Yang Lihua (; 561–609) was an empress of the Xianbei-led Chinese Northern Zhou dynasty, and later a princess of Sui dynasty. Her husband was Emperor Xuan of Northern Zhou (Yuwen Yun), and her father was Yang Jian who later usurped the Northern Zhou throne to become the Emperor Wen of Sui.

Background
Yang Lihua was born in 561, as the oldest daughter of Yang Jian, then the heir apparent to Yang Zhong (楊忠) the Duke of Sui, and Yang Jian's wife Dugu Qieluo.  In 568, her grandfather Yang Zhong died, and her father Yang Jian inherited the title of Duke of Sui.

In fall 573, Emperor Wu arranged her to be the wife of Yuwen Yun, then his crown prince, and she thereafter carried the title of crown princess.  He was 14 and she was 12.  In summer 578, Emperor Wu died, and Yuwen Yun took the throne (as Emperor Xuan).  He created her empress. They had one daughter, Yuwen Eying (宇文娥英), although Yuwen Eying's birth year is not clear.

As Empress of Zhou
Emperor Xuan was excessive and erratic in his behavior, and less than a year after taking the throne, in spring 579, he formally passed the throne to his son Yuwen Chan (as Emperor Jing), born of his concubine Consort Zhu Manyue.  He took an atypical title for a retired emperor -- "Emperor Tianyuan" (天元皇帝, Tianyuan Huangdi).  She thereafter took the title of "Empress Tianyuan" (天元皇后, Tianyuan Huanghou).  However, as part of his unusual behavior, he soon decided that he would create four empresses, so he created three of his concubines—Consort Zhu, Consort Chen Yueyi, and Consort Yuan Leshang—empress titles as well, but different from Empress Yang's to distinguish them.  (Empress Zhu was Tianyuan Di Hou (天元帝后); Empress Chen was Tian Zhuo Huanghou (天左皇后); and Empress Yuan was Tian You Huanghou (天右皇后).)  However, Empress Yang continued to be recognized as the most honored among his empresses.  (He later added one more empress, Empress Yuchi Chifan.)  In spring 580, he added Da (大, "great") to the empresses' titles, and therefore Empress Yang's title was changed to Tianyuan Da Huanghou (天元大皇后).

It was said that Empress Yang was meek and not jealous, and that she was loved and respected by the other four empresses and the other imperial consorts.  As Emperor Xuan grew increasingly erratic and violent, on one occasion, he got angry at Empress Yang and wanted to punish her.  When he summoned her, however, she was relaxed but firm in her defense of herself, which angered him more, and he ordered her to commit suicide.  When her mother Lady Dugu heard of this, she rushed to the palace and prostrated herself, begging Emperor Xuan for mercy.  His anger dissipated, and he pardoned Empress Yang.

Emperor Xuan fell suddenly ill in summer 580, and Yang Jian entered the palace to attend to him.  Emperor Xuan died without being able to leave instructions, and his close associate Zheng Yi (鄭譯), a friend of Yang Jian's, issued an edict in Emperor Xuan's name appointing Yang Jian regent.  Empresses Yang and Zhu were honored as dowager empresses, with Empress Yang taking the primary title of Huang Taihou (皇太后).  She was initially happy to hear that her father had become regent, but became apprehensive and displeased at her father when she sensed that he had designs on the throne, although she made no overt attempts to stop him.  After defeating the generals Yuchi Jiong (Empress Yuchi's grandfather) and Sima Xiaonan (司馬消難) later in 580 after they had risen against him, Yang Jian seized the throne from Emperor Jing in spring 581, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty as its Emperor Wen.  Emperor Wen created Emperor Jing the Duke of Jie, and while it was unclear what Empress Dowager Yang's title was at this point, it was likely she carried the title of Duchess Dowager of Jie.  Emperor Wen soon slaughtered Emperor Jing and the other members of Northern Zhou's imperial Yuwen clan.

As Princess Leping of Sui

In 586, Emperor Wen changed the former Empress Yang's title to Princess Leping.  She was, however, resentful of her father's usurpation, and often expressed her anger and grief.  Emperor Wen tried to get her to remarry, but she refused.  Later, she selected, for her daughter Yuwen Eying's husband, Li Min (李敏) the Duke of Guangzong—who was raised in the palace on account of his father, the general Li Chong (李崇), having died in battle against Tujue in 583.  When the wedding occurred, Emperor Wen authorized that the ceremony be as grand as if a princess were to be married.  When Emperor Wen subsequently summoned Li Min, intending to give him a mid-level official position, the Princess Leping advised him to not thank the emperor until and unless the emperor bestowed him the high rank of Zhuguo (柱國) (second rank, first division, under Sui's nine-rank system).  When Emperor Wen initially stated that he was going to give him the rank of Yitong (fourth rank, first division), Li therefore said nothing.  Emperor Wen then mentioned Kaifu (開府, third rank, second division), and Li still said nothing.  Emperor Wen finally said, "The Princess has achieved so much for me.  How can I be stingy as to her son-in-law?  I will make you a Zhuguo."  Only then did Li bow and thank the emperor.

Emperor Wen died in 604, and was succeeded by Yang Lihua's brother Yang Guang (as Emperor Yang).  The princess often attended to her brother, but on one occasion became a source of friction between him and his son Yang Jian (note different character than his grandfather) the Prince of Qi, as once she told Emperor Yang that a daughter of the Liu clan was beautiful, but Emperor Yang initially took no action.  She then offered the woman to Yang Jian, who took her as a concubine.  When Emperor Yang subsequently asked her about Lady Yang, she stated that she had already given her to Yang Jian, which brought displeasure to Emperor Yang.

In 609, while accompanying Emperor Yang on a visit to Zhangye, Yang Lihua grew ill, and she asked Emperor Yang to transfer her fief (five times the size of a usual ducal fief) to Li, stating that she was concerned for her daughter and therefore wanted her son-in-law to have her fief.  Emperor Yang agreed, and did so after she died. However, in 615, when Emperor Yang became suspicious of Li Min over popular rumors that the next emperor would be from the Li clan, he had his associate Yuwen Shu investigate the matter.  Yuwen Shu persuaded Yuwen Eying that Li Min and his uncle Li Hun (李渾) (who had previously offended Yuwen Shu by refusing to pay Yuwen Shu a bribe that he had promised) were beyond help, and that she needed to save herself—and therefore got her to submit a confession stating that members of the Li clan were planning a coup to support Li Min as emperor.  When Emperor Yang saw the confession, he believed the truth thereof, and he executed Li Hun, Li Min, and 30 other members of their clan.  Several months later, Yuwen Eying was also poisoned to death.

Ancestry

References

Northern Zhou empresses
Chinese princesses
Sui dynasty people
561 births
609 deaths
7th-century Chinese women
7th-century Chinese people
6th-century Chinese women
6th-century Chinese people

Yang Lihua


"The Adventures of Phoebe Zeit-Geist" was an American comics series, written by Michael O'Donoghue and drawn by Frank Springer. From January 1965, it was serialized in the magazine Evergreen Review, and later published in book form as a Grove Press hardcover in 1968 and trade paperback in 1969. It was reissued as a trade paperback in 1986 (Ken Pierce Books, , ).

Plot
The comic detailed the adventures of debutante Phoebe Zeit-Geist as she was variously kidnapped and rescued by a series of bizarre characters, such as Nazis, Chinese foot fetishists, and lesbian assassins.

Impact

Doonesbury comic-strip creator Garry Trudeau cited the strip as an early inspiration, saying, "[A] very heavy influence was a serial in the Sixties called 'Phoebe Zeitgeist' ... It was an absolutely brilliant, deadpan send-up of adventure comics, but with a very edgy modernist kind of approach. To this day, I hold virtually every panel in my brain. It's very hard not to steal from it."

References

American comic strips
Adult comic strips
Erotic comics
Satirical comics
1965 comics debuts
1968 comics endings
American comics characters
Science fiction comics
Comics about women
Works originally published in American magazines
Works originally published in literary magazines
Works by Michael O'Donoghue
Works originally published in Evergreen Review
Debutantes

The Adventures of Phoebe Zeit-Geist


Sister Rosetta Tharpe (born Rosetta Nubin, March 20, 1915 – October 9, 1973) was an American singer, songwriter and guitarist. She gained popularity in the 1930s and 1940s with her gospel recordings, characterized by a unique mixture of spiritual lyrics and electric guitar. She was the first great recording star of gospel music, and was among the first gospel musicians to appeal to rhythm and blues and rock and roll audiences, later being referred to as "the original soul sister" and "the Godmother of rock and roll". She influenced early rock-and-roll musicians including Little Richard, Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins, Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Eric Clapton.

Tharpe was a pioneer in her guitar technique; she was among the first popular recording artists to use heavy distortion on her electric guitar, opening the way to the rise of electric blues. Her guitar-playing technique had a profound influence on the development of British blues in the 1960s. Her European tour with Muddy Waters in 1964, with a stop in Manchester on May 7, is cited by British guitarists such as Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, and Keith Richards.

