Mourad Medelci (; 30 April 1943 – 28 January 2019) was an Algerian politician who served in the government of Algeria as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2007 to 2013. He was President of the Constitutional Council of Algeria from 2013 until his death in 2019.

Early life
Born in Tlemcen on 30 April 1943, Medelci studied economics at the University of Algiers, receiving his bachelor's degree in 1966 and master's degree in 1968. From 1970 to 1980 he worked in the private sector before entering public service as Secretary-General of the Ministry of Trade in 1980. He was married with five children.

Political career
Medelci was Minister of Trade from 1988 to 1989 and Deputy Minister for the Budget from 1990 to 1991. He was again Minister of Trade from 1999 to 2001, then Minister of Finance from 2001 to 2002. From 2002 to May 2005 he was Adviser to the President, Abdelaziz Bouteflika. In May 2005 he became Minister of Finance again, serving in that position until he became Minister of State for Foreign Affairs on 4 June 2007.

After serving more than six years as Foreign Minister, Medelci was replaced by Ramtane Lamamra in the government named on 11 September 2013. President Bouteflika instead appointed Medelci as President of the Constitutional Council on 15 September 2013. Medelci replaced Tayeb Belaiz, who had been appointed to the government as Minister of the Interior.

Death
Medelci was very unwell in January 2019, he was hospitalised in Paris before being brought back to Algiers in the last week of January. By 27 January, he was incapable of carrying out his role of president of the Constitutional Council just as it was preparing to oversee the 2019 Algerian presidential election. Medelci died at approximately 1:30am on 28 January in Algiers. He was buried the same day in Ben Aknoun cemetery. The constitutional council, led by the vice-president will meet to discuss the situation.

See also

Cabinet of Algeria

References

1943 births
2019 deaths
Finance ministers of Algeria
Foreign ministers of Algeria
Interior ministers of Algeria
Trade ministers of Algeria
People of the 2010–2012 Algerian protests
People from Tlemcen
21st-century Algerian people

Mourad Medelci


Ultra High Frequency (UHF) is a electromagnetic radiation. Especially its frequency is between 300 MHz and 3 GHz (3,000 MHz). Because of short wavelength, UHF has strong directivity and it has small area. UHF is commonly used for television signals. It is strong enough to be protected from other signal, but because of its strong directivity, receiving error by an obstacle occurs more. Hence it needs sensitive sensors.

Uses
UHF frequencies have higher attenuation from atmospheric moisture and benefit less from 'bounce', or the reflection of signals off the ionosphere back to earth, when compared to VHF frequencies. The frequencies of 300–3000 MHz are always at least an order of magnitude above the MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency). The MUF for most of the earth is generally between 25–35 MHz. Higher frequencies also benefit less from ground mode transmission. However, the short wavelengths of UHF frequencies allow compact receiving antennas with narrow elements; many people consider them less ugly than VHF-receiving models

United States
On December 29, 1949 KC2XAK of Bridgeport, Connecticut became the first UHF television station to operate on a regular daily schedule.
In the United States, UHF stations (broadcast channels above 13) originally gained a reputation for being more locally owned, less polished, less professional, less popular, and for having a weaker signal than their VHF counterparts (channels 2–13). The movie UHF, starring Weird Al Yankovic, parodied this phenomenon.

However, with the emergence of additional broadcast television networks ( Fox, UPN, WB, and PaxThe PAX Network PAX TV PaxNet or simply PAX is a cable television network formed in 1998. PAX, which is owned by Paxson Communications, shows family-oriented programming. Its programming contains little or no sex, violence or strong language. Unlike most), the concentration of media ownershipConcentration of media ownership is a commonly used terms among media critics, policy makers, and others to characterize ownership structure of media industries. Media ownership is said to be concentrated usually in one or more of the following ways., and the proliferation of cable televisionCable television or Community Antenna Television CATV (and often shortened to 'cable') is a system of providing television, FM radio programming and other services to consumers through fixed coaxial cables, rather than by the older and more widespread rad, digital televisionDigital television DTV uses digital modulation and compression to broadcast video, audio and data signals to television sets.

Introduction A major use of DTV can be to carry more channels on the same amount of bandwidth. Another can be high-definition pro, and DSSDigital Satellite System (DSS) or Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS is a technology to deliver a television or audio signal digitally, directly from an orbiting satellite to a consumer's one- to three-foot-diameter dish at the consumer's home or business. in the 1990sCenturies: 19th century 20th century 21st century Decades: 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s Years: Events and trends Computers, technology Explosive growth of the Internet; decrease in the cost of computers and other techn, the distinction between UHF and VHF stations has virtually disappeared in the United States. Most HDTV stations (those using the ATSC television standard) broadcast their over-the-air signal in the UHF band.

United Kingdom
In Britain, UHF television began with the launch of BBC2 in 1964, using a 625-line system (which had higher resolution, and therefore required greater bandwidth, than the existing 405-line system). BBC1 and ITV soon added their own 625-line services on UHF (British channels 21 to 69), and PAL colour was introduced on UHF only in 1967– 1969. VHF was phased out by 1986. Today all British terrestrial television channels (analog and digital) are on UHF. A drawback to this is the very large number of small relay transmitters needed to fill in gaps in the main transmitters' coverage, which would not have been necessary with a VHF system due to its different propagation characteristics.

Related pages
Electromagnetic spectrum

Wave physics
Electromagnetic radiation

Ultra high frequency


40S ribosomal protein S3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RPS3 gene.

Function

Ribosomes, the organelles that catalyze protein synthesis, consist of a small 40S subunit and a large 60S subunit. Together these subunits are composed of 4 RNA species and approximately 80 structurally distinct proteins. This gene encodes a ribosomal protein that is a component of the 40S subunit, where it forms part of the domain where translation is initiated. The protein belongs to the S3P family of ribosomal proteins. Studies of the mouse and rat proteins have demonstrated that the protein has an extraribosomal role as an endonuclease involved in the repair of UV-induced DNA damage. The protein appears to be located in both the cytoplasm and nucleus but not in the nucleolus. Higher levels of expression of this gene in colon adenocarcinomas and adenomatous polyps compared to adjacent normal colonic mucosa have been observed. This gene is co-transcribed with the small nucleolar RNA genes U15A and U15B, which are located in its first and fifth introns, respectively. As is typical for genes encoding ribosomal proteins, there are multiple processed pseudogenes of this gene dispersed through the genome.

References

Further reading

Ribosomal proteins

40S ribosomal protein S3


Cock throwing, also known as cock-shying or throwing at cocks, was a blood sport widely practised in England until the late 18th century. A rooster was tied to a post, and people took turns throwing coksteles (special weighted sticks) at the bird until it died. Cock throwing was traditionally associated with Shrove Tuesday. A contributor to The Gentleman's Magazine in 1737, during an anti-Gallican phase of British culture, was of the opinion that cock throwing arose from traditional enmity towards the French, for which the cock played an emblematic role.

Cock throwing was a popular pastime with people of all classes, especially with children, and although widespread, was less common than cockfighting. Sir Thomas More referred to his skill in casting a cokstele as a boy. If the bird had its legs broken or was lamed during the event, it was sometimes supported with sticks in order to prolong the game. The cock was also sometimes placed inside an earthenware jar to prevent it from moving. Variations on the theme included goose quailing (or squailing), when a goose was substituted, and cock thrashing or cock whipping, which involved a cock being placed in a pit where the blindfolded participants would attempt to hit it with their sticks. A Sussex variation was similar to bull-baiting with the rooster tied to a  cord.

In 1660, an official pronouncement by Puritan officials in Bristol to forbid cock throwing (as well as cat and dog tossing) on Shrove Tuesday resulted in a riot by the apprentices.

Cock throwing's popularity slowly waned in England, as social values changed and animal welfare became a concern. William Hogarth depicted it as a barbarous activity, the first stage in a "slippery slope", in The Four Stages of Cruelty in 1751, and Nathan Drake credited this in part for changes in public attitudes to the sport. The Anglican divine and political economist Josiah Tucker also dismissed the sport as a "most cruel and barbarous diversion' in his 'Earnest and Affectionate Address to the Common People of England Concerning their Usual Recreations on Shrove Tuesday'  (1753), drawing attention to the suffering and 'lingering tortures' of a 'poor innocent creature'. From the middle of the 18th century, magistrates began to deal with the problem more harshly, a marker of its loss in popularity among the "respectable" classes, imposing fines for public order offences, and local by-laws banned the practice in many places.

By the early 19th century, the tradition was all but forgotten, lingering as isolated incidents into the 1840s.

See also
Bull-baiting
Fox tossing
Goose pulling

References

Animal festival or ritual
Animal rights
Obsolete blood sports
Animal cruelty incidents

Cock throwing


Rice is a kind o scran. It is grown in warm parts o the warld, mainly Asie, Africae, northren Italy, an the Wast Coast o North Americae.
Rice uised tae be the main diet in mony kintras. It isnae eaten raw; uisually it is cuiked or biled. In some areas, sic as Spain, rice is first fried in olive ile or butter, then cuiked wi watter or soup. In ither areas, sic as Indie, rice is aeten wi sauce or curry. Rice can be uised for tae mak alcohol, sic as Japanese sake forby.
Rice is tocht to have been first grown in auncient soothren Cheenae an Indie. Rice growin was brocht tae Japan mibbie in the 1st century BC, an became popular during the 2t century an the 3t century. Frae Indie, rice spread tae soothren Europe an Africae.
Rice is uisually plauntit in a flet field droukit wi watter. Afore croppin, the watter is drained frae the field. Afore fermers developed a guid fermin system an fertilisers, they uised tae let launds reist for 1 tae 2 year while ferming in ither launds.
In some hot areas, nearhaund the equaetor, fermers dae dooble-croppin which means raisin twa crops a year.

Ither wabsteids
 2004: Internaitional Year o Rice
 The Internaitional Rice Research Institute Knowledge Bank
  Origin o Chinese rice cultivaition
 Sooth Carolina rice plaunting photaes frae the early 1900s

Craps oreeginatin frae Cheenae
Gresses o Asie
Plant models
Teeps o fuid
Tropical agricultur

Rice


A military decoration is an award, usually a medal that consists of a ribbon and medallion given to an person for either gallantry, or outstanding service or achievement.

