Paul David Wellstone (July 21, 1944 – October 25, 2002) was an American academic, author, and politician who represented Minnesota in the United States Senate from 1991 until he was killed in a plane crash near Eveleth, Minnesota, in 2002. A member of the Democratic Party (DFL), Wellstone was a leader of the populist and progressive wings of the party.

Born in Washington, D.C., Wellstone grew up in Northern Virginia. He went on to graduate from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill with a Bachelor's of Arts and a doctorate in political science. In 1969, Wellstone was hired as a professor at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, where he taught until his election to the Senate in 1990. In addition, he also worked as a local activist and community organizer in rural Rice County. In 1982, he made his first bid for political office in that year's Minnesota State Auditor race. His campaign was unsuccessful, losing to Republican incumbent Arne Carlson.

Wellstone challenged two-term Republican incumbent Rudy Boschwitz in the 1990 United States Senate election. Wellstone was widely seen as an underdog and was significantly outspent by Boschwitz. Using his progressive populism and grassroots campaigning tactics, such as his iconic green school bus, Wellstone won in an upset victory that gained him national attention. He was the only challenger in the country that year to defeat an incumbent senator. In his 1996 reelection campaign, he defeated Boschwitz in a rematch. He won the elections with 50.4% and 50.3% of the vote, respectively.

While in the U.S. Senate, Wellstone was a supporter of environmental protection, labor groups, and health care reform. He notably authored the "Wellstone Amendment" for the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002. However, his efforts toward campaign finance reform were overturned in 2010 by the U.S. Supreme Court in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. Wellstone was a candidate for reelection to the Senate in 2002 and was facing former Saint Paul mayor Norm Coleman in a competitive race when, a few weeks before the election, Wellstone died in a plane crash near Eveleth, Minnesota. His wife, Sheila, and daughter, Marcia, also died on board. After his sudden death, Wellstone was replaced on the ballot by former Vice President Walter Mondale, who lost by a slim margin to Coleman. Wellstone's sons, David and Mark, were not on the flight, and until 2018 co-chaired the Wellstone Action nonprofit organization (now named Re:Power) in honor of their parents.

Background and education
Wellstone was born in Washington, D.C., the second son of Ukrainian Jewish immigrants Leon and Minnie Wellstone. His father changed the family name from Wexelstein after encountering antisemitism during the 1930s. Raised in Arlington, Virginia, Wellstone attended Wakefield public schools and Yorktown High School, graduating in 1962.

Wellstone attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) on a wrestling scholarship. In college he was an undefeated Atlantic Coast Conference wrestling champion. After his freshman year, he married Sheila Ison Wellstone. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in political science in 1965, and was elected Phi Beta Kappa. In May 1969, Wellstone earned a PhD in political science from UNC. His doctoral dissertation on the roots of black militancy was titled Black Militants in the Ghetto: Why They Believe in Violence.

Early career and activism
In August 1969, Wellstone accepted a tenure-track position at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, where he taught political science until his election to the Senate in 1990. During the 1970s and 1980s, he also began community organizing, working with the working poor and other politically disenfranchised communities. He founded the Organization for a Better Rice County, a group consisting mainly of single parents on welfare. The organization advocated for public housing, affordable health care, improved public education, free school lunches, and a publicly funded day care center. In 1978, he published his first book, How the Rural Poor Got Power: Narrative of a Grassroots Organizer, chronicling his work with the organization.

Wellstone was arrested twice during this period for civil disobedience. The Federal Bureau of Investigation began a case file on him after his May 1970 arrest for protesting the Vietnam War at the Federal Office Building in Minneapolis. In 1984 Wellstone was arrested again, for trespassing during a foreclosure protest at a bank.

Wellstone extended his activism to the Minnesota labor movement. In the summer of 1985, he walked the picket line with striking P-9ers during a labor dispute at the Hormel Meat Packing plant in Austin, Minnesota. The Minnesota National Guard was called in during the strike to ensure that Hormel could hire permanent replacement workers.

The trustees of Carleton College briefly fired Wellstone in the late 1970s for his activism and lack of academic publications. After his students held a sit-in, the trustees rehired him and gave him tenure. Wellstone remains the youngest tenured faculty member in Carleton's history.

Early political career
Wellstone first sought public office in 1982. He received the Democratic nomination for Minnesota State Auditor after an impassioned speech at the state convention. In the general election he received 45% of the vote, losing to Republican incumbent, and future Minnesota governor, Arne Carlson. Wellstone remained active in Democratic politics in the mid-1980s. He served as an elected committeeman for the Democratic National Committee in 1984, and in 1986 began a second campaign for State Auditor before dropping out to tend his mother's failing health. In 1988, Wellstone chaired Jesse Jackson's campaign for the presidency in Minnesota. After the primary, he co-chaired Michael Dukakis's campaign in the state.

U.S. Senate campaigns (1990–2002)

In 1990, Wellstone ran for the U.S. Senate against incumbent Rudy Boschwitz, beginning the race as a serious underdog. He narrowly won the election despite being outspent 7 to 1. Wellstone played off his underdog image with quirky, humorous ads created by political consultant Bill Hillsman, including "Fast Paul" and "Looking for Rudy", a pastiche of the 1989 Michael Moore documentary Roger & Me. Boschwitz was also hurt by a letter his supporters wrote, on campaign stationery, to members of the Minnesota Jewish community days before the election, accusing Wellstone of being a "bad Jew" for marrying a Gentile and not raising his children in the Jewish faith. (Boschwitz, like Wellstone, is Jewish.) Wellstone's reply, widely broadcast on Minnesota television, was "He has a problem with Christians, then." Boschwitz was the only incumbent U.S. senator not to be reelected that year.

Wellstone defeated Boschwitz again in 1996. During that campaign, Boschwitz ran ads accusing Wellstone of being "embarrassingly liberal" and calling him "Senator Welfare". He accused Wellstone of supporting flag burning, a move some believe backfired. Before that accusation, the race was close, but Wellstone beat Boschwitz by nine points despite again being significantly outspent. Reform Party candidate Dean Barkley received 7% of the vote.

Wellstone's upset victory in 1990 and reelection in 1996 were also credited to a grassroots campaign that inspired college students, poor people, and minorities to get involved in politics, many for the first time. In 1990, the number of young people involved in the campaign was so notable that shortly after the election, Walter Mondale told Wellstone that "the kids won it for you". Wellstone also spent much of his Senate career working with the Hmong community in Minnesota, which had not previously been much involved in American politics, and with the veterans community—serving on the Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs, successfully campaigning for atomic veterans to receive compensation from the federal government, and for increased spending on health care for veterans.

In 2002, Wellstone campaigned for reelection to a third term despite an earlier campaign pledge to serve only two. His Republican opponent was Norm Coleman, a two-term mayor of St. Paul and former Democrat, who had supported Wellstone's 1996 campaign. Earlier that year Wellstone announced he had a mild form of multiple sclerosis, causing the limp he had believed was an old wrestling injury.

Wellstone was in a line of center-left senators from the Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party (DFL). The first three, Hubert Humphrey, Eugene McCarthy, and Walter Mondale, were all prominent in the national Democratic Party. Shortly after joining the Senate, South Carolina Senator Fritz Hollings told Wellstone, "You remind me of Hubert Humphrey. You talk too much."

Political positions
Wellstone was known for his work for peace, the environment, labor, and health care; he also joined his wife Sheila to support the rights of victims of domestic violence. He made the issue of mental illness a central focus in his career. He was a supporter of immigration to the U.S. He opposed the first Gulf War in 1991 and, in the months before his death, spoke out against the government's threats to go to war with Iraq again. He was strongly supported by groups such as Americans for Democratic Action, the AFL–CIO, the Sierra Club, the American Civil Liberties Union, and People for the American Way.

In 1996, he voted for the Defense of Marriage Act. He later asked his supporters to educate him on the issue and by 2001, when he wrote his autobiography, Conscience of a Liberal, Wellstone admitted that he had made a mistake.

Wellstone was one of only eight members of the Senate to vote against repealing the Glass-Steagall Act in 1999.

After voting against the congressional authorization for the war in Iraq on October 11, 2002, amidst a tight election, Wellstone is said to have told his wife, "I just cost myself the election."

In the 2002 campaign, the Green Party ran a candidate against Wellstone, a move some Greens opposed. The party's 2000 vice-presidential nominee, Winona LaDuke, called Wellstone "a champion of the vast majority of our issues". The Green Party's decision to oppose Wellstone was criticized by some liberals.

Wellstone was the author of the "Wellstone Amendment" to the McCain-Feingold Bill for campaign finance reform, in what came to be known as the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002. The law, including the Wellstone Amendment, was called unconstitutional by groups and individuals of various political perspectives, including the California Democratic Party, the National Rifle Association of America, and Republican Senator Mitch McConnell, the Senate Majority Whip. On December 10, 2003, the Supreme Court upheld McCain-Feingold's key provisions, including the Wellstone Amendment. Wellstone called McCain-Feingold's protection of "advocacy" groups a "loophole" allowing "special interests" to run last-minute election ads. He pushed an amendment to extend McCain-Feingold's ban on last-minute ads to nonprofits like "the NRA, the Sierra Club, the Christian Coalition, and others." Under the Wellstone Amendment, these organizations could advertise using only money raised under strict "hard money" limits—no more than $5,000 per individual.

In January 2010, in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the McCain-Feingold Act and removed restrictions on the NRA and others' ability to campaign at election time.

Presidential aspirations
Shortly after his reelection to the Senate in 1996, Wellstone began contemplating a run for his party's nomination for President of the United States in 2000. In May 1997, he embarked on a cross-country speaking and listening tour dubbed "The Children's Tour." It took him through rural areas of Mississippi and Appalachia and the inner cities of Minneapolis, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Baltimore. He intended to retrace the steps Robert F. Kennedy took during a similar tour in 1966, and to highlight the fact that conditions had improved slightly for African-Americans since the civil rights movement, but not much for poor whites despite their dependency on food stamps, government jobs (military) and the massive federal investment in their regions, especially Appalachia.

In 1998, Wellstone formed an exploratory committee and a leadership PAC, the Progressive Politics Network, that paid for his travels to Iowa and New Hampshire, two early primary states in the nomination process. He spoke before organized labor and local Democrats, using the slogan "I represent the democratic wing of the Democratic Party." Vermont governor Howard Dean later incorporated that phrase into his stump speech in the 2004 US presidential election.

