There are five levels of government in Germany. The lowest two levels of the German government are called local government. The five levels of German government are all legally independent. This means that each level of government has a separate job in Germany. The German constitution (the Grundgesetz) lists the five levels of government and says what each level should do.

The five levels are:
 The European Union (or EU). The EU can make laws that all the other levels of government must execute (do completely);
 The Federation or national government. The national government of Germany is responsible for defense and Foreign policy. The national government develops standards about the actions of the sixteen Länder (states). The federation also gives money to poorer states. It is designed to help all states to be equal.
 The sixteen Länder (states). The state government can create rules for local government in each state. But state governments cannot "abolish" (officially end) local governments. Local government is guaranteed by the constitution and the federal government;
 The rural districts or counties (Landkreise) and the urban districts or independent towns;
 The towns and municipalities, which are parts of a district or perhaps suburbs of an urban district.

Some states have Regierungsbezirke which are a group of counties and cities in an area to help run certain tasks across the area.

Other states have Ämte which is a collection of municipalities (local governments) in a district. They might do this if the local governments are too small to run some local services.

Regierungsbezirke and Ämte are not guaranteed by the constitution, they are a way of helping the various levels of government to do their job.

Subsidiarity
The idea of subsidiarity means that government jobs should be done by the lowest possible level.

There are two types of tasks (jobs) for a municipality. "Voluntary" which a town or municipality can do if it wants, and "mandatory", which are things that a federal or state law says the local government has to do.

Setting up a theatre, a museum, a sports field or a meeting hall is a voluntary task. If the local government can afford to set these things up, the Land (state) cannot stop them. Also the Land (state) cannot order the local government to set these things up.

The mandatory self-government tasks are things which a local government must do itself, or must get someone else to do for it. For example, one of the most important jobs of any local government is to prove its citizens (people who live there) with water, electricity, heating, and gas, as well as wastewater services and waste removal.

A council could run its own waterworks or join with others to share a larger facility. Modern electricity supply means that a council does not have to run their own power station anymore. But they must help private companies get the electricity supply to local houses and factories.

Transferred tasks
Although the Federation or state might have the right to control some things, the idea of subsidiarity means that they are administered (carried out) at the lowest possible level. For example, marriage ceremonies and issuing birth and death certificates are arranged by the town registrar, the Federation and the Land arrange legal and expert supervision so that the task is done properly and is the same across Germany.

Other transferred tasks include:

 General security
 Nationality, registration, passport affairs
 Registrar's office and civil status
 Commercial affairs
 Construction matters
 Health care, veterinary affairs
 Road traffic
 Registration of vehicles and vehicle taxation, (national and state laws say which cars can be registered, but local offices do the actual work)
 Water legislation and land cultivation
 Running Federal and Land parliamentary elections (roughly each district or kreis is a federal constituency, so voter registration and counting could be done by the district, but there are also larger Land based constituencies, so susidiarity make the Land the smallest possible level to handle counting)
 Social security affairs, youth care. Social security rates are set by the federal government, but paid out by municipal authorities.
 Protection and maintenance of historical monuments
 Statistics
 Forestry and fisheries.

Running local government
Who runs the town or district government depends on where in Germany the town is.

Magistrat system
The town council, or town council meeting is responsible for all jobs not given to the magistrat. The magistrat is the executive responsible for administering services. It is chosen by the town council, and can have both professional and honorary members. The mayor is head of the magistrate, but not of the town council meeting. The mayor is chosen separately by the people not the council. the system is only used in Hesse. It is the oldest system, and the only system where a group of elected people are responsible for the administration, instead of just one, the mayor.

Mayoral system
The mayor is head of the council and the administration.

North German system
Power is split between the mayor and the town clerk. The mayor has some functions, but day-to-day administration is done by the professional town clerk.

South German system
Used in Bavaria and the old eastern länder. The mayor is elected by the people, and he heads the council and the town government. The council is responsible for nearly all decisions. Some decisions are taken by the mayor. The council may give some of its tasks to the mayor, in which case they cannot change the mayor's decision.

Related pages
 Urban districts of Germany
 Rural Districts of Germany

References

Local government in Germany


James Howard Hatfield (January 7, 1958 – July 18, 2001) was an American author.

Fortunate Son and controversy
Hatfield was the author of Fortunate Son, a book published in 1999 during the George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2000 that made serious allegations about George W. Bush.  Published by the highly regarded St. Martin's Press, the book was revealed as allegedly fraudulent and recalled by the publisher within days of publication.

Soon after the book's release, The Dallas Morning News reported that Hatfield was a paroled felon who had been convicted in 1988 of paying a hit man $5,000 to murder his former boss with a car bomb. It was also revealed that Hatfield pleaded guilty to embezzlement in 1992. Hatfield at first denied the allegations when his publisher confronted him, but he eventually owned up to his criminal history.

This was the second time that a book of Hatfield's had been challenged. In 1985 he had written an unofficial James Bond novel, The Killing Zone, which – although purporting to be officially sanctioned by Glidrose, Bond's literary copyright holder – was in fact a vanity novel.

Due to the revelations of Hatfield's criminal past and the damage to his credibility, in October 1999, Hatfield's publisher, St. Martin's Press, recalled 70,000 copies of Fortunate Son and left an additional 20,000 books in storage. Even so, the book had already reached the New York Times bestseller list. Hatfield responded that, before the Bush campaign brought pressure to bear, St. Martin's had publicly stated that the book had been "carefully fact-checked and scrutinized by lawyers."

The book was later republished by Soft Skull Press. The relationship between Hicks, founder of Soft Skull Press, and Hatfield was explored in the movie Horns and Halos, an award-winning documentary film directed by Suki Hawley and Michael Galinsky. In one scene from the DVD extra disc, Hatfield says to the camera, "If anything happens to me, get it out to the press."

Death
According to Detective John Hubbard of the Bentonville, Arkansas Police Department, on July 17, 2001, the Police went to Hatfield's house to arrest him on charges of credit card fraud but they were unable to locate him.

On July 18, 2001, Hatfield's body was found by a hotel housekeeper in room 312 at a Days Inn in Springdale, Arkansas, an apparent suicide by prescription drug overdose. According to the police, notes were left listing alcohol, financial problems and Fortunate Son as reasons for killing himself.

Bibliography
 Fortunate Son: George W. Bush and the Making of an American President. (1999). Soft Skull Press.  (third edition, 2002)

References

External links
 Why would Osama bin Laden want to kill Dubya, his former business partner? by James Hatfield
 The Death of Jim Hatfield by David Cogswell
 Interview with James Hatfield, Democracy Now!

Horns and Halos
 Official site

 Village Voice article about Horns and Halos

1958 births
2001 suicides
20th-century American novelists
American male biographers
American male novelists
American political writers
Drug-related suicides in Arkansas
Place of birth missing
20th-century American biographers
20th-century American male writers
2001 deaths

James Hatfield


This article is about concerts in the parks in London in the 18th and 19th centuries. For the Promenade Concerts in the Royal Albert Hall see BBC Proms.

The word Promenade Concert today usually refers to one of the concerts in the series started by Henry Wood in 1895, known today as the BBC Proms.  However, before these concerts started there had for many years been promenade concerts in the parks of London. These concerts took place in the leisure gardens (parks) where people could walk about while listening to the music (French se promener = to walk).

People had to pay to go into the leisure gardens.  There were lots of entertainments there, e.g. fireworks, dancing, acrobatics and music.  The music was played by orchestras. Sometimes these orchestras played in bandstands, sometimes in proper buildings.

Vauxhall Gardens and Ranelagh Gardens were the most famous of these gardens.  The composer George Frideric Handel had his music played there in the 18th century. The gardens were very fashionable until the 19th century.  Aristocratic people, royalty and ordinary people all mixed there.  Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks was performed in Vauxhall Gardens to celebrate the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.  The composer Dr Thomas Arne was appointed composer of Vauxhall Gardens in 1745.  It was here that many of his songs became popular, including Rule Britannia''.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Joseph Haydn performed in Ranelagh Gardens on their visits to London.

In the 19th century concerts of classical music became very popular.  The conductor Louis Antoine Jullien conducted many concerts.  His orchestra were even joined by the bands of the Royal Artillery or drummers from the French National Guard.  Concerts were also given in Crystal Palace, the huge glass building which was built for the Great Exhibition in 1851.

Many English composers had their music played in these parks.  The music was often long songs (ballads), or drinking songs.  Sometimes choirs sang choruses from oratorios by Handel.  Later in the 19th century the programmes included more music by famous composers such as Brahms, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana and Wagner.

In 1895 Henry Wood started his series of promenade concerts.  He wanted to educate audiences so that they liked good music.  This series of concerts continues today in the Royal Albert Hall as the BBC Proms.

