Strategic bombing is a military strategy used to destroy the enemies' economic ability to fight a war.  It is an attack from the air. Strategic bombing missions usually attack targets such as factories, railroads, oil refineries and cities. Missions would attack targets such as military bases, command and control facilities, airfields, and ammunition dumps.

The United States Air Force (USAF) has used strategic bombers in later conflicts.

History
Strategic bombing was an idea first tried in World War I. It was used by the German Luftwaffe. They bombed Antwerp. Zeppelins were used to bomb England.

However, the strategic bombing in World War II was on a far larger scale than anything which went before. First, In the Battle of Britain the German Air Force almost defeated Britain by attacking the Royal Air Force planes on the ground. This was partly successful, and some think it was a mistake to switch to other targets. The British had primitive radar, good enough to know whereabouts each attack was going. There was time to get the fighters in the air to intercept and damage the attacks.

Despairing of victory this way, the attack was switched to the cities.
German bombing of London and the larger provincial cities such as Coventry (an industrial city). They used high explosives and incendiary devices to cause fires.

Once the attacks on British air bases was diverted to the city targets, the Luftwaffe began to lose planes to the defences. The German air force, which had previously fought easy targets (for example, in the Spanish Civil War) began to take losses. Eventually these losses began to tell, and Hitler cancelled the planned invasion. He realised that no invasion across the Channel could succeed while Britain still had an active air force.

USA enters World War II
United States Army Air Force (USAAF) Colonel Billy Mitchell promoted strategic bombing in the United States. He had new ideas on the strategic, and tactical air war. The first USAAF strategic bomber was the B-17 Flying Fortress.

In the end, the large bomber fleets of the Allies devastated Nazi Germany with conventional bombs, and the atomic bomb was dropped on the Japan.

Later years
After World War II, the Strategic Air Command was located at Omaha, Nebraska, at Offutt Air Force Base.  Nuclear weapons became an important mission.

A full cadre of generals at Offutt participated in many of the missions of the "Looking Glass", a KC-135 air tanker which was stripped and refitted with state of the art electronics which would take over in case the president was killed in wartime.  The plane had several generals on board to assume wartime duties.  The "red telephone" was an instant connection to the president at the White House.  The plane flew all day every day, three planes took off a day in overlapping flights to provide this level of coverage.  Since the end of the cold war, this flight ended, however, the Strategic Air Command still maintains the main facility at Offutt AFB - this is where President Bush flew to when the Twin Towers were bombed on 9-11-01 to set up his command center.

References

Air force
conflicts
World War II

de:Luftkrieg#Strategische Bombardements

Strategic bombing


Paper Tiger Books was a British publishing house which focused primarily on books of modern art, specifically the visionary, the fantastic, and science fiction, and an imprint of Dragons World Ltd. It was started in 1976 by Hubert Schaafsma and brothers Martyn and Roger Dean after the success of Roger Dean's book Views through a sister imprint, Dragon's Dream.

Artists published by Paper Tiger include Chris Achilleos, Stephen Bradbury, Bob Eggleton, John Harris, Peter Andrew Jones, Josh Kirby, Rodney Matthews, Chris Moore, Bruce Pennington, Barclay Shaw, Anne Sudworth, Jim Warren, David A. Hardy, and Patrick Woodroffe; as well as numerous titles by Boris Vallejo and Julie Bell.

History
Initially formed to publish The Album Cover Album, Paper Tiger's range quickly expanded to include art which was not only connected to music, but also the visionary, the fantastic, and the best of science fiction. The staff within the company, apart from Hubert Schaafsma, Martyn and Roger Dean, included Dominy Hamilton (daughter of Richard Hamilton), Jim Slattery, Christine Miles, Shelley Alge, and Steve Henderson.

Through its imprint Dragon's World, the company published the 1978 book The Round Art: The Astrology of Time and Space, by the astrologer and artist A. T. Mann.

Hubert Schaafsma bought out the Dean brothers in 1981 who left the company, and it continued under the management of Dutchman Hubert Schaafsma, producing a series of fantasy art books, many of which were edited by Nigel Suckling, who also provided text to accompany the pictures.
Under Hubert Schaafsma's leadership the Dragon's World company expanded into other imprints of Dragon's World Children's Book, Dragon's World Natural History books and Dragon's World Books _ the latter being general visual interest books.  The Paper Tiger imprint dealing with fantasy/visionary/science fiction and music was expanded to publish over 250 titles in 12 languages throughout the world.

From July 1999 through October 2001, Paper Tiger issued a monthly ezine called The Paper Snarl, which featured interviews with its artists.

In 1997, Paper Tiger was "rescued" by Collins & Brown, before becoming an imprint of Anova Books. As of late 2009, the imprint appears to be defunct.

References

External links
 Paper Tiger at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database

Book publishing companies of the United Kingdom
Publishing companies established in 1976
1976 establishments in the United Kingdom

Paper Tiger Books


A mortice (or mortise) and tenon joint is a type of joint that connects two pieces of wood or other material. Carpenters  have used it for thousands of years to join pieces of wood. It is used when the adjoining pieces connect at an angle of 90°.

In its basic form, it is simple and strong. There are many variations. The basic mortice and tenon has two parts: the mortice hole and the tenon tongue. The tenon, on the end of a member (called a rail), fits into a square or rectangular hole in the corresponding member. The tenon is cut to fit the mortice hole exactly and usually has shoulders that seat when the joint fully enters the mortice hole. The joint may be glued, pinned, or wedged to lock it in place.

This joint is also used with other materials.  For example, it is a traditional method for stonemasons and blacksmiths.

Wood

Mortice and tenon


The Oryx (also called the sabre antelope) is a fast-running hoofed mammal that lives in dry regions of Africa and Asia (including the Arabian peninsula). They live in steppes (sparse grasslands), semi-deserts, and deserts.