Willing to cross the line between sacred and secular by performing her music of "light" in the "darkness" of nightclubs and concert halls with big bands behind her, Tharpe pushed spiritual music into the mainstream and helped pioneer the rise of pop-gospel, beginning in 1938 with the recording "Rock Me" and with her 1939 hit "This Train". Her unique music left a lasting mark on more conventional gospel artists such as Ira Tucker Sr., of the Dixie Hummingbirds. While controversial among conservative religious groups due to her forays into the pop world, she never left gospel music.

Tharpe's 1944 release "Down by the Riverside" was selected for the National Recording Registry of the U.S. Library of Congress in 2004, which noted that it "captures her spirited guitar playing and unique vocal style, demonstrating clearly her influence on early rhythm-and-blues performers" and cited her influence on "many gospel, jazz, and rock artists". ("Down by the Riverside" was recorded by Tharpe on December 2, 1948, in New York City, and issued as Decca single 48106). Her 1945 hit "Strange Things Happening Every Day", recorded in late 1944, featured Tharpe's vocals and resonator guitar, with Sammy Price (piano), bass and drums. It was the first gospel record to cross over, hitting no. 2 on the Billboard "race records" chart, the term then used for what later became the R&B chart, in April 1945. The recording has been cited as a precursor of rock and roll, and alternatively has been called the first rock and roll record. In May 2018, Tharpe was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an Early Influence.

Childhood
Tharpe was born on March 20, 1915, as Rosetta Nubin in Cotton Plant, Arkansas, to Katie Bell Nubin and Willis Atkins, who were cotton pickers. However, researchers Bob Eagle and Eric LeBlanc give her birth name as Rosether Atkins (or Atkinson), her mother's name being Katie Harper. Little is known of her father except that he was a singer. Tharpe's mother Katie was also a singer and a mandolin player, deaconess-missionary, and women's speaker for the Church of God in Christ (COGIC), which was founded in 1897 by Charles Harrison Mason, a black Pentecostal bishop, who encouraged rhythmic musical expression, dancing in praise and allowing women to sing and teach in church. Encouraged by her mother, Tharpe began singing and playing the guitar as Little Rosetta Nubin at the age of six and was cited as a musical prodigy.

About 1921, at age six, Tharpe had joined her mother as a regular performer in a traveling evangelical troupe. Billed as a "singing and guitar playing miracle", she accompanied her mother in performances that were part sermon and part gospel concert before audiences across the American South. In the mid-1920s, Tharpe and her mother settled in Chicago, Illinois, where they performed religious concerts at the Roberts Temple COGIC on 40th Street, occasionally traveling to perform at church conventions throughout the country. Tharpe developed considerable fame as a musical prodigy, standing out in an era when prominent black female guitarists were rare. In 1934, at age 19, she married Thomas Thorpe, a COGIC preacher, who accompanied her and her mother on many of their tours. The marriage lasted only a few years, but she decided to adopt a version of her husband's surname as her stage name, Sister Rosetta Tharpe. In 1938, she left her husband and moved with her mother to New York City. Although she married several times, she performed as Rosetta Tharpe for the rest of her life.

Career

Early career
On October 31, 1938, aged 23, Tharpe recorded for the first time – four sides for Decca Records. The first gospel songs recorded by Decca, "Rock Me", "That's All", "My Man and I" and "The Lonesome Road", were instant hits, establishing Tharpe as an overnight sensation and one of the first commercially successful gospel recording artists. "Rock Me" influenced many rock-and-roll singers, such as Elvis Presley, Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis. In 1942, the music critic Maurie Orodenker, describing Tharpe's "Rock Me", wrote "It's Sister Rosetta Tharpe for the rock & roll spiritual singing."

She had signed a ten-year contract with Lucky Millinder.  Her records caused an immediate furor: many churchgoers were shocked by the mixture of gospel-based lyrics and secular-sounding music, but secular audiences loved them. Tharpe played on several occasions with the white singing group the Jordanaires.

Tharpe's appearances with Cab Calloway at Harlem's Cotton Club in October 1938 and in John Hammond's "Spirituals to Swing" concert at Carnegie Hall on December 23, 1938, gained her more fame, along with notoriety. Performing gospel music for secular nightclub audiences and alongside blues and jazz musicians and dancers was unusual, and in conservative religious circles a woman playing the guitar in such settings was frowned upon.  Tharpe fell out of favor with segments of the gospel community.

By 1943 she considered rebuilding a strictly gospel act, but she was contractually required to perform more worldly material. Her nightclub performances, in which she would sometimes sing gospel songs amid scantily clad showgirls, caused her to be shunned by some in the gospel community.

During this time masculinity was directly linked to guitar skills. Tharpe was often offered the intended compliment that she could "play like a man", demonstrating her skills at guitar battles at the Apollo.

Tharpe continued recording during World War II, one of only two gospel artists able to record V-discs for troops overseas.

Her song "Strange Things Happening Every Day", recorded in 1944 with Sammy Price, Decca's house boogie woogie pianist, showcased her virtuosity as a guitarist and her witty lyrics and delivery. It was the first gospel song to appear on the Billboard magazine Harlem Hit Parade. This 1944 record has been called the first rock and roll record. Tharpe toured throughout the 1940s, backed by various gospel quartets, including the Dixie Hummingbirds.

In 1946, Tharpe saw Marie Knight perform at a Mahalia Jackson concert in New York. Tharpe recognized a special talent in Knight.  Two weeks later, Tharpe showed up at Knight's doorstep, inviting her to go on the road. They toured the gospel circuit for a number of years, during which they recorded hits such as "Up Above My Head" and "Gospel Train".

Later career

Starting in 1949, their popularity took a sudden downturn. Mahalia Jackson was starting to eclipse Tharpe in popularity, and Knight harbored a desire to break free as a solo act into popular music. Furthermore, around this time, Knight lost her children and mother in a house fire. That same year, to commemorate Tharpe's first anniversary of being a homeowner in Richmond, Virginia, Tharpe put on a concert at what is now the Altria Theater. Supporting her for that concert were the Twilight Singers, whom Rosetta adopted as her background singers for future concerts, renaming them The Rosettes.

Tharpe attracted 25,000 paying customers to her wedding to her manager, Russell Morrison (her third marriage), followed by a vocal performance at Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C., in 1951. In 1952, Tharpe and Red Foley recorded the B-side "Have a Little Talk with Jesus", which is likely the first interracial duet recorded in the US. It was not until 1968 that Billy Vera and Judy Clay had a hit with an interracial duet, "Storybook Children".

In 1956, Tharpe recorded an album with the gospel quartet The Harmonizing Four, titled Gospel Train.  In 1957, Tharpe was booked for a month-long tour of the UK by British trombonist Chris Barber.

1964 European tour

In April and May 1964, Tharpe toured Europe as part of the Blues and Gospel Caravan, alongside Muddy Waters and Otis Spann, Ransom Knowling and Little Willie Smith, Reverend Gary Davis, Cousin Joe, Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee. Tharpe was introduced on stage and accompanied on piano by Cousin Joe Pleasant.  Under the auspices of George Wein, the Caravan was stage-managed by Joe Boyd.  A concert, in the rain, was recorded by Granada Television at the disused railway station at Wilbraham Road, Manchester, in May 1964. The band performed on one platform while the audience was seated on the opposite platform. Notable concert attendees were Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Keith Richards and Brian Jones.

According to University of Salford's Dr Chris Lee, the 1964 Manchester show "influenced nearly everyone who saw it" and was as important as the Sex Pistols' 1976 show at the city's Lesser Free Trade Hall, which spurred attendees Morrissey, Mark E Smith and the musicians who would become Joy Division and Buzzcocks into action.

Later life and death

Tharpe's biographer said in 2018 that "she influenced Elvis Presley, she influenced Johnny Cash, she influenced Little Richard". When asked about her music and about rock and roll, Tharpe is reported to have said, "Oh, these kids and rock and roll — this is just sped up rhythm and blues. I've been doing that forever".

Tharpe's performances were curtailed by a stroke in 1970, after which one of her legs was amputated as a result of complications from diabetes. On October 9, 1973, the eve of a scheduled recording session, she died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as a result of another stroke. She was buried at Northwood Cemetery in Philadelphia.

Musical influence
Tharpe's guitar style blended melody-driven urban blues with traditional folk arrangements and incorporated a pulsating swing that was a precursor of rock and roll.

A National Public Radio article commented in 2017 that "Rock 'n' roll was bred between the church and the nightclubs in the soul of a queer black woman in the 1940s named Sister Rosetta Tharpe".

