The Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille (Lille Palace of Fine Arts) is a municipal museum dedicated to fine arts, modern art, and antiquities. It is one of the largest art museums in France.

It was one of the first museums built in France, established under the instructions of Napoleon I at the beginning of the 19th century as part of the popularisation of art. Jean-Antoine Chaptal's decree of 1801 selected fifteen French cities (among which Lille) to receive the works seized from churches and from the European territories occupied by the armies of Revolutionary France. The painters Louis Joseph Watteau and François Watteau, known as the "Watteau of Lille", were heavily involved in the museum's beginnings - Louis Joseph Watteau made in 1795 the first inventory of the paintings confiscated during the Revolution, whilst his son François was deputy curator of the museum from 1808 to 1823.

The museum opened in 1809 and was initially housed in a church confiscated from the Récollets before being transferred to the city's town hall. In 1866, the "musée Wicar", formed from the collection of Jean-Baptiste Wicar, was merged into the Palais des Beaux-Arts. Construction of the Palais's current Baroque-revival-style building began in 1885 under the direction of Géry Legrand, mayor of Lille, and it was completed in 1892. The architects chosen to design the new building were Edouard Bérard (1843–1912) and Fernand Etienne-Charles Delmas (1852–1933) from Paris. During the early 20th century, Victor Mollet served as its official architect. The building is located on the place de la République, in the center of the city, facing the préfecture of Lille. It was renovated during the 1990s and reopened in 1997.

At the start of the 1990s, the building's poor state and the moving of Vauban's relief models of fortified towns to Lille forced the town to renovate the building. Work began in 1991, under the architects Jean-Marc Ibos and Myrto Vitart, and was completed in 1997. This allowed the creation of a new 700 m2 basement room for temporary exhibitions, as well as departments for the relief models and for 19th-century sculpture. Overall the museum covers 22000 m2 and held 72430 pieces as of 2015, one of the largest provincial collections of fine art. The collection includes works by Raphael, Donatello, Van Dyck, Tissot, Jordaens, Rembrandt, Goya, El Greco, David, Corot, Courbet, Toulouse-Lautrec, Delacroix, Rubens, Rodin, Claudel and Jean-Baptiste Chardin.

Collections

Antiquities, Middle Ages and Renaissance

 Ascension of the Elect, Dirk Bouts, oil on wood (c 1450)
 Fall of the Damned, Dirk Bouts, oil on wood (c 1450)
 Portrait of man, skull in a niche, Barthel Bruyn, oil on wood
 Three donors with Saint John the Baptist, Barthel Bruyn the Younger, oil on wood
 The Virgin and the Sleeping Jesus, Joos van Cleve, oil on wood (16th century)
 The Virgin nursing the Infant Jesus, Joos van Cleve, oil on wood (16th century)
 Christ blessing the Virgin, Jacob Cornelisz van Amsterdam, oil on wood (16th century)
 The Virgin, the Infant Jesus and saint Cecilia, Domenico Panetti
 Trinity, triptych of Marchiennes, Jean Bellegambe, oil on wood (c 1510)
 Triptych of the mystic bath, Jehan Bellegambe, oil on wood (1510)
 Feast of Herod, Donatello, marble (vers 1435)
 Vanity, Jan Sanders van Hemessen, oil on wood (c 1535–1540)
 Virgin and Child surrounded by angels, Master of the Embroidered Foliage, triptych, oil on wood (c 1495–1500)
 Portraits of Louis de Quarre and Barbe de Cruysinck as donors ; saint Barbara and saint Louis on foot under arcades, Master of the Embroidered Foliage, oil on wood (c 1495–1500)
 The Virgin in glory amidst the apostles, Master of the Lyversberg Passion, oil on wood (c 1460–1480)
 Adoration of the Shepherds, Master of the Lille Adoration, oil on wood (1520)
 Preaching of saint John the Baptist, Master of the Lille Preaching, oil on wood (1530–1540)
 Vierge au lait, Maître des Madones mosanes, marble (c 1350)
 Adoration of the Magi, Maître MS, oil on wood (c 1506–1510)
 Saint Dorothea and Saint Mary Magdalen, Master of saint-Séverin, two panels, oil on wood (1480–1520)
 Noli me tangere, Lambert Sustris (1548-1560)
 The Resurrection and La Vierge du rosaire, anonymous, South German, oil on wood (c 1480–1490)
 Adoration of the Magi, anonymous, triptych, oil on wood (c 1510–1520)
 Saint Henri and saint Cunégonde, saint Jerome and a bishop saint, predella of the retable of saint George, anonymous, Tyrol, oil on wood (c 1520)
 Saint John the Baptist and saint Catherine, anonymous, German, oil on wood (16th century)
 Saint Barbara and two saints, anonymous, German, oil on wood (16th century)
 Sketch for Paradise, Veronese, oil on wood

17th-century paintings

 Rest of the Holy Family, Pieter van Avont, oil on wood
 Martyrdom of saint Maurice and his companions, Jan Boeckorst known as Lange Jan, oil on canvas (1661)
 Allegory of the Vanities of the World, Pieter Boel, oil on canvas (1663)
 Coronation the Virgin, Thomas Willeboirts Bosschaert, oil on canvas
 Ecstasy of saint Rosalie of Palermo, Theodor Boeyermans, oil on canvas
 The Nativity, Philippe de Champaigne, oil on canvas
 Antique landscape, Philippe de Champaigne, oil on canvas
 Saint Nicolas saving the prisoners, Jan Cossiers, oil on canvas (1660)
 The Miraculous Fish or The apostles reporting to Christ the fruit of their enterprise, Gaspard de Crayer, oil on wood
 Martyrdom of the crowned martyrs : Claudius, Nicolastratus, Symphorianus, Castor and Simplicius, Gaspard de Crayer, oil on wood
 Miracle of Saint Anthony of Padua at Toulouse, Anthony van Dyck, oil on wood (c 1627–1630)
 Christ on the cross, Anthony van Dyck, oil on canvas
 Portrait of Marie de Médicis, reine de France, Anthony van Dyck
 Christ climbing to Calvary and being recognised by saint Veronica, Frans II Francken, oil on wood (c 1615–1620)
 Presentation of the Holy Tunic to Charles V, Frans II Francken, oil on wood (c 1615)
 Ball on a palace terrace or ball at the court of Don John of Austria, Hieronymus Janssens known as Le danseur, oil on canvas (1658)
 Christ and the Pharisees, Jacob Jordaens, oil on canvas (c 1660)
 The Abduction of Europa, Jacob Jordaens, oil on canvas (1643)
 Portrait of a man, Jacob Jordaens, oil on wood
 Susanna and the Elders, Jacob Jordaens, oil on canvas
 The distress of the prodigal son, Jacob Jordaens
 A piqueur and his dogs, Jacob Jordaens, (1635)
 Saint Mary Magdalene at prayer, Eustache Le Sueur, oil on canvas
 Burial, Pieter Lastman, oil on wood (1612)
 Moses dividing the waters, Johann Liss, oil on canvas
 St Peter causing a cloud to protect the faithful from the sun, Jeremias Mittendorff, oil on wood (1629)
 Martyrdom of Saint Peter of Verona, Jeremias Mittendorff, oil on canvas (1629)
 Saint Peter unmasking a false Madonna that had appeared in a heretics' temple, Jeremias Mittendorff, oil on wood (1629)
 Soldiers casting lots for the tunic of Christ, Nicolas Régnier
 St Jerome, José de Ribera, oil on canvas (1643)
 Descent from the Cross, Rubens, oil on canvas (circa 1617)
 Martyrdom of St Catherine, Rubens, oil on canvas (circa 1615)
 Ecstasy of Mary Magdalen, Rubens, oil on canvas (circa 1619)
 Royal Generosity, Jan van den Hoecke, oil on canvas (1635) - Workshop of Rubens
 Royal Providence, Jan van den Hoecke, oil on canvas (1635) - Workshop of Rubens
 Saint François receiving the Christ Child from the Virgin's hands, Rubens, oil on canvas (c 1617)
 Birth of the Virgin, Jacques Stella
 Renaud and Armide, Alessandro Tiarini, oil on canvas
 Apotheosis of St Francis of Paul, Theodoor van Thulden, oil on wood
 Martyrdom of St Philippe, oil on wood (c 1645–1648)
 Jesus's arrest in the Garden of Olives, Simon de Vos, oil on copper (vers 1650–1670)
 Jesus tried before Caiaphas, Simon de Vos, oil on copper (c 1650–1670)
 Saint Zita, Arnould de Vuez, oil on canvas (c 1696)
 Saint Cecilia accompanied by three angel musicians, Arnould de Vuez
 Mourning Virgin, Arnould de Vuez, oil on canvas
 St Anthony of Assisi receiving the stigmata, Arnould de Vuez, oil on canvas
 Interior of the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft, Emanuel de Witte
 The Denarius of Caesar, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout (1673)

18th- and 19th-century paintings

 Vanity, Alfred Agache, oil on canvas (1885)
 Portrait of Madame d'Aucourt de Saint-Just, Louis Léopold Boilly, oil on canvas (c. 1800)
 Portrait of Monsieur d'Aucourt de Saint-Just, Boilly, oil on canvas (c. 1800)
 Portrait, said to be of Robespierre, Boilly, oil on canvas
 Portrait of the sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, Boilly, oil study on paper
 Portrait of Julien Boilly enfant, Boilly, oil on canvas
 My foot of beef, Boilly, oil on canvas
 Triumph of Marat, Boilly, paper on canvas
 23 studies for "the Studio of Isabey", Boilly, paper on canvas
 Tobias fighting his father, Bon Boullongne, oil on canvas (c. 1705)
 Lady in black, Carolus-Duran, oil on cartoon (1859)
 Sleeping man, Carolus-Duran, oil on canvas (1861)
 The Kiss, Carolus-Duran, oil on canvas (1868)
 Lady with a dog, Carolus-Duran, (1870)
 The silver goblet, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, oil on canvas (c. 1730)
 Elevation of the Cross, Alphonse Colas, (1849)
 Idyll or Cache-Cache, Jean-Baptiste Corot
 View of Honfleur, Gustave Courbet
 An Après-dîner at Ornans, Gustave Courbet, oil on canvas (1848–1849)
 Belisarius begging alms, Jacques-Louis David, oil on canvas (1781)
 Apelles painting Campaspe in Alexander's presence, Jacques-Louis David, oil on wood (1814)
 Medea, Eugène Delacroix, oil on canvas (1838)
 Hêtraie in the forest of Fontainebleau, Constant Dutilleux
 The Birth of Venus, Amaury Duval, oil on canvas (1862)
 Persuasion, Cyprian Godebski
 The Young People or The Letter, Francisco de Goya
 The Old People or Time, Francisco de Goya, oil on canvas (c. 1808–1812)
 Psyche crowning Love, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, oil on canvas
 Portrait of Berthe Morisot with a Fan, Édouard Manet
 Portrait of the artist, Odilon Redon, oil on canvas (c. 1880)
 The Supper at Emmaus, Jean Restout, oil on canvas (1735)
 Landscape at Grandcamp, Georges Seurat, oil on wood (1885)