Description
These antelopes congregate in herds of 8 to 60 oryx. Newborn calves can run with the herd within minutes of their birth. Oryxes have a life span of about 20 years.
Some people think that the unicorn of legend was based upon the oryx.
Many types of oryxes (including the Arabian oryx and the scimitar-horned oryx) are endangered species, mostly because of overhunting and disease.

Diet and Water
The Oryx is an herbivore (a plant-eater). It eats grasses, shrubs and roots, spending most of its time grazing. Oryx are ruminants; they swallow their food without chewing it. After a while, they regurgitate a partly-digested "cud" which they chew and then swallow for the last time.
This desert animal can go for weeks without water; it gets much of its water from the plants it eats.

Bovines

Oryx


Validity is an idea that is used in everyday language and in logic. In ordinary language it means correct or in the right form.

An argument is valid if it seems appropriate, well-grounded and can be defended. A contract is valid if it is enforceable in law. In other words, it applies legally to a particular situation. A bank-note is valid if it can be exchanged and used for purchase, and a passport is valid if it lets the holder come in and go out of a country. A will is valid if correctly made, and certified by an appropriate court. In all these cases, valid refers to the soundness in some situation. Logical uses of this idea are similar, but phrased much more exactly.

In logic
It is nothing to do with ordinary ideas of truth. Truth points outwards to the world. Validity, on the other hand, points inwards to the syllogism.

The conclusion of a valid argument is a logical consequence of its premises. An example of a valid argument is given by the following well-known syllogism:

All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

However, this is also a valid syllogism:

All cups are green.
Socrates is a cup.
Therefore, Socrates is green.

And it is not true that Socrates was green.

The following is valid but not sound:

 All animals live on Mars.
 All humans are animals.
 Therefore, all humans live on Mars.

The problem with the argument is that it is not sound.  In order for a deductive argument to be sound, the deduction must be valid and all the premises true.

References

Logic

Validity


A saxophone is a type of musical instrument in the woodwind family. The saxophone uses a piece of wood, called a reed, to make sound. The player blows air into the mouthpiece, which vibrates the reed. The saxophone also uses keys to change pitch, and the player closes or opens holes to choose the note. Commonly, saxophones have about 22 keys.

The saxophone is most commonly found in four voices: soprano, alto, tenor, and baritone saxophones. However, uncommon saxophones include the bass and contrabass saxophones (lower than a baritone saxophone), the C-melody saxophone (between the tenor and alto saxophones), and the sopranino saxophone (higher than a soprano saxophone).

It was invented in 1840 by Adolphe Sax and is used in classical, jazz, and occasionally in rock, pop, and other styles. The saxophone was originally created for military bands, but was commonly used in jazz big bands in the 1940s and 1950s. Famous saxophone players include Marcel Mule (classical music), John Coltrane (jazz music), and Charlie Parker (jazz music).

Woodwind instruments
Jazz instruments

Saxophone


The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life is a book by Michael Warner, in which the author discusses the role of same-sex marriage as a goal for gay rights activists. First published in 1999 by The Free Press, an imprint of Simon & Schuster, it was re-published in 2000 in paperback by Harvard University Press. Warner argues that the right to marry is an inadequate and ultimately undesirable goal for gay rights activism. As well as addressing marriage, he considers other areas in which public discourse stigmatizes certain sexual behaviors, including through sensationalist coverage of sex scandals, public zoning initiatives that marginalize the sex industry, and the attempted use of shame to manage sexually transmitted disease. The book has been described as a classic of the debates on normalcy as a goal for the gay rights movement, and as an important contribution to queer theory.

Overview
The Trouble with Normal argues that same-sex marriage should not be the sole goal for gay rights activism; that gay activists should work toward equal benefits for domestic partners and unconventional families. When national LGBT activists insist on the overriding importance of marriage, the book argues, it stigmatizes queer people who choose other types of relationships, while ignoring a broad range of legal benefits that could help the entire community, not just legally married couples. Criticizing those who present gay marriage and the repeal of the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy as the sole remaining aims of the (American) gay rights movement, Warner contends that the institutional sanctioning of certain types of relationship always comes at the expense of others, which are constituted by contrast as abnormal, inferior, and shameful. He argues that any queer rights movement would do better to abandon the pursuit of normality in favour of campaigning for the recognition of broader varieties of sexual expression as dignified. He discusses the part played by the idea of normality in the uneven distribution of sexual shame that inhibits lives, and the negative consequences — including greater risk of violence and disease — that result.

Synopsis

Chapter One criticizes the idea that there is some morally compelling aspect to "normality", arguing that the normal range is simply a statistical category to which there is no ethical obligation to correspond: "If normal just means within a common statistical range, there is no reason to be normal or not". Warner uses the example of former US president Bill Clinton's impeachment after a sexual scandal to argue that public and political discourse uses shame disingenuously, to portray certain kinds of sexual behaviour as intolerable, when private morality generally recognises the compatibility of sex with dignity.

The second chapter argues that as well as being a limited goal, less urgent than the elimination of violence and discrimination against queer people, same-sex marriage actively causes negative consequences both for queer and straight people, because in validating a single, prescribed type of relationship it devalues and makes more difficult other kinds of interpersonal relationship. Warner argues that the campaign for gay marriage threatens to turn the gay rights movement, previously a powerful force against the stigmatization of sex, into a tool for the normalization of queer life.

In Chapter Three Warner proposes that by restricting its campaigning to demands for same-sex marriage, the gay rights movement has marginalized and ignored queer counterpublics that it would have served better by presenting a broad range of sexual lives as moral.

In the fourth chapter Warner examines the history of zoning regulation changes in 1990s New York City. He argues that stricter regulation of the city's sex-related businesses represents a trend toward the repression of sex and the "erosion of queer publics." By removing problematic, visible, queer sex from public spaces, Warner argues, these policies relegated sexuality to a private sphere of presumed heterosexuality. The net effect was to heighten hypocrisy over the conduct of sexual relationships, supporting the impression that the best any sexuality campaigner can aspire to is admission to a limited sphere of normality that is politically sanctioned, but also deliberately placed outside the sphere of the politically debatable.