Related pages
BBC Proms

Concerts
Entertainment in London

Promenade concert


Power line communication (or Powerline communication) uses existing electric power lines to send and receive data. The data signal is modulated and multiplexed over several carrier frequencies. There are different technologies that can be used:
low frequency transmission, over long distances:  Example uses are the power company reading out its meters from a distance, or controlling its equipment, which may be in remote locations that are difficult to access. Modulation is at a few hundred kilohertz
medium frequency transmission, over short distances: Home automation (light switching, automatically controlled blinds...)
There are different technologies that propose to replace a Local Area Network or WLAN. The problem there is that technologies of different vendors cannot talk to each other, and that the standard is only about as fast as Fast Ethernet

Computer networking

Power line communication


A garden fork, also called a spading fork or digging fork, is a tool for digging. It is used for loosening soil in gardening and farming.  It is used similarly to a spade, but it can be pushed more easily into the ground. It does not cut through plant roots. Garden forks were made of wood, but now most are made of steel.

Garden forks are slightly different from pitchforks. Their tines are usually shorter and thicker and closer together.

Gardening tools

Garden fork


The Northeast Ohio Master of Fine Arts Program (NEOMFA) is a three-year graduate level consortial creative writing program located in Northeast Ohio. The NEOMFA has a unique collaborative design in which students attend all four universities in the consortium: Cleveland State University, The University of Akron, Kent State University, and Youngstown State University. Writer Imad Rahman is current director of the program.  Students are able to take classes at any of the four campuses, while being part of one unified writing program. The NEOFMA offers courses in poetry, fiction, creative non-fiction, playwriting, and literary translation.

Since its inception in 2005, the NEOMFA has offered small-group workshops, open readings, summer travel fellowships, and high-profile visiting writers in addition to career-preparing internships and competitive graduate funding. Students have the opportunity to intern with literary presses at all four universities, in theater at the Cleveland Public Theater, and in arts management through outreach programs.

Sources

 Poets & Writers on MFA Programs
 AWP Official Guide to Writing Programs
 Buchtel College of Arts and Sciences at The University of Akron
 Department of English at Kent State University
 College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences at Cleveland State University
 New Pages Creative Writing Program Listings
 Poets & Writers MFA Programs

Literary journals
 Luna Negra
 Penguin Review
 Rubbertop Review
 Whiskey Island
 YACK

External links
 NEOMFA Program Website
 Cleveland State English Department
 Kent State English Department
 University of Akron English Department
 Youngstown State English Department
 Wick Poetry Center
 Imagination Conference

Creative writing programs
American writers' organizations
University of Akron
Youngstown State University
Cleveland State University
Kent State University

NEOMFA


United States criminal procedure derives from several sources of law: the baseline protections of the United States Constitution; federal and state statutes; federal and state rules of criminal procedure (such as the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure); and state and federal case law. Criminal procedures are distinct from civil procedures in the US.

Sources of law

U.S. Constitution

The United States Constitution, including the United States Bill of Rights and subsequent amendments, contains the following provisions regarding criminal procedure. Due to the incorporation of the Bill of Rights, all of these provisions apply equally to criminal proceedings in state courts, with the exception of the Grand Jury Clause of the Fifth Amendment, the Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment, and (maybe) the Excessive Bail Clause of the Eighth Amendment.
Article Three, Section Two, Clause Three:
Jury Clause
Venue Clause
Fifth Amendment:
Grand jury clause
Double Jeopardy Clause
Self-Incrimination Clause
Due process clause
Takings Clause
Sixth Amendment:
Speedy Trial Clause
Public trial clause
Impartial Jury Clause
Vicinage Clause
Information Clause
Confrontation Clause
Compulsory Process Clause
Assistance of Counsel Clause
Eighth Amendment:
Excessive Bail Clause
Fourteenth Amendment:
Due process clause
Equal Protection Clause

Federal statutes and rules
Federal statutes and rules apply to criminal proceedings in federal courts, such as:
Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
Jencks Act

State statutes and rules
Each state has its own statutes and rules of criminal proceeding applying to proceedings in its courts.

Charging instruments
In a criminal case, the government generally brings charges in one of two ways: either by accusing a suspect directly in a "bill of information" or other similar document, or by bringing evidence before a grand jury to allow that body to determine whether the case should proceed. If the grand jury determines that there is enough evidence to justify the bringing of charges, then the defendant is indicted. In the federal system, a case must always be brought before a grand jury for indictment if it is punishable by death or more than one year in prison; some states, however, do not require indictment.

Petit juries
Once charges have been brought, the case is then brought before a petit jury, (or what is commonly recognized as the normal courtroom jury of six to twelve members), or is tried by a judge alone, if the defense requests it. Any petit jury is selected from a pool by the prosecution and defense.

After both sides have presented their cases and made closing arguments, the judge gives the jury legal instructions; the jury then adjourns to deliberate in private. The jury generally must unanimously agree on a verdict of guilty or not guilty; however, the Supreme Court has upheld non unanimous jury verdicts, so long as the jury is larger than 6 people. In 1972, the Court upheld convictions in Apodaca v. Oregon  and Johnson v. Louisiana  where Oregon and Louisiana convicted Petitioners on 10-to-2 and 9-to-3 verdicts respectively. In 1979, the Court ruled in Burch v. Louisiana that where a jury was made of 6 people, the verdict must be unanimous.

Presentation of evidence

The prosecution gives an opening statement that summarizes its general arguments. The defense can then present its opening statement or may opt to wait until the prosecution has finished presenting its complete case. The prosecution presents its case first. This is done by calling witnesses to give testimony and by presenting physical evidence that will prove the defendant is guilty of the crime. Witnesses are people who can give testimony that will help prove the guilt of the defendant. They may have actually seen events related to the crime, may have relevant information about the defendant, or may be able to give expert testimony concerning the evidence or have other important information. After the prosecution finishes, it is the time for the defense to address the court.

The defense may start by asking the judge to dismiss the case for lack of evidence. If the judge agrees the evidence is insufficient to prove the defendant committed the crime without a reasonable doubt, the case will be dismissed and the defendant will be free of the charges. Usually, the judge does not dismiss the case. At this time, the defense will give its opening statement if it has not already done so. The defense then proceeds to present its case by calling witnesses and submitting evidence that will prove the defendant did not commit the crime. All witnesses may be cross-examined by the opposing side while testifying. Under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the defendant is not required to be a witness in his own defense. If he does not testify, the jury can not hold this against him. Also under the Fifth Amendment, a witness has the right not to incriminate himself. This means the witness is not required to answer any question if doing so would incriminate himself. After the defense finishes presenting its case, each side gives a closing statement summarizing the evidence that supports its position of either guilt or innocence. The closing statements are given in the same order, with the defense going last. Then the deliberation phase of the trial begins.

Verdict

Burden of proof
The burden of proof is on the prosecution in a criminal trial. This means the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is guilty of the crime. The defense has no burden of proof and is presumed innocent during all stages of a criminal trial.

Deliberation
Once the prosecution and defense present their cases, the judge will give the case to the jury. First the judge will instruct the jury about any legal rules that may affect their decision. The judge then sends the jury to the jury room to deliberate about whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty of the charges. During the trial the jury is not allowed to read about the case or discuss it with anyone even each other. Sometimes juries are sequestered or kept together away from their homes and any media coverage of the trial.

Once deliberation begins the jurors are allowed to talk to each other. They are to remain together, except overnight, until they either reach a decision or determine they cannot reach a decision. In the latter occurrence, the jury is said to be deadlocked and is called a hung jury. If the jury decides, this is called the verdict. They inform the judge and return to the courtroom where the verdict is read. The judge may either accept the verdict or overrule it. It is rare for the verdict to be overruled. This happens when the judge thinks the verdict is unlawful. Often this is because the jury does not follow the legal instructions. It can also happen if the judge thinks the jury interpreted the evidence in a manner that was not legal. Once the verdict is determined, the trial moves to the punishment phase. This can simply be the judge issuing the punishment sentence or, in more serious cases, can involve a separate hearing.

Sentencing
If a defendant is found guilty, sentencing follows, often at a separate hearing after the prosecution, defense, and court have developed information based on which the judge will craft a sentence. The United States Sentencing Commission has promulgated guidance on what restitution and prison terms should be assessed for different crimes. In capital cases, a separate "penalty phase" occurs, in which the jury determines whether to recommend that the death penalty should be imposed. As with the determination of guilt phase, the burden is on the prosecution to prove its case, and the defendant is entitled to take the stand in his or her own defense, and may call witnesses and present evidence.

Appeals
After sentencing, the case enters the post conviction phase. Usually the defendant begins serving the sentence immediately after the sentence is issued. The defendant may appeal the outcome of his trial to a higher court. American appellate courts do not retry the case. These courts only examine the record of the proceedings of the lower court to determine if errors were made that require a new trial, resentencing, or a complete dismissal of the charges. The prosecution may not appeal after an acquittal, although it may appeal under limited circumstances before the verdict is rendered. The prosecution may also appeal the sentence itself. Increasingly, there is also a recognition that collateral consequences of criminal charges may result from the sentence that are not explicitly part of the sentence itself.

See also
Criminal procedure

References

United States procedural law

United States criminal procedure


Neunkirchen is a town-municipality in Saarland, Germany. It is the capital (Kreisstadt) of Neunkirchen District.

It had about 46,000 people in 2016.

Neunkirchen lies at an altitude of 252 m, on the Blies river, and about 20 km northeast of Saarbrücken.

