Sir Cecil Walter Hardy Beaton  (14 January 1904 – 18 January 1980) was a British fashion, portrait and war photographer, diarist, painter, and interior designer, as well as an Oscar–winning stage and costume designer for films and the theatre.

Early life and education
Beaton was born on 14 January 1904 in Hampstead, north London,  the son of Ernest Walter Hardy Beaton (1867–1936), a prosperous timber merchant, and his wife, Esther "Etty" Sisson (1872–1962).  His grandfather, Walter Hardy Beaton (1841–1904), had founded the family business of "Beaton Brothers Timber Merchants and Agents", and his father followed into the business. Ernest Beaton was an amateur actor and met his wife, Cecil's mother Esther ("Etty") when playing the lead in a play. She was the daughter of a Cumbrian blacksmith named Joseph Sisson and had come to London to visit her married sister.

Ernest and Etty Beaton had four children – Cecil; two daughters, Nancy Elizabeth Louise Hardy Beaton (1909–99, who married Sir Hugh Smiley) and Barbara Jessica Hardy Beaton (1912–73, known as Baba, who married Alec Hambro); and son Reginald Ernest Hardy Beaton (1905–33).

Cecil Beaton was educated at Heath Mount School (where he was bullied by Evelyn Waugh) and St Cyprian's School, Eastbourne, where his artistic talent was quickly recognised. Both Cyril Connolly and Henry Longhurst report in their autobiographies being overwhelmed by the beauty of Beaton's singing at the St Cyprian's school concerts.

When Beaton was growing up, his nanny had a Kodak 3A Camera, a popular model which was renowned for being an ideal piece of equipment to learn on. Beaton's nanny began teaching him the basics of photography and developing film.  He would often get his sisters and mother to sit for him.  When he was sufficiently proficient, he would send the photos off to London society magazines, often writing under a pen name and "recommending" the work of Beaton.

Beaton attended Harrow School, and then, despite having little or no interest in academia, moved on to St John's College, Cambridge, and studied history, art and architecture. Beaton continued his photography and, through his university contacts, got a portrait depicting the Duchess of Malfi published in Vogue. It was actually George "Dadie" Rylands – "a slightly out-of-focus snapshot of him as Webster's Duchess of Malfi standing in the sub-aqueous light outside the men's lavatory of the ADC Theatre at Cambridge." Beaton left Cambridge without a degree in 1925.

Career
After a short time in the family timber business, he worked with a cement merchant in Holborn. This resulted in "an orgy of photography at weekends" so he decided to strike out on his own. Under the patronage of Osbert Sitwell he put on his first exhibition in the Cooling Gallery, London. It caused quite a stir.

Believing that he would meet with greater success on the other side of the Atlantic, he left for New York and slowly built up a reputation there. By the time he left, he had "a contract with Condé Nast Publications to take photographs exclusively for them for several thousand pounds a year for several years to come."

From 1930 to 1945, Beaton leased Ashcombe House in Wiltshire, where he entertained many notable figures.

In 1947, he bought Reddish House, set in 2.5 acres of gardens, approximately  to the east in Broad Chalke. Here he transformed the interior, adding rooms on the eastern side, extending the parlour southwards, and introducing many new fittings. Greta Garbo was a visitor. He remained at the house until his death in 1980 and is buried in the parish church graveyard.

Photography

Beaton designed book jackets (see Catherine Ives), and costumes for charity matinees, learning the craft of photography at the studio of Paul Tanqueray, until Vogue took him on regularly in 1927. He set up his own studio, and one of his earliest clients and, later, best friends was Stephen Tennant.  Beaton's photographs of Tennant and his circle are considered some of the best representations of the Bright Young People of the twenties and thirties.

Beaton's first camera was a Kodak 3A folding camera. Over the course of his career, he employed both large format cameras, and smaller Rolleiflex cameras. Beaton was never known as a highly skilled technical photographer, and instead focused on staging a compelling model or scene and looking for the perfect shutter-release moment.

He was a photographer for the British edition of Vogue in 1931 when George Hoyningen-Huene, photographer for the French Vogue travelled to England with his new friend Horst. Horst himself would begin to work for French Vogue in November of that year. The exchange and cross pollination of ideas between this collegial circle of artists across the Channel and the Atlantic gave rise to the look of style and sophistication for which the 1930s are known.

Beaton is known for his fashion photographs and society portraits. He worked as a staff photographer for Vanity Fair and Vogue in addition to photographing celebrities in Hollywood. In 1938, he inserted some tiny-but-still-legible anti-Semitic phrases (including the word 'kike') into American Vogue at the side of an illustration about New York society. The issue was recalled and reprinted, and Beaton was fired.

Beaton returned to England, where the Queen recommended him to the Ministry of Information (MoI). He became a leading war photographer, best known for his images of the damage done by the German Blitz.  His style sharpened and his range broadened, Beaton's career was restored by the war.

Beaton often photographed the Royal Family for official publication. Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother was his favourite royal sitter, and he once pocketed her scented hankie as a keepsake from a highly successful shoot. Beaton took the famous wedding pictures of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor (wearing an haute couture ensemble by the noted American fashion designer Mainbocher). He photographed Princess Margaret in a cream Dior dress for her 21st birthday in 1951, which became one of the most iconic royal portraits of the 20th century.

During the Second World War, Beaton was first posted to the Ministry of Information and given the task of recording images from the home front. During this assignment he captured one of the most enduring images of British suffering during the war, that of 3-year-old Blitz victim Eileen Dunne recovering in hospital, clutching her beloved teddy bear. When the image was published, America had not yet officially joined the war, but images such as Beaton's helped push the Americans to put pressure on their government to help Britain in its hour of need.

Beaton had a major influence on and relationship with Angus McBean and David Bailey. McBean was a well-known portrait photographer of his era.  Later in his career, his work is influenced by Beaton.  Bailey was influenced by Beaton when they met while working for British Vogue in the early 1960s. Bailey's use of square format (6x6) images is similar to Beaton's own working patterns.

Stage and film design

After the war, Beaton tackled the Broadway stage, designing sets, costumes, and lighting for a 1946 revival of Lady Windermere's Fan, in which he also acted.

His costumes for Lerner and Loewe's My Fair Lady (1956) were highly praised.  This led to two Lerner and Loewe film musicals, Gigi (1958) and My Fair Lady (1964), each of which earned Beaton the Academy Award for Best Costume Design. He also designed the period costumes for the 1970 film On a Clear Day You Can See Forever.

His additional Broadway credits include The Grass Harp (1952), The Chalk Garden (1955), Saratoga (1959), Tenderloin (1960), and Coco (1969). He was the recipient of four Tony Awards.

He designed the sets and costumes for a production of Puccini's last opera Turandot, first used at the Metropolitan Opera in New York and then at Covent Garden.

Beaton designed the academic dress of the University of East Anglia.

Diaries
Cecil Beaton was a published and well-known diarist. In his lifetime, six volumes of diaries were published, spanning the years 1922–1974. Recently some unexpurgated material has been published.   "In the published diaries, opinions are softened, celebrated figures are hailed as wonders and triumphs, whereas in the originals, Cecil can be as venomous as anyone I have ever read or heard in the most shocking of conversation" wrote their editor, Hugo Vickers.

Last public interview
The last public interview given by Sir Cecil Beaton was in January 1980 for an edition of the BBC's radio programme Desert Island Discs. The interviewer was Roy Plomley. The recording was broadcast on Friday 1 February 1980 following the Beaton family's permission. Owing to Beaton's frailty, the interview was recorded at Beaton's 17th-century home of Reddish House in Broad Chalke in Wiltshire (near Salisbury).

Beaton, though frail, recalled events in his life, particularly from the 1930s and 1940s (the Blitz). Among the recollections were his associations with stars of Hollywood and British Royalty notably The Duke and Duchess of Windsor (whose official wedding photographs Beaton took on 3 June 1937 at relatively short notice); and official portraits of Queen Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother) and Queen Elizabeth II on her Coronation day on 2 June 1953. The interview also alluded to a lifelong passion for performing arts and in particular ballet and operetta.

The Beaton programme is considered to be almost the final words on an era of "Bright Young Things" whose sunset had taken place by the time of the abdication of Edward VIII. Beaton commented specifically on Wallis Simpson (later titled The Duchess of Windsor after her marriage to the former King Edward VIII). The Duchess of Windsor was still alive at the time of the original Beaton interview and broadcast.

Beaton said that the one record that he would retain on the desert island should the others get washed away would be Beethoven's Symphony No 1, and his chosen book was a compendium of photographs he had taken down the years of "...people known and unknown; people known but now forgotten".

Personal life and death
Beaton had relationships with various men: his last lover was former Olympic fencer and teacher Kinmont Hoitsma. He also had relationships with women, including the actresses Greta Garbo and Coral Browne, the dancer Adele Astaire, the Greek socialite Madame Jean Ralli (Lilia), and the British socialite Doris Castlerosse (1900–42).

He was knighted in the 1972 New Year Honours.

Two years later, he suffered a stroke that left him permanently paralysed on the right side of his body. Although he learnt to write and draw with his left hand, and had cameras adapted, Beaton became frustrated by the limitations the stroke had put upon his work. As a result of his stroke, Beaton became anxious about financial security for his old age and, in 1976, entered into negotiations with Philippe Garner, expert-in-charge of photographs at Sotheby's.

On behalf of the auction house, Garner acquired Beaton's archive – excluding all portraits of the Royal Family, and the five decades of prints held by Vogue in London, Paris and New York. Garner, who had almost single-handedly invented the photographic auction, oversaw the archive's preservation and partial dispersal, so that Beaton's only tangible assets, and what he considered his life's work, would ensure him an annual income. The first of five auctions was held in 1977, the last in 1980.

By the end of the 1970s, Beaton's health had faded. He died on 18 January 1980 at Reddish House, his home in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire, four days after his 76th birthday.