In the final chapter, Warner challenges the assertion, made by gay authors like Larry Kramer, that sexual recklessness is to blame for continuing cases of HIV infection.  Warner argues that, on the contrary, the political use of shame to stigmatize certain kinds of sexual activity actually puts more people at risk of contracting HIV and developing AIDS, by marginalizing those in at-risk communities and restricting access to condoms and safer sex advice. He also criticizes abstinence-only sex education as "an appalling insult to gay men and lesbians among others" and an inadequate response to the problems of public sexual health, asserting that "shame and stigma are often among the most intractable dimensions of risk."

Commercial and critical reception
As the Library Journal noted, The Trouble With Normal was sometimes construed as a straightforward response to Andrew Sullivan's 1995 Virtually Normal. David Bell, in Contemporary Sociology, accordingly characterized The Trouble with Normal as a move in the "assimilationist debates", over the extent to which gay people should aspire to 'normality', that characterized 1990s and 2000s gay rights activism. In these debates Warner was ranged against Andrew Sullivan and Larry Kramer, who argued that the most radical goals the movement could seek were the acceptance of gay life into the political and cultural mainstream, through rights like marriage. Warner insisted that, on the contrary, queer people were ideally positioned to critique and challenge mainstream institutions and should not settle for mere tolerance. The debate was impassioned; Warner told the Guardian that "This Fifties version of how gay life should be that we've been handed is actually not making a lot of people happy", while Sullivan asked "What could be more boring than to still be referring to yourself as "queer"?" In 2003 the Library Journal described Warner's book as a classic in the field of the debate on normalcy.

Queer theorist Judith Butler, with whose idea of the necessarily transgressive nature of queerness Warner takes issue, called the book "brave and timely", applauding its analysis of sexual shame and noting that "one may not concur with every word, but everyone will attest to the power and necessity of the invaluable critical voice offered here." The philosopher Martha Nussbaum, writing in The New Republic, praised the book's moral opposition to "the domination of the 'normal': "Warner is a deft and thoughtful writer who turns his own experience of the margins into a source of genuine understanding about America and its sexual politics...what Warner's book finally demands of us is...genuine reflection." Nussbaum later called the book "clearly written and argued, insightful about human life, and valuable both in its theoretical analysis and its recommendations for practice."

Kirkus Reviews praised the "lapidary skill" with which the book criticized heteronormativity, but objected to its emphasis on the need for an already marginalized gay community to change: "Telling gay people that, for various ethical reasons, they shouldn't even want to marry, when they already can't, does not change the fact that laws that enfranchise some while disenfranchising others are discriminatory. Warner's rhetoric persuasively reveals the hierarchical parameters of marriage and the constraints of normalcy, but a more universal approach to his topic would delineate the limitations of marriage for all people, not just queer people. In the end, his polemic leaves standing discriminatory treatment of queers for the sake of a theoretical attack on normalcy."

Release details
Publishers Weekly noted that, though The Trouble with Normal engaged with a broad social context through its analysis of the Clinton affair, the degree to which Warner criticized the positions of gay advocates Kramer, Michelangelo Signorile, and William Eskridge "positions his arguments as an intra-community fight and may limit his readership." The Library Journal recommended the book as a "provocative polemic" for "specialized collections". The New York Times characterized Warner as one of the Free Press's "contrarian" writers, quoting editorial director Elizabeth Macguire as noting that the book's anti-mainstream message had not been universally popular at the publishing house, but insisting that "If you don't embrace a book, really believe you produced with the author a good book, it doesn't work. That doesn't have much to do with ideology."

Editions

See also
 Times Square Red, Times Square Blue

References

External links
 Interview with author Michael Warner about the book at Genders.org

1999 non-fiction books
1990s LGBT literature
Books about same-sex marriage
Books by Michael Warner
English-language books
Free Press (publisher) books
LGBT literature in the United States

The Trouble with Normal (book)


The Bradleys Head Fortification Complex is near Toronga Park Zoo. This fort was part of Sydney Harbour's protection plan. It [the fort] remembers a time when the colony of New South Wales became more aware of its isolation and wealth. The fort is on Bradleys Head Road, Mosman, New South Wales, Australia.

History
They first started work to build the fort in 1840-42. It had a gun pit (special place for the cannon to sit and fire from) and firing wall (pictured in intro) that was built out of large blocks of sandstone and carved partly from the original rock that was already there. The first part of the building process around this time was done under the watchful eye of Major George Barney, a Commanding Royal Engineer who used hired workers provided by Governor Gipps.

In 1871 the fort got an extra barracks. The barracks were made from large sandstone blocks and carved out of the rock on the headland. This addition was the work of James Barnet, a colonial architect. This most recent add-on had three gun pits and had connecting walkways for the people in the army that worked there. The upgrade of 1871 was complementary to some of the larger fortifications being constructed during the same period.
The site is now part of the Sydney Harbour Federation Trust.

Gallery

References

History of Australia
Forts in Australia

Bradleys Head Fortification Complex


The Museo delle Anime del Purgatorio (Italian for Museum of the Souls of Purgatory) is a museum of Rome (Italy), in 12 Lungotevere Prati, within the vestry of the Chiesa del Sacro Cuore del Suffragio.

History
In 1897 a fire burned a chapel of the Chiesa del Sacro Cuore del Suffragio. The priest Victor Jouët saw on the wall behind the altar the image of a human face bearing a sad and melancholy expression, impressed by the flames. He believed that the soul of a deceased man, condemned to Purgatory, had tried to get in contact with living people.

This specific occurrence brought to the foundation of the museum. Victor Jouët decided to find other documents and statements about similar facts. The research proved to be more difficult than expected, nevertheless he searched out many materials, showing the following: the deceased people, compelled to pass a period in the afterlife reign of Purgatory in order to purify from their sins, tried to catch the attention of the people still alive, so as to ask them for prayers and suffrage masses and so facilitating their transition to Paradise.