On January 9, 1999, Wellstone called a press conference at the Minnesota State Capitol at which he said he lacked the stamina necessary for a national campaign, citing chronic back problems he ascribed to an old wrestling injury. His pain was later diagnosed as multiple sclerosis. He thereafter endorsed former Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey, the only Democratic candidate to challenge Vice President Al Gore.

Gulf War
Wellstone voted against authorizing the use of force before the Persian Gulf War on January 12, 1991 (the vote was 52–47 in favor). He also voted against the use of force before the Iraq War on October 11, 2002 (the vote was 77–23 in favor). Wellstone was one of 11 senators to vote against both the 1991 and 2002 resolutions. The others were also all Democrats: Daniel Akaka of Hawaii; Jeff Bingaman of New Mexico; Robert Byrd of West Virginia; Kent Conrad of North Dakota; Daniel Inouye of Hawaii; Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts; Patrick Leahy of Vermont; Carl Levin of Michigan; Barbara Mikulski of Maryland; and Paul Sarbanes of Maryland.

Other key military action votes
Wellstone supported requests for military action by President Bill Clinton, including Operation Restore Hope in Somalia (1992), Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti (1994), Operation Deliberate Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1995), Operation Desert Fox in Iraq (1998), and Operation Allied Force in Yugoslavia (1999). On July 1, 1994, during the 100-day Rwandan genocide from April 6 to mid-July 1994, Wellstone authored an amendment to the 1995 defense appropriations bill.

Death
On October 25, 2002, Wellstone, along with seven others, died in an airplane crash in northeastern Minnesota, at 10:22 a.m. He was 58 years old. The other victims were his wife, Sheila; one of his three children, Marcia; the two pilots Richard Conry and Michael Guess; and campaign staffers Mary McEvoy, Tom Lapic and Will McLaughlin. The airplane was en route to Eveleth, where Wellstone was to attend the funeral of Martin Rukavina, a steelworker whose son Tom Rukavina served in the Minnesota House of Representatives. Wellstone decided to go to the funeral instead of a Minneapolis rally and fundraiser attended by Mondale and fellow Senator Ted Kennedy. He was to debate Norm Coleman in Duluth, Minnesota, that night.

The Beechcraft King Air A100 airplane crashed into dense forest about two miles from the Eveleth airport, while operating under instrument flight rules. It had no flight data recorders. Autopsy toxicology results on both pilots were negative for drug or alcohol use. Icing, though widely reported on in following days, was considered and eventually rejected as a significant factor in the crash. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) judged that while cloud cover might have prevented the flight crew from seeing the airport, icing did not affect the plane's performance during its descent.

The FBI, which initially sent agents to help recover debris, investigated possible foul play in the crash. After a few days, it determined that the crash was accidental, but only after following several criminal leads involving death threats. Wellstone had been receiving death threats since he took office; the FBI tapped his phone to locate the callers. Documents about the FBI's involvement in investigating Wellstone's death were not publicly released until October 2010. Government documents also indicated that the FBI had been following Wellstone before he became a senator, and included records dating as far back as his arrest at a 1970 antiwar protest.

The NTSB later determined that the likely cause of the accident was "the flight crew's failure to maintain adequate airspeed, which led to an aerodynamic stall from which they did not recover." The final two radar readings detected the airplane traveling at or just below its predicted stall speed given conditions at the time of the accident. Aviation experts speculated the pilots might have lost situational awareness because they were lost and looking for the airport. They had been off course for several minutes and "clicked on" the runway lights, something not usually done in good visibility. There was a problem with the airport's VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) navigational beacon. According to Minnesota Public Radio:

Other pilots at the charter company told NTSB that pilot Richard Conry and first officer (co-pilot) Michael Guess had both displayed below-average flying skills. Conry had a well-known tendency to allow copilots to take over all aircraft functions as if they were the sole pilot. After the crash, three copilots told of occasions on which they had to take control of the aircraft away from Conry. After one of those incidents, three days before the crash, the copilot (not Guess) had urged Conry to retire. In a post-accident interview, Conry's longtime friend and fellow aviator Timothy Cooney said that he had last spoken to Conry in June 2001 and had expressed concerns about difficulties he had flying King Airs as late as April of that year, 18 months before the accident. Significant discrepancies were also found in the captain's flight logs in the course of the post-accident investigation, indicating he had probably greatly exaggerated his flying experience, most of which had been accrued before a 9–10 year hiatus from flying due to a fraud conviction and poor eyesight. He underwent Lasik surgery, but it had improved his vision to only 20/50 or 20/30. FAA regulations required Conry to wear corrective lenses, but his wife and Cooney said Conry did not wear lenses after the surgery. The coroner who examined his body was unable to determine whether Conry was wearing contact lenses at the time of the crash.

Coworkers described Guess as having had to be consistently reminded to keep his hand on the throttle and maintain airspeed during approaches. He had two previous piloting jobs, one with Skydive Hutchinson as a pilot (1988–1989), and another with Northwest Airlines as a trainee instructor (1999), and was dismissed from both for lack of ability. Conry's widow told the NTSB that her husband told her "the other pilots thought Guess was not a good pilot."

Aftermath
Don Hazen, executive editor of Alternet, wrote of the death, "Progressives across the land are in shock as the person many think of as the conscience of the Senate is gone." Wellstone died just 11 days before his potential reelection in a crucial race to maintain Democratic control of the Senate. Campaigning was halted by all sides. Minnesota law required that his name be stricken from the ballot, to be replaced by a candidate chosen by the party. The DFL selected former Vice President Walter Mondale.

The memorial service for Wellstone and the other victims of the crash was held in Williams Arena at the University of Minnesota and broadcast live on national TV. The lengthy service was dotted with political speeches, open advocacy on political issues, and a giant beach ball batted around the crowd in the style of a beach party. Many high-profile politicians attended the memorial, including former President Bill Clinton, former Vice President Al Gore, and more than half the U.S. Senate. The White House offered to send Vice President Dick Cheney to the service, but the Wellstone family declined.

Some criticized the service for having an inappropriate tone and resembling a "pep rally" or "partisan foot-stomp". Wellstone campaign manager Jeff Blodgett noted after the event that it had not been scripted and apologized to people who were offended or surprised. In his 2003 book Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them, Al Franken wrote that "reasonable people of good will were genuinely offended" but argued that conservative media figures exploited outrage at the event for political gain. At the time of writing, Franken was a comedian and liberal commentator. Five years later, in 2008, Franken was elected to the Senate seat once held by Wellstone.

Minnesota Governor Jesse Ventura, who had stated his preference to appoint a Democrat to serve out the remainder of Wellstone's term through January 2003, was "disgusted" by the event, walking out and later threatening to appoint "an ordinary citizen" instead. On November 4, the day before the election, Ventura appointed state planning commissioner Dean Barkley, founder and chair of Ventura's Independence Party of Minnesota, to serve the remaining two months of Wellstone's term; he had run against Wellstone in 1996. Coleman received 49.5 percent of the vote to defeat Mondale and win Wellstone's seat. In 2008, he was narrowly defeated (by 312 votes) in his bid for reelection by Franken, in a three-way race that included Barkley.

Legacy

The AFL–CIO has created the AFL–CIO Senator Paul Wellstone Award for supporters of the rights of labor unions. Presidential candidate Howard Dean and California state senator John Burton both received the first award in January 2003. In 2004, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill dedicated the Paul and Sheila Wellstone Memorial Garden as a tribute to the couple, both graduates of the university. Also in 2004, Mason Jennings released "The Ballad of Paul and Sheila," a song memorializing the Wellstones, on his album Use Your Voice.

Near the site of the plane crash, a memorial to the Wellstones was dedicated on September 25, 2005. His distinctive green bus was present, as well as hundreds of supporters and loved ones. The six-acre site, off Bodas Road near Eveleth, is a tribute to Wellstone's life and career, and to his family members and staff who lost their lives in the crash. The memorial is about three-quarters of a mile from the crash site, which is on private land. It is divided into three parts: the Legacy Trail, the Commemorative Circle, and the Crash Site Narrative Space.

Paul and Sheila Wellstone were buried at Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis, the same cemetery in which Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey is interred. A memorial sculpture near Bde Maka Ska marks their gravesites. Visitors sometimes follow the Jewish custom of placing small stones on the boulder marking the family plot or on the individual markers. Wellstone Action, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization, trains citizens and potential candidates with a progressive agenda.

In 2007, former First Lady Rosalynn Carter joined David Wellstone to push Congress to pass legislation regarding mental health insurance. Wellstone and Carter worked to pass the Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act of 2008, which requires equal coverage of mental and physical illnesses when policies include both types of coverage; both testified about the bill before a House subcommittee in July 2007. David said of his father, "Although he was passionate on many issues, there was not another issue that surpassed this in terms of his passion." Because Paul Wellstone's brother had had mental illness, Wellstone had fought for changes in mental health and insurance laws when he reached the Senate. The St. Paul branch of the Emily Program eating disorder clinic has a Wellstone Room in its adult inpatient unit. The room is dedicated to Paul and Sheila Wellstone for their work on treating eating disorders.

On March 5, 2008, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 1424, the Paul Wellstone Mental Health and Addiction Equity Act of 2007, by a vote of 268–148. It was sponsored by Representatives Patrick Kennedy and Jim Ramstad, both of whom are recovering alcoholics. The narrower Senate bill S. 558, passed earlier, was introduced by Kennedy's father, Senator Edward Kennedy, Pete Domenici, and Mike Enzi.

Electoral history

See also
 List of United States Congress members who died in office (2000–)#2000s

Citations

General and cited references
 Human Performance 14: Factual Report of Human Performance Specialist, National Transportation Safety Board (February 20, 2003)
 Attachment 1: Interview Summaries—part of the crash report(s)

Further reading
 Blodgett, Jeff, Winning Your Election the Wellstone Way, University of Minnesota Press, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081228001400/http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/B/blodgett_winning.html
 Casper, Barry (Mike), Lost in Washington: Finding the Way Back to Democracy in America, University of Massachusetts Press, 2000.
 Donald "Four Arrows" Trent Jacobs and Dr. James H. Fetzer, American Assassination: the Strange Death of Senator Paul Wellstone, Vox Pop, 2004.

