Fitba (,  or  in North Americae), is a gemme or sport played by twa teams on a rectangular pairk (aboot 110 by 70 yaird) wi dales (24 by 8 feet) at the twa ends. The twa teams haes 11 players. 10 o the players rins aw ower the park an tries tae kick or heid the baw intae the ither team's dale but canna uise thair haunds. The ither player plays in the dale an is kent as the goalkeeper. The goalie uises his haunds in an 18 yaird box aboot the goal for tae stap the baw fae gaun in. The team that haes the maist goals efter 90 meenits wins the gemme. The players is gien a brek o 15 meenits at hauf time.

Fitba is the tap sport in maist pairts o the warld and is the maist popular sport in Scotland. Houaniver, in pairts o Sooth Asie like Indie an Pakistan, fitba is a hail sicht less popular nor cricket. In Canadae an the Unitit States, ither sports is mair popular: American fitba, basebaw, basketbaw, an ice hockey. In pairts o the Caribbean fitba is less popular nor basebaw (in Spaingie-speakin kintras) or cricket (in Inglis-speakin kintras).

In monie kintras the best fitba players is gey famous an earns muckle amoonts o catter. Houaniver, acause fitba disna need muckle gear, it gets played by aw kynds o fowk for leisure as weel as for siller.

Competeetions
FIFA's Warld Cup ilka fower year, is the maist popular sportin event efter the Olympic Gemmes. Scotland hae qualified a nummer o times, but hivna iver gotten past the group stages. The current champions are Fraunce, who wan the 2018 tournament in Roushie.

UEFA's European Championship, or Euros as thay're maist weel-kent as, is ilka fower year. Portugal wan the 2016 tournament in Fraunce.

Scots fitba
The tap fourty-twa teams in Scotland plays athin the Scottish Professional Football League, wi the tap team in Scotland an aw plays athin the UEFA Champions League. The ither semi-pro teams plays athin the Highland League in northren Scotland, the East of Scotland League in an aboot Edinburgh an the Mairches, the South of Scotland League in Dumfries an Gallowa, an 'ithin the Scottish Junior Football Association. The Scots naitional fitba team plays at Hampden Park in Glesgae. Thair follaers is kent as the Tairtan Airmy.

Rules
Players canna uise thair haunds or airms (a haundbaw), cept the goalkeepers; the goalie can uise thaim 'ithin thair ain penalty area (thare is an 18 yaird box aboot the goals at the twa ends o the park).

Players canna trip or dunt ane anither (a foul).

Players canna haud ane anither or hinder ither players gettin tae the baw (obstruction).

If a player pits the baw oot o play at the side o the park, the ither team gets tae thraw the baw back intae play (a thraw in).

If a player pits the baw oot o play at thair end o the park, the ither team kicks the baw back intae play fae ane o the neuks o the park (a corner kick);

If a player pits the baw oot o play at the ither end o the park, the ither team kicks the baw back intae play fae a 6 yaird box juist afore the goal (a goal kick);

The affside rule staps a player fae kickin or heidin the baw tae a teammate that juist haes the ither team's goalkeeper atween him an the goal.

See an aw

 Scots Fitba Associe (SFA)
 Inglis Fitba Associe (for ordinar kent juist as the FA)
 UEFA
 FIFA
 Rugby union
 American fitba

Fremmit Airtins

 A SHOT AT THE BAW in killt a dobber : A Historie ae the fitba dobber ae Fitba in Scotland (PDF)

Fitba


Ampthill Plantation was located in the Virginia Colony in Chesterfield County on the south bank of the James River about four miles south of the head of navigation at modern-day Richmond, Virginia. Built by Henry Cary, Jr. about 1730, it was just upstream of Falling Creek. It was later owned by Colonel Archibald Cary, who maintained a flour mill complex and iron forge at the nearby town of Warwick. Mary Randolph was born there in 1762.

House moved, property becomes industrial site
In 1929, Ampthill House, the manor house of Ampthill Plantation, was dismantled, moved to a site on Cary Street Road in the West End of Richmond, and reassembled where it sits today.  Although it is not open to the public, Ampthill House is a noteworthy local landmark, and is marked by a Virginia Historical Marker.

The former plantation property on the James River near Falling Creek is occupied by the Spruance Plant and related industrial complex of the DuPont Company.

References

Ampthill Plantation
Ampthill Plantation
Ampthill Plantation
Cary family of Virginia
Georgian architecture in Virginia

Ampthill (Chesterfield County, Virginia)


Transonic means breaking the sound barrier by travelling faster than the speed of sound (1,236 kph or 768 mph).

The speed of flight is divided into four groups based on speed.
Subsonic
Transonic
Supersonic
Hypersonic

Transonic means going from subsonic to supersonic.  Subsonic ends and supersonic begins at mach 1, so transonic goes from mach 0.8 to 1.2.  When you are going through transonic speeds, drag increases and it is really hard to go any faster.  This is the sound barrier.

Aviation
Sound

Transonic


Carl McVoy (January 3, 1931 – January 3, 1992) was an American pianist.

Career
McVoy was cousin to the younger Jerry Lee Lewis. He had been to New York City with his father, who had been a minister there. McVoy got hooked on boogie-woogie while in New York, which he subsequently brought back to Pine Bluff, Arkansas. Jerry Lee Lewis would visit his older cousin and get him to show him things on the piano.

Plucked from the construction industry by Ray Harris, McVoy recorded "You Are My Sunshine" at Sun Records, which was the single that launched Hi Records. McVoy recorded a number of other sides at Sun in 1957 and 1958, most of which have remained unissued.

He subsequently went back to Hi as pianist with The Bill Black Combo, but quit in the mid-1960s and returned to the construction industry forming his own company Carmack Construction. He died on his 61st birthday in 1992.

References

External links
A discography

1931 births
1992 deaths
Phillips International Records artists
American blues pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians

Carl McVoy


Mercenaries are soldiers who fight for money, rather than for their country, political/religious beliefs, or other benefits.

Mercenaries are a very old phenomenon. They are mentioned in the Old Testament, and King David had a bodyguard of Cretan and Philistine mercenaries. They are also mentioned in the Iliad, specifically the Myrmidons who fought in the Trojan War (12th century BC).

The Carthaginians often used mercenaries. The so-called Free Companies in the Middle Ages were mercenary companies of rogue knights and archers. The Japanese ronin were mercenary samurai.

For many years in the Middle Ages, soldiers from Switzerland fought battles for whoever paid them. The popes would hire soldiers from Switzerland to fight for them.  The Swiss Guard is all that is left of Switzerland's mercenary tradition, but it is no longer a mercenary force because all its members are Catholic, and they are prepared to fight not for their country but for their beliefs.

Soldiers of professional volunteer armies, like the US Army, are not considered as mercenaries since they fight for their country and fatherland. Likewise, foreign volunteers in standing armies, such as French Foreign Legion, are not considered as mercenaries since they are loyal to the country that they serve. However, various private military contractors are considered as mercenaries.

Related pages
Paramilitary
Wagner Group

Mercenary


A blue box is a device that someone could use to make free telephone calls. It worked by playing back the same sounds that the telephone company employees used to program their equipment.

The most famous person to use a blue box was John Draper, who went by the name Captain Crunch. Draper taught Steve Wozniak how to build them. Wozniak and Steve Jobs sold blue boxes to fellow students at the University of California, Berkeley. One time, Wozniak used a blue box to call the Pope.

Related pages
 Red box

Telephone
Electronics

Blue box


Events
 January 2 – Russia and Prussia divide Poland
 January 9 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard becomes the first to fly in a balloon in the United States.
 January 21 – After being found guilty of treason by the French Convention, "Citizen Capet" i.e. Louis XVI of France is guillotined.
 February 1 – France declares war on Great Britain, the Netherlands (see French Revolutionary Wars)
 February 12 – The Congress of the United States passes a law legally requiring the return of slaves escaping from slave states into free territory or states, the Fugitive Slave Act
 February 25 – George Washington holds the first Cabinet meeting as President of the United States.
 February 27 – The Giles resolutions are introduced to the United States House of Representatives asking the House to condemn Alexander Hamilton's handling of loans.
 March 1 – John Langdon becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate until March 3
 March 5 – French troops are defeated by Austrian forces and Liège is recaptured
 March 7 – France declares war on Spain
 April 1 – Unsen volcano erupts in Japan and causes an earthquake. About 53.000 dead
 April 6 – Committee of Public Safety established in France with Georges Danton as its head.
 April 22 – George Washington signs the Neutrality Proclamation.
 May 31 – Regular troops under Francois Hanriet demand that the Girondins must be expelled from the national convention
 June 2 – Girondins overthrown
 June 10 – The Jardin des Plantes museum opened in Paris (a year later it would become the first public zoo).
 July 9 – Act Against Slavery passed in Upper Canada
 July 13 – Charlotte Corday kills Jean-Paul Marat in his bath
 July 22 – Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico
 July 29 – John Graves Simcoe decides to build a fort and settlement at Toronto, having sailed into the bay there
 August 10 – Feast of Unity – Crowds in Paris burn monarchist emblems
 August 23 – Universal conscription in France
 September 5 – In France, the French National Convention votes to implement terror measures to repress French Revolutionary activities. The ensuing "Reign of Terror" will last until the spring of 1794 and causes death of 35,000-40,000 people.
 October 12 – The cornerstone of Old East, the oldest state university building in the United States, is laid in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, on the campus of the University of North Carolina. The 12th of October is now celebrated at the university as University Day.
 November 8 – In Paris, the French Revolutionary government opens the Louvre to the public as a museum
 October 16 – Execution of Marie Antoinette
 October 28 – Eli Whitney applied for a patent for his cotton gin, (the patent was granted the following March).
 October 31 – Execution of arrested Girondist leaders in France in a guillotine
 November 24 – French Revolutionary Calendar begins
 December 8 – Execution of Madame du Barry
 December 9– New York City's first daily newspaper, the American Minerva, is established by Noah Webster.
 December 17 – French forces under Napoleon capture Toulon from royalists and British troops
 The city of Butler, Pennsylvania founded

 Louis XVI of France b. 1754

1793


Pagani Automobili S.p.A. is an Italian car manufacturer. It was founded in 1992 by Horacio Pagani.