Recognition

 Tony Award for Best Costume Design for Quadrille (1955)
 CBE (1956)
 Tony Award for Best Costume Design for My Fair Lady (1957)
 Fellow of the Ancient Monuments Society (1957)
 Academy Award for Best Costume Design for Gigi (1958)
 Tony Award for Best Costume Design for Saratoga (1960)
 Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur (1960)
 Academy Award for Best Art Direction for My Fair Lady (1964)
 Academy Award for Best Costume Design for My Fair Lady (1964)
 Honorary Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain (1965)
 Tony Award for Best Costume Design for Coco 1970
 International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame, named 1970.
 Knighthood (1972)

Exhibitions

Major exhibitions have been held at the National Portrait Gallery in London in 1968 and in 2004.

The first international exhibition in thirty years, and first exhibition of his works to be held in Australia was held in Bendigo, Victoria from 10 December 2005 to 26 March 2006.

In October 2011, the BBC's Antiques Roadshow featured an oil portrait by Beaton of rock star Mick Jagger, whom Beaton met in the 1960s. The painting, originally sold at the Le Fevre Gallery in 1966, was valued for insurance purposes at £30,000.

The Museum of the City of New York dedicated an exhibition to Cecil Beaton from October 2011 to April 2012.

An exhibition celebrating The Queen's Diamond Jubilee and showing portraits of Her Majesty by Cecil Beaton, opened in October 2011 at the Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Cecil Beaton: Theatre of War at the Imperial War Museum, London: major retrospective of Beaton's war photography, held from 6 September 2012 – 1 January 2013.

Cecil Beaton at Home: Ashcombe & Reddish at The Salisbury Museum, Wiltshire, from 23 May- 19 September 2014, a biographical retrospective focussing on Beaton's two Wiltshire houses, brought together for the first time many art works and possessions from both eras of Beaton's life.  The exhibition included a full-size reproduction of the murals and four-poster bed from the Circus Bedroom at Ashcombe, as well as a section of the drawing room at Reddish House.

In film and television
In the 1989 Australian film Darlings of the Gods, Beaton was portrayed by Shane Briant. In Netflix's 2016 series The Crown, Beaton was portrayed by Mark Tandy.

Publications

Selected works

 The Book of Beauty (Duckworth, 1930)
 Cecil Beaton's Scrapbook (Batsford, 1937)
 Cecil Beaton's New York (Batsford, 1938)
 My Royal Past (Batsford, 1939)
 History Under Fire with James Pope-Hennessy (Batsford, 1941)
 Time Exposure with Peter Quennell (Batsford, 1941)
 Air of Glory (HMSO, 1941)
 Winged Squadrons (Hutchinson, 1942)
 Near East (Batsford, 1943)
 British Photographers (William Collins, 1944)
 Far East (Batsford, 1945)
 Cecil Beaton's Indian Album (Batsford, 1945–6, republished as Indian Diary and Album, OUP, 1991)
 Cecil Beaton's Chinese Album (Batsford, 1945–6)
 India (Thacker & Co., 1945)
 Portrait of New York (Batsford, 1948)
 Ashcombe: The Story of a Fifteen-Year Lease (Batsford, 1949)
 Photobiography (Odhams, 1951)
 Ballet (Allan Wingate, 1951)
 Persona Grata with Kenneth Tynan (Allan Wingate, 1953)
 The Glass of Fashion (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1954)
 It Gives Me Great Pleasure (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1956)
 The Face of the World: An International Scrapbook of People and Places (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1957)
 Japanese (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1959)
 Quail in Aspic: The Life Story of Count Charles Korsetz (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1962)
 Images with a preface by Edith Sitwell and an introduction by Christopher Isherwood (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963)
 Royal Portraits with an introduction by Peter Quennell (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1963)
 Cecil Beaton's 'Fair Lady''' (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964)
 The Best of Beaton with an introduction by Truman Capote (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968)
 My Bolivian Aunt: A Memoir (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971)

Diaries
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1922–39 The Wandering Years (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961)
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1939–44 The Years Between (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1965)
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1944–48 The Happy Years (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972)
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1948–55 The Strenuous Years (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973)
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1955–63 The Restless Years (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1976)
 Cecil Beaton's Diaries: 1963–74 The Parting Years (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978)
 Self Portrait with Friends: The Selected Diaries of Cecil Beaton 1926–1974 edited by Richard Buckle (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1979)
 The Unexpurgated Beaton: The Cecil Beaton Diaries as they were written with an introduction by Hugo Vickers (Orion, 2003)
 Beaton in the Sixties: More Unexpurgated Diaries with an introduction by Hugo Vickers (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004)

Photographs

 Sir William Walton, 1926
 Stephen Tennant, 1927
 Lady Diana Cooper, 1928
 Charles James (designer), 1929
 Lillian Gish, 1929
 Oliver Messel, 1929
 Lord David Cecil, 1930
 Lady Georgia Sitwell, 1930
 Gary Cooper, 1931
 Molly Fink, 1926
 Pablo Picasso, 1933
 Helen Hope Montgomery Scott, 1933
 Dürrüşehvar Sultan, 1933
 Marlene Dietrich, 1935
 Salvador Dalí, 1936
 Natalie Paley, 1936
 Aldous Huxley, 1936
 Daisy Fellowes, 1937
 Helen of Greece and Denmark, Queen Mother of Romania, 1937
 Lady Ursula Manners, 1937
 Queen Sita Devi of Kapurthala, 1940
 Bomb Victim (Eileen Dunne), 1940
 Winston Churchill, 1940
 Graham Sutherland, 1940
 Charles de Gaulle, 1941
 Walter Sickert, 1942
 Maharani Gayatri Devi, Rajmata of Jaipur, 1943
 John Pope-Hennessy, 1945
 Isabel Jeans, 1945
 Greta Garbo, 1946
 Yul Brynner, 1946Princess Fawzia Fuad of Egypt, Queen of Iran Vivien Leigh, 1947
 Marlon Brando, 1947
 Truman Capote, 1948–1949
 Bobby Henrey, 1948
 Countess Cristiana Brandolini d'Adda, 1951
 Duchess of Windsor, 1951
 Vita Sackville-West, 1952
 C. Z. Guest, 1952
 Graham Greene, 1953
 Elizabeth II's Coronation, 1953
 Alexis von Rosenberg, Baron de Redé, 1953
 Elizabeth Taylor, 1954
 Grace Kelly, 1954
 Mona von Bismarck, 1955
 Bernard Berenson, 1955
 Joan Crawford, 1956
 Mrs. Charles (Jayne Wrightsman), 1956
 Maria Callas, 1956
 Dame Edith Sitwell, 1956
 Colin Wilson, 1956
 Marilyn Monroe, 1956
 Leslie Caron, 1957
 Dolores Guinness, 1958
 Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, 1960
 Albert Finney, 1961
 Cristóbal Balenciaga, 1962
 Lee Radziwill, 1962
 Karen Blixen, 1962
 Rudolf Nureyev, 1963
 Audrey Hepburn, 1964
 Margot Fonteyn, 1965
 Jacqueline Kennedy, 1965
 Sheridan Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 5th Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, 1965
 Jamie Wyeth, 1966
 Georgia O'Keeffe, 1966
 Andy Warhol, 1967
 Twiggy, 1967
 Mick Jagger, 1968
 Katharine Hepburn, 1969
 Barbra Streisand, 1969
 Gloria Guinness, 1970
 Hubert de Givenchy, 1970
 Mae West, 1970
 David Hockney, 1970
 Jane Birkin, 1971
 Marie-Hélène de Rothschild, 1971
 Marisa Berenson as Luisa Casati, 1971
 Jacqueline de Ribes, 1971
 Pauline de Rothschild, 1972
 Tina Chow, 1973
 Gilbert & George, 1974
 Inès de La Fressange, 1978
 Paloma Picasso, 1978
 Caroline of Monaco, 1978
 Olimpia de Rothschild, 1978
 Dayle Haddon, 1979

References

Further reading
 Beaton, Cecil Sir & Boddington, Jennie, 1922– & National Gallery of Victoria (1975). Cecil Beaton's camera. National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne

External links

 Theatre Archive University of Bristol

 Cecil Beaton textile designs designed in 1948 for Zika Ascher
 Cecil Beaton interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 1 February 1980

Archival resources
 Papers of Sir Cecil Beaton (1922–1980, 38 archival boxes) at St John's College, Cambridge
 Cecil Beaton Papers (1938–1979, 1 archival box) at Princeton University Library
 Cecil Beaton Studio Archive at Sotheby's Picture Library
 W.H. Crain Costume and Scene Design Collection at the Harry Ransom Center

1904 births
1980 deaths
20th-century English diarists
20th-century English LGBT people
20th-century British photographers
Artists from Hampstead
Writers from Hampstead
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Best Art Direction Academy Award winners
Best Costume Design Academy Award winners
Bisexual painters
Bisexual photographers
Bisexual male artists
British portrait photographers
Broadway set designers
Burials in Wiltshire
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Civil servants in the Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Donaldson Award winners
English costume designers
English interior designers
English scenic designers
English socialites
Fashion illustrators
Fashion photographers
Knights Bachelor
LGBT fashion designers
English LGBT painters
English LGBT photographers
English bisexual people
Opera designers
People associated with the University of East Anglia
People educated at Harrow School
People educated at Heath Mount School
People educated at St Cyprian's School
Photographers from London
Photography in India
Photography in Japan
Theatrical photographers
Tony Award winners
War photographers

Cecil Beaton


Nyokot conto atawa samplingmangrupa bagéan tina statistika praktis nu museurkeun kana pamilihan individu nu ditalungtik, nu mana diharepkeun bakal ngahasilkeun pangaweruh ngeunaan populasi, hususna keur kaperluan kaputusan statistik. Sabagian ti eta, hasil tina teori kamungkinan jeung tiori statistik bisa digunakeun keur panunjuk dina kaperluan praktis.

prosés nyokot conton aya lima tahapan, nyaéta:

 Hartikeun populasi anu ditalungtik
 Husukeun heula rohangan conto, susun barang atawa kajadian anu mungkin keur diukur
 Hususkeun metoda nyokot conto keur pamilihan barang atawa kajadian tina frame
 Cokot conto jeung kumpulkeun data
 Talungtik prosés nyokot conto

Harti Populasi

Suksesna statistik praktis dumasar kana pokus problem definition. Sacara tipe, we seek to take action on some population, for example when a batch of material from production must be reléased to the customer or sentenced for scrap or rework. Alternatively, we seek knowledge about the cause system of which the population is an outcome, for example
when a reséarcher performs an experiment on rats with the intention of gaining insights into biochemistry that can be applied for the benefit of humans. In the latter case, the population of concern can be difficult to specify, as it is in the case of méasuring some physical characteristic such as the electrical conductivity of copper.