Collection
The collection of the museum is gathered into a single room of the vestry in the Chiesa del Sacro Cuore del Suffragio.

A single showcase contains about ten documents and photos, including:
the imprint of three fingers left in 1871 on the prayers book of Maria Zaganti by deceased Palmira Rastelli;
the photograph of an imprint impressed by deceased Mrs Leleux on the sleeve of his son Giuseppe during its appearance in 1789 in Wodecq, Belgium;
the fire imprint left by a finger of Sister Maria di San Luigi Gonzaga, which appeared to Sister Maria del Sacro Cuore in 1894;
the imprint on a book of Marguerite Demmerlé, in the Parish of Ellinghen, left by her mother-in-law in 1815, 30 years after her death.

Bibliography

External links

Museums in Rome
Rome R. XXII Prati

Museo delle anime del Purgatorio


Public transport (public transportation in the United States) is the transport of passengers. Passengers don't need their own cars or other vehicles. Most public transport lets many people travel at the same time.

History
Ships have carried passengers since prehistoric times. Early public transport by land became important in some places in western Europe in the early 19th century. Around 1826 horsedrawn omnibuses operated in Nantes, France. Omnibuses were carts with seats for passengers to sit. About the same time, railroads began carrying passengers between towns in England. Ferries (public boats) also became bigger and more numerous then.

Types of public transport
The main vehicles for public transport are buses, trolleybuses, trams and trains. Trams were first used in the late 1860s and used to be pulled by horses. Now trams are electric and run on a line of cable. Buses drive on the road, like cars do. Trolleybuses are like buses, but they use electricity from two wires above the road. Trains run on a track and are very fast. Many places use trams and trains as a form of public transport.

Using public transport
Many people who do not have cars use buses, trolleybuses, trams to go places near their house, and they use trains to go places far away. Long-distance transport is usually by airline or train or other public transport. Local transport is more often private.

When using public transport people may need a ticket or card to be able to get on. On trams they get a ticket that they put in a machine and it tells them when their ticket runs out. On buses and trolleybuses they buy their ticket from the driver and put it into a machine, and on trains they use a ticket to get onto their train. A timetable tells them when they come, since they can only go when and where the transport is going.

Public transport is also good for the environment. When many people use the same vehicle, fewer cars are on the road. Fewer cars make less pollution. Cost is low, because it is very cheap to catch public transport every day, which is why even people who own a car often use public transport.

Modern public transport
Public transportation comes in many forms:

Road

 Share taxi including minibus and maxi-taxi
 Auto rickshaw
 Bus
 Bush taxi of West and Central Africa
 Trolleybus and electric bus
 Jitney or Songthaew
 Limousine
 Matatu, of East Africa
 Motor coach
 Paratransit
 Rickshaw
 Taxicab
 Transit bus
 Vanpool
 Vehicle for hire
 Velotaxi
 Combi of Peru

Rail

 Automated guideway transit (AGT), also called Peoplemover
 Cable car on rails, used in mountains.
 Rack railway (or rack and pinion railway)
 Elevated railroad, such as the Chicago 'L'
 Light rail a tram-like system with no significant sections of the route shared with cars or pedestrians, such as the San Diego Trolley or the St. Louis Metrolink
 Magnetic levitation train (Maglev)
 Metro (also known as 'subway' or 'underground')
 Monorail
 Railway, including commuter train and high-speed rail
 Tram (tramway or streetcar)
 Cable car on rails, used in cities, a streetcar (tram) pulled by a cable

Water
 Ferry, including hydrofoil, catamaran and hovercraft
 Water taxi

Air
 Airliner
 Helicopter

Sloped or vertical
 Aerial tramway or the more basic Aerial lift are vehicles suspended from aerial cables
 Gondola lift
 Chairlift
 Conveyor transport (term includes escalators and horizontal or slightly inclined moving sidewalk - "Travolator")
 Escalator
 Elevator or lift
 Funicular, used in mountains, tram-like vehicle on rails pulled by a cable up and down a very steep slope.

Some of these types are often not for use by the general public, e.g. elevators in offices and apartment buildings, buses for personnel or school children, etc.

Emerging technologies
 Group rapid transit
 Dual mode transit
 Personal rapid transit
 Automated highway systems
 Bus rapid transit
 Maglev rapid transit

Stations

Stations are an important aspect of any public transportation system. Specific types include:
 Airport, Heliport
 Airport terminal
 Bus stop (including bus station, bus depot)
 Metro station
 Park and ride
 Ship terminal, ferry slip, pier or wharf
 Taxi stand
 Terminal station
 Railway station
 Tram stop

In addition one can get on or off of a taxi at any road where stopping is allowed. Some fixed-route buses allow getting on and off at suitable unmarked locations along that route, typically called a hail-and-ride section.

Financing

Money is needed to build and operate a public transit system. The money comes from ticket revenue, government subsidies and advertisements. If ticket prices are too high, people will not use public transit. So, most systems charge passengers less than the full cost of building and operating the system. The percentage of total revenue that passengers pay is known as the farebox recovery ratio. Sometimes, a small amount of income comes from land development and rental income from stores and vendors, and parking fees. Some subway systems get money from telecommunication companies by leasing tunnels and rights-of-way to carry fiber optic communication lines.

Fare and ticketing

For most–but not all–public transport systems, passengers must buy a ticket. Tickets may either be bought before the ride, at the time of the ride, or both. Tickets can be paper ticket, metal or plastic tokens, or an electronic card (smart card, contactless smart card). Sometimes, a ticket has to be validated (marking the time of the ticket's use). A paper ticket is stamped when it is validated. An electronic ticket is checked in.

Tickets may be valid for a single (or return) trip, or valid within a certain area for a period of time. The fare (price of the ticket) is based on the travel class, either based on the traveled distance, or on a zone pricing.

