Police Department, initially in charge of the investigation.
 Dr. Margo Green - now assistant curator of the New York Museum of Natural History
 A. X. L. Pendergast - Special Agent for the FBI
 Bill Smithback - journalist, now crime reporter working for the New York Post
 Dr. Whitney C. Frock - Margo Green's former PhD mentor, evolutionary biologist, retired from the museum.

New Characters:
 Sergeant Laura Hayward - New York police officer who worked on a unit to roust the homeless; a published author working on her master's degree in Sociology at New York University and an expert on the underground societies of New York.  The second and third sections of the novel are preceded by excerpts from a paper she wrote that is awaiting publication.  Later appears in the Preston & Child novels Brimstone, Dance of Death, The Book of the Dead and Fever Dream.  In the years between Reliquary and Brimstone Hayward is promoted to captain.
 Captain Jack Waxie - D'Agosta's superior; takes over the investigation
 Anette Wisher - mother of murdered socialite Pamela Wisher, who then leads a crusade to save the city from crime.
 Redmond Horlocker - Chief of the New York Police Department
 Mephisto - the leader of an underground community beneath Central Park
 Dr. Simon Brambell - Chief Medical Examiner (his brother appears in other novels by Preston & Child)
 Bryce Harriman - crime reporter for The New York Times; Smithback's rival

References

External links
Official Douglas Preston/Lincoln Child website

Techno-thriller novels
1997 American novels
Sequel novels
American thriller novels
Novels by Douglas Preston
Novels by Lincoln Child
Collaborative novels
Novels set in New York City
Tor Books books

Reliquary (novel)


North and South is a novel by John Jakes. It is the first of three books about two friends who must fight against each other during the American Civil War.

North and South had two sequels. They are called Love and War and Heaven and Hell. The books were written in 1982, 1984, and 1987.

There were also TV versions made. Three miniseries were done in 1985, 1986, and 1994. The two main characters were played by James Read and Patrick Swayze (Swayze's character does not appear in the third part).

1982 books
20th-century American novels
Novels about the American Civil War

North and South


BMW 6 Series refers tae twa generations o automobile frae BMW, first being based on the E23 BMW 7 Series sedan an the seicont on the E60 5 Series sedan. The first wis the E24, launched in 1976 tae replace the 3.0CS & 3.0CSi (E9). In 2003, BMW released the all new E63/E64 which wis available as a coupé an convertible. Models wur the 645ci (later replaced with the 650i) an the 630i. The highest performance 6 series is the BMW M6. The third generation F12 and F13 6 series is scheduled for 2011.

Competitors include the Mercedes-Benz E-class coupe, Audi A5, an Jaguar XK.

6 series

BMW 6 series


A Red, Red Rose is a Scots sang bi Robert Burns that he wrate in 1794, based on tradeetional soorces.

Oreegins o the sang
Burns wrocht for the hintmaist ten year o his life for tae uphaud tradeetional Scots sangs for times tae come.  In aw, he haed a haund in hainin ower three hunder sangs, the maist kenspeckle airgiably bein Auld Lang Syne.  He wrocht on this project fer James Johnson's The Scots Musical Museum (1787-1803) an for George Thomson's five-vollum A Select Collection of Orginal Scottish Airs for the Voice.  Burns ettelt that A Red, Red Rose shoud be setten furth as pairt o Thomson's ingaitherin.  Houe'er, he wrate a freend that Thomson an him didna gree on the merits o thon teep o sang: "Whit tae me appears tae be the semple an the will, tae him, an I jalouse tae ye an aw, wuill be leukit on as the ludicrous an the daftlike."
Insteid, Burns gied the sang tae Scots lilter Pietro Urbani, that set it furth in his Scots Songs.  In his beuk, Urbani wrate:

"The wirds o the Red Red Rose wis obleeginly gien tae me by a celebratit Scots poet, that wis that struck by thaim whan liltit by a landwart lassie that he wrate thaim doun an, no bein blythe wi the air, beggit the author tae set thaim tae muisic in the style o a Scots tuin, that he haes duin accordin."

In ither letters, Burns referred tae it as a "semple Scots sang that I haed pickit up in the kintra."

The text o the poem
O my Luv's like a red, red rose
That's newly sprung in June;
O my Luv's like the melodie
That's sweetly play'd in tune.

As fair art thou, my bonnie lass,
So deep in luv am I:
And I will luv thee still, my dear,
Till a' the seas gang dry:

Till a' the seas gang dry, my dear,
And the rocks melt wi' the sun:
I will luv thee still, my dear,
While the sands o' life shall run.

And fare thee weel, my only Luv
And fare thee weel, a while!
And I will come again, my Luv,
Tho' it were ten thousand mile.

Muisical performances
Urbani set the sang furth tae an oreeginal tuin that he wrate.  The sang kythed in Johnson's Museum in 1797 tae the tuin o Neil Gow's Major Graham that wis the tuin Burns wis wantin.  In 1799, it kythed in Thomson's Scottish Airs setten tae William Marshall's Wishaw's Favourite wi the leerics chynged a tait.

The sang becam mair popular whan Robert Archibald Smith jyned it wi the tuin o Low Down in the Broom in his Scottish Minstrel beuk in 1821.  This haes acome the maist popular arreengment.  The same haes been widely performed bi a reenge o airtists sinsyne, wi mony deefferent fowk, pop, rock an choral versions kythin.

A Swadish translate an recordin cried Min älskling (du är som en ros) wis made fawmous bi the weel kent Swadish muisicker Evert Taube.

Fremmit airtins

Eddi Reader's version o the sang

Scots leeteratur
Scots sang
Sang

A Red, Red Rose


May Ayim (3 May 1960 in Hamburg – 9 August 1996 in Berlin) is the pen name of May Opitz (born Brigitte Sylvia Andler); she was an Afro-German poet, educator, and activist. The child of a German dancer and Ghanaian medical student, she lived with a white German foster family when young. After reconnecting with her father and his family in Ghana, in 1992 she took his surname for a pen name.