However, in all cases, time spent in making the population of concern precise is always well spent, often because it raises many issues, ambiguities and questions that would otherwise have been overlooked at this stage.

Sampling frame

In the most straightforward case, such as the sentencing of a batch of material from production (acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to identify and méasure every single item in the population and to include any one of them in our sample. However, in the more general case this is not possible. There is no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats. There is no way to identify every voter at a forthcoming election (in advance of the election).

These imprecise populations are not amenable to sampling in any of the ways below and to which we could apply statistical théory.

As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every single element and include any in our sample. For example, in an electoral poll, possible sampling frames include:

 Electoral régister
 Telephone directory
 Shoppers in Anytown, High Street on the Monday afternoon before the election.

The sampling frame must be representative of the population and this is a question outside the scope of statistical théory demanding the judgement of experts in the particular subject matter being studied. All the above frames omit some péople who will vote at the next election and contain some péople who will not. Péople not in the frame have no prospect of being sampled. Statistical théory tells us about the uncertainties in extrapolating from a sample to the frame. In extrapolating from frame to population its role is motivational and suggestive.

In defining the frame, practical, economic, ethical and technical issues need to be addressed. The need to obtain timely results may prevent extending the frame far into the future.

The difficulties can be extreme when the population and frame are disjoint. This is a particular problem in forecasting where inferences about the future are made from historical data. In fact, in 1703, when Jacob Bernoulli proposed to Gottfried Leibniz the possibility of using historical mortality data to predict the probability of éarly déath of a living man, Gottfried Leibniz recognised the problem in replying:

Nature has established patterns originating in the return of events but only for the most part. New illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how many experiments you have done on corpses, you have not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so that in the future they could not vary.

Having established the frame, there are a number of ways of organising it to improve efficiency and effectiveness.

Simple sampling

In this case, all elements of the frame are tréated equally and it is not subdivided or partitioned. One of the sampling methods below is applied to the whole frame.

Stratified sampling

Where the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organised by these categories into separate strata or demographics. One of the sampling methods below is then applied to éach stratum separately, maintaining the same balance in numbers as exists in the population and resulting in an improvement in precision.

Cluster sampling

Where items in the population are clustered, sampling can reflect this to minimise costs. For example, in a national survey by personal interview, many péople will be remotely located and costly to réach. Cluster sampling locates the frame in aréas of concentrated habitation.

Multistage sampling

...

Sampling method

Within any of the types of frame identified above, a variety of sampling methods can be employed, individually or in combination.

Random sampling

In Random sampling, every combination of items from the frame, or stratum, has an equal probability of occurring. It guarantees that the sample is representative of the frame but is inféasible in many practical situations. It is a type of probability sampling.

Systematic sampling

Selecting (say) every tenth name from the telephone directory is simple to implement and is an example of systematic sampling. Though simple to implement, asymmetries and biases in the structure of the data can léad to bias in results. It is a type of nonprobability sampling

Mechanical sampling

Mechanical sampling occurs typically in sampling solids, liquids and gases, using devices such as grabs, scoops, thief probes, the coliwasa and riffle splitter.

Mechanical sampling is not random and is a type of nonprobability sampling. Care is needed in ensuring that the sample is representative of the frame. Much work in this aréa was developed by Pierre Gy.

Convenience sampling

Sometimes called, grab sampling, this is the method of choosing items arbitrarily and in an unstructured manner from the frame. Though almost impossible to tréat rigorously, it is the method most commonly employed in many practical situations.

Ukuran sampel

Where the frame and population are identical, statistical théory yields exact recommendations on sample size. However, where it is not straightforward to define a frame representative of the population, it is more important to understand the cause system of which the population are outcomes and to ensure that all sources of variation are embraced in the frame. Large number of observations are of no value if major sources of variation are neglected in the study.

Sampling and data collection

Good data collection involves:

 Following the defined sampling process
 Keeping the data in time order
 Noting comments and other contextual events
 Recording non-responses

Review of sampling process

After sampling, a review should be held of the exact process followed in sampling, rather than that intended, in order to study any effects that any divergences might have on subsequent analysis. A particular problem is that of non-responses.

Non-responses

In survey sampling, many of the individuals identified as part of the sample may be unwilling to participate or impossible to contact. In this case, there is a risk of differences, between (say) the willing and unwilling, léading to bias in conclusions. This is often
addressed by follow-up studies which maké a repéated attempt to contact the unresponsive and to characterise their similarities and differences with the rest of the frame.

Bibliography

 Cochran, W G (1977) Sampling Techniques
 Deming, W E (1975) On probability as a basis for action, The American Statistician, 29(4), pp146–152
 Gy, P (1992) Sampling of Heterogeneous and Dynamic Material Systems: Theories of Heterogeneity, Sampling and Homogenizing

Related topics

statistik
marketing research, quantitative marketing research
sample space, statistical sample

External Links

 Links to Sampling Guides

Rujukan
 Brown, K.W., Cozby, P.C., Kee, D.W., & Worden, P.E. (1999). Research Methods in Human Development, 2d ed. Mountain View, CA : Mayfield. ISBN 1-55934-875-5
 Bartlett, J. E., II, Kotrlik, J. W., & Higgins, C. (2001). Organizational research: Determining appropriate sample size for survey research. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal, 19(1) 43-50.
 Chambers, R L, and Skinner, C J (editors) (2003), Analysis of Survey Data, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-89987-9
 Cochran, W G (1977) Sampling Techniques, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-16240-X
 Deming, W E (1975) On probability as a basis for action, The American Statistician, 29(4), pp146–152.
 Flyvbjerg, B (2006) "Five Misunderstandings About Case Study Research." Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 219–245.
 Gy, P (1992) Sampling of Heterogeneous and Dynamic Material Systems: Theories of Heterogeneity, Sampling and Homogenizing
 Kish, L (1995) Survey Sampling, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-10949-5
 Korn, E L, and Graubard, B I (1999) Analysis of Health Surveys, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-13773-1
 Lohr, H (1999) Sampling: Design and Analysis, Duxbury, ISBN 0-534-35361-4
 Sarndal, Swenson, and Wretman (1992), modél Assisted Survey Sampling, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-40620-4
 Stuart, Alan (1962) Basic Ideas of Scientific Sampling, Hafner Publishing Company, New York
ASTM E105 Standard Practice for Probability Sampling Of Materials
ASTM E122 Standard Practice for Calculating Sample Size to Estimate, With a Specified Tolerable Error, the Average for Characteristic of a Lot or Process
ASTM E141 Standard Practice for Acceptance of Evidence Based on the Results of Probability Sampling
ASTM E1402 Standard Terminology Relating to Sampling
ASTM E1994 Standard Practice for Use of Process Oriented AOQL and LTPD Sampling Plans
ASTM E2234 Standard Practice for Sampling a Stréam of Product by Attributes Indexedby AQL

Statistika

Sampling (statistika)


In poetry, meter (British English spelling: metre) means the rhythmic patterns in a verse.

Fundamentals

The units of poetic meter, like rhyme, vary from language to language and between poetic traditions. They can involve arrangements of syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. English meter is founded on the patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables. In Latin and Greek verse, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, not syllable stresses but syllable lengths are the component parts of meter.

Poetry

Meter (poetry)


The Contract from America was the idea of Houston-based attorney Ryan Hecker. Hecker states that he developed the concept of creating a grassroots call for reform prior to the April 15, 2009 Tax Day Tea Party rallies.  To get his idea off the ground, he launched a website which encouraged people to offer possible planks for the contract.  Hecker told The New York Times, "Hundreds of thousands of people voted for their favorite principles online to create the Contract as an open-sourced platform for the Tea Party movement. The agenda had the imprint of everyday citizens every step of the way (in the online voting process)."  Hecker said the Republicans' 1994 Contract with America represented the nation's last intellectual economic conservative movement, but the new list, he said, was "created from the bottom up.  It was not crafted in Washington with the help of pollsters."

From the original 1,000 ideas which were submitted, Hecker reduced it to about 50 based on popularity, then to 21 items with the help of former House Republican Leader Dick Armey, whose conservative group FreedomWorks has established close ties with many Tea Party activists around the country.

After releasing the 21 ideas at CPAC on February 18, 2010, a final online vote was held to narrow the 21 ideas down to the final 10 to be included in the Contract from America. Over two months, 454,331 votes were cast. The resulting document, including the vote percentages for the statements, was posted online on April 12, 2010.

The Contract lists 10 agenda items that it encourages congressional candidates to follow:

 Identify constitutionality of every new law: Require each bill to identify the specific provision of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to do what the bill does (82.0%).
 Reject emissions trading: Stop the "cap and trade" administrative approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants. (72.2%).
 Demand a balanced federal budget: Begin the Constitutional amendment process to require a balanced budget with a two-thirds majority needed for any tax modification. (69.7%)
 Simplify the tax system: Adopt a simple and fair single-rate tax system by scrapping the internal revenue code and replacing it with one that is no longer than 4,543 words – the length of the original Constitution. (64.9%)
 Audit federal government agencies for constitutionality: Create a blue ribbon taskforce that engages in an audit of federal agencies and programs, assessing their constitutionality, and identifying duplication, waste, ineffectiveness, and agencies and programs better left for the states or local authorities. (63.4%)
 Limit annual growth in federal spending: Impose a statutory cap limiting the annual growth in total federal spending to the sum of the inflation rate plus the percentage of population growth. (56.57%).
 Repeal the health care legislation passed on March 23, 2010: Defund, repeal and replace the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. (56.4%).
 Pass an 'All-of-the-Above' Energy Policy: Authorize the exploration of additional energy reserves (see Oil reserves in the United States) to reduce American dependence on foreign energy sources and reduce regulatory barriers to all other forms of energy creation. (55.5%).
 Reduce Earmarks: Place a moratorium on all earmarks until the budget is balanced, and then require a 2/3 majority to pass any earmark. (55.5%).
 Reduce Taxes: Permanently repeal all recent tax increases, and extend permanently the George W. Bush temporary reductions in income tax, capital gains tax and estate taxes, currently scheduled to end in 2011. (53.4%).