20th-century paintings
 Olga au col de fourrure, Pablo Picasso
 Rythme Coloré, Sonia Delaunay
 The barn, Constant Permeke
 Portrait of a woman, Rik Wouters
 Poelle flamand, Édouard Pignon
 Portrait, Ladislas Kijno
 Butterfly on a wheel, Fernand Léger
 Ecluse, Vieira da Silva
 Composition on the word cheval, Auguste Herbin
 Triptych, Marcel Lempereur-Haut
 Composition, Serge Poliakoff

Sculptures
 Penelope, Émile-Antoine Bourdelle, bronze statue (1909)
 Charles Frédéric Kuhlmann, Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, marble bust (c 1868–1870)
 The Pisan, Carolus-Duran, bronze
 Louise Claudel, Camille Claudel, terracotta bust
 Giganti or Head of a brigand, Camille Claudel, bronze head
 The Kisser, Gustave Crauk, plaster
 Cincinnatus, Denis Foyatier, plaster statue
 Knight errant, Emmanuel Frémiet, plaster equestrian statue (1878)
 Narcissus, Ernest-Eugène Hiolle, plaster statue (c 1867–1868)
 The Fever of Caumartin, Jean-Antoine Houdon, bronze-painted plaster bust (1779)
 Camulogene, Eugène-Louis Lequesne, plaster statue  (1872)
 Satyr and bacchante, James Pradier, painted plaster (c 1833)
 Apollo and the muses, Emile Morlaix, original plaster
 Dying Hero, René Leleu, bronze
 La Séve, Gaston Watkin, stone
 Athlete, Gerard Choain, bronze
 Joan of Arc and other pieces, Alphonse-Amédée Cordonnier

Prints and drawings
 Preparatory drawing for the "Alba Madonna". Seated man wearing a shirt, bare arms., Raphael (c. 1511)

Collection of "plans-reliefs"

 Calais  France, 753 × 463 cm, 1/600 scale, 6 tables (1691)
 Charleroi  Belgium, 405 × 340 cm, 1/600 scale, 4 tables (1695)
 Ath  Belgium, 480 × 378 cm, 1/600 scale, 5 tables (1697)
 Ypres  Belgium, by engineer Tessier de Derville, 944 × 548 cm, 1/600 scale, 12 tables (1698–1702)
 Bergues  France, 441 × 376 cm, 1/600 scale, 6 tables (1699)
 Tournai  Belgium, by engineer Montaigu, 654 × 580 cm, 1/600 scale, 11 tables (1701)
 Menin  Belgium, 542 × 372 cm, 1/600 scale, 6 tables (1702)
 Bouchain  France, by engineer Ladevèze, 418 × 295 cm, 1/600 scale, 5 tables (1715)
 Lille  France, by engineer Nicolas de Nézot, 440 × 400 cm, 1/600 scale, 7 tables, paper, silk and wood (1740–1743)
 Aire-sur-la-Lys  France, by engineer Nicolas de Nézot, 590 × 467 cm, 1/600 scale, 15 tables, paper, silk and wood (1743)
 Audenarde  Belgium, by engineer Nicolas de Nézot, 548 × 416 cm, 1/600 scale, 11 tables, paper, silk and wood (1747)
 Namur  Belgium, by engineer Larcher d'Aubencourt, 776 × 650 cm, 1/600 scale, 22 tables (1747–1750)
 Maastricht  Netherlands, by engineer Larcher d'Aubencourt, 689 × 580 cm, 1/600 scale, 13 tables (1752)
 Gravelines  France, by engineer Lusca, 460 × 373 cm, 1/600 scale, 7 tables, paper, silk and wood (1756)
 Avesnes  France, 753 × 525 cm, 1/600 scale, 18 tables (1824–1826)

Gallery

Curator, director of the Palais des Beaux-Arts
 Bruno Girveau (present)
 Alain Tapié
 Arnaud Brejon de Lavergnée
 Albert Châtelet

Goya: Les Caprices (1799), 24 April - 28 July 2008
 Philippe de Champaigne, 27 April - 15 August 2007 (his first retrospective)
 Rubens, 6 March-14 June 2004 (as part of Lille 2004)
 Carolus-Duran, 9 March - 9 June 2003
 Berthe Morisot, 10 March - 9 June 2002 (first European retrospective since 1961)
 Francisco de Goya, 15 December 1998 – 14 March 1999

Bibliography
 Le Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille par Alain Tapié, Marie-Françoise Bouttemy, Annie Castier, et Dominique Delgrange aux éditions Réunion des musées nationaux,
 Les Plans en relief des places fortes du Nord : dans les collections du Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille by Isabelle Warmoes,
 Catalogue des dessins italiens : Collection du Palais des beaux-arts de Lille, aux éditions Réunion des musées nationaux,

External links

 Official site of the Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille
 Mayor of Lille

Art museums established in 1809
Art museums and galleries in France
Buildings and structures in Lille
FRAME Museums
1809 establishments in France
Museums in Nord (French department)
Tourist attractions in Lille

Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille


A Molotov cocktail, also known as a petrol bomb, fire bomb, or benzine torch, is a simple incendiary device, meant to start a fire. It is relatively easy to make and is used by irregular paramilitary forces and by rioters. It is also used for arson.

It was used for the first time in the Spanish Civil War between July 1936 and April 1939, but it became known as "Molotov cocktails" only during the Second World War.

Mechanism

A Molotov cocktail consists of a glass bottle partly filled with a flammable liquid. The liquid will typically be gasoline, alcohol, methanol or ethanol. The mouth of the bottle is closed with a cork or other type of tight sealing made of rubber, glass, or plastic, and a cloth rag is fixed securely around the mouth. The weapon is used by first soaking the rag in a flammable liquid immediately before using it, lighting the rag, and throwing the bottle at the target. The bottle breaks when it lands, spilling the flammable liquid over the target, which is then ignited by the burning rag.

Many substances may be added to the basic Molotov cocktail to enhance its use as a weapon. These include:
 Substances that will ignite by themselves when hitting the target, for example White phosphorus
 Substances that will help the liquid stick to the target, for example tar
 Acid will help the penetration of non-flammable surfaces
 Substances that will increase the explosive effect, for example gunpowder

Molotov cocktails are similar to napalm bombs in principle. Napalm was originally made by combining flammable naphthalene and petrol with a thickening agent palmitic acid. The latter two are the main ingredients of Molotov cocktails. When gasoline is used as the main ingredient, motor oil is commonly added to help the gasoline cling to the target.

Origin of name
The name "Molotov cocktail" is derived from Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, a Soviet politician. He was the People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, or the Foreign Minister, of the Soviet Union.

During the early part of World War II, when Finland refused to surrender some land to the Soviet Union, the Soviets invaded it. The poorly equipped and heavily outnumbered Finnish Army faced Red Army tanks in what came to be known as the Winter War. The army borrowed an improvised incendiary device from the 1936–39 Spanish Civil War. In that conflict, the Spanish Nationalists under the orders of General Francisco Franco had used the weapon against Soviet T-26 tanks. Those tanks helped the Spanish Republicans in a failed 1936 Soviet assault near Toledo, 30 km from Madrid.

When Molotov claimed in radio broadcasts that the Soviet Union was not dropping bombs but rather delivering food to the starving Finns, the Finns started to call the air bombs satirically "Molotov bread baskets". Soon they responded by saluting the advancing tanks with "Molotov cocktails." At first the term was used to describe only the burning mixture itself, but the term was soon applied to the combination of both the bottle and its contents. This Finnish use of the hand- or sling-thrown explosive against Soviet tanks was repeated in the subsequent Continuation War. Molotov cocktails were eventually mass-produced by the Finnish military, bundled with matches to light them.

These weapons saw widespread use by all sides in World War II. They were very effective against light tanks, and very bad for enemy morale. The following is a first-hand description of their effects, written during the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943:

 The well-aimed bottles hit the tank. The flames spread quickly. The blast of the explosion is heard. The machine stands motionless. The crew is burned alive. The other two tanks turn around and withdraw. The Germans who took cover behind them withdraw in panic. We take leave of them with a few well-aimed shots and grenades.

During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, members of the Israeli Kibbutz Degania managed to stop a Syrian tank assault by using Molotov cocktails. They were frequently used against Soviet tanks with great efficiency in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.

The weapon has been used against tanks effectively because of the conformation of parts of tanks, particularly around the undersides and fuel tank "entrances". A Molotov cocktail could blow up the fuel tank, destroying the machine, particularly for older (before 1940) tank models. Molotov cocktails are much more effective against gasoline engines than diesel engines' tanks. This is because diesel has a high flashpoint of 64 °C – making it more difficult to ignite compared to petrol. Some Soviet tanks actually had an entry to the gas tank on the side of the vehicle, which could be opened by combatants in close quarters, letting out the highly flammable liquid and making destruction of the tank even easier. These tactics are effective only inside a small space, where tanks cannot easily maneuver. In such conditions quick-moving enemies, armed with incendiary bombs, have a huge advantage.

Petrol bombs were widely used throughout the Troubles in Northern Ireland in riot situations, directed towards the RUC or the British Army. As well as occasional situations where they continue to be used against the PSNI and army, they are frequently used in sectarian attacks on homes and businesses by both communities. Fireworks and homemade grenades, known as blast bombs now commonly accompany petrol bomb attacks on the security forces.

Legal concerns
As such things can cause a lot of damage, and actually kill people, it is illegal in most countries to make or possess them. When they are used against property, this usually counts as arson. When they are used against people, the charges range from manslaughter to murder.

Given the recent terrorism laws, such things could also fall under anti-terror legislation.

Recent use
Ukrainians were using these to fend off Russian tanks late February 2022.

Molotov cocktails were put to use recently during the riotous 2005 civil unrest in France. Another situation with popularity for them is the Palestinian Intifada.