Opitz wrote a thesis at the University of Regensburg, "Afro-Deutsche: Ihre Kultur- und Sozialgeschichte aus dem Hintergrund gesellschaftlicher Veränderungen" (Afro-Germans: Their Cultural and Social History on the Background of Social Change), which was the first scholarly study of Afro-German history. Combined with contemporary materials, it was published as the book Farbe Bekennen: Afro-deutsche Frauen auf den Spuren ihrer Geschichte (1986). This was translated and published in English as Showing Our Colors: Afro-German Women Speak Out (1986). It included accounts by many women of Afro-German descent. Ayim worked as an activist to unite Afro-Germans and combat racism in German society. She co-founded Initiative Schwarze Menschen in Deutschland (Initiative of Black People in Germany) to that purpose in the late 1980s.

Early life
Born Brigitte Sylvia Andler in 1960 in Hamburg-Altona, Germany, she was the daughter of unmarried parents Ursula Andler and Emmanuel Ayim. Her father, a Ghanaian medical student, wanted to have her raised by his childless sister, but German law made 'illegitimate' children a ward of the state and did not give rights to biological fathers.

After a brief time in a children's home, Andler lived by the foster family Opitz, who raised her with their biological children. She grew up in Westphalia, where she later said that her childhood was unhappy. She considered her foster parents to be strict and spoke about how they used physical violence against her. This was one of the issues she explored in her later poetry. She later said that the family threw her out of the family home at the age of 19, which the Opitz family denied. She continued to keep in touch with them. That same year she graduated from Friedenschule, the Episcopal School in Münster, and passed her Abitur. She attended teacher training college in Münster, specialising in German language and Social Studies.

Opitz attended the University of Regensburg, majoring in Psychology and Education. During this period she travelled to Israel, Kenya and Ghana. She found her biological father, Emmanuel Ayim, then a professor of Medicine, and developed a relationship with him and his family. She used May Ayim as a pen name from 1992 to reflect this connection.

Career
May Opitz's thesis at the University of Regensburg, Afro-Deutsche: Ihre Kultur- und Sozialgeschichte auf dem Hintergrund gesellschaftlicher Veränderungen (Afro-Germans: Their Cultural and Social History on the Background of Social Change). This was the first scholarly study of Afro-German history, ranging from the Middle Ages to the late 20th-century present. In 1986, it was the basis of the book, Farbe Bekennen: Afro-deutsche Frauen auf den Spuren ihrer Geschichte (published in English translation as Showing Our Colors: Afro-German Women Speak Out, 1986). Opitz edited this with Katharina Oguntoye and Dagmar Schultz, having added many accounts by contemporary Afro-German women. At this time she also co-founded the Initiative Schwarze Deutsche (Initiative of Black People in Germany).

Contemporary Afro-German women discussed their struggles growing up black in Germany, and how individuals explored their homeland and multi-ethnic identity. In some cases, it meant trying to find black fathers; in cases of adoption, they sometimes tried to find both parents.

Opitz, Oguntoye and Schultz decided to allow as many generations as possible to speak in this book. As the editors met with other Afro-German women and became involved with them, they connected with each other in a new way through this shared ancestry. The Afro-Germans began sharing their experiences with each other and contacting other Afro-Germans, as they searched for and discovered their history. The editors and writers said they did not want to have to explain their existence anymore. They wanted to be sure of their identity and able to assert it to others. The editors went public with their experiences in this book, discussing their histories and the prevalence of racism, while sharing their own personal experiences. Opitz, Oguntoye and Schultz felt that as they pushed for Afro-Germans to become more visible, future generations of Afro-Germans would feel less isolated and marginalized. This group identified as Afro-German, in part to prevent being defined by others.

Opitz helped found the Initiative Schwarze Deutsche und Schwarze in Deutschland (Initiative of Black Germans and Black People in Germany). It is known in short as Initiative Schwarze Deutsche (ISD), pushing for Afro-Germans to unite in mutual support. Audre Lorde was a chief leader in founding this group. A film documentary, Audre Lorde: The Berlin Years 1984 to 1992, covers her life and this period of growing Afro-German identity in the culture.

After a visit to Ghana, where she met her paternal family, she returned to Germany and trained as a speech therapist. She wrote a thesis on ethnocentrism in the discipline. After more travels, she settled in Berlin in 1984, lecturing at the Free University of Berlin. She continued to write articles and poetry exploring the issues of multi-ethnic peoples in Germany and personal identity.

In 1992 she took her father's name Ayim, and used May Ayim as her pen name. She was active as an educator and writer, taking part in many conferences and publishing a poetry collection, Blues in schwarz-weiss (Blues in Black and White, 2003 in the US).

Death

After working strenuously to prepare for Black History Month in 1996, Ayim suffered a mental and physical collapse. She was admitted to the psychiatric ward of the Auguste Viktoria Hospital in Berlin in January 1996. The doctors eventually diagnosed her as having multiple sclerosis. They stopped her medication, which had been based on believing she had severe depression, and discharged her in April 1996. Continuing to struggle with depression, Ayim was readmitted in June following a suicide attempt. Discharged again in July, she committed suicide on 9 August by jumping from the 13th floor of a Berlin building.

Legacy and honours
The 1997 film documentary Hoffnung im Herz ("Hope in My Heart: The May Ayim Story"), directed by Maria Binder, was made about her.
2004: the May Ayim Award was founded to honour her. Presented annually, it is the first Black German international literature award.
2011: A street in Berlin Kreuzberg, formerly named after a German colonialist, was renamed in her honour as May-Ayim-Ufer.

Cultural references
May Ayim's poem "They're People Like Us" is cited in Paul Beatty's 2008 novel Slumberland. Her writing (as May Opitz) is included in the 1992 anthology Daughters of Africa.

She is the subject of Linton Kwesi Johnson's elegiac poem "Reggae Fi May Ayim" on his 1999 album More Time.

See also
Afro-Germans
Jennifer Teege

References

External links
 "May Ayim Teil 1". YouTube video.
 Marion Gerlind, "May Ayim's Legacy in World Language Study", FLANC Newsletter, Spring 2012.