It is the biggest settlement of Saarland after Saarbrücken.

Well-known people
 Erich Honecker (1912-1994), East German leader
 Stefan Kuntz (b. 1962), footballer

Other websites

Towns in Saarland

Neunkirchen, Saarland


Barbara K. Bodine (born August 28, 1948 in St. Louis, Missouri) is an American academic and former diplomat. Bodine formerly directed the Scholars in the Nation's Service Initiative (SINSI) and lectured at Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs. She currently serves as Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy and Director of the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy at the School of Foreign Service of Georgetown University.

Education
Bodine earned her B.A. in political science and Asian studies magna cum laude from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1970. She became a member of Kappa Alpha Theta, Gamma Rho chapter, fraternity for women. She received her master's degree from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. She also studied at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the Department of State's Language Training Field Schools in Taiwan and Tunisia. She is a member of Phi Beta Kappa and serves on the board of directors of the UCSB Alumni Association and on the advisory council to the Program on Southwest Asian and Islamic Civilization Studies at the Fletcher School. She was the recipient of the UC Santa Barbara Distinguished Alumni Award in 1991.

Diplomatic career
After initial tours in Hong Kong and Bangkok, Bodine spent her career working primarily on Southwest Asia and the Arabian Peninsula. She has twice served in the Bureau of Near East Affairs' Office of Arabian Peninsula Affairs, first as Country Officer for the Yemenis, then as Political-Military officer for the peninsula. She later served as Deputy Office Director. She had assignments as Deputy Principal Officer in Baghdad, and as Deputy Chief of Mission in Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion and occupation in 1990. She was awarded the Secretary of State's Award for Valor for her work in occupied Kuwait during the Gulf War.

Following Kuwait, Bodine was the Associate Coordinator for Operations and later served as the Acting Coordinator for Counterterrorism. She went on to serve as the Dean of Professional Studies at the Department's Foreign Service Institute. She has worked on the secretariat staff of Secretaries Kissinger and Vance, and as a Congressional Fellow in the office of former U.S. Senator Bob Dole. Most recently, Bodine spent a year as the Director of East African Affairs. Bodine is also an Advisory Board Member of Spirit of America, a 501(c)(3) organization that supports the safety and success of Americans serving abroad and the local people and partners they seek to help.

Ambassador to Yemen and USS Cole bombing controversies
On November 7, 1997, Bodine was appointed to be Ambassador to the Republic of Yemen. Bodine's appointment in Sana'a coincided with events of major importance in Yemen: In 1999, Bodine negotiated the release of three Americans kidnapped in Yemen. On October 12, 2000, the US Navy Destroyer USS Cole was bombed in a terrorist attack in the Gulf of Aden. In January 2001, en route to the Yemeni city of Taiz to meet with the country's president, a flight carrying Bodine and 90 other passengers from Yemen was hijacked by an Iraqi mid-flight. The plane was diverted to the small African nation of Djibouti, where it landed with the hijacker being overpowered by the crew. Bodine left Yemen as ambassador on August 30, 2001.

Bodine's career was marked by controversy surrounding her relationship with the FBI during its investigation of the USS Cole bombing: The PBS Frontline documentary "The Man Who Knew" included interviews with officials such as Richard A. Clarke (the Clinton administration's counterterrorism chief) and Barry Mawn (a former head of the New York FBI office) who stated that John P. O'Neill (an FBI agent and al-Qaeda expert) came into a personal conflict with Bodine over different perspectives on Yemen. When O'Neill briefly traveled back to New York for Thanksgiving, Bodine denied his re-entry visa, blocking O'Neill from returning to Yemen to continue the investigation on the USS Cole bombing. Frontline cited sources as saying that "O'Neill's removal from the scene in Yemen may have seriously limited the Cole investigation."

The chilly relationship between Bodine and O'Neill is detailed in Lawrence Wright's The Looming Tower. While O'Neill viewed Yemen as a serious threat, unstable from the First Yemeni Civil War, with a large number of weapons, large cells of Ayman al-Zawahiri's al-Jihad, and many Mujahideen veterans from the war in Afghanistan, Bodine, in contrast, viewed Yemen as an infant democracy, a "promising American ally in an unsettled but strategically important part of the world." O'Neill also took a hard line toward the Yemeni security forces and viewed his mission as a criminal investigation, while Bodine viewed O'Neill as reckless and harmful to diplomacy. Bodine was furious when O'Neill arrived with 150 investigators and other staff; she had thought she had an understanding with O'Neill that his staff would total no more than 50. Murray Weiss wrote in The Man Who Warned America, a biography of O'Neill, that Bodine "took an immediate and strong dislike to O'Neill, and seemingly worked to hamper some of his initiatives."

Bodine's failures and adversarial treatments toward American investigators were further detailed in The Black Banners by Ali Soufan, the lead investigator of the USS Cole bombing. Bodine also handled evidence directly from Yemini officials, which was "contrary to protocol", as this make her part of the chain of custody and she "could be called as a witness in the trial and could be questioned about her handling of the evidence and whether she had tampered with it." Typically, "ambassadors would have said that the evidence should be given directly to the FBI or the regional security officer (RSO), the Department of State law enforcement officer of the embassy."

Iraq
After serving in Yemen, Bodine became Diplomat in Residence at the University of California, Santa Barbara, until shortly before the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Bodine was appointed coordinator for central Iraq in charge of Baghdad by the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA), which became the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) on April 21, 2003. She was removed from that position soon thereafter on May 11, 2003, when Paul Bremer was brought in to replace Retired General Jay Garner as CPA Administrator.

In the media
On September 8, 2006, Bodine complained in the Los Angeles Times about her portrayal in the controversial ABC docudrama The Path to 9/11. In an op-ed, Bodine wrote: "According to the mythmakers, a battle ensued between a cop obsessed with tracking down Osama bin Laden and a bureaucrat more concerned with the feelings of the host government than the fate of Americans and the realities of terrorism. I know this is false. I was there. I was the ambassador." The ABC miniseries compressed Bodine's role to a single extended scene suggesting she was dismissive, hostile, and vulgar toward John P. O'Neill from the moment of his arrival in Yemen. Broadcast worldwide on the fifth anniversary of 9/11 (9/10 and 9/11/2006), The Path to 9/11 was based on the official 9/11 Commission Report and other sources. ABC/Disney aired the film in the United States without commercial interruption, adding a disclaimer stating that it was "not a documentary", that various scenes were invented, and that narrative "time compression" was used. In the miniseries, Bodine was played by actress Patricia Heaton. O'Neill could not provide a balancing response to Bodine's comments because he was killed in the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center.

More than 9 years after the USS Cole Bombing and following the apprehension of Nigerian Umar Farouk Abdul Mutallab, an alleged suicide bomber who is reported to have been trained and equipped in Yemen, Michelle Shephard, writing in the Toronto Star, published excerpts of an interview she conducted with Bodine. Bodine criticized the withdrawal of support the USA was providing to enhance the governance and infrastructure in Yemen, warning against US unilateral military intervention there:

Bodine was interviewed in Charles H. Ferguson's 2007 documentary No End in Sight, and, as a guest on Real Time with Bill Maher, on September 3, 2007.

Bodine was portrayed in the Hulu miniseries adaptation of The Looming Tower by Jennifer Ehle.

References
Barbara Bodine, Ambassador to Republic of Yemen

Notes

External links
 Bodine biography, University of Delaware website
 Frontline, "The man who knew" (published October 3, 2002)
 "Probe of USS Cole Bombing Unravels", The Washington Post, May 4, 2008

1948 births
Living people
American women ambassadors
George W. Bush administration personnel
Clinton administration personnel
Hijacking survivors
People from St. Louis
Politics of Yemen
University of California, Santa Barbara alumni
The Fletcher School at Tufts University alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to Yemen
United States Foreign Service personnel
21st-century American women

Barbara Bodine


Egyptian temples were buildings for the official worship of the gods in ancient Egypt. These temples were seen as houses for the gods. Sometimes they were specially for the pharaohs (kings). Within these temples the Egyptians performed a variety of rituals of the Egyptian religion. People would give offerings (gifts) to the gods. They would show the stories of the gods through festivals. These festivals would also help normal life to continue. The pharaohs were responsible for providing the temples and caring for the gods. This required a lot of labor and material for building and maintenance. It was necessary for the pharaohs to give this responsibility to priests. Most of the ordinary people did not take part in ceremonies and could not enter special parts of the temple. The temple was an important religious place for all classes of Egyptians. They went there to pray, give offerings, and seek guidance from the god dwelling within.

The most important part of the temple was the sanctuary. The sanctuary was the most secret and special place and usually had a statue of a god. In the early years of Egypt, about 3000 BCE, the temples were small. Priests and pharaohs added more rooms and the temples became bigger. The rooms would have a lot of decoration of the religion. By the time of the New Kingdom (c.1550-1070 BCE) the temples were huge buildings made of stone. The buildings were arranged in special ways for the religion. The temple would have halls, open areas, and very large entrance pillars. Some of these temples still exist today. Beyond the main temple was an outer wall. There would be other buildings inside the walls.