In Sydney, during the Cronulla Riots, rioters carrying Molotov cocktails were apprehended when they carried open bottles in a bus. The resulting smell of petrol alerted the driver, who in turn alerted the police.

During the Columbine High School massacre, the two gunmen built and threw several Molotov cocktails; however, none of them exploded. It is presumed that this was due to bottles being overfilled.

References

Other websites

 La Unidad Italiana de Carros-Artillería, los T-26 Soviéticos y la Batalla de Seseña

 Eyewitness reporting for the Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa|Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (Jewish Fighting Organization), 1943-04-19

Other websites
 A detailed technology of the Molotov cocktail

Incendiary weapons
Improvised explosive devices

Molotov cocktail


The Croatia national cricket team is the team that represents Croatia in international cricket. The team is organised by the Croatian Cricket Federation, which became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) in 2001 and an associate member in 2017. Croatia made its international debut at the 2000 ECC Representative Festival in Austria. It has since regularly played in the lower levels of European Cricket Council tournaments, as well as in various other series against European sides.

In April 2018, the ICC decided to grant full Twenty20 International (T20I) status to all its members. Therefore, all Twenty20 matches played between Croatia and other ICC members after 1 January 2019 will be a full T20I.

International competition

Croatia have been a regular participant in the European Cricket Council's various tournaments, starting in 2000 with the ECC Representative Championships, the fourth tier of European competition. They finished as runners up to Norway in that tournament. They hosted the same tournament two years later, where they finished third behind Finland and Slovenia, but then won the 2004 tournament.

ICC Europe one-day tournaments

They also competed in the ECC Trophy in 2001, 2003 but failed to achieve results they were capable of and finished just off the bottom of the ladder on both occasions.

In 2004 ICC Europe reorganised its competition structure, creating four divisions – of which Croatia fell into Division 4.  The team made a clean sweep of the ICC Europe Division 4 Championship held that year in Ljubljana, Slovenia, beating the hosts Slovenia, newcomers Bulgaria and old rivals in Switzerland, Luxembourg and Finland.  Victory meant automatic promotion to Division 3.

The team's first appearance in the 9-team Division 3, held in Belgium in August 2005, was successful from the point of view that they managed to finish in 7th place and thereby avoid the two bottom two places which meant automatic relegation back to the lower division whence they came, as ICC Europe restructured its competitions again, this time creating 5 divisions of six nations each, European Championship.  The team returned to Belgium in 2007 for another crack at Division 3.  This time they were better prepared and organised, and despite a number of injuries went through the tournament undefeated after narrowly beating Spain (by 4 runs) in a thrilling final – to earn the right to play against Israel for a place in the dizzy heights of Division 2.

In another close finish the team beat Israel by 5 runs in Tel Aviv in November to earn a spot in Division 2, which was played in Guernsey in 2008.  The step-up in standard of the higher division proved a little too much and the team left the island without a victory in the competition, and the prospect of another play-off match to avoid relegation back to Division 3.

Croatia narrowly defeated Israel by 5 runs in Tel Aviv in November 2007 in a play-off match for the sixth place in the European Division 2 Championship.  This match shall be recorded in history as the first official international cricket match played in Israel since the formation of the modern Israeli state.

In October 2009 Croatia and Israel met again for a play-off match to decide who will fill the sixth spot in the ICC Europe Division 2 Championship to be played in 2010.  Israel ran out comfortable winners in a rain-affected match played in Zagreb.  Croatia now returns to ICC Europe Division 3, and will take part in the championship in 2011.

ICC Europe Twenty20 competitions

The Croatian Cricket Federation also sent a representative side (Croatia 'A') to take part in the 2008 Euro Twenty-20 tournament held by Carmel & District Cricket Club in North Wales. Croatia recorded victories over Slovakia and Carmel but lost in the semi-finals to eventual winners Estonia, to finish in fourth spot.

The Croatia 'A' team returned to Carmel in July 2009 for the second edition of the Euro Twenty-20 tournament.  This time team beat Bulgaria but lost to the Isle of Alderney and Russia in the group stage to be relegated to the 'Plate' competition.  Victories against Hungary in the semi-final and New Victoria CC in the Plate final gave the team its first silverware.  Croatia A's Nikola Davidović was also named the bowler of the tournament.

Croatia 'A' played a friendly match against Ireland 'A' in Dublin on 19 July 2009.  Ireland ran out comfortable winners by 133 runs.

MCC Tour of August 2009

The MCC toured Croatia from 2 August until 7 August, the first match commencing on 3 August between a Croatian Development XI and the MCC (Limited Overs), the match was a 75 run win to the visitors (MCC 8/280 v Croatia 5/205), a notable performance by C.Sinovich scoring 116 with the bat and taking 1 for 53 off 7 overs. The second match, on 4 August, was between the MCC and Croatian Presidents XI (Twenty20), the result was a dismal performance by the Croatian team, losing the match by 127 runs (MCC 2/264 v Croatia 5/137), R Turner top scoring for the visitors with 179, putting together a partnership with M.Marvell of 251 for the second wicket. V. Sharma was the only notable performer for Croatia with figures of 1 for 22 off 4 overs. For the fourth match of the series (played on 5 August), the MCC played a Croatian national team (Limited Overs) who made 9/187 off their allotted overs, but losing by 6 wickets, MCC reaching 4/188 off 27.3 overs. C.Wear top scoring for the locals with 62 (second highest for the match behind T.Hicks with 84). The fifth and final game was played on 6 August, with a Sir William Hoste XI playing the visitors (twenty20 format). With the hosts being held to 7/81 off their allotted overs, an easy win to the MCC making 2/82 with 10.3 overs remaining. All matches being played in Vis on an artificial surface.

Records
International Match Summary — Croatia

Last updated 6 August 2023.

Twenty20 International
T20I record versus other nations

Records complete to T20I #2190. Last updated 6 August 2023.

Other results
For a list of selected international matches played by Croatia, see Cricket Archive.

See also
 List of Croatia Twenty20 International cricketers

References

Cricket in Croatia
National cricket teams
Cricket
Croatia in international cricket

Croatia national cricket team


William-Adolphe Bouguereau (born November 30, 1825) was a French painter. Bouguereau was a traditionalist and his style did not change much throughout his painting career. He was a popular artist in his day. Rich customers liked his photo-realistic style. He liked to paint classical scenes and scenes from ancient mythology.

As a boy Bouguereau was born into a family of wine and olive oil sellers. His parents wanted him to join the family business when he became an adult. His uncle, however, arranged for him to get a proper education at school. Bouguereau showed great talent for art. One of his father's customers talked him into sending William to a famous art college. There he won first place for one of his paintings. To earn extra money he designed labels for fruit jellies and jams.

Bouguereau liked to paint pictures of women. He was known for being able to make his subject look prettier than she really was.

In 1856, he married Marie-Nelly Monchablon and had five children. In the late 1850s he made a profitable friendship with a successful art dealer. This art dealer made William famous even in other countries. William was able to buy a big house and studio with his growing fortune.
He was a hard working painter. He would make a thorough study and sketch of what he planned to paint. The great way he painted skin, hands and feet was well known. He eventually became a teacher at a French art college.

Near the end of his life he described his love of his art: "Each day I go to my studio full of joy; in the evening when obliged to stop because of darkness I can scarcely wait for the next morning to come…if I cannot give myself to my dear painting I am miserable". He painted eight hundred and twenty-six paintings.

Bouguereau died at the age of 79 on August 19, 1905 from heart disease.

Gallery

1825 births
1905 deaths
French painters

William-Adolphe Bouguereau


"It is time to work for the Lord" is the first half of a verse in Psalms that has served as a dramatic slogan at several junctures in rabbinic Judaism.

Psalm 119:126 states: "It is time for the Lord to act, for your law has been broken" (New Oxford Annotated Bible ad loc.;  Eth la'asot la-Yahweh he-feru Toratekha). This verse would seem to suggest that, when the wicked are breaking the commandments, God will deliver the steadfast.

However, in the readings of rabbinic midrash, an alternate meaning of the verse is given, due to an ambiguity in the Biblical Hebrew: instead of God acting in response to sin, humans should act on behalf of God. Thus, the verse may be understood as: "It is time to work for the Lord..."

History
In the tannaitic period, the sage Hillel the Elder cited the verse to call fellow Jews to intensively study the Torah when it is neglected. (Ephraim Urbach interprets Hillel as calling for fuller observance of the Torah commandments in general, The Sages pp. 341f.) Rabbi Nathan makes a related gesture, for Jewish efforts against heresy, at the end of Mishnah Berakhot. Nathan transposes the two halves of the verse thus: "They have made void your law, it is time to work for the Lord." (See Urbach, 836n.93)

In the Talmudic period, the verse is thus called upon to justify the radical shift in rabbinic belief after the destruction of the Temple. Due to the conditions of exilic Jewry, the rabbinic leadership decided to permit the Oral Torah to be transcribed in writing and disseminated. The verse is interpreted to mean that "It is better that one letter of the Torah [the verse forbidding the writing down of the Oral Torah] should be uprooted than that the whole of the Torah be forgotten." (Temurah 14b, Elon Jewish Law 5:1, Louis Jacobs, p. 133 trans.)

In the modern period, the dramatic character of the verse again enters the stage. The verse is among those utilized to justify rabbinic innovations in halakhah. In Enlightenment period Germany, both the Reform rabbis and their Orthodox opponents cite the verse to justify the urgent nature of their actions ("It is time to act for the Lord"). The two conflicting positions see quite different referents for the verse's "they have voided the law"—the Reformers felt the need to accommodate the growing disinterest in Jewish law, whereas the Orthodox felt that the Reformers themselves were voiding the law.

See also
Psalm 119

References

Sources

On the baraita of Hillel the Elder, see Tosefta Berakhot 6:24 and Lieberman ad loc.
Talmud Berakhot 63
Nathan Birnbaum, "Et la'asot," //trans: "It is time to work (for the Lord)"  // in Nathan Birnbaum, ed., Divrei ha-olim (Vienna, 1917)
Elon. Jewish law
Jacobs. A Tree of Life: Diversity, Flexibility, and Creativity in Jewish Law
Urbach. The Sages

Other uses:

Ra'avad on Maimonides (H. Mamrim 2:9)
Jacob Emden's responsum on concubinage also relies on the verse.
Franz Rosenzweig uses the verse in his public letter to Hermann Cohen, It is Time: Thoughts on the Problem of Jewish Education at this Moment (Berlin, 1917) //Zeit ists (German) Et la'asot (Hebrew)

Other uses:

In an aggadic midrash, the cock sings the verse as a call to work. Ginsburg, Legends of the Jews, I:3
There is an Israeli periodical named after this verse, Et la'asot //trans: "It is time to work (for the Lord)"

Jewish law principles
Hebrew Bible words and phrases
Psalms

It is time to work for the Lord


A tanda is a turn of dancing in a milonga, and by association, a set of pieces of music, usually between three and five, that is played for one turn. The most common style is to play four pieces in the tango tandas, three in the milonga tandas, and three or four in the vals tandas.