1960 births
1996 deaths
German activists
German women activists
German women poets
German adoptees
German people of Ghanaian descent
Suicides by jumping in Germany
German anti-racism activists
University of Regensburg alumni
Academic staff of the Free University of Berlin
German women academics
20th-century German poets
20th-century German women writers
1996 suicides

May Ayim


Ellison Lamar Kelly (May 17, 1935 – February 11, 2016) was an American and Canadian football offensive lineman for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats from 1960–1970 and the Toronto Argonauts from 1971-1972 of the Canadian Football League.  He also played in the National Football League for the New York Giants.  Kelly never missed a game in his 12 seasons in the CFL, playing 175 consecutive games.  Kelly usually played guard or tackle, but the versatile performer also provided depth at the defensive end and linebacker positions. Teammates recall him as being a tough, solid competitor, even when injured. He won three Grey Cups for the Tiger-Cats in 1963, 1965 & 1967 and played in the 1971 Grey Cup with the Argonauts.

Kelly was drafted in the fifth round of the 1959 NFL Draft by the Giants after a stellar career at Michigan State University, but he opted to go to Canada to play in the CFL in his second season.

Kelly is one of the few football players to have a race horse named after him.  "Wildcat Kelly" was a gelding pacer in the stable of Yellow and Black farms of Hamilton, a partnership of Dill (Pickles) Southwick, a former quarterback for the Hamilton Tigers, and businessmen Bruce Woodward and George Ridpath.  (Yellow and Black were the colours of the Tiger Cats.)  As of 1970, the six-year-old "Wildcat Kelly" had won $14,000 in its lifetime.

Kelly was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1992.  He spent his entire post-football life in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, first as a teacher with the Hamilton Board of Education, and later as a Recreations Officer with the Hamilton-Wentworth Detention Centre, where he was regarded as a gentle giant and a gentleman. He was a frequent guest on Tiger Cat alumni days and was asked to speak on many occasions. His speeches were often dominated by a spiritual appreciation and gratitude for the wonderful life and opportunities he had been given. He continued to live in Hamilton until his death in 2016.

References

1935 births
2016 deaths
American football offensive guards
American players of Canadian football
Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian football offensive linemen
Hamilton Tiger-Cats players
Michigan State Spartans football players
New York Giants players
People from Butler, Georgia
Players of American football from Georgia (U.S. state)
Toronto Argonauts players

Ellison Kelly


Vera Cooper Rubin (July 23, 1928  December 25, 2016) was an American astronomer. She discovered dark matter

Early life
Rubin was born on July 23, 1928. Her parents were Rose Applebaum and Phillip Cooper.  At age 10, Rubin became fascinated by the stars in her home, Washington, D.C. At age 14, she built her first telescope.

Work
Rubin attended Vassar College where she earned her B.A. in 1948. She earned her M.A. at Cornell University in 1951. She received her Ph.D. in astronomy at Georgetown University. At Cornell her thesis studied evidence of bulk rotation in the universe.

Rubin taught at Georgetown before becoming a researcher at the Carnegie Institution of Science. She spent a year as a teacher in math and physics at Montgomery County Junior College. She contributed to newspapers. She was an associated editor of the Astronomical Journal and the editorial board of Science Magazine. Rubin was on the astronomical committee at Harvard University and at the National Academy of Sciences.

Rubin was an American astronomer who discovered dark matter. Dark matter is a material in the universe that does not reflect light. She and W. Kent Ford found that the stars closest to the center of the galaxy and the stars farthest from the center of the galaxy moved at the same rate.  Their findings said that mass astronomers could see only 10 percent of the galaxy's total mass. This makes dark matter invisible. Rubin joined the council of American Women in Science in 1984 to promote women in astronomy.

Rubin was given honorary degrees from Creighton University, Harvard University, and Yale University. She won the National Medal of Sciences in 1993.

Later years
Rubin was married to Robert Rubin, a physicist. She wrote a children's book on astronomy to encourage young girls to study science. Rubin had four children named David, Allan, Judith, and Carl. Her children all became scientists.

Rubin died in Princeton on December 25, 2016.

References

American astronomers
1928 births
2016 deaths

Vera Rubin


The Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness is a  wilderness area located in northern Arizona and southern Utah, United States, within the arid Colorado Plateau region. The wilderness is composed of broad plateaus, tall escarpments, and deep canyons.

The Paria River flows through the wilderness before joining the Colorado River at Lee's Ferry, Arizona.

The U.S. Congress designated the wilderness area in 1984 and it was largely incorporated into the new Vermilion Cliffs National Monument proclaimed in 2000 by executive order of President Bill Clinton.

Both the wilderness area and the National Monument are administered by the federal Bureau of Land Management.

The Colorado Plateau and its river basins are of immense value in the Earth sciences, specifically chronostratigraphy, as the region contains multiple terrain features exposing miles-thick contiguous rock columns that geologists and paleobiologists use as reference strata of the geologic record.

Human history
Ancient petroglyphs, granaries, and campsites indicate that ancestral Puebloan people utilized the Wilderness between AD 200 and AD 1200. They hunted mule deer and bighorn sheep and grew corn, beans, and squash in the lower end of the canyon. Paiute people later occupied and traveled much of the area before Europeans arrived. Because no habitations or large villages have been found in the canyon, researchers believe the canyon was primarily used as a travel route.

The first documented Europeans in the area were Fathers Francisco Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante of the Domínguez–Escalante expedition. The expedition stopped at the mouth of the Paria River in 1776 after they unsuccessfully attempted to establish a route from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to Monterey, California. The 19th century drew outlaws who hid out in the Wilderness and prospectors who mined gold, uranium, and other minerals.

Wildlife

A variety of wildlife makes its home in the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness.

Birds

Many bird species are found in the Wilderness, including bald eagle, golden eagle, peregrine falcon, red-tailed hawk, great horned owl, and Cooper's hawk. Other birds seen in the Wilderness include white-throated swift, violet-green swallow, rock wren, canyon wren, killdeer, cliff swallow, black-throated sparrow, ruby-crowned kinglet, blue-gray gnatcatcher, black-chinned hummingbird, great blue heron, flycatchers and various species of duck.
The Wilderness was the location of a 1996 release of captively-bred endangered California condors in an attempt to re-introduce them to the wild.