A large temple also had a lot of land and employed thousands of ordinary people to supply its needs. Temples were also economic centers. The priests who managed the temples had a lot of influence. They would sometimes oppose the king.

Temple-building continued in Egypt even when the nation declined and was ruled by the Roman Empire. Christianity brought more pressure on Egyptian religion. The last temple was closed in 550 CE. For hundreds of years, the ancient buildings were damaged and neglected. In the early 19th century, many people in Europe became interested in ancient Egypt. The study of ancient Egypt became known as the science of Egyptology. Egyptologists continue to study the surviving temples and the remains of destroyed ones. They tell us a lot about ancient Egyptian society.

Dozens of temples survive today. Some have become famous tourist attractions that bring money to modern Egypt.

Buildings and structures in Ancient Egypt

Egyptian temple


The View from Saturday is a children's novel by E. L. Konigsburg, published by Atheneum Books for Young Readers in 1996.
It won the 1997 Newbery Medal for excellence in American children's literature, the author's second Medal.

Structure
Narrative mode alternates between first-person limited and third-person omniscient. In the first person, four students and quiz teammates narrate one chapter each, "deftly prefaced by a question tailor-made for introducing the respective team members".

According to Konigsburg,
I thought children would enjoy meeting one character, and then two characters, and that they would enjoy seeing parts of the story repeated but in a different way. I thought that they would enjoy having the second character interact with the first character, with each story moving the general story along. And I had hoped that readers would feel very satisfied with themselves when they had it all worked out.

The View from Saturday is not mystery fiction but it is a puzzle or three.

Present publisher Simon & Schuster labels the book for ages 8–12, grades 4-6,
but the parental guide Common Sense Media capsule is "Brilliant but complex novel for older kids". "[S]uperb writing and characters make for a great story, but complexities of plot and style may leave some readers frustrated or bored."

Summary
Middle school teacher Eva Marie Olinski returns to teaching after an accident left her paraplegic. She chooses four of her sixth-grade students (Ethan, Noah, Nadia, and Julian), who form a group they call 'The souls', to represent her class in the Academic Bowl competition. They defeat the other sixth-grade teams, then the seventh- and eighth-grade champions at Epiphany, and so on until they become New York state middle school champions. The children help their teacher live a happier life after her win. A child named Hamilton Knapp makes fun of her and makes life harder for her. Later The Souls stick out their arms and legs when Mrs. Olinski stands up for herself when Hamilton and his follower Jared Lord harass the class. They stick out their limbs to show that she can stand up for herself.

Between chapters that feature the progress of the competition, each of the four students narrates one chapter related both to the development of The Souls and to a question in the state championship final. Noah Gershom recounts learning calligraphy and being best man for his grandfather's friend at his wedding in Century Village in Florida. Nadia Diamondstein describes working to conserve sea turtles and meeting Ethan, also at Century Village. Ethan Potter tells of meeting Julian, a new boy in town, and attending his tea parties, where the four Souls became friends. Julian Singh explains being new at school and tells of handling a chance for revenge against one of the bullies — remarkably grounded in the part played by Nadia's dog in the school musical.

Characters
Mrs. Eva Marie Olinski teaches at Epiphany Middle School. She feels that sixth-grade students have descended from Now what?" to "So what?" during the years she has been away. Once shaken by her injury (car crash) and left paraplegic, she has suffered also from how students receive her. The four Souls respect her and help restore her confidence as a teacher, although they are not as the Academic Bowl team representing her class. For a long while, she is not certain why she picked them, but with help from her friend Mr. Singh, she finally sees why, as explained in a long and confusing anecdote.
Noah Gershom has brown hair and wears glasses. His mother is a real estate agent and his father is a dentist who employs Nadia's mom. In Noah's story, he visits his grandparents who reside in a retirement home in Florida, where he unexpectedly has an opportunity to learn calligraphy. He accidentally becomes the best man at the wedding of Izzy Diamondstein and Margaret Draper.
Nadia Diamondstein is a beautiful plump girl with curly red hair, which notably forms a halo in the sunlight. She recently moved to New York from Florida with her mother, who works as a dental hygienist for Noah's father. Her father is an accountant in Florida, where grandfather Izzy Diamondstein recently married Ethan's grandmother Margaret Draper, formerly a principal and Mrs. Olinski's best friend. In the school play, Nadia's dog Ginger plays Little Orphan Annie's dog Sandy. She has a fondness for sea turtles.
Ethan Potter is a medium-sized boy with short, blond hair. He lives on a farm, and his family is one of the oldest in Epiphany. His grandmother, Margaret Draper, a teacher who retired to Florida, recently married Nadia's grandfather Izzy Diamondstein. Aware that he tends to disappoint his teachers, who compare and expect him to excel academically and athletically like his older brother, Lucas, or Luke, Ethan is a quiet and nervous individual until he becomes a part of the Souls. He loves theater, staging included, and has a secret passion for halos. His family's goal for him is to be a farmer while Lucas goes all around the world.
Julian Singh is an Indian boy with black hair and a British accent that he acquired as a boarding school student in England. His mother was a chanteuse, or singer, on a cruise ship who died young. His father is a cook and now an innkeeper at a farm in Epiphany that he has made into a bed and breakfast inn. There Julian has been "facilitator" of the four Souls, as host of 4:00 pm tea every Saturday. Julian was teased and bullied by other students this year, as a new boy from another culture. That was a learning experience, especially for Ethan. Julian is the last chosen for the quiz team, the missing piece from Mrs. Olinski's perspective.
Hamilton Knapp is the antagonist of the story and is the character who wrote the non school appropriate message on Julian Singh's backpack. Hamilton Knapp was almost the 4th member of the academic bowl team. Hamilton Knapp tried to drug Ginger in the play Little Orphan Annie's dog Sandy.

Konigsburg tells Scholastic Teachers regarding all of her books that "the characters begin their lives as people that I may know, but they end up their lives as characters!" She considers the friendship of the four Souls unusual but not unreal. She believes that she has something in common with them: "There are parts in each of them that I relate to. Noah's resistance to authority, for example. Ethan's challenge for having a high-achieving sibling. Nadia's sense of having been abandoned. And I hope, Julian's kindness and outsiderness. Julian was the most outside of all of those children." There is a metaphor in every symbol.

Origins
Konigsburg started the story of Ethan Potter's school bus ride on the first day of sixth grade. "A strangely dressed young man", Julian sat next to him and explained that father was opening a "bed-and-breakfast" B&B. She took a break, walking along the beach, and recalled three other short stories in her files: one about a boy Noah who must write a "bread-and-butter" B&B letter to his grandparents; one about a dog Ginger who plays the dog Sandy in Annie; one about an Academic Bowl team. She realized that the stories would complement each other in a whole "more than the sum of the parts. I knew that kids would love meeting one character and then two and three and four ... and they would think that fitting all the stories together was part of the adventure."

Notes

References

Citations

1996 American novels
American children's novels
Newbery Medal–winning works
Novels set in Florida
Novels set in Ohio
1996 children's books
Novels about teachers
Atheneum Books books
Children's books set in Ohio
Children's books set in Florida

The View from Saturday


The Pilgrim's Progress is an English language book written by John Bunyan. It was published in two parts: the First Part in 1678, and the Second Part in 1684. Its full title is The Pilgrim's Progress from this World to that which is to come.  It is regarded as one of the most important books in English literature. It is a Christian allegory.

The book uses the dream story of a journey through the English county of Bedfordshire, to London. Bunyan uses this to tell the idea of Christianity from a Protestant point of view. Although the journey is imaginary, the places are based upon real places in 17th century Bedfordshire. The difficulties faced by Christian, the main character, is meant to be an allegory of the difficulties faced by a true Christian in keeping to the 'straight and narrow path'.  The author was jailed for preaching his opinions, yet after the book was published, it was translated into over 200 languages.

Writing of the book
Bunyan started to write the book in jail. He got into trouble for preaching without a licence. Bunyan, who was a Reformed Baptist, did not qualify for a licence. Only ministers of the Church of England were allowed to preach. He spent 12 years in Bedford jail. He might have been freed if he had promised not to preach, but he refused. He was let out only when the law changed, in 1672. He was jailed again for a short time in 1677.

The book is divided into two parts, and is 108,260 words long. Each part is a continuous narrative, with no chapter divisions. When the first part was published in 1678, it immediately became extremely popular. Part Two was published in 1684. There were 11 editions of the first part during John Bunyan's lifetime, and two editions of the second part.

Allegory
The story is an allegory about a man called Christian, who goes on a journey, and meets many strange people. Christian is an 'everyman' character: he represents the reader or any ordinary person. Eventually he gets to the Celestial City. The strange people he meets are characters who represent good and bad things in life. The story is therefore an allegory of the life of a good Christian. To be precise, it is an allegory of the Protestant view of Christianity. It includes, as characters, the giants 'Pope' and 'Pagan', allegories of Roman Catholicism and paganism as persecutors of Protestant Christians. 'Pagan' is dead, indicating the end of pagan persecution, and 'Pope' is alive but decrepit (elderly), indicating the diminished power and influence of the Roman Catholic pope. The many indirect references to the Bible is a sure sign of Protestant belief. The Bible had not long been available in English, and its translation was opposed by the church in the reign of Henry VIII.