 Hightower, Jim. Swim Against the Current: Even a Dead Fish Can go With the Flow. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2008.
 Bill Hillsman, Run The Other Way: Fixing the Two-Party System, One Campaign at a Time
 Lofy, Bill, Paul Wellstone: The Life of a Passionate Progressive, University of Michigan Press, 2005
 Lofy, Bill, Politics the Wellstone Way: How to Elect Progressive Candidates and Win on Issues, University of Minnesota Press, 2005. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/W/wellstone_politics.html
 McGrath, Dennis J. and Smith, Dane, Professor Wellstone Goes to Washington: The Inside Story of a Grassroots U.S. Senate Campaign, University of Minnesota Press, 1995. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/M/mcgrath_prof.html
 Wellstone, Paul, The Conscience of a Liberal: Reclaiming the Compassionate Agenda, University of Minnesota Press, 2002. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/W/wellstone_conscience.html
 Wellstone, Paul, How the Rural Poor Got Power: Narrative of a Grass-Roots Organizer, University of Minnesota Press, 2003. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/W/wellstone_how.html
 Wellstone, Paul, and Barry Casper, Powerline: The First Battle of America's Energy War, University of Minnesota Press, 2003. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/W/wellstone_powerline.html

External links

 Wellstone Action political training centers

|-

1944 births
2002 deaths
20th-century political scientists
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Accidental deaths in Minnesota
American community activists
American male non-fiction writers
American male sport wrestlers
American people of the Iraq War
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
American political scientists
American political writers
Burials at Lakewood Cemetery
Carleton College faculty
Death conspiracy theories
Democratic Party United States senators from Minnesota
Jewish American community activists
Jewish American people in Minnesota politics
Jewish United States senators
Minnesota Democrats
North Carolina Tar Heels wrestlers
Politicians from Arlington County, Virginia
People from Northfield, Minnesota
People from Rice County, Minnesota
People with multiple sclerosis
Progressivism in the United States
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 2002
Writers from Washington, D.C.
Yorktown High School (Virginia) alumni

Paul Wellstone


Valley Forge National Historical Park (est. 1976) is a United States National Historical Park  north of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The park covers . It contains historical buildings, recreated cabins, museums, memorials, and recreation facilities. The park welcomes visitors and gives talks about the history of the boom shacks site.

It was at Valley Forge that General George Washington quartered the American Continental Army during the bitterly cold winter of 1777–1778. Many soldiers suffered or died of cold, sickness, and starvation. Valley Forge was not a battlefield. Washington wrote on February 16, 1778, "Naked and starving as they are we cannot enough admire the incomparable patience and fidelity of the soldiery."

Other websites

Valley Forge National Historical Park official site
Valley Forge Pictures website

National Historical Parks of the United States

Valley Forge National Historical Park


Ibadan is the capital of Oyo State, Nigeria. There are over 3 million people living in Ibadan which makes it the most populous city in Oyo state. It is the third most populous city in Nigeria, after Lagos and Kano. It is the largest city in the country by land size.

Ibadan is located in south-western Nigeria. Ibadan was the centre of administration of the old Western Region since the days of the British colonial rule, and parts of the city's ancient protective walls still stand to this day. The major inhabitants of the city are Yoruba, as well as various communities from other parts of the country.

Ibadan


Lots of languages are used in Canada. English and French are used by most Canadians. Only New Brunswick uses both English and French as its official languages. Quebec's official language is French. English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as "official languages." This means that all laws of the federal government are in both English and French and that federal government services can be available in both languages.

Many Canadians believe that the relationship between the English and French languages is important.

To know how many people speak them, Canada's census collects a lot of kinds of information not collected in most other countries, including home language, mother tongue, first official language and language of work.

People speak other languages. About 18% of Canadians (about 6.1 million people, most are immigrants) have a language other than English or French as their first language or mother tongue. Nearly 3.5 million Canadians continue to use their other language most often, like when at home or in social settings. The biggest ones are Italian, German, Chinese, Punjabi, Arabic and Dutch.

Canada also has many native languages. But they are not spoken by many people (less than one percent of Canada), and fewer people speak them every year.

Languages of Canada

Languages of Canada


Little Orphan Annie was a daily comic strip created by Harold Gray. The strip made its first appearance on August 5, 1924 in the New York Daily News. The main characters in the strip were Little Orphan Annie, Oliver "Daddy" Warbucks, and Annie's dog Sandy. The strip followed Annie's many adventures around the world. It was cancelled on June 13, 2010.

Strip spin-offs over the years included a 1930 radio series; two movies in 1932 and 1938; an assortment of chapter books, games, comic books and other juvenile paraphernalia; the Broadway musical, Annie; and a movie adaptation of the musical.

American comic strips

Little Orphan Annie


Piranti alus Statistika iku program komputer mligi kanggo analisis statistika

Sumber kabuka (Open source)

 ADMB –non-linear statistik modeling dhedhasar C++ kang migunakaké automatic differentiation.
 Bayesian Filtering Library
 Chronux – kanggo neurobiological time series data
 DAP – Gabtiné SAS
 ELKI a software framework for development of data mining algorithms in Java.
 Fityk – nonlinear regression software (GUI lan command line)
 gretl – gnu regression, econometrics and time-series Library
 JAGS – Just another Gibbs sampler (JAGS) is a program for analysis of Bayesian hierarchical models using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) developed by Martyn Plummer. It is similar to WinBUGS.
 JHepWork – Java-based statistical analysis framework for scientists and engineers. It includes an advanced IDE and Jython shell.
 JMulTi
 Octave – programming language (very similar to Matlab) with statistical features
 Mondrian (software) - data analysis tool using interactive statistical graphics with a link to R.
 OpenBUGS
 OpenEpi – A web-based, open source, operating-independent series of programs for use in epidemiology and statistics based on JavaScript and HTML
 OpenMx – A package for Structural equation modeling running in R.
 Orange, sawijining piranti alus  machine learning lan bioinformatics
 Ploticus – piranti alus kanggo gawé manéka grafis saka data mentah
 PSPP – Gantiné SPSS
 R – A free implementation of the S language.
 R Commander – GUI interface for R
 RapidMiner, a machine learning toolbox
 Rattle GUI – GUI interface for R
 Scilab – uses GPL compatible CeCILL license
 Statsmodels - a scikits for statistics and econometrics, written in Python based on numpy and scipy
 SciPy (a Python library for scientific computing) contains the stats sub-package which is partly based on the venerable |STAT (a.k.a PipeStat, formerly UNIX|STAT) software
 Shogun, an open source Large Scale Machine Learning toolbox that provides several SVM (Support Vector Machine) implementations (like libSVM, SVMlight) under a common framework and interfaces to Octave, Matlab, Python, R
 Simfit – Simulation, curve fitting, statistics, and plotting
 SOCR
 SOFA Statistics – a desktop GUI program focused on ease of use, learn as you go, and beautiful output.
 Statistical Lab – R-based and focusing on educational purposes
 Weka is also a suite of machine learning software written at the University of Waikato.
 Xlisp-stat
 Yxilon

Domain umum
 Demetra+
 CSPro
 Epi Info
 X-12-ARIMA

Freeware
 BV4.1
 GeoDA
 MINUIT
 WinBUGS – Bayesian analysis using Markov chain Monte Carlo methods
 Winpepi – package of statistical programs for epidemiologists
 WinIDAMS
 Plainstat - free statistical programs for Mac

Proprietary
 Aabel – Graphic display and plotting of statistical data sets
 ADAPA – batch and real-time scoring of statistical models
 Angoss
 ASReml – for restricted maximum likelihood analyses
 BMDP – general statistics package
 CalEst – general statistics and probability package with didactic tutorials
 Data Applied – for building statistical models
 DPS – comprehensive statistics package
 EViews – for econometric analysis
 FAME – a system for managing time series statistics and time series databases
 FinMath - A .NET numerical library containing descriptive statistics, distributions, factor analysis, regression analysis and many others.
 GAUSS – programming language for statistics
 GenStat – general statistics package
 GLIM – early package for fitting generalized linear models
 GraphPad InStat – Very simple with lots of guidance and explanations
 GraphPad Prism – Biostatistics and nonlinear regression with clear explanations
 IMSL Numerical Libraries – software library with statistical algorithms
 JMP – visual analysis and statistics package
 LISREL – statistics package used in structural equation modeling
 Maple – programming language with statistical features
 Mathematica – programming language with statistical features
 MATLAB – programming language with statistical features
 MedCalc – for biomedical sciences
 Mentor – for market research
 Minitab – general statistics package
 MLwiN – multilevel models (free to UK academics)
 NCSS – general statistics package
 NMath Stats – statistical package for .NET Framework
 O-Matrix – programming language
 OriginPro – statistics and graphing, programming access to NAG library
 Partek – general statistics package with specific applications for genomic, HTS, and QSAR data
 Primer-E Primer – environmental and ecological specific.
 PV-WAVE – programming language comprehensive data analysis and visualization with IMSL statistical package
 Q research software – quantitative data analysis software for market research
 Quantum – part of the SPSS MR product line, mostly for data validation and tabulation in Marketing and Opinion Research
 RATS – comprehensive econometric analysis package
 SAS – comprehensive statistical package
 SHAZAM – comprehensive econometrics and statistics package
 SigmaStat – for group analysis
 SOCR – online tools for teaching statistics and probability theory
 Speakeasy – numerical computational environment and programming language with many statistical and econometric analysis features
 SPSS – comprehensive statistics package
 Stata – comprehensive statistics package
 Statgraphics – general statistics package
 STATISTICA – comprehensive statistics package
 STATIT – comprehensive statistical package
 StatXact – package for exact nonparametric and parametric statistics
 Systat – general statistics package
 S-PLUS – general statistics package
 Unistat – general statistics package that can also work as Excel add-in
 The Unscrambler (free-to-try commercial Multivariate analysis software for Windows)
 WINKS – Statistical Data Analysis and Graphs from TexaSoft – a general statistics package designed for scientific data analysis
 XploRe

Add-ons
 Analyse-it – add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis
 Sigma Magic - add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistical analysis designed for Lean Six Sigma
 SigmaXL – add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistical and graphical analysis
 SPC XL – add-on to Microsoft Excel for general statistics
 SUDAAN – add-on to SAS and SPSS for statistical surveys
 XLfit add-on to Microsoft Excel for curve fitting and statistical analysis
 XLSTAT add-on to Microsoft Excel for statistics and multivariate data analysis
 Stats Helper – add-on to Microsoft Excel for descriptive statistics and Six Sigma

Rujukan

Pranala njaba

Statistical packages

Statistical packages

Pratélaning pak statistik


Cypress Hill is a group of hip hop from Los Angeles (California). It was formed in 1986 and along his wide and successful career have sold more than 46 million albums all over the world.