Mammals

Mammals found in the Wilderness include mule deer, bobcat, fox, mountain lion, porcupine, beaver, coyote, jack rabbit, cottontail rabbit, ground squirrels, kangaroo rat, and various other rodent species. Desert bighorn sheep were successfully reintroduced to Paria Canyon in the 1980s and are usually found in the cliffs and crags of the lower canyon.

Reptiles and amphibians

A variety of reptiles live in the Wilderness, including rattlesnake, chuckwalla, side-blotched lizard, leopard lizard, desert spiny lizard, and collared lizard. The red-spotted toad can be spotted in the canyon and four species of fish are occasionally found in the Paria River - the flannel mouth sucker, bluehead sucker, razorback sucker, and speckled dace.

Vegetation

Vegetation in the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness can be divided into three different zones of riparian vegetation communities, which run parallel to each side of the river. Plants found closest to the water include cattails, common reeds, sedges, rushes, and horsetails.

Drier soil farther from the water makes a good environment for woody vegetation which has survived the repeated flooding, such as coyote willow, cottonwood, ash, tamarisk, and seep-willow. This zone is referred to as the "regeneration site" because some of the trees that grow here survive to produce the next generation of mature canopy.

Beyond the regeneration site trees grow strong and tall. Dominant vegetation includes cottonwood, willow, ash, and tamarisk. This zone is the fringe between riparian and desert uplands, often sharing vegetation like rabbitbrush, Indian ricegrass, arrowweed, and sand dropseed.

Other vegetation found in the Wilderness include pinyon pine, juniper, boxelder, various species of cactus, and other desert flora.

Recreation

Hiking is the most common recreational activity in the Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs Wilderness, followed by camping, photography, and canyoneering. Hikes through Paria Canyon are popular. The White House Trailhead is the main entrance and, therefore, more popular than the other trailheads in the Wilderness. Wire Pass Trailhead is the starting point for hiking into the canyon via Buckskin Gulch, as well as to spectacular sandstone formations such as The Wave on the slopes of the Coyote Buttes.

The BLM has placed a limit on overnight camping in the Paria Canyon portion of the Wilderness in order to protect it from overuse. It is also necessary to obtain a permit for the popular hike to the Wave formation in Coyote Buttes.

See also

 Wilderness Act
 List of U.S. Wilderness Areas
 List of Arizona Wilderness Areas

References

External links

Wilderness areas of Utah
Wilderness areas of Arizona
Protected areas of Coconino County, Arizona
Protected areas of Kane County, Utah
Bureau of Land Management areas in Utah
Bureau of Land Management areas in Arizona
Colorado Plateau
Protected areas established in 1984
1984 establishments in Arizona
1984 establishments in Utah


The 1982 Formula One season was the 33rd championship. The champion was Keke Rosberg in a close battle.

Season review

Politics
The early races of the season were disrupted by politics. At the first race of the season, the South African Grand Prix, Niki Lauda led a drivers' strike against the "superlicences", newly required for participation in the championship, which included clauses that Lauda believed would unfairly tie drivers to their teams. Most of the drivers locked themselves in a conference room overnight before agreement was reached that the relevant clauses could be re-visited and the race was reinstated. The six factory turbocharged cars, including the Brabham-BMWs on this occasion, had their inherent power advantage exaggerated by the low air density at the high altitude Kyalami circuit and took the first six places on the grid. Alain Prost won the race in his Renault. Despite the pre-race agreement, the race stewards issued a statement during the race indicating that the licences of those drivers who had taken part in the strike were suspended.

The striking drivers were eventually fined $5,000 each and given a one race ban, suspended for six months, but the process of reaching this compromise position took several weeks and contributed to the cancellation of that year's Argentine Grand Prix, due to be the second race of the year. The Brazilian and United States West Grands Prix were both won by DFV-powered cars, and both results were protested by the Ferrari and Renault teams, on the grounds that the leading DFV teams were competing with underweight cars thanks to their water-cooled brakes. The stewards in Brazil ruled that the Piquet's winning Brabham and Rosberg's second-placed Williams were illegal, but their counterparts in the US rejected the same claim against Niki Lauda's McLaren and Rosberg's Williams, although they did uphold the Tyrrell team's protest against Ferrari's use of two rear wings and disqualified Villeneuve. The appeal process meant that the result of the protest would not be known for another month.

On 19 April, the FIA tribunal found in favour of Ferrari and Renault's protest of the Brazilian Grand Prix result. Piquet and Rosberg were disqualified and Prost was awarded the win. The other finishers, including some like title contender John Watson who had also been racing underweight, but had not been protested, were moved up the results accordingly. This gave Prost the lead in the world championship, with 18 points to Lauda's 12 and Rosberg and Watson's 8. The tribunal also ruled that after future races, all cars must be weighed before liquids were topped up. The FOCA teams requested a postponement of the next race, the San Marino Grand Prix, until July to allow consideration of the effects of the judgement, on the grounds that it changed the regulations of the sport. The race organisers refused to delay the race, which went ahead without the majority of the FOCA teams.

Villeneuve and Pironi
Only 14 cars competed at the San Marino Grand Prix because of the FOCA boycott, leaving the Ferraris to compete with the Renaults until both French cars broke down. By lap 45, Villeneuve and Pironi were contesting the lead, with Villeneuve in front, when their Ferrari team signalled them to slow down. Villeneuve did so and was passed by his teammate; they swapped the lead again several times before Pironi passed Villeneuve on the final lap for the win. After the race, Villeneuve said that the "Slow" sign at Ferrari had always previously meant that the drivers should hold their positions, adding "People seem to think we had the battle of our lives! [...] I was coasting those last 15 laps."; Pironi said that "The 'Slow' sign means only to use your head [... not that] if you think you can win, don't do it." In an interview the following week, Villeneuve said that he would never speak to Pironi again.