Many of the places Bunyan describes are based on places he knew in the Bedfordshire countryside. For example, the Slough of Despond is thought to be the marshes in Tempsford (now on the A1 road). House Beautiful is thought to be Houghton House (now a ruin), just outside Ampthill. The character of the Evangelist is that of his friend John Gifford, who was the leader of a non-conformist group at St John's Church, Bedford. The heavy burden (the load), which Christian carries on his back, represents his sins: the things he has done wrong, and which trouble him. However, the burden is also based on the heavy anvil which he carried on his back as he walked from place to place. He worked as a tinker (someone who mends pots and pans).

Later, the Land of Beulah is Middlesex County, the Very Deep River is the Thames, and the Celestial City is London.

Plot

Part One
Part One tells how a man called Christian makes his way from the 'City of Destruction' (Earth) to the 'Celestial City' (Heaven) of Zion. Christian finds himself weighed down by a great burden which he gets from reading a book (obviously the Bible). He wonders what he can do to be saved. The character Evangelist appears several times during the story, pointing him in the right direction. Evangelist shows Christian the way to the 'Wicket Gate'. Christian tries to persuade his family to join him on the journey, but they refuse, so he leaves them behind.

The first person he meets is called Mr. Worldly Wiseman, who says he can be saved by looking at the law, and that Mr. Legality can help him. Evangelist stops him from going that way. He must go to the Wicket Gate.

At the Wicket Gate the gatekeeper, Goodwill, tells him to keep to the straight path. In the Second Part, Goodwill is shown to be Jesus himself. To Christian's query about relief from his burden, Goodwill directs him forward to the 'place of deliverance'.

Christian goes to the House of the Interpreter, where he is shown pictures and that show ideas of the Christian faith. Then he gets to the 'place of deliverance'. This is meant to be the hill with the cross where Jesus died. There his burden falls off his back, so he is very relieved. Three shining ones give him the greeting of peace. They give him new clothes and a passport to the Celestial City (heaven). This is like a Christian Baptism.

At the top of the Hill of Difficulty, Christian stops at the House Beautiful, which is an allegory of the local Christian congregation. Christian spends three days here. When he leaves he is wearing armour which protects him when he fights a battle with the monster Apollyon. Then he goes to the Shadow of Death. He is not afraid because his friend Faithful reminds him of the words of Psalm 23: Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. The sun rises as he leaves.

Just outside the Valley of the Shadow of Death he meets Faithful, who also used to live in the City of Destruction. They go together to Vanity Fair, where they are both arrested because they do not like the kind of business which is being done at the fair, all based on greed. Faithful is put on trial, and executed. Hopeful, who lives in Vanity, takes Faithful's place as Christian's companion for the rest of the way.

Together Christian and Hope have several adventures. They are captured by Giant Despair, who takes them to Doubting Castle, where they are imprisoned, beaten and starved. The giant wants them to commit suicide, but they refuse. Suddenly Christian realizes that a key he has, called Promise, will open all the doors and gates of Doubting Castle. Using the key, they escape.

They come to the Delectable Mountains where the shepherds show them some of the wonders of the place also known as 'Immanuel's Land'.

On the way, Christian and Hopeful meet a man called Ignorance. He thinks he can enter the Celestial City even though he does not believe. A ferryman called Vain Hope ferries Ignorance across the River of Death, but Ignorance is turned away from the gates of Celestial City and thrown into hell.

Christian and Hopeful eventually reach the Celestial City.

Part Two
The Second Part of The Pilgrim's Progress presents the pilgrimage of Christian's wife, Christiana; their sons and the maiden, Mercy. They visit the same places that Christian visited, but they take a longer time. This is because the story includes the marriage of his sons, and children for the four sons and their wives.

The story shows that women can be as brave as men. They visit the same stopping places that Christian did, but they take longer because they marry and give birth to children on the way. The hero of the story is Greatheart, the servant of the Interpreter, who is a pilgrim's guide to the Celestial City. He kills four giants, including Giant Despair, and helps to kill a monster that terrorizes the city of Vanity.

Expert critics think the second part is important, and brings in more ideas: "Part II, which appeared in 1684, is much more than a mere sequel to or repetition of the earlier volume. It clarifies and reinforces and justifies the story of Part I. The beam of Bunyan's spotlight is broadened to include Christian's family and other men, women, and children; the incidents and accidents of everyday life are more numerous, the joys of the pilgrimage tend to outweigh the hardships; and to the faith and hope of Part I is added in abundant measure that greatest of virtues, charity. The two parts of The Pilgrim's Progress in reality constitute a whole, and the whole is, without doubt, the most influential religious book ever written in the English language.

Part II shows human frailty: of women, children, and people with weak bodies or minds. When Christiana's party leaves Gaius's Inn, Mr. Feeble-mind lingers in order to be left behind. He is encouraged to come with the party by Greatheart: But brother ... I have it in commission, to comfort the feeble-minded, and to support the weak. You must needs go along with us; we will wait for you, we will lend you our help, we will deny ourselves of some things, both opinionative and practical, for your sake; we will not enter into doubtful disputations before you, we will be made all things to you, rather than you shall be left behind.

Reception
Although the language of The Pilgrim's Progress may seem old-fashioned now, Bunyan wrote in a simple and direct style. He gave his characters symbolic names, which may have sounded lively and imaginative to a 17th century audience. Bunyan was of humble origin, and had no higher education. He was, however, highly literate, and wrote in a way that ordinary people could understand.

The book includes a poem which became the popular hymn Who Would True Valour See (He Who Would Valiant Be in some versions).

Some phrases from the book have become part of the English language, just as many English expressions come from the Bible. We often talk of a 'Slough of Despond' (when we feel a problem is too big for us). The expressions 'Vanity Fair' and 'House Beautiful' are also quite familiar. There are a large number of references to the book in later literature, and Bunyan's idea of how to tell a story has been borrowed and adapted many times.

Christian context
The explicit Protestant theology of The Pilgrim's Progress made it popular. Bunyan's plain style breathes life into abstract ideas such as 'greed', 'envy', 'pride'. These ideas are turned into imaginary people, whom Christian meets and talks to, on his way to Heaven. Samuel Johnson said that "this is the great merit of the book, that the most cultivated man cannot find anything to praise more highly, and the child knows nothing more amusing". Three years after its publication (1681), it was reprinted in colonial America, and was widely read in the Puritan colonies.

Because of its explicit English Protestant theology The Pilgrim's Progress shares the feeling of most English, in the 17th century, against the Roman Catholic Church. It was published over the years of the Popish Plot (1678–1681) and ten years before the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and it shows the influence of John Foxe's Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Bunyan presents a decrepit and harmless giant to confront Christian at the end of the Valley of the Shadow of Death that is explicitly named "Pope":Now I saw in my Dream, that at the end of this Valley lay blood, bones, ashes, and mangled bodies of men, even of Pilgrims that had gone this way formerly: And while I was musing what should be the reason, I espied a little before me a Cave, where two Giants, Pope and Pagan, dwelt in old times, by whose Power and Tyranny the Men whose bones, blood ashes, &c. lay there, were cruelly put to death. But by this place Christian went without much danger, whereat I somewhat wondered; but I have learnt since, that Pagan has been dead many a day; and as for the other, though he be yet alive, he is by reason of age, and also of the many shrewd brushes that he met with in his younger dayes, grown so crazy and stiff in his joynts, that he can now do little more than sit in his Caves mouth, grinning at Pilgrims as they go by, and biting his nails, because he cannot come at them.

When Christian and Faithful travel through Vanity Fair, Bunyan adds the editorial comment:But as in other fairs, some one Commodity is as the chief of all the fair, so the Ware of Rome and her Merchandize is greatly promoted in this fair: Only our English Nation, with some others, have taken a dislike thereat.

Musical settings and films
The book was the basis of an opera by Ralph Vaughan Williams, first performed in 1951. Vaughan Williams also wrote a short anthem "Valiant for Truth". The story has been made into films and used in video games.

Retellings
Because modern English has changed from Bunyan's day, many authors have provided their own versions of the story.

The Aussie Pilgrim's Progress by Kel Richards. Ballarat: Strand Publishing, 2005.
John Bunyan's Dream Story: the Pilgrim's Progress retold for children and adapted to school reading by James Baldwin. New York: American Book Co., 1913.
John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress as retold by Gary D. Schmidt & illustrated by Barry Moser Published by William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. 1994.
The Land of Far-Beyond by Enid Blyton. Methuen, 1942.
Little Pilgrim's Progress by Helen L. Taylor. This simplifies the vocabulary and concepts for younger readers, while keeping the story line intact. Published by Moody Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1993.
Pilgrim's Progress (graphic novel by Marvel Comics). Thomas Nelson, 1993.
The Pilgrim's Progress: a 21st Century re-telling of the John Bunyan Classic. Dry Ice Publishing
2008 directed by Danny Carrales.
The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan every child can read. Edited by Jesse Lyman Hurlbut. Philadelphia: John C. Winston 1909.
Pilgrim's Progress in today's English: as retold by James H. Thomas   Moody Publishers, 1971.
The Pilgrim's Progress in words of one syllable by Mary Godolphin. London: Routledge, 1869.
Pilgrim's Progress retold and shortened for modern readers by Mary Godolphin 1884. Drawings by Robert Lawson. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott  1939. [A newly illustrated edition of the retelling by Mary Godolphin]
 The New Amplified Pilgrim's Progress, as retold by James Pappas. Published by Orion's Gate 1999. A slightly expanded and highly dramatized version of John Bunyan's original. Large samples of the text are available at http://www.orionsgate.org
 Pilgrim's Progress, Creative Commons, Modern English Version, by Scott Clous, Part 1, 2014.   The first version freely released in Creative Commons

References

The Pilgrim's Progress from this World, to that which is to come. Penguin Books, edited with an introduction by Roger Sharrock, London 1965.