The Tea Party Patriots have asked both Democrats and Republicans to sign on to the Contract. No Democrats have signed on, and the contract has met resistance from some Republicans who have since created the Pledge to America.  Brendan Buck, former Speaker of the House John Boehner's Communications Director for Special Legislative Initiatives (while Boehner was House Minority Leader), explained that the Contract is too narrow in focus, and not exactly what the Republican Party would include in its own top 10 list of priorities. "We just want to have as big and open process as we can," he said, while making sure to add that "[t]he tea party people will have a seat at the table."

Candidates who have signed the Contract from America include Utah's Mike Lee, Nevada's Sharron Angle, Sen. Coburn (R-OK), and Sen. DeMint (R-SC).

See also
 Contract with America (1994)
 Pledge to America (2010)
 Bush tax cuts
 Right-wing populism

References

External links

American political manifestos
2010 in American politics
Tea Party movement
2010 documents

Contract from America


In set theory, the union (denoted by ∪) of a collection of sets is the set of all elements in the collection. It is one of the fundamental operations through which sets can be combined and related to each other.
A  refers to a union of zero () sets and it is by definition equal to the empty set.

For explanation of the symbols used in this article, refer to the table of mathematical symbols.

Union of two sets
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements which are in A, in B, or in both A and B.  In set-builder notation,

.

For example, if A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7} then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.  A more elaborate example (involving two infinite sets) is:
 A = {x is an even integer larger than 1}
 B = {x is an odd integer larger than 1}

As another example, the number 9 is not contained in the union of the set of prime numbers {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...} and the set of even numbers {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...}, because 9 is neither prime nor even.

Sets cannot have duplicate elements, so the union of the sets {1, 2, 3} and {2, 3, 4} is {1, 2, 3, 4}. Multiple occurrences of identical elements have no effect on the cardinality of a set or its contents.

Algebraic properties

Binary union is an associative operation; that is, for any sets

Thus, the parentheses may be omitted without ambiguity: either of the above can be written as  Also, union is commutative, so the sets can be written in any order.
The empty set is an identity element for the operation of union. That is,  for any set  Also, the union operation is idempotent:   All these properties follow from analogous facts about logical disjunction.

Intersection distributes over union

and union distributes over intersection

The power set of a set  together with the operations given by union, intersection, and complementation, is a Boolean algebra.  In this Boolean algebra, union can be expressed in terms of intersection and complementation by the formula

where the superscript  denotes the complement in the universal set

Finite unions
One can take the union of several sets simultaneously.  For example, the union of three sets A, B, and C contains all elements of A, all elements of B, and all elements of C, and nothing else. Thus, x is an element of A ∪ B ∪ C if and only if x is in at least one of A, B, and C.

A finite union is the union of a finite number of sets; the phrase does not imply that the union set is a finite set.

Arbitrary unions

The most general notion is the union of an arbitrary collection of sets, sometimes called an infinitary union. If M is a set or class whose elements are sets, then x is an element of the union of M if and only if there is at least one element A of M such that x is an element of A. In symbols:

This idea subsumes the preceding sections—for example, A ∪ B ∪ C is the union of the collection {A, B, C}. Also, if M is the empty collection, then the union of M is the empty set.

Notations
The notation for the general concept can vary considerably.  For a finite union of sets  one often writes  or .  Various common notations for arbitrary unions include  , , and . The last of these notations refers to the union of the collection , where I is an index set and  is a set for every . In the case that the index set I is the set of natural numbers, one uses the notation , which is analogous to that of the infinite sums in series.

When the symbol "∪" is placed before other symbols (instead of between them), it is usually rendered as a larger size.

Notation encoding

In Unicode, union is represented by the character . In TeX,  is rendered from \cup and  is rendered from \bigcup.

See also

  − the union of sets of strings

Notes

External links

 Infinite Union and Intersection at ProvenMath De Morgan's laws formally proven from the axioms of set theory.

Boolean algebra
Basic concepts in set theory
Operations on sets
Set theory

Union (set theory)


Burglary, also called breaking and entering, is illegally going into a building or area in order to commit a crime, usually theft. Someone who does burglary is called a burglar. To commit burglary is to burgle or to burglarize. Burglaries can happen at any time or any place. The word burglar comes from the Old English words burg (house) and laron (thief).

The definition of burglary, and the punishment for burglary, depends on the country or state.

Related pages
Theft
Robbery

Burglary

Burglary


Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo is a comic published in Weekly Shonen-Jump. It is a serial comic that started in 1976. "Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari-kouenmae hashutsujo" is called "Kochikame" for short. This comic is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the longest running serial comic. This comic been made into animated cartoons, drama and movies.

Author
The author is Osamu Akimoto. He was born 11 December 1952, in Tokyo. He got a "Young-Jump Prize" in 1976, then debuted with his short story, and started serial publication on September 1976. He had never been withheld from publication. His masterpieces are "Mr.Clice", "Tokyo-Hukagawa Sandaime" and so on.

Main Characters

Kankichi Ryotsu
The hero of this comic. He is a policeman of Shin-Katsushika police station. One of his hobbies is moneymaking. He is the best tough guy in this comic.
Height:161cm
Weight:71kg
Birthday: 3 March
Blood type:B

Keiichi Nakagawa
He is a policeman of Shin-Katsushika police station. In addition, the son of "Nakagawa financial combine". He is very handsome, tall and versatility policeman. He knows nothing of the world.
Height:185cm
Weight:65kg
Birthday:24 December
Blood type:O

Reiko Akimoto
She is a policewoman of  Shin-Katsushika police station. In addition, the daughter of "Akimoto trading company". She has a beautiful face but she is a masculine woman. She appeared from 100th story.
Height:177cm
Weight:46kg
Birthday: 7 July
Blood type:O

Daijirou Ohara
He is a policeman of Shin-Katsushika police station. The boss of Kameari-kouenmae hashutsujo. He is tender toward everyone but strict with working.
Height:162cm
Weight:65kg
Birthday: He changes his birthday for his own convenience.
Blood type:A

References
 "Cho-Kochikame" September,2006
 Jump Comics "Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari-kouenmae hashutsujo" vol.001~200

Other websites
 http://www.j-kochikame.com/  Official Site (Japanese)
Comics
Japanese literature


A malt drink is a fermented drink in which the primary ingredient is the grain, or seed, of the barley plant, which has been allowed to sprout slightly in a traditional way called "malting" before it is processed.

By far the most predominant malt drink is beer (naturally fermented barley sugars flavoured with hops), of which there are two main styles: ale and lager. A low alcohol level drink brewed in this fashion is technically identical to "non-alcoholic beer". Such a drink may be prepared by using a slightly altered brewing process that yields negligible alcohol (technically less than 0.5% by volume). These are called low-alcohol beers or "near beers".

In the United States, the term "malt beverage" may be used by trade associations of groups of beer wholesalers (e.g. Tennessee Malt Beverages Association) for the sake of a professional image by using brewing craft related terms, for political or legal reasons, or to avoid potential negative connotations that may be associated with beer in a region.  Additionally, the term malt beverage is applied to many other flavoured drinks prepared from malted grains to which natural or artificial flavours (and sometimes colours) have been added to make them taste and appear similar to wines, fruits, colas, natural ciders, or other drinks. This subcategory has been called "malternative", as in Smirnoff Ice (US and French version), or "maltini", as in 3SUM, which also has energy components like caffeine. Marketing of such products in the United States has increased rapidly in recent years. In most jurisdictions, these products are regulated in a way identical to beer, which allows a retailer with a beer license to sell a wider product line. This also generally avoids the steeper taxes and stricter regulations associated with distilled spirits.

Non-alcoholic malt drinks
Beer-style
 Barbican (Middle East)
 Julmust (Sweden)
 Kvass (Northeastern, Central and Eastern Europe)
 Malta (Germany and Denmark)
 Podpiwek (Poland)
 Gira (Lithuania)
 Supermalt (Afro-Caribbean and UK)
 ISTAK (Iran)
 Hoppy (Japan)

Milk-style
 Horlicks (UK)
 Malted milk
 Milkshake
 Milo (Australia and Southeast Asia)
 Ovaltine (UK)

Low-alcoholic malt drinks
 Low-alcohol beers
 Malt beer
 Malzbier
 Wine cooler

Average-alcoholic malt drinks
 Alcopop
 Malt beer
 Malt liquor

High-alcoholic malt drinks
 Malt whisky
 Single malt whisky
 Blended malt whisky

See also

List of barley-based drinks

External links

Types of beer
Fermented drinks
Alcohol law

Malt drink


Alberto (V) d'Este (27 February 1347 – 30 July 1393) was lord of Ferrara and Modena from 1388 until his death.

He was associated in the lordship of the House of Este by his brother Niccolò in 1361, becoming the sole ruler of Ferrara and Modena after the latter's death in 1388.  He was the son of Obizzo III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara, who had ruled in Ferrara from 1317 to 1352.

Alberto founded the University of Ferrara in 1391. In the same year he married Giovanna de' Roberti (d. 1393). After her death, he married his mistress Isotta Albaresani.

He was succeeded by his legitimated son Niccolò (III).

References
 L. A. Muratori. Delle antichità Estensi. 1717, Modena;
 G. B. Pigna. Historia dei Principi d'Este. 1570, Ferrara.
 Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Este, Alberto V d', in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, XLIII, Roma 1993, pp. 295–297.

1347 births
1393 deaths
Alberto 5
Alberto 5
14th-century Italian nobility

Alberto d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara


Operations research () (U.S. Air Force Specialty Code: Operations Analysis), often shortened to the initialism OR, is a discipline that deals with the development and application of analytical methods to improve decision-making. The term management science is occasionally used as a synonym.

Employing techniques from other mathematical sciences, such as modeling, statistics, and optimization, operations research arrives at optimal or near-optimal solutions to decision-making problems. Because of its emphasis on practical applications, operations research has overlapped with many other disciplines, notably industrial engineering. Operations research is often concerned with determining the extreme values of some real-world objective: the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or cost). Originating in military efforts before World War II, its techniques have grown to concern problems in a variety of industries.