History
Horacio Pagani used to work with Lamborghini on cars like the Lamborghini Diablo. In the late 1980s, he started to design his own cars. In 1992, he started to work on a concept-car for his very own car.

In 1994, he made a deal with Mercedes-Benz. That gave him a V12 engine for his car. In 1999, he showed his first production car, the Zonda, at the Geneva Motor Show.

Products

Pagani Zonda

The Zonda was the first production car made by Pagani. It has a V12 engine by Mercedes-Benz. Mercedes-Benz produced in the very first version, called the Zonda C12, 290 kW.

After several new versions, the very last Zonda, the Zonda Revolución, was released in 2013. It is a very light version with a 597 kW V12 engine.

Pagani Huayra

The Huayra is the second production model by Pagani. It also has a V12 engine by Mercedes-Benz. It also has a Turbocharger. The engine makes 539 kW. Its top speed is about 372 km/h (231 mph). The official debut of the Huayra was at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show.

Other websites

Italian automobile companies

Pagani


Events
 The county of Portugal is established for the second time.
 Pembroke Castle is built in Wales.
 The cathedral in Valence, France is consecrated.
 Coloman becomes King of Hungary.
 March – Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sends ambassadors to Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza, to discuss sending mercenaries against the Seljuk Turks.
 November 18 – The Council of Clermont began. The council was called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land.
 November – Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont; Peter the Hermit begins to preach throughout France.
 November 28 – On the last day of the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II appoints Bishop Adhemar of Le Puy and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse to lead the First Crusade to the Holy Land.

1095


The term Program can be used in many ways.

A program or programme can be a plan of how to do something. It tells the steps that we think we need to do to make something happen. For example, a government might make a program to improve the health of the people in part of a country by giving the people better food, by helping to kill insects that carry diseases, and by bringing more doctors.
A computer program is a set of computer instructions. A set of computer instructions is called Program and a set of program is called software. All software must have these three parts.
Television program(me) is a show that is on television.
Radio program is similar to a television program but it is on the radio.
Webcast is similar to a television program but it is shown on the Internet.
12-step program is a way people use to stop doing something. Examples would be to stop drinking alcohol, stop smoking tobacco or stop using drugs.
an event program is a thing that lists the what will happen during an event such as an opera or auction.

Program


The Giro d'Italia, or Tour of Italy, is a famous bicycle race held in Italy, every spring. It is one of the most famous, and best paid bicycle races. The first race was in 1909.  It started because the editor of a newspaper called La Gazzetta dello Sport wanted more people to read his newspaper.  He planned a race similar to the Tour de France, which had started in 1903.

The leader of the race wears a pink jersey called the maglia rosa.  This is because pink is the colour of La Gazzetta dello Sport.  For many years, the leader of the mountain climbing competition wore a green jersey (called the maglia verde), but a change in the sponsor for that competition led to a jersey change in 2012. The mountains leader now wears a blue jersey (called the maglia azzurra). Similarly, the leader of the sprinters' competition wore a mauve jersey (called the maglia ciclamino) for many years. However, a sponsorship change in 2010 also led to a jersey change. The sprints leader now wears a red jersey (called maglia rosso passione).  The leader of the young riders' competition, for riders under age 25, wears a white jersey (called the maglia bianca).  This is the same as the young riders' competition in the Tour de France.

Winners of the Giro d'Italia

Italia, Giro d'
1909 establishments in Italy

Giro d'Italia


The Cetopsidae are a small family of catfishes (order Siluriformes), commonly called the whale catfishes.

Taxonomy
This family contains five genera divided into two subfamilies, Cetopsinae and Helogeneinae. Helogeneinae was previously a family-level group, but now it has been reclassified as a subfamily of Cetopsidae. This subfamily contains four species in the genus Helogenes. The subfamily Cetopsinae contains four genera. Cetopsidium contains six species, Cetopsis contains 21 species, Denticetopsis contains seven species, and Paracetopsis contains three species; this makes a total of 37 cetopsines. The genera have been changed as recently as 2005 with the genera Bathycetopsis, Hemicetopsis, and Pseudocetopsis set in synonymy with Cetopsis and the description of the new genus Cetopsidium.

Cetopsidium is the sister group to the rest of Cetopsinae. Denticetopsis forms the next sister group to the remaining cetopsine genera. The tribes Cetopsidiini, Denticetopsini, and Cetopsini are erected for the cetopsine genera.

Distribution
Cetopsids have a wide distribution in South America. Latitudinally, cetopsines extend from northern Colombia to central Argentina. They inhabit major habitats such as the Orinoco River, Amazon River, and the Guyanas. In trans-Andean South America, cetopsines are found along the Pacific slope from the Jurubidá River of Colombia south to the Tumbes River of northern Peru. Along the Caribbean trans-Andean versant, species of cetopsines occur from the Sinú River of northwestern Colombia east to the Lake Maracaibo basin of northwestern Venezuela. East of the Andean Cordilleras, the Cetopsinae occur in the Aroa and Yaracuy River basins along the Caribbean versant of northern Venezuela, through the Orinoco River system and the coastal rivers of the Guianas, south through the Amazon basin to the southern portions of the Río de la Plata basin. Cetopsines also occur in the Juquiá River basin of the state of São Paulo and the São Francisco River basin of eastern Brazil. Helogenes, the single genus of Helogeneinae, occurs through much of the Amazon basin, the southern portions of the Orinoco River basin, the coastal rivers of the Guianas, and at least the lower portions of the Tocantins River.

Description
The family Cetopsidae includes species of small- to medium-sized catfishes which share an anal fin with a long base, the lack of nasal barbels, and, usually, a lack of dorsal and pectoral fin spines. In Cetopsinae, the swim bladder is highly reduced and is enclosed in a bony capsule. Cetopsines lack an adipose fin, while it may be present (though small) in Helogeneinae. Many species are characterized by small eyes obscured by a thick, overlying integument that make them appear blind. The dorsal and pectoral fins usually lack spines, except in Cetopsidium (both present) and Denticetopsis (only pectoral spines present). In most species of Cetopsis and Cetopsidium, mature males have a convex margin to their anal fin and elongated distal filaments of the dorsal and pectoral fin spines.

The maximum length of this family is about  SL in Cetopsinae. Cetopsidium species are generally smaller in body size than Cetopsis. The maximum length in Helogenes species is .

Ecology
Most cetopsids feed on insects. C. candiru and C. coecutiens are well known to have extremely voracious appetites. These fish will attack carrion, other living fish while in gillnets, and even people. Some people erroneously believe these fish are parasitic like parasitic catfishes.

References

Fish of South America
Catfish families
Taxa named by Pieter Bleeker

Cetopsidae


Agostino Casaroli (24 November 1914 – 9 June 1998) was an Italian Catholic priest and diplomat for the Holy See, who became Cardinal Secretary of State. He was an important figure behind the Vatican's efforts to deal with the religious persecution of the Church in the nations of the Soviet bloc after the Second Vatican Council.

Biography
Casaroli was born in Castel San Giovanni in the province of Piacenza, Italy, to a family of humble roots. His father was a tailor in Piacenza.  He was educated at the Collegio Alberoni in Piacenza the Episcopal Seminary of Bedonia, Piacenza, the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome where he earned a doctorate in canon law, and at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy.

Early career
He was ordained to the priesthood on 27 May 1937 in Piacenza. He studied in Rome from 1937 to 1939. Beginning in 1940 he served in the Vatican Secretariat of State while also participating in pastoral ministry in the diocese of Rome from 1943. He was named Privy Chamberlain of His Holiness on 4 January 1945. He served as chaplain of Villa Agnese from 1950 to 1998. He was raised to the rank of Domestic prelate of His Holiness on 22 December 1954.

He served as an assistant to Cardinal Adeodato Giovanni Piazza at the First General Conference of the Latin American Bishops in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1955. He served as a faculty member of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy from 1958 to 1961. On 24 February 1961, he was appointed Undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, effectively deputy foreign minister. In 1964, he represented the Holy See at the exchange of instruments in ratification of the modus vivendi with Tunisia, concerning the situation of the Catholic Church. He was a signatory of the partial agreement between the Holy See and Hungary in Budapest on 15 September 1964. He negotiated with the Communist Czechoslovak government over the appointment of František Tomášek as apostolic administrator of the Archdiocese of Prague in February 1965. He was appointed secretary of the Sacred Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs on 29 June 1967.

Pope Paul consecrated him a bishop on 16 July 1967.

During the period following Vatican II, Casaroli gained a reputation as a highly skilled diplomat who was able to negotiate with regimes hostile to the Church. He headed the CSCE conference in Helsinki from 30 July to 1 August 1975.  On 28 April 1979, he was appointed Pro-Secretary of State.

Cardinal
Casaroli was made a Cardinal-Priest of Ss. XII Apostoli in John Paul II's first consistory in 1979, and at the same time he became Secretary of State. Although he was seen as less hardline than any other close associate of John Paul, Casaroli's skillful diplomacy was seen by Wojtyła as an irreplaceable asset in the struggle against the Soviet Union.

In 1985 he became Cardinal Bishop of the suburbicarian diocese of Porto-Santa-Rufina, and in 1990 he retired as Secretary of State, being succeeded by Angelo Sodano (who became Pro-Secretary of State at that time). He was Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals from 1993 until his 1998 death of cardiorespiratory disease.

Views

Relations with Communism
Casaroli's signing of treaties with Hungary in 1964 and Yugoslavia in 1966 was the first time the Holy See had opened itself in this way to Communist regimes. Although his 2000 memoirs revealed a man hostile to Communism, his remarkable diplomatic skill made this hostility appear non-existent.