One of the appearances of his popularity is his commitment with the legalisation of the consumption of marijuana or cannabis. Cypress Hill Is the first Latin group in obtaining a disk of platinum, one of gold and a multiplatino.

Career

Name of the group
The name of the group can do reference to the place where the first members of the band lived, in the Avenue Cypress in South Gate, Los Angeles. It fits that in said place there are a lot of trees of cypress, a tree of the family Cupressaceae. The original name of the group was DVX but was changed after the exit of Mellow Man Ace (Ulpiano Sergio, the lower brother of Sen Dog) of the group to initiate his career like soloist. Sometimes, wrongly it thinks that the name of the group refers to the neighbourhood Cypress Hills in Brooklyn (New York).

Beginnings
The first album, of the band, was launched in November 1991. The first single was "Phuncky feel one", but was the Expensive-B, "How I could just kill to man" (firstly called "Trigga happy nigga"), the one who more success had in the stations of urban radio. Thanks to the success of the single "Hand on the pump" and to other songs like the bilingual song "Latin lingo" and the totally in Spanish "Three equis", the album sold two million copies only in United States. Later, DJ Muggs produced the first album of House of Pain and worked with Beastie Boys and Funkdoobiest. The band did his first apparition in the musical festival Lollapalooza in 1992.(Previous paragraph written by the formally super-high "Macho-Business-Donkey-Wrestler" while ambulating in his "Super-Karate-Monkey-Death-Car". [Radio Tycoon Jimmy James-News Radio].

Black Sunday, the second album of the group, debuted number 1 in the list Billboard 200 in 1993. Still with his album debut in the lists, turned into the first artists of rap in planting two albums in the Top 10 of Billboard 200 at the same time. With the success "Insane in the Brain", the album was double-platinum in United States and sold 3.25 million copies.

As one of the first groups of rap that struggle by the legalisation of the marijuana, Cypress Hill was forbidden in Saturday Night Live after DJ Muggs smoked a blunt of marijuana and the band shattered his musical instruments while they interpreted his second single "I ain't goin' out like that". The group titled his turns with the name Soul Assassins, in company of House of Pain and Funkdoobiest, and more forward followed suit with Rage Against the Machine and Seven Year Bitch. In 1993, Cypress Hill recorded two subjects for the soundtrack of the film Judgment night, "Real thing", with Pearl Jam, and "I love you Mary Jane", with Sonic Youth.

The band touched in 1994 in the Festival of Woodstock entering to his new member, Eric Bobo, ancient percusionista of Beastie Boys. Bobo Is the son of the famous percusionista Willie Bobo. The magazine Rolling Stone appointed to Cypress Hill like the best group of hip hop in his prizes of music voted by critics and readers. Cypress Hill Touched by second consecutive year in Lollapalooza heading the poster in 1995. Also they appear in the chapter of The Simpson called "Homerpalooza", in which Homer, Bart and Lisa assist to the Festival Hullabalooza (inspired by the Lollapalooza), and in 2001 appear making a small cameo in the film How high directed by Jesse Dylan and produced by Danny DeVito.

The third album, ''Cypress Hill III: you Temper of Boom'', was launched in 1995, selling 1.5 million copies and reaching the third position of Billboard 200 in spite of not including any single of success.

Career continued
Sen Dog distanció A bit of the group to form a band of punk-rap of Los Angeles called SX-10. However, in 1996, Cypress Hill appeared in the first turn Smokin' Grooves, with Ziggy Marley, The Fugees, Busta Rhymes and To Tribe Called Quest. The group also freed the EP Unreleased and Revamped with rare and remixes.

The members of the group centred in his careers in solitary. Muggs Launched Muggs Presents... the Soul Assassins With contributions of members of Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, KRS-One, Wyclef Jean and Mobb Deep. B-Real appeared with Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J and Method Man in the song "Hit Em High" of the multi-platen soundtrack of the film Space Jam. Also it collaborated with RBX, Nas and KRS-One in "East Coast Killer, West Coast Killer" of the album Dr. Dre presents...The Aftermath Of Dr. Dre, and launched the album The Psycho Realm, of his project of same name. Although the group was inactivo these years, Cypress Hill appeared in Smokin' Grooves with George Clinton and Erykah Badu.

In 1998 they went back to launch the album IV, being gold in United States although with some criticisms a so many refusals, backed by the success "Tequila Sunrise" and another tribute to smoke marijuana "Dr. Greenthumb". Sen Dog Also launched Get Wood like part of SX-10 in the stamp Flip.

In 1999, three of his songs appeared in the video game of PC Kingpin: Life of Crime. B-Real also contributed with any of the voices of the people of the game. This same year launched an album of big successes in Spanish, The big successes in Spanish. Cypress Hill Merged genders in the 2000 with his double-album Skull & Bones. The first disk, "Skull", was composed by songs of rap whereas "Bones" was more centred in the rock. The album was a Top 5 in Billboard 200 and #3 in Canada. The first single was "Rock Superstar" for the radio of rock and "Rap Superstar" for the urban radio, a subject that definitely put to the band again in the musical firmament, and that came him like ring to the finger, since in this time songs with this style, more than the Nu metal that also used in the song "Can´t get the best of me", were hitting as never. The group also launched Live at the Fillmore, a disk of the concert of Fillmore, San Francisco in 2000.

Discography

 Cypress Hill (1991)
 Black Sunday (1993)
 Cypress Hill lll: Temples of Boom (1995)
 IV (1998)
 Skull & Bones (2000)
 Stoned Raiders (2001)
 Till Death Do Us Part (2004)
 Rise Up (2010)
 Elephants on Acid (2018)
 Back in Black (2022)

Compilations
 Los Grandes Éxitos en Español (1999)
 Greatest Hits from The Bong (2005)
 Super Hits (2008)
 Collections (2008)
 Strictly Hip Hop: The Best of Cypress Hill (2010)

References

Musical groups from California
1980s music groups
1990s music groups
2000s music groups
2010s music groups
Musical groups established in 1988

Cypress Hill


A county council is the elected administrative body governing an area known as a county. This term has slightly different meanings in different countries.

British Isles
County councils were responsible for more strategic services in a region, with smaller urban district councils and rural district councils responsible for other activities. The new system was a major modernisation, which became necessary because of the increase of functions carried out by local government in late Victorian Britain.

England and Wales

In England and Wales, a county council is the local government that governs a county.

County Councils were introduced in 1889 in England and Wales by the Local Government Act 1888. They took over the administrative functions of the unelected Quarter Sessions.

Scotland
The system was soon extended to Scotland, by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, and the island of Ireland by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898.  Except in Scotland, the areas they covered were called administrative counties and were not always the same as the traditional shire counties.

United States

In the United States, most of the individual states have counties as a form of local government; in nine states, they are headed by a county council.  In other states, each county is headed by a county commission or a county board of supervisors.

References

Political systems
History of the United Kingdom
Scotland
Local government in England
Local government in the United States

fi:Kunnanvaltuusto Suomessa
sv:Kommunfullmäktige (Finland)

County council


The Statue of Herman () is a monument in the Southern part of the Teutoburg Forest,  in the district of Lippe, North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany.

The monument commemorates the Cherusci war chief Hermann or Armin (Latin: Arminius) and the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD when the Germanic tribes under Arminius fought three Roman legions and other troops under Varus.

The sword has the following inscription:

German unity (is) my strength - my strength (is) Germany's might.

History

The monument is 53.46 m (173.39 ft) tall and was built according to plans by the sculptor Ernst von Bandel.

Building for the  statue was started in 1841, but was not finished until 1875 with the help of a lot of money from the state of Prussia.

When building was started Germany was made up of lots of small countries.  Most of these were united into the Second German Empire in 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War.  The monument was seen as one of those heping to remind people of Germany's history and  national pride.

Tourism
The statue is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Germany with over 130,000 visitors a year. It is possible to climb up onto the base of the statue to look around the countryside

A similar Hermann Heights Monument exists in New Ulm, Minnesota, a town settled by German immigrants.

Related pages

 Walhalla (Hall of the Slain, Regensburg, Germany)
 Ruhmeshalle (Hall of Fame, Munich, Germany)
 Befreiungshalle (Hall of Liberation, Kelkheim, Germany)
 Heldenberg Memorial (in Austria)

Buildings and structures in North Rhine-Westphalia
Landmarks in Germany
Monuments and memorials in Germany

Hermannsdenkmal


The American Film Institute (AFI) is an independent, organization that is designed not to make money created by the National Endowment for the Arts, which was started in 1967 when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.

George Stevens, Jr. was the first CEO. Since 1980, Jean Picker Firstenberg has been CEO.

Older figures in AFI's Conservatory train newer people.

The institute also wants to keep old film, which could soon be destroyed.

Even though its name only mentions film, AFI also works on television and video.

In 1973, the AFI began handing out Life Achievement Awards.

In 1998, when American cinema had existed for 100 years, AFI began its 100 Years Series, which helped people become interested in the history of movies.

Recently, it built and started the AFI Silver theatre in Silver Spring, Maryland near Washington, D.C.

AFI 100 Years series
In honour of the hundredth birthday of American cinema, the AFI has made several lists of the best movie-related things:

 1998: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies
 1999: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars
 2000: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs
 2001: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills
 2002: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions
 2003: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains
 2004: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs
 2005: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes
 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores
 2006: AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers

References

Other websites
 Official Website
 History of AFI
 AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information

1967 establishments in California

American Film Institute


Pax Hill (Peace Hill), near Bentley, Hampshire, England, was the family home of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scout movement, and his wife, Olave, for over twenty years during the 20th century. It is located at the end of a half-mile drive, off the main A31 road.

Pax Hill is a red-bricked house fronting south with higher ground behind. In the Baden-Powell family's time, there was a rose garden with dovecote at one side of the front of the house. Elsewhere, there were two summer houses, a shrubbery and a tennis court. Scouts and Guides camped on either side of the drive. The Baden-Powells added two wings. The west wing was designed by Robert Baden-Powell himself and he also modelled the frieze for the new bathroom, depicting fish in the River Wey.