The tickets may have to be shown or checked automatically at the station platform or when going onto the system, or during the ride by a conductor. Operators may choose to control all passengers, allowing sale of the ticket at the time of ride. Alternatively, a proof-of-payment system allows passengers to enter the vehicles without showing the ticket. Riders may or may not be controlled by a ticket controller. If the rider does not show proof of payment, the operator may fine the rider.

Multi-use tickets allow a passenger to travel more than once. These include "return tickets" where the passenger pay for two trips at one time. It also includes period cards allowing travel within a certain area (for instance month cards), or during a given number of days that can be chosen within a longer period of time (for instance eight days within a month). Some transit systems sell tickets (passes) aimed at tourists that allow free or discounted entry at many tourist attractions, typically include zero-fare public transport within a city. Period tickets may be for a particular journey (in both directions), or for a whole network.

A free travel pass allows free and unlimited travel within a system. Free passes are sometimes granted to particular social sectors, for example students, old people, children, employees (job ticket) and the physical or mentally disabled. In the United States, an employer can pay for a portion of a travel pass without that payment being taxed. So, transit systems allow employers to pay the system directly and to distribute the passes to employees.

Free systems
Free or Zero-fare public transport services are funded in full by means other than collecting a fare from passengers.

Zero-fare services may be funded by national, regional or local government through taxation or by commercial sponsorship by businesses. They usually use relatively small vehicles such as buses and trams.

Several mid-size European cities and many smaller towns around the world have converted their entire bus networks to zero-fare.

Local zero-fare shuttles or inner-city loops are far more common than city-wide systems.

On 29 February 2020, Luxembourg became the first country in the world to make all public transport in the country (buses, trams, and trains) free to use.

Cultural importance

Tourist attraction
Some means of rail-based public transport are also tourist attractions and/or well known landmarks in their own right. These include San Francisco's famous cable cars, the Molli steam powered train in Bad Doberan, the kusttram along the whole Flemish coast, the Schwebebahn Wuppertal, the Seattle Monorail, and the Christchurch Tram

Advocacy organizations
 American Public Transportation Association
 Community Transportation Association of America
 International Association of Public Transport
 Light Rail Transit Association (UK)
 National Corridors Initiative
 Public Transport Users Association – a lobby group for Victoria (Australia)
 Taxicab, Limousine & Paratransit Association (TPLA)
 Transport 2000 (UK)

Other websites

 NAUTF | North American Urban Transit Forum
 APTA: American Public Transportation Association
 Public Transportation: Wherever Life Takes You
 IMB International Maglev Board
 Metro systems' graphics indexed by city
 The biggest database and photogallery of public transport
 National Transit Institute
 Transport Briefing
 Public transport in Russia
 Public transport guide (Europe)

References

More references
 Australia: Trinity College, Western Australia
 USA Transport Research Board TRIS Database

Public transport


George V. Chilingarian (he uses both Chilingar and Chilingarian as his last name) is an American-Armenian Professor of Civil and Petroleum Engineering at the University of Southern California (USC). He is one of the best-known petroleum geologists in the world and the founder of several prestigious journals in the oil and gas industry.

Chilingar has published 72 books and over 500 of articles on geology, petroleum engineering and environmental engineering. He serves as president of the U.S. branch of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences and 17 of his books have been translated into Russian. In recognition of these contributions, the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences has honored him as a Knight of Arts and Sciences.

He received his bachelor's and master's degrees in petroleum engineering and a Ph.D. in geology (with a minor in petroleum engineering), all at USC.

His greatest contribution to the petroleum industry may be a means of identifying oil-rich rock by analyzing the ratio of calcium to magnesium in core samples. This method was used in discovering one of Iran's largest oil fields, which was then named after Chilingar.

Scientia Iranica has published a special issue in "Transactions C: Chemistry and Chemical Engineering" dedicated to the lifelong achievements of Chilingar.

He also played a key role in the development of Thailand's offshore oil reserves. Chilingar saw natural gas bubbles in the Gulf of Siam and redirected exploratory efforts, thus saving the nascent Thai oil industry.

In 2001, King Fahd of Saudi Arabia acknowledged Chilingar's significant contributions to the success of Saudi Aramco as well as the discovery and extraction of oil reserves around the world. The Saudi consul general in Los Angeles, Ambassador Mohammed A. Al-Salloum, presented the award.

He served as senior petroleum engineering adviser to the United Nations from 1967 to 1969, and then again from 1978 to 1987. He was also an energy policy adviser to California Governor Ronald Reagan in 1973.

His recent research work concentrated on:

 Environmental aspects of oil and gas production
 Petrophysical properties of rocks and drilling fluids
 Surface and subsurface operations in petroleum production
 Subsidence due to the fluid withdrawal, testing and storage of petroleum products

Selected honors and awards
 Distinguished Achievement Award for Petroleum Engineering Faculty (The Society of Petroleum Engineers) in recognition for outstanding contributions in the field of petroleum engineering education, 1984
 Society of Petroleum Engineers Distinguished Membership, 2020
 Editor of Sedimentary Geology (one of the founders)
 Special Issue of Energy Sources Journal, Vol. 21, Nov. 1-2, 1999, A Tribute to Professor  George V. Chilingarian
 Crown and Eagle Medal of Honor from the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences,  2000
 Gold Medals of Honor from Iran, Thailand, Taiwan, Honduras, El Salvador, Armenia and Russia
 Honorary Professor of Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas

References

External links
 George V. Chilingar home page at USC
 L. F. Khilyuk and G. V. Chilingar, 2006, On global forces of nature driving the Earth's climate. Are humans involved?
 Rebuttal of "On global forces of nature driving the Earth's climate. Are humans involved?" by L. F. Khilyuk and G. V. Chilingar

American geologists
USC Viterbi School of Engineering alumni
University of Southern California faculty
Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

George V. Chilingar


In computerized business management, single version of the truth (SVOT), is a technical concept describing the data warehousing ideal of having either a single centralised database, or at least a distributed synchronised database, which stores all of an organisation's data in a consistent and non-redundant form. This contrasts with the related concept of single source of truth (SSOT), which refers to a data storage principle to always source a particular piece of information from one place.