Civil decorations awarded to military personnel are not considered military decorations, although some of them have civil and military divisions. Decorations received by police and fire brigade personnel may sometimes be considered alongside military decorations, on which they may be modelled, although they are strictly not military awards.

Orders, decorations, and medals

Military orders, awards and decorations


Gerard de Malynes (fl. 1585–1627) was an independent merchant in foreign trade, an English commissioner in the Spanish Netherlands, a government advisor on trade matters, assay master of the mint, and commissioner of mint affairs. His dates of birth and death are unknown.

Life
Malynes stated that his ancestors were from Lancashire. His father, a mint-master, may have emigrated about 1552 to Antwerp, where Gerard was born, and returned to England at the time of the restoration of the currency (1561), when Elizabeth obtained the assistance of skilled workmen from Flanders. Malynes showed how an outflow of precious metals could lead to a fall in prices for goods at home and a rise in prices abroad. This was an important clarification of the economic thought of the time. He suggested that higher import tariffs should be levied and exports of bullion prohibited, because he believed that a country's growth was related to the accumulation of precious metals.

Malynes was appointed (about 1586) one of the commissioners of trade in the Low Countries. He was in England in 1587, when he purchased from Sir Francis Drake some of the pearls which Drake brought from Cartagena. He was frequently consulted on mercantile affairs by the privy council. In 1600 he was appointed one of the commissioners for establishing the true par of exchange, and he gave evidence before the committee of the House of Commons on the Merchants' Assurance Bill (November and December 1601). While the Act for the True Making of Woollen Cloth (4 Jac. I, c. 2) was passing through parliament he prepared for the privy council a report showing the weight, length, and breadth of all kinds of cloth.

During the reign of James I, Malynes took part in schemes for developing natural resources. Among them was an attempt to work lead mines in Yorkshire and silver mines in County Durham in 1606, when at his own charge he brought workmen from Germany. He was joined by Lord Eure and some London merchants, but the undertaking failed. Monetary questions were his major concern, and he was an assay master of the mint.

In 1609 Malynes was a commissioner on mint affairs, along with Thomas Knyvet, 1st Baron Knyvet, Sir Richard Martin, John Williams the king's goldsmith, and others. Shortly afterwards he engaged in a scheme for supplying a deficiency in the currency, of coins of small value, by the issue of farthing tokens. Private traders had for some years infringed the royal prerogative by striking farthing tokens in lead. A proposal which seems to have been inspired by Malynes, was put forth in 1612 to remedy this. The scheme was adopted, and John Harington, 2nd Baron Harington of Exton obtained the patent for supplying the new coins (10 April 1613), which he assigned to Malynes and William Cockayne, in accordance with an agreement previously made with the former. On the withdrawal of Cockayne, who did not like the terms of the original grant, Malynes was joined by John Couchman. But from the first the contractors were unfortunate. The Duke of Lennox tried to obtain the patent from Lord Harington by offering better terms than Malynes. The new farthings, which were called "Haringtons", were unpopular. They were refused in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, Flint, and Denbigh; and even in counties where they were accepted the demand for them was low, and in six months the issue was less than £600. The death of Lord Harington in 1614 gave rise to new difficulties, the patent was infringed, and private traders continued to issue illegal coins.

Malynes, in a petition which he addressed to the king from the Fleet Prison (16 February 1619) complained that he had been ruined by his employers, who insisted on paying him in his own farthings. But he appears to have surmounted these difficulties. In 1622 he gave evidence on the state of the coinage before the standing commission on trade. Malynes was impressed with the effects of usurers on the poorer classes. He proposed the adoption of a system of pawnbroking and a mount of piety, under government control. In this way he hoped to enable poor people to obtain loans at a moderate rate of interest.

In 1622 Malynes and fellow merchant Edward Misselden began a famous dispute on free trade.

Malynes addressed a petition to the House of Commons of 1641.

Books
 A Treatise of the Canker of Englands Common Wealth (1601)
 St George for England, allegorically described (1601)
 England's View in the Unmasking of two Paradoxes (1603)
 The Maintenance of Free Trade, According to the Three Essentiall Parts of Traffique; Namely Commodities, Moneys and Exchange of Moneys, by Bills of Exchanges for other Countries.  Or answer to a Treatise of Free Trade, or the meanes to make Trade floushish, lately Published.  (1622).
 Consuetudo, vel, Lex Mercatoria: or, The Law Merchant: Divided into three parts, according to the Essential Parts of Traffick Necessary for All Statesmen, Judges, Magistrates, Temporal and Civil Lawyers, Mint-Men, Merchants, Mariners and Others Negotiating in all Places of the World. (1622)
 The Center of the Circle of Commerce (1623)

Economic theory
He was a supporter of ideas similar to mercantilism.

Notes

Attribution

External links
 The Maintenance of Free Trade

16th-century English people
English economists
17th-century English businesspeople

Mercantilists

Gerard de Malynes


Genuardi's Family Markets L.P. was a chain of supermarkets located in the Northeastern United States. Family-owned until purchased by Safeway in 2000, Genuardi's had its headquarters in the Bentwood Executive Campus in East Norriton Township, Pennsylvania in Greater Philadelphia.

After many of its remaining stores were sold or closed, there was a Safeway-owned store under the former chain's name located in Audubon, Pennsylvania that remained open until May 2015.

History

Beginning
In 1920, Gaspare and Josephine Genuardi owned a farm near Norristown, Pennsylvania and grew fruits and vegetables. The couple went around to their neighbors delivering produce to them. Gaspare and Josephine were the parents of nine children. Of the nine were Charlie, Frank, Tom, Joe, and Jim who helped out with the business. The five sons soon became known as the "Genuardi brothers" by the customers.

The Genuardi family opened its first supermarket in Norristown in 1954, which until its closure was the oldest surviving Genuardi's in operation. Relatives of the Genuardi family also maintain a nursery and florist in Norristown.

1950s, 1960s, and 1970s
The five Genuardi brothers expanded their supermarkets throughout the western Philadelphia suburbs, spanning Bucks, Delaware, Chester, and Montgomery counties. The company has never had any stores within Philadelphia city limits. In 1975, it acquired some former Pantry Pride (originally known as Food Fair) and A&P stores, and more ex-A&P properties rejected by Super Fresh in 1985.

1980s and 1990s
The chain's first surviving stores outside Norristown opened in the 1980s. As the 1990s approached, the five brothers decided to transfer ownership of the stores to a third generation of family, which consisted of Jim Jr., Joe Jr., Charles A., Larry, Tom Jr., Michael, Anthony, Skip, and David Genuardi. Charles A. was named President/CEO of Genuardi's Family Markets. Also during this time, it owned a discount grocery chain called Mad Grocer. In the late 1990s, the company expanded into Delaware and New Jersey. The name of the supermarkets was generally pronounced as  by the English speakers of the region, including in TV and radio commercials, regardless of any Italian pronunciation that the founding family's surname may originally have had in Italy; thus, , despite being reasonable with respect to an Italian original, was not the usual sound.

Safeway buyout of Genuardi's Family Markets
In February 2001, the Genuardi family sold the chain to Safeway. In the summer of 2004, all Genuardi's stores in Delaware were converted to the Safeway banner when they were unionized. Safeway already had stores of its own in southern Delaware. There were issues and local outrage over the Safeway takeover due to claims of price increases, the changeover of many products to Safeway's own brands, and the use of a loyalty card, which was not needed under Genuardi's previous ownership. Except for the Safeway conversions, Genuardi's remained non-union, despite heavy unionization in Safeway's other chains.

2000s and early 2010s downfall

In 2005, grocery delivery was added to select Genuardi's stores. This allowed customers to order groceries via the Genuardi's/Safeway websites and have it delivered by truck in a set time frame. Later on in the year, Genuardi's closed two underperforming stores in East Windsor, New Jersey and Bensalem, Pennsylvania, the latter of which was converted to a ShopRite.

During 2010, underperforming Genuardi's stores did not have their leases renewed and Safeway closed store locations in Newtown Square (Edgmont), Glen Mills, Chesterbrook, and Lansdale in Pennsylvania, and Voorhees in New Jersey.

In September 2011, Safeway was looking to sell all or part of Genuardi's. Later that month, a sale of several of Genuardi's locations to Giant-Carlisle appeared to be imminent.

On January 5, 2012, Giant announced its deal to acquire 15 Genuardi's Family Markets across the Philadelphia area in a $106 million (~$ in ) deal. For three weeks in July 2012, Giant opened 5 of the former Genuardi's stores each week.

Weis Markets announced on February 13, 2012, the purchase of three stores in Montgomery and Bucks counties. The three Weis stores opened on June 16, 2012.

Although it was initially to be acquired by Giant, it was announced on June 6, 2012, that the Newtown store would instead become a McCaffrey's Food Markets. The Newtown store became a McCaffrey's on July 15.

After failing to find a buyer for the location, the Cherry Hill store closed on August 4, 2012, and later became Whole Foods Market.

The Barnegat and Egg Harbor Township/Northfield stores closed on December 12, 2012, the Barnegat store was to re-open as Safeway's sister chain Acme in 2016 and the Egg Harbor Township/Northfield store became JR's Fresh Market in 2015 but that closed in 2018 and became Lidl in 2021.

The Marlton store closed on February 12, 2013.

The Audubon store, the last remaining store, closed on May 27, 2015; this location reopened as a Redner's in 2019.

Acme Markets, the chain's long-time rival, announced in late 2015 it would reopen the closed Barnegat location as an Acme; this was made possible when Albertsons (Acme's parent firm) merged with Safeway earlier in the year, and Safeway continued to hold the location's lease long after it closed. The store reopened as an Acme on February 5, 2016.

References

Sources
Genuardi Family Markets Employee Handbook, 1995.

External links
  (Archive)

Defunct supermarkets of the United States
Safeway Inc.
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
American companies established in 1920
Food and drink companies established in 1920
Retail companies established in 1920
Food and drink companies disestablished in 2012
Retail companies disestablished in 2012
1920 establishments in Pennsylvania
2012 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
Family-owned companies of the United States

Genuardi's


An ocean is a large area of water between continents. Oceans are very big and they join smaller seas together. Oceans (or marine biomes) cover 72% of Earth. There are five main oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.