The house was originally called "Blackacre" and was purchased with a gift from Olave Baden-Powell's father in 1918. In 1929, it was burgled and a number of souvenirs were stolen. They moved to Kenya in 1939 and Robert Baden-Powell died in 1941. The following year, due to World War II, Pax Hill was occupied by Canadian military troops and by way of recompense, Olave Baden-Powell was awarded a 'grace and favour' apartment in Hampton Court Palace.

After World War II, Olave Baden-Powell gave Pax Hill to the Girl Guides Association (now Girlguiding UK) to be used as a centre for members from the Commonwealth of Nations. The house became a Domestic Science Training School run on Guiding principles. The interest from £40,000 in the B.P. Memorial Fund was used to fund its upkeep. In April 1953, Pax Hill was sold with the consent of Olave Baden-Powell.  In the late 1970s and early 1980s Pax Hill was a boys boarding school. It has been a nursing home since 1988.

See also

 Don Potter

References

External links
 Pax Hill Residential and Nursing Home for the Elderly
 Olave Baden-Powell timeline

Year of establishment missing
Country houses in Hampshire
Places associated with Scouting
Nursing homes in the United Kingdom

Pax Hill


Christopher Smart (11 April 1722 – 20 May 1771) was an English poet. He was a major contributor to two popular magazines, The Midwife and The Student, and a friend to influential cultural icons like Samuel Johnson and Henry Fielding. Smart, a high church Anglican, was widely known throughout London.

Smart was infamous as the pseudonymous midwife "Mrs. Mary Midnight" and for widespread accounts of his father-in-law, John Newbery, locking him away in a mental asylum for many years over Smart's supposed religious "mania". Even after Smart's eventual release, a negative reputation continued to pursue him as he was known for incurring more debt than he could repay; this ultimately led to his confinement in debtors' prison until his death.

His two most widely known works are A Song to David and Jubilate Agno, which are believed to have been written during his confinement in St. Luke's Asylum, although this is still debated by scholars as there is no record of when they were written. It is even more unclear when the works were written as Jubilate Agno was not published until 1939 when it was found in a library archive and A Song to David received mixed reviews until the 19th century. To his contemporaries, Smart was known mainly for his many contributions in the journals The Midwife and The Student, along with his famous Seaton Prize poems and his mock epic The Hilliad. Although he is recognized primarily as a religious poet, his poetry includes various other themes, such as his theories on nature and his promotion of English nationalism.

Biography

Early life
Christopher Smart was born in Shipbourne in Kent, England on the Fairlawne estate of William, Viscount Vane, younger son of Lord Barnard of Barnard Castle. He was, according to his nephew, "of a delicate constitution having been born earlier than the natural period".  He was baptized in Wrotham parish on 11 May 1722. His father was Peter Smart, steward or bailiff of Fairlawne. His mother, Winifred (née Griffiths) was from Radnorshire, Wales. Before giving birth to Christopher, Winifred had two daughters, Margaret and Mary Anne.

During his younger years, Fairlawne was the residence of Christopher Vane, 1st Baron Barnard and Lady Barnard, who bequeathed £200 to Smart. He supposedly received this sum due to his father's closeness to the Vane family, Smart being named after Christopher Vane, and the young boy being considered "the pride of Fairlawn". In 1726, three years after Christopher Vane died, Peter Smart purchased Hall-Place in East Barming, which included a mansion house, fields, orchards, gardens, and woodland, a property that was influential throughout Smart's later life. From the age of four until eleven, he spent much time around the farms, but did not participate, leading to speculation that he had had asthma attacks. However, not all scholars agree that he was a "sickly youth". The only written record of events during his childhood comes from his writing of a short poem, at the age of four, in which he challenges a rival to the affections of a twelve-year-old girl.

While at Hall-Place, Smart was sent to the local Maidstone Grammar School where he was taught by Charles Walwyn, a scholar from Eton College who had received an MA from King's College, Cambridge in 1696. It was here that Smart received an intensive education in Latin and Greek. He did not complete his education at Maidstone however, as his father died on 3 February 1733, and his mother took Smart and his siblings to live near relatives in Durham after selling off a large portion of the estate to pay off Peter Smart's debts.

Smart then attended Durham School, where the Reverend Mr. Richard Dongworth was headmaster; it is not known whether he lived with his uncle, John Smart, or with a school master. He spent vacations at Raby Castle, which was owned by Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington, the grandson of Christopher Vane. Henry Vane and his wife Grace, sister to William and Henrietta Fitzroy the Duke and Duchess of Cleveland, had four children, Henry, Frederick, Anne, and Mary. They were only a few years younger than Smart and became playmates, with Anne and Henry "pairing off" with Christopher and his sister Margaret respectively. Although nothing resulted from the match, Anne has been traditionally described as being his "first love". During his time with the Vane family, Smart dedicated many poems to Henrietta, the Duchess of Cleveland. It was his closeness with the Vane family along with his skill for learning that encouraged Henrietta to allow him a pension of 40 pounds yearly, continued by her husband after her death in 1742. This allowed Smart to attend Pembroke College, Cambridge.

College

Smart was admitted to Pembroke College on 20 October 1739 as a sizar under Leonard Addison. Although it is unclear why he chose Pembroke College, Addison was named in Peter Smart's trust deed (1729). As a sizar, he occasionally had to wait on the "Fellows' table" and perform other menial tasks. On 12 July 1740, he was awarded the "Dr. Watt's Foundation scholarship", which granted him six pounds a year until he gained a Bachelor of Arts degree. In addition to this income, he was also granted four pounds a year for scholarship. Although he was successful academically, he began to run up debt in order to pay for his extravagant lifestyle while at the college.

During his time at Pembroke, Smart borrowed numerous books spanning the fields of literature, religion, and science. These works helped when he wrote the three "Tripos Verse" at the end of each year. These poems were written in Latin and they, along with his other Latin poems like his translation of Alexander Pope's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, led to him being awarded the Craven scholarship for classics on 10 June 1742, which paid £25 a year for 14 years. These scholarships, combined with his becoming a fellow in 1743, justified Smart calling himself "Scholar of the University".

In 1743, Smart published his translation of Pope's Ode on St. Cecilia's Day as Carmen Cl. Alexandri Pope in S. Caeciliam Latine Redditum and paid for the publication himself. With this translation, he wanted to win Pope's favor and translate Pope's Essay on Man, but Pope rejected the idea and, after a lettered response and a possible meeting between the two, Smart translated Pope's An Essay on Criticism (De Arte Critica) instead. The initial letter sent from Pope recommending the future translation was prized by Smart. In response to this letter and his budding relationship with Pope, the Pembroke Fellows honoured him with a portrait showing him holding the letter from Pope and allowed him to write a poem in celebration of Jubilee of Pembroke's 400th year in 1744.

In October 1745, Smart was elected Praelector of Philosophy, which paid one pound a year, and made one of three Keepers of the Common Chest. The next year, on 11 February 1746, he became a Master of Arts and was later elected on 10 October 1746, to Praelector of Philosophy, Praelector of Rhetoric, and Keeper of the Common Chest. However, he had run up more debt of over twice his annual income, and he was not re-elected in 1747 to the Praelectorship and was denied his control over the Common Chest accounts. However, he was made a "Preacher before the Mayor of Cambridge" at the college under the title "Concionatori Coram Praetore oppidano", and his modest living during this year allowed him to regain Praelectorship in Philosophy along with being made a catechist, which suggests that he was ordained in the Anglican church.

In 1746, Smart became tutor to John Hussey Delaval, but this was abruptly cancelled because Delaval was removed from Pembroke after a variation of broken rules and mischief. After recovering from this, Smart returned to studying. In April 1747, a comedy he wrote just months before, A Trip to Cambridge, or The Grateful Fair, was performed in Pembroke College Hall, with many parts, including female roles, played by Smart himself.  The prologue was printed in The Cambridge Journal Weekly Flying-Post, which claimed that the play received "Universal Applause".

During his final years at Pembroke, Smart was writing and publishing many poems. On 9 January 1748, there were three proposals for "A Collection of Original Poems, By Christopher Smart, M.A., Fellow of Pembroke Hall, in the University of Cambridge" that would include "The Hop Garden", "The Judgment of Midas, a Masque", his odes, his translations into Latin, and some original Latin poems. Thomas Gray, on 17 March 1747, referred to this work as Smart's "Collection of Odes". This collection was not printed in 1748 but was delayed until 1752, and was re-titled Poems on Several Occasions.

Between 1740 and 1746, he was introduced to Harriot Pratt, and he began to write poetry about her. By 1749, he was in love with her and wrote to his friend Charles Burney (father of Fanny Burney), "I am situated within a mile of my Harriote & Love has robd Friendship of her just dues ... There was a great musical crash at Cambridge, which was greatly admired, but I was not there, being much better pleased with hearing my Harriote on her spinnet & organ at her ancient mansion", suggesting that he was living permanently in Market Downham, London. Although he wrote many poems dedicated to Harriot, his poem "The Lass with the Golden Locks" (1752) claims that he was done with both Harriot, Polly, and other women. The "lass with the golden locks" who replaced Smart's previous fancies was Anna Maria Carnan. Anna would be Smart's future wife and she was the stepdaughter of John Newbery, Smart's future publisher.

Influence
While Smart was prolific in his own right, he was influenced by many of his contemporaries, as well as those that came before him. His primary influences being Alexander Pope, Virgil and Horace. Pope's influence can especially be seen in Smart's poem The Hilliad, a play on Pope's poem The Dunciad.

Smart also left his mark on writers after him. In his book Poor Kit Smart, Christopher Devlin writes of Smart's influence "Robert Browning, however, D. G. Rossetti and Sir Francis Palgrave proclaimed aloud that this madman's Song to David was along the masterpieces of the English language."