According to John O. Koehler, the KGB and its "brother organs" in Eastern Europe were well aware of Cardinal Casaroli's real opinions and influence. Therefore, his personal office was one of the primary espionage targets inside the Vatican.

The KGB was assisted in this by the Cardinal's own nephew, Marco Torreta, and Torreta's Czechoslovakian wife Irene Trollerova. According to Italian intelligence officials, Torreta had been a KGB informant since 1950.

According to Koehler:
Irene returned from Czechoslovakia in the early 1980s, with a ceramic statue of the Virgin Mary, about 10 inches high, a beautiful work of renowned Czech ceramic art. The couple presented the statue to Cardinal Casaroli, who accepted gratefully. What a betrayal by his own nephew! Inside the revered religious icon was a "bug", a tiny but powerful transmitter, which was monitored from outside the building by the couple's handlers from the Soviet Embassy in Rome. The statue had been placed in an armoire in the dining room close to Cardinal Casaroli's office. Another eavesdropping device inside a rectangular piece of wood was hidden in the same armoire. Both were not discovered til 1990 during a massive probe initiated by Magistrate Rosario Priore in the aftermath of the assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II. The bugs had been transmitting until that time."

Teilhard de Chardin
On 10 June 1981, on the 100th anniversary of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's birth, L'Osservatore Romano, the official Vatican newspaper, published a letter by Casaroli that praised the "astonishing resonance of his research, as well as the brilliance of his personality and richness of his thinking." Casaroli wrote that Teilhard had anticipated John Paul II's call to "be not afraid", embracing "culture, civilization and progress". The letter was antedated 12 May 1981, the day prior to the attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II, but was published during his convalescence. On 20 July 1981, a communiqué of the Press Office of the Holy See stated that the letter did not change the position of the warning issued by the Holy Office on 30 June 1962, which pointed out that Chardin's work contained ambiguities and grave doctrinal errors.

Honors
Honorary degree, University of Pavia, 1991

In popular culture
Cardinal Casaroli was portrayed by veteran character actor Ben Gazzara in the 2005 miniseries, Pope John Paul II.

References

Additional sources
Alberto Melloni (ed), Il Filo Sottile: L'Ostpolitik vaticana di Agostino Casaroli (Bologna: Società Editrice il Mulino, 2006) (Santa Sede e Politica nel Novecento, 4.).
Marco Lavopa, « Mgr Agostino CASAROLI un habile "tisseur de dialogues européens" (1963 – 1975)», Revue de l'histoire des religione, an. 2014, vol. 1, pp. 101-115, Armand Colin, Paris.
Marco Lavopa, « Le 'dialogue de compromis'. L'Ostpolitik vaticane de Mgr. Agostino Casaroli dans la Yougoslavie de Tito », Revue d'histoire diplomatique, an. 2013, vol. 2, pp. 157-178, A. Pedone, Paris.
Marco Lavopa, La diplomazia dei 'piccoli passi'. L'Ostpolitik vaticana di Mons Agostino Casaroli'', GBE, Roma 2013.
Marco Lavopa, « Les acteurs religieux ont-ils des pratiques diplomatiques spécifiques? La politique orientale vaticane et la "méthode Casaroli" dans le temps present », "Revue suisse d'histoire religieuse et culturelle", Academic Press of Fribourg, an. 2019, vol. 113, pp. 319−344.

External links
Official website
BBC report on his death
Article on his memoirs

1914 births
1998 deaths
Presidents of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State
People from the Province of Piacenza
20th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Porto
Diplomats of the Holy See
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
Pontifical Lateran University alumni
Cardinal Secretaries of State
Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See
Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II

Agostino Casaroli


The Kara Strait or Kara Gates is a 56 km (35 mi) wide channel of water between the southern end of Novaya Zemlya and the northern tip of Vaygach Island. This strait connects the Kara Sea and the Barents Sea in northern Russia.

The Kara Strait was an important waterway in the early exploration of the Northern Sea Route.

Straits
Geography of Russia
Arctic

Kara Strait


Tristan und Isolde (Tristan and Isolde) is an opera in three acts by Richard Wagner.  As always, Wagner wrote the words for the opera himself.   He took the famous old legend which had been told by the German poet  Gottfried von Strassburg

Wagner composed the opera between 1857 and 1859.  It was first performed, with Hans von Bülow conducting, in Munich on 10 June 1865. Many musicians think it is the greatest opera of the 19th century.  Wagner's dramatic handling of the story had enormous influence on many composers of the time.  His harmonies were also an extremely important development in the language of Romantic music.  Not everybody liked it.  In particular, the music critic Eduard Hanslick said that he could not understand it.

The story of Tristan and Isolde was one of the great romances of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.  Several poets told the story, and each told it slightly differently.  The themes of chivalry and courtly love are always there.

The story of the opera

Act I
Isolde, an Irish princess, and her maid, Brangaene are on Tristan's ship, being taken to King Marke's lands in Cornwall where Isolde is to be married to the King. The opera opens with a young sailor singing about a "wild Irish maid".  Isolde thinks he is singing about her.  She is furious and wishes the sea would rise up and sink the ship, killing all on board. She is particularly furious with Tristan, the knight who is taking her to the king. She asks her maid to get Tristan, but he will not come because his is steering the ship. His henchman, Kurwenal, speaks crossly to Brangaene, reminding her that Isolde's previous fiancé, Morold, had been killed by Tristan and his head sent back to Ireland.

Brangaene returns to Isolde to tell her about what was said.  Isolde sadly tells her how, after Morold had died, a man called Tantris had been brought to her because he was seriously injured, and that she had made him better using her powers of healing. However, she then found out that his real name was Tristan.  He was Ireland's worst enemy, and he was the man who had killed Morold.  Isolde had tried to kill him with a sword, but when Tristan had looked into her eyes her heart had become full of love and she had dropped the sword. Tristan had been allowed to go back to Cornwall.  However, it seemed now he had told his uncle, King Marke, all about the beautiful Isolde and had come to get her so that his uncle could marry her.  Brangaene tries to make Isolde see that Tristan is doing an honourable thing to make her Queen of Ireland, but Isolde will not listen.  She is furious, and wants him to drink a potion which had been intended by her mother for King Marke and Isolde as a love potion, but for Tristan it would be death.

Kurwenal now appears and says that Tristan has agreed after all to see Isolde. When he arrives, Isolde tells him that she now knows that he was Tantris, and that he owes her his life. Tristan agrees to drink the potion, now prepared by Brangaene, even though he knows it may kill him. As he drinks, Isolde snatches the rest of the potion from him and drinks it herself. They both believe they are about to die, and they declare their love for one other. Kurwenal comes and says that King Marke is arriving. Isolde asks Brangaene which potion she prepared and is told that it was not the death poison, but a love-potion. Outside, the sailors welcome the arrival of King Marke.

Act II
King Marke and his men are hunting at night.  His castle is empty except for Isolde and Brangaene who stand by a lighted torch.  Isolde keeps thinking that the hunting horns are far enough away for her to put out the flames, giving the sign for Tristan to join her. Brangaene warns Isolde that one of King Marke's knights, Melot, has seen Tristan and Isolde looking at one another lovingly.  Isolde, however, thinks that Melot is Tristan's best friend, and, desperate to see Tristan, she puts out the flames. Brangaene goes to the castle walls to keep a look-out as Tristan arrives.

Tristan and Isolde can now tell one another they are madly in love. Brangaene tries to warn them that the night is ending, but they do not listen to her and Melot leads Marke to find the two lovers in one another's arms.  Marke is desperately sad because Tristan has been betrayed and also because he himself had come to love Isolde.

Tristan now asks Isolde if she will follow him again into the night, and she agrees. Melot and Tristan fight, but then Tristan throws his sword to the side and is seriously wounded by Melot.

Act III
Kurwenal has brought Tristan home to his castle at Kareol in Brittany. A shepherd plays a sad tune on his pipes and asks if Tristan is awake. Kurwenal says that only Isolde's arrival can save Tristan. The shepherd says he will keep watch and pipe a happy tune to mark the arrival of any ship. Tristan now wakes up and is sad that it is daylight. His sadness turns to joy when Kurwenal tells him that Isolde is coming. He asks if her ship is in sight, but only the shepherd's sorrowful tune is heard.

Tristan sinks back again.  He remembers that the shepherd's tune is the one he had heard when his father and then his mother died.  He collapses.  The shepherd now pipes the arrival of Isolde's ship, and as Kurwenal rushes to meet her, Tristan in his excitement tears the bandages from his wounds. As Isolde arrives at his side, Tristan dies while speaking her name.

Isolde collapses beside him as the appearance of another ship is announced. Kurwenal sees Melot, Marke and Brangaene arrive and furiously attacks Melot because he had killed Tristan. In the fight both Melot and Kurwenal are killed. Marke and Brangaene finally reach Tristan and Isolde. Marke is terribly sad.  He explains that he has heard about the love-potion from Brangaene and he had come because he had decided that Tristan and Isolde should be united.  Isolde seems to wake but, in a last aria describing her vision of Tristan risen again (the "Liebestod"), then falls lifeless next to his body, uniting the two lovers in death.

The Tristan chord
The very first chord in the piece is very famous.  It has become known as the Tristan chord.  Although it had been used before, the way Wagner used it here was quite new.  It makes the chromatic harmony very hazy, and the listener does not know for many bars what key the music is in.  It creates a lot of tension.  There are many other moments like this in the opera.  The tension goes right through the opera.  The story tells of a tension that can only come to rest through death.

Prelude and Liebestod
The Prelude and Liebestod is a concert version of the overture and Isolde's Act 3 aria, arranged by Wagner, which was first performed in 1862, before the first performance of the opera itself in 1865. The Liebestod can be performed either in a purely orchestral version, or with a soprano singing Isolde's vision of Tristan brought back to life.