The largest ocean is the Pacific Ocean. The smallest ocean is the Arctic Ocean. Many types of animals live in oceans, such as carp, crabs, starfish, sharks, and whales.
Different water movements separate the Southern Ocean from the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Southern Ocean is also called the Antarctic Ocean, because it covers the area around Antarctica.

The deepest ocean is the Pacific Ocean. The deep ocean is characterized by cold temperatures, high pressure, and complete darkness. Some very unusual organisms live in this part of the ocean. They do not require energy from the sun to survive, because they use chemicals from deep inside the Earth.

Color
Although many people believe that the oceans are blue because the water reflects the blue sky, this is actually not true. Water has a very slight blue color that can only be seen when there is a lot of water. However, the main cause of the blue or blue/green color of the oceans is that water absorbs the red part of the incoming light, and reflects the green and blue part of the light. We then see the reflected light as the color of water.

Plants and animals
Many organisms live in oceans. Organisms that live in oceans can live in salt water. They are affected by sunlight, temperature, water pressure, and water movement. Different ocean organisms live near the surface, in shallow waters, and in deep waters. Small plant organisms that live near the surface and use sunlight to produce food are called phytoplankton. Almost all animals in the ocean depend directly or indirectly on these plants. In shallow water, you may find lobsters and crabs. In deeper water, marine animals of many different shapes and sizes swim through the ocean. These include many types of fish, such as tuna, swordfish and marine mammals like dolphins and whales. The skies above the open ocean are home to large sea birds, such as the albatross.

Harvesting the ocean
Nations like Russia and Japan have lots of huge ships that go to some of the world's best fishing areas for many months. These large ships have libraries, hospitals, schools, repair (fixing) shops and other things that are needed for fishermen and their families.

Many people look at the sea as a source of food, minerals and energy.

Fishing
According to the FishBase.org website, there are 33,200 known fish species, many of which live in the oceans.  Many of these fish are a fine source of protein, so many people eat them. Fishing industries is very important because they make jobs and give food to millions of people. Today, usually through ocean fishing, the ocean supplies about 2% of the calories needed by people. Tuna, anchovies, and herring are harvested close to the surface of the ocean. Pollock, flounder, and cod are caught near the ocean floor. More than a million tons of herring are caught every year in the North Pacific and North Atlantic, and almost eight fish out of ten fish are eaten as food for humans. The other fish are used as fertilizer, glue, and pet and other animal food.

Ocean temperatures
There are many different ocean temperatures in the open ocean, both vertically (from top to bottom) and horizontally. Icebergs are made over very cold waters at either pole, while waters at the equator are pretty warm. Water cools and warms more slowly than land does, so land influenced by the ocean has later and milder seasons than land that is farther away from the ocean.

The surface part of the ocean, also called the mixed layer, is not much colder even when we go deeper down. Below this surface zone is a layer of sudden temperature difference, called a thermocline. This is a middle layer hat is from the surface zone down to about 2,600 feet (800 m). Thermoclines may happen only at seasons or permanently, and may change depending on where and how deep it is. As evaporation happens, it begins cooling, and if the water evaporates very quickly, the water becomes saltier. The salty, cold water is denser, so it sinks. This is why warm and cold waters do not easily mix. Most animals and plants live in the warm upper layer. Below the thermocline, the temperature in the deep zone is so cold it is just above freezing - between .

Related pages
Oceanography

References

Ocean


James Melville Fulton (1873–1940) was a composer, arranger, conductor, and music educator best known for composing marches. He is often associated with the traditional British melody Garry Owen which he arranged for band in 1903. His most recognized march is Associated Press, published in 1897. His more than 245 compositions include more than 144 marches (more than Sousa) as well as many waltzes, polkas, overtures, schottisches, reveries, and cakewalks.

Fulton was born in Washington, Pennsylvania and studied violin, cornet, euphonium, and tuba as a youth. He played cornet for orchestras and bands, eventually becoming the conductor of the Waite Dramatic Company Band and music director for the Hotel Rudolf in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Starting in 1899, Fulton led the American Band from Waterbury, Connecticut and changed its name to "Fulton's American Band." He would later organize his own music publishing company and serve as music director for Fenway Theatre in Boston. His was conductor for the Waltham Watch Company Band for 13 years. He died of a heart attack in Belmont, Massachusetts in 1940 while preparing the Belmont VFW Band for another state championship.

Family: Fulton was married to M Margaret Sprow on August 9, 1893, and had a daughter named Alga N Fulton (b.April 22, 1893). They divorced on March 6, 1903.

He married Edith Hoxie on May 2, 1904.

He married Catherine S. Fulton (?) (d.1971) and they are both buried in an unmarked grave at the Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge Massachusetts.

References

1873 births
1940 deaths
American male composers
American composers
American conductors (music)
American male conductors (music)
American bandleaders

James M. Fulton


Celestial mechanics  is a part of astronomy that looks at the movement of the objects in the sky, and tries to find models to describe and explain these movements. The objects described include stars and planets, and also comets, and other similar objects.

The mathematics of celestial mechanics include spherical geometry, trigonometry and Newton's laws of motion.

History
The first known examples of celestial mechanics are from Mesopotamia, around 3000 BC. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa is a record of observations about the planet Venus. The tablet also describes the finding that solar and lunar eclipses are periodic events.

About the same time, ancient Egyptians found the length of the solar year to be 365.25 days. In Europe, this figure was in used until the Gregorian calendar was introduced in the 16th century.

At the same time, Eratosthenes worked out that the radius of the Earth was  252.000 stadia, or 50 times the distance between Alexandria and Aswan. This value is . It is very close to the real value of  at the equator.

In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus calculated the distance between the Earth and the Moon to be 30 times the diameter of the Earth. This value is also very close to the modern one.

In the 17th century, Johannes Kepler observed the motion of planets in the sky. He created three laws of planetary motion that described their orbits.

Related pages
Astrophysics

Celestial mechanics


Pierre Villette (7 February 1926 – 6 March 1998) was a French composer of choral and instrumental music.

Villette was born into a musical family in 1926 at Duclair, Normandy. He studied with Maurice Duruflé before attending the Paris Conservatoire. Pierre Boulez was a fellow student but their careers followed very different paths. In 1957, Villette was appointed director of the Conservatoire in Besançon, the capital of the Franche-Comté region. He was dogged by ill health and had a lung removed while still in his twenties. His bad health forced him to move from mountainous Besançon to a warmer climate, and he became director of the Academy at Aix en Provence in 1967. He held this position until he retired in 1987, and he continued to live in Provence until his death in 1998.

Villette's music is a product of a French musical heritage that includes Fauré and Debussy as well as Poulenc and Messiaen, and a French cultural legacy that includes Catholicism and the Order of Saint Benedict. Villette was not interested in the avant-garde direction taken by Boulez's circle, and instead his music drew on influences as eclectic as Gregorian Chant, medieval music, jazz (he composed an orchestral piece titled "Blues"), and Stravinsky. His catalogue has eighty-one opus numbers, (full list via this link) and he wrote chamber and orchestral music as well as better-known choral works.

Villette's compositions are performed around the world. His choral music was championed in England by Dr Donald Hunt in the 1970s when he was director of Worcester Cathedral Choir, and Villette's "Hymne à la Vierge", which is probably his best-known work, has been performed in the annual Service of Nine Lessons and Carols at King's College, Cambridge. Choirs in the US, Japan, and Germany are also familiar with Villette's compositions.

References

French classical composers
French male classical composers
20th-century classical composers
1926 births
1998 deaths
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
People from Seine-Maritime
Prix de Rome for composition
20th-century French composers
20th-century French male musicians

Pierre Villette


The Black Dwarf (1817–1824) was a satirical radical journal of early 19th century Britain. It was published by Thomas Jonathan Wooler, starting in January 1817 as an eight-page newspaper, then later becoming a 32-page pamphlet. It was priced at 4d a week until the Six Acts brought in by the Government in 1819 to suppress radical unrest forced a price increase to 6d. In 1819 it was selling in issues of roughly 12,000 to working people such as James Wilson at a time when the reputable upper-middle class journal Blackwood's Magazine sold in issues of roughly 4,000 copies.

Contents

Its provocative content included iconoclastic satire, parodies and humour supporting Reform and working class interests, publishing their popular culture of poetry, ballads and songs to support radical ideas and the culture they supported, as well as reporting speeches and quotations, questions, answers and parodies. It helped to destabilise lower class deference to the political classes and increase their literary sophistication, providing style rather than explicit analysis. An 1817 biblical parody attacked the House of Lords; "The LORD giveth, and the LORDS taketh away. Blessed be the way of the Lords".  When the radical William Hone was tried for publishing a parody of parts of the Book of Common Prayer and acquitted in January 1818, Wooler based his response on "This Is the House That Jack Built":

Thomas Jonathan Wooler started publishing The Black Dwarf as a new radical unstamped journal in response to the Gagging Acts passed by the British government in January 1817. Within three months he was arrested and charged with seditious libel. The prosecution claimed that Wooler had written articles libelling Lord Liverpool's government, but Wooler, defending himself, convinced the jury that though he had published the article he had not written it, and so was not guilty. Throughout, Wooler continued to publish The Black Dwarf and to use it to argue for parliamentary reform. At a time when The Black Dwarf was banned, distribution was taken on by Richard Carlile.

After his main patron Major John Cartwright died in 1824 Wooler gave up publishing the journal on a despondent note: "In ceasing his political labours, the Black Dwarf has to regret one mistake, and that a serious one. He commenced writing under the idea that there was a PUBLIC in Britain, and that public devotedly attached to the cause of parliamentary reform. This, it is but candid to admit, was an error".

Twentieth century revival
Black Dwarf as a title was resurrected in 1968 as a New Leftist publication.

References

External links
Thomas Wooler

Satirical magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1817
1824 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1817 establishments in the United Kingdom
Magazines disestablished in 1824
Defunct magazines published in the United Kingdom

The Black Dwarf


Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev () (born Sontsovka, Ukraine 23 April 1891; died Moscow 5 March 1953) was a Russian composer and pianist who came from  Ukraine. During his lifetime, Ukraine was part of Russia.  Together with Dmitri Shostakovich he is one of the greatest Russian composers of the 20th century.  Children all over the world love to listen to his musical story Peter and the Wolf and the music for Lieutenant Kije, but he wrote many other great works including symphonies, concertos, piano sonatas, ballets and operas.