Most commonly the music is tango, milonga or vals. Between tandas is played a cortina (Spanish for "curtains"), a musical pause to allow dancers to leave the floor and to serve as a short break between tandas.

Tandas are normally arranged by feel of the music. A typical order of tandas is: T-T-V-T-T-M (T for a tanda of tangos, V for a tanda of vals cruzado, M for a tanda of milongas).

Structure inside a tanda
It is common to choose the music for a tanda from a given orchestra and era, often with the same vocalist (or, as an alternative, purely instrumental pieces). Mixing different vocalists, eras or even orchestras is rare. This approach is chosen for the comfort of the dancers, with two main reasons
 When a new tanda starts, the dancers can listen to the beginning of the first piece to learn whether they like the music or not, and based on this decide to ask someone to dance this tanda, or take a break.
 The dancers can adjust to a type of music in the beginning song of the tanda, without having to readjust for each song.

Sometimes, in a minority of milongas in Argentina, non-tango tandas are also played, like Rock n roll, Cumbia or Chacarera, but rarely for more than one tanda.

See also
Tango (dance)
Tango music
Cortina (tango)

References

Tango dance

Tanda (milonga)


EtherApe is a packet sniffer/network traffic monitoring tool, developed for Unix. EtherApe is free, open source software developed under the GNU General Public License.

Functionality
Network traffic is displayed using a graphical interface. Each node represents a specific host. Links represent connections to hosts. Nodes and links are color-coded to represent different protocols forming the various types of traffic on the network. Individual nodes and their connecting links grow and shrink in size with increases and decreases in network traffic.

History
Originally authored by Juan Toledo, the first version of EtherApe (version 0.0.1) was released on February 18, 2000. In a 2006 survey, Insecure.org named EtherApe number 43 on its list of the "Top 100 Network Security Tools".

Features
Some of the features listed about EtherApe include (the following list refers to version 0.9.20 of EtherApe):
 graphical network traffic display
 color-coded node and links for most used protocols
 optional background image
 traffic may be viewed on one's own network, end to end (IP) or port to port (TCP)
 a variety of frame and packet types are supported
 data view can be manipulated using a network filter
 clicking a node or link provides additional information regarding including protocol and traffic information
 summary protocol and node table
 can read traffic from a file or an actual network
 handles traffic on Ethernet, WLAN, VLAN plus several other media and encapsulation types
 supports both IPv4 and IPv6
 XML export of node, link and traffic statistics
 "central node ring" mode.
 "column" mode.
 optional name resolving using c-ares library
 packet capture and display run on different processes

Security
EtherApe requires root privileges to capture packets (but not to replay captured files). Starting with release 0.9.15 capturing is delegated to a separate process, while the main interface can run with lower privileges, significantly reducing the risk associated with capturing packets from untrusted sources (e.g. Internet).

See also

Comparison of packet analyzers
tcpdump, a packet analyzer
Ngrep, a tool that can match regular expressions within the network packet payloads
netsniff-ng, a free Linux networking toolkit
Wireshark, a GUI based alternative to tcpdump
dsniff, a packet sniffer and set of traffic analysis tools

References

Free network-related software
Free network management software
Packet analyzer software that uses GTK

EtherApe


On 25 September 1998 a catastrophic industrial accident occurred at the Esso natural gas plant at Longford, Australia. A pressurised vessel ruptured producing a violent outburst of  hydrocarbons followed by a severe fire that burned for two days.

Two workers were killed and eight others injured.

Natural gas supply to the state of Victoria was severely disrupted for two weeks.

The Victorian state government established the Esso Longford Royal Commission (LFRC) to publicly investigate the causes of the accident.

Context
The most important source for this article is "The Esso Longford Gas plant Accident -- Report of the Longford Royal Commission" (LFRC). The 280 page report is available in electronic format, free of charge, from the Victorian Government Library Service. [3]

In 1998, the Longford gas plant was owned by a joint partnership between Esso and BHP. Esso was responsible for the operation of the plant. Esso was a wholly owned subsidiary of US based company Exxon, which has since merged with Mobil, becoming ExxonMobil. [3]

Built in 1969, the plant at Longford is the onshore receiving point for oil and natural gas output from production platforms in Bass Strait. The Longford Gas Plant Complex consists of three gas processing plants and one crude oil stabilisation plant. It was the primary provider of natural gas to Victoria, and provided some supply to New South Wales. [3]

Normal production process
The feed from the Bass Strait platforms consists of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, water and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The water and H2S are removed before reaching the plant, leaving a hydrocarbon stream to be the feed to Gas Plant 1. This stream contained both gaseous and liquid components. The liquid component was known as "condensate". The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is further extracted by means of a shell and tube heat exchanger, in which heated "lean oil" and cold "rich oil" (oil which has absorbed LPG) are pumped into the exchanger, cooling the lean oil and heating the rich oil.

The accident
During the morning of Friday 25 September 1998, a pump supplying heated lean oil to heat exchanger GP905 in Gas Plant No. 1 went offline for four hours, due to an increase in flow from the Marlin Gas Field which caused an overflow of condensate in the absorber. (The plant was complex and the hot oil pump was only one component involved in the accident process; why the pump shut down is complicated and important.)

A heat exchanger is a vessel that allows the transfer of heat from a hot stream to a cold stream, and so does not operate at a single temperature, but experiences a range of temperatures throughout the vessel. Temperatures throughout GP905 normally ranged from . Investigators estimated that, due to the failure of the lean oil pump, parts of GP905 experienced temperatures as low as . Ice had formed on the unit, and it was decided to resume pumping heated lean oil in to thaw it. When the lean oil pump resumed operation, it pumped oil into the heat exchanger at —the temperature differential caused a brittle fracture in the exchanger (GP905) at 12.26pm.

About 10 metric tonnes of hydrocarbon vapour were immediately vented from the rupture. A vapour cloud formed and drifted downwind. When it reached a set of heaters  away, it ignited. This caused a deflagration (a burning vapour cloud). The flame front burnt its way through the vapour cloud, without causing an explosion. When the flame front reached the rupture in the heat exchanger, a fierce jet fire developed that lasted for two days.

The rupture of GP905 led to other releases and minor fires. The main fire was an intense jet fire emanating from GP905. There was no blast wave—the nearby control room was undamaged. Damage was localised to the immediate area around and above the GP905 exchanger.

Peter Wilson and John Lowery were killed in the accident and eight others were injured.

Aftermath
The fire at the plant was not extinguished until two days later. The Longford plant was shut down immediately, and the state of Victoria was left without its primary gas supplier. Within days, VENCorp shut down the state's entire gas supply. The resulting gas supply shortage was devastating to Victoria's economy, crippling industry and the commercial sector (in particular, the hospitality industry which relied on natural gas for cooking). Loss to industry during the crisis was estimated at around A$1.3 billion.

As natural gas was also widely used in houses in Victoria for cooking, water heating and home heating, many Victorians endured 20 days without gas, hot water or heating.

Gas supplies to Victoria resumed on 14 October. Many Victorians were outraged and upset to discover only minor compensation on their next gas bill, with the average compensation figure being only around $10.

Royal Commission
A Royal Commission was called into the explosion at Longford, headed by former High Court judge Daryl Dawson. The Commission sat for 53 days, commencing with a preliminary hearing on 12 November 1998 and concluding with a closing address by Counsel Assisting the Royal Commission on 15 April 1999.

Esso blamed the accident on worker negligence, in particular Jim Ward, one of the panel workers on duty on the day of the explosion.

The findings of the Royal Commission, however, cleared Ward of any negligence or wrongdoing. Instead, the Commission found Esso fully responsible for the accident:

The causes of the accident on 25 September 1998 amounted to a failure to provide and maintain so far as practicable a working environment that was safe and without risks to health. This constituted a breach or breaches of Section 21 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985.

Other findings of the Royal Commission included:
the Longford plant was poorly designed, and made isolation of dangerous vapours and materials very difficult;
inadequate training of personnel in normal operating procedures of a hazardous process;
excessive alarm and warning systems had caused workers to become desensitised to possible hazardous occurrences;
the relocation of plant engineers to Melbourne had reduced the quality of supervision at the plant;
poor communication between shifts meant that the pump shutdown was not communicated to the following shift.

Certain managerial shortcomings were also identified:
the company had neglected to commission a hazard and operability analysis of the heat exchange system, which would almost certainly have highlighted the risk of tank rupture caused by sudden temperature change;
Esso's two-tiered reporting system (from operators to supervisors to management) meant that certain warning signs such as a previous similar incident (on 28 August) were not reported to the appropriate parties;
the company's safety culture was more oriented towards preventing lost time due to accidents or injuries, rather than protection of workers and their health.

Legal ramifications
Esso was taken to the Supreme Court of Victoria by the Victorian WorkCover Authority. The jury found the company guilty of eleven breaches of the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1985, and Justice Philip Cummins imposed a record fine of $2 million in July 2001.

In addition, a class action was taken on behalf of businesses, industries and domestic users who were financially affected by the gas crisis. The class action went to trial in the Supreme Court on 4 September 2002, and was eventually settled in December 2004 when Esso was ordered to pay $32.5 million to businesses which suffered property damage as a result of the incident.

Following the Longford accident, Victoria introduced Major Hazard Facilities regulations to regulate safety at plants that contain major chemical hazards. These regulations impose a so-called "non-prescriptive" regime on facility operators, requiring them to demonstrate control of major chemical hazards via the use of a safety management system and a safety case.

Other states have also implemented similar regulatory regimes.

See also
 List of explosions

References

Notes
Hopkins, Andrew. Lessons From Longford: The Esso Gas Plant Explosion, CCH Australia Limited, 2000.