Other websites
 | Bilingual side by side German English Libretto Also available in Italian
 Wagner Operas. A comprehensive website featuring photographs of productions, recordings, librettos, and sound files.
 Richard Wagner - Tristan und Isolde. A gallery of historic postcards with motifs from Richard Wagner's operas.

1860s operas
Operas by Richard Wagner

Tristan und Isolde


The Lark wis a pioneerin "compact caur" designed an biggit bi Studebaker an introduced as a 1959 model.

Frae its introduction in 1959 till 1962, the Lark wis a product o the Studebaker-Packard Corporation. In mid-1962, the company dropped "Packard" frae its name an revert tae its pre-1954 name, the Studebaker Corporation. In addition tae bein biggit in Studebaker's South Bend, Indiana, hame plant, the Lark an its descendants wis biggit in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada forby, frae 1959-1966 bi Studebaker o Canada Limited. The caurs wis export tae a number o kintras aroond the warld as completit units an completely knocked doun (CKD) kits.

Lark-based variants represented the bulk o the range o models produced bi Studebaker efter 1958 an sellt in far greater volumes than the Hawk faimily sports caur an the later Avanti. The company, that celebratit its 100t anniversary in 1952, ceased auto production in 1966.

End o production models
The last South Bend caur an the last Canadian caur is on display at the Studebaker Naitional Museum in Sooth Bend, Indiana. The final U.S. biggit Lark-type wis retained bi the company insteid o bein delivered tae the Pennsylvania dealer that haed ordered it. The caur haes approximately 30 mi (48 km) on its odometer. The final Canadian caur, a 1966 Cruiser, wis driven several thoosan miles bi a company executive (records indicate that it wis biggit for delivery tae the company's Parts and Service Division in Sooth Bend). It wis hinderly retired tae the company's collection an haes been restored in recent years tae as-new condition.

Lark
Vehicles introduced in 1959
1960s automobiles

Studebaker Lark


Sir Clive Marles Sinclair (30 July 1940 – 16 September 2021) was an English entrepreneur and inventor, best known for being a pioneer in the computing industry and also as the founder of several companies that developed consumer electronics in the 1970s and early 1980s.

After spending several years as assistant editor of Instrument Practice, Sinclair founded Sinclair Radionics Ltd in 1961. He produced the world's first slimline electronic pocket calculator (the Sinclair Executive) in 1972. Sinclair then moved into the production of home computers in 1980 with Sinclair Research Ltd, producing the Sinclair ZX80 (the UK's first mass-market home computer for less than £100) and in the early 1980s, the ZX81, ZX Spectrum and the Sinclair QL. Sinclair Research is widely recognised for its importance in the early days of the British and European home computer industry, as well as helping to give rise to the British video game industry.

Sinclair also had several commercial failures, including the Sinclair Radionics Black Watch wristwatch, the Sinclair Vehicles C5 battery electric vehicle, and the Sinclair Research TV80 flatscreen CRT handheld television set. The failure of the C5, along with a weakened computer market, forced Sinclair to sell most of his companies by 1986. Through 2010, Sinclair concentrated on personal transport, including the A-bike, a folding bicycle for commuters which was small enough to fit in a handbag. He also developed the Sinclair X-1, a revised version of the C5 electric vehicle, which never made it to the market.

Sinclair was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 1983 Birthday Honours for his contributions to the personal computer industry in the UK.

Early life, family and education
Sinclair's father and grandfather were engineers; both had been apprentices at the shipbuilders Vickers. His grandfather George Sinclair was a naval architect who got the paravane, a mine sweeping device, to work. George Sinclair's son, George William "Bill" Sinclair, wanted to take religious orders or become a journalist. His father suggested he train as an engineer first; Bill became a mechanical engineer and remained in the field. At the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he was running his own machine tools business in London, and later worked for the Ministry of Supply.

Clive Sinclair was born to George Sinclair and Thora Edith Ella Marles in 1940 in Ealing, Middlesex. He and his mother left London for safety to stay with an aunt in Devon, where they eventually moved to Teignmouth. A telegram arrived shortly afterwards, bringing the news that their home in Ealing had been bombed. Sinclair's father found a house in Bracknell in Berkshire. His brother Iain was born in 1943 and his sister Fiona in 1947.

Sinclair attended Boxgrove Preparatory School, excelling in mathematics. Sinclair had little interest in sports and found himself out of place at school. By the time he was ten, his father had financial problems. He had branched out from machine tools and planned to import miniature tractors from the U.S.; he had to give up the business. Because of his father's problems, Sinclair had to move school several times. After a time at Reading School, Sinclair took his O-levels at Highgate School in London in 1955, and his A-levels and S-levels in physics, pure maths, and applied maths at St. George's College, Weybridge.

During his early years, Sinclair earned money mowing lawns and washing up in a café, earning 6d (2½p) more than the permanent staff. Later he went for holiday jobs at electronic companies. At Solartron he inquired about the possibility of electrically propelled personal vehicles. Sinclair applied for a holiday job at Mullard and took one of his circuit designs; he was rejected for precociousness. While still at school he wrote his first article for Practical Wireless.

After he left school at the age of 18, he sold miniature electronic kits by mail order to the hobby market.

Career

Sinclair Radionics

Sinclair's Micro Kit was formalised in an exercise book dated 19 June 1958, three weeks before his A-levels. Sinclair drew a radio circuit, Model Mark I, with a components list: cost per set 9/11 (49½p), plus coloured wire and solder, nuts and bolts, plus celluloid chassis (drilled) for nine shillings (45p). Also in the book are the advertisement rates for Radio Constructor at the time (9d (3¾p)/word, minimum 6/- (30p))  and Practical Wireless (5/6 (27½p) per line or part line). Sinclair estimated producing 1,000 a month, placing orders with suppliers for 10,000 of each component to be delivered.

Sinclair wrote a book for Bernard's Publishing, Practical transistor receivers Book 1, which appeared in January 1959. It was re-printed late that year and nine times subsequently. His practical stereo handbook was published in June 1959 and reprinted seven times over 14 years. The last book Sinclair wrote as an employee of Bernard's was Modern Transistor Circuits for Beginners, published in May 1962. At Bernard Babani, he wrote 13 constructor books.

In 1961, Sinclair registered Sinclair Radionics Ltd. His original choice, Sinclair Electronics, had been taken; Sinclair Radio was available but did not sound right. Sinclair Radionics was formed on 25 July 1961. Sinclair made two attempts to raise startup capital to advertise his inventions and buy components. He designed PCB kits and licensed some technology. Then he took his design for a miniature transistor pocket radio and sought a backer for its production in kit form. Eventually he found someone who agreed to buy 55% of his company for £3,000, but the deal didn't finalise.

Sinclair, unable to find capital, joined United Trade Press (UTP) as technical editor of Instrument Practice. Sinclair appeared in the publication as an assistant editor in March 1962. Sinclair described making silicon planar transistors, their properties and applications and hoped they might be available by the end of 1962. Sinclair undertook a survey of semiconductor devices for Instrument Practice, which appeared in four sections between September 1962 and January 1963.

His last appearance as assistant editor was in April 1969. Through UTP, Sinclair had access to thousands of devices from 36 manufacturers. He contacted Semiconductors Ltd (who at that time sold semiconductors made by Plessey) and ordered rejects to repair. He produced a design for a miniature radio powered by a couple of hearing aid cells and made a deal with Semiconductors to buy its micro-alloy transistors at 6d (2½p) each in boxes of 10,000. He then carried out his own quality control tests, and marketed his renamed MAT 100 and 120 at 7s 9d (38¾p) and 101 and 121 at 8s 6d (42½p).

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, Sinclair Radionics was producing handheld electronic calculators, miniature televisions, and the digital Black Watch wristwatch. The latter product, introduced in 1975, was a significant failure for Sinclair: in addition to being unable to meet demand, the watch itself was found to be inaccurate and difficult to service, and its battery life was too short. Sinclair Radionics suffered its first financial loss in 1975–1976, and Sinclair sought potential investors to help recover the lost funds. He eventually worked with the National Enterprise Board (NEB), which bought a 43% interest in the company in 1976, but this injection of funds was found to be too late as by this point, other companies were starting to make similar products at lower costs on the market. The NEB streamlined Sinclair Radionics' product line, selling off the watch and television lines, and brought in Norman Hewitt as a managing director to assist Sinclair. While Sinclair made efforts to work with Hewitt and the NEB, his relationship with these worsened, as the NEB had little faith in Sinclair's vision. By 1979, the NEB opted to break up Sinclair Radionics, holding its instruments division as Sinclair Electronics, and selling its television division to Binatone and its calculator division to ESL Bristol. Sinclair himself left the company at this point. Effectively NEB wrote off its estimated £7 million investment into Sinclair Radionics as a loss. Sinclair was given a golden handshake and an estimated £10,000 package with the dissolution of his company.

Sinclair Research

While Sinclair was dealing with the NEB and had seen problems developing, he had a former employee, Christopher Curry, establish a "lifeboat" company, called Science of Cambridge Ltd, in July 1977, called such as they were located near University of Cambridge, and planned for Curry to develop technology from ideas from the school. An early product from Science of Cambridge was a wrist calculator kit, which helped to keep the company financially afloat.

By the time that Sinclair had left Radionics and joined Curry at Science of Cambridge, inexpensive microprocessors had started appearing on the market. Sinclair came up with the idea of selling a microprocessor teaching kit, and in June 1978, Science of Cambridge launched the MK14 kit, based on the National SC/MP chip, in June 1978. As Sinclair began working on the MK14's successor, Curry was in discussions with Hermann Hauser, and opted to leave Science of Cambridge to co-found Acorn Computers with Hauser in 1978. Acorn became a direct competitor to Sinclair's products, with the Acorn System 75 as its answer to the MK14, effectively an MK14 chip with a keyboard.