Early life

Prokofiev was born into an educated family, and his mother recognized very early her son's musical gifts.  His father was a college-educated agronomist who managed the farm-site of his employer in the Ukrainian steppe.  His mother played the piano reasonably well in her son's opinion.  The young Sergei started composing at a very early age.  By the time he was eleven he had written two operas and a series of small piano pieces he would later call "little puppies".  Soon he was writing music with unusual time signatures and in unusual changes of key.

Prokofiev's formal musical education began when, as a young boy, he started taking lessons from Reinhold Glière.  In 1904 he went to study at the Conservatory in St Petersburg.  He was a brilliant student, but he often disagreed with the way the professors were teaching.  He was bored with the lessons in orchestration from Rimsky-Korsakov and the counterpoint lessons from Liadov although he could have learned more from these great men.  His main friends were the composers Nikolai Myaskovsky and Boris Asafiev.  He often showed them his latest piano compositions which sounded very modern.  Many of St. Petersburg's newspaper critics did not like his music, while others felt he showed great promise and was sure to be a "futurist".

Prokofiev spent the summer of 1909 back at home in the small Russian farming village of Sontsovka in what is now Ukraine where his father was an estate manager.  He worked in a way that was to be typical of him all his life: he carefully kept a diary until the middle 1930s, was an excellent chess player and writer, kept making changes to a number of his earlier works.  He often borrowed music from one composition and put it in another, or used unfinished works in new compositions.

When he returned to St Petersburg he took piano lessons from a teacher at the St. Petersburg Conservatory called Anna Esipova.  She worked hard to discipline him in his playing although he did not appreciate her efforts.  He also took conducting lessons from Nikolai Tcherepnin who taught him to like late-Romantic composers such as Scriabin and Debussy.  He wrote some music himself in this style, but most of the music he wrote at this time sounded very harsh and dissonant and, although he was becoming quite famous, many people hated it.  When he finished his studies at the Conservatoire he won its top prize (the Rubinstein Prize) with his First Piano Concerto, although the examiners had found it hard to agree and Rimsky-Korsakov said that Prokofiev was "gifted but immature".

Prokofiev travelled to London where he met many famous people including Diaghilev who had a very skilled ballet group called Ballets Russes.  The composer Igor Stravinsky had been writing ballet music for Diaghilev's dancers.  Prokofiev particularly loved Stravinsky's Rite of Spring and it influenced his music.  He wrote an opera The Gambler based on the novel by Brusilov but the singers and the orchestra did not understand his music and refused to perform it.  One of the first works of Prokofiev to become known all over the world was his First Symphony known as the Classical Symphony.  He made the music sound like that of composers from the Classical period such as Haydn.  This symphony is still very popular today.

America and Europe (1918-1936)

In 1917 the Russian Revolution took place.  The country was in a chaotic state so Prokofiev went to the United States.  After a journey which took four months via the Transsiberian railway, Tokyo and San Francisco, he arrived in New York.  His first real success came from his connections with Cyrus McCormik in Chicago.  His first major commission was the opera The Love for Three Oranges for the Chicago Lyric Opera. It was popular in Chicago but not in New York City where he really wanted to make his reputation. He soon traveled to Paris to see Diagalev again whom he had met earlier in London. His first ballet for him was Ala and Lolly which Diagalev did not like and would not perform. This ballet later became Prokofiev's Scythian Suite. His next ballet was more successful, The Tale of the Buffoon.  He also wrote his Third Piano Concerto which is his most popular concerto for piano.  Prokofiev lived off and on in Paris for fourteen years, but he often went on tour, performing his works on the piano. In 1928 his Third Symphony was first performed, much of which was based on music from his opera  The Fiery Angel which was never performed completely in his lifetime.  In the late-1920s he was invited back to Russia.  Although many Soviet people tried to persuade him to stay there he decided to remain in the West where he was starting to have a very successful career. It was not until 1936 that he finally decided to move back to Russia.  Life was not easy in the Soviet Union for all types of creative people such as musicians, poets, writers and film makers.   Composers were expected to write music which would make ordinary people happy and make them feel proud of their country and of the communist revolution.  Any music that did not do this was called "decadent" or "formalist". Many artists where punished for creating works that did not do what the socialist politicians expected of them.  Prokofiev had never been interested in politics, and he thought the politicians would leave him in peace so that he could write the kind of music he liked.

USSR: (1936-1953)

Back in Russia Prokofiev settled in Moscow.  He wrote several children's pieces including Peter and the Wolf.  He was asked to write music for two important jubilees: the 20th anniversary of the Revolution and the centenary of Pushkin's death.  He took great care over this music.  Much of what he wrote was to be directed by Meyerhold, but Meyerhold was arrested, later tortured and murdered so the whole project never happened. Some of the music written for the Pushkin centenary was later used in his opera War and Peace, the Stone Flower ballet and Symphonic Waltzes. He also wrote a very large piece called Cantata for the Twentieth Anniversary of the October Revolution, using words by Marx, Lenin and Stalin for a total of 500 performers.  The music included realistic effects such as gun shots, machine-gun fire and sirens.  However, many critics said that the music was vulgar, and it was not performed until 1966, long after Prokofiev's death.  He tried to make the soviet authorities pleased by writing a "safe" opera called I am the Son of the Working People but the politicians stopped it during its early auditions.  The opera was going to be produced by Meyerhold, but again it never happened because Meyerhold was arrested and executed.

The World War II was a time of change for Prokofiev for several reasons.  In 1941 his marriage to Lina Llubera came to an end and his new companion Mira Mendelsohn, and later wife, saw him through his last years. Lina was a foreigner and marriage to foreigners was made illegal (forbidden) at that time.  In 1948 she was arrested, charged with being a spy, and sent to a labour camp. On the other hand, Mira had lived her entire life within the Soviet system and was much more aware of how to survive in the politacally-charged times. In 1945, shortly after the premier of his Fifth Symphony, he had a stroke which was the beginning of a period of bad health. He spent a lot of time away from Moscow where it was unsafe.  The first signs that his health was to be poor occurred in Alma-Ata in 1943 when he had a fainting spell. He was an workaholic and this, plus the pressures placed upon him by the Soviet system, forced him to withdraw from an active social life in Moscow.      Prokofiev lived with Mira for the rest of his life.  Lina was freed from the labour camp after Stalin's death.  Later she left the Soviet Union and she died in London in 1989.

During the war Prokofiev composed a lot of his best music.  He wrote his last piano sonatas as well as working on his operas Betrothal in a Monestary after Sherican, and War and Peace (based on the novel by Tolstoy) and writing his film music for both Eisenstein's Alexander Nevsky and Ivan the Terrible and composing his Fifth Symphony.  The first performance of this symphony, given on 13 January 1945, was the last time he conducted in public.  He spent the rest of his life in a house in the country to the west of Moscow, although during his last winters he lived in Moscow close to his doctors.  Even in these last years he was not to find peace.  Stalin's rule of terror had serious effects on all Soviet artists.  In 1948 a committee of the Communist Party spoke out against several Soviet composers including Prokofiev.  They said that his music was "formalist" and "alien" to the Soviet people.  His opera "War and Peace" was not allowed to be performed because it was neither lyrical nor patriotic enough.  The works he wrote in his last years were mostly ones which the politicians officially approved.  His last great work of this period is the Symphony-Concerto for cello and orchestra which used a lot of music from the unsuccessful Cello Sonata, and greatly revised with the help of the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich.

Prokofiev died of a brain haemorrhage on 5 March 1953.  His death was hardly mentioned in the newspapers because the dictator Josef Stalin died on the same day.

References

1891 births
1953 deaths
20th-century composers
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Russian composers
Russian pianists

Sergei Prokofiev


The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly includeded the territory of present-day northern Tunisia, north-eastern Algeria and the Mediterranean coast of modern-day western Libya along the Syrtis Minor. The Arabs later named roughly the same region as the original province Ifriqiya, an other word for Africa.

Economics
The prosperity of most towns depended on agriculture. Called the "granary of the empire", North Africa, according to one estimate, produced one million tons of cereals each year, one-quarter of which was exported. Additional crops included beans, figs, grapes, and other fruits. By the second century, olive oil rivaled cereals as an export item. In addition to the cultivation of slaves, and the capture and transporting of exotic wild animals, the principal production and exports included the textiles, marble, wine, timber, livestock, pottery and wool.

Other websites
 Roman Africa at www.unrv.com

Places of Ancient Rome
History of Libya
History of Algeria
History of Tunisia

Africa Province


Stem may refer to:

 A stem (bike) is the forward extension which connects the fork to the handlebars of a bicycle
 Scanning transmission electron microscope
 STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
 Stem (linguistics), the base part of a word not including inflectional morphemes
 Stem (music), a part of a written musical note
 Plant stem, the above ground structures that have vascular tissue and support leaves and flowers
 Stem (ship) part of a ship, the upright member mounted on the forward end of a vessel's keel, to which the strakes are attached
 Stem (skiing) is a technique in skiing
 "Stem", a song by Canadian musician Hayden from his 1995 album Everything I Long For
Stem (paraphernalia) a device for smoking crack cocaine
 The Stems an Australian (garage rock/power pop) group from the 1980s

Stem


Pragmatics is the study of meaning in language in a particular context.

This includes the place where the thing is said, who says it, and the things that you have already said. Also, pragmatics studies how people speak when they both know something.

Pragmatics studies how people speak not literally, but in an indirect way. It studies why, even though this is the case, people can still understand each other. It studies how people can understand each other even if the words are ambiguous.

The ability to understand what someone intends to tell you is called pragmatic competence.

Linguistics

Pragmatics


Lasse Lehtinen (born 23 January 1947 in Kotka) is a Finnish politician, former Member of the Finnish Parliament and former Member of the European Parliament (MEP). He is a member of the Social Democratic Party of Finland, which is part of the Party of European Socialists, and sat on the European Parliament's Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection.