External links

Explosions in 1998
1998 disasters in Australia
1990s in Victoria (state)
1998 industrial disasters
Gas explosions
Explosions in Australia
Industrial fires and explosions in Australia
ExxonMobil history
Disasters in Victoria (state)
Victoria (state) royal commissions
September 1998 events in Australia
Gippsland (region)
Energy crises in Australia
Energy in Victoria (state)

Esso Longford gas explosion


An oratorio is a piece of music for orchestra, choir and solo singers.  It usually tells a story from the Old Testament.  An oratorio may be about two hours long: a whole concert.  It is rather like an opera, but whereas an opera is acted out in costume on a stage, an oratorio is sung and played in a concert hall or church.  The oratorio as we know it was created in the 18th century.  The words were normally in the composer's own language, not in Italian like most operas were at that time.

The word "oratorio" had been used many centuries ago for music-dramas performed in churches in western Europe.  In Italy oratorios and operas were both being composed in the 17th century.  In Germany composers like Heinrich Schutz and, later, Johann Sebastian Bach were writing Passions which tell the story of the crucifixion.  These are not usually called "oratorios" but they are similar.

The first important composer of oratorios was George Frideric Handel.  Handel, who was born in Germany, had become English.  Handel had written a lot of operas, but in 1732 he started to write oratorios instead and quite suddenly people became very interested in oratorios.  He used the same sort of music as in his operas: the work would start with an overture (an introduction on the orchestra) and then there would be recitative (the bits that told the story), arias (songs for the solo singers) and choruses for the choir.  The chorus was very important in oratorios: they got more to sing than in most operas.  This meant that choral societies became very popular, and this tradition spread from England (where Handel lived) to other countries in Europe.  Handel's most famous oratorio is Messiah. Unlike most of his other oratorios, the story is not from the Old Testament.   It tells the story of the birth, life and death of Jesus.  In Britain Handel's Messiah is traditionally performed around Christmas.  Other oratorios by Handel include: Deborah, Saul, Samson, Judas Maccabaeus and Solomon.  Handel composed all these oratorios to English texts.

In the 19th century the oratorio was very popular. At the turn of the century Joseph Haydn wrote some of his best music in his two oratorios:  Die Schöpfung (The Creation) (1798) and Die Jahreszeiten  (The Seasons) (1801). Mendelssohn wrote St Paul, Elijah and the Hymn of Praise.  Dvořák, Berlioz and Gounod are among the most important Romantic composers of oratorio, and in the 20th century famous oratorios include Elgar's Dream of Gerontius (1900), Walton's Belshazzar's Feast (1931) and Tippett's Child of our Time (1941).

Oratorio


Klausenburg, also known as Sanz-Klausenburg, is a Hasidic dynasty that originated in the Transylvanian city of Cluj-Napoca (, ), today in Romania.

At the behest of Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam, Klausenburger Rebbe from 1927–1994, the movement was split into two separate movements after his death, headed by his two sons. The Sanz-Klausenburger Hasidim are located in Borough Park, New York City, while the Sanzer Hasidim are based in Kiryat Sanz, Netanya, Israel. There are also followings in Los Angeles, California; Jerusalem; Stamford Hill, London; Antwerp; and Union City, New Jersey, and in the USA, in Borough Park, Williamsburg, Monsey, and Lakewood.

Sanz-Klausenburg rabbinical lineage

The Klausenburger Rebbes are descended from Rabbi Chaim Halberstam of Sanz, who was a disciple of Rabbi Naftoli Tzvi of Ropshitz. Rabbi Naftoli was a disciple of Rebbe Elimelech of Lizhensk author of Noam Elimelech. Rebbe Elimelech was a disciple of Rebbe Dovber, the Maggid (Preacher) of Mezritch, the primary disciple of the Baal Shem Tov, the founder of Hasidism.

History

The Klausenburger dynasty was founded by Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam in 1927, when he assumed the position of Rav of Klausenburg, the capital city of Transylvania in western Romania. Halberstam was the great-grandson of Rabbi Chaim of Sanz, founder of the Sanz Hasidic dynasty.

Rabbi Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam grew up in Rudnik, Poland, and was known as a child prodigy and an excellent scholar. In the town of Klausenburg, which he led until the outbreak of World War II, he attracted many followers, and a great number of Sanz Hasidim began to follow the young Rebbe.

As a result of the Holocaust, almost the entire community was destroyed. Approximately 15% survived the Holocaust, including the Rebbe, who lost his wife and eleven children. He emerged as a leader in the displaced persons camps in Europe as he created a communal survivors organization called She'aris Hapleitah ("the surviving remnant"), which operated religious schools for boys and girls and yeshivas for young men in 19 different DP camps, as well as a host of religious services.

In 1947, he emigrated to America and established his court in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, where he began a widescale movement to increase Jewish observance. He founded many Jewish day schools and institutions of higher learning. He launched revolutionary programs for comprehensive study of the Talmud. He created a program called Mifal HaShas, in which students would master thirty folios of the Talmud in one month. His influence permeated areas as far as Canada, Mexico, and Israel.

In 1957, he established the Kiryat Sanz neighborhood in the beachside city of Netanya, Israel. Over the next few years, he raised money for the establishment of girls' and boys' schools and yeshivas, an orphanage, an old-age home, and a hospital to serve this community. He moved to Kiryat Sanz in 1960. In 1968, he founded yet another Sanz community in Union City, New Jersey, and afterwards divided his time between that community and his residence in Netanya.

Halberstam died on June 18, 1994, and was buried in Netanya. In his will, he divided leadership of the Klausenburger Hasidim between his two sons (both born in his second marriage after World War II). His elder son, Zvi Elimelech Halberstam, became the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe (also called Sanzer Rebbe) of Netanya, and Shmuel Dovid Halberstam became the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe of Brooklyn.

Sanz-Klausenburg today

 Grand Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech Halberstam is the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe in (Kiryat Sanz, Netanya,) Israel
 Rabbi Yechezkel Shraga Boruch Halberstam, son of Rabbi Zvi Elimelech, is Rav haTso'ir
 Grand Rabbi Shmuel Dovid Halberstam, is the Sanz-Klausenburger Rebbe in Borough Park,

The Rebbe's sons-in-law are:
 The Late Grand Rabbi Shlomo Goldman, the Zhviller Rebbe, of Union City, NJ
 Rabbi Berel Weiss, Rav of Kiryat Sanz, Jerusalem
 Rabbi Fishel Mutzen, Rav of Kiryat Baal Shem Tov in Petah Tikva
 Rabbi Shaul Yehuda Prizant, Rav of the Sanz-Klausenburg community in Union City, New Jersey; and rosh mesivta Yeshivat Shaar Efraim Monsey
 Rabbi Eliezer Duvid Shapiro, Rav of the Sanz community in Bnei Brak

In contrast to the custom among many Rebbes, the Klausenburger Rebbe did not take sons-in-law exclusively from rabbinic families; rather, he chose the best students of his yeshiva to marry his daughters. The only exception was Rabbi Shlomo Goldman, an accomplished Torah scholar even in his youth, who is the son of the previous Zhviller Rebbe in Israel.

Other prominent figures in Sanz-Klausenburg are:
 Rabbi Fishel Hershkowitz, the Holeiner Rov, is the Sanz-Klausenburger Dayan in Williamsburg
 Rabbi Aaron Weider, the Linzer Rav (d. 2010), was a long-standing dayan of the Sanz-Klausenburger rabbinical court in America. His daughter Tzipora married Grand Rabbi Shmuel Dovid Halberstam
 Rabbi Paskez, a long-time Rebbi in Yeshiva Torah Vodaas who was the Segan (assistant) of Rabbi Aaron Wieder, is the current Dayan in Boro Park.
 Rabbi Eliyahu Shmuel Schmerler', rosh yeshiva of the Sanz yeshiva in Kiryat Sanz, Netanya

References

External links
The website for Sanz Klausenburg Chasidim
performing a Mitzvah Tantz, a ritual dance (Windows Media Audio/Video file)
The Klausenburger Rebbe of America and his Hasidim celebrating the holiday of Purim (Windows Media Audio/Video file)
Klausenburg of E. Israel website
A collection of videos on 'Tzofar Mashtap' website from the Rebbes of Sanz-Klausenburg Hebrew''

Cluj-Napoca
Sanz (Hasidic dynasty)
Hasidic Judaism in Romania

Klausenburg (Hasidic dynasty)


The Lady of Pleasure is a Caroline era comedy of manners written by James Shirley, first published in 1637. It has often been cited as among the best, and sometimes as the single best, the "most brilliant," of the dramatist's comic works.

Date and performance
The play was licensed for performance by Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels, on 15 October 1635. It was performed by Queen Henrietta's Men at the Cockpit Theatre in Drury Lane, in the final winter before the theatres suffered a long closure due to bubonic plague (May 1636 to October 1637) and Shirley himself left London for Dublin (1637).

Publication
The 1637 quarto was printed by Thomas Cotes for the booksellers Andrew Crooke and William Cooke. This first edition may throw some light on the publication of Shirley's works in the late 1630s and after. Scholarly opinion has been divided as to the degree to which Shirley was or wasn't involved in the publication of his plays. One body of opinion holds that the Queen Henrietta's company sold off their stock of Shirley's plays to the stationers during the difficult months of the 1636–37 theatre closure, after Shirley had left for Ireland. (Five of his plays were published in 1637 alone, and four more by the end of 1639.) Upon his return to London in 1640, Shirley was so annoyed by this that he would no longer write for the company, but switched to the King's Men for his final plays, before the theatres closed in 1642 with the start of the English Civil War.

In this context, note that the 1637 quarto was dedicated to Richard Lovelace, who had been created Baron Lovelace of Hurley in 1627. But Richard Lovelace had died in April 1634; his son and successor was named John. This sloppiness is more suggestive of the tradesmen booksellers than of Shirley the Court sophisticate.

Critical response
Those who admire or enjoy Shirley's work can specify The Lady of Pleasure as displaying his "ornate and profuse fancy to the greatest advantage." But critics with serious moral and ethical preoccupations tend to be uncomfortable with the poet's portraits of amorality and immorality, and judge his plays more stringently. The Lady of Pleasure was singled out by C. S. Lewis, in his Rehabilitations and Other Essays (1939), as representative of Shirley's comedies — to which Lewis gives a firmly negative evaluation. The play has also been studied as "a commentary on the Platonic love cult in the Caroline court under Queen Henrietta Maria."

Synopsis
The play is structured in the three-level plot format that Shirley exploits for other comedies, like Hyde Park and The Ball. The main plot concerns the married couple of Sir Thomas and Lady Bornwell. Here, Shirley rings a significant change on the formulas of English Renaissance comedy: Lady Bornwell is a philandering female, the "lady of pleasure" of the play's title, while Sir Thomas's goal is to reform his wife's conduct. Aretina is devoted to the pastimes and vices of courtly aristocrats, notably in spending her husband's money. Sir Thomas tries to frighten his wife into restraint by pretending to pursue Celestina, a sixteen-year-old widow. His strategy fails at first. Yet Aretina is brought up short by the prospect of actual bankruptcy, and by the shock of learning that her partner in a casual tryst in the dark does not know her name and thinks she's a succubus, a "she-devil."