Two weeks later, Villeneuve died after an accident during the final qualifying session for the Belgian Grand Prix at Zolder. Bamsey and Lang write that he was trying to beat Pironi's time, while Ferrari race engineer Mauro Forghieri says that the Canadian was returning to the pits and would not therefore have set a lap time. Villeneuve caught Jochen Mass travelling much more slowly through a left-handed bend and moved to the right to pass him at the same instant that Mass also moved right to let Villeneuve through on the racing line. The two collided and Villeneuve was thrown out of his disintegrating car. He died of a fractured neck in a local hospital at 9:12 that evening. Ferrari withdrew from the race, which John Watson won for McLaren. His teammate Lauda was disqualified after the race for an underweight car. The results were dominated by the returning FOCA teams; even the only turbo-engined finisher, Piquet's Brabham-BMW, was from their number.

Roebuck writes that the next race, the Monaco Grand Prix, "was a sombre, edgy place [...] the sense of [Villeneuve's] absence was overwhelming": the Canadian had lived in the principality and had won the previous year's race. In the race itself Arnoux led early before spinning off, handing the lead to his Renault teammate Prost. Prost built up a massive lead, but a light rain shower in the closing laps triggered a chaotic finish. Prost crashed out, handing the lead to Patrese. Patrese spun on the penultimate lap and stalled, allowing Pironi into the lead, followed by Andrea de Cesaris. On the final lap Pironi, de Cesaris, and Derek Daly all dropped out while in potential race winning positions. Meanwhile, Patrese bump-started his car by coasting down a hill, completed the final two laps, and took his first career victory. Pironi was classified second, despite running out of fuel and stopping on the last lap. After the race, Prost, who had scored no points since the Brazilian Grand Prix in March, led the championship by one point from Watson and two points from Pironi.

North American tour
Formula One returned to North America for the Detroit Grand Prix, where Watson won again, this time from 17th place on the grid, to take the championship lead. Tragedy struck again in Canada. Pironi qualified on pole, but stalled at the start. His stationary car was hit by the Osella of young Italian Riccardo Paletti, who was killed in the impact and resultant fire. Piquet won the restarted race. Pironi came back to take a dominant victory in the Netherlands, where Arnoux was lucky to escape uninjured from a massive crash after his Renault's throttle stuck open.

"...there was heavy rain; as I buttoned up against the elements I chanced to look across to the end of the straight leading into the stadium.

There was a car—a Ferrari— in the air, 20 feet or so from the ground, its nose pointing skyward. It came down tail first, then began somersaulting, coming to rest finally at the trackside." Journalist Nigel Roebuck describing Pironi's career-ending crash at the 1982 German Grand Prix

Back to Europe
Lauda won in Britain, but the real star of the race was Derek Warwick, who hustled the unfancied Toleman into second place late in the race and was closing on Lauda before the car broke down. The next race at Le Castellet's Circuit Paul Ricard saw Frenchman Arnoux take victory in his French Renault, which was popular with the crowd but not with the team, as Arnoux was supposed to give the win to teammate Prost to help the latter's championship cause. But that was a race that saw 4 French drivers finish in the top 4 (Arnoux, Prost, Pironi and Patrick Tambay) and German driver Jochen Mass immediately retire from F1 after a near-catastrophic accident with Mauro Baldi at Signes, the fast corner after the long Mistral straight. Mass's car touched Baldi's, both went off the track and Mass hit the barrier and was then catapulted into grandstands full of people. Although several spectators had minor injures, this appalling accident left no one dead or even seriously injured- as Formula One came very close to having its own 1955 Le Mans disaster. As it was, Pironi seemed poised to run away with the title, but his quest was ended prematurely at the next race in Germany. During a wet qualifying session, Pironi plowed into the back of Prost's Renault. The Ferrari was launched into the air in an eerily similar accident to the one that killed Villeneuve. Pironi was not thrown from the car, but suffered career-ending leg injuries. Pironi's crash was so bad that FIA doctor Sid Watkins had considered amputating Pironi's legs to remove him from the wrecked Ferrari, which never happened.[citation needed] Ferrari chose to compete in the next day's race, and Patrick Tambay (who Ferrari had picked to replace Villeneuve) took a sombre win after Piquet crashed out of the lead while lapping Eliseo Salazar (Piquet famously punched Salazar for his trouble). The Austrian Grand Prix at the Österreichring, the fastest Grand Prix circuit of the year was next, and this was perhaps the most exciting race of the season: all the turbo cars eventually fell out or hit trouble, and Prost, still in contention for the championship was dealt a serious blow to his championship hopes when his car suffered turbo failure 5 laps from the end. The race then ended up being an exciting sprint for the finish between Rosberg and Italian Lotus driver Elio de Angelis. De Angelis beat Rosberg to the line by half a car's length. The Swiss Grand Prix, held at the Dijon-Prenois circuit in France, not Switzerland (where motor racing is banned) saw Rosberg win and took the lead in the championship after being held up by de Cesaris in the Alfa and catching Prost who suffered yet more mechanical troubles with his car; this was perhaps the fatal blow for the hapless Frenchman's championship hopes. The Italian Grand Prix was won by Prost's hated teammate Arnoux and the two Ferraris of Tambay and American Mario Andretti finished 2nd and 3rd; John Watson still remained in contention for the championship title with Rosberg going into the final race in Las Vegas.

Rosberg wins in Las Vegas
Suddenly, Rosberg (who had scored zero points the previous season) was leading the championship going into the final round at Las Vegas. He finished 5th in this race, while Watson finished 2nd; but even this was not enough to overhaul Rosberg's 44 point tally. Michele Alboreto took his first of 5 career F1 wins there at Vegas; he was the 11th different winner that season; a record that has yet to be broken in Formula One.