Applied to message sequencing
In some systems and in the context of message processing systems (often real-time systems), this term also refers to the goal of establishing a single agreed sequence of messages within a database formed by a particular but arbitrary sequencing of records. The key concept is that data combined in a certain sequence is a "truth" which may be analyzed and processed giving particular results, and that although the sequence is arbitrary (and thus another correct but equally arbitrary sequencing would ultimately provide different results in any analysis), it is desirable to agree that the sequence enshrined in the "single version of the truth" is the version that will be considered "the truth", and that any conclusions drawn from analysis of the database are valid and unarguable, and (in a technical context) the database may be duplicated to a backup environment to ensure a persistent record is kept of the "single version of the truth".

The key point is when the database is created using an external data source (such as a sequence of trading messages from a stock exchange) an arbitrary selection is made of one possibility from two or more equally valid representations of the input data, but henceforth the decision sets "in stone" one and only one version of the truth.

As applied to message sequencing
Critics of SVOT as applied to message sequencing argue that this concept is not scalable. As the world moves towards systems spread over many processing nodes, the effort involved in negotiating a single agreed-upon sequence becomes prohibitive.

But as pointed out by Owen Rubel at his API World talk 'The New API Pattern', the SVOT is always going to be the service layer in a distributed architecture where input/output (I/O) meet; this also is where the endpoint binding belongs to allow for modularization and better abstraction of the I/O data across the architecture to avoid the architectural cross cutting concern.

See also
 Closed world assumption, formal-logic assumption that any statement that is not known to be true, is considered false
 Open world assumption, formal-logic assumption that the truth-value of a statement is independent of whether it is known to be true by any single observer or agent
 The Kimball lifecycle, a high-level sequence tasks used to design, develop and deploy a data warehouse or business intelligence system
 Dimensional modeling, a "bottom-up" approach to data warehousing pioneered by Ralph Kimball, in contrast to the older Bill Inmon method "top-down" approach

References

Bibliography

https://web.archive.org/web/20061015232747/http://www.industryweek.com/EventDetail.aspx?EventID=179

Data modeling
Database normalization

Single version of the truth


Community Youth Development (CYD) is a philosophy emphasizing the symbiotic nature of youth development to community development by situating the two practices in a common framework. CYD combines the natural instincts of young people as they desire to create change in their environments by developing partnerships between youth-related organizations and community development agencies to create new opportunities for youth to serve their communities while developing their personal abilities.

See also

 Oaktree
 Positive youth development

External links

 Community Youth Development Journal Published by the Institute for Just Communities (IJC) and the Institute for Sustainable Development, Heller School of Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University.
 Community Youth Development: Programs, Policies, and Practices A resource publication.
 CommonAction An international CYD resource, training, and technical assistance organization.
 YoMo - support and resources for young peoples community participation.
 Youth Outreach Team - City of Vancouver's method of involving youth in civic decisions.
 Learning for a Cause, a non-profit educational organization founded by educator and writer Michael Ernest Sweet.
Community Youth Development at Nazareth College

Youth work

Community youth development


A skin graft is a transplants of skin. The most common way to do this is to transplant skin from one part of a person to another place on the same person. The technique was developed in World War II by surgeons who had to deal with people who had suffered severe burns.

Transplants of skin from one person to another is limited by tissue rejection caused by the immune system. As with organ transplants, tests are done to find a donor who is "compatible" with the host. Identical twins make the perfect donors for each other because they are genetically identical.

Surgery
Animal tissues

Skin graft


Peta géologis nyaéta peta nu dipaké sacara husus pikeun nunjukkeun fitur géologis sub-permukaan. Di AS, peta géologis biasana nyoko kana peta topografi nu ditambahan ku warna, garis kontur stratigrafi, sartta lambang-lambag lianna.

Warna dina ieu peta nunjukkeun the exposure of the immediate bedrock, even if obscured by soil or other cover. éach aréa of color denotes a particular rock formation. However, in aréas where the bedrock is overlain by a significantly thick unconsolidated burden of till, terrace deposits, loess deposits, or other important féature, these are shown instéad.

The stratigraphic contour lines are drawn on the surface of a selected deep stratum, so that they can show the topographic trends of the strata under the ground. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed.

Fault lines are also shown where known.

Wheréas topographic maps are produced by the United States Geological Survey in conjunction with the states, géologic maps are usually produced by the states. There are almost no géologic map resources for some states, while a few states, such as Kentucky, are extensively mapped géologically.

Tempo ogé
 Géologi
 Géografi fisik

Kartografi

Peta géologis


Hyperolius lamottei is a species of frog in the family Hyperoliidae. It is found in Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and possibly Guinea-Bissau. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, moist savanna, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, swamps, intermittent freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater marshes, rural gardens, and heavily degraded former forest.

References

lamottei
Amphibians described in 1958
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Hyperolius lamottei


Sydney Cassyd (December 28, 1908 – February 4, 2000) was the founder of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1946.

Biography
Born in Teaneck, New Jersey, Cassyd worked for the Army Signal Corps as a film editor under then-Col. Frank Capra during World War II. After the war, Cassyd moved to Hollywood, where he worked as an editor for Box Office magazine, as well as a grip at Paramount Pictures.

It was at Paramount that he met and teamed up with TV groundbreaker Klaus Landsberg, known for, among other things, pioneering live TV news coverage. Cassyd and Landsberg worked on an experimental Los Angeles television station that would eventually become KTLA-TV Channel 5.

While at KTLA, Cassyd felt that TV needed an organization in which people could share their ideas about the fledgling medium and talk about the future of the industry. He founded the academy with seven people who came to the first meeting. By the fifth meeting, there were 250 members.

Cassyd founded the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences in 1946, which has grown into one of the most influential organizations in the entertainment industry. In addition to sponsoring the annual Emmy Awards, which recognize outstanding entertainment and news achievement in television, the academy has a variety of outreach and archival programs.