London
Although Smart seemed to turn his life around at Pembroke, he slowly abandoned the college for London. During 1749, he listed himself on Pembroke's "Liber Absentiae" and would occasionally return to Pembroke throughout 1749 and 1750. Because of his relationship with those at Pembroke, he was allowed to keep his name in the college's records, which allowed him to participate and be charged as a member of the college. By 1750 he was living near St. James's Park and was busy familiarising himself with Grub Street. It was this year that Smart developed a business relationship with John Newbery. He worked for Newbery and married his stepdaughter in 1752. It is unknown how Smart and Newbery met, but Smart's daughter claimed Charles Burney introduced the two. Newbery was looking for a contributory to his The Midwife and The Student magazines, and it is possible that Smart's winning of Cambridge's "Seatonian Prize" on 25 March 1750 brought his poetic abilities to Newbery's attention.

The "Seatonian Prize" was a contest for one English poem each year on the topic of "the Perfections or Attributes of the Supreme Being" and the prize would be the "Rent of the [Kislingbury, Northamptonshire] estate" It was established by the will of Thomas Seaton, an "Anglican divine and hymn writer". Smart wrote in the "poetical essay" tradition using Miltonic blank verse. In 1750, the poem he won the prize with was On the Eternity of the Supreme Being. The prize was only worth 17 pounds each year before 7 pounds were deducted for the publication of the poem. However, after the publication of the poem, Smart became a regular contributor in The Student.

The Student, before Smart's work, was a serious magazine that included a few poems and critical essays. However, once he joined and began writing under many pseudonyms, the magazine became filled with satire, parody, and humorous essays and poems. Along with him composing 15 of the essays and the majority of the poems published in the two volumes of the magazine, he decided to append three of The Inspector, a "humorous news report", to the second of the volumes. These reports included many "puff pieces" promoting Smart's works along with various stories written by his friends and associates, including the famous writers/poets Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, William Collins, and Tobias Smollett. However, this was not the only important publication produced by him during this time.

During his time in London, Smart's work included Mother Midnight's Oratory, a series of "wild tavern entertainments" to which Smart acted as writer and performer.

The Midwife

The Midwife, first published on 16 October 1751 and lasting until April 1753, was produced primarily by Smart while he worked on The Student. This magazine was popular enough to be published in four editions. To hide his identity for practical and humorous reasons, he adopted the persona of a midwife, also known as a "Mrs. Midwife" in slang, and called this persona "Mrs. Mary Midnight".

When his poem "Night Piece" was attacked by William Kenrick in Kapelion, or Poetical Ordinary, possibly out of a prearranged publicity stunt, Smart used The Midwife in December 1750, to attack back at Kenrick and promised an Old Woman's Dunciad to be written against the other poet. However, Kenrick beat Smart to the use of the title and printed his own in January 1751. This feud lasted as attacks published in a few issues of The Midwife, but it soon died out when Smart focused his attention to writing a prologue and epilogue for a production of Othello and using the magazine to promote it.

His attention slowly shifted away from The Midwife when he wrote for, and won, the "Seatonian Prize" for his On the Immensity of the Supreme Being and when he began working with Newbery's children's magazine, The Lilliputian Magazine. However, Smart returned to this character full force when he established The Old Woman's Oratory; or Henley in Petticoats in December 1751. The Oratory included Smart playing as Mrs. Midnight, various songs and dances, animal acts, and "miscellany" acts. The Oratory was successful, and was completely redone on 21 January 1752. However, not everyone enjoyed the show, and Horace Walpole described the performance as "the lowest buffoonery in the world even to me who am used to my uncle Horace." Late in 1752, Smart finished and published a collection of his works as Poems on Several Occasions, which resulted in the end of the Oratory and The Midwife.

Later career

In 1752, Christopher Smart was slowly dragged into a large "paper war" that involved many of London's writers. After the publication of Poems on Several Occasions, including The Hop-Garden, in June 1752, John Hill launched a major attack upon Smart's poetry. Smart responded with his mock-epic The Hilliad.  Before the release of Smart's poem, Hill was engaged in a large literary battle between various members of Grub Street's and London's writing community, especially Henry Fielding.  This battle may have been for publicity only and lasted over many months before Smart involved himself.  However, even with such a late entry, his Hilliad was the "loudest broadside" of the war.

Smart was incurring numerous debts, and started publishing as much as possible during this time to support his family. The exact date is unknown, but he is said to have married Anna-Maria Carnan around 1752 or 1753; they initially kept their marriage a secret to Smart could continue to get money from his Cambridge fellowship, which ended shortly thereafter. By 1754, the pair already had two daughters, Marianne (3 May 1753) and Elizabeth Anne (27 October 1754).  As a married man, he could no longer remain enrolled at Pembroke and collect his scholarship money when his marriage and children were made apparent to the heads of the college.  Newbery allowed Smart, along with his wife and their children, to live at Canonbury House, Islington. Although Newbery had a strong reputation for charity, he was determined to have complete control over his writers.  It is likely that such an attitude combined with monetary problems led to a rift forming between the two by 1753.

Between 1753 and 1755, Smart published or republished at least 79 works. However, even if he received money from each of these publications, they were unable to provide enough of an income to support a family, especially to his standard of living. While he was producing a poem each year for the Seatonian Prize, this amounted to very little of his writing; he was forced into a life of "hack work", which was described by his contemporary, Arthur Murphy, as "a bookseller is his only friend, but for that bookseller, however liberal, he must toil and drudge." In December 1755, he finished The Works of Horace, Translated Literally into English Prose, a translation of Horace, which was widely used but brought him little profit.

He signed a 99-year contract in November 1755 to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visitor or Monthly Memorialist for Thomas Gardner and Edmund Allen. However, the strain of publishing caused Smart to have a seizure, and he was unable to keep up with the publishing of the paper. Allen was a friend of Samuel Johnson, and it was Samuel Johnson, along with many other friends of Smart, who contributed to the magazine in order to help Smart keep up with his contract.  In March 1756, Newbery published, without Smart's authority, his final "Seatonian Prize" poem, On the Goodness of the Supreme Being, and later, on 5 June, he published, again without Smart's authority, his Hymn to the Supreme Being, a poem which thanked God for recovery from an illness of some kind, possibly a "disturbed mental state".  The Hymn to the Supreme Being marks the time in Smart's life after the mysterious "fit" was resolved and the beginning of his obsession with religion and his praying "without ceasing".

Asylum confinement

A "Commission of Lunacy" was taken out against Smart, and he was admitted to St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics on 6 May 1757 as a "Curable Patient". It is possible that Smart was confined by Newbery over old debts and a poor relationship between the two; Newbery had previously mocked Smart and his immorality in his A Collection of Pretty Poems for the Amusement of Children six Foot High. Regardless of the exact reasons, there is evidence suggesting that Newbery's admittance of Smart into the mental asylum was not based on "madness". However, there is also evidence that an incident of some kind took place in St. James's Park in which Smart started to pray loudly in public until he had "routed all the company" (Jubilate Agno B89).

It is not known what exactly happened during his confinement, but Smart did work on two of his most famous poems, Jubilate Agno and A Song to David. What is known is that he may have been in a private madhouse before St Luke's and that he was later moved from St Luke's to Mr. Potter's asylum until his release. At St Luke's, he transitioned from being "curable" to "incurable", and was moved to Mr. Potter's asylum for monetary reasons. During this time, Anna left and took the children with her to Ireland. His isolation led him into writing religious poetry, although he abandoned the traditional genres of the 18th century that marked his earlier poetry when he wrote Jubilate Agno. Although it is debated as to whether his turning inward to examine himself in his poetry represents an evangelical type of Christianity, his poetry during his isolation does show a desire for "unmediated revelation". There is an "inner light" that serves as a focal point for Smart and his poems written during this time, and that inner light connects him to the Christian God.

Smart was left alone, except for his cat Jeoffry and the occasional gawker. It is very possible that he felt "homeless" during this time and surely felt that he was in a "limbo … between public and private space". In London, only a few of his works were still being published. However, not everyone viewed Smart's "madness" as problematic, and Johnson defended him, sometimes seriously and sometimes comically, many times. A century later, Robert Browning remarked that A Song to David was great because Smart was mad, and that the poem allowed him to rank alongside of Milton and Keats.

He was discharged from St. Luke's asylum uncured after one year. He was thought to be confined elsewhere for the following seven years, during which time he wrote Jubilate Agno. Elizabeth, his daughter, claimed: "He grew better, and some misjudging friends who misconstrued Mr Newbery's great kindness in placing him under necessary & salutary restriction which might possibly have eventually wrought a cure, invited him to dinner and he returned to his confinement no more." Although this may be a misstatement of the events, Smart did leave the asylum on 30 January 1763.

Final years
A Song to David was printed on 6 April 1763 along with a proposal for a new translation of the Psalms. It is said that Smart composed the poem during his second period of confinement to an asylum during an episode of religious mania The poem was received harshly, which was possibly just thinly veiled personal attacks over Smart being freed from the asylum just weeks before. However, Kenrick, Smart's former rival, praised the poem in one of his own printed on 25 May 1763. Also, John Lockman followed on 21 June 1763, with his own poem in praise of Smart's and Samuel Boyce followed this on 15 July 1763 with another. Along with this support, Smart responded to his critics at the Critical Review; in regards to Smart's response, the Critical Review claimed that they would "say no more of Mr. Smart".

After A Song to David, he tried to publish a collection of his Psalms translations, and Newbery sought to ruin him by hiring James Merrick to produce his own translations. Newbery then hired Smart's new publisher, James Fletcher, which in turn forced Smart to find a new publisher, delaying the printing of his Psalms. Finally, on 12 August 1765, he printed A Translation of the Psalms of David, which included Hymns and Spiritual Songs and a second edition of A Song to David. This work was criticised by Tobias Smollett who was working with Newbery at the time, and Newbery's edition by Merrick was constantly compared with Smart's. However, modern criticism has received Smart's version in a more favourable light. While working on this project, he was also working on a translation of the Phaedrus and a verse translation of Horace. His verse Horace was published in July 1767 including a preface in which he attacked Newbery, but the attack was in vain because Newbery died soon after.

On 20 April 1770, Smart was arrested for debt. On 11 January 1771, he was tried by Lord Mansfield, the gentleman who originally introduced Smart to Alexander Pope, and he was soon recommended to the King's Bench Prison. Although he was in prison, Charles Burney purchased the "Rules" (allowing him some freedom), and Smart's final weeks may have been peaceful although pathetic. In his final letter, Smart begged for money from Rev. Mr. Jackson, saying: "Being upon recovery from a fit of illness, and having nothing to eat, I beg you to send me two or three shillings which (God willing) I will return, with many thanks, in two or three days." On 20 May 1771, Smart died from either liver failure or pneumonia shortly after completing his final work, Hymns, for the Amusement of Children.