To follow up on the MK14, Sinclair started looking to build a personal computer. At around that time (1979), premade systems such as the Commodore PET cost about £700, and Sinclair believed he could get the price of a system to under £100. Keeping the cost low was also essential for Sinclair to avoid his products from becoming outpriced by American or Japanese equivalents as had happened to several of the Sinclair Radionics products. In May 1979, Jim Westwood, a former Sinclair Radionics employee Sinclair hired for this new company, started the ZX80 project at Science of Cambridge; it was launched in February 1980 at £79.95 in kit form and £99.95 ready-built. The ZX80 was immediately successful, and besides sales in the UK, Sinclair also sought to introduce the computer into the United States. Science of Cambridge was subsequently renamed Sinclair Computers Ltd, and then again to Sinclair Research Ltd.

On hearing that the BBC was preparing to run a television series to teach viewers about computing and programming, both Sinclair and Curry pressured the BBC to choose computers from their respective companies to use as the primary tool. This pushed the development of the Sinclair ZX81 ahead as Sinclair's standard for the BBC. The ZX81 was launched at £49.95 in kit form and £69.95 ready-built, by mail order. Ultimately, the BBC chose Acorn and standardized on a successor to the Acorn Atom—originally named Acorn Proton, but ultimately branded as the BBC Micro. Despite losing out to the BBC, Sinclair's push had established the ZX80 and ZX81 as one of the most-sold brands of computers across the UK and the United States as well as establishing a deal with distribution in Japan with Mitsui. A number of user groups, magazines and third party accessories for both computers started to appear.

In February 1982, Timex obtained a licence to manufacture and market Sinclair's computers in the United States under the name Timex Sinclair. In April, the ZX Spectrum was launched at £125 for the 16 kB RAM version and £175 for the 48 kB version. It was the first computer in the ZX line to support colour output. The ZX Spectrum remained more affordable than other computers on the market, including the BBC Micro, the VIC-20 or Apple II, and during a time of recession and high unemployment in the UK, was positioned by Sinclair as a low-cost home computer for productivity applications. However, it also proved to be a popular gift for teenagers and young adults that year. This led to a number of these young people learning to program on the ZX Spectrum, using its newfound colour support, to make quirky video games inspired by British humour which they sold through word of mouth and mail order. So-called "bedroom coders" using the ZX Spectrum gave rise to the start of the UK's video game industry. By 1984, over 3,500 games had been released for the ZX Spectrum.

The popularity of the ZX Spectrum spread to Western Europe. While Sinclair could not import into Eastern European countries still within the Soviet bloc at the time, numerous low-cost clones of the ZX Spectrum sprung up within these countries, further boosting the start of video game development by similar bedroom coders. The ZX Spectrum went on to become the UK's most-sold computer, selling more than 5 million units before it was discontinued in 1992. Sinclair Research computers accounted for 45% of the British market in 1984, including those from British and American companies.

The continued success of the computer market continued to help boost Sinclair Research's profit. In 1982, the company had a pre-tax profit of £9.2 million on a turnover of £27.6 million. Sinclair himself was estimated to a net value of over £100 million in 1983, two years after launching the first of the ZX computers. With the additional funds, Sinclair converted the Barker & Wadsworth mineral water bottling factory into the company's headquarters in 1982.

Sinclair Vehicles and market decline

As Sinclair Research continued to be successful, Sinclair launched a new company, Sinclair Vehicles Ltd., in March 1983 to develop electric vehicles, using 10% of the capital generated by Sinclair Research and selling some of his own shares to fund the new venture. Sinclair had an interest in electric vehicles since the 1970s at Sinclair Radionics, and had been working with Tony Wood Rogers, a former Radionics employee, since 1979 to start developing prototypes of a new vehicle for the market. The company's only product was the Sinclair C5 which launched in January 1985. The Sinclair C5 was considered a significant failure, having been developed without any market research. It was widely criticised and widely ridiculed for its high price, its toy-like appearance, lack of safety features and exposure to the elements, and the need for the user to pedal the vehicle up steeper hills. Whilst Sinclair had anticipated 100,000 C5's would be sold in the first year, only 14,000 units were produced and 4,500 sold before the C5 line was terminated in August that same year.

Another noted misfire for Sinclair was the Sinclair Research TV80, a flatscreen portable mini television utilising a cathode ray tube, which took several years to develop, and by the time the TV80 was ready for market in 1983, the Sony Watchman had been released in Japan in 1982. Furthermore, LCD television technology was already in advanced development to bypass the limitations of CRT. The TV80 was a commercial flop, only 15,000 units being produced. Despite these commercial failures, both the C5 and TV80 have since been considered products ahead of their time, with the C5 a precursor to the modern day electric car and the TV80 comparable to watching videos on smartphones.

Sinclair continued to direct Sinclair Research as they continued the ZX Spectrum line of computers through 1983 and 1984 as well as launching the Sinclair QL (short for Quantum Leap) brand in 1984 intended to compete with business lines of computers from IBM and Apple but at about half their cost. However, towards the end of 1984, the market for personal computers in the United Kingdom became cautious; Sinclair Research had entered into a small price war with Acorn Computers. The price drops meant that consumers saw these computers as more toys rather than productivity tools, and Sinclair Research missed its planned sales milestones for the 1984 holiday season. Into 1985, Acorn fell under investigation which propagated solvency concerns throughout the computer industry, including Sinclair Research. Robert Maxwell, the owner of The Daily Mirror and Pergamon Press, planned to help Sinclair Research through its £12 million acquisition via Pergamon's Hollis Brothers division, announced in June 1985. However the deal was aborted in August 1985 as Sinclair found an offer with the Dixons Group of only £10 million.

The lack of funds for Sinclair Research and the failure of the C5 created financial difficulties for Sinclair. Sinclair Vehicles was placed into receivership by October 1985, and in April 1986, Sinclair sold the bulk of Sinclair Research to Amstrad for £5 million. Sinclair Research Ltd. was reduced to an R&D business and holding company, with shareholdings in several spin-off companies, formed to exploit technologies developed by the company. These included Anamartic Ltd. (wafer-scale integration) and Cambridge Computer Ltd. (Z88 portable computer and satellite television receivers).

Later years

By 1990, Sinclair Research consisted of Sinclair and two other employees down from 130 employees at its peak in 1985, and its activities later concentrated on personal transport, including the Zike electric bicycle. By 2003, Sinclair Research was collaborating with Hong Kong-based firm Daka. A laboratory was set up for Daka near Croydon to develop products on a royalty basis. The two firms collaborated on a Sea Scooter and a wheelchair drive. In 1997, he invented the Sinclair XI, which was a radio the size of a 10p coin.

Sinclair had planned to introduce the Sinclair X-1 through Sinclair Research, another attempt at a personal electric vehicle following the Sinclair C5. The X-1 was first announced in 2010, and incorporated design aspects that the C5 had been panned for, including an open egg-like shell for the rider with a more ergonomic seat, a more powerful motor and larger battery storage, and an effectively lower cost accounting for inflation than the C5. However, the X-1 failed to reach the market.

Recognition
Sinclair received several honours for his contributions towards helping establish the personal computer industry in the United Kingdom. In 1983, he was awarded Honorary Degrees of Doctor of Science by the University of Bath, Heriot-Watt University and University of Warwick. He was knighted in the Queen's 1983 Birthday Honours List. In 1984, he was honoured by Imperial College London by being made a fellow. In 1988, London's National Portrait Gallery purchased a portrait of Sinclair by photographer Simon Lewis for its permanent collection.

Personal life
Sinclair was a poker player and appeared in the first three series of the Late Night Poker on Channel 4. He won the first series final of the Celebrity Poker Club spin-off. Sinclair was an atheist. He had an IQ of 159, and was a member of British Mensa, and chairman from 1980 to 1997. He also participated in marathons including several New York City Marathons.

Despite his involvement in computing, Sinclair did not use the Internet, stating that he does not like to have "technical or mechanical things around me" as it distracts from the process of invention. In 2010, he said that he did not use computers himself, and preferred using the telephone rather than email. In 2014, he predicted, "Once you start to make machines that are rivalling and surpassing humans with intelligence, it's going to be very difficult for us to survive. It's just an inevitability."

His first marriage with Ann ended in divorce after twenty years around 1985 due to the pressure from the ongoing financial issues he had with his companies. From his marriage with Ann, he had three children. In 2010 Sinclair married Angie Bowness, a former dancer at a Stringfellows nightclub and who represented England for Miss Europe 1995. This second marriage lasted for seven years before also ending in divorce.

On 16 September 2021, Sinclair died in London following an illness related to cancer that he had for over a decade. He was 81 years old. Sinclair was remembered on his death for his contributions towards computing and video games by numerous people, including Elon Musk, Satya Nadella, the Oliver Twins, Debbie Bestwick, Charles Cecil, and David Braben. A Times leader following his death described Sinclair as a tenacious inventor whose career was a triumph of perseverance similar to that of many of Britain's greatest inventors, such as Sir James Dyson and Alexander Graham Bell, 'who are a reminder that failure is an essential prelude to success'.

Publications
Sinclair authored electronics constructor books for Bernard Babani publishers:
 Barnards 148 : Practical Transistor Receivers Book 1; 1959. (30 circuits)
 Barnards 149 : Practical Stereo Handbook; 1959.
 Barnards 151 : Transistor Receivers Book 2 - Transistor Superhet Receivers; 1960. (50 circuits)
 Barnards 163 : Transistor Circuits Manual 2; 1960. (13 circuits)
 Barnards 167 : Transistor Circuits Manual 3 - Eleven Tested Transistor Circuits using Prefabricated Circuit Units; 1960. (11 circuits)
 Barnards 168 : Transistor Circuits Manual 4; 1960. (11 circuits)
 Barnards 173 : Practical Transistor Audio Amplifiers for the Home Constructor Book 1; 1961. (32 circuits)
 Barnards 174 : Transistor Subminiature Receivers Handbook for the Home Constructor; 1961.
 Barnards 175 : Transistorized Test Equipment and Servicing Manual; 1961.
 Barnards 176 : Transistor Audio Amplifier Manual; 1962. (32 circuits)
 Barnards 177 : Modern Transistor Circuits for Beginners; 1962. (35 circuits)
 Barnards 179 : Transistor Circuits Manual 5; 1963. (14 circuits)
 Barnards 181 : 22 Tested Circuits Using Micro Alloy Transistors; 1963. (22 circuits)

References

References

Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the "Sunrise" Technology. London: Penguin Books. 224 pp. .