Little Richard referred to the stomping, shouting, gospel music performer as his favorite singer when he was a child. In 1947, she heard Richard sing before her concert at the Macon City Auditorium and later invited him on stage to sing with her; it was Richard's first public performance outside of the church. Following the show, she paid him for his performance, which inspired him to become a performer. When Johnny Cash gave his induction speech at the Rock n Roll Hall of Fame, he referred to Tharpe as his favorite singer when he was a child. His daughter Rosanne Cash stated in an interview with Larry King that Tharpe was her father's favorite singer. Tharpe began recording with electric guitar in the 1940s, with "That's All", which has been cited as an influence on Chuck Berry and Elvis Presley. Other musicians, including Aretha Franklin, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Isaac Hayes, have identified her singing, guitar playing, and showmanship as an important influence on them. She was held in particularly high esteem by UK jazz/blues singer George Melly. Tina Turner credits Tharpe, along with Mahalia Jackson, as an early musical influence. Such diverse performers as Meat Loaf, Neil Sedaka and Karen Carpenter have attested to the influence of Tharpe in the rhythmic energy she emanated in her performances (Carpenter's drum fills are especially reminiscent of Tharpe's "Chorlton Chug").

According to a PBS article, Elvis was influenced by five artists, including Sister Rosetta Tharpe. "She had a major impact ... when you see Elvis Presley singing songs early in his career, I think you [should] imagine, he is channeling Rosetta Tharpe."

In 2018 singer Frank Turner wrote and performed the song "Sister Rosetta" about her influence and how she deserved to be in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The single was released on July 3, 2019.

According to Cleveland.com, Tharpe "plugged into an electric guitar in the late 1930s and became a rock star before the men considered the pioneers of rock and roll had dreamt of doing so. She's the "Godmother of rock and roll" who influenced every musician traditionally identified with helping launch the genre during the 1950s".

Awards and legacy
A resurgence of interest in Tharpe's work led to a biography, several NPR segments, scholarly articles, and honors. A biography  entitled "Shout, Sister, Shout!" by  Gayle L. Wald was published in  2007.  The United States Postal Service issued a 32-cent commemorative stamp to honor Tharpe on July 15, 1998. In 2007, she was inducted posthumously into the Blues Hall of Fame. In 2008, a concert was held to raise funds for a marker for her grave, and January 11 was declared Sister Rosetta Tharpe Day in Pennsylvania. A gravestone was put in place later that year, and a Pennsylvania historical marker was approved for placement at her home in the Yorktown neighborhood of Philadelphia.

In 2011 BBC Four aired a one-hour documentary, Sister Rosetta Tharpe: The Godmother of Rock & Roll, written and directed by UK filmmaker Mick Csaky. In 2013 the film was shown in the US as part of the PBS series American Masters. The film has been aired numerous times in the UK and US, most recently in March 2015 to mark the 100th anniversary of Tharpe's birth. On March 20, 2015, the UK newspaper The Guardian published a 100th-birthday tribute by Richard Williams. On September 12, 2016, the musical play Marie And Rosetta, based on the relationship between Tharpe and Marie Knight, opened at the Atlantic Theater Company in New York.

On October 5, 2017, Tharpe was listed as a nominee for the 2018 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductions. On December 13, 2017, she was elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an Early Influence.

In 2017, National Public Radio wrote about the artist's career and concluded with these comments: Tharpe "was a gospel singer at heart who became a celebrity by forging a new path musically... Through her unforgettable voice and gospel swing crossover style, Tharpe influenced a generation of musicians including Aretha Franklin, Chuck Berry and countless others... She was, and is, an unmatched artist."

A musical about her life named "Shout, Sister, Shout!" based on the Gayle Wald biography of the same name, and  written by playwright Cheryl West, was written in  2017 and performed that year at the Pasadena Playhouse, two years later at Seattle Repertory Theatre, and played at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. in 2023.

Rolling Stone named Tharpe the 6th greatest guitarist of all time in 2023.

Discography

Albums
 Gospel Songs (Decca, 1947)
 Blessed Assurance (Decca, 1951)
 Gospel Train (Mercury, 1956)
 The Gospel Truth (Mercury, 1959)
 Sister Rosetta Tharpe (MGM, 1960)
 Spirituals in Rhythm (Promenade, 1960)
 Sister on Tour (Verve, 1961)
 The Gospel Truth (Verve, 1962)
 Precious Memories (Savoy, 1968)
 Gospel Keepsakes (MCA, 1983)
 Live in 1960 (Southland, 1991)
 Live at the Hot Club de France (BMG/Milan, 1991)

Her complete works up to 1961 were issued as seven double-CD box sets by the French label Frémeaux & Associés.

Charted singles

References

Bibliography

External links

Sister Rosetta Tharpe  discography at Record Connexion

Sister Rosetta Tharpe: The Godmother of Rock & Roll, written and directed by Mick Csaky, PBS, American Masters, January 9, 2013
The Gospel of Sister Rosetta Tharpe, National Public Radio, All Things Considered, January 17, 2004
Sister Rosetta Tharpe: Etched in Stone at Last, National Public Radio, All Things Considered, March 20, 2009
Premier Guitar – Forgotten Heroes: Sister Rosetta Tharpe
Interview with Tharpe biographer Gayle F. Wald, WILL-AM radio, February 22, 2007
 Sister Rosetta Tharpe recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.

1915 births
1973 deaths
People from Cotton Plant, Arkansas
Singers from Chicago
Singers from New York City
Musicians from Philadelphia
Classic female blues singers
African-American women singers
American blues guitarists
American jazz guitarists
American blues singers
American gospel singers
American amputees
Gospel blues musicians
Singers from Arkansas
African-American guitarists
African-American Christians
Members of the Church of God in Christ
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
American Pentecostals
20th-century American singers
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Arkansas
20th-century American women singers
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
Jazz musicians from Illinois
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
Jazz musicians from Arkansas
American women rock singers
20th-century American women guitarists
Burials at Northwood Cemetery, Philadelphia
Southland Records artists
African American female guitarists

Sister Rosetta Tharpe


The Charta Oecumenica (Latin for "Ecumenical Charter") is a joint document from the Conference of European Churches (CEC) and the Council of European Episcopal Conferences (CCEE, Consilium Conferentiarum Episcoporum Europae) which contains guidelines for increasing co-operation among the churches in Europe. It was signed by the presidents of the CEC and the CCEE on 22 April 2001 (Sunday after Easter) on the occasion of the European ecumenical meeting in Strasbourg.

External links
 Text of the Charta Oecumenica

Christianity in Europe
Christian ecumenism

Charta Oecumenica


A cognate is a word derived from the same root as another word. Cognates are words that have a common origin (source). They may happen in a language or in a group of languages.

Example One:
'composite', 'composition' and 'compost' are cognates in the English language, derived from the same root in Latin 'componere' meaning 'to put together'.

Example Two:
the word 'composition' in English and the word 'composición' in Spanish and similar words in French, Italian and Portuguese are cognates because they all come from the same root.

The general rule is that cognates have similar meanings and are derived from the same root (origin). A fine example is the word for night in almost all Indo-European languages:

nuit (French), noche (Spanish), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch), nag (Afrikaans), nicht (Scots), natt (Swedish, Norwegian), nat (Danish), nátt (Faroese), nótt (Icelandic), noc (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, noch (Russian), ноќ, noć (Macedonian), нощ, nosht (Bulgarian), ніч, nich (Ukrainian), ноч, noch/noč (Belarusian), noč (Slovene), noć (Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian), νύξ, nyx (Ancient Greek, νύχτα/nychta in Modern Greek), nox/nocte (Latin), nakt- (Sanskrit), natë (Albanian), nos (Welsh), nueche (Asturian), noite (Portuguese and Galician), notte (Italian), nit (Catalan), nuèch/nuèit (Occitan), noapte (Romanian), nakts (Latvian), naktis (Lithuanian) and Naach (Colognian), all meaning "night" and being derived from the Proto-Indo-European nókʷts ("night").

Basic English uses cognates, such as animal, attention, night, apparatus, experience, brother, invention, metal, etc.

History
The word 'cognate' is derived from the Latin word 'cognatus' meaning 'to be born with'.

In reading Churchill's History of the English Speaking Peoples, it would be well to keep in mind (remember) what George Bernard Shaw says: "England and America are two countries divided by a common language."

Speakers of British English and American English face the problem of meeting false friends.

False friends
As a rule, similar-sounding words have the same meaning but when they do not, they are called "false friends".

Example one: Spanish 'actual' and English 'actual' are cognates because they have the same root (origin) but they are "false friends" because Spanish 'actual' means "of the present moment" while English 'actual' means "real".

Example two: German 'hell', Norwegian 'hell' and English 'hell' are not cognates, but are spelled the same. In German, 'hell' means 'light' and in Norwegian it means 'luck', while in English it means hell.

False cognates
Sometimes, two words look alike and it appears that they are cognates but they are not because they are not derived from the same root.

Example one: In the English language, the word 'light' (something that makes things visible) is not a cognate of the word 'light' (not heavy) because they are not derived from the same root.

Example two: The German word 'haben' and the English word 'have' mean the same thing and they appear to be cognates but they are not simply because they are not derived from the same root.