Overview
Operational research (OR) encompasses the development and the use of a wide range of problem-solving techniques and methods applied in the pursuit of improved decision-making and efficiency, such as simulation, mathematical optimization, queueing theory and other stochastic-process models, Markov decision processes, econometric methods, data envelopment analysis, ordinal priority approach, neural networks, expert systems, decision analysis, and the analytic hierarchy process. Nearly all of these techniques involve the construction of mathematical models that attempt to describe the system. Because of the computational and statistical nature of most of these fields, OR also has strong ties to computer science and analytics. Operational researchers faced with a new problem must determine which of these techniques are most appropriate given the nature of the system, the goals for improvement, and constraints on time and computing power, or develop a new technique specific to the problem at hand (and, afterwards, to that type of problem).

The major sub-disciplines in modern operational research, as identified by the journal Operations Research, are:
 Computing and information technologies
 Financial engineering
 Manufacturing, service sciences, and supply chain management
 Policy modeling and public sector work
Revenue management
 Simulation
 Stochastic models
 Transportation theory (mathematics)
 Game theory for strategies
 Linear programming
 Nonlinear programming
 Integer programming in NP-complete problem specially for 0-1 integer linear programming for binary
 Dynamic programming in Aerospace engineering and Economics
 Information theory used in Cryptography, Quantum computing
 Quadratic programming for solutions of Quadratic equation and Quadratic function

History
In the decades after the two world wars, the tools of operations research were more widely applied to problems in business, industry, and society. Since that time, operational research has expanded into a field widely used in industries ranging from petrochemicals to airlines, finance, logistics, and government, moving to a focus on the development of mathematical models that can be used to analyse and optimize sometimes complex systems, and has become an area of active academic and industrial research.

Historical origins
In the 17th century, mathematicians Blaise Pascal and Christiaan Huygens solved problems involving sometimes complex decisions (problem of points) by using game-theoretic ideas and expected values; others, such as Pierre de Fermat and Jacob Bernoulli, solved these types of problems using combinatorial reasoning instead. Charles Babbage's research into the cost of transportation and sorting of mail led to England's universal "Penny Post" in 1840, and to studies into the dynamical behaviour of railway vehicles in defence of the GWR's broad gauge. Beginning in the 20th century, study of inventory management could be considered the origin of modern operations research with economic order quantity developed by Ford W. Harris in 1913. Operational research may have originated in the efforts of military planners during World War I (convoy theory and Lanchester's laws). Percy Bridgman brought operational research to bear on problems in physics in the 1920s and would later attempt to extend these to the social sciences.

Modern operational research originated at the Bawdsey Research Station in the UK in 1937 as the result of an initiative of the station's superintendent, A. P. Rowe and Robert Watson-Watt. Rowe conceived the idea as a means to analyse and improve the working of the UK's early-warning radar system, code-named "Chain Home" (CH). Initially, Rowe analysed the operating of the radar equipment and its communication networks, expanding later to include the operating personnel's behaviour. This revealed unappreciated limitations of the CH network and allowed remedial action to be taken.

Scientists in the United Kingdom (including Patrick Blackett (later Lord Blackett OM PRS), Cecil Gordon, Solly Zuckerman, (later Baron Zuckerman OM, KCB, FRS), C. H. Waddington, Owen Wansbrough-Jones, Frank Yates, Jacob Bronowski and Freeman Dyson), and in the United States (George Dantzig) looked for ways to make better decisions in such areas as logistics and training schedules.

Second World War

The modern field of operational research arose during World War II. In the World War II era, operational research was defined as "a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding the operations under their control". Other names for it included operational analysis (UK Ministry of Defence from 1962) and quantitative management.

During the Second World War close to 1,000 men and women in Britain were engaged in operational research. About 200 operational research scientists worked for the British Army.

Patrick Blackett worked for several different organizations during the war. Early in the war while working for the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) he set up a team known as the "Circus" which helped to reduce the number of anti-aircraft artillery rounds needed to shoot down an enemy aircraft from an average of over 20,000 at the start of the Battle of Britain to 4,000 in 1941.

In 1941, Blackett moved from the RAE to the Navy, after first working with RAF Coastal Command, in 1941 and then early in 1942 to the Admiralty. Blackett's team at Coastal Command's Operational Research Section (CC-ORS) included two future Nobel prize winners and many other people who went on to be pre-eminent in their fields. They undertook a number of crucial analyses that aided the war effort. Britain introduced the convoy system to reduce shipping losses, but while the principle of using warships to accompany merchant ships was generally accepted, it was unclear whether it was better for convoys to be small or large. Convoys travel at the speed of the slowest member, so small convoys can travel faster. It was also argued that small convoys would be harder for German U-boats to detect. On the other hand, large convoys could deploy more warships against an attacker. Blackett's staff showed that the losses suffered by convoys depended largely on the number of escort vessels present, rather than the size of the convoy. Their conclusion was that a few large convoys are more defensible than many small ones.

While performing an analysis of the methods used by RAF Coastal Command to hunt and destroy submarines, one of the analysts asked what colour the aircraft were. As most of them were from Bomber Command they were painted black for night-time operations. At the suggestion of CC-ORS a test was run to see if that was the best colour to camouflage the aircraft for daytime operations in the grey North Atlantic skies. Tests showed that aircraft painted white were on average not spotted until they were 20% closer than those painted black. This change indicated that 30% more submarines would be attacked and sunk for the same number of sightings. As a result of these findings Coastal Command changed their aircraft to using white undersurfaces.

Other work by the CC-ORS indicated that on average if the trigger depth of aerial-delivered depth charges were changed from 100 to 25 feet, the kill ratios would go up. The reason was that if a U-boat saw an aircraft only shortly before it arrived over the target then at 100 feet the charges would do no damage (because the U-boat wouldn't have had time to descend as far as 100 feet), and if it saw the aircraft a long way from the target it had time to alter course under water so the chances of it being within the 20-foot kill zone of the charges was small. It was more efficient to attack those submarines close to the surface when the targets' locations were better known than to attempt their destruction at greater depths when their positions could only be guessed. Before the change of settings from 100 to 25 feet, 1% of submerged U-boats were sunk and 14% damaged. After the change, 7% were sunk and 11% damaged; if submarines were caught on the surface but had time to submerge just before being attacked, the numbers rose to 11% sunk and 15% damaged. Blackett observed "there can be few cases where such a great operational gain had been obtained by such a small and simple change of tactics".

Bomber Command's Operational Research Section (BC-ORS), analyzed a report of a survey carried out by RAF Bomber Command. For the survey, Bomber Command inspected all bombers returning from bombing raids over Germany over a particular period. All damage inflicted by German air defenses was noted and the recommendation was given that armor be added in the most heavily damaged areas. This recommendation was not adopted because the fact that the aircraft were able to return with these areas damaged indicated the areas were not vital, and adding armor to non-vital areas where damage is acceptable reduces aircraft performance. Their suggestion to remove some of the crew so that an aircraft loss would result in fewer personnel losses, was also rejected by RAF command. Blackett's team made the logical recommendation that the armor be placed in the areas which were completely untouched by damage in the bombers who returned. They reasoned that the survey was biased, since it only included aircraft that returned to Britain. The areas untouched in returning aircraft were probably vital areas, which, if hit, would result in the loss of the aircraft. This story has been disputed, with a similar damage assessment study completed in the US by the Statistical Research Group at Columbia University, the result of work done by Abraham Wald.

When Germany organized its air defences into the Kammhuber Line, it was realized by the British that if the RAF bombers were to fly in a bomber stream they could overwhelm the night fighters who flew in individual cells directed to their targets by ground controllers. It was then a matter of calculating the statistical loss from collisions against the statistical loss from night fighters to calculate how close the bombers should fly to minimize RAF losses.

The "exchange rate" ratio of output to input was a characteristic feature of operational research. By comparing the number of flying hours put in by Allied aircraft to the number of U-boat sightings in a given area, it was possible to redistribute aircraft to more productive patrol areas. Comparison of exchange rates established "effectiveness ratios" useful in planning. The ratio of 60 mines laid per ship sunk was common to several campaigns: German mines in British ports, British mines on German routes, and United States mines in Japanese routes.

Operational research doubled the on-target bomb rate of B-29s bombing Japan from the Marianas Islands by increasing the training ratio from 4 to 10 percent of flying hours; revealed that wolf-packs of three United States submarines were the most effective number to enable all members of the pack to engage targets discovered on their individual patrol stations; revealed that glossy enamel paint was more effective camouflage for night fighters than conventional dull camouflage paint finish, and a smooth paint finish increased airspeed by reducing skin friction.

On land, the operational research sections of the Army Operational Research Group (AORG) of the Ministry of Supply (MoS) were landed in Normandy in 1944, and they followed British forces in the advance across Europe. They analyzed, among other topics, the effectiveness of artillery, aerial bombing and anti-tank shooting.

After World War II

In 1947 under the auspices of the British Association, a symposium was organized in Dundee. In his opening address, Watson-Watt offered a definition of the aims of OR:
"To examine quantitatively whether the user organization is getting from the operation of its equipment the best attainable contribution to its overall objective."
With expanded techniques and growing awareness of the field at the close of the war, operational research was no longer limited to only operational, but was extended to encompass equipment procurement, training, logistics and infrastructure. Operations research also grew in many areas other than the military once scientists learned to apply its principles to the civilian sector. The development of the simplex algorithm for linear programming was in 1947.

In the 1950s, the term Operations Research was used to describe heterogeneous mathematical methods such as game theory, dynamic programming, linear programming, warehousing, spare parts theory, queue theory, simulation and production control, which were used primarily in civilian industry. Scientific societies and journals on the subject of operations research were founded in the 1950s, such as the Operation Research Society of America (ORSA) in 1952 and the Institute for Management Science (TIMS) in 1953. Philip Morse, the head of the Weapons Systems Evalution Group of the Pentagon, became the first president of ORSA and attracted the companies of the military-industrial complex to ORSA, which soon had more than 500 members. In the 1960s, ORSA reached 8000 members. Consulting companies also founded OR groups. In 1953, Abraham Charnes and William Cooper published the first textbook on Linear Programming.