Other websites
 The Pilgrim's Progress (audio version)

17th-century books
English novels
1670s works
1680s works

The Pilgrim's Progress


Terry Allen Winograd (born February 24, 1946) is an American professor of computer science at Stanford University, and co-director of the Stanford Human–Computer Interaction Group. He is known within the philosophy of mind and artificial intelligence fields for his work on natural language using the SHRDLU program.

Education
Winograd grew up in Colorado and graduated from Colorado College in 1966. He wrote SHRDLU as a PhD thesis at MIT in the years from 1968–70. In making the program Winograd was concerned with the problem of providing a computer with sufficient "understanding" to be able to use natural language. Winograd built a blocks world, restricting the program's intellectual world to a simulated "world of toy blocks". The program could accept commands such as, "Find a block which is taller than the one you are holding and put it into the box" and carry out the requested action using a simulated block-moving  arm. The program could also respond verbally, for example, "I do not know which block you mean." The SHRDLU program can be viewed historically as one of the classic examples of how difficult it is for a programmer to build up a computer's semantic memory by hand and how limited or "brittle" such programs are.

Research
In 1973, Winograd moved to Stanford University and developed an AI-based framework for understanding natural language which was to give rise to a series of books. But only the first volume (Syntax) was ever published.  "What I came to realize is that the success of the communication depends on the real intelligence on the part of the listener, and that there are many other ways of communicating with a computer that can be more effective, given that it doesn't have the intelligence."

His approach shifted away from classical Artificial Intelligence after encountering the critique of cognitivism by Hubert Dreyfus and meeting  with the Chilean philosopher Fernando Flores. They  published a critical appraisal from a perspective based in phenomenology as Understanding Computers and Cognition: a new foundation for design in 1986. In the latter part of the 1980s, Winograd worked with Flores on an early form of groupware. Their approach was based on conversation-for-action analysis.

In the early 1980s, Winograd was a founding member and national president of Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility, a group of computer scientists concerned about nuclear weapons, SDI, and increasing participation by the U.S. Department of Defense in the field of computer science.

In general, Winograd's work at Stanford has focused on software design in a broader sense than software engineering. In 1991 he founded the "Project on People, Computers and Design" in order to promote teaching and research into software design. The book "Bringing Design to Software" describes some of this work. His thesis is that software design is a distinct activity from both analysis and programming, but it should be informed by both, as well as by design practices in other professions (textile design, industrial design, etc.).

Starting in 1995, Winograd served as adviser to Stanford PhD student Larry Page, who was working on a research project involving web search. In 1998, Page took a leave of absence from Stanford to co-found Google. In 2002, Winograd took a sabbatical from teaching and spent some time at Google as a visiting researcher. There, he studied the intersection of theory and practice of human–computer interaction.

Recently, Winograd has continued to research collaborative computing, including uses of ubiquitous computing in collaborative work.
Winograd continues to do research at Stanford and teach classes and seminars in human–computer interaction.  In addition to the Computer Science Dept., Winograd is associated with the Hasso Plattner Institute of Design at Stanford, also known as the "d.school", which he helped found.

Awards
He is a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (2009) and received the SIGCHI Lifetime Research Award in 2011.

Publications
Books by Terry Winograd
 1972. Understanding Natural Language Academic Press, New York.
 1982. Language As A Cognitive Process, Volume 1, Syntax Addison-Wesley.
 1986. Understanding Computers and Cognition: A New Foundation for Design (with Fernando Flores) Ablex Publ Corp.
 1992. Usability: Turning Technologies into Tools (with Paul S. Adler) Oxford University Press.
 1996. Bringing Design to Software  ACM Press.

See also
 Winograd schema challenge

References

External links

 Oral history interview with Terry Allen Winograd Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis—65-page interview describes his education, first in liberal arts at Colorado College and then in computer science and introduction to linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He discusses the work of Marvin Minsky and others in artificial intelligence. He describes his move to the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and his additional linguistic research at Xerox-PARC. Winograd compares the approach to artificial intelligence at MIT and Stanford. He describes his involvement with obtaining funding from the Information Processing Techniques Office of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.
 Stanford HCI Group
 Terry Winograd's faculty page
 Interviewed by Morten Thanning Vendelø
 Siri, Who is Terry Winograd, a 2017 strategy+business magazine "creative mind" profile of Winograd's remarkably fruitful 40-year career as a pioneer of the fraught and vital labor of human–computer interaction.

1946 births
Living people
Artificial intelligence researchers
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
American cognitive scientists
Colorado College alumni
Jewish scientists
20th-century American Jews
Human–computer interaction researchers
Google employees
Stanford University School of Engineering faculty
Communication theorists
American computer scientists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
People from Takoma Park, Maryland
21st-century American Jews

Terry Winograd


Whelk is a word used for some marine gastropods. They are found in temperate and tropical waters, and are used by humans as food. The name is properly used for the family Buccinidae, sometimes called the "true whelks".

Use of the term
Whelk is a common name, and used for gastropods of various families.
 In the British Isles and the Netherlands, where the word whelk probably originated, the word "whelk" is used for some species in the family Buccinidae.  Buccinum undatum, from European and the North Atlantic, is the typical species.

 In North America whelk refers to several large edible species in the genera Busycon and Busycotypus in the family Melongenidae. These are sometimes called Busycon whelks. In the United States, the invasive Murex Rapana venosa is referred to as the Veined rapa whelk or Asian rapa whelk.

 In the English-speaking islands of the West Indies, the word whelks or wilks  is both singular and plural. It is used for a large edible top shell, Cittarium pica, also known as the magpie or West Indian top shell.

 In Australia and New Zealand, species of the genus Cabestana are called predatory whelks.

Life of a whelk
True whelks are carnivores and scavengers. They feed on clams, carrion, and sometimes even on detritus. Their sense of smell is very well-developed; they can sense chemical signals from their prey from a considerable distance. Many whelks can bore through the shell of bivalves. Because of this, they can cause harm in oyster farms. Whelks can even attack fish caught in a net by extending their probosces to  twice the length of their own bodies.

References

 Hayashi S. (2005). "The molecular phylogeny of the Buccinidae (Caenogastropoda: Neogastropoda) as inferred from the complete mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene sequences of selected representatives". Molluscan Research 25(2): 85-98. abstract PDF

Gastropods

Whelk


A species is called indigenous or native to a place when that species lives there because of the natural environment, not human change. A species is an indigen if it lives in the wild and has not had artificial selection by humans.

If a species is in a place because it was moved by humans, the species is not indigenous to that place. It is an introduced species.

Related pages
Endemism

Ecology

Native (ecology)


The Parc des Buttes Chaumont () is a public park situated in northeastern Paris, France, in the 19th arrondissement. Occupying  , it is the fifth-largest park in Paris, after the Bois de Vincennes, Bois de Boulogne, Parc de la Villette and Tuileries Garden.

Opened in 1867, late in the regime of Napoleon III, it was built according to plans by Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, who created all the major parks demanded by the Emperor.  The park has  of roads and  of paths. The most famous feature of the park is the Temple de la Sibylle, inspired by the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy, and perched at the top of a cliff fifty metres above the waters of the artificial lake.

History

The park took its name from the bleak hill which occupied the site, which, because of the chemical composition of its soil, was almost bare of vegetation – it was called Chauve-mont, or bare hill. The area, just outside the limits of Paris until the mid-19th century,  had a sinister reputation; it was the site of the Gibbet of Montfaucon, the notorious place where from the 13th century until 1760, the bodies of hanged criminals were displayed after their executions.  After the 1789 Revolution, it became a refuse dump, and then a place for cutting up horse carcasses and a depository for sewage. The director of public works of Paris and builder of the Park, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, reported that "the site spread infectious emanations not only to the neighboring areas, but, following the direction of the wind, over the entire city."

Another part of the site was a former gypsum and limestone quarry mined for the construction of buildings in Paris and in the United States. This raw material was used for a long time to produce plaster and lime. In order to make lime, gypsum was heated in furnaces. This activity was maintained until the second half of the 19th century. By the end of the 1850s, the quarry was exhausted. That quarry also yielded Eocene mammal fossils, including Palaeotherium, which were studied by Georges Cuvier. This not-very-promising site was chosen by Baron Haussmann, the Prefet of Paris,  for the site of a new public park for the recreation and pleasure of the rapidly growing population of the new 19th and 20th arrondissements of Paris, which had been annexed to the city in 1860.