Example three: The Japanese word 'okiru' 起きる and the English word 'occur' have the same thing happening as example two.

Other websites

List of words having different meanings in British and American English: on English Wikipedia
Common Spanish-English False Friends
German-English False Friends
French-English False Friends

References

Linguistics

Cognate


European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) is the name for a kind of fish. They are a commercially important flatfish. They live on the sandy bottoms of the European shelf.  Its geographical range is from the Barents Sea to the Mediterranean. Plaice are characterised by their smooth, brown skin, red spots and bony ridge behind the eyes.
The fish  feeds on polychaetes, crustaceans and bivalves. They can be found down to about 200 m.

Gastronomy
In England they are often used as the fish in fish and chips.

In Danish cuisine they are one of the most commonly eaten fishes. Filleted, battered and pan-fried plaice is popular hot or cold as an open sandwich topping together with remoulade sauce and lemon slices. Battered plaice can also be served hot with french fries and remoulade sauce as a main dish; this fish and chips variant is commonly available as a children's special in Danish restaurants.  Breaded frozen plaice, ready to be baked or fried at home, are readily available in supermarkets.  Fresh plaice is also oven-baked.

Other websites
 Information about plaice

Flatfish
Edible fish

European plaice


The Lorentz factor is the factor by which time, length, and mass change for an object moving at speeds close to the speed of light (relativistic speeds). It is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.

The equation is:

where v is the speed of the object and c is the speed of light. The quantity (v/c) is often labeled  (beta) and so the above equation can be rewritten:

Classical relativity
Classical or Galilean relativity is the idea that if you throw a ball at 50 mph while running at 5 mph, the ball travels 55 mph. Of course, the ball still moves away from you at 50 mph, so if one were to ask you, you saw the ball traveling 50 mph. Meanwhile, your friend Rory saw that you happened to be running at 5 mph. He would say that the ball was traveling 55 mph. Both of you are right, you just happened to be moving with the ball.

The speed of light, c, is 670,616,629 mph. So if you are in a car traveling half the speed of light (0.5c) and you turn on your headlights, the light moves away from you at 1 c... or is it 1.5 c? It ends up that c is c no matter what. The next section explains why it's not c - 0.5c.

Time dilation
When a clock is in motion, it ticks slower by a tiny factor of . The famous twin paradox says that if there were two twins and twin A stayed on earth while twin B traveled near c for a few years, when twin B got back to earth, he would be many years younger than twin A (because he experienced less time). For example, if twin B left when he was 20 and traveled at .9c for 10 years, then when he got back to earth, twin B would be 30 (20 years + 10 years) and twin A would be almost 43:

Twin B would not notice that time had slowed at all. To him, if he looked out a window, it would seem like the universe was moving past him, and therefore slower (remember, to him, he's at rest). So time is relative.

Length contraction
Things get shorter in the direction of movement when they travel at "relativistic speeds", which means fast enough that relativity effects can be observed. During twin B's journey, he would notice something strange about the universe. He would notice that it got shorter (contracted in the direction of his motion). And the factor by which things get shorter is .

Relativistic mass
Relativistic mass also increases. It makes them harder to push. So by the time you reach 0.9999c, you need a very big force to make you go faster. This makes it impossible for anything to reach the speed of light.

Still, if you travel a bit slower, say 90% of the speed of light, your mass only grows by 2.3 times. So, while it may be impossible to reach the speed of light, it may still be possible to get close to it—that is, if you have enough fuel.

Relativity

Lorentz factor


Dáil Éireann is the lawer hoose, an main chaumer, o the Oireachtas (Pairlament o Ireland), whilk includes the Preses o Ireland an Seanad Éireann (the upper hoose) forby. Hit haes 160 members, kent as Teachta Dála (plural Teachtaí Dála, abbreviated as TDs). TDs represent 39 constituencies an are electit direct-like least yinst ilka five year, by the single transferable vote (STV) teep o proportional representation. Hits pouers are similar tae thon o lawer hooses unner mony ither bicameral pairlamentary systems an hit's the dominant brainch o the Oireachtas. Subject tae limits imponed by the Constitution, hit haes the pouer tae pass ony laws hit wisses, an tae nominate an remuive the Taoiseach (Prime Minister). Syne 1922, hit haes met in Leinster Hoose in Dublin.

Politics o the Republic o Ireland
Oireachtas

Dáil Éireann


Brown ale is a style of beer with a dark amber or brown colour. The term was first used by London brewers in the late 17th century to describe a lightly hopped ale brewed from 100% brown malt.

Today brown ales are made in England, Belgium and America. Beers termed brown ale include sweet, low alcohol beers such as Manns Original Brown Ale, medium strength amber beers of moderate bitterness such as Newcastle Brown Ale, and malty but hoppy beers such as Sierra Nevada Brown Ale.

History
In the 18th century, British brown ales were brewed to a variety of strengths, with original gravities (OG) ranging from around 1.060 to 1.090. Around 1800, brewers stopped producing these types of beers as they moved away from using brown malt as a base. Pale malt, being cheaper because of its higher yield, was used as a base for all beers, including Porter and Stout.

The term "brown ale" was revived at the end of the 19th century when London brewer Mann introduced a beer with that name. However, the style only became widely brewed in the 1920s. The brown ales of this period were considerably stronger than most modern English versions. In 1926, Manns Brown Ale had an original gravity of 1.043 and an ABV of around 4%. Whitbread Double Brown was even stronger, an OG of 1.054 and more than 5% ABV. The introduction of these beers coincided with a big increase in demand for bottled beer in the UK.  In the 1930s some breweries, such as Whitbread, introduced a second weaker and cheaper brown ale that was sometimes just a sweetened version of dark Mild. These beers had an original gravity of around 1.037.   After World War II, most breweries stopped producing these stronger brown ales, with the exception of some breweries in the northeast of England. The majority had an OG in the range 1.030–1.035, or around 3% ABV, much like Manns Brown Ale today.

North American brown ales trace their heritage to American home brewing adaptations of certain northern English beers, and the English influence on American Colonial Ales.

Description
English brown ales range from beers such as Manns Original Brown Ale, which is quite sweet and low in alcohol, to northeastern brown ale such as Newcastle Brown Ale, Double Maxim and Samuel Smith's Nut Brown Ale. North American examples include Sam Adams Brown Ale and Brooklyn Brown Ale.

They range from deep amber to brown in colour. Caramel and chocolate flavours are evident. Brown ales from northeastern England tend to be strong and malty, often nutty, while those from southern England are usually darker, sweeter and lower in alcohol. North American brown ales are usually drier than their English counterparts, with a slight citrus accent and an aroma, bitterness, and medium body due to American hop varieties. Fruitiness from esters are subdued.  When chilled to cold temperatures, some haziness may be noticed.

See also
Amber ale
Mild ale
Irish red ale
Flanders red ale

References

Beer styles

Brown ale


Rochor MRT Station (DT13) is an underground Mass Rapid Transit station on the Downtown Line in the planning area of Rochor, Singapore. It is near Sim Lim Square, The Verge, the Lasalle College of the Arts and Tekka Centre. The station is white and grey with a futuristic design. This station and Little India is the nearest of any station on the Downtown Line as it takes only 20-25 seconds to reach. The station opened along with other station on the DTL2 in December 2015.

This station had basement 1 reserved for the future North-South Corridor, and basement 2 and 3 are typically station levels.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Rochor MRT station


was the haigo (haikai pen name) of Ozaki Hideo, a Japanese poet of the late Meiji and Taishō periods of Japan. An alcoholic, Ozaki witnessed the birth of the modern free verse haiku movement. His verses are permeated with loneliness, most likely a result of the isolation, poverty and poor health of his final years.

Biography
Ozaki was born in what is now part of Tottori city in Tottori prefecture. Ozaki's interest in haiku and writing began at an early age, and he was influenced by the pioneer of free verse style haiku, Ogiwara Seisensui, while still in high school.

Ozaki attended the prestigious Tokyo Imperial University, graduating on 16 October 1909. During this period he proposed marriage to , a long-time friend and distant maternal relative. Unfortunately for Ozaki, her older brother opposed the marriage, believing that this maternal connection was too close. Nearly immediately following the failure of this rejection, Ozaki's heavy drinking, which would continue for much of his life, began. Many writers believe that the rejection was the initial cause of his later alcoholism. (Ishi, p. 56)  Although he had previously been using the pen name of "Hōsai" written with the characters "芳哉", during this period he gradually shifted to using "放哉" (pronounced identically). This change is perhaps significant, as the former character, which appears in Yoshie's name, was changed to one meaning "to release, set free, banish, liberate."

After graduation, Ozaki joined the Nihon Tsūshin Company (日本通信社) in October, 1909, but was fired one month later due to incompetence.