1982 Drivers Championship final standings

References

Formula One seasons
1982 in sports

1982 Formula One World Championship


George Washington's Gristmill was part of the original Mount Vernon plantation, constructed during the lifetime of the United States' first president. The original structure was destroyed about 1850. The Commonwealth of Virginia and the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association have reconstructed the gristmill and the adjacent distillery.  The reconstructed buildings are located at their original site  west of the Mount Vernon mansion near Woodlawn Plantation in the Mont Vernon area of Fairfax County.  Because the reconstructed buildings embody the distinctive characteristics of late eighteenth century methods of production and are of importance to the history of Virginia, the site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places despite the fact that the buildings are not original.

History
George Washington inherited Mount Vernon in 1754. In 1771, he erected a large stone gristmill on the plantation to replace a mill his father had built in the 1730s. The new mill was located three miles (5 km) west of Mount Vernon on Dogue Run Creek. It was used to produce flour and cornmeal for the plantation as well as high-quality flour for export to the West Indies, England, and continental Europe. Washington also built a house for the miller and a cooperage to supply barrels for the mill, and later, the distillery operation.  The mill was powered by a large water wheel. To ensure a steady power supply, water was diverted from Piney Branch into Dogue Run Creek above the mill's headrace. The additional waterflow significantly increased the mill's production capacity. In 1791, Washington automated his mill using technology developed and patented by Oliver Evans of Delaware. Evans was personally acquainted with the mill and had repaired some of its works.

Once the gristmill was well established, Washington's farm manager, James Anderson, suggested building a whiskey distillery adjacent to the mill.  When it was completed in 1797, the distillery was the largest in America. By 1799 it had become one of Washington's most successful enterprises, producing 11,000 gallons of whiskey per year. A variety of whiskeys were produced at the site along with brandy and vinegar. The most common whiskey recipe used 60% rye, 35% corn, and 5% malted barley. Smaller amounts of rye whiskey were distilled up to four times and were more expensive. Some whiskey was also flavored with cinnamon. When rye was scarce the distillery used wheat. Apple, peach and persimmon brandies were also produced. The whiskey was marketed in Alexandria, Virginia, or shipped directly from Mount Vernon's dock on the Potomac River. The distillery process produced a significant waste stream, which was fed to 150 cattle and 30 hogs that were kept at the site.

After Washington's death in December 1799, the gristmill and distillery passed to his nephew, Lawrence Lewis.  In 1808, he rented the site to Alexandria merchant James Douglass.  The last known reference to the distillery business is an 1808 whiskey advertisement. The distillery building burned in 1814; this is documented by a small insurance payment made to Lewis that year. In 1848, Lewis' grandson sold the gristmill property along with Woodlawn Plantation. That is the last record of the original buildings. Local oral history suggests that the mill was quite run-down by 1848, and it was razed around 1850.

Reconstruction
In 1932, the Commonwealth of Virginia purchased  around the old mill site.  The state initiated an archaeological field survey of the site with the goal of reconstructing the gristmill, distillery and other Washington-era buildings.  The gristmill and miller's house were reconstructed in 1933.  Shortly after their completion, the site was opened as a state park.  However, by 1936 the state had stopped maintaining the park.  Sometime around 1940 a local chapter of the Future Farmers of America began caring for the grounds, but public use of the park was sparse.  The state resumed responsibility for the park in 1962.  Over the next two decades, several additional structures were built on the site.

In 1997, Virginia conveyed the property to the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association which owns and operates the Mount Vernon estate. From 1997 to 2002 the main structures underwent major renovation, including rebuilding the internal millworkings, renovation of the miller's house, restoration of the millraces, and construction of new brick pathways throughout the site. Because the property embodies the distinctive characteristics of late eighteenth-century production methods, the site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. In 1999, archaeologists began to investigate the distillery site; after five years of study the distillery reconstruction began. It was completed and opened to the public in 2007. This $2.1 million project was funded by the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States and the Wine and Spirits Wholesalers of America.

Historic site
George Washington's Gristmill is located on  approximately three miles west of the Mount Vernon estate. It is situated on an eastward sloping lot, bounded by Dogue Run Creek to the south, pasture land belonging to the National Trust for Historic Preservation to the west, the park's paved parking lot and a housing subdivision to the north, and a wooded lot to the east. The property is bisected by Virginia Route 235. All the site's historic elements (except one archeological site) are located on the east side of the highway.  This includes the gristmill, distillery, miller's house and several archeological sites. The west side of the property contains one archaeological site and three non-contributing structures.

Gristmill
The gristmill is a Colonial Revival-style stone building that was constructed in 1933 based on archaeological and documentary evidence. Its rectangular footprint measures  by . Its foundation is built into a hillside, with two and one half stories above ground on the north side and three and one half stories on the south side. It is a masonry structure built with sandstone arranged in a random pattern with stone lintels and sills. The mill's roof is covered with wooden shingles. On the south side of the building is a vertical-board door on the first floor; there is an identical door on the ground floor on the north side as well. Both have stone landings. The millrace enters the mill on the north side and exits at ground level on the south side.

The internal millworkings and structural members installed during the 1933 reconstruction were taken from an 1818 gristmill located near Front Royal, Virginia.  Some of the structural members from Front Royal mill are still in the building; however, most of the millworkings were replaced between 1997 and 2002.  The interior has exposed masonry walls with heavy timber framing. The flooring throughout the building is random-width pine. A masonry fireplace is in the southwest corner of the first floor. The grinding platform is accessed from the second floor.  The third level is one large room with rolling screens and other processing equipment. A staircase in the western half of the structure runs from the first floor to attic.  The mill's two grinding stones are powered by a pitch-back water wheel. The mill machinery is enclosed in a hurst frame, built from heavy oak and pine beams. Its frame is built directly on the mill's foundation, and is not connected to the walls.  This protects the structure from the machinery's potentially damaging vibrations. The hurst frame occupies the eastern half of the first two levels.

Miller's house
The miller's house was built at the same time as the gristmill; the reconstructed house was sited on its original site. The design for the building is based on archaeological evidence and a mid-nineteenth-century drawing. Its wood-frame structure rests on a stone foundation.  It is clad with beaded weatherboard.  In 1970, a -story addition doubled the size of the building. The interior of the original section is laid out in a hall-parlor configuration with two major rooms and a small bathroom. This area is used as a gift shop. The new section of the house includes a kitchen, pantry, and additional retail space for the gift ship.