Death
In response to his uncle's death, Christopher Hunter wrote, "I trust he is now at peace; it was not his portion here." Fanny Burney, in her journal, wrote:

On 22 May 1771, a jury of twelve fellow inmates of the King's Bench Prison declared that Smart "upon the Twentieth day of May Instant died a Natural Death within the Rules of the Prison." He was buried on 26 May in St Paul's Covent Garden.

Literary themes and styles
Christopher Smart received occasional mentions by critics and scholars after his death, especially by Robert Browning, but analysis and commentary on his works increased dramatically with the "discovery" of Jubilate Agno in 1939. Many recent critics approach Smart from a religious perspective (Neil Curry, Harriet Guest, Clement Hawes, Chris Mounsey). However, some also favour a psychology/sexual analysis of his works (Lance Bertelsen, Clemet Hawes, Alan Liu).

Religion

Although Smart wrote the "Seatonian Prize" poems early on, there is a contrast between the mimicked Miltonic blank verse and the intense exploration of religion found in his later works. His first "Seatonian Prize" poem, On the Eternity of the Supreme Being is part of two traditional types of religious writing: "authoritative discourse of religious poetry" and "tentative and self-critical discourse of an apparently more personal devotion"  In connecting the two, he redefines "the role of the religious poet." By establishing a debate between these two forms, Harriet Guest claims that Smart creates "a poetic space which allows the poet to make provisional, even questionable statements", which are important to his later works. To Guest, Smart, in his religious poems, "is not concerned to offer instruction in Christian conduct." Besides the greater theological debate, the poems are also the origins of Smart's belief that all of creation is constantly praising God, and that a poet must "give voice to mute nature's praise of God."

Jubilate Agno reflects an abandonment of traditional poetic structures in order to explore complex religious thought. His "Let" verses join creation together as he seemingly writes his own version of Biblical poetry. Smart, in Jubilate Agno, plays on words and the meaning behind words in order to participate with the divine that exists within language. Although the original manuscript divided the "Let" and "For" verses onto opposing sides of the manuscript, Karina Williams claims that "Dr W. H. Bond then discovered that some of the LET and FOR folios were numbered and dated concurrently, and that these chronologically parallel texts were further connected by verbal links." This justified her combining the two sides to follow each other. Using this as a model, Guest claims that the "For" verses explore religion with a "personal tone" and the "Let" are "unambiguous" and deal with public matters. Jeanne Walker goes further than Guest and claims that the "Let " and "For" sections are united with the Hebrew tradition and "iterate both present and future simultaneously, that is, they redeem time."

Words and language connect the poet to divine revelation, and God is the "great poet" who used language in order to create the universe. Through words and language, Smart attempted to capture the creative power of those words. By relying on the power of words, Smart is, according to Clement Hawes, subverting "Anglican control over religious functions and services." In essence, Smart's approach to religion in Jubilate Agno is comparable to John Wesley's theological dictum and to the writings of John Perro and William Bowling. He also creates his own natural philosophy and criticizes science, like that established by Isaac Newton, for their ignoring "the glory of Almighty God."

To Smart, each piece of matter is alive because it is connected to God, and matter cannot be described in a cold manner that disconnects it from this reality. However, Smart accomplished his new science by relying on Newtonian empiricism. As part of his desire to bring back the divine language to poetry and science, he creates an "Ark of Salvation" in order to describe a prophetic and apocalyptic future which emphasises the importance of Christ and England. Along with being prophetic, the poem itself is modelled after the canticles and follows the form of the Benedicite. The Benedicite is not the only model however, and there is a strong link between Jubilate Agno and the psalm tradition.

Smart's A Song to David is an attempt to bridge poetry written by humans and Biblical poetry. The Biblical David plays an important role in this poem just as he played an important role in Jubilate Agno However, David in Jubilate Agno is an image of the creative power of poetry whereas he becomes a fully realized model of the religious poet. By focusing on David, Smart is able to tap into the "heavenly language." Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of Solomon's Temple and his possible role with the Freemasons. However, the true life of the poem comes later when Christ is introduced as the major subject. After Christ is introduced, Smart attempts to "reach to heaven" and the final passages, to Neil Curry, represent a "final rush for glory."

According to Mounsey, A Song to David and Smart's Psalms is an attempt to "Christianize" the Old Testament through writing an 18th-century psalter. However, the Psalms perform a secondary function: they allow Smart to relate to the suffering of David and to reinforce his own religious convictions by following his Biblical model. As part of Smart's "Christianizing" of the Psalms, Jesus becomes a divine form of suffering, and Smart becomes further juxtaposed with his Biblical model as both praise God for Jesus's ultimate sacrifice and for the beauty of all creation. The Hymns and Psalms form their own sort of liturgy and attempt to reform Anglican liturgy by emphasizing God's place in nature.

Smart's Hymns are modelled after a tradition exemplified by Robert Nelson. They are steeped in Anglican tradition and also emphasize English patriotism and England's divine favour. The Hymns, according to Guest, "[express] a delight in creation that is largely absent from the work of other hymn-writers of the century, unless they are paraphrasing the words of David." To Hawes, the Hymns exemplify an evangelical spirit that separates Smart from the traditional Anglican church. Although he wrote his second set of hymns, Hymns for the Amusement of Children, for a younger audience, Smart cares more about emphasizing the need for children to be moral instead of "innocent". These works have been seen as possibly too complicated for "amusement" because they employ ambiguities and complicated theological concepts. In essence, the Hymns for the Amusement of Children is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work. Like the Hymns for the Amusement of Children, Smart's The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ were designed to teach morals. However, these Parables alter the original Biblical parables in order to simplify them and help them "make sense" As such, Todd Parker claims that the Parables, and the other religious works of Smart, are part of his final push for the "evangelization of London's reading public."

Language
The language and commentary on language is of particular emphasis in Jubilate Agno. To Alan Jacobs, Smart's use of language represents his attempt to connect to the "Ur language", allowing Smart to connect to "the Word calling forth the world." This is similar to David and Orpheus's ability as poets to create through their song. In his constant emphasis on the force of poetry, Jubilate Agno takes on the qualities of the Ars Poetica tradition. As such, Smart is attempting to develop a poetic language that will connect him to the "one true, eternal poem." The poetic language that he creates is related to Adam's "onomathetic" tradition, or the idea that names hold significant weight in the universe and that Adam was able to join in with creation by naming objects.

In Jubilate Agno, he describes his writing as creating "impressions". To accomplish this task, he incorporated puns and onomatopoeia in order to emphasize the theological significance of his poetic language. In addition to these techniques, he relied on repeated language and allusions to traditional works and to scripture for a source of authority in various works, especially in his Hymns. Along with scriptural authority, he relies on prophetic rhetoric to gain his audience's sympathy.

During the 18th century, there was a debate over poetic language and the translations of Smart, especially of Horace, positioned him as one who sought to redeem traditional forms and understanding of language. However, some critics, like Alan Liu, believe that translations are effectively forced to compete against the original works, and that Smart's language, at least in his translations, must constantly seek to undermine the original authors, like Horace. Not all critics agree with Liu, and those like Donald Davie believe that the Smart's translations cannot be compared to the original works, but are part of a system of Smart competing against the language of his contemporaries. Thomas Keymer further verified this point about Smart's translations by revealing that the poet claims, in William Toldervy's The History of Two Orphans, "But what heaven-exciting harmony might we not expect from that exalted genius, who can produce such lines as these following!" in anticipation of replacing the previous flawed translations of the Psalms.

Regardless of where he stood on the specific issue of translation Smart believed that there was an importance to language, which carried over to his constant revising of his poems to slowly correct them. Many of Smart's poems served a dual purpose, and when put to music were altered to meet various standards. By constantly revising, he ensured that his poems were always the "authentic" version.

Gender
Smart's role as Mrs. Midnight along with his gendered comments in Jubilate Agno form the focal point for analyzing his understanding of sexuality and gender. With Mrs. Midnight, Smart challenges the traditional social order found in 18th-century England. However, some, like Lance Bertelsen, claim that the Mrs. Midnight persona reveals a split personality torn between masculine and feminine roles. Fraser Easton claims that the existence of Mrs. Midnight proves that Smart identified a female connection to poetry and her character was used to defy popular 18th-century notions of who is able to attain knowledge. This role allowed Smart to focus on "social and sexual dimensions" in his satire. However, there is a potentially darker side to Mrs. Midnight, and she could represent his feelings that he was "emasculated by economic pressures."

The image of "horns" in Jubilate Agno is commonly viewed as a sexual image. Easton puts particular emphasis on the image of horns as a phallic image and contends that there are masculine and feminine horns throughout Smart's poem. Hawes picks up this theme and goes on to claims that the poem shows "that [Smart] had been 'feminized' as a cuckold." In response to this possible cuckolding, Jubilate Agno predicts a misogynistic future while simultaneously undermining this effort with his constant associations to female creation.

Environmental
Smart had a reputation for being a "dedicated gardener". His poem the Hop-Garden helped to further this reputation, and even during his stay in a mental asylum he convinced others of his bond with nature. Johnson witnessed Smart's time in asylum and stated, "he has partly as much exercise as he used to have, for he digs in the garden." Gardening, to Smart, was a way in which humans could interact with nature and actually "improve" on the natural landscape.

However, Smart did not only write about gardens and vegetation, and his focus on his cat Jeoffry is widely known and his focus on nature connects him to those mistreated and neglected by 18th-century society. The first fragment of Jubilate Agno is a poetic "Ark" that pairs humans with animals in order to purify all of creation. The whole work relies on his extensive background in botany and his knowledge of taxonomy. He actively participated in the 18th-century taxonomy systems established by Carl Linnaeus; however, Smart is mythologizing his view of nature and creation when he adds information from Pliny the Elder into his work.

By using this knowledge, Smart was able to give a "voice" to nature; he believed that nature, like his cat Jeoffry, is always praising God but needs a poet in order to bring out that voice. As such, themes of animals and language are merged in Jubilate Agno, and Jeoffry is transformed into a manifestation of the Ars Poetica tradition.