He was also a substitute for the Committee on Employment and Social Affairs, vice-chair of the delegation for relations with Canada, and a substitute for the delegation for relations with the countries of South Asia and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

He hosted the Finnish version of the television quiz Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? (Haluatko miljonääriksi?) for years before becoming an MEP. At the beginning of the 2000s he was among the contributors of the Kanava magazine.

Lehtinen was awarded the Freedom of the City of London on 21 September 2007. See: City of London news release.

Career
 Doctor of Philosophy (2002)
 Journalist (since 1962)
 Diplomat (1983-1990)
 Senior Vice-President, Corporate Affairs (1990-1993)
 Writer and television producer (1993-2004)
 Member, Kuopio town council (1968-1980)
 Member of Parliament (1972-1983)

References

External links
 Official Website
 European Parliament biography

1947 births
Living people
People from Kotka
Social Democratic Party of Finland politicians
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1972–1975)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1975–1979)
Members of the Parliament of Finland (1979–1983)
Social Democratic Party of Finland MEPs
MEPs for Finland 2004–2009
Finnish television presenters
Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
University of Oulu alumni

Lasse Lehtinen


A colorimeter is a device used for measuring colours, or colorimetry. It measures the absorbance of different wavelengths of light in a solution. It can be used to measure the concentration of a known solute.

Different chemical substances absorb different wavelengths of light. When the concentration of the solute is higher, it absorbs more light in a specific wavelength. This is known as the Beer-Lambert law.

Different parts
The most important parts of a colorimeter are:
 a light source, which is usually an ordinary filament lamp
 an aperture, which can be adjusted
 a set of filters in different colors
 a detector that measures the light which has passed through the solution

Filters
Different filters are used to select the wavelength of light which the solution absorbs the most. This makes the colorimeter more accurate. Solutions are usually placed in glass or plastic cuvettes. The usual wavelengths used are between 400 and 700 nanometers. If it is necessary to use ultraviolet light (below 400 nanometers) then the lamp and filters must be changed.

Output
The output of the colorimeter may be shown in graphs or tables, by an analogue or digital meter. The data may be printed on paper, or stored in a computer. The output may be shown as transmittance (a linear scale from 0-100%) or as absorbance (a logarithmic scale from zero to infinity). The useful range of the absorbance scale is from 0-2 but it is desirable to keep within the range 0-1 because, above 1, the results become unreliable due to scattering of light. A Transmittance-Absorbance conversion table may be seen here.

Laboratory equipment

Colorimeter


Jazzmobile, Inc. is based in New York City, and was founded in 1964 by Daphne Arnstein, an arts patron and founder of the Harlem Cultural Council and Dr. William "Billy" Taylor. It is a multifaceted, outreach organization committed to bringing "America's Classical Music"—Jazz—to the largest possible audience by producing concerts, festivals and special events worldwide. The Jazzmobile educational efforts are now being enhanced by the creation of a not-for-profit music publishing company and not-for-profit recording company.

History
Since 1964, Jazzmobile has been presenting Free Outdoor Summer Mobile Concerts, bringing jazz musicians to the five boroughs of New York City, Washington D.C., Maryland, Virginia, Essex County, New Jersey, Westchester County, and several cities in upstate New York. Concerts are funded by the New York State Council on the Arts, the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs, and corporate sponsors such as Anheuser-Busch, ASCAP Foundation, Louis Armstrong Educational Foundation and Billy Taylor Foundation. Jazzmobile presents, as part of its outdoor concert series, 5 to 10 Afro-Latin/Jazz bands on the Jazzmobile's mobile band stage, annually. Jazzmobile is not a membership organization. Using a multi-arts approach (music, dance, drama, poetry, visual and media arts), Jazzmobile's program is designed to teach and encourage students to express themselves through the creative arts.

In the very beginning of Jazzmobile in the 1960s, John Coltrane, Jimmy Heath, Dizzy Gillespie, Horace Silver, Pharoah Sanders, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, Sun Ra, Cecil Taylor, and other black players, played in the neighborhood festivals. Past students includes Warren Benbow (drums); Roy Campbell, Jr. (trumpet); Suezenne Fordham (piano); Najee (saxophone); T. K. Blue (saxophone); just to name a few.

In 1990, Jazzmobile's Tribute Concert for founder Dr. Billy Taylor, part of the JVC Jazz Festival, that featured Nancy Wilson, Ahmad Jamal Trio and Terence Blanchard Quintet. Jazz vocalist Lynette Washington in 2005 was 1st Place Winner in the Jazzmobile Anheuser-Busch Jazz Vocal Competition.

Notable staff members:

 Frank Wess, the jazz flutist and tenor saxophonist has played extensively with nearly all of the Jazz greats throughout the world's best concert venues and on award (Grammy) winning recordings. He has appeared on Broadway and movie sound tracks, and has played with the Count Basie Orchestra, Dizzy Gillespie, Billy Taylor, Billy Eckstine, Nat King Cole and Ella Fitzgerald, just to name a few.
 Chris Albert (trumpet), played and recorded with the Count Basie Big Band, Lionel Hampton and his Orchestra, Blood Sweat & Tears, Thad Jones, Billy Harper and Machito.
 Charles Davis (saxophone), has recorded albums as a leader, and performed with John Coltrane, Kenny Dorham, Philly Joe Jones and Dinah Washington among many others.
 Roland Guerrero (Afro-Lation percussion), has performed with Dizzy Gillespie, Stanley Turrentine and various other Jazz artists.
 Rick Stone (guitar), was a performer and educator in the New York City area with his own recording label, "Jazzand". He performed and recorded with Kenny Barron, Barry Harris, Junior Cook, Ralph LaLama, Eric Alexander, Dennis Irwin, Billy Hart and Hal Galper at venues including Carnegie Hall's Weill Recital Hall, Blue Note and the Smithsonian Institution. Rick held a B.M. from Berklee College of Music and an M.A. from the Aaron Copland School of Music at Queens College, and received several NEA Jazz Performance Fellowships and an IAJE Award for Outstanding Service to Jazz Education.
 Ronnie Mathews (piano), a graduate from the Manhattan School of Music, has performed with Max Roach, Roy Haynes, Dexter Gordon, and Johnny Griffin. He has appeared on Broadway as the pianist for the Tony Award winning Broadway musical, "Black and Blue" and recorded on Spike Lee's movie, "Mo' Better Blues." Aside from the string of solo recordings done with various labels, he also teaches jazz piano workshops, clinics and masterclasses at Long Island University in New York City. In addition, he has published his book, Easy Piano of Thelonious Monk (1989).

See also

 The New York Foundation
 CETA Artists Project (NYC Cultural Council Foundation 1978-80)

Footnotes

External links
 Jazzmobile official website
 Billy Taylor: The Keys to Jazz Education

Philanthropic organizations based in the United States
Jazz organizations
Arts organizations established in 1964
Jazz music education
Jazz in New York City

Jazzmobile


An iwan ( eyvān) is defined as a vaulted hall or space, walled on three sides, with one end open.
Iwans were a trademark of the Sassanid architecture of Persia. They then found their way into Islamic architecture.

Typically, iwans open on to a central courtyard, and have been used in both public and residential architecture.

Islamic architecture

Iwan


Sawtelle Boulevard is a north/south street in the Westside region of the city of Los Angeles, California.  For most of its length, it parallels the San Diego Freeway (Interstate 405), one block to the east.

The street has important Japanese American cultural and historical significance.

Route
Sawtelle Boulevard's northern end is north of Dowlen Drive within the Los Angeles Veterans Administration complex (which it enters at Ohio Avenue), and its southern end is at Overland Avenue, a few blocks east of Sepulveda Boulevard. Sawtelle Boulevard is a major thoroughfare for the Sawtelle community and West Los Angeles neighborhood.

The portion of Sawtelle Boulevard from Santa Monica Boulevard to Olympic Boulevard is a trendy spot for the newer Japanese American community in Los Angeles,. Officially named Sawtelle Japantown, but often called simply Sawtelle or Little Osaka - not to be confused with downtown Los Angeles' older, larger Little Tokyo, or Japantown, San Francisco, California, Sawtelle is relatively near UCLA, Santa Monica, and Culver City. As of 2012, businesses found on this street include Japanese fast food (curry and ramen), two Japanese supermarkets, upscale sushi bars, a holistic and medical office, hair salons, neighborhood Japanese grocery stores, a Boba tea shop, anime shops, Japanese artisan stores, temples, and a few historic plant nurseries. In recent years, the businesses have expanded to Korean and Chinese cuisines with popular restaurants including Seoul Tofu and ROC Kitchen. The neighborhood appeals to a wide demographic with cheap eat as well as upscale restaurants and a banquet center on the corner of Olympic Boulevard and Sawtelle Boulevard. One interesting site was the consulate of Saudi Arabia, prior to relocated to Wilshire Blvd location, being next to a ramen restaurant and an esoteric Japanese magazine store.

Homes south of this portion of Sawtelle Boulevard are inhabited by a large Japanese American population. Many of the homes exhibit gardens and landscapes true to Japanese tradition.

After passing Olympic Boulevard, Sawtelle Boulevard continues as a four-lane boulevard running parallel to the San Diego Freeway and Sepulveda Boulevard. After entering Culver City, Sawtelle Boulevard swerves east, crosses Sepulveda Boulevard and ends at Overland Avenue in Culver City.

See also
 Sawtelle, Los Angeles
 Little Tokyo
 Sawtelle Japantown Guide
 Map of Sawtelle Japantown, West Los Angeles

In popular culture
 In Robert A. Heinlein's The Door into Summer, the main character visits a cryogenics facility located on Sawtelle Boulevard.

References

External links

Streets in Los Angeles
Streets in Los Angeles County, California
Culver City, California
Mar Vista, Los Angeles
Sawtelle, Los Angeles
West Los Angeles
Westside (Los Angeles County)
Japanese-American culture in Los Angeles

Sawtelle Boulevard


Super Mario All-Stars is a video game made by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game console.  It was released in 1993. It is a remake of four old games into one package. The four games are Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 2, Super Mario Bros. 3, and Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels.  The Lost Levels was originally called Super Mario Bros. 2 in Japan and was the original sequel to Super Mario Bros.. The old games feature new graphics and improved sound. It was later re-released in 1994 with Super Mario World as Super Mario All-Stars + Super Mario World.