The second-level plot involves Celestina's attempts to reform the otherwise-unnamed Lord A from his perceived misogyny. Here again, the play departs from the standard pattern, in that the heroine of the second-level plot is presented as more admirable and morally serious than the female character on the first level. (Their contrasting names are clues to meaning: Celestina is "heavenly," while Aretina is a female form of Aretino, the Italian pornographer.) Celestina, is can be noted, is not an ascetic or a prig; she herself pursues pleasure, but in a moderate way that is in keeping with the mores of her society and class. Aretina is to be faulted, and needs to be reformed, because she goes too far.

The play also has a more purely comic third-level plot, involving the character Master Frederick, who descends from scholarship to drunkenness; and it contains the comic features typical of Shirleian comedy, like the clownish suitors Littleworth and Kickshaw (a "kickshaw" is a trinket, a flashy object of little intrinsic value), plus Madame Decoy the bawd, Sir William Scentlove the worthless dandy, and Haircut the barber.

Aphra Behn would later borrow plot elements from Shirley's play for her own The Lucky Chance (1686).

External links

References

English Renaissance plays
1635 plays
Plays by James Shirley
Henrietta Maria of France
Succubi in popular culture

The Lady of Pleasure


The freedom to roam, or "everyman's right", is the general public's right to access certain public or privately owned land, lakes, and rivers for recreation and exercise. The right is sometimes called the right of public access to the wilderness or the "right to roam".

In Austria, Belarus, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland and the Czech Republic, the freedom to roam takes the form of general public rights which are sometimes codified in law. The access is ancient in parts of Northern Europe and has been regarded as sufficiently fundamental that it was not formalised in law until modern times. However, the right usually does not include any substantial economic exploitation, such as hunting or logging, or disruptive activities, such as making fires and driving offroad vehicles.

In countries without such general rights, there may be a network of rights of way, or some nature reserves with footpaths.

Europe

Nordic countries
Ancient traces provide evidence of the freedom to roam in many European countries, suggesting such a freedom was once a common norm.  Today, the right to roam has survived in perhaps its purest form in Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Here the right has been won through practice over hundreds of years and it is not known when it changed from mere 'common practice' to become a commonly recognised right.

Today these rights underpin opportunities for outdoor recreation in several of the Nordic countries, providing the opportunity to hike across or camp on another's land (e.g. in Sweden for one or two nights), boating on someone else's waters, and picking wildflowers, mushrooms and berries. However, with these rights come responsibilities; that is, an obligation neither to harm, disturb, litter, nor to damage wildlife or crops.

Access rights are most often for travel on foot. Rights to fish, hunt or take any other product are usually constrained by other customs or laws. Building a fire is often prohibited (though in Sweden and Norway fires are allowed with proper safety precautions).  Making noise is discouraged. In some countries, putting up a tent in the forest for one night is allowed, but not the use of a caravan. Access does not extend to built up or developed land (such as houses, gardens) and does not necessarily include commercial exploitation of the land. For example, workers picking berries may be legal only with the landowner's permission.

There are some significant differences in the rules of different countries. In Denmark, there is a more restricted freedom to roam on privately held land. All dunes and beaches and all publicly owned forests are open to roaming. Uncultivated, unfenced areas are open to daytime roaming irrespective of ownership status. Privately owned forest have access by roads and tracks only.

Finland

In Finland, the freedom to roam and related rights are called "" (every man's right) and more recently this is being replaced with the gender-neutral form "" in Finnish (everyone's right) and "" in Swedish (lit. "everyone's right"), similar to other Nordic countries.

The right is not codified in any specific law.  Instead, it arises from the principle of nulla poena sine lege - what is not illegal cannot be punished.  Things that are not explicitly disallowed, are allowed by default.

Everyone may walk, ski, ride a horse or cycle freely in the countryside where this does not harm the natural environment or the landowner, except in gardens or in the immediate vicinity of people's homes (yards). Fields and plantations, which may easily be harmed, may usually not be crossed except in the winter. It is also possible to establish outdoor recreation routes on private land, based on an agreement on the rights of use or by official proceedings in accordance with the Outdoor Recreation Act, for example.

One may stay or set up camp temporarily in the countryside, a reasonable distance from homes, pick mineral samples, wild berries, mushrooms and flowers (as long as they are not protected species). One may fish with a rod and line (only still waters), row, sail or use a motorboat on waterways (with certain restrictions), and swim or bathe in both inland waters and the sea. One can walk, ski and ice fish on frozen lakes, rivers and the sea. Income from selling picked berries or mushrooms is tax-free. Picking cloudberry may be temporarily restricted to local residents in parts of Lapland. In the autonomous province of Åland the right to camp's inclusion in the right to roam was disputed, but since 2013 this is no longer the case.

When traveling with a motorhome or camper, one can park and spend the night anywhere parking is allowed, including along public roads. Checking parking area signs is essential to ensure compliance with overnight stay regulations. Private and forest roads can serve as suitable parking spots, as long as there are no signage restrictions. Off-road driving requires landowner permission, but parking off-road near the road is allowed for convenience. Overnight stays are generally prohibited in shopping center parking lots, but service stations often provide suitable facilities. When visiting national parks, designated areas or parking lots may allow overnight stays, potentially requiring a permit. Nature reserves have specific rules regarding overnight stays.

One may not disturb others or damage property, disturb breeding birds (or their nests or young), or disturb reindeer or game animals. One may not cut down or damage living trees, or collect wood, moss or lichen on other people's property, nor may one light open fires without the landowner's permission (except in an emergency). It is acceptable, however, to use an alcohol burner, wood stove or similar device that has no hot parts touching the ground. One may not disturb the privacy of people's homes by camping too near to them or making too much noise, nor litter, drive motor vehicles off-road without the landowner's permission, or fish (excluding angling) or hunt without the relevant permits. If horse riding causes more than a minor inconvenience or disturbance, an agreement for the long term use of the route must be made with the landowner. A horse may also be taken to swim in a water body without the consent of the owner of the water area (excluding public beaches).

Norway

Everyone in Norway enjoys the right of access to, and passage through, uncultivated land in the countryside. The right is an old consuetudinary law called the allemannsrett (lit. the everyman's right), that was codified in 1957 with the implementation of the Outdoor Recreation Act. It is based on respect for the countryside, and all visitors are expected to show consideration for farmers and landowners, other users and the environment. In Norway the terms utmark and innmark divide areas where the right to roam is valid (utmark, literally something like "land outside [the boundaries]"/"[Out Field]") and where it is invalid or restricted (innmark, "land inside [the boundaries]"/"[In Field]"). The law specifies innmark thoroughly, and all areas not covered by this definition are defined as utmark, generally speaking uninhabited and uncultivated areas. Cultivated land may only be crossed when frozen or covered in snow.

There are some basic rules that must be followed when camping in Norway:

 People are allowed to camp at least 150 metres away from the nearest inhabited house or cottage.
 Campfires are not allowed in the forest areas between 15 April to 15 September, unless it obviously can not lead to a fire.
 Tourists are allowed to stay in one spot for up to two days. After that, it is necessary to specifically ask for permission from the landowner. This rule excludes the mountains and the national parks.
  With a motorhome or a camper, it is allowed to park and spend the night anywhere parking is allowed, including along a public road, unless camping is explicitly forbidden. Often this right is however limited to one or two overnight stays.

In later years the right has come under pressure particularly around the Oslo Fjord and in popular areas of Southern Norway. These areas are popular sites for holiday homes and many owners of coastal land want to restrict public access to their property. As a general rule, building and partitioning of property is prohibited in a 100-metre zone closest to the sea, but local authorities in many areas have made liberal use of their ability to grant exemptions from this rule. However, even if a land owner has been permitted to build closer to the shore, he may not restrict people from walking along the shore. Fences and other barriers to prevent public access are not permitted (but yet sometimes erected, resulting in heavy fines).

Canoeing, kayaking, rowing and sailing in rivers, lakes, and ocean are allowed. Motorised boats are only permitted in salt water. All waters are open for swimming – with the exception of lakes that are drinking water reservoirs (see for instance Maridalsvannet).

Wild berry foraging is part of the right. Picking cloudberries may, however, be restricted on privately owned land in northern parts of Norway.

Hunting rights belong to the landowner, and thus hunting is not included in the right of free access. In freshwater areas such as rivers and lakes, the fishing rights belong to the landowner. Freshwater fishing  may only be conducted with the permission of the landowner and by those in possession of a fishing licence. Different rules apply for children under the age of 16. Children under the age of 16 have the right to fish without a licence, a right codified in 1992. This right was tried and upheld in a ruling from the Norwegian Supreme Court in 2004.

In salt water areas there is free access to sports fishing using boats or from the shoreline. All fishing is subject to legislation to, among other things, protect biological diversity, and this legislation stipulates rules regarding the use of gear, seasons, bag or size limits and more.

Sweden
In Sweden  (lit. "the everyman's right") is a freedom granted by the Constitution of Sweden. Since 1994 the Instrument of Government says that notwithstanding the right to own property "everyone shall have access to nature in accordance with allemansrätten". What this means is not further explicated on in the constitution, and only sparsely in other legislation. In practice, allemansrätten is defined as actions that are not crimes, will not make a person liable to pay damages, nor can be prohibited by any authority. As in other Nordic countries, the Swedish right to roam comes with an equal emphasis being placed upon the responsibility to look after the countryside; the maxim is "do not disturb, do not destroy". Many Swedish people consider this to be a form of legacy or human right.

Allemansrätten gives a person the right to access, walk, cycle, ride, ski, and camp on any land—with the exception of private gardens, the immediate vicinity of a dwelling house and land under cultivation. Restrictions apply for nature reserves and other protected areas. It also gives the right to pick wild flowers, mushrooms and berries (provided they are not legally protected), but not to hunt in any way. Swimming in any lake and putting an unpowered boat on any water is permitted unless explicitly forbidden. Visiting beaches and walking by a shoreline is permitted, providing it is not a part of a garden or within the immediate vicinity of a residence (legally defined as the hemfridszon). The hemfridszon's size depends on conditions but can be as large as 70 metres from an ordinary dwelling house. To better protect access to water and the right to walk along beaches, it is since 1975 generally not permitted to build a new house near (generally 100 m) from a beach and/or shoreline.