Cassyd became the fourth president of the academy in 1950 and over the years held various other positions. In 1991, the academy's board of governors created the Syd Cassyd Founder's Award in his honor and presented the first to him.

Cassyd died at his home in Los Angeles, at the age of 91.

Awards and honors
In 1996, Cassyd received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

References

External links

1908 births
2000 deaths
American nonprofit executives
American founders
20th-century American businesspeople
People from Teaneck, New Jersey

Syd Cassyd


Hercules in the Maze of the Minotaur is the fifth made for television movie based on the series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys. Hercules has given up his days of traveling. He has found a place to live and be with his family. When a far off village is in danger from an unseen monster, Hercules is goes to help save the village from the monster. The origin of the monster is a combination of the Greek myth and the myths of Tantalus and Lycaon.

Plot synopsis

In a forest, two men are looking for treasure. They follow their map and find a cave covered with bushes. The two men enter the cave. In the cave, they find a large wooden door. As they try to get through the door, a monster breaks through the door. It chases after them. One man is captured. The other runs as the monster tells him to bring Hercules. At this time, Hercules is working on his farm. He sees his sons fighting and tells them that they should not fight. They says that Hercules fights. Hercules tells them that he only fights when he has to and only to stop other people from being harmed. He tells about the time when he had to fight Eryx the boxer to stop him from killing anymore people. He asks the boys if they understand. They say they do. Later that evening, Hercules is working in the stable, Zeus appears and they talk. Hercules tells Zeus that there have been no monsters for a while, which is good as he has now living with Deianeira and the children. Zeus gives him a scale from a sea serpent. Hercules remembers the time when he and Deianeira were swallowed by a sea serpent while looking for the lost city of Troy.

At night, the children ask their father to tell them a story. He tells them how when he and Deianeira first met. Hercules begins telling how the fire had gone from the Earth and that Deianeira's village needed fire. He told them how he got the fire back from Hera's temple. During the story, Hercules sees that the children are asleep. He and Deianeira go to bed. She asks him if he misses travelling and fighting monsters. He says that he does miss it. The next day, Hercules is working in the stables. He sees something move quickly past the door. He goes to look but sees nothing. As he walks back into the stable, a man jumps on him. Hercules turns to see it is Iolaus. They begin talking about their past. The two men go inside to get a drink. Iolaus tells Hercules that he met a man who taught him to fight better. When Hercules attacks Iolaus, the smaller man does well at first. After a short while Hercules still wins.  Deianeira tells Iolaus that since Hercules gave up his adventures he has become sad. A man comes at the stable looking for Hercules. He tells him that he must help his village and that a monster has taken his brother. Hercules says he cannot go. The man says he has to because he is Hercules. Later that evening Deianeria asks him why he refused to help. He tells her that he said that he would stay and raise the children with her. She tells him that he should not try to stop being Hercules, not for her or the children. She tells him to go. The next day, he and Iolaus set off for Alturia. As they travel to Alturia, a young couple are looking for somewhere quiet. They find the cave and enter. While they are in the cave, the Minotaur comes and attacks them.

When Hercules and Iolaus get to Alturia, they ask a woman where the monster is. She tells Hercules that there is not any monster. Underneath the village, the Minotaur says that Hercules will pay. Zeus appears and tells the Minotaur that he still has not learned his lesson, he replies that he has been feeding on hate. Minotaur taunts Zeus because he was unable to kill the Minotaur. Hercules and Iolaus are in a tavern. They get into a fight with some men because they do not believe that he is really Hercules. Outside the tavern, two men are killed and Hercules goes to see what happened. He is found by the villagers. They think he killed the men and chase him and Iolaus. The man who had asked for Hercules's help comes and takes Hercules to the cave where his brother was captured. Zeus appears and tells Hercules what the monster is and why he wants Hercules. He asks Hercules to kill the Minotaur. In the centre of the cave, the Minotaur challenges Hercules. They begin fighting. As Hercules is about to kill the Minotaur, the creature tells him that he is really Hercules' brother. Hercules cannot kill him. The Minotaur then attacks Hercules and Hercules has to kill him. As the Minotaur dies, he changes to his human form and Zeus tells him that it did not have to end that way.  Hercules helps Iolaus and the other people being held by the Minotaur. With the people of the village now safe and Iolaus freed, the two men go back home.

Main cast

Kevin Sorbo as Hercules
Michael Hurst as Iolaus
Tawny Kitaen as Deianeira
Anthony Quinn as Zeus

Other websites

1994 movies
1994 adventure movies
Television movies
Xenaverse
Hercules movies

Hercules in the Maze of the Minotaur


Amleth (; Latinized as Amlethus) is a figure in a medieval Scandinavian legend, the direct inspiration of the character of Prince Hamlet, the hero of William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. The chief authority for the legend of Amleth is Saxo Grammaticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his Gesta Danorum, completed at the beginning of the 13th century. Saxo's version is similar to the one in the 12th-century Chronicon Lethrense. In both versions, prince Amleth (Amblothæ) is the son of Horvendill (Orwendel), king of the Jutes. It has often been assumed that the story is ultimately derived from an Old Icelandic poem, but no such poem has been found; the extant Icelandic versions, known as the Ambales-saga, or Amloda-saga are considerably later than Saxo.

Name
The Old Icelandic form Amlóði is recorded once in the Prose Edda. The 12th-century Amlethus, Amblothæ may easily be latinizations of the Old Norse name.
The etymology of the name is unknown, but there are various suggestions.

Icelandic Amlóði is recorded as a term for a fool or simpleton in reference to the character of the early modern Icelandic romance or folk tale.
One suggestion is based on the "fool"  or "trickster" interpretation of the name, composing the name from Old Norse ama "to vex, annoy, molest" and óðr "fierceness, madness" (also in the theonym Odin). The Irish and Scottish word amhlair, which in contemporary vernacular denotes a dull, stupid person, is handed down from the ancient name for a court jester or fool, who entertained the king but also surreptitiously advised him through riddles and antics.