25th Anniversary Re-release

In 2010, Nintendo released Super Mario All-Stars 25th Anniversary Edition for the Nintendo Wii in celebration of Mario's 25th anniversary. It includes a port of Super Mario All-Stars. It also includes a Mario history book and a CD with music from the series. It was released on October 21, 2010 in Japan, on December 3, 2010 in Europe, and on December 12, 2010 in North America.

1993 video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Compilation video games

Super Mario All-Stars


John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough KG PC (26 May 1650 – 16 June 1722) was an important English soldier and statesman. He lived through the rules of five monarchs through the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Rising from a lowly page at the court of the House of Stuart, he faithfully served the Duke of York through the 1670s and early 1680s. This gave him military and political advancement through his brave, clever skill. Churchill helped secure James on the throne.

However, just three years later he left his Catholic teacher for the Protestant Dutchman, William of Orange. For his help in the Glorious Revolution, William at his coronation made him Earl of Marlborough (pronounced /'mɔ:l bəɹə/). He served in the early years of the Nine Years' War and became famous. However, charges of Jacobitism made him fall from office. For some time, he was imprisoned in the Tower. When Queen Anne came to throne in 1702, however, Marlborough secured his fame and lots of money.

His marriage to the quick-tempered Sarah Jennings – Anne's close friend – helped Marlborough's rise. He first became the Captain-Generalcy of British forces. Then he became a duke. Later, he became the richest of all Anne's subjects. Although in the end he could not completely crush his enemies, his victories allowed Britain to rise to very great power. Through him, the country grew more and more rich through the 18th century.

Titles

Notes

Titles and styles
26 May 1650 - 21 December 1682: John Churchill, Esq.
 21 December 1682 – 14 May 1685: The Right Honourable The Lord Churchill of Eyemouth
14 May 1685 – 9 April 1689: The Right Honourable The Lord Churchill of Sandridge and Eyemouth
 9 April 1689 – December 1702: The Right Honourable The Earl of Marlborough
 December 1702 – 16 June 1722: His Grace The Duke of Marlborough
 in the Holy Roman Empire: 18 November 1705 – ??? 1714: His Serene Highness The Prince of Mindelheim
 in the Holy Roman Empire: ??? 1714 – 16 June 1722: His Serene Highness The Prince of Mellenburg

References

Barnett, Correlli (1999). Marlborough. Wordsworth Editions Limited.
Chandler, David G (1998). A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe. Wordsworth Editions Limited.
Chandler, David G (2003). Marlborough as Military Commander. Spellmount Ltd.
Chesterton, G. K. (2008). A Short History of England. BiblioBazaar.
Churchill, Winston (2002). A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Churchill, Winston (2002). Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vols. i & ii. University of Chicago Press.
Churchill, Winston (2002). Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, vols. iii & iv. University of Chicago Press.
Coxe, William (1847). Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: 6 volumes. London
Field, Ophelia (2002). The Favourite: Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. Hodder and Stoughton.
Gregg, Edward (2001). Queen Anne. Yale University Press.
Hamilton, Elizabeth (1968). The Backstairs Dragon: The Life of Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford. Hamish Hamilton
Hibbert, Christopher (2001). The Marlboroughs. Penguin Books Ltd.
Holmes, Richard (2008). Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius. HarperCollins.
Jones, J. R (1993). Marlborough. Cambridge University Press.
Lynn, John A (1999). The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. Longman.
Macaulay, Thomas (1968). The History of England (abridged). Penguin Books.
 McKay, Derek (1977). Prince Eugene of Savoy. Thames and Hudson Ltd.
Miller, John. James II (2000). Yale University Press.
Tincey, John, (2005). Sedgemoor 1685: Marlborough's First Victory. Leo Cooper Ltd.
Trevelyan, G. M (1930–34). England Under Queen Anne: 3 volumes. Longmans, Green and co.

1650 births
1722 deaths
British Army generals
English Barons
English Earls
English Dukes
Scottish nobility

John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough


Arturo Puricelli (born October 8, 1947) is an Argentine lawmaker. He served as Governor of Santa Cruz Province (1983–87), and as the country's Minister of Defense (2010–13) and Security (2013).

Life and times
Arturo Antonio Puricelli was born in Santa Cruz Province, Argentina. He enrolled at the National University of the Littoral, and became affiliated with the populist Justicialist Party. Earning a law degree in 1973, he returned to Santa Cruz, was named Inspector General of the Provincial Justice Ministry, and in 1975, was appointed Minister of Social Policy.

He started a private law practice, Puricelli & Associates, after the March 1976 coup, when nearly all elected officials were removed. The dictatorship ultimately called for elections in 1983, and Puricelli secured his party's nomination as a candidate for governor of Santa Cruz. The victorious Puricelli was among the youngest and, with 56% of the vote, the third-most decisively elected governor that year.

His rival in the primaries, a young banking attorney, Néstor Kirchner, was appointed head of the Provincial Social Security Fund by the new governor. Puricelli hoped this might earn his fledgling administration greater backing from Kirchner's supporters, but the move backfired when in April 1984, the latter refused the governor's request for borrowing from the fund to cover the provincial deficit. As governor, Puricelli pursued a greater share of the hundreds of millions of dollars in fossil fuel royalties generated largely by the then-state owned oil concern, YPF, and sued the federal government to that effect. He also strove to diversify his remote province's economy, and established the resort town of El Chaltén by way of promoting tourism.

Constitutionally barred from seeking re-election upon the end of his term in 1987, Puricelli was elected President of the Santa Cruz chapter of the Justicialist Party. He supported veteran party figure Antonio Cafiero, who had just been elected Governor of Buenos Aires Province, as his party's nominee ahead of the 1989 presidential elections, and obtained the support of numerous Santa Cruz Justicialists, including Kirchner, for Cafiero's Renewal Front ticket. The support of the new governor, Ricardo del Val, for a dark horse candidate, La Rioja Governor Carlos Menem, proved decisive, however, and Menem won 80% of the Santa Cruz vote during the 1988 primary. He became the Justicialist nominee, and was elected president the following year.

Puricelli was elected to the Argentine Chamber of Deputies during the same elections. He ran again for governor in 1991, but was defeated in the primaries by Kirchner, who at the time enjoyed President Menem's support. Having refused to campaign for Menem during the general election, Puricelli adopted a more pragmatic stance towards the president during the latter's 1989–99 administration, and in 1996, he was named head of the state postal service, Encotesa; Puricelli served in a caretaker capacity ahead of the postal carrier's 1997 privatization.

He returned to Santa Cruz and in 1997 was elected to the Provincial Lower House, where despite his differences with Governor Kirchner, he voted in favor of allowing the governor to manage the province's growing oil and gas royalties on an off-budget basis. He later returned to Buenos Aires as vice-president of the National Airports Regulatory Agency (ORSNA).

Puricelli joined the center-left Alliance, at the time the main party in opposition. Still at ORSNA when he switched parties in 1999, this gambit resulted in his dismissal, as well as in his being expelled from the Justicialist Party.  He ran as a candidate for governor in that year's elections, and was again defeated by Kirchner.

Following the collapse of the Alliance government at the end of 2001, however, Puricelli returned to the Justicialist fold as secretary of provincial affairs for President Eduardo Duhalde. This relationship, too, soured when Duhalde announced his endorsement of Governor Kirchner for presidential elections held in 2003, and Puricelli resigned his post. He ran unsuccessfully for Congress, and retired to his ranch in scenic Los Antiguos, where he raised sheep and cultivated cherry orchards.

Declaring himself to harbor "irreconcilable differences" with Kirchner, who became president, Puricelli would become Kirchner's surprise pick to head the state-owned Fabricaciones Militares, the nation's largest defense contractor, in 2006. Following the designation of Defense Minister Nilda Garré at the head of the powerful new Ministry of Security, Puricelli was appointed to replace her on December 15, 2010. The president nominated him to the post of Minister of Security on May 30, 2013. Following a cabinet reshuffle in December, Puricelli stepped down; he was succeeded by Emergency Assistance Secretary María Cecilia Rodríguez.

References

1947 births
Living people
People from Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz
Argentine people of Italian descent
National University of the Littoral alumni
20th-century Argentine lawyers
Justicialist Party politicians
Governors of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina
Members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies elected in Santa Cruz
Defense ministers of Argentina

Arturo Puricelli


Southeast Alaska, sometimes called the Alaska Panhandle is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska. It is west of the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia. A lot of the panhandle is part of the Tongass National Forest, which is the biggest national forest in the United States. This part of Alaska is known for its mild rainy climate and beautiful scenery.

Geography
Southeast Alaska is the end of the Inside Passage. The Inside Passage a way to get to Alaska by boat or ship without having to go out in the open ocean. It begins all the way down in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was a way for native canoeists to get around. Later during the  gold-rush steam ships used it. Today it is used by ferries and cruise ships.
The Panhandle has a land area of . This is only   6.14% of Alaska's land area, but the Panhandle is bigger than Maine, and almost as big as the state of Indiana. The 2000 census population of the Panhandle was 72,954 people. About 42% of them live in the city of Juneau.

There are lots of parks and forests in Southeast Alaska, and many islands. The largest islands are,  Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, and Prince of Wales Island.
On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt opened the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve,  which became the Tongass National Forest later.

Climate and wildlife
Southeast Alaska is a  rain forest within what is called the Pacific temperate rain forest zone. The most common trees are evergreens called the sitka spruce and the western hemlock.
Wildlife you might see on land there include brown bears, black bears, wolves, and deer. In the ocean there are humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon and many other kinds of fish. Some of the birds in the area  are Bald Eagles, and many kinds of gulls,  ducks, and other seabirds and waterfowl.

Cities and towns
The big cities in Southeast Alaska are Juneau, Ketchikan, and Sitka. Some other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Angoon, Craig, Klawock and Skagway. There are also many very small towns and villages, with less than 100 people in them.

Culture

Many tribes of Natives have lived in Southeast Alaska for a long time. This biggest group are called the  Tlingit people. A long time ago another people called the Haida lived there. Today people called the Tsimshian live there too. The region is close to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest and has a lot in common with that area.

Industry
A lot of people in Southeast Alaska work in commercial fishing or tourism .  Logging  also used to be done a lot there.