In the 1950s and 1960s, chairs of operations research were established in the U.S. and United Kingdom (from 1964 in Lancaster) in the management faculties of universities. Further influences from the U.S. on the development of operations research in Western Europe can be traced here. The authoritative OR textbooks from the U.S. were published in Germany in German language and in France in French (but not in Italian), such as the book by George Dantzig "Linear Programming"(1963) and the book by C. West Churchman et al. "Introduction to Operations Research"(1957). The latter was also published in Spanish in 1973, opening at the same time Latin American readers to Operations Research. NATO gave important impulses for the spread of Operations Research in Western Europe; NATO headquarters (SHAPE) organised four conferences on OR in the 1950s – the one in 1956 with 120 participants – bringing OR to mainland Europe. Within NATO, OR was also known as "Scientific Advisory" (SA) and was grouped together in the Advisory Group of Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD). SHAPE and AGARD organized an OR conference in April 1957 in Paris. When France withdrew from the NATO military command structure, the transfer of NATO headquarters from France to Belgium led to the institutionalization of OR in Belgium, where Jacques Drèze founded CORE, the Center for Operations Research and Econometrics at the Catholic University of Leuven in 1966.

With the development of computers over the next three decades, Operations Research can now solve problems with hundreds of thousands of variables and constraints. Moreover, the large volumes of data required for such problems can be stored and manipulated very efficiently." Much of operations research (modernly known as 'analytics') relies upon stochastic variables and a therefore access to truly random numbers. Fortunately, the cybernetics field also required the same level of randomness. The development of increasingly better random number generators has been a boon to both disciplines. Modern applications of operations research includes city planning, football strategies, emergency planning, optimizing all facets of industry and economy, and undoubtedly with the likelihood of the inclusion of terrorist attack planning and definitely counterterrorist attack planning. More recently, the research approach of operations research, which dates back to the 1950s, has been criticized for being collections of mathematical models but lacking an empirical basis of data collection for applications. How to collect data is not presented in the textbooks. Because of the lack of data, there are also no computer applications in the textbooks.

Problems addressed
 Critical path analysis or project planning: identifying those processes in a multiple-dependency project which affect the overall duration of the project
 Floorplanning: designing the layout of equipment in a factory or components on a computer chip to reduce manufacturing time (therefore reducing cost)
 Network optimization: for instance, setup of telecommunications or power system networks to maintain quality of service during outages
 Resource allocation problems
 Facility location
 Assignment Problems:
Assignment problem
 Generalized assignment problem
 Quadratic assignment problem
 Weapon target assignment problem
 Bayesian search theory: looking for a target
 Optimal search
 Routing, such as determining the routes of buses so that as few buses are needed as possible
 Supply chain management: managing the flow of raw materials and products based on uncertain demand for the finished products
 Project production activities: managing the flow of work activities in a capital project in response to system variability through operations research tools for variability reduction and buffer allocation using a combination of allocation of capacity, inventory and time
 Efficient messaging and customer response tactics
 Automation: automating or integrating robotic systems in human-driven operations processes
 Globalization: globalizing operations processes in order to take advantage of cheaper materials, labor, land or other productivity inputs
 Transportation: managing freight transportation and delivery systems (Examples: LTL shipping, intermodal freight transport, travelling salesman problem, driver scheduling problem)
 Scheduling:
 Personnel staffing
 Manufacturing steps
 Project tasks
 Network data traffic: these are known as queueing models or queueing systems.
 Sports events and their television coverage
 Blending of raw materials in oil refineries
 Determining optimal prices, in many retail and B2B settings, within the disciplines of pricing science
 Cutting stock problem: Cutting small items out of bigger ones.

Operational research is also used extensively in government where evidence-based policy is used.

Management science

In 1967 Stafford Beer characterized the field of management science as "the business use of operations research". Like operational research itself, management science (MS) is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics devoted to optimal decision planning, with strong links with economics, business, engineering, and other sciences. It uses various scientific research-based principles, strategies, and analytical methods including mathematical modeling, statistics and numerical algorithms to improve an organization's ability to enact rational and meaningful management decisions by arriving at optimal or near-optimal solutions to sometimes complex decision problems. Management scientists help businesses to achieve their goals using the scientific methods of operational research.

The management scientist's mandate is to use rational, systematic, science-based techniques to inform and improve decisions of all kinds. Of course, the techniques of management science are not restricted to business applications but may be applied to military, medical, public administration, charitable groups, political groups or community groups.

Management science is concerned with developing and applying models and concepts that may prove useful in helping to illuminate management issues and solve managerial problems, as well as designing and developing new and better models of organizational excellence.

The application of these models within the corporate sector became known as management science.

Related fields
Some of the fields that have considerable overlap with Operations Research and Management Science include:

 Business analytics
 Computer science
 Data mining/Data science/Big data
 Decision analysis
 Decision intelligence
 Engineering
 Financial engineering
 Forecasting
 Game theory
 Geography/Geographic information science
 Graph theory
 Industrial engineering
 Inventory control
 Logistics
 Mathematical modeling
 Mathematical optimization
 Probability and statistics
 Project management
 Policy analysis
 Queueing theory
 Simulation
 Social network/Transportation forecasting models
 Stochastic processes
 Supply chain management
 Systems engineering

Applications
Applications are abundant such as in airlines, manufacturing companies, service organizations, military branches, and government. The range of problems and issues to which it has contributed insights and solutions is vast. It includes:
 Scheduling (of airlines, trains, buses etc.)
 Assignment (assigning crew to flights, trains or buses; employees to projects; commitment and dispatch of power generation facilities)
 Facility location (deciding most appropriate location for new facilities such as warehouses; factories or fire station)
 Hydraulics & Piping Engineering (managing flow of water from reservoirs)
 Health Services (information and supply chain management)
 Game Theory (identifying, understanding; developing strategies adopted by companies)
 Urban Design
 Computer Network Engineering (packet routing; timing; analysis)
 Telecom & Data Communication Engineering (packet routing; timing; analysis)

Management is also concerned with so-called soft-operational analysis which concerns methods for strategic planning, strategic decision support, problem structuring methods.
In dealing with these sorts of challenges, mathematical modeling and simulation may not be appropriate or may not suffice. Therefore, during the past 30 years, a number of non-quantified modeling methods have been developed. These include:
 stakeholder based approaches including metagame analysis and drama theory
 morphological analysis and various forms of influence diagrams
 cognitive mapping
 strategic choice
 robustness analysis

Societies and journals

Societies
The International Federation of Operational Research Societies (IFORS) is an umbrella organization for operational research societies worldwide, representing approximately 50 national societies including those in the US, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, India, Japan and South Africa. For the institutionalization of Operations Research, the foundation of the (IFORS) in 1960 was of decisive importance, which stimulated the foundation of national OR societies in Austria, Switzerland and Germany. IFORS held important international conferences every three years since 1957. The constituent members of IFORS form regional groups, such as that in Europe, the Association of European Operational Research Societies (EURO). Other important operational research organizations are Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO) and Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference (I/ITSEC)

In 2004 the US-based organization INFORMS began an initiative to market the OR profession better, including a website entitled The Science of Better which provides an introduction to OR and examples of successful applications of OR to industrial problems. This initiative has been adopted by the Operational Research Society in the UK, including a website entitled Learn About OR.

Journals of INFORMS
The Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS) publishes thirteen scholarly journals about operations research, including the top two journals in their class, according to 2005 Journal Citation Reports. They are:
 Decision Analysis
 Information Systems Research
 INFORMS Journal on Computing
 INFORMS Transactions on Education (an open access journal)
 Interfaces
 Management Science
 Manufacturing & Service Operations Management
 Marketing Science
 Mathematics of Operations Research
 Operations Research
 Organization Science
 Service Science
 Transportation Science

Other journals
These are listed in alphabetical order of their titles.
 4OR-A Quarterly Journal of Operations Research: jointly published the Belgian, French and Italian Operations Research Societies (Springer);
 Decision Sciences published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Decision Sciences Institute
 European Journal of Operational Research (EJOR): Founded in 1975 and is presently by far the largest operational research journal in the world, with its around 9,000 pages of published papers per year. In 2004, its total number of citations was the second largest amongst Operational Research and Management Science journals;
 INFOR Journal: published and sponsored by the Canadian Operational Research Society;
 Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation (JDMS): Applications, Methodology, Technology: a quarterly journal devoted to advancing the science of modeling and simulation as it relates to the military and defense.
 Journal of the Operational Research Society (JORS): an official journal of The OR Society; this is the oldest continuously published journal of OR in the world, published by Taylor & Francis;
 Military Operations Research (MOR): published by the Military Operations Research Society;
 Omega - The International Journal of Management Science;
 Operations Research Letters;
 Opsearch: official journal of the Operational Research Society of India;
 OR Insight: a quarterly journal of The OR Society published by Palgrave;
 Pesquisa Operacional, the official journal of the Brazilian Operations Research Society
 Production and Operations Management, the official journal of the Production and Operations Management Society
 TOP: the official journal of the Spanish Statistics and Operations Research Society.