A more recent suggestion is based on the Eddaic kenning associating Amlóði with the mythological mill grótti,  and derives it from the Old Irish name Admlithi "great-grinding", attested in  Togail Bruidne Dá Derga.
Amlóða kvern ("Amlodi's quern" or "Hamlet's mill") is a kenning for the sea in
the Skáldskaparmál section of the Prose Edda, attributed to a skald named Snæbjörn.

Attention has also been drawn to the similarity of Amleth to the Irish name Amhladh (variously Amhlaidh,  Amhlaigh,  Amhlaide), itself a Gaelic adaptation of the Norse name Olaf.

In a controversial suggestion going back to 1937, the sequence æmluþ contained in the 8th-century Old Frisian runic inscription on the  Westeremden yew-stick has been interpreted as a reference to "Amleth". Contemporary runic research does not support this conclusion.

Scandinavian legend
It has frequently been assumed that the Scandinavian legend ultimately goes back to an Old Norse (Old Icelandic) poem of about the 10th century.
Nevertheless, no such poem has survived, and the two 12th-century Latin versions of the story are the oldest source.
There was in addition an early modern (17th century) Icelandic version of the tale. Historian Thormodus Torfæus had asserted that a story of Amlodi was part of popular folklore in the mid-17th century, but it is unclear whether the early modern Icelandic tale is substantially influenced by Saxo's account, or if it represents an independent tradition derived from the unattested Old Icelandic source.

Saxo's version

Gervendill, governor of Jutland, was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, daughter of Rørik Slyngebond, king of Denmark; they had a son, Amleth. However, Feng murdered Horvendill out of jealousy and persuaded Gerutha to become his wife on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband who had hated her. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, pretended to be an imbecile. However, Feng's suspicions put him to various tests related in detail. Among other things, they sought to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister (the prototype of Ophelia), but his cunning saved him. However, when Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden, like Polonius in Shakespeare's play, in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly, he dispatched him to Britain in company with two attendants, who bore a letter urging the country's king to put him to death. Amleth surmised the purport of their instructions and secretly altered the message on their wooden tablets to instead direct the king to kill the attendants and give Amleth his daughter in marriage.

After marrying the princess, Amleth returned to Denmark at the end of a year. Of the wealth he had accumulated, he took with him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast to celebrate his supposed death. During the feast, he plied the courtiers with wine. He executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over them the woolen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened during his feigned madness, then setting fire to the palace. He slew Feng with his own sword. After a long harangue to the people, he was proclaimed king. Returning to Britain for his wife, he found that his father-in-law and Feng had pledged each to avenge the other's death. The English king, unwilling to personally carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen, Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death but fell in love with Amleth. On his return to Britain, his first wife, whose love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's intended revenge. In the ensuing battle, Amleth won the day by setting up the fallen dead from the day before on stakes, thereby terrifying the enemy.

He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, where he encountered the enmity of Wiglek, Rørik's successor. He was slain in a battle against Wiglek. Although she had promised to die with him, Hermuthruda instead married the victor. Saxo states that Amleth was buried on a plain (or "heath") in Jutland, famous for his name and burial place. Wiglek later died of illness and was the father of Wermund, from whom the royal line of Kings of Mercia descended.

Chronicon Lethrense
The 12th-century Chronicle of the Kings of Leijre (and the included Annales Lundenses) tells that the Danish king Rorik Slengeborre made Orwendel and Feng rulers in Jutland, and gave his daughter to Orwendel as a reward for his good service. Orwendel and the daughter had a son, Amblothæ the Jutlander.
The jealous Feng killed Orwendel and took his wife. Amblothæ understood that his life was in danger and tried to survive by pretending to be insane. Feng sent Amblothæ to the king of Britain with two servants, who carried a message directing the British king to kill Amblothæ. While the servants slept, Amblothæ carved off the (probably runic) message and wrote that the servants were to be killed and that he should be married to the king's daughter. The British king did what the message said.
Exactly one year later, Feng drank to the memory of Amblothæ, but Amblothæ appeared and killed him, burnt Feng's men to death in a tent, and became the ruler of Jutland. Then he went back to Britain to kill the British king, who wanted to avenge Feng's death and marry Scotland's queen. Amblothæ went back to Jutland and was killed in battle upon arrival.

Icelandic versions
In Iceland, the early modern  Ambale's Saga is a romantic tale (the earliest manuscript dates from the 17th century).
Thormodus Torfæus recorded in 1702 that he "often heard the story of Amlod related in Iceland by old women" in his youth.
The folk-tale of Brjam was put in writing in 1707. In the Ambale's Saga, besides romantic additions, some traits point to an earlier version of the tale.

Also comparable is the medieval Hrólfs saga kraka, where the brothers Helgi (known as Halga in Beowulf) and Hroar (Hroðgar) take the place of the hero (corresponding to the tale of Harald and Halfdan in the seventh book of Saxo Grammaticus); Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Halfdan, avenge their father's murder by their uncle by burning the uncle in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by being brought up with dogs' names in a hollow oak, and subsequently by feigning madness. In the case of the other brothers, there are traces of a similar motive since the boys are called by dogs' names.

Comparative mythology
The similarities of Saxo's version with the classical tale of
Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus are likely deliberate, as the incident of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and Brutus (Dionysius, iv. 77) shows marked similarities.
In both tales, the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew. The latter has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness. Nevertheless, the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have no parallels in the Latin story.

Further resemblances exist in the Ambale's Saga with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of Servius Tullius. This concerns especially the episode of the "traitorous letter" (ordering the death of the bearer), also found in the Old French (13th-century) Dit de l'empereur Constant, and further afield in various Arabian and Indian tales.

There are also striking similarities between the story of Amleth and that of Kai Khosrow in the Shahnameh (Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi.
In ancient Egyptian mythology, a similar tale of a king who is murdered by a jealous brother but avenged