The following year, Ozaki joined the , (the predecessor to Asahi Mutual Life Insurance Co) where for a time he led a seemingly successful career. After several promotions, he married a 19-year-old woman named  in 1911. Shortly thereafter, one of his subordinates described Ozaki as "reeking of alcohol beginning each morning." (Ueda, p. 81)  During the same period, although all of the other employees wore business suits, Ozaki owned no clothing other than a tuxedo and a pair of pajamas. He wore both to work. (Ueda, p. 82)  In spite of this, he was promoted to , likely due to well-placed connections. (Ishi, p. 60)

Ozaki's problems with alcohol continued to worsen, and he left Tōyō in 1920 at the age of 36. He became a lay mendicant monk at a Buddhist training center. In 1926, he settled on the island of Shōdoshima, Kagawa Prefecture, in the Inland Sea, and was given the post of rector of the small hermitage of Minango-an at the temple of Saiko-ji. With ties from his former life severed, and without any material possessions, he began to write haiku in earnest. His only book, Daikū (大空, Big Sky), contains poems of his solitary final years, and was selected by Ogiwara Seisensui from the over 4,000 haiku composed by Ozaki between 1916 and 1926. The collection was published posthumously in 1926, and in an expanded edition in 1945. Portions are available in English translation by Hiroaki Sato entitled Right under the big sky, I don't wear a hat ().

Works
Ozaki's Collected Works (全集, Zenshū) are not currently available in English translation.

References

1885 births
1926 deaths
Japanese male poets
Writers from Tottori Prefecture
University of Tokyo alumni
20th-century Japanese poets
20th-century Japanese male writers
Japanese haiku poets

Ozaki Hōsai


Lex Luthor (full name: Alexander Joseph Luthor) is a fictional supervillain from the comic books published by DC Comics. He is the biggest enemy of Superman. He is also an enemy of Batman and other superheroes in the DC Comics. The character was created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster. He first appeared in Action Comics #23 (April 1940). He has been adapted into movies, tv shows and video games as well. Several actors have played Lex Luthor in motion pictures as well as in TV shows such as Lyle Talbot, Gene Hackman, Clancy Brown, Michael Rosenbaum, Kevin Spacey, Jesse Eisenberg and Jon Cryer.

Fictional business executives
Fictional characters introduced in 1940
Superman
DC Comics supervillains
Fictional mass murderers

Lex Luthor


Daniel Casper (25 January 1635 in Nimptsch, Niederschlesien – 28 April 1683 in Breslau, Niederschlesien), also spelled Daniel Caspar, and referred to from 1670 as Daniel Casper von Lohenstein, was a Baroque Silesian playwright, lawyer, diplomat, poet, and chief representative of the .

Family
The Casper and/or Caspar () family came from the Brieg principality, first well known as poet and diplomats.

Daniel Casper was the son of the imperial customs-officer, Akzisefälle-Einnehmers and Biergefälle-Einnehmers named Johann (Hans) Casper (c.1600-after 1670), alderman and city constable of Nimptsch, and Susanna Schedel of Greiffenstein (1612–1652).  His father Hans in 1642 received a Wappenbrief and was raised on 17 July 1670 to a hereditary imperial peerage, with the name of "von Lohenstein".

Life

Youth
Daniel Casper was born 1635 in the princely Schloss Nimptsch, to which his parents had withdrawn during the Thirty Years' War.  After initial private instruction in Nimptsch, his father sent him to Breslau where Caspar from 1642 to 1651 attended the Magdalenen-School, that had been upgraded in 1643 into a secondary school (Maria-Magdalenen-Gymnasium).  In the midpoint of his philological and rhetorical education there, he already as eleven-year-old student carried out disputations with antique examples over what qualified one to be a peer.  At 15 he composed his first tragedy, "Ibrahim".  Lohenstein was friendly with Heinrich Mühlpfort.

After finishing secondary school, Casper had to leave Breslau because there was as yet no university in the town.  At the University of Leipzig he studied under Benedikt Carpzov (1595–1666), the founder of the German criminal justice system, and at the University of Tübingen with Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach (1618–1678), where on 6 June 1655 he produced his Disputation ("Disputation Jurudica de Voluntate").

After finishing his studies, the (at that time usual) Grand Tour which he joined led him first of all to the sovereign courts of Germany, then to Switzerland, Leiden, Utrecht and Vienna (but not Italy, due to the plague then raging there).  With Italy ruled out, he spent some time in Hungary, coming into contact with the Turkish-Oriental cultural circles there.

Recalled by his father, he came home by ship, through a strong thunderstorm he remembered his whole life, in which he saw the sinking of 13 ships.  After his homecoming, he established himself as a lawyer in Breslau and on 30 October 1657, at 22, in Breslau, he married Elisabeth Herrmann (died 1708 in Zettritz, Landkreis Landsberg (Warthe) ), Mark Brandenburg), the daughter of Caspar Herrmann, Amtmann for Breslau's state property (Landgüter des Rats).

Patronage
He had in 1665 produced his second poetic work, the tragedy "Aggrippina", dedicated to duchess Louise von Liegnitz-Brieg-Wohlau (born princess of Anhalt-Dessau).  Louise's queen-regent Elisabeth Marie in 1668 founded a Regierungsrat at Oels.  Caspar was, as a scholar,  advising Louise and also helped in the design and construction of the Piasten-Gruft (tomb) in Liegnitz.  Duke Christian strove to attract him to his court as a secret advisor, but Caspar declined before returning 1670 to Breslau, where a successful and promising career beckoned.

Already as student, he had moved among the patrician circles of the Breslau city-state and beyond.  Now the eldest advisor there, Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau (1616–1679) advocated Caspar as a poet and other works of his - like his famous funeral oration of 1679 addressed to Christian - were very admired.  He came, on the abdication of the Obersyndikus Peter Muck von Muckendorff 1670, to receive the presidency of the Herzogtums Lauenburg, with the second Syndikus, Andreas von Assig, taking his place as Obersyndikus.  Thus Caspar von Lohenstein became a Syndikus at Assig.

Syndic and diplomat in Breslau

Thus he arrived in one of the most important offices of the city.  The elevation of his family into the peerage a few weeks later might have been meant more for him than for his father.  In the year 1675, Assig had to abandon his office due to illness and Caspar took his place as Obersyndikus, holding that office for the eight years until his death.

The governing of Schlesien after the Thirty Years' War was strongly marked by anti-reforming efforts.  When an imperial edict commanded the dismissal of all Protestant schoolteachers, the danger of an occupation of Breslau by imperial troops under the leadership of the general Kop was so great that Caspar was dispatched to Vienna for negotiations.  With the diplomatic skill of an educated man, he succeeded, moving the emperor so much that he gave up his  demand.  The city took advantage of his high diplomatic capabilities even more often, sending him as an ambassador, though he still achieved much as a lawyer as well as proving himself as a diplomat and politician.

Daniel Casper von Lohenstein was the owner of several towns.  He acquired in 1673 the Kittelau from duchess (Herzogin) Louise von Brieg and in the same year inherited Reisau and Roschkowitz from Tobias von Kleindienst. As an acknowledged poet, an ennobled Obersyndikus and landowner, Caspar was at his peak of life in the 1670s.  Turning always more strongly towards the Habsburg position, he was appointed an imperial advisor in 1675. He died at the family Schloss at Breslau, Niederschlesien, of a stroke in 1683.

Works
Casper's production as a poet, especially when considered together with his contemporaneous work as lawyer and diplomat, is astonishing.  Extremely productive, he was above all known as an author of theatrical pieces marked by the well known French Classicism in drama and as - next to Andreas Gryphius - one of the most important dramatists of the baroque.  In addition to this he was known as a poet and as a translator.

His novel "Großmütiger Feldherr Arminius", comprising around 3000 pages, appeared between 1689–90 and was a highpoint of baroque romantic art, despite concerns over the often obscure and overwrought language.  In it he put up for discussion the situation of the German empire after the Thirty Years' War and tries to take stock of contemporary knowledge.

His lyric poetry was published in periodic periodicals.
He used exaggeration and overdramatisation in his works to work out the contrast to the "better" reality, and they thus stand in the tradition of Senecan tragedy.

Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein in many of his writings showed his views on statesmanship and the art of ruling, similar to "Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau" views.