Fishing remains essentially private—apart from on the biggest five lakes and the coast of the Baltic Sea, the Sound, Kattegat and Skagerrak. It is permitted to drive a car on a private road unless explicitly signposted otherwise. Small camp fires are generally permitted, but in some periods banned by local authorities due to wild fire risk. It is allowed to put up a tent on any uncultivated land for a night or two. There has been some controversy on commercial use of the berry picking rights, when companies legally contract people to pick berries in the forests.

Building a fire is generally permitted except on bare rock faces where it can lead to cracking. Municipalities can issue fire bans during dry periods.

With a motorhome or camper, you can park and spend the night anywhere parking is allowed, including along public roads. Driving off-road with caravans and mobile homes is not permitted. At rest areas, the usual maximum stay for overnight stays is around 24 hours on weekdays, with slightly longer durations on weekends. Additional rules will be posted on rest area signs. There are no specific regulations regarding how long you can park your motor vehicle adjacent to a non-off-road road.

Exercise of the rights is overseen by the County Administrative Boards—which can, for example, force the removal of a fence if it obstructs access to areas that are important to the allemansrätt.

Iceland
Like other Nordic countries Icelandic law contains a version of the freedom to roam, the right to access uncultivated land  and pick berries. "It is permissible to cross uncultivated private property without seeking any special permission, but landowners may limit routes with signs or other marks. State-owned land such as conservation areas and forestry areas are open to everyone with few exceptions. These exceptions include – but are not limited to – access during breeding seasons or during sensitive growth periods".

Hikers should, however, "avoid taking shortcuts over fenced areas, pastures and private plots", and follow the rules in conservation areas. Footpaths should also be followed, if they exist, to help protect the landscape. Furthermore, "landowners may not hinder passage of walkers alongside rivers, lakes and ocean, or on tracks and paths'. Cycling may be restricted on some paths. Equestrians must keep to bridleways where they exist and in other places show "consideration for the land".

In many areas, like South and East Iceland, only in uninhabited areas that are not protected maximum 3 Tents maybe pitched up for one night, if there is no camp-site in vicinity.

Motorized travellers with motorhomes (RV), camping cars (campers) and trailers must always stay on an official campsite.

In national parks, it is forbidden to stay overnight outside an official camp-site, both for motorized and non-motorized travellers.

Fishing requires a license but collecting "berries, mushrooms, seaweed and other plants for immediate consumption" is permitted on "public lands and highland pastures".

Estonia
In Estonia, it is permitted to access natural and cultural landscapes on foot, by bicycle, ski, boat, or on horseback.

Private property may be accessed at any time. If the private property is fenced or posted against trespassing, the permission of the owner is required to proceed. The owner of the private property is also required to post signs stating the ownership of the land, and contact numbers, to avoid legal issues.
Land owners may not block access to land, roads or bodies of water that are public or designated for public use, including ice and shore paths.

All bodies of water that are public or designated for public use have public shore paths that are up to 4 m wide. The shore path along a navigable body of water may extend to a distance of 10 m of the water line. The owner may not close this path even if the private property is posted or marked with no-trespassing signs. Grazing areas and other enclosed areas along the shore paths must have stiles.
Ponds with no outlet located entirely on the land of one land owner and lakes smaller than five hectares located on land belonging to more than one land owner shall not be in public use. Permission from the landowner is required to access such bodies of water.

Neither do bodies of water protected as sources of drinking water or which are in use by aquaculture or are in other special use have a shore path.
All of the rights and responsibilities regarding humans' interaction with nature are collectively termed everyman's right. Everyman's right does not pertain to the organizing of sporting events or other public events in open country. To organize these, the permission of the landowners or other possessors of land, and if necessary, of the local government, must be sought.

The following is permitted in nature:

 accessing areas by foot, on bicycle, skis, boat or horseback in all places not prohibited on the basis of law(s);
 being present in any area where access is permitted;
 gathering wild berries, mushrooms, flowers, medicinal plants, hazelnuts and other natural products not under nature protection;
 fishing bodies of water that are public or designated for public use with a simple hand line.

The following is prohibited:

 accessing the immediate proximity of a person's yard, plantations, apiaries, sown crops, grain field and other cropland where damage is thereby incurred by the owner;
 lighting fires and camping without permission from the land owner or possessor;
 hunting and fishing without relevant license, except for simple hand line;
 injuring trees and bushes;
 disrupting the peace of local inhabitants;
 damaging the habitats and nests of forest animals and birds, gathering or removing their eggs, or otherwise doing harm to them;
 damaging nature protection objects and protected species;
 using motor vehicles where prohibited;
 polluting nature.

Belarus
Article 13 of Section I of the Constitution of Belarus guarantees that all forest and farm land is publicly owned.
Forty percent of the country's territory is covered by forest,
and approximately the same amount devoted to agriculture.

According to the Forest Code (Article 13) "citizens have the right to freely stay in the forest and collect wild fruits, berries, nuts, mushrooms, other food, forest resources and medicinal plants to meet their own needs."

Austria
The right to roam in Austria, particularly in forests and mountainous areas, is called Wegefreiheit. Since 1975 the right to roam in forests is guaranteed by Federal law. In particular, walking, running, hiking, and resting are automatically allowed to the public in most forest areas. However, horse riding, bike riding, and camping are not, and may only be practised with the land owner's permission.  A large proportion of the forest area in Austria is owned by government bodies such as the , but the same restrictions still apply. In some circumstances forests may be closed to the public for environmental reasons. The situation in mountainous areas is less clear, and differs from state to state. Some states, such as Carinthia, Styria, and Salzburg guarantee a right to roam in mountainous areas (usually defined as above the tree line), for all recreational activities. In other states, such as Tyrol, Lower Austria, and Burgenland, no explicit right to roam exists and land owners reserve the right to deny access. In practice, however, such restrictions are rarely enforced, since mountain tourism is an important industry in Austria.

Czech Republic

The old legal institute of "right of the way" (imbedded in the Civil Code) has its roots in Austria-Hungary law. This legal institution is applied when one land owner has a need to go through alien lands for access to his own land.

The Nature and Countryside Preservation Act gives a legal right to roam through country ("veřejná přístupnost krajiny", public accessibility of countryside or wilderness – excluding parcels owned by a natural person). Some types of land are excluded from compulsory public accessibility: settled and building grounds, courtyards, gardens, orchards, vineyards, hop gardens, grounds destined for animal husbandry. Fields and arable land are excluded during seasons when herbage or soil would be damaged, pasture lands are excluded during cattle grazing.
In national natural preserves, national natural monuments, national parks and in the first zones of landscape protected areas, state authorities can restrict public access (ordinarily only to roads or only to marked routes). Special acts can exclude also other areas (e. g. military areas, rail tracks etc.).

According to Forest Act, forests are publicly accessible ("obecné užívání lesa", common use of forest – including private ones) and citizens have a legal right to enter the forests. The right of gathering dry twigs lying on the ground and berries for personal purpose is also guaranteed. However, biking, sledge riding, skiing and horseback riding are allowed only on forest roads. Public motor vehicle riding is prohibited (highroads going through forest are not considered as parts of the forest – because they are not considered as "forest land" in land registration). Common use of forest can be restricted by the owner in military forests, protected areas, forest nurseries, forest orchards, deer parks, pheasantries etc.

The Road Act defines obecné užívání pozemních komunikací (common use of roads – some road can be excluded), The Water Act defines "obecné užívání povrchových vod" (common use of surface waters).

Italy

It can be estimated that only half of the country's beaches are freely accessible and usable for bathing. In fact, almost 43% of the Italian sandy coastline is occupied by bathing establishments, while 7.2% is polluted or not monitored.
The situation varies from region to region. And although the European Union has been asking Italy for years to have more free beaches, it keeps getting worse.

Switzerland
The freedom to roam is guaranteed in Switzerland by the Swiss Civil Code. However, some cantons have more detailed regulations concerning the rights of access of otherwise not authorised people.

The Swiss Civil Code provides that forest and pasture are accessible freely for everyone, as long as there is no excessive usage. Except in special cases like the protection of young forest or biotopes it is not allowed to fence in forest areas. This also applies to private property. Certain activities related to excessive usage and the potential to cause damage, such as events in the woods, or access with cars, may be dependent on special authorisation. Similar regulations are in place for land which is not usable (e.g. stretches of water, rock, snow and ice), regardless of the land being unowned (i.e. being under the control of the canton and not able to be claimed as private property) or privately owned. The canton may also choose to restrict the freedom to roam in order to protect nature (e.g. the gathering of mushrooms, berries, wood, etc. in forests).

Germany
In Germany a limited right to roam, called Betretungsrecht, is guaranteed by multiple federal laws. The Federal Nature Conservation Act, the Federal Forest Act and the Federal Water Management Act allow everyone access to open landscape, uncultivated land, forests and water bodies, including cycling and horse-riding on tracks and paths. The right may be further regulated through state law.

Bavaria
The Constitution of Bavaria guarantees everyone "the enjoyment of natural beauty and recreation in the outdoors, in particular the access to forests and mountain meadows, the use of waterways and lakes and the appropriation of wild fruits".  The right is nicknamed Schwammerlparagraph (mushroom clause). The article also obliges "every person to treat nature and the landscape with care". "The state and the municipalities shall be entitled and obliged to maintain free access to mountains, lakes, rivers and other beautiful sceneries and to create free access by restricting property rights and to create hiking trails and recreational parks".

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, outside Scotland, access to much uncultivated and unenclosed land was restricted prior to the enactment of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. Access to land in England and Wales is still more limited than in most of Northern Europe, and some other European countries, while access is very limited in Northern Ireland. Property was formerly protected in England and Wales mostly to preserve the landowner's hunting or fishing rights. The Ramblers' Association, which works to increase the rights of walkers in the United Kingdom, was a driving force behind this legislation.

England and Wales

In England and Wales, after a polarised debate about the merits, rights and benefits of private landowners and public recreation, in 2000 the Government legislated to introduce a limited right to roam, without compensation for landowners. The Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (CROW) was gradually implemented from 2000 onwards to give the general public the conditional right to walk in certain areas of the English and Welsh countryside: principally downland, moorland, heathland and coastal land. Forests and woodlands are excluded, other than  publicly owned forests, which have a similar right of access by virtue of a voluntary dedication made by the Forestry Commission. Developed land, gardens and certain other areas are specifically excluded from the right of access. Agricultural land is accessible if it falls within one of the categories described above. People exercising the right of access have certain duties to respect other people's rights to manage the land, and to protect nature.