Transportation
Because of all the mountains, glaciers, and towns on islands in Southeastern Alaska, almost all the towns except Hyder, Skagway, and Haines have no roads that go to other places. Airplanes and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through Southeast Alaska.

Other websites
The regional economy of southeast Alaska: final report / prepared for Alaska Conservation Foundation; prepared by Steve Colt, Darcy Dugan, Ginny Fay (EcoSystems). Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program .
Southeast Alaska energy export study: final report / prepared for The Southeast Conference; by D. Hittle & Associates, Inc., in association with Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program .
Swan - Tyee intertie economic analysis / prepared for the Four Dam Pool Power Agency; prepared by CAI, Commonwealth Associates, Inc. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program .

Geography of Alaska

Southeast Alaska


A diesel-electric engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft.  Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears.  Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.

Many diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.

Because they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.

Honda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.

In countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.

Many activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term.

Motors

Diesel-electric


Diet sodas (or diet pop, diet, sugar-free, or light soft drinks, refreshments, or carbonated beverages) are usually sugar-free, artificially sweetened, non-alcoholic carbonated beverages targeted towards health-conscious people, diabetics, athletes, and other people who want to lose weight, improve physical fitness, or reduce how much sugar they eat.

Sweetening
Different artificial sweeteners are used instead of sugar to give diet soda a sweet taste and some are often used combined with one another.

Aspartame
Aspartame, commonly known by the brand name NutraSweet, is one of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners. When aspartame-sweetened Diet Coke was released in 1982 it make aspartame more popular.  Today, at least in the United States, when the word "diet" is seen or heard it is assumed to be aspartame.

Cyclamates
The first artificial sweeteners used in diet soda were cyclamates (often synergistically with saccharin).  While many say these cyclamate-sweetened soda had a better taste than the diet soda that came after them, in 1970 the Food and Drug Administration banned cyclamates in the United States because there was proof that they caused cancer in lab rats.  Cyclamates are still used in many countries around the world, including for diet soda.

Saccharin
Once cyclamates were banned, American producers turned to saccharin.  Saccharin alone was often criticized for having a bitter taste and "chemical" aftertaste.  Some manufacturers, such as Coca-Cola with Tab, attempted to rectify this by adding a small amount of sugar.  In 1977, the FDA was petitioned to ban saccharin, too, as a carcinogen, but a moratorium was placed on the ban until studies were conducted.  The ban was lifted in 1991, but by that time, virtually all diet soda production had shifted to using aspartame. Perhaps the most notable holdout is Tab, which nevertheless also uses some aspartame in its formula.

Sucralose and acesulfame potassium; "sugar-free" sodas
Recently two other sweeteners, sucralose (marketed as Splenda) and acesulfame potassium ("Sunett" or "Ace K" (the K is the chemical symbol for potassium) which is usually used in conjunction with aspartame, sucralose, or saccharin rather than alone) have come into growing use, particularly by smaller beverage producers (e.g. Big Red).  Diet Rite is the non-aspartame diet soda brand with the highest sales today; it uses a combination of sucralose and acesulfame potassium.

Advocates say drinks employing these sweeteners have a more natural sugar-like taste than those made just with aspartame, and do not have a strong aftertaste.  The newer aspartame-free drinks can also be safely consumed by phenylketonurics, because they do not contain phenylalanine.  Critics say the taste is not better, merely different, or note that the long-term health risks of all or certain artificial sweeteners is unclear.

The widespread, though not universal, agreement that the newest formulations taste much more "normal" (sugar-like) than the older diet sodas have prompted some producers, such as Jones Soda, to abandon the "diet" label entirely in favor of "sugar-free soda," implying that the taste is good enough to drink the soda even when not trying to lose weight. (This idea was first floated by Diet Coke in 1984, with the tagline, "Just For the Taste of It.")

In 2005, the Coca-Cola Company announced it would produce a new formulation of Diet Coke sweetened with sucralose, to be called Diet Coke with Splenda, but it would continue to produce the aspartame version as well.  There were also rumors that a sugar-free version of Coca-Cola Classic, also sweetened with sucralose, was being formulated as well. This formulation was eventually called Coca-Cola Zero, though it is sweetened with aspartame in conjunction with acesulfame potassium.

History
The beginning of the diet soda or refreshment era was in 1952, when Kirsch Bottling in Brooklyn, New York launched a sugar free ginger ale called No-Cal. It was designed for diabetics, not dieters, and distribution remained local. Royal Crown Cola placed an announcement in an Atlanta newspaper in 1958 announcing a diet soda product, Diet Rite. In 1962, Dr Pepper released a diet(etic) version of its soda, although it sold slowly due to the misconception that it was meant solely for diabetic consumption. In 1963, the Coca-Cola Company joined the diet soda market with Tab, which proved to be a huge success. Tab was originally sweetened with cyclamates and saccharin.

Tab, Diet Rite, and Fresca (a grapefruit-flavored soda introduced by Coca-Cola) were the only brand-name diet refreshments on the market until Pepsi released Diet Pepsi in the 1960s (initially as  Patio Diet Cola).  Diet 7 Up was also released in 1963 under the name Like.  It was discontinued in 1969 due to the US government ban of cyclamate sweetener. After reformulation, it was reintroduced as Diet 7 Up in 1970. It was renamed Sugar Free 7 Up in 1973 then back to Diet 7 Up in 1979.  Coca-Cola countered by releasing Diet Coke in 1982. After the release of Diet Coke, Tab took a backseat on the Coca-Cola production lines; Diet Coke could be more easily identified by consumers as associated with Coca-Cola than Tab. Additionally, a study was released claiming that saccharin was a possible carcinogen, leading to Coca-Cola's decision to decrease production of Tab. Prompted by the rising popularity of soft drinks, in the mid-1980s some of those in the alcohol industry began to follow their lead with some beer companies putting sugar-free beer on the market.

By the early 1990s, a wide array of different companies had their own diet refreshments on supermarket shelves. Tab made a comeback during the late 1990s, after new studies demonstrated that saccharin is not an important factor in the risk of cancer. Nevertheless, the Coca-Cola Company has maintained its 1984 reformulation, replacing some of the saccharin in Tab with NutraSweet.

By 2002, some soda companies had diversified to include such flavors as vanilla and lemon among their products, and diet sodas were soon being produced with those flavors as well (see Diet Vanilla Coke, Diet Pepsi Vanilla). By 2004, several alcohol companies had released sugar-free or "diet" alcoholic products too.

Health concerns

There are possible health concerns of sugar substitutes and caffeine overuse.   Also, the effectiveness of diet soda as a weight loss tool should also be considered.

Changing the food energy intake from one food will not necessarily change a person's overall food energy intake, or cause a person to lose weight. One study, at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, reported by Sharon Fowler at the ADA annual meeting, actually suggested the opposite, where consumption of diet soda was correlated with weight gain. While Fowler did suggest that the undelivered expected calories from diet soda may stimulate the appetite, the correlation does not prove that consumption of diet soda caused the weight gain. The ADA has yet to issue an updated policy concerning diet soda.

An independent study by researchers with the Framingham Heart Study in Massachusetts, has turned up results which indicate that the consumption of diet soda correlates with increased metabolic syndrome. Of the 9,000 males and females studied, findings stated that 48% of the subjects were at higher risk for weight gain and elevated blood sugar. The researchers also acknowledged that diet soda drinkers were less likely to consume healthy foods, and that drinking diet soda flavored with artificial sweeteners more than likely increases cravings for sugar flavored sweets.

A preliminary abstract presented by the University of Miami's Hannah Gardener linked daily consumption of diet soda to a 61% higher incidence of "vascular events" such as strokes and heart attacks, although Gardener acknowledged that these results could not be conclusively linked to harmful effects of diet soda itself, and may be the result of other behaviors. The author stated confirmation was required prior to drawing conclusions.  These studies were published as abstracts and presented at a conference. These data and conclusions should be considered to be preliminary until published in a peer-reviewed journal

Among individuals who drink several regular sodas per day, diet soda may be a better choice, according to a website on dieting. Studies have also indicated that body mass gain is an unlikely consequence of artificial sweetener consumption.

Animal studies suggest that artificial sweeteners cause body weight gain, theoretically because of a faulty insulin response, at least in cattle and rats. Rats given sweeteners have steadily increased caloric intake, increased body weight, and increased adiposity (fatness). Adding saccharin to the food of calves increases their body weight as well.

Nomenclature
In some countries outside the United States and Canada, the term "light" is often used instead of "diet".

Reduced-calorie soda
In an effort to cash in on the surging popularity of low-carbohydrate diets, in 2004 both Coca-Cola and Pepsico released reduced-calorie versions of their flagship sodas that contain approximately half the sugar of the regular version.  The Pepsi variant, Pepsi Edge, is sweetened with sucralose and corn syrup.  The sweetening of the Coca-Cola variant, Coca-Cola C2, is a combination of corn syrup, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, and sucralose.  Pepsi discontinued Edge in 2005, citing lackluster sales.  Coca-Cola soon followed suit.

Half the sugar of a can of regular cola is still more sugar than many people on popular low-carbohydrate diets are permitted to have in a day. It is possible that these sodas are targeted, instead, at so-called "carb-conscious consumers" who are paying attention to, but not trying to drastically reduce, their carbohydrate intake.

References

Soft drinks

Diet soft drink


A brain tumor is any tumor in the brain. Tumors may be benign or malignant.

Types
astrocytoma
glioblastoma multiforme
oliogodendroglioma
ependymoma
primary CNS lymphoma
meningioma

Treatment
The treatment varies based on the type of tumor. For meningiomas, surgical removal of the tumor alone is often sufficient. Malignant tumors like anaplastic astrocytoma and glioblastoma multiforme require more aggressive therapy. For glioblastoma multiforme, surgical removal of the tumor followed by radiation therapy, also called radiotherapy, is used. Temozolomide (also known as Temodar) is also used for gliomas (including Glioblastoma multiforme).

References

Brain tumors
Cancer

Brain tumor


Kreuzberg, south of Berlin-Mitte, was one of the best-known boroughs of Berlin, famous for its nightlife and its left-leaning electorate as well as its problems with crime the drug scene and a very high number of immigrants.