List of works
"Ibrahim, 1649/50 (first printed after his death in 1685)
Cypress-Tafel, (tragic poem or lyric), 1652
Denk- und Dankaltar, 1652
Ibrahim, Trauerspiel (Tragedy), 1653
Rechtsstreit der Schönheit und Freundlichkeit, 1657
Trauer- und Trostgedanken, 1658
Schuldiges Ehren-Gedächtnis, 1660
Cleopatra, Drama, 1661
Redender Totenkopf, 1662
Erlangte Ewigkeit, 1664
Agrippina, Trauerspiel, 1665
Epicharis, Trauerspiel, 1665
Ibrahim Sultan, Schauspiel (tragedy that ends happily), 1673
Blumen, poem, 1680
Geistliche Gedanken, poem, 1680
Trauer- und Lustgedichte, 1680
Sophonisbe, Drama, 1680
Großmütiger Feldherr Arminius, Roman (novel), 1689-90

Further reading
 Gerhard Spellerberg: Daniel Casper von Lohenstein. In: "Deutsche Dichter des 17. Jahrhunderts. Ihr Leben und Werk". Hrsg.: Harald Steinhagen und Benno Wiese. Berlin 1984
 Gerhard Dünnhaupt: "Daniel Casper von Lohenstein (1635-1683)", in: Personalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock, Bd. 4. Stuttgart: Hiersemann 1991, S. 2589-2606.
 Thomas Borgstedt: Reichsidee und Liebesethik. Eine Rekonstruktion des Lohensteinschen Arminiusromans (Studien zur deutschen Literatur 121). Niemeyer, Tübingen 1992,
 Dieter Kafitz: Lohenstein's Arminius. Disputatorisches Verfahren und Lehrgehalt in einem Roman zwischen Barock und Aufklärung (Germanistische Abhandlungen 32). Metzler, Stuttgart 1970
 Oskar Pusch: Die Breslauer Rats- und Stadtgeschlechter in der Zeit von 1241 bis 1741, Bd. 3, S. 44 ff. (Veröffentlichungen der Forschungsstelle Ostmitteleuropa an der Universität Dortmund/Reihe B; Bd. 38). Dortmund 1988,
 Gerhard Spellerberg: Verhängnis und Geschichte. Untersuchungen zu den Trauerspielen und dem Arminius-Roman Daniel Caspers von Lohenstein. Gehlen, Bad Homburg v.d.H. 1970
 Elida M. Szarota: Lohensteins Arminius als Zeitroman. Sichtweisen des Spätbarock.  Francke, Bern 1970
 Max Wehrli: Das barocke Geschichtsbild in Lohensteins Arminius (Wege zur Dichtung 31). Verlag Huber, Frauenfeld 1938
 Wolf Wucherpfennig: Klugheit und Weltordnung. Das Problem politischen Handelns in Lohensteins Arminius (Deutsche Literatur- und Sprachstudien/Reihe A; Bd. 2).  Becksmann, Freiburg/B. 1973

References

External links
  Online catalogue of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin

  Casper von Lohenstein: Cleopatra, Trauerspiel of 1661
 Von Lohenstein in the eLibrary Austria Projekt
 Short biography
 Wikisource (de)

1635 births
1683 deaths
People from Niemcza
17th-century German lawyers
German diplomats
German poets
German translators
Baroque writers
People from Austrian Silesia
German male poets
German male dramatists and playwrights
17th-century German dramatists and playwrights
17th-century translators

Daniel Casper von Lohenstein


දියොඩය යනු අග්‍ර දෙකක් සහිතව නිපදවා ඇති අර්ධ සන්නායක ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික උපාංගයකි. මෙම උපාංගය මගින් විද්‍යුතය එක් දිශාවකට පමණක් ගමන්කරවිය හැකිය.මෙම නිසා ප්‍රත්‍යාවර්ත ධාරාවන් සරල ධාරාවන් බවට පත්කරගැනීමට දියෝඩය යොදාගනී.මෙම උපාංගය සිලිකන් හෝ ජර්මේනියම් වැනි අර්ධ සන්නායක ඇසුරින් නිපදවා ඇත.වර්තමානය තුල අර්ධ සන්නායක ඇසුරින් නිපදවූ විවිධ වර්ගයේ දියෝඩ දැකගත හැකිය. අතීතයේ අර්ධ සන්නායක දියෝඩ වෙනුවට රික්ත කපාට යොදාගන්නා ලදී.දියෝඩය යනු මුලින්ම නිපදවන ලද අර්ධ සන්නායක උපාංගයයි.වර්තමානය වනවිට බොහෝ දියෝඩ නිපදවීමට සිලිකන් යොදාගන්නා අතර ඇතැම් විට සෙලිනියම් ජර්මේනියම් වැනි අර්ධ සන්නායකද යොදාගනී.

ක්‍රියාවලිය
දියෝඩයක ප්‍රමුක ක්‍රියාවලිය වන්නේ විද්යූත් ධාරාව එකම දිශාවකට පමනක් ගමන් කරවීමයි.දියෝඩය වෙතට සරල ධාරාවක් යොමුකලහොත් එම ධාරාව දියෝඩය තුලින් ගලායාමට නම්  ධණ හා ඍණ අග්‍ර නිවැරදිව සම්බන්ධ වී තිබිය යුතුය.එනම් දියෝඩයේ ඇනෝඩයට ධණ අග්‍රයත් කැතෝඩයට ඍණ අග්‍රයත් සම්බන්දවී තිබිය යුතුය.මෙසේ දියෝඩය හරහා ධාරාවක් ගලායන අවස්ථාවේදී දියෝඩය ඉදිරි නැඹුරු අවස්ථාවේ පවතී.මෙම අග්‍ර මාරු කලහොත් එනම් ඇනෝඩයට ඍණ අග්‍රයත් කැතෝඩයට ධණ අග්‍රයත් සම්බන්ද කලහොත් දියෝඩය හරහා විද්යූත් ධාරාවක් ගලායාමක් සිදු නොවේ.මෙම අවස්ථාව දියෝඩයේ පසු නැඹුරු අවස්ථාව ලෙස සැකසේ.දියෝඩය හරහා ප්‍රත්‍යාවර්ත ධාරාවක් ගමන් කිරීමට සැළසුවහොත් එම ප්‍රත්‍යාවර්ත ධාරාවේ එක් අර්ධයක් කැපීයයි.එබැවින් ප්‍රත්‍යාවර්ත ධාරා සරල ධාරා බවට පරිවර්තනය කරගැනීමට දියෝඩය යොදාගනී.විස්ථාර මූර්ජිත විද්‍යුත් වුම්භක තරංග විමූර්ඡනය සදහාද දියෝඩ යොදාගනී.

දියෝඩයේ මෙම එත් දීශාවකට පමණක් ධාරාව ගමන් කරවීමේ හැකියාව නිසා අධිවේදී වහරුවක් ලෙසද භාවිත කලහැකිය.එසේම පරිපථයක්තුල ගලන ධාරාව එක් දිශාවකට පමණක් යොමු කිරීමට හෝ විද්‍යුත් ධාරාව නැවැත්වීමටද දියෝඩය යොදාගනී.

දියෝඩයක් හරහා ධාරාවක් ගලායාමේදී ඉදිරි නැඹරු අවස්ථාවේදීද යම් ප්‍රතිරෝධයක් ඇතිවේ.උදාහරණ ලෙස ජර්මේනියම් දියෝඩයකට වොල්ට් 0.4 පමණ විභව අන්තරයක් ලබාදිය යුතුය එම අගයට අඩු වෝල්ටීයතාවකින් යුතු විභව අන්තරයක් ලබා දුනහොත් දියෝඩය හරහා ධාරාවක් ගලානොයයි.සිලිකන් දියෝඩයක මෙම අගය වොල්ට් 0.6 පමණවේ.මේ ආකාරයට දියෝඩය වරෙක ප්‍රතිරෝධයක් ලෙසද ක්‍රියාකරයි.දියොඩයක් පසු නැඹුරු අවස්ථාවට සකස් කලද ඒ හරහා සම්පූර්ණ වශයෙන්ම ධාරාවක් ගලා නොයන්නේ යැයි කිව නොහැකිය.එහෙත් දියෝඩයක් පසු නැඹරු අවස්ථාවේදී ගලායන ධාරාව ඉතාම කුඩා අගයක් බැවින් එය එතරම් සැලකිල්ලට නොගැනේ.

අර්ධ සන්නායක මූල ද්‍රවශ්‍යයන් වන සිලිකන් හා ජර්මේනියම්වල පරමාණුවේ අවසන් ශක්කි මට්ටමේ පවතින්නේ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොන හතරකි.එබැවින් එම පරමාණු යාබද පරමාණුවෙන් ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන හතරක් එකතුකරගෙන පරමාණු අටක් සම්පූර්ණකරගෙන බන්ධනයක් සාධාගනී.එවිට මෙම පරමාණු තුල නිදහස් ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොන නැති බැවින් විද්‍යුත් පරිවාරකයක් ලෙස ක්‍රියාකරයි.කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම අර්ධ සන්නායක මූලදුව්‍යයන් උෂ්ණත්වය සමග අවසන් ශක්ති මට්ටමේ ඇති ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන නිදහස්වීමෙන් සන්නායකයක් ලෙස ක්‍රියාකරයි.මෙවැනි අර්ධ කන්නායක වලට අවසාන ශක්ති මට්ටමේ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන තුනක් ඇති පරමාණු සහිත මූලදුව්‍යයක් මාත්‍රණය කිරීමෙන් P වර්ගයේ අර්ධ සන්නායකයක් නිපදවාගනී.එසේම මෙම අර්ධ සන්නායක වලට අවසාන ශක්කි මට්ටමේ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොන පහක් ඇති මූල දුව්‍යයක් මාත්‍රණය කිරීමෙන් N වර්ගයේ අර්ධ සන්නායකයක් නිර්මානයකරගනී.මෙසේ සකසාගත් PN අර්ධ සන්නායක දෙකක් සන්ධි කිරීමෙන් දියෝඩයක් නිපදවා ගනී.