The new rights were introduced region by region through England and Wales, with completion in 2005. Maps showing accessible areas have been produced. This added to the legal right to use established public footpaths and bridleways, some common land and access to the foreshore. Land owners may prevent access to other areas (or charge a fee for access).

Angling interests successfully lobbied for the exclusion of rivers in England and Wales from CROW, leaving other river users such as swimmers and canoeists with access restricted to less than 2% of navigable water. The British Canoe Union is running the Rivers Access Campaign, to highlight the level of restrictions the public face in gaining access to inland waterways in England and Wales.

Much of the Dartmoor National Park has been designated as 'Access Land', although it remains privately owned, since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985, with no restrictions on where walkers can roam. Because of the 1985 Act, Dartmoor was largely unaffected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which established similar rights in other rural parts of the country, but in 2006, this Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land to walkers.

The Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009 extended access rights to land near the English coast.

Scotland

In Scotland the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 comprehensively codified into Scots law the ancient tradition of the right to universal access to the land in Scotland.  The act specifically establishes a right to be on land for recreational, educational and certain other purposes and a right to cross land. The rights exist only if they are exercised responsibly, as specified in the Scottish Outdoor Access Code.

Access rights apply to any non-motorised activities, including walking, cycling, horse-riding and wild camping. They also allow access on inland water for canoeing, rowing, sailing and swimming.
The rights confirmed in the Scottish legislation are greater than the limited rights of access created in England and Wales by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (CRoW).

Northern Ireland
Access rights in Northern Ireland have been described as being "the most regressive and restrictive access legislation in Europe. Most of the routes used to reach … mountains, hills, seashores, rivers and national monuments pass over private land. In almost all cases, the walker has no right to be there."  The Access to the Countryside (Northern Ireland) Order 1983 gave some rights, but access is generally modelled on the restrictive 1949 English/Welsh law.  The absence of a tradition of access, political influence of landowners and problems of governance have been blamed for the lack of freedom to roam.

Republic of Ireland
Keep Ireland Open is a voluntary campaign organisation with the aim of improving access to the countryside. Journalist Fintan O'Toole called Irish law "perhaps the most negative and mean-minded regime for walkers in Europe". Access rights in Ireland have been described as being "the most regressive and restrictive access legislation in Europe. Most of the routes used to reach our mountains, hills, seashores, rivers and national monuments pass over private land. In almost all cases, the walker has no right to be there." The national parks are described by Keep Ireland Open as "the only places in Ireland where freedom to roam exists", but they only cover 0.9% of the country. Comhairle na Tuaithe was established by Éamon Ó Cuív, Minister for Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs in 2004 to mediate between landowners, state agencies and recreational users of the countryside.

North America

United States
Because American property rights include the right to exclude others, the freedom to roam does not generally exist in the United States. But under some circumstances, long-term use of a path across private property may legally establish a prescriptive easement for the public. On federally owned property, the Property Clause of Article IV, Section III of the U.S. Constitution states that the United States Congress "shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States", granting the legislative branch the authority to regulate federal property "without limitations".

In the United States, governmental entities including cities, counties, states, and the federal government all manage land which are referred to as either public lands or the public domain. The majority of public lands in the United States are administered by the United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management, agencies of the federal government, and include about 640 million acres of land, about 28% of the total land area of 2.27 billion acres. Any person, including non-citizens, can legally access and recreate on these lands lawfully, sometimes referred to as the North American model of land conservation. Some state and local governments enforce stricter policies on their public land, such as loitering laws and redlining practices, with some cities outright banishing certain groups of people. Here are some specific state and local policies:

 California's California Coastal Act provides a similar right for its beaches, and the Surfrider Foundation has been successful suing littoral property owners who try to use trespassing laws to restrict public access to the public portions of a beach.
 Florida's state constitution establishes a public trust of "sovereignty lands", including wet beaches "below mean high water lines … for all the people," respecting a freedom to roam there, regardless of any private neighboring dry beach. Local ordinances typically limit this freedom strictly to roaming on foot, and prohibit driving motor vehicles or beaching boats.
 The Oregon Beach Bill was a piece of landmark legislation in the U.S. state of Oregon, passed by the 1967 session of the Oregon Legislature. It established public ownership of land along the Oregon Coast from the water up to sixteen vertical feet above the low tide mark.
 In Pennsylvania, the 1966 Recreational Use of Land and Water Act (RULWA) limits landowners' liability for personal injury and property damage if they make their land available to the public for recreation. The statute encourages landowners to open their undeveloped land for recreational use.
 Vermont's constitution allows the public the right to hunt, fish and trap on open private land. A landowner who does not want to allow this access has a legal right to post signs that restrict this right.
 Maine allows access to any outdoor property unless posted. Posting requires clearly marking with complying signs or paint. Signs must indicate that access is prohibited, that access is prohibited without permission of the landowner or the landowner's agent, or that access for a particular purpose is prohibited.
 The constitution of Rhode Island protects shore access, including swimming and gathering of seaweed. The 1982 Rhode Island Supreme Court decision in State v. Ibbison defines the end of private land as the mean high tide line, which is difficult to determine in day-to-day activities, and has resulted in beach access conflicts. Underfunding of the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council has resulted in lax enforcement against encroachment on public access and building of illegal structures.
 The State of Hawaii grants beach and coastal access to local residents and visitors. These beach transit corridors are considered public property defined as the "areas extending seaward of the shoreline". Coastal land owners are also required to maintain vegetation that would inhibit beach access as there are many varieties of fast growing coastal plants that can easily limit public access.
 In St. Louis, Missouri, the government banishes many unhoused people and other vulnerable populations from large areas of the city. These areas include public land and many of the organizations that provide shelter, meals, and care to St. Louis's homeless people. Those who violate the orders have been jailed for months.

Canada
Much of Canada is Crown land owned by the provinces. Some is leased for commercial activity, such as forestry or mining, but on much of it there is free access for recreational activities like hiking, cycling, canoeing, cross-country skiing, horse back riding, and licensed hunting and fishing, etc. At the same time access can be restricted or limited for various reasons (e.g., to protect public safety or resources, including the protection of wild plants and animals).
In the Canadian Territories Crown land is administered by the Canadian Federal Government. Canadian National Parks have been created from Crown land and are also administered by the Federal Government. There are also provincial parks and nature reserves that have been similarly created. The Indigenous peoples in Canada may have specific rights on Crown land established under treaties signed when Canada was a British colony, and have claimed ownership of some Crown land.

In Ontario, Canadian citizens and people who have lived in Canada for at least 7 months of the preceding 12-month period are allowed to camp for free up to 21 days on any one site in a calendar year, on crown land/conservation reserves .

Australia
Although formerly six British colonies, Australians only have limited access to the land, according to The Sydney Morning Herald. However, much of Australia's land area is Crown land, which is administered by the Australian states, and while a lot of this consists of pastoral leases, and land owned and run by Aboriginal people (e.g. APY lands), access is normally permitted for recreational purposes to  "unallocated" Crown land; though motorized vehicles are required to follow roads.

New Zealand
There is extensive public access in New Zealand, including waterways and the coast, but it is "often fragmented and difficult to locate".

The "Queen's Chain" is a concept in New Zealand property law. It is a strip of public land, usually 20 metres (or one chain in pre-metric measure) wide along rivers, lakes and the coast line. It was designed to prevent land upriver or along a coast being inaccessible to any prospective buyers. The strips are incomplete and their exact modern location can be complex to determine. These strips exist in various forms (including road reserves, esplanade reserves, esplanade strips, marginal strips and reserves of various types) but not as extensively and consistently as is often assumed.

In 2007 the government of New Zealand reviewed the rights of public access for outdoor recreation. However,  unlike the United Kingdom, "the New Zealand review recommended no increase in the public's right to access private property".

Criticism

In recent years increased mobility and affluence has made previously remote areas more accessible and though significant harm or damage is unusual, endangered species are being disturbed, and litter left, by some recreational users.

Helena Jonsson, the President of the Federation of Swedish Farmers, argued in 2011 that the way land was used had changed and that the law was out of date and needed to be revised, so as "to bar commercial interests from using the law as an excuse to make a profit while they are on other people's private property".

See also

Notes

Further reading
 Hill, Howard (1980) Freedom to Roam: the struggle for access to Britain's moors and mountains. Ashbourne: Moorland
 Shoard, Marion (1999) A Right to Roam. Oxford University Press

External links
 Norwegian embassy info on the right of access
 Land Reform (Scotland) act explanatory notes
 Access in Europe
 England and Wales Countryside Rights Of Way act fact sheets
 Swedish EPA. The Right of Public Access. Information in English and other languages.
 Everyman's Right in Finland (Booklet in English, German, and French)

Freedom to roam


Brian Rice (born 1936) is a British abstract artist associated with the pop art movement who has had 35 solo exhibitions and around 200 group exhibitions.

Rice studied at Yeovil School of Art where he learned about printmaking and for a year Goldsmiths College. He was very active in London during the 1960s where he produced non-representational prints and paintings including his Japanese Series. He worked mostly in screen printing at this time.

During the 1970s Rice lived in the West of England and taught at Brighton Polytechnic. He developed an interest in the remains of ancient cultures which has influenced his work to the present.

Rice was chairman of the Printmakers Council of Great Britain 1974 - 1977. He has works in the collection of Tate Modern.

References

1936 births
British abstract artists
British pop artists
Living people
20th-century British printmakers
English printmakers

Brian Rice (artist)


ISO 4217 is a staundart published bi the Internaitional Staundarts Organization, which delineates siller designators, kintra codes (alpha an numeric), an references tae minor units in three tables:
 Table A.1 – Current siller & funds code leet
 Table A.2 – Current funds codes
 Table A.3 – Leet o codes for historic denominations o sillers & funds

Tables
The tables, history an ongangin discussion is maintained bi SIX Interbank Clearing.

Code uise
The ISO 4217 code leet is uised in bankin an business globally. In mony kintras the ISO codes for the mair common sillers are sae weel kent publicly that exchynge rates published in newspapers or postit in banks uise anly thir tae delineate the different sillers, insteid o translatit siller names or ambiguous siller seembols. ISO 4217 codes are uised on airline tickets an internaitional train tickets tae remove ony ambiguity aboot the price.

References

Siller signs
Encodins
Internaitional economics
Internaitional tred
04217
Financial regulation
Financial routin staundarts

ISO 4217