The work on the park began in 1864, under the direction of Alphand, who used all the experience and lessons he had learned in making the Bois de Boulogne and the Bois de Vincennes. Two years were required simply to terrace the land. Then a railroad track was laid to bring in cars carrying two hundred thousand cubic meters of topsoil. A thousand workers remade the landscape,  digging a lake and shaping the lawns and hillsides. Explosives were used to sculpt the buttes themselves and the former quarry into a picturesque mountain fifty meters high with cliffs, an interior grotto, pinnacles and arches. Hydraulic pumps were installed to lift the water from the canal of the Ourcq River up the highest point on the promontory, to create a dramatic waterfall.

The chief gardener of Paris, horticulturist Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, then went to work, planting thousands of trees, shrubs and flowers, along with creating sloping lawns. At the same time, the city's chief architect, Gabriel Davioud, designed the miniature Roman temple on the top of the promontory, modeled after that at Tivoli near Rome, as well as belvederes, restaurants modeled after Swiss chalets, and gatehouses like rustic cottages, completing the imaginary landscape. The park opened on 1 April 1867, coinciding with the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition.

Features of the park

The lake and the Île du Belvédère
The heart of the park is an artificial lake of  surrounding the Île de la Belvédère, a rocky island with steep cliffs made from the old gypsum quarry.  On the top is the Temple de la Sibylle, fifty meters above the lake.  The island is connected by two bridges with the rest of the park. the island is surrounded by paths, and a steep stairway of 173 steps leads from the top of the belvedere down through the grotto to the edge of the lake.

The Temple de la Sibylle
The most famous feature of the park is the Temple de la Sibylle, a miniature version of the famous ancient Roman Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy.  The original temple was the subject of many romantic landscape paintings from the 17th to the 19th century, and inspired similar architectural follies in the English landscape garden of the 18th century. The temple was designed by Gabriel Davioud, the city architect for Paris, who designed picturesque monuments for the Bois de Boulogne, Bois de Vincennes, Parc Monceau, and other city parks.  He also designed some of the most famous fountains of Paris, including the Fontaine Saint-Michel. The temple was finished in 1867.

The grotto and waterfalls
The grotto is a vestige of the old gypsum and limestone quarry that occupied part of the site, now adjacent to rue Botzaris on the south side of the park.  It is fourteen meters wide and twenty meters high, and has been sculpted and decorated with artificial stalactites as long as eight meters to make it resemble a natural grotto, in the style of the romantic English landscape garden of the 18th and 19th century.  An artificial waterfall, fed by pumps, cascades from the top of the cave and down through the grotto to the lake.

The bridges

A 63-meter-long suspension bridge, eight meters above the lake,  allows access to the belvedere. The bridge was designed by Gustave Eiffel, the creator of the Eiffel Tower.

A  masonry bridge,  above the lake, known as the "suicide bridge", allows access to the belvedere from the south side of the park.  After a series of well-publicized suicides, the bridge is now fenced with wire mesh.

Architecture
Most of the architecture of the park, from the Temple de la Sibylle, the cafes, and gatehouses to the fences and rain shelters, was designed by Gabriel Davioud, chief architect for the city of Paris. He created a picturesque, rustic style for the parks of Paris, sometimes inspired by ancient Rome, sometimes by the chalets and bridges of the Swiss Alps.

The main entrance to the park is at Place Armand-Carrel, where stands the mairie (town hall) of the 19th arrondissement, also designed by Davioud. There are five other large gates to the park — Porte Bolivar, Porte de la Villette, Porte Secrétan, Porte de Crimée, and Porte Fessart — and seven smaller gates.

As of 2019, the park hosts three restaurants (Pavillon du Lac, Pavillon Puebla, and Rosa Bonheur), two reception halls, two Guignol theatres, and two waffle stands. The two Guignol theatres were established in 1892.

The park has four Wi-Fi zones as part of a citywide wireless Internet-access plan.

Flora

The park was envisioned by Napoleon III as a garden showcase, a vision that continue to guide the park's direction. Currently, there are more than 47 species of plants, trees, and shrubs cultivated in the park.  Many of the plants and trees found in the park were those originally planted when the park was created.

The park boasts many varieties of indigenous and exotic trees (many of which are Asian species): in particular, several cedars of Lebanon planted in 1880, Himalayan cedars, Ginkgo Biloba, Byzantine hazelnuts, Siberian elms, European hollies, and bamboo-leafed prickly ashes, among many others.

Tree species found in the park include:

 Oriental Plane
 Hackberry
 Ornamental Pears
 Ginkgos
 Common Alder
 European Beech
 Giant Sequoia
 European Black Pine
 Large-leaved Linden
 Tulip Tree

Metro stations

The Parc des Buttes Chaumont is served by Lines 5 and 7bis

Culture
In September, the park hosts Paris's annual Silhouette Short Film Festival. The Silhouette Festival features seven days of French and international short films, followed by an awards ceremony.

In 2008, a modern version of the traditional Guinguette, Rosa Bonheur, was established inside the park.  This unique restaurant and dance venue is government-sponsored by the Mairie of the 19th arrondissement.

Eric Rohmer shot parts of his movie The Aviator's Wife in the park.

References

Hedi Slimane (2002). Interview for Index Magazine.

Notes and citations

External links

Paris Office of Tourism: Parc des Buttes Chaumont
Les Parc des Buttes Chaumont – current photographs and of the years 1900
High Resolution Travel Photographs of Parc des Buttes Chaumont – current high resolution photographs
Theatre Guignol Anatole official site
Le Guignol de Paris
Parc des Buttes Chaumont
Rosa Bonheur – website of the restaurant in the park

19th arrondissement of Paris
Buttes Chaumont, Parc des

Parc des Buttes Chaumont


The rail bus train can be found in many different countries, they are known as the pacer or the cooker trains in the United Kingdom due to the loud noises and how hot the air was in the trains.

They were made to respond to the outcry for more trains than buses, while saving money with a cheap design. They used the bodywork and engine of a bus and placed them on a train chassis.

Trains

Railbus


The Jewish Resistance Movement (, Tnu'at HaMeri HaIvri, literally Hebrew Rebellion Movement), also called the United Resistance Movement (URM), was an alliance of the Zionist paramilitary organizations Haganah, Irgun and Lehi in the British Mandate of Palestine. It was established in October 1945 by the Jewish Agency and operated for some ten months, until August 1946. The alliance coordinated acts of sabotage to undermine the British authority in Mandatory Palestine.

The Zionist Movement had high hopes for the Labour administration elected in Britain after the Second World War. The latter, however, continued to apply the policies laid down in the White Paper of 1939 which included restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine.

Negotiations began for the formation of the movement in August 1945 at the behest of Haganah leaders Moshe Sneh and Israel Galili. At the end of October of the same year, an agreement was signed forming the "Jewish Resistance Movement". The leadership of the new movement included four representatives: Two from the Haganah (Sneh and Galili), a representative of the Irgun (Menachem Begin) and a representative of Lehi (Nathan Yellin Mor).

In order to coordinate the activities of the groups, a civilian committee known as "Committee X" was made up of six members, representatives of the various political stream, (including Levi Eshkol). The operations board, who approved operations plans, was made up of Yitzhak Sadeh (of the Palmach), Eitan Livni (of the Irgun) and Yaakov Eliav (1917–1985) (of the Lehi).

During the movement's existence, eleven major operations were carried out, eight of them by the Palmach and Haganah, and three by the Irgun and Lehi, as well as many smaller operations. Notable among these were:
 The release of 200 members of Aliyah Bet from the detention camp in Atlit
 The bombing of railroads and train stations on the Night of the Trains
 The bombing of dozens of bridges around the country in the Night of the Bridges
 Attacks on British police stations
 Bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, where 91 people were killed, including 28 British citizens, 41 Palestinian Arabs, 17 Palestinian Jews, two Armenians, a Russian, an Egyptian, and a Greek.

In August 1946, in the wake of the King David Hotel bombing, Chaim Weizmann, president of the World Zionist Organization appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision on the issue had been reached by the Jewish Agency. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the Irgun and the Lehi.  The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.

References

Zionist organizations
National liberation movements
Resistance movements
Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine

Jewish Resistance Movement


An escort agency is a company that provides escorts for clients, usually for sexual services. Individual girls who provide this kind of service are known as call girls. The practice is close to being prostitution.

There are escort agencies which provide escorts for occasions or for a visit to an event. This is a more legitimate service. Such agencies provide security, especially for females attending an event.

References

Sex industry
Security

Escort agency


Horace Davis (March 16, 1831 – July 12, 1916) was a United States representative from California. He was the son of Massachusetts Governor John Davis and the younger brother of diplomat John Chandler Bancroft Davis.

Biography
Davis was born in Worcester, Massachusetts. He attended the Worcester public schools and Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, graduated from Harvard University in 1849, and then studied law in the Dane Law School of Harvard University, but did not engage in professional pursuits by reason of failing eyesight.