External links

Obituary by Marcus Williamson in The Independent
Sinclair Research website
"30 Dumb Inventions: Mini Television, 1966" (), Life magazine, 1966
Sir Clive Sinclair at Planet Sinclair website
"The Rising Star of Cambridge" (column), David Tebbutt, MicroScope, 1983
"Sinclair bows out", John Gilbert, Sinclair User, Issue 51, 1986
"'Move over Segway, I'm planning the C6'", Jonathan Duffy, BBC News, 2003
British Mensa biography of Clive Sinclair
"Interview – Sir Clive Sinclair: 'I don't use a computer at all'", Simon Garfield, The Observer, 2010

1940 births
2021 deaths

English inventors
English company founders
British cycle designers
Knights Bachelor
Businesspeople awarded knighthoods
Sinclair Research
Mensans
People educated at Highgate School
People educated at St George's College, Weybridge
Sustainable transport pioneers
British poker players
People from the London Borough of Ealing
English atheists

Clive Sinclair


A fuse is a device that shuts off the power to an electrical circuit when too much electric current flows through it.  This usually happens when too many appliances are plugged in or when there is a short circuit. A fuse is made as an intentional weak spot in a circuit that will melt (or "blow") when too much current is flowing through it, shutting off the power to the rest of the circuit. This protects the rest of the circuit. After the fuse blows, the problem that caused it to blow must be corrected and the fuse must be replaced to restore power to the circuit. A circuit breaker does the same job as a fuse, but it can be reset without replacing anything.

Fuses in plugs are made in standard ratings. The most common are 3 A, 5 A and 13 A. The fuse should be rated at a slightly higher current than the device needs. e.g. if the device works a 3 A use 5 A fuse. Fast and slow fuses are made. Fast acting fuses blow immediately once the current rating is exceeded. Slow blow fuses will let the current exceed the rating for a fraction of a second, to allow devices like motors to start up.

Other websites
 Fuse (electrical) -Citizendium

Electrical wiring
Electronic components

Fuse


This article is about the composer; for the Italian town see Gesualdo.

Carlo Gesualdo, known as Gesualdo da Venosa (born probably 8 March  1566; died  8 September 1613), Prince of Venosa and Count of Conza, was an Italian music composer, lutenist and murderer.  He lived in the late part of the Renaissance period.   He is famous for his beautifully expressive madrigals which are written in a very chromatic style (using lots of sharps and flats).  He is also remembered for committing a horrible murder.

Life
Gesualdo came from an aristocratic family.  He was probably born at Venosa, but we know hardly anything about his early life.  We know that he was extremely interested in music when he was small and showed very little interest in anything else.  He played the lute, harpsichord and guitar.

The murders
In 1586 Gesualdo married his first cousin, Donna Maria d'Avalos, the daughter of the Marquis of Pescara.  Two years later she began to have a love affair with Fabrizio Carafa, the Duke of Andria.  For two years her husband knew nothing about her love affair.  Then one day he returned unexpectedly to his palace (he may have suspected that something was happening) and found them making love.  He murdered them both in their bed.  He then left their bodies in front of the palace for everyone to see.  In those days in Italy a nobleman  could not be arrested and punished.  However, someone might have wanted to kill him in revenge, so he ran away to the town of Gesualdo where he had a castle.

A lot of people heard about the murders.  Famous poets such as Tasso wrote poems about it.  Nothing was done to arrest Gesualdo, however.  Some people at the time said that he also murdered one of Maria's babies because he thought he might not have been the father.  Other people even said that he murdered his father-in-law when he came wanting to kill him in revenge, but we do not know whether this was true.

Ferrara years
In 1594 Gesualdo went to the town of  Ferrara which was famous for music which was being composed by modern composers experimenting with new ideas.  He spent two years there and composed his first book of madrigals.  There he married another woman who was a niece of Duke Alfonso II d'Este.  The couple moved back to Gesualdo in 1597.

Return to Gesualdo, and final years
After returning to his castle at Gesualdo from Ferrara in 1597, he tried to make the town famous for music.  He invited some of Italy's most famous musicians to come and work for him.  Since he was very rich he could afford to do this.  However, the music making only took place in his castle (printing with Giovanni Giacomo Carlino).  Gesualdo spent the last years of his life doing nothing except music.  He hardly ever left his castle.

Gesualdo's new marriage was not a happy one.  His wife said he was cruel and she tried to divorce him.  She spent a lot of time away from the castle and wrote him angry letters.

Late in life he suffered from depression and madness.  We do not know whether this was because he felt bad about being a murderer, but he probably did feel guilty. He often made his servants hit him. He also wrote very strange letters to a cardinal asking him to send him some of his dead uncle's skeleton because he thought these remains would make him better.

Gesualdo died alone at his castle.  The chapel where he was buried was destroyed by an earthquake in 1688.  There is still a burial plaque in the rebuilt church.

His music
We think it is likely that Gesualdo felt terribly guilt all his life about the murders he had committed, and these guilty feelings can be heard in his music.  The words of his madrigals are often very emotional: they are about "love", "pain", "death", "ecstasy", "agony".  Of course, other madrigal composers used such words, but Gesualdo's music is really extreme.  It is often wildly chromatic.  Other composers did not copy his style.

He wrote both sacred (religious) and secular (non-religious) songs, and some music for instruments.  His most famous compositions are his six published books of madrigals (between 1594 and 1611), as well as his Tenebrae Responsories, which are very much like madrigals, except that they use texts from the Passion story about Christ's death on the cross.

1566 births
1613 deaths
17th-century Italian composers
16th-century Italian composers
Murderers
Lutenists
Italian criminals

Carlo Gesualdo


Scotland (,  ) is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Scotland located on the northern third of Great Britain. Many other islands in the British Isles are also part of Scotland. To the south of Scotland is England, the North Sea is to the east, the Atlantic Ocean is to the west and the Irish Sea is to the south-west.

The capital city of Scotland is Edinburgh on the east coast, but the biggest city is Glasgow on the west coast. The other cities in Scotland are Aberdeen, Dundee, Inverness, Perth, Stirling and Dunfermline. About five million people live in Scotland. Most of the population lives in the Central Belt, an area between the Scottish Highlands and the Scottish Lowlands.

Unlike most of Great Britain, most of Scotland was not part of the Roman Empire (only the southern half of Scotland -then named Caledonia- was under roman control for a century) and did not become part of Anglo-Saxon England. The Kingdom of Scotland started in the 9th century AD. In 1603, James VI of Scotland inherited the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland. In 1707, the parliament of Scotland joined with the parliament of England to become the Parliament of Great Britain. This formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain. This kingdom joined with the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801 to make the modern United Kingdom.

History

The history of Scotland begins when humans first began to live in Scotland after the end of the last ice age. Of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age civilization that existed in the country, many fossils remain, but no written records were left behind. These people did not have writing.

St Kilda, Heart of Neolithic Orkney and Skara Brae are all World Heritage Sites, as are the Antonine Wall and New Lanark on the mainland.

Because of where Scotland is in the world and its strong reliance on trade routes by sea, the nation held close links in the south and east with the Baltic countries, and through Ireland with France and Europe. The sea was very important for trade reasons. Following the Acts of Union and Industrial Revolution, Scotland grew to be one of the largest commercial, intellectual and industrial states in Europe.

Caledonians, Picts, and Romans

The written history of Scotland begins when the Roman Empire came to the British Isles. The Romans gave Great Britain its name in  or . The Romans overcame and controlled what is now England, Wales, and southern Scotland. To the north of the River Forth was Caledonia, land not fully owned by the Romans).

The Romans had military camps and forts in much of Scotland. In Classical Antiquity, the Romans named the people in Caledonia in . During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, the people of Caledonia were the Picts. The Roman army left Great Britain in the 5th century, and by the time Roman military had fought many battles with the Picts.

Scoti, Picts, and Saxons

In the Early Middle Ages, the Picts lived in a part of the land with the name Pictland. The Scoti came from Ireland and started the kingdom of Dál Riata. Parts of south-western Scotland and northern Ireland were part of Dál Riata. People there spoke old Goidelic languages. The Saxons came from Continental Europe. In the British Isles they have the name Anglo-Saxons. South-eastern Scotland became part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Their language was Old English.

In Pictland, the Picts started the Kingdom of Alba in the 9th-century. The kingdom began in the land between the River Spey and the River Forth. The Pictish language went extinct, and people in the 10th-century kingdom of Alba spoke the Goidelic language, Scots Gaelic. In time, the kingdom grew. The lands of Moray and Angus became part of the kingdom. The northern parts of Northumbria, south of the River Forth, became part of the kingdom.

People began to build large towns in the 10th century.

Norse
Most of the Scottish islands were ruled by the Norse (and then by Norwegians and Danes) for over four hundred years. The Kingdom of the Isles was a Norse kingdom in the western, coastal parts of Scotland. They spoke the Old Norse language.

The Norse lands include the Hebrides to the west and Orkney and Shetland to the north. The Isle of Man was also a part of the Kingdom of the Isles. The islands still have a culture of their own.

Wars of Independence

The Wars of Scottish Independence were many military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

The First War (1296–1328) began with the Edward I of England's invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Scotland by Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick.

The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland was an independent kingdom. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the invention of the longbow as an important weapon in medieval warfare.