See also

Operations research topics
 Black box analysis
 Dynamic programming
 Inventory theory
 Optimal maintenance
 Real options valuation
 Artificial intelligence

Operations researchers
 Operations researchers (category)
 George Dantzig
 Leonid Kantorovich
 Tjalling Koopmans
 Russell L. Ackoff
 Stafford Beer
 Alfred Blumstein
 C. West Churchman

 William W. Cooper
 Robert Dorfman
 Richard M. Karp
 Ramayya Krishnan
 Frederick W. Lanchester
 Thomas L. Magnanti
 Alvin E. Roth
 Peter Whittle

Related fields
 Behavioral operations research
 Big data
 Business engineering
 Business process management
 Database normalization
 Engineering management
 Geographic information systems
 Industrial engineering
 Industrial organization
 Managerial economics

 Military simulation
 Operational level of war
 Power system simulation
 Project production management
 Reliability engineering
 Scientific management
 Search-based software engineering
 Simulation modeling
 Strategic management
 Supply chain engineering
 System safety
 Wargaming

References

Further reading

Classic books and articles
 R. E. Bellman, Dynamic Programming, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1957
 Abraham Charnes, William W. Cooper, Management Models and Industrial Applications of Linear Programming, Volumes I and II, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1961
 Abraham Charnes, William W. Cooper, A. Henderson, An Introduction to Linear Programming, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1953
 C. West Churchman, Russell L. Ackoff & E. L. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research, New York: J. Wiley and Sons, 1957
 George B. Dantzig, Linear Programming and Extensions, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963
 Lester K. Ford, Jr., D. Ray Fulkerson, Flows in Networks, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1962
 Jay W. Forrester, Industrial Dynamics, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1961
 L. V. Kantorovich, "Mathematical Methods of Organizing and Planning Production" Management Science, 4, 1960, 266–422
 Ralph Keeney, Howard Raiffa, Decisions with Multiple Objectives: Preferences and Value Tradeoffs, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1976
 H. W. Kuhn, "The Hungarian Method for the Assignment Problem," Naval Research Logistics Quarterly, 1–2, 1955, 83–97
 H. W. Kuhn, A. W. Tucker, "Nonlinear Programming," pp. 481–492 in Proceedings of the Second Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability
 B. O. Koopman, Search and Screening: General Principles and Historical Applications, New York, Pergamon Press, 1980
 Tjalling C. Koopmans, editor, Activity Analysis of Production and Allocation, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1951
 Charles C. Holt, Franco Modigliani, John F. Muth, Herbert A. Simon, Planning Production, Inventories, and Work Force, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1960
 Philip M. Morse, George E. Kimball, Methods of Operations Research, New York, MIT Press and John Wiley & Sons, 1951
 Robert O. Schlaifer, Howard Raiffa, Applied Statistical Decision Theory, Cambridge, Division of Research, Harvard Business School, 1961

Classic textbooks
 Taha, Hamdy A., "Operations Research: An Introduction", Pearson, 10th Edition, 2016
Frederick S. Hillier & Gerald J. Lieberman, Introduction to Operations Research, McGraw-Hill: Boston MA; 10th Edition, 2014
 Robert J. Thierauf & Richard A. Grosse, "Decision Making Through Operations Research", John Wiley & Sons, INC, 1970
 Harvey M. Wagner, Principles of Operations Research, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 1969
 Wentzel (Ventsel), E. S. Introduction to Operations Research, Moscow: Soviet Radio Publishing House, 1964.

History
 Saul I. Gass, Arjang A. Assad, An Annotated Timeline of Operations Research:  An Informal History. New York, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2005.
 Saul I. Gass (Editor), Arjang A. Assad (Editor), Profiles in Operations Research: Pioneers and Innovators. Springer, 2011
 Maurice W. Kirby (Operational Research Society (Great Britain)). Operational Research in War and Peace: The British Experience from the 1930s to 1970, Imperial College Press, 2003. ,
 J. K. Lenstra, A. H. G. Rinnooy Kan, A. Schrijver (editors) History of Mathematical Programming: A Collection of Personal Reminiscences, North-Holland, 1991
 Charles W. McArthur, Operations Analysis in the U.S. Army Eighth Air Force in World War II, History of Mathematics, Vol. 4, Providence, American Mathematical Society, 1990
 C. H. Waddington, O. R. in World War 2: Operational Research Against the U-boat, London, Elek Science, 1973.
 Richard Vahrenkamp: Mathematical Management – Operations Research in the United States and Western Europe, 1945 – 1990, in: Management Revue – Socio-Economic Studies, vol. 34 (2023), issue 1, pp. 69–91.

External links

 What is Operations Research?
 International Federation of Operational Research Societies
 The Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)
 Occupational Outlook Handbook, U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics

Industrial engineering
Mathematical optimization in business
Applied statistics
Engineering disciplines
Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)
Mathematical economics
Decision-making

Operations research


Kidsty Pike is a fell in the English Lake District, standing to the west of Haweswater Reservoir. It is a subsidiary top of Rampsgill Head, but has long achieved the status of a separate fell, thanks to its classic peaked profile. Wainwright followed this convention in his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells.

Topography
Two valleys run up westwards from Haweswater, above what was the village of Mardale Green before the raising of the lake. Riggindale is the southern arm and runs straight with a classic "U"-shaped profile. Randale starts north-westerly, rising quickly before turning due west above approximately . Between these valleys is Kidsty Pike, the east ridge of Rampsgill Head.

The northern flank falls at a shallow gradient over grass to the high gathering grounds of Randale. In contrast, the southern side of the ridge drops over crag and scree to Riggindale,  below. The difference in slopes gives Kidsty Pike its appeal when viewed from Haweswater, or (for example) on the M6 motorway near Shap. From here, in profile the summit appears as an acute angled peak.

Rampsgill Head is only a short distance away, but eastwards the ridge continues for about a mile, dropping gently to Kidsty Howes above the lake. This rocky outcrop marks the final steep descent to the shore.

Ascents
The only direct route of ascent is from the road end at Mardale Head. The lakeshore is followed to the ruins of Riggindale Farm. Like the other houses in the valley, this was blown up by the Army as demolition practice while the waters rose. From here, the old path up the ridge can be followed via Kidsty Howes.

Summit
The summit has a small cairn on grass, immediately above the Riggindale face. The higher fells of the High Street range obscure much of the view, although a section of Lakeland is visible across the Straits of Riggindale.

References

Fells of the Lake District
Nuttalls
Bampton, Cumbria

Kidsty Pike


Catholic War Veterans (officially called the Catholic War Veterans of the United States of America) is a national service organization of baptized Catholics that have served or are currently serving in the United States Armed Forces.  Founded in 1935, the Catholic War Veterans are dedicated to serving all service members and their families regardless of their religion. Membership in the Catholic War Veterans is open to baptized Catholics, male or female, who have served on Active Duty for a period of at least 90 days, in the reserve component, or National Guard, or are currently on active duty in any branch of the military, specific war time service is not required.

History
In 1935, Monsignor Edward J. Higgins a  World War I veteran saw the need for an organization to serve veterans and uphold the Catholic faith. Monsignor Higgins gathered parishioners who had served in World War I together at Immaculate Conception Church in Astoria Queens, New York. This event is recognized as the first meeting of the Catholic War Veterans. On May 19, 1935, the Catholic War Veterans of the United States of America was incorporated under the laws of the State of New York. In 1935 Monsignor Higgins journeyed to Rome where Pope Pius XI bestowed his blessing upon the Catholic War Veterans, and blessed the American and Papal flags of the organization. Upon Msgr. Higgin's return from the Vatican, he was instrumental in the organization of a dozen or more posts which subsequently blossomed into the national organization. In July 1940 The Catholic War Veterans was officially recognized as a Veterans Organization by the  Veterans Administration in Washington,
During World War II, 1,757 members of Immaculate Conception parish in Astoria answered the call to serve their country and served in all branches of the armed forces. After World War II, Catholic War Veterans became one of the nation's most influential patriotic organizations. By 1947, membership in the organization surpassed 500,000 nationwide.
During the Cold War Catholic War Veterans actively fought against the spread of communism in the United States. The organization also focused on preserving American and Catholic values while serving service members returning from the Vietnam War.
President Ronald Reagan signed legislation on August 17, 1984,  granting the Catholic War Veterans a Congressional Charter, being the 59th group to receive a Federal Charter,  and the first explicitly religious organization to receive the honor. The organization advocated for veterans benefits and took care of the families of men who had died in the war. The Catholic War Veterans continues to serve all veterans including those returning from the Global War on Terror.

Auxiliary
The Catholic War Veterans Auxiliary is composed of the family of service members and veterans. The Auxiliary works side by side with the veterans serving their community, and those who have served in the armed forces.

National Shrine
Immaculate Conception Church in Astoria, New York where Monsignor Higgins founded the Catholic War Veterans has been designated the National Shrine of the Catholic War Veterans. The building was built in 1950 and designed by Henry J. McGill, one of the era's leading church architects. There are two cornerstones, one on either side of the main entrance. The one to the left of the door as you approach is the 1950 date stone. To the right is the CWV stone which depicts the original cross logo of the Catholic War Veterans. The church also includes a number of stained glass windows that commemorate the Catholic War Veterans.

Honor Legion of the Order of St. Sebastian
St. Sebastian an early martyr of the Church and a Roman soldier is the patron saint of the Catholic War Veterans. The Honor Legion of the Order of Saint Sebastian is the highest honor award given by the Catholic War Veterans of the United States of America to honor a Catholic Veteran who has gone above and beyond the standard responsibilities of his post serving God, Country, and Home.

Catholic War Veterans Triangle
Catholic War Veterans Triangle is a .01-acre public park in the South Ozone Park neighborhood of Queens, New York. It is located on a triangular block formed by Rockaway Boulevard, 116th Avenue and 122nd Street. It was created following the widening of Rockaway Boulevard in 1927. Parcels of land along Rockaway Boulevard that were too small for development were acquired by condemnation and transferred to Parks, including this triangle.

On September 25, 1938, the traffic triangle was dedicated as Catholic War Veterans Square, following an act by the City Council that gave the name to the park. The park contains a flagpole, granite crucifix memorial to the veterans, benches and red brick paving to set it apart from surrounding sidewalks. The neighborhood of South Ozone Park has a historically sizable population of Roman Catholics, descended mainly from generations of Irish and Italian immigrants who settled in Queens.

Notable Members
John F. Kennedy - 35th President of the United States

Arminda Crawford - National Commander (2015-2017) First woman to lead a national veterans organization.

Notes

References

External links
 Home page of the CWV
Catholic War Veterans of the United States of America, Inc. : hearing before the Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, second session, on H.R. 1199 ... March 21, 1984.

Catholic lay organisations
Catholic Church in the United States
American veterans' organizations
Patriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress
Organizations established in 1935
1935 establishments in the United States

Catholic War Veterans


In rail terminology, a fishplate, splice bar or joint bar is a metal bar that is bolted to the ends of two rails to join them together in a track. The name is derived from fish, a wooden bar with a curved profile used to strengthen a ship's mast. The top and bottom edges are tapered inwards so the device wedges itself between the top and bottom of the rail when it is bolted into place. In rail transport modelling, a fishplate is often a small copper or nickel silver plate that slips onto both rails to provide the functions of maintaining alignment and electrical continuity.