Distillery
Because there is no surviving example of eighteenth century distillery, the reconstruction of Washington's distillery required extensive archeological and documentary investigation before an authentic structure could be built. The archeological study began in 1997 and lasted until 2006. During the excavation archaeologists uncovered the distillery's stone foundation which is some thirty-six inches (900 mm) thick. Some of the original foundation stones are over twenty-four inches (600 mm) in diameter. The initial course of the sandstone superstructure was intact along the southern foundation, and was two feet (600 mm) thick.  They discovered the location of five stills and boilers, and found many objects used in the distilling process along with fragments of domestic items such as teacups, drinking glasses and buttons.

The distillery was reconstructed in 2007.  To ensure an authentic reconstruction the wood was finished by hand and the construction used hand-made nails and hardware. There were some compromises necessary to comply with modern building codes and safety requirements.  For example, the original structure's 30 by 75 foot (9 m by 23 m) footprint was extended by  in order to house an elevator and modern staircase for public use.

The distillery has two floors with five large copper stills, mash tubs and a boiler that demonstrate the eighteenth-century distilling process. The building includes a storage cellar for whiskey barrels, an office, and two bedrooms where the site manager and his assistant would have lived. The building's floors are made of three different materials. A stone floor is used in the mashing area to reduce vibrations that can disturb the fermentation process.  Around the boilers and under the staircase is a brick floor, and an elevated wooden floor around the stills.  Wooden planks are used for flooring in the rest of the building.

The original distillery was built to specifications provided by James Anderson, originally from Inverkeithing in Scotland and much of the correspondence between Washington and Anderson is recorded in the Library of Congress.  The concept of building a distillery and entering into whisky production was suggested directly by Anderson and Washington's skepticism was notable in many letters.  In the end, on advice from friends, he agreed to proceed with the plans as outlined by Anderson.  The process is based on the Scottish distillation of Scotch Whisky but differs in that the spirit was not aged as Scotch is today.  As a result, the Whisky tastes quite different.

Access
The gristmill, distillery, and gift shop are open to the public from April through October.  They are located approximately three miles west of Mount Vernon's main gate on Virginia Route 235.  Tickets to tour the gristmill and distillery are available at Mount Vernon and the gristmill's gift shop.  The tickets can be combined admission to Mount Vernon or purchased separately.  Public transportation is available between Mount Vernon and the gristmill.

See also
List of historic whisky distilleries
George Washington's Fishery

References

External links
George Washington's Mount Vernon - Distillery and Gristmill
Washington's Grist Mill, 55414 Mount Vernon Memorial Highway, Mount Vernon, Fairfax County, VA: 1 photo at Historic American Buildings Survey
George Washington's Distillery

Gristmill
Archaeological sites in Virginia
Buildings and structures in Fairfax County, Virginia
Colony of Virginia
Distilleries in Virginia
Grinding mills in Virginia
Grinding mills on the National Register of Historic Places in Virginia
Historic American Buildings Survey in Virginia
History museums in Virginia
Mill museums in Virginia
Museums in Fairfax County, Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Fairfax County, Virginia
Watermills in the United States

George Washington's Gristmill


Diberekeun dua sebaran gabungan variabel random X jeung Y, sebaran kondisional probabiliti of Y given X (written "Y | X") is the probability distribution of Y when X is known to be a particular value.

For discrete random variables, the conditional probability mass function can be written as P(Y = y | X = x).  From the definition of conditional probability, this is

Similarly for continuous random variables, the conditional probability density function can be written as pY|X(y | x) and this is

where pX,Y(x, y) gives the joint distribution of X and Y, while pX(x) gives the marginal distribution for X.

The concept of the conditional distribution of a continuous random variable is not as intuitive as it might seem: Borel's paradox shows that conditional probability density functions need not be invariant under coordinate transformations.

If for discrete random variables P(Y = y | X = x) = P(Y = y) for all x and y, or for continuous random variables pY|X(y | x) = pY(y) for all x and y, then Y is said to be independent of X (and this implies that X is also independent of Y).

Seen as a function of y for given x, P(Y = y | X = x) is a probability and so the sum over all y (or integral if it is a density) is 1.  Seen as a function of x for given y, it is a likelihood, so that the sum over all x need not be 1.

Sebaran probabilitas

Sebaran kondisional


Albion Parris Howe (March 13, 1818 – January 25, 1897) was an American officer who served as a Union general in the American Civil War.  Howe's contentious relationships with superior officers in the Army of the Potomac eventually led to his being deprived of division command.

Early life and career
Howe was born in Standish, Maine. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1841. After serving in the 4th U.S. Artillery for two years, he taught mathematics at the U.S. Military Academy for three years.

Howe served in the Mexican War and was awarded a brevet promotion in 1847 to the rank of captain for gallantry during Winfield Scott's advance upon Mexico City, especially for his actions at the Battle of Contreras and the Battle of Churubusco. He was promoted to the rank of captain on March 2, 1855. Howe served under Robert E. Lee during the suppression of John Brown at Harpers Ferry.

Civil War
At the beginning of the Civil War, Howe served under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan in western Virginia. He took command of John J. Peck's 3rd Brigade, (55th New York, 62nd New York, and the 93rd, 98th, and 102nd Pennsylvania regiments) Couch's 1st Division, Keyes's IV Corps during the Seven Days Battles, after Peck was promoted to command of Silas Casey's Division of the same corps. Howe received the brevet rank of major in the regular army for his role at the Battle of Malvern Hill. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the volunteer service on June 11, 1862.