A series of deaths in the line of succession in the 1280s, followed by King Alexander III's death in 1286 left the Scottish crown in crisis. His granddaughter, Margaret, the "Maid of Norway", a four-year-old girl, was the heir.

Edward I of England, as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession. In 1290 Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in Orkney on her voyage from Norway to Scotland before she was made Queen, or her wedding could take place.

Because there was no clear heir to the throne anymore, the Scottish people decided to ask Edward I of England to choose their king. The strongest candidate was called Robert Bruce. Robert Bruce had castles all around the country, and had a private army. But Edward wanted to invade Scotland, so he chose the weaker candidate, who was John Balliol. He had the strongest claim to the throne, and became king on 30 November 1292. Robert Bruce decided to accept this decision (his grandson and namesake later took the throne as Robert I).

Over the next few years, Edward I kept trying to undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland. In 1295, John, on the recommendation of his chief councillors, entered into an alliance with France. This was the beginning of the Auld Alliance.

In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland. He removed King John from power, and put him in jail. The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised an army from the southern and northern parts of the country to fight the English. Under their joint leadership, an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as Guardian of the realm.

Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk in 1298. Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. John Comyn and Robert the Bruce were put in his place. In 1305 Wallace was captured by the English, who executed him for treason. Wallace claimed he did not commit treason as he was not loyal to England.

In February 1306 Robert Bruce murdered John Comyn, a leading rival, in a church. Bruce went on to take the crown, but Edward's army overran the country yet again after defeating Bruce's small army at the Battle of Methven. Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V, his support slowly strengthened; and by 1314, with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and the Earl of Moray, only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling were still under English control.

Edward I died in Carlisle in 1307. His heir, Edward II, moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and again take control. Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, securing temporary independence. In 1320, a letter to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the Declaration of Arbroath) went part of the way towards convincing Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and cancel the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's independence could be recognised by other European countries.

In 1326, the first full Parliament of Scotland met. The parliament was made from an earlier council of nobility and clergy around 1235, but in 1326 representatives of the burghs—the burgh commissioners—joined them to form the Three Estates.

In 1328, Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton which declared Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce. Four years after Robert's death in 1329, England invaded Scotland yet again, looking to put the "Rightful King"—Edward Balliol, son of John Balliol—to the Scottish throne, starting the Second War of Independence. In the face of tough Scottish resistance, led by Sir Andrew Murray, attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed. Edward III lost interest in Balliol after the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with France. In 1341 David II, King Robert's son and heir, was able to return from temporary exile in France. Balliol finally resigned his empty claim to the throne to Edward in 1356, before retiring to Yorkshire, where he died in 1364.

Union of the Crowns

In 1603, Elizabeth I, queen of England and of Ireland, died. The king of Scotland was the queen's heir apparent, and James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) became king of England and king of Ireland. James VI and I (from Scotland's House of Stuart) went to England to control the government, and none of Scotland's kings came to Scotland for more than one hundred years.

United Kingdom
In 1707, Scotland and England were joined in the Act of Union to make one big Kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain. When Ireland joined in 1801, the United Kingdom was created. Scotland was an important part of the colonialism and imperialism of the British Empire. Scots colonists emigrated throughout the empire, and a large diaspora of Scots lives throughout the world as a result. The Scottish Enlightenment was an important part of the Age of Enlightenment. Philosophers like David Hume and Adam Smith led the Scottish Enlightenment.

Soldiers fought some of the wars caused by Jacobitism in Scotland. The Jacobites wanted the Roman Catholic House of Stuart, and not the Protestant House of Hanover to be kings of Britain and of Ireland. The last land battle in Great Britain was the Battle of Culloden in 1745. At that time the government's British Army stopped the Catholic rebellion led by Charles Edward Stuart. Scots-speakers and English-speakers moved many Gaelic speakers off lands in the Scottish Highlands, and many emigrated to the British Empire and the United States. In the 19th century, George IV visited Scotland. After that, Scotland and Scottish culture became more popular. Tourism to Scotland started in the 19th century.

In a referendum in 1997, a majority of voters in Scotland chose to have political devolution. The Scottish Parliament, Scottish Government, and the office of first minister of Scotland was set up in 1999.

One first minister of Scotland, Alex Salmond, led the Scottish National Party's Scottish Government from 2007. in 2014, the Scottish independence referendum ended in a majority (55%) voting against independence from the United Kingdom. Nicola Sturgeon became first minister on 20 November 2014.

Geography
The mainland of Scotland makes up  of the size of the Great Britain, and is to the northwest of mainland Europe.

The size of the land of Scotland is 78,772km² (30,414 sq mi). Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 mi) across. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland is only 30 kilometres (20 mi) from the southern part of Kintyre, Norway is 305 kilometres (190 mi) to the east and the Faroe Islands are 270 kilometres (168 mi) to the north. Scotland's land also includes several islands, including the Inner and Outer Hebrides off the west coast and the archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland to the north of the mainland.

Compared to the other areas of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, Scotland is sparsely populated, most especially the north-western half of it. The main geographical feature that dictates this is the Highland Boundary Fault which roughly splits the country in half from the southwest to the northeast.

To the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault are the more mountainous Scottish Highlands and islands, and this half of the country contains less than 5% of the total population.  To the south and east of the Highland Boundary Fault is the Scottish Lowlands, which contain the vast majority (about 75%) of the Scottish population, and 3 of the 4 biggest cities (Glasgow which is 1st, Edinburgh which is 2nd, and Dundee which is 4th).  Below the lowlands are the Southern Uplands which are hilly, but not as hilly at the Highlands.  They are less densely populated than the lowlands, but still a lot more dense than the highlands and islands.

Located within the central part of the lowlands is the "Central Belt", a rectangle of land roughly 88 kilometres (55 miles) from West to East and 48 kilometres (30 miles) North to South.  About half of the population of Scotland lives within these roughly 4,530 square kilometres (or 1,750 square miles), which is a little more than 2% of the total land area of Scotland.  This is the area between Scotland's two largest cities - Glasgow, at the Central Belt's Western end, and Edinburgh, at the Central Belt's Eastern end.  This area is geographically bound by two bays of water – the Firth of Clyde to the West and the Firth of Forth to the East.  It is the most fertile Earth in Scotland, which is why it is so population-dense, compared to the rest of the country.

The tallest mountain in Scotland is Ben Nevis, which is also the tallest mountain in the British Isles.

Culture
Throughout its history Scotland has had its own legal system (Scots law), church (the Church of Scotland), schools, and culture. Since 1999, Scotland has had its own parliament, the Scottish Parliament. It was devolved from the British parliament. The Scottish people have representation in both parliaments. The Scottish Government and the British Government both govern Scotland. On 18 September 2014, a referendum on independence from the United Kingdom took place. A majority (55%) voted to stay in the United Kingdom.

National symbols
The Flag of Scotland is blue with a white diagonal cross (a saltire). This is the cross of Saint Andrew, who is the patron saint of Scotland. Other symbols used for Scotland are the thistle and the unicorn. An image of a red lion "rampant" (standing on its back legs) on a gold background with a red border is the traditional coat of arms of the Scots monarchy.

Language
The official languages of Scotland are English, Scots and Scottish Gaelic. English is spoken by most people in Scotland, while only a small number, mostly in the Western Isles, speaks Scottish Gaelic. Scottish Gaelic began declining in the late Middle Ages when Scottish kings and nobles preferred English.

Sports

Football

Football is the most popular sport in Scotland. Three of the big cities, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Dundee, have two or three big football teams, and most cities have at least one team. The two most famous teams in Scotland are known as the "Old Firm". These are Celtic and Rangers. These two Glasgow clubs have a lot of history, and are fierce rivals, often causing fights, riots and even murders between the fans. Rangers are world record holders, having won the most amount of league titles of any football team, currently 55.

Scotland were the winners of the Homeless World Cup in 2007 and are the current champions after they won in August 2011. They defeated Mexico 4–3 in Paris, France.

Other football clubs
The other main clubs in Scotland are Aberdeen, Hearts, Hibs and Dundee United. These teams are in the Premier League right now, and usually take the most places in the top six of the league.

Some other Scottish clubs include Gretna, who won three titles in a row, moving from the Third Division, to the SPL in only three seasons. Gretna ran out of money, and they were shut down. Also, Raith Rovers, who famously played UEFA Cup Winners, Bayern München. Raith Rovers were knocked out by Bayern München, but managed to lead 1-0 at half time. Queen of the south also reached the Europa league, after reaching the 2008 Scottish cup final. they lost 3 -2 to Rangers.

Scottish Premier League

The top division of Scottish Football is called the "Scottish Premier League" (or SPL), and is currently sponsored by the Clydesdale Bank, a large Scottish Bank. In 2013, its name was changed to "Scottish Premiership".

Rugby
In 1925, 1984 and 1990, Scotland were winners of the Five Nations' Gran Slam, having beaten all four other teams - England, Wales, Ireland and France.

Golf
Golf is a popular sport in Scotland. It is unique, as Scotland is the birthplace of golf. That is certain, but the details are not known for sure. There are many public golf courses where people can play for small fees. Elsewhere in the world, golf is a game for the wealthy.

Sandy Lyle was the first Scottish golfer to win a major title in modern times. Colin Montgomery is one of the best players never to have won a major championship: He finished second in major events five times.

Motorsports
Scotland is also involved with motorsports. Former F1 driver David Coulthard is a thirteen time Grand Prix winner. Jackie Stewart is a 3-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best drivers ever. Jim Clark was a 2-time F1 World Champion and regarded as one of the best ever with Fangio, Schumacher and Senna. Colin McRae was also the 1995 World Rally Champion.

Tennis
Andy Murray, originally from Scotland, is currently the United Kingdom's best tennis player, having won singles titles at the US Open, and Wimbledon, where his 2013 win ended a 77-year wait for a British man to win the competition. He also won Olympic Gold in the men's singles at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. His brother, Jamie Murray, is a successful doubles player.