ඉතිහාසය
අතීතයේ ගුවන් විදුලි සංඥා විමූර්ජනය සදහා යොදා ගන්නා ලද්දේ රික්ත කපාටයි.මේවා පළමු පරම්පරාවේ අර්ධ සන්නායක ලෙස හදුන්වයි.විශේෂයෙන් 1900 දී පමණ මෙවා නිපදවා ඇත.  1950 දශකය දක්වාම රිත්ක කපාට භාවිතවිය.රික්ත කපාට මගින් ගුවන් විදුලි සංඥ විමූර්ජනය මෙන්ම විද්‍යුත් ධාරා වර්ධකයක් ලෙසද ධාරාව එක් දිශාවකට පමණක් ගමන් කරවීම වැනි වර්තමානයේ අර්ධ සන්නායක දියෝඩයකින් කලහැකි බොහෝ දේවල් කරගැනීමට භාවිතවිය.මෙම රක්ත කපාට තරමක් විශාල ඉඩක් ගන්නා බැවින් එකල පැවති ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික උපකරණ ඉතා විශාල ඒවා විය.එසේම ඒවාට වැඩි බලශක්තියක්ද යෙදවීමට අවශ්‍යවිය.ඇමරිකාවේ බෙල් ලැබ්ස් ආයතනය වෙනුවෙන් විලියම් ෂොක්ලි,ජොන් බාඩින් හා වොල්ටර් බ්‍රැටන් එක්ව 1947 දී අර්ධ සන්නායක ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටරයක් නිපදවීය.පසුව මෙම පරීක්ෂණය වෙනුවෙන් ඔවුන් තිදෙනාට 1956 දී භෞතික විද්‍යාව සදහාවූ නොබෙල් ත්‍යාගයද හිමිවිය.1961 දී ප්‍රථම සංගෘහිත පරපථය නිපදවිය.මෙම සංගෘහිත පරිපථ මුලින්ම වෙළදපොලට ගෙනආවේ ෆෙයාවයිල්ඩ් සෙමිකන්ඩක්ටර් සමාගමයි.මෙම සංගෘහිත පරිපතයක දියෝඩ ට්‍රාන්සිස්ටර් ප්‍රතිරෝධක සියගනනක් සහිතව නිපදවා ඇත.1971 දී ඉන්ටෙල් සමාගම විසින් ලොව ප්‍රථම මයික්‍රෝ චිපය නිපදවීය.මෙම කුඩා චිපයක අල්පෙනෙති තුඩක පමණ ඉඩක දියෝඩ ඇතුළු උපාංග කෝටි ගණනක් අංතර්ගතය.

රික්ත කපාට
1873 දී ෆෙඩ්ඩ්‍රික් ගාත්‍රී (Frederick Guthrie) විසින් රික්ත කපාලවල මූලදර්මය සොයා ගැනුණි. ධණ ආරෝපිත ඉලෙක්ටෝඩයක් රත්වු ලෝහයක් හරහා භූගතකල හැකිබව ඔහු සොයා ගත්තේය.මෙහිදී ධණ ආරෝපික ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝඩය හා බිම් ගැන්නුම අතරට රත්කළ ලෝහය එකිනෙක ස්පර්ශ නොවනසේ තබයි.එහෙත් එයාකාරයෙන් ඍණ ආරෝපික ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොඩයක ඇති ධාරාවක් භූගතකළ නොහැක.

තෝමස් අල්වා එඩිසන්ද මෙයට සමාන පරීක්ෂණයක් සිදු කළහ. එඩිසන් විසින් විදුලි බල්බය සොයා ගැනීමේ පරීක්ෂණ අතරතුර ඔහුට නිරීක්ෂණයවූයේ ධණ ආරෝපණ ලබාදුන් සැමවිටම ඔහු යොදාගත් කාබන් සූත්‍රිකාව ඉක්මනින් දැවී යන බවයි.මෙයට ප්‍රතිකර්මයක් ලෙස ඔහු ඇනෝඩය සදහා වකු තහඩුවක් හා මුද්‍රා තැබූ වීදුරු ආවරණයක් යොදා නව බල්බයක් නිපදවීමයි.මෙහිදී කාබන් සූත්‍රිකාවට ධණ ආරෝපණ ලබාදුන්විට එකිනෙක ස්පර්ෂ නොවන ලෙස තබා තිබූ ලෝහ තහඩුවට ධාරාව ගමන් කිරීමයි.කාබන් සූත්‍රිකාව හා ලෝහ තහඩුව අතර ඉඩ වාතය ඉවත්කර තිබුණී.ඒ අනුව රික්තකය හරහා විද්‍යුතය ගමන්කර තිබුණි.එහෙත් මෙම සූත්‍රිකාවට ඍණ ආරෝපණ ලබාදුන්විට විදුලි ධාරාවක් ගමන් නොකෙරිණි.

තෝමස් අල්වා එඩිසන්ට මෙම සොයාගැනීම පිළිබද පේටන් බලපත්‍රය වසර 1884 දී ලැබිණ. කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම රික්ත කපාට වර්තමානයේ භාවිත නොවේ.මෙයින් වසර 20 කට පමණ පසු 1904 දී ගුග්ලි එල්මෝ මාකෝනි විසින් මෙම රික්ත කපාටය භාවිතයෙන් ගුවන් විදුලි තරංග විමූර්ජනය කරන ආකාරය සොයා ගැනුණි.

Solid-state diodes
In 1874 German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" of crystals. Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899. Copper oxide and selenium rectifiers were developed for power applications in the 1930s.

Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894. The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received a patent for it on November 20, 1906. Other experimenters tried a variety of other substances, of which the most widely used was the mineral galena (lead sulfide). Other substances offered slightly better performance, but galena was most widely used because it had the advantage of being cheap and easy to obtain. The crystal detector in these early crystal radio sets consisted of an adjustable wire point-contact, often made of gold or platinum because of their incorrodible nature (the so-called "cat's whisker"), which could be manually moved over the face of the crystal in search of a portion of that mineral with rectifying qualties. This troublesome device was superseded by thermionic diodes (vacuum tubes) by the 1920s, but after high purity semiconductor materials became available, the crystal detector returned to dominant use with the advent, in the 1950s, of inexpensive fixed-germanium diodes. Bell Labs also developed a germanium diode for microwave reception, and AT&T used these in their microwave towers that criss-crossed the nation starting in the late 1940s, carrying telephone and network television signals. Bell Labs did not develop a satisfactory thermionic diode for microwave reception.

නිරුක්තිය
ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින් දියෝඩය හැදින්වීමට භාවිත කරන diode යන වචනය ග්‍රීක භාෂාවේ ඩයි di (දෙක) (from δί) යන වචනය හා ඕඩ් ode (අන්ත) (from ὁδός) යන වචනය එක්වීමෙන් නිර්මාණය විය.සිංහල බසින් යෙදෙන දියෝඩ යන වදන ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින් තත්භවූ වචනයක් ලෙස නිර්මාණය වී ඇත.

ඍජුකරණය
ඍජුකරණය යනු ප්‍රතයවර් ධාරාවක් සරල ධාරාවක් බවට පත් කිරීමයි.
 බල සැපයුම් ඍජුකරණය (අර්ධ තරංග හා පූර්ණ තරංග ඍජුකරණය)
 Flyback diodes

ලෝකයේ කුඩාම දියෝඩ
Researchers from the University of Georgia and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) have developed a diode made from a molecule of DNA.  Professor Bingqian Xu from the College of Engineering at the University of Georgia and his team took a single DNA molecule made from 11 base pairs and connected it to an electronic circuit a few nanometers in size. When layers of coralyne were inserted between layers of DNA, the current jumped up to 15 times larger negative versus positive, which is necessary for a nano diode.

උෂ්ණත්ව දියෝඩ

In operation, a current flows through the filament (heater)—a high resistance wire made of nichrome—and heats the cathode red hot (800–1000 °C). This causes the cathode to release electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission. (Some valves use direct heating, in which a tungsten filament acts as both heater and cathode.)  The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and the concentric plate electrode.  When the plate has a positive voltage with respect to the cathode, it electrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the tube from cathode to plate.  However, when the polarity is reversed and the plate has a negative voltage, no current flows, because the cathode electrons are not attracted to it.  The plate, being unheated, does not emit any electrons. So electrons can only flow through the tube in one direction, from the cathode to the anode plate.

The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth metals, such as barium and strontium oxides. These have a low work function, meaning that they more readily emit electrons than would the uncoated cathode.