In the subsequent campaigns of the Army of the Potomac, Howe fought in the Battle of South Mountain and was present at the Battle of Antietam. He was promoted to command 2nd Division, VI Corps, leading it at the Battle of Fredericksburg. His division was heavily engaged at Fredericksburg and Salem Church during the Chancellorsville Campaign. Howe's division led a reconnaissance in the vicinity of Fredericksburg on June 3, 1863, as the Union high command tried to determine whether the Army of Northern Virginia was moving out of its positions to undertake an offensive. It was only minimally engaged in the campaign culminating in the Battle of Gettysburg. His division was the last to reach the battlefield and his two brigades were assigned to opposite ends of the Union line, leaving him effectively without a command. During the pursuit of Lee's retreating army, the 1st Vermont Brigade of Howe's division fought the Confederate rear guard near Funkstown, Maryland, on July 10, 1863. Howe continued in division command during the Bristoe Campaign and the Mine Run Campaign.

Howe was removed from command by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade shortly thereafter. Howe's bad relationship with his corps commander, Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, including support of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker in the controversies that were spawned by the Union defeat at Chancellorsville, probably contributed to this removal. Meade, if he did not initiate Howe's removal, at least did not oppose it.  Howe testified against Meade and Sedgwick before the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, claiming Sedgwick spoke to him about retreating to Westminster, Maryland.  Sedgwick's testimony before the committee contradicted Howe's without naming him.  The committee did not pursue this contradiction. What is clear is that Sedgwick sought the services of Brig. Gen. George W. Getty to replace Howe in command of the 2nd Division.

After leaving the Army of the Potomac, Howe commanded the artillery depot in Washington, D.C. He was in the field briefly at Harpers Ferry, opposing the raid on Washington by Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal Early.

Postbellum service

At the close of the war, Howe served in the honor guard that stood watch over the corpse of Abraham Lincoln, and soon afterward was appointed as a member of the military commission that tried the Lincoln conspirators. Howe did not make any public comments on the conviction or hanging of Mary E. Surratt, but was not among the five officers who petitioned President Andrew Johnson to commute her sentence to life in prison. Both assignments may indicate that the Radical Republican faction in the Congress found him useful and sympathetic. He also served in the Freedmen's Bureau in 1865. Howe was mustered out of the volunteer service on July 15, 1866.

Howe retired from the Army on June 30, 1882, at the rank of colonel. He was a veteran companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.  He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is buried there in Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Howe was married to Elizabeth, daughter of Andrew Mahaffey, a superintendent of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and Elizabeth McPherson. They had six children.

See also

 List of American Civil War generals (Union)
 Battery Howe-Wagner, named for Howe

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 Hyde, Bill, The Union Generals Speak: The Meade Hearings on the Battle of Gettysburg, Louisiana State University Press, 2003, .
 Kauffman, Michael W., American Brutus: John Wilkes Booth and the Lincoln Conspiracies, Random House, 2004, .
 Parsons, Philip W., The Union Sixth Corps in the Chancellorsville Campaign, Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2006, .
 Tagg, Larry, The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing, 1998, .
 Winslow, Richard Elliott, III, General John Sedgwick: the Story of a Union Corps Commander, Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1982, .

External links

 Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe's Official Report on the Battle of Gettysburg

1818 births
1897 deaths
Union Army generals
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People from Standish, Maine
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army officers
People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln
People of Maine in the American Civil War
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery

Albion P. Howe


Ed Elisian (born Edward Gulbeng Eliseian; December 9, 1926 – August 30, 1959) was an American racecar driver, mainly competing in the National Championship.  He died in a crash at the Milwaukee Mile.

In the 1955 Indianapolis 500, he stopped his car in a futile attempt to help Bill Vukovich when Vukovich's car crashed and burned during the race.  He is one of only two drivers in Indy 500 history to stop a non-damaged car to help another driver, the other being Gary Bettenhausen in 1971.  He received a sportsmanship award for his efforts, as well as the wrath of the car owner.

In June 1956, Elisian was engaging in a wheel-to-wheel duel with Bob Sweikert, who had won the race in which Vukovich was killed, in a Sprint car race at Salem Speedway when Sweikert made contact with the rail, overleapt it and rolled over outside of the track, suffering fatal skull injuries.  Elisian was exonerated as no collision had taken place.

In the 1958 Indianapolis 500, Dick Rathmann and Elisian started the race on the front row, with Jimmy Reece on the outside of the front row.  Elisian spun in Turn 3 of the first lap, and collected Rathmann, sending them both into the wall, and starting a 15-car pileup.  Pat O'Connor's car hit Reece's car, sailed fifty feet in the air, landed upside down, and burst into flames.  Although medical officials said that O'Connor was probably killed instantly from a fractured skull, he was incinerated in the accident, in full view of fans and drivers.  Widely blamed for the accident, Elisian was suspended by USAC (reinstated a few days later), and was shunned by the racing community.  Rumors spread that Elisian tried to lead the first lap in order to pay gambling debts owed to a syndicate.

In June 1958, Elisian collided with Jim Davis in a Sprint car race at New Bremen Speedway in Auglaize County, Ohio.  After Davis had run over one of the wheels of Elisian's spinning car when trying to pass him at the south turn, both cars flipped over and slid down the track.  Elisian sustained minor injuries, but Davis, who suffered a skull fracture and chest injuries, died at Memorial Hospital in St. Marys, Ohio.  While absolved of blame in the incident, Elisian's unpopularity with drivers deepened.

In September 1958, Elisian was suspended for being charged with passing fraudulent checks among other things, but reinstated as of end of May 1959.

In August 1959, Elisian entered the USAC Indy car  race at the "Milwaukee Mile," - in West Allis, Wisconsin - known in those days as Wisconsin State Fair Park.  Driving a metallic green Watson-style roadster owned by Ernie Ruiz, he crashed on lap 29 when he spun in oil from A. J. Foyt's engine.  The car hit the wall, rupturing the fuel cell, and rolled over.  Some sixty gallons of fuel caught fire, and took over nine minutes to extinguish.  The crash claimed the life of Elisian.

Indianapolis 500 results

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

 * Indicates shared drive with Bob Scott.
 † Indicates shared drive with Eddie Russo.

References

1926 births
1959 deaths
Sportspeople from Oakland, California
Racing drivers from California
Indianapolis 500 drivers
AAA Championship Car drivers
Racing drivers who died while racing
Sports deaths in Wisconsin

Ed Elisian