Elephant Polo
Scotland were the world champions of the unusual sport of Elephant Polo in 2004. Elephant Polo, registered as an Olympic sport with the Nepal Olympic Committee, was invented by Scotsman Nathan Mochan in 1983.

Traditional music
Traditional Scottish musical instruments include: the bagpipe, accordion, the fiddle, the harp and tin whistle.

Related pages
 United Kingdom

References

Other websites

 The official online website of Scotland
 Website of the Scottish Government
 Website of the Scottish Parliament
 Visit Scotland - by Scotland's national tourist board
 Scotland pictures - Scotland in photos
 Scotland -Citizendium

Scotland


In the human body, the carpal tunnel or carpal canal is the passageway on the palmar side of the wrist that connects the forearm to the hand.

The tunnel is bounded by the bones of the wrist and flexor retinaculum from connective tissue. Normally several tendons from the flexor group of forearm muscles and the median nerve pass through it. There are described cases of variable median artery occurrence.

When any of the nine long flexor tendons passing through the narrow carpal canal swell or degenerate, the narrowing of the canal may result in the median nerve becoming entrapped or compressed, a common medical condition known as carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).

Structure

The carpal bones that make up the wrist form an arch which is convex on the dorsal side of the hand and concave on the palmar side. The groove on the palmar side, the sulcus carpi, is covered by the flexor retinaculum, a sheath of tough connective tissue, thus forming the carpal tunnel. On the side of the radius, the flexor retinaculum is attached to the scaphoid bone, more precisely its tubercle, as well as the ridge of trapezium. On the ulnar side, it is attached to the pisiform and hook of hamate.

The narrowest section of the tunnel is located a centimetre beyond the mid-line of the distal row of carpal bones where the sectional area is limited to 1.6 cm2.

The tendons of the flexor digitorum superficialis and profundus pass through a common ulnar sheath, while the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus passes through a separate radial sheath. The mesotendon shared by these tendons is attached to the radial and palmar walls of the carpal tunnel.

Superficial to the carpal tunnel and the flexor retinaculum, the ulnar artery and ulnar nerve pass through the ulnar tunnel/Guyon's canal.

Function

Ten structures pass through the carpal tunnel, most of them flexor tendons (not the muscles themselves):
 flexor digitorum profundus (four tendons)
 flexor digitorum superficialis (four tendons)
 flexor pollicis longus (one tendon)
 Median nerve between tendons of flexor digitorum profundus and flexor digitorum superficialis

The flexor carpi radialis (one tendon) is often incorrectly stated to travel within the carpal tunnel. More precisely, it travels within the fibers of the flexor retinaculum which forms the roof of the carpal tunnel, rather than running inside the tunnel itself.

Effect of wrist movements
Movements in the wrist affect the shape and width of the carpal tunnel. The width decreases considerably during the normal range of motion in the wrist; and because the carpal bones move in relation to each other with every motion of the hand, the bony walls of the tunnel are not rigid. Both flexion and extension increase compression in the carpal tunnel.

 Flexing the wrist causes the flexor retinaculum to move closer to the radius which considerably decreases the cross section of the proximal opening of the tunnel. Additionally, the distal end of the capitate presses into the opening.
 In extreme extension, the lunate constricts the passage as it is pressed toward the interior of the tunnel.

Clinical significance

Carpal tunnel syndrome is characterised by tingling, burning and pain (needle, pin) through the course of median nerve particularly over the outer fingers and radiating up the arm, that is caused by compression of the carpal tunnel contents. It is associated with repetitive use, rheumatoid arthritis, and a number of other states. It can be detected using Tinel's sign and the Phalen maneuver. It may be treated non-surgically by splinting or corticosteroid injection. Definitive management often requires surgical division of the flexor retinaculum, which forms the roof of the carpal tunnel. Symptoms of the syndrome can sometimes be caused by tight muscles in the neck and shoulder region.

Additional images

See also

 Carpal tunnel surgery
 Carpal tunnel syndrome

References

External links

Occupational hazards
Wrist

Carpal tunnel


Little Manila is an area in Stockton, California that was inhabited by predominantly Filipino American agricultural workers from the 1930s on.

History
Attracted to agricultural jobs in California's Central Valley, many young Filipino men made their homes in Stockton. The racism and discriminatory laws that persisted until the mid-1960s kept these mostly young men from pursuing the American dream of a US education, a family, and higher economic status, even barring them from crossing Main Street into what was then the exclusively white northern section of the city.

In response, these Filipino American pioneers built their own community south of Main Street. They set up businesses and organizations of all kinds to meet their own needs - restaurants, hotels, grocery stores, barber shops, the Rizal Social Club, the Daguhoy Lodge, a rescue mission, and many others, creating what became Stockton's Little Manila.

The Manongs (Ilocano: first-born male, "respected elder brothers", several other connotations), as they are affectionately called, fought for better working conditions in the fields, fair wages, and equal rights, paving the way and making life easier for the generations of Filipino Americans that followed. These men organized labor unions and successfully held strikes against exploitative growers.

Filipino labor leaders like Larry Itliong, Andy Imutan, Chris Mensalvas, Ernesto Mangaoang, Carlos Bulosan, and Philip Vera Cruz all worked out of Stockton at one time or another. Historic labor union meetings were held at the Mariposa Hotel on Lafayette Street. Mensalvas and Mangaoang were at the forefront of the ground-breaking asparagus strike that successfully concluded in 1939. Until World War II, Filipino Americans, rather than Mexican Americans, were the primary groups performing agriculture labor. These courageous Filipino farm workers and labor leaders were the unsung heroes behind the success of the UFW and its iconic leader Cesar Chavez.

Because of the hardships of life in America in those days, particularly during the Depression when racially motivated violence was at its peak, few women came to the US from the Philippines. This and racist anti-miscegenation laws prohibiting marriage between men of color and white women forced most of the Manongs to remain single for most if not all of their lives. A small number were able to marry white or Mexican women by eloping to neighboring states, mainly Colorado and Texas, but they did so at their peril.

During World War II, the tide of American public opinion about the Filipinos in their midst changed when Filipinos both in the Philippines and the US fought fiercely and bravely alongside Americans. Two all-Filipino regiments of the US Army were among the most highly decorated of the war. Afterward, laws were changed, and many Manongs were able to marry and bring their brides to the US, starting families late in life and producing a generation of Filipino-Americans who knew little of their fathers' courageous struggles to survive in the US until they took college classes in Filipino-American history.

By 1946, Stockton's Little Manila was home to the largest Filipino community in the US.

In the 1950s and 1960s, large sections of Little Manila were bulldozed by the city to "improve" Stockton's downtown area. A freeway and some fast food establishments displaced many Filipino homes and establishments and disrupted community life. The freeway, locally known as the Crosstown Freeway, rerouted California State Route 4 from its previous alignment, and was widely but unsuccessfully opposed by the community, and was built in the early 1970s.

An unprecedented Filipino-American community effort succeeded in raising money to build the Filipino Plaza, completed in 1972 and now home to once-displaced neighborhood families, some businesses, and the Barrio Fiesta, an annual Filipino cultural event held in mid-August.

Development
Today, the Little Manila Foundation, a Stockton-based non-profit organization, is working to reclaim and restore the last remaining buildings of the once vibrant Little Manila district. Through the efforts of the Stockton FANHS and a new generation of Filipino-American leaders such as Dr. Dawn B. Mabalon, history professor at San Francisco State University and Little Manila Executive Director, and filmmaker Dillon Delvo (both the offspring of Manongs), the Mariposa Hotel, the Rizal Social Club, the Filipino Recreation Center and the entire Little Manila District was named one of the nation's most endangered historic places of 2003 by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.

The project Little Manila Virtually Recreated was completed at University of the Pacific (United States) to recreate the historical Little Manila neighborhood in virtual reality.

References

Further reading

External links
 Little Manila Foundation

Ethnic enclaves in California
Filipino-American history
Filipino-American culture in California
History of Stockton, California

Little Manila, Stockton, California


The Hohe Warte Stadium is a football stadium in the Döbling district of Vienna. It is the home ground of the oldest football club in Austria, First Vienna FC 1894. It is also used by the American football team Vienna Vikings. It is one of the oldest stadiums which are still in use in professional football.

History
The stadium was opened in 1921 with a match between First Vienna and S.C. Hakoah Wien. It was at that time the biggest in Europa. It was and still is the homeground of First Vienna F.C. 1894. The stadium was planned by Eduard Schönecker, who was not only a architect, but also a notable football defender playing for SK Rapid Wien and the national team. With 90,000 capacity it was the largest stadium in Europe at this time. In 1923, 80,000 visitors were looking at the match of the Austrian national football team versus Italy. The stadium was also used for open air opera performances and boxing events.

In the 1920s the stadium was used for open air operas and boxing. 1924 the composer Pietro Mascagni conducted the opera  Aida by Giuseppe Verdi.

Today the capacity is 5,500 because the city closed the natural hills around the stadium for visitors. The costs to maintain the stadium are €400,000. There are plans to build a wellness center to lower the costs for the club.

References

Football stadiums in Austria
Buildings and structures in Vienna
1921 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Austria

Hohe Warte Stadium


Prometheus ( ) is a 2012 science fiction horror movie directed by Ridley Scott, written by Jon Spaihts and Damon Lindelof. It stars Noomi Rapace, Michael Fassbender, Guy Pearce, Idris Elba, Logan Marshall-Green, and Charlize Theron.

It is set in the late 21st century and is about the crew of the spaceship Prometheus as it follows a star map discovered among the artifacts of several ancient Earth cultures. They wanted to find out the origins of humanity, but the crew arrives on a distant world and discovers a threat that could bring extinction to humanity.

Prometheus was released on June 1, 2012, in the United Kingdom and on June 8, 2012, in North America.

Other websites

2012 science fiction movies
2012 horror movies
Alien movies
Movies directed by Ridley Scott

Prometheus (2012 movie)