Davis sailed for San Francisco, California, around Cape Horn in 1852, and upon arriving, engaged for a brief time as a gold miner, a lumber supercargo surveyor for a coastal steamer, and a purser for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. In addition he helped found the Mercantile Library Association of California (its oldest public library). Under his administrative   tutelage interest in the library was restored with his creation of a library catalog (an act which later led to his poor eyesight). He resigned in 1855 and  relocated to San Francisco in 1860 at which time he established the highly successful Golden Gate Flouring Mills and the Sperry Flour Company. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1862. When the American Civil War broke out, he served in the secretive San Francisco-based Home Guard acting to secure both the loyalty of California to then Union President Abraham Lincoln and the election of Leland Stanford as governor of California (by patrolling the polls on election day). He presided over the Produce Exchange of San Francisco from 1867 to 1877 until he was elected as a Republican to the United States House of Representatives of the Forty-fifth and Forty-sixth Congresses (March 4, 1877 - March 3, 1881), where on June 8, 1878, he spoke in support of a bill  to restrict Chinese immigration. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1880 to the Forty-seventh Congress.

After his retirement from the Produce Exchange of San Francisco he presided over both the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce 1883-1884 and the Savings and Loan Society 1885 and served as a member of the Republican National Committee 1880–1888. In February, 1888 he was elected president of the University of California, but resigned in April, 1890. He was named president of the board of trustees of Stanford University by its original founder and served in this capacity from 1885 to 1916 where he effected its consolidation with the Wilmerding and Lux schools. He served as president of the University of California 1887–1890.

Married twice and a devout Unitarian, he contributed greatly to Starr King School for the Ministry, (formerly the Pacific Unitarian School for the Ministry). He was an active student of history and literature, his most noted work being an essay entitled American Constitutions. He died after an appendicitis operation in San Francisco in 1916 and was buried in Cypress Lawn Cemetery.

See also
Davis political family

References

Johnson, Allen; Malone, Dumas. Dictionary of American Biography. vol. III. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, N.Y. 1959.

External links

1831 births
1916 deaths
1906 San Francisco earthquake
American librarians
American Unitarians
Harvard Law School alumni
Politicians from San Francisco
Politicians from Worcester, Massachusetts
People of California in the American Civil War
University of California, Berkeley faculty
University of California regents
Leaders of the University of California, Berkeley
Williams College alumni
Gardiner family
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
19th-century American politicians
Stanford University trustees
Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park

Horace Davis


Aliu Babatunde Fafunwa (23 September 1923 – 11 October 2010). He was the first Nigerian Professor of Education. He was a Nigerian Educationist, Scholar and Former Minister for Education. As Minister, he was in charge of the biggest school system in Africa. He is known for his early writings on the need to re-appraise the inherited colonial epistemological system in Nigeria and to introduce relevant cultural goals, subjects and local languages into the system, in order to accommodate the developmental and cultural pattern of the country. He is also a notable authority on the History of Educational Planning in Nigeria.

Early life and education
Born on September 23, 1923, in Isale Eko, Lagos, Fafunwa had his secondary education at the CMS Grammar School, Lagos between 1937 and 1943. He obtained a B.Sc. (Magna Cum Laude) in Social Science and English from Bethune Cookman College (now Bethune-Cookman University, Florida, United States in 1950 and had his M.A (Cum Laude) in Administration and Higher Education in 1955. He earned a Ph.D. in education from New York University in 1958, becoming the first Nigerian recipient of a doctoral degree in education. He was a co-founder of the Muslim Students Society of Nigeria.

Career
He started his career in 1961 at the University of Nigeria (UNN), Nsukka. During the Nigerian civil war, he left the east and moved to Ife, and taught at the Obafemi Awolowo University.

He became a professor of education in 1966 and held the position of Dean, Faculty and Head, Department of Education at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, UNN. Due to his brilliance and hard work, he rose to the position of Acting Vice Chancellor at both UNN and University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University). He was also Pro-Chancellor and Chairman of Governing Council, University of Calabar. He was at several times, President, Association of Teachers Education in Africa, Director, International Council on Education for Teaching, Washington D C. He retired from active teaching service in 1978 to start the first tutorial college in Nigeria in 1982. During his time as Minister of Education between 1990 and 1992, he oversaw the establishment of the Nigeria French Language Village as an inter-university centre for French studies in Nigeria.

While at Nsukka, in collaboration with his colleagues at the education department, the department drafted a proposal to admit grade II teachers into a new two year degree program at the Faculty of Education. The proposal was subsequently adopted and in a few years led to the emergence of the Nigerian Certificate of Education  and further broadened the acceptance of Colleges of Education in the university system; today a lot of the colleges are affiliated with universities. He also continued an innovative tradition, already in existence at Nsukka, when he began to implement a curriculum for granting a bachelor's degree in education, the first faculty in the country to do so. A process which will further expand the career potential of many teachers.

In 1977, a long time proposal of his to incorporate native languages into pedagogy was finally accepted. Today, most Nigerians learn at least one Nigerian language. Fafunwa and a few other African educationists, had argued that embracing whole heartedly without evaluation foreign systems of education and epistemology, can create the potential for epistemological dis-orientation. Introducing, cultural objectives and environmental familiarity will provide a continuity and balance into the educational advancement of a child and his place in his community.

Babs Fafunwa died in the early hours of 11 October 2010, at a hospital in Abuja, the Nigerian Federal Capital Territory and was buried in Lagos.

Selected works
A History of Nigerian Higher Education, Macmillan.
History of Education in Nigeria, 1970.
New Perspectives in African Education, 1967
Education in Mother Tongue: The Ife Primary Education Research Project, 1970-1978 (Editor)
Up and On: A Nigerian Teacher's Odyssey, 1991.
Memoirs of a Nigerian Minister of Education, Macmillan (Nigeria), 1998.
Sense and non-sense in Nigerian Education, 1998

References

Further reading
 Aliu Babatunde Fafunwa
 Aliu Babatunde Fafunwa's Philosophy of Education
 Child education in Nigeria: Hindrances and legal solutions
 Teachers and Teaching in Africa

1923 births
2010 deaths
Educators from Lagos
Academic staff of the University of Nigeria
Academic staff of Obafemi Awolowo University
Education ministers of Nigeria
CMS Grammar School, Lagos alumni
Bethune–Cookman University alumni
Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development alumni
Burials in Lagos State
University of Calabar people
20th-century Nigerian educators

Babs Fafunwa


The Book of Amos is one of the books of the Nevi'im (Hebrew: "prophets") and of the Christian Old Testament. Amos is one of the minor prophets.

Amos lived during the time of two other prophets,Hosea and Isaiah, around 750 BC while Jeroboam was king of Israel and Uzziah was king of Judah. Amos lived in the kingdom of Judah but preached in the northern Kingdom of Israel. He wrote about social justice, God's power, judgement and eventual restoration. The message is harsh, but Amos wrote some of the most poetic parts of the Bible.

The book has 9 chapters. In the first chapter Amos says that God will punish many of the nations around Israel. Then in the second chapter he uses similar words to say the Judah and Israel will also be punished. The rest of the book tells the reasons for that punishment before ending with a promise that Israel would then be restored.

There are some well known verses in the book of Amos that religious leaders and people who work for justice have used in speeches about modern problems such as racism.

Chapter 5 verse 24, "But let judgment run down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream." This verse was often quoted by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr..

Chapter 6 verse 1, "Woe to you who are at ease in Zion,(Jerusalem)." This is a warning to those who think they are safe from God's judgement because things are going well at the present.

Books of the Hebrew Bible
Old Testament books
8th-century BC books

Book of Amos


The Compagnie van Verre (meanings "long-distance company") was one of the forerunner companies that were later merged (united) into the Dutch East India Company.

History
It was set up in 1594 by nine citizens of Amsterdam, to break Portugal's monopoly on the pepper trade.  To do this, it sent an expedition of three heavily armed ships and a pinnace under the leadership of Cornelis de Houtman, with orders to break into the trade.  (Cornelis' brother Frederik also worked for the company.) On 2 April 1595 the ships set off from Texel, with 248 officers and men on board.  The expedition (which became known as the Eerste schipvaart) followed the routes described by Jan Huygen van Linschoten after he had made the journey in the pay of the Portuguese.  On 6 June 1596 the ships arrived at Bantam, the most important pepper port on Java.  During the return trip, on 11 January 1597, the Amsterdam was badly damaged and had to be left behind at the island of Bawean.  On 14 August 1597 the expedition arrived back in Amsterdam with only 87 survivors.  The voyage was not a success commercially, but it proved that not only the Portuguese had the potential to trade in pepper.

In 1598 the Compagnie van Verre merged with the Nieuwe Compagnie and in 1597 with the Oude Compagnie.  The resulting company then merged with the Nieuwe Brabantsche Compagnie in 1601 to form the Verenigde Amsterdamse Compagnie, which in turn merged with many other companies (including the Verenigde Zeeuwse Compagnie) in 1602 into the Dutch East India Company (VOC), retaining a room in the VOC's chambers in Amsterdam.

16th century in Amsterdam
History of the Dutch East India Company
1594 establishments in Europe
1598 disestablishments in Europe
1598 mergers and acquisitions
Pepper trade
Companies of the Dutch Republic

Compagnie van Verre