Kreuzberg consists of two different parts, the southeastern 'SO 36' (or simply '36') part and the southwest 'SW 61' (or simply '61'). Until the Berlin Wall fell, these were the last two numbers of the postal codes for the two areas.

It was a separate borough from 1920, when it became a part of Groß-Berlin, until the borughs were changed in 2001. Then it was joined with Friedrichshain to form the new borough of Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg. Since these two localities are linked only by a single bridge over the Spree river, the Oberbaumbrücke, this joining seemed awkward to many residents. The two areas could not agree on where the new borough's town hall should be. Friedrichshain was chosen by tossing a five-Mark coin.

Summary

Kreuzberg is known to many for numerous Turkish immigrants from eastern parts of Turkey, and the yearly May Day riots. This is because before the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, Kreuzberg was isolated. Its eastern parts were almost entirely surrounded by the Wall. This area consequently had cheap rents and lower-income families as well as squatters from the radical left. The western part of Kreuzberg also bordered onto the wall, and it was here where Checkpoint Charlie was.

History
Kreuzberg got its name is from its highest point, the Kreuzberg (literally, "cross hill"). It is of  above sea level.. The hill was a traditional place for weekend trips, and had a lot of small restaurants for the visitors. The hill got its name from a monument built in 1821 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel. It was to remember the wars against Napoleon I of France.

After 1860 industry began moving into Kreuzburg. There was also an Exportviertel (export quarter) along Ritterstraße which had a lot of many profitable small businesses, and the "press quarter" along Kochstraße was the home of most of Germany's large newspapers as well as the Ullstein, Scherl, and Mosse book publishers.

Both of these industrial quarters were almost entirely destroyed during World War II, with the bombings of a single night from 3 February 1945. To remember old tradition, the Axel Springer press company built its new headquarters at Kochstraße again, right next to the Berlin Wall.

After World War II, Kreuzberg's housing rents were regulated by law, which made investments unattractive. As a result, housing was of low quality, but cheap, which made the borough a prime target for immigrants coming to Germany (and Berlin).

Other websites

 friedrichshain-kreuzberg.de, the website of the combined borough (in German)

Districts of Berlin

Kreuzberg


Reggae Sunsplash is a reggae music festival first staged in 1978 in northern Jamaica. In 1985, it expanded with the addition of an international touring festival. The festival ran annually until 1996, with a final event in 1998, before it was revived in 2006. The festival returned for a virtual staging in 2020 produced by Tyrone Wilson, Randy McLaren, and Debbie Bissoon.

History
The Reggae Sunsplash festival was the brainchild of five Jamaicans - Tony Johnson, Don Green, Ronnie Burke, John Wakeling, and Ed Barclay. The five founding directors created a company called Synergy Productions Ltd, which was responsible for promoting and producing the Reggae Sunsplash festival.

The first Reggae Sunsplash festival was staged at Jarrett Park, Montego Bay, Jamaica, in June 1978 and began at dusk and continued until dawn for seven days. With the help of Peter Martin, a longtime Jamaican tourism stalwart, and his public relations firm, Peter Martin Associates, the Sunsplash Festival was able to gain international exposure. It was billed as the "biggest Reggae festival in the history of the world". The festival introduced the concept of music and travel as a boost to tourism in Jamaica. Prior to the staging of Reggae Sunsplash, the hotels in Jamaica were traditionally closed during the summer period. The five founding partners staged the festival each year for several years and successfully created an annual summer tourist season in Jamaica. The success of Reggae Sunsplash led to a wave of annual music festivals in Jamaica and the Caribbean islands. The festival's popularity led to a shortage of hotel rooms and a tradition of camping out on local beaches.

To promote Jamaica as a tourist and traveling target in Europe, the Jamaica Tourist Board invited in 1983, the German band Supermax as the opening act of the annual festival in Montego Bay. From 1981, the festivals were filmed and recorded, with several videos and albums released, the first being Reggae Sunsplash '81: Tribute to Bob Marley, released by Elektra Records. From 1987 the festival included a sound clash event, with finalists from a national sound system competition competing as a precursor to the rest of the festival. The festival also expanded to include an 'oldies night' featuring stars from past eras of Jamaican music. For many years the festival was emceed by Tommy Cowan.

In 1984 the Reggae Sunsplash Festival expanded into international events with a one-day festival staged at Selhurst Park in London, England. In 1985, the Reggae Sunsplash World Tour was launched in the United States and Japan and subsequent years saw the Reggae Sunsplash festival touring extensively throughout North America, Europe, South America, and the Far East. 1991 saw the introduction of a "Caribbean Night" featuring other Caribbean music such as soca, and the following year the festival's scope increased further with the addition of a "World Beat Night".

While the festival had become hugely popular, opening new global tourist niche markets to Jamaica and attracting millions of dollars of foreign exchange into the country, it had not been a financial success, largely due to the lack of sponsorship or government support. In 1995 the Chairman of the Jamaica Tourist Board operating through a company called Radobar Holdings Ltd offered financial assistance in exchange for equity in Synergy Productions, the founders of Reggae Sunsplash. This initial offer was never consummated and in a disputed claim Radobar Holdings announced the formation of a company called Reggae Sunsplash International in Jamaica and proceeded with the hostile takeover of the Reggae Sunsplash festival. The first attempt at staging Reggae Sunsplash without the original owners Synergy Productions in 1996 was a financial disaster for the new claimants. In 1997 the Reggae Sunsplash festival was postponed until 1998 to hold celebrations of the birth of Bob Marley but more losses were incurred. More futile attempts at recapturing the original spirit of the Reggae Sunsplash festival were never replicated by the Radobar group.

The festival was re-established by the Johnson family in 2006, but it was unsuccessful. However, the international touring festival has continued.

Three of the founding directors, John Wakeling, Tony Johnson, and Ed Barclay died and with the passing of Tony Johnson several individuals have tried to claim the rights to the festival unsuccessfully and all have failed to recapture the spirit of the legendary Reggae Sunsplash. Don Green and Ronnie Burke are the two remaining Reggae Sunsplash founders alive.

In August 2015 it was announced that Burke would be awarded the Order of Distinction by the Jamaican government in recognition of his contribution to the development of Jamaican music.

Reggae Sunsplash returned as a virtual festival on November 27-28, 2020 after a 14-year absence. Performers included Tanya Stephens, Richie Spice, Capleton, Masicka, Dexta Dapps, Jesse Royal, Agent Sasco, and Romain Virgo.

Dates and venues
1978: June 23–30, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1979: July 3–7, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1980: July 2–5, Ranny Williams Entertainment Center, Kingston
1981: August 4–8, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1982: August 3–7, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1983: June 28-July 2, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1984: August 7–11, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1985: August 6–10, Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1986: August 26–30: Jarrett Park, Montego Bay
1987: August 18–22, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1988: August 15–22, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1989: August 14–19, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1990: June 24, Pine Knob Music Theater, Clarkston, MI
1990: July 16–21, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1991: July 26–31, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1992: August 3–8, Bob Marley Center, Montego Bay
1993: August 3–7, Jamworld, Portmore
1994: August 1–6: Jamworld, Portmore
1995: July 12–14, Dover, St. Ann
1996: August 1–4, Chukka Cove, St. Ann
1998: February 5–8, Reggae Park, St. Ann

2006: August 3–6, Richmond Estate, Priory, St. Ann

Albums
Big Youth - Live At Reggae Sunsplash (1982), Sunsplash/Trojan
Chalice - Live At Reggae Sunsplash (1982), Pipe Music
Yellowman - Live At Reggae Sunsplash (1982), Sunsplash
Eek-A-Mouse & Michigan & Smiley - Live at Reggae Sunsplash (1983), Sunsplash
The Gladiators & Israel Vibration - Live at Reggae Sunsplash (1983), Sunsplash
Toots & The Maytals - Live At Reggae Sunsplash (1983), Sunsplash
The Twinkle Brothers - Live At Reggae Sunsplash 82 (Since I Throw The Comb Away), (1983), Sunsplash
The Mighty Diamonds & Mutabaruka - Live At Reggae Sunsplash, Genes

Various Artists
Reggae Sunsplash '81: Tribute to Bob Marley (1981), Elektra
Best of the Festival - Day One Live at Reggae Sunsplash 1982 (1982), Sunsplash
Reggae Sunsplash Live (1982), RCA
Sunsplash Live (1983), 56 Hope Rd
Reggae Sunsplash '86 (1986), Bellaphon
Best of Reggae Sunsplash (1994), Genes

Video
Reggae By Bus (1979)(AKA Reggae Sunsplash II), a Film By Stefan Paul (The first Sunsplash on film)Reggae Sunsplash 10th Anniversary 1987(001)(Phase Three Productions)(Synergy)
Reggae Sunsplash Dancehall 88, Charly (VHS)
Reggae Sunsplash - 10th Anniversary Of Reggae Sunsplash - Dancehall X, Charly (VHS)
Reggae Sunsplash Dancehall '89 (1990), Charly (VHS)
Reggae Sunsplash '90, Variety Night, Charly (VHS)
Reggae Sunsplash Dancehall Special, Charly
Reggae Sunsplash Music Festival - Best Of Sunsplash 1991 (1992), Warner Music Vision (VHS)
All Time Best of Reggae Sunsplash Music Festival (1993), Warner Music Vision (VHS)
Reggae Sunsplash II (2003), Columbia (DVD)
Cool Runnings: The Reggae Movie (2005), Xenon (DVD)
The Best Of Reggae Sunsplash (2006), 4digital (DVD)

See also
List of reggae festivals
Reggae
Reggae Sumfest

References

Further reading
Immanuel-I, Java (2010) Reggae Sunsplash 1978-1998, Caribbe Incorporated,

External links
Reggae Festival Guide

Music festivals in Michigan
Electronic music festivals in Jamaica
Concert tours
Reggae festivals in the United States
Music festivals established in 1978
Reggae festivals in Jamaica
Summer events in Jamaica

Reggae Sunsplash


The Sherpa are an ethnic group in Nepal, who live in the higher parts of the Himalayas. They often help guide people through the mountains. They also sometimes live on the trail of Mt. Everest. A well known Sherpa is Tenzing Norgay, who helped Edmund Hillary climb to the top of Mt. Everest.

Sherpa