References

Rail infrastructure

Fishplate


Hydrometeorological Institute of Montenegro (Montenegrin: Hidrometeorološki zavod Crne Gore or HMZCG) is the national hydrological and meteorological service of Montenegro.

History

The first systematic measuring in free Montenegro was conducted on 1 September 1882 in Podgorica and was organized by Dr. Petar Miljanić. The measuring included basic climate elements, atmospheric temperature, precipitation, humidity, atmospheric pressure and wind direction. At the same time, during 1882, meteorological measuring started in towns of Bar and Ulcinj for the maritime purposes. As of 1887, the measuring also started in the towns of Cetinje and Nikšić, and later on in other urban parts of the Principality of Montenegro. A central meteorological service in Montenegro was established in 1931 and was operational until 1941.

Upon adoption of a Decree on Establishment of Hydrometeorological service in Montenegro, the Hydrometeorological Institute started with operations on 20 December 1947 as a governmental agency. Precipitation, maritime, meteorological, climatological, synoptical, agrometeorological and hydrological stations that were controlled by the army fell under the competence of the Hydrometeorological Institute.

Today, the Hydrometeorological Institute of Montenegro (HMZCG) has been organized in four sectors with 114 full-time employees. In the network of stations including 120 meteorological stations, 40 hydrological stations, 36 water quality stations and 17 air quality stations, there are 49 full-time employees, with over a 100 part-time observers being engaged in observing, measuring and collecting of meteorological, hydrological and ecological parameters. 65 employees work in expert units of the Institute in Podgorica.

References

External links
 Hydrometeorological Institute of Montenegro

Environment of Montenegro
Governmental meteorological agencies in Europe
Organisations based in Montenegro


Fair and Tender Ladies is a novel by Lee Smith published in 1988.  It won the W.D. Weatherford Award that year.
Fair and Tender Ladies is an epistolary novel consisting entirely of letters written by its protagonist, Ivy Rowe, to numerous recipients from her childhood until her old age.  It is set mostly in the Blue Ridge Mountains and covers events from shortly before World War I until the Vietnam era. The novel garnered much critical acclaim and has been adapted for the stage, including a musical version for the Alabama Shakespeare Festival.

References

1988 American novels
American historical novels
Epistolary novels
Novels set in mountains

Fair and Tender Ladies


Treacle (Also known as Molasses in the United States (Molasses in the UK refers to treacle not made for humans to eat)) is a type of syrup.  It is made when people are processing the plant sugarcane.  It is used in cooking to make things sweeter.  It is usually dark brown.

Uses for medicine
Doctors used the word treacle to describe a medicine with many ingredients, or medicines that would treat snakebites.  Wells that were thought to have water that would cure people were called "treacle wells".

Syrup

Treacle


CBBC (Children's BBC) is the name of a television channel that often shows children's programmes. The programmes are meant for children that are now between 7 and 14 years old in 2023. The "Children's BBC" name began on 9 September 1985. Before then there were BBC children's programmes, but they were not branded under one name. The name "CBBC" was used informally since 1990, and became the official name in 1997.

CBBC programmes are shown on BBC One, BBC Two and the CBBC Channel. CBBC has a sister brand, CBeebies, for children under 6. The CBBC brands for BBC One and BBC Two are "CBBC One" and "CBBC Two".

CBBC is run by the BBC Children's department, who make the programmes for children up to the age of 16. Most of their offices are in the East Tower of the BBC Television Centre, with some programmes coming from Scotland and Bristol. CBBC produces a whole range of programme types, including drama, news, entertainment and educational programmes.

Since February 2006, the Controller of the BBC Children's department has been Richard Deverell. The department splits output into age groups:

 CBeebies for ages up to 6
 CBBC brand for ages 6 to 12
 BBC Switch for ages 12 to 16

Anne Gilchrist is Creative Director of CBBC, and Michael Carrington is Creative Director of CBeebies.
 Programming on CBBC

Presentation
Monday 3 September 2007 saw the fifth CBBC relaunch. As part of the relaunch, new logos, idents, interactive services, programmes and presenters were introduced. The previous computer generated backgrounds used from December 2006 were replaced by a real set.

Ed Petrie became the chief continuity presenter, accompanied by a puppet sidekick Oucho T. Cactus (operated and voiced by Warrick Brownlow-Pike). They regularly present live, weekday afternoon links on the CBBC channel with Petrie voicing pre-recorded, out-of-vision announcements during for weekdays on BBC One. On 29 August 2008, they went on extended leave to record a new series for CBBC - they returned to continuity duties on 1 December 2008. During this period, relief presenter Holly Walsh presented weekday afternoon links for the channel with Dunceton the Talking Brain.

Anne Foy presented pre-recorded in-vision links at the weekend alongside her dog, Elliot, until her departure in March 2008. Foy was replaced by two new presenters, Ben Hanson and Ciaran Joyce, who previously appeared in CBBC show The Story of Tracy Beaker. They have since been replaced by comedy double act Dan and Jeff.

The idents were replaced with new ones in 2014, but the logo stayed the same.

On Monday 14 March 2016, CBBC got a whole new look, which saw a new logo, plus new idents and presentation.

Other services

CBBC extra
CBBC extra is a free interactive television service from CBBC. It is found on the BBCi pages. It is accessible from the CBBC Channel by pressing the red button and then selecting "CBBC extra". It can also be accessed from any other BBCi page by pressing 570.

The service is different on different digital platforms, for example Sky viewers can access the video loop. But it is only available on Freeview when BBCi is not showing other interactive services, like sports events.

CBBC extra offers games, the UK Top 40 music, jokes sent in by viewers, "Nev's Horoscopes", and a weekly competition. The current presenter of CBBC extra is Ed Petrie.

It has been discontinued since CBBC last changed its logo.

CBBC Quiz
This new feature allows the viewers to play a quiz. There are 15 levels, each containing 5 up to 10 questions. Viewers can also send in their questions which could be shown on the service. The CBBC Quiz can be from the CBBC extra page, by selecting the option called "CBBC Quiz". This option is also available on the main interactive menu on the CBBC Channel, by pressing the red button.

Website
The CBBC website has a wide range of activities, such as games, puzzles, message boards and frequently updated news and more stuff. The website is found .

My CBBC
My CBBC is a feature to the new CBBC website. It allows users to create their own room which they can decorate. It is also possible to create your own avatar. The new feature is often promoted on the CBBC Channel.

Adventure Rock
Adventure Rock (renamed from CBBC World) is a virtual online world that launched on 1 March 2008. Press releases have stated "it would allow digitally literate children the access to characters and resources they had come to expect. Users would be able to build an online presence, known as an avatar, then create and share content."

The main points of the system are safety and responsibility online, with no chatrooms or the financial aspects available in other online worlds such as Second Life.

Controller of Children's BBC Richard Deverell said: "Adventure Rock is a good example of the way we need to go. The thing that interests me is that children are at the vanguard. And that is where we are taking Children's BBC."and still fun.

References

Other websites

"And Now, For Younger Viewers..." A history of CBBC continuity from 1985 to 1994, from Off The Telly
The Broom Cupboard.co.uk, a history of CBBC continuity from 1985 to 1992, with over 150 pictures
BBC considers end of children's shows on BBC 1 (Guardian)
CBBC idents from 1983-2007

BBC television channels

CBBC (TV channel)


The Donauinsel (Danube Island) is a long, narrow artificial island in central Vienna, Austria, lying between the Danube river and the parallel excavated channel  ("New Danube"). The island is   in length, but is only  wide. It was constructed from 1972 to 1988 primarily as a measure for flood protection.

It has since become the most popular recreational area of the city.

Recreation and festival venue
To most visitors, the island is known as a recreational area with bars, restaurants and nightclubs. It has sports opportunities from rollerblading, cycling and swimming to canoeing. There is one beach that, in its beginning, felt so exotic that it was soon nicknamed the "Copa Cagrana" as a humoristic allusion to Rio de Janeiro's Copacabana: Kagran is the part of the 22nd District of Vienna next to that beach. In the southern and northern parts of the island, there are extensive (and free) nude beaches.

The  is an internationally well-known annual open air festival, and Europe's biggest event of this kind, with over three million visitors. It takes place on the last full weekend of June (Friday through Sunday) – except for 2008 (September 5–7), due to Austria (and Switzerland) hosting the European Football Championship.

Reliable flood protection

The main purpose of the island however is to be part of Vienna's highly sophisticated flood protection system.  As the river Danube crosses the city (before major extensions: passed nearby), this has been a constant concern over hundreds of years. The first notable protective measures were taken between 1870 and 1875. A central bed, 280 m, was dug out, and an inundation area of 450 m was created at the river's left bank.

In 1970, a new plan was conceived and soon executed: digging an additional channel to replace the former inundation area, and using the spoil to build up the remaining strip of land between the straightened bed from the 19th century flood defense schemes and the newly created one. The new channel is called the Neue Donau (New Danube). After the completion of the works it was envisaged that the resulting island should eventually be used for recreation. The flood control system is designed to protect from flash floods bringing river flows of up to 14,000 m3 per second. This has only happened once in Vienna's history; in 1501. The heavy 2002 flood brought flows of 10,000 m3 per second. It includes the Danube Canal's historic Nußdorf watergate, locks at either end of New Danube, a groundwater level control system integrated into the right bank flood levee (which creates appropriate conditions for the large park area Prater, once part of a wide alluvial forest zone), and the new Freudenau river plant's sluice.

The works were started in March 1972 and finished in 1988. The power plant was added from 1992 to 1998.

Notes

References and other external links

 Donautech, Donauinsel datasheet, webpage: Official datasheet (German).
Danube Island Vienna Informations and photographs from the Citymagazin www.wien-konkret.at
Copa Cagrana at night (JPG, 22k)
Danube Island Free Festival – Official information, English.

Maps
 Vienna map showing Danube Island (English): 2008, webpage:MapAustria-Vienna.
 Simple Interactive Vienna tourist map linked to a short English descriptions of Danube Island and other Vienna tourist spots.
 Better Map of the island, by Vienna magistrate; it consists of 8 GIFs, c.100k each.

Islands of the Danube
Klosterneuburg
Floridsdorf
Donaustadt
Landforms of Vienna
River islands of Austria
Nude beaches

Donauinsel