Freemasonry
Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of Solomon's Temple and his possible role with the Freemasons. Although it is not known for sure whether Smart was a Freemason or not, there is evidence suggesting that he was either part of the organization or had a strong knowledge of its belief system. Based on personal admittance to contributing to A Defence of Freemasonry, contemporary verification of his participation in the volume and with Masonic meetings, there is enough to confirm "his participation in Masonic affairs." Furthermore, there are accounts of Smart attending meetings at the Bell Tavern in Westminster. The information available has led Marie Roberts to declare in her 1986 book British Poets and Secret Societies, "It has been universally accepted by scholars that Christopher Smart ... was a Freemason yet no record of his membership has been traced." However, in the notes to Chris Mounsey's 2001 book Christopher Smart: Clown of God, Marie Roberts' 1986 book is referred to as "an account of Smart's work which accepts his association with the Freemasons," but in Mounsey's view, "Since neither Smart's name nor his pseudonyms appear in the records of the Freemasons, it is highly unlikely he was ever one of their number."

Smart's involvement with Masonry can be traced through his poems, including Jubilate Agno and A Song to David, with his constant references to Masonic ideas and his praise of Freemasonry in general. In Jubilate Agno, Smart declares "I am the Lord's builder and free and accepted MASON in CHRIST JESUS" (B 109). This declaration of being a "free and accepted MASON" has been interpreted to define his connection to speculative Masonry. The "in Christ Jesus" declaration places Smart within a Christian version of Masonry. He also declares himself to be "the Lord's builder" and this connects his life with the building of King Solomon's Temple, an important Masonic idea. In A Song to David, Smart returns to the building of Solomon's Temple and incorporates many of the Masonic images that he uses in Jubilate Agno.

It was this detail that encouraged many critics to try to decode the "seven pillar" section of A Song of David along the lines of Masonic imagery. The poem follows two traditional sets of motions common to Freemason writing that mimic the image of Jacob's Ladder: movement from earth to heaven and movement from heaven to earth. This image further connects Freemason belief surrounding the relationship of David to Solomon's Temple. While these images, and further images in A Song to David are related also to depictions of the Temple in Isaac Newton's Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), the John Bunyan's Solomon's Temple Spiritualiz'd (1688), and to the Geneva Bible, these works were relied on by the Freemasons.

Based on this theory, the first pillar, the Greek alpha, represents the mason's compass and "God as the Architect of the Universe." The second, the Greek gamma, represents the mason's square. In addition, the square represents the "vault of heaven." The third, the Greek eta, represents Jacob's ladder itself and is connected to the complete idea of seven pillars. The fourth, the Greek theta, is either "the all-seeing eye or the point within a circle." The fifth letter, the Greek iota, represents a pillar and the temple. The sixth letter, the Greek sigma, is an incomplete hexagram, otherwise known as "the blazing star or hexalpha" to the Freemasons. The last, the Greek omega, represents a lyre and David as a poet.

Works

Smart, throughout his career, published many known works. Although his works are far too many to list, a few of his most famous and important publications during his life include:

 A Song to David
 Poems on Several Occasions (including the Hop-Garden)
 The Hilliad
 The Hop-Garden
 Hymns and Spiritual Songs
Epistle to Mrs. Tyler
Psalm 58
Psalm 114
On A Lady Throwing Snow-Balls At Her Lover
For I Will Consider My Cat Jeoffry
On My Wife's Birth-Day
The Sweets Of Evening
Where's The Poker?
The Pig
The Long-Nosed Fair
 Hymns for the Amusement of Children
 The Oratorios Hannah and Abimelech
 The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ
 A Poetical Translation of the Fables of Phaedrus
 The "Seatonian Prize" poems
 A Translation of the Psalms of David
 The Works of Horace Prose and Verse

One of his most famous poems, Jubilate Agno, was not published until 1939, by William Force Stead. In 1943, lines from this poem were set to music by Benjamin Britten with the translated title Rejoice in the Lamb.

He is also credited with the writing of A Defence of Freemasonry (1765), also known as A Defence of Freemasonry as practised in the regular lodges, both foreign and domestic, under the Constitution of the English Grand Master, in which is contained a refutation of Mr. Dermott's absurd and ridiculous account of Freemasonry, in his book entitled 'Ahiman Rezon' and the several queries therein reflecting on the regular Masons, briefly considered and answered, that response to Laurence Dermott's Ahiman Rezon. Although there is no direct attribution on the text's title page, it was established as his work since its publication, and it includes a poem directly attributed to him.

A two-volume edition of the  Complete Poems of Christopher Smart  was published in 1949 by Norman Callan, Professor of English at Queen Mary College, London (now University). There have been numerous reprints.  Penguin published Selected Poems in 1990.

Notes

References
 Bertelsen, Lance. "'Neutral Nonsense, neither False nor True': Christopher Smart and the Paper War(s) of 1752–53." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 135–152. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Booth, Mark W. "Syntax and Paradigm in Smart's Hymns for the Amusement of Children." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 67–81. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Costa, Dennis. "Language in Smart's Jubilate Agno." Essays in Criticism: A Quarterly Journal of Literary Criticism 52, 4 (Oct. 2002): 295–313.
 Curry, Neil. Christopher Smart. Devon: Northcote House Publishers, 2005. 128 pp.
 Davie, Donald. "Psalmody as Translation." The Modern Language Review 85, 4 (Oct. 1990): 817–828
 Devlin, Christopher. Poor Kit Smart. Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961.
 Dearnley, Moira. The Poetry of Christopher Smart. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1969. 332 pp.
 Easton, Fraser. "Christopher Smart's Cross-Dressing: Mimicry, Depropriation, and Jubilate Agno." Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture 31, 3–4 (Fall–Winter 1998): 193–243.
 Ennis, Daniel J. "Christopher Smart's Cat Revisited: Jubilate Agno and the Ars Poetica Tradition." South Atlantic Review 65.1 (2000): 1–23.
 Guest, Harriet. A Form of Sound Words: The Religious Poetry of Christopher Smart. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. 312 pp.
 Hawes, Clement. Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
 Hawes, Clement. Mania and Literary Style: The Rhetoric of Enthusiasm from the Ranters to Christopher Smart. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. xii, 241 pp.
 Hawes, Clement. "Smart's Bawdy Politic: Masculinity and the Second Age of Horn in Jubilate Agno." Criticism: A Quarterly for Literature and the Arts 37, 3 (Summer 1995): 413–442.
 Hunter, Christopher. The Poems of the late Christopher Smart. Reading, 1791.
 Jacobs, Alan. "Diagnosing Christopher's Case: Smart's Readers and the Authority of Pentecost." Renascence: Essays on Values in Literature 50, 3–4 (Spring–Summer 1998): 183–204.
 Katz, Edward Joseph. "Action and Speaking Are One': A Logological Reading of Smart's Prophetic Rhetoric." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 47–66. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Keymer, Thomas. "William Toldervy and the Origins of Smart's A Translation of the Psalms of David." Review of English Studies: The Leading Journal of English Literature and the English Language 54, 213 (Feb. 2003): 52–66.
 Liu, Alan. "Christopher Smart's 'Uncommunicated Letters': Translation and the Ethics of Literary History." Boundary 2: An International Journal of Literature and Culture 14, 1–2 (Fall–Winter 1985–1986): 115–146.
 Rizzo, Betty, and Robert Mahony, editors. The Annotated Letters of Christopher Smart. Southern Illinois University Press, 1991.
 Mahony, Robert and Rizzo, Betty. Christopher Smart : an annotated bibliography, 1743–1983. New York: Garland Pub., 1984.
 Mahony, Robert. "Revision and Correction in the Poems of Christopher Smart." Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 77, 2 (1983): 196–206.
 Miller, Eric. "Taxonomy and Confession in Christopher Smart and Jean-Jacques Rousseau." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 99–118. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Mounsey, Chris. Christopher Smart: Clown of God. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2001. 342 pp.
 Parker, Todd C. "Smart's Enlightened Parables and the Problem of Genre." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 83–97. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Rizzo, Betty. "Christopher Smart: A Letter and Lines from a Prisoner of the King's Bench." Review of English Studies: A Quarterly Journal of English Literature and the English Language 35, 140 (Nov. 1984): 510–516.
 Roberts, Marie. British Poets and Secret Societies. Totowa: Barnes and Noble, 1986.
 Rose, John. "All the Crumbling Edifices Must Come Down: Decoding Christopher Smart's Song to David." Philological Quarterly 84, 4 (Fall 2005): 403–424.
 Smart, Christopher. The Poetical Works of Christopher Smart, I: Jubilate Agno. Ed. Karina Williamson. Oxford: Clarendon, 1980. 143 pp.
 Smart, Christopher. The Poetical Works of Christopher Smart, III: A Translation of the Psalms of David. Ed. Marcus Walsh. Oxford: Clarendon, 1987. 440 pp.
 Sherbo, Arthur. Christopher Smart: Scholar of the University. Michigan State University Press, 1967. 303 pp.
 Walker, Jeanne Murray. "'Jubilate Agno' as Psalm." Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900 20, 3 (Summer 1980): 449–459.
 Walsh, Marcus. "'Community of Mind': Christopher Smart and the Poetics of Allusion." In Christopher Smart and the Enlightenment, edited by Clement Hawes, 29–46. New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 308 pp.
 Walsh, Marcus. "Something Old, Something New, Something Borrowed, Something Blue: Christopher Smart and the Lexis of the Particular." Yearbook of English Studies 28 (1998): 144–162.

External links

 Christopher Smart at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)

 Autograph manuscript of Jubilate Agno at Houghton Library
 Audio: Robert Pinsky reads "Jubilate Agno" by Christopher Smart (via poemsoutloud.net)
 Jubilate Agno, Smart's Love of his Cat
 Song to David
 Jubilate Agno HTML edition by Ray Davis.
 "Biographical note on Poetry Foundation"

1722 births
1771 deaths
18th-century classical composers
18th-century male musicians
18th-century English poets
Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Anglican poets
British children's writers
British nature writers
Bucolic poets
Church of England hymnwriters
English dramatists and playwrights
English male poets
English male stage actors
Evangelical Anglicans
Fabulists
Oratorio composers
People educated at Durham School
People educated at Maidstone Grammar School
People from Shipbourne
People imprisoned for debt
Musicians from Kent
Male actors from Kent
English male dramatists and playwrights
People detained in psychiatric hospitals

Christopher Smart