In a mercury-arc valve, an arc forms between a refractory conductive anode and a pool of liquid mercury acting as cathode. Such units were made with ratings up to hundreds of kilowatts, and were important in the development of HVDC power transmission. Some types of smaller thermionic rectifiers had mercury vapor fill to reduce their forward voltage drop and to increase current rating over thermionic hard-vacuum devices.

Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in analog signal applications and as rectifiers in DC power supplies in consumer electronics such as radios, televisions, and sound systems.  They were replaced in power supplies beginning in the 1940s by selenium rectifiers and then by semiconductor diodes by the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices. The recent (2012) resurgence of interest among audiophiles and recording studios in old valve audio gear such as guitar amplifiers and home audio systems has provided a market for the legacy consumer diode valves.

අර්ධ සන්නායක දියෝඩ

සංකේත
The symbol used for a semiconductor diode in a circuit diagram specifies the type of diode.  There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction of conventional current flow.

ස්පර්ශ දියෝඩ
A point-contact diode works the same as the junction diodes described below, but its construction is simpler. A pointed metal wire is placed in contact with an n-type semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small p-type region around the contact. The 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics.

සන්ධි දියෝඩ

p–n සන්ධි දියෝඩ
A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occur from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve.

Schottky diode
Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.

ධාරාව හා විභව අන්තරය

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic, or I–V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone.

පසු නැඹුරුව
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode). This is called the reverse bias phenomenon.

ඉදිරි නැඹුරුව
However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external voltage greater than and opposite to the built-in voltage is applied, a current will flow and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has been given an external forward bias. The diode is commonly said to have a forward "threshold" voltage, above which it conducts and below which conduction stops. However, this is only an approximation as the forward characteristic is according to the Shockley equation absolutely smooth (see graph below).

A diode's I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation:
 At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.
 For a bias less than the PIV, the reverse current is very small. For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the device in the micro-ampere (µA) range is very low. However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more).
 With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the current–voltage curve is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode equation.  There is a definite forward voltage at which the diode starts to conduct significantly.  This is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is equal to the barrier potential of the p-n junction. This is a feature of the exponential curve, and appears sharper on a current scale more compressed than in the diagram shown here.
 At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor.  The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance.  This region is particularly important for power diodes.  The diode can be modeled as an ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor.
In a small silicon diode operating at its rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types—Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively.

At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes.

Shockley diode equation
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) gives the I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or no bias). The following equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when n, the ideality factor, is set equal to 1 :

 I is the diode current,
 IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current),
 VD is the voltage across the diode,
 VT is the thermal voltage, and
 n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient. The ideality factor n typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and is set equal to 1 for the case of an "ideal" diode (thus the n is sometimes omitted). The ideality factor was added to account for imperfect junctions as observed in real transistors. The factor mainly accounts for carrier recombination as the charge carriers cross the depletion region.
The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to "room temperature" commonly used in device simulation software. At any temperature it is a known constant defined by:

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the p–n junction, and q is the magnitude of charge of an electron (the elementary charge).

The reverse saturation current, IS, is not constant for a given device, but varies with temperature; usually more significantly than VT, so that VD typically decreases as T increases.

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption that the only processes giving rise to the current in the diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and thermal recombination–generation (R–G) (this equation is derived by setting n = 1 above). It also assumes that the R–G current in the depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley ideal diode equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R–G. Additionally, it doesn't describe the "leveling off" of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance. Introducing the ideality factor, n, accounts for recombination and generation of carriers.

Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode equation is negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of −IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation.

For even rather small forward bias voltages the exponential is very large, since the thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The subtracted '1' in the diode equation is then negligible and the forward diode current can be approximated by

The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling.

කුඩා සංඥා හැසිරුවීම
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal circuits.

Reverse-recovery effect
Following the end of forward conduction in a p–n type diode, a reverse current can flow for a short time. The device does not attain its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction is depleted.

The effect can be significant when switching large currents very quickly. A certain amount of "reverse recovery time" tr (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge Qr from the diode. During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large constant current in the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase.  In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode effect. However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also negligible for Schottky diodes.

The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for generation of extremely short pulses.

අර්ධ සන්නායක

Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.
 Avalanche diodes
 These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.
 Cat's whisker or crystal diodes
 These are a type of point-contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in the earliest radios called crystal radio receivers. Cat's whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few manufacturers.
 Constant current diodes
 These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.
 Esaki or tunnel diodes
 These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.
 Gunn diodes
 These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.
 ආලෝක විමෝචක දියෝඩය (LEDs)
 In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red, 4.0 V to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.
 ලේසර් දියෝඩ
 When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.
 තාප සංවේදී දියොඩ
 This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behaviour of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.
 Perun's diodes
 This is a special type of voltage-surge protection diode. It is characterized by the symmetrical voltage-current characteristic, similar to DIAC. It has much faster response time however, that's why it is used in demanding applications.
 ප්‍රකාශ දියෝඩ
 All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.
 PIN diodes
 A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
 Schottky diodes
 Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.
 සුපිරි බාධක දියොඩ
 Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode.
 Gold-doped diodes
 As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914.
 Snap-off or Step recovery diodes
 The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
 Stabistors or Forward Reference Diodes
 The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.
 Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS)
 These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.
 Varicap or varactor diodes
 These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.
 සෙනර් දියෝඩ
 These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diode is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark).
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include the sensing of temperature, and computing analog logarithms (see Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic output).

අංකනය හා කේතනය
There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard:

EIA/JEDEC
The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation (e.g., 1N4003). Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power rectifier).

JIS
The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with "1S".

Pro Electron
The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X = multiplier, Y = rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example:
 AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119)
 BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode)
 BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)
 BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)
Other common numbering / coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:
 GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9) this is a very old coding system
 OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47) a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company
As well as these common codes, many manufacturers or organisations have their own systems too for example:
 HP diode 1901-0044 = JEDEC 1N4148
 UK military diode CV448 = Mullard type OA81 = GEC type GEX23

අශ්‍රිත උපාංගRelated devices
 Rectifier
 Transistor
 Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
 TRIAC
 DIAC
 Varistor
In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the Optical isolator, also known as an Optical Diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component.

භාවිතයන්

විමූර්ජනය

The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves.

ඍජුකරණය

Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages.

අධි විභව පාලනය
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (A diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).

තාර්කික ද්වාර
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.

Ionizing radiation detectors
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors.
This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer, etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer-range (about a centimetre) particles, they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
They have a finite life, especially when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.

Semiconductor detectors for high-energy particles are used in large numbers. Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

උෂ්ණත්වය මැනීම
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above, it might appear that the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant current), but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more significant than the variation in the thermal voltage term. Most diodes therefore have a negative temperature coefficient, typically −2 mV/˚C for silicon diodes. The temperature coefficient is approximately constant for temperatures above about 20 kelvins. Some graphs are given for 1N400x series, and CY7 cryogenic temperature sensor.

Current steering
Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running.

Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backwards through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid-state pinball machines.

Waveform Clipper
Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.

Clamper

A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive, or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level.

Abbreviations
Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs. Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal rectifier is used.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 Active rectification
 Diode modelling
 Junction diode
 Lambda diode
 p–n junction
 Small-signal model

යොමුව

බාහිර යොමු
 Diodes and Rectifiers – Chapter on All About Circuits
 Structure and Functional Behavior of PIN Diodes  – PowerGuru
 Interactive and animations
 Interactive Explanation of Semiconductor Diode, University of Cambridge
 Schottky Diode Flash Tutorial Animation
 Datasheets / Databooks
 Discrete Databook (Historical 1978), National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)
 Discrete Databook (Historical 1982), SGS (now STMicroelectronics)
 Discrete Databook (Historical 1985), Fairchild

දියොඩය


Gumi is the second largest city in Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea. It is in the mid central part of Gyeongsangbuk-do. The Nakdong River runs through the city. Gumi is well known for its National Industrial Complex which was built in the 1970s. Manufacturing is the major industry of Gumi now, but agriculture was the main one before the Complex was built.

Tourist attractions
Gumi is famous because Geumo Mountain (Geumo San) is there.  Geumo San, designated as a provincial park in 1970, is 976 meters above sea level. It attracts many tourists because of its beautiful scenery; such as oddly formed rocks and strangely shaped stones, forests, and valleys. The mountain is best known for its own unique shape.  Seeing  the mountain from a distance, it resembles the profile of a giant lying on the ground. It has become one of the favorite sites among photographers because it looks most spectacular at sunset. There are a variety of post cards with pictures of its side face of a giant.

People
Park Chung-hee is one of the former presidents of South Korea and he was born in Gumi in 1917. Gumi became prosperous during his presidential term.  The Gyeongbu Expressway and Gyeongbu Line railway, which are the principal traffic routes of the country, were built to pass through the city. The routes could have been connected directly from Daejeon to Daegu. The rapid economical growth of Gumi resulted from the president's care for his hometown.

Other websites
Gumi

Cities in South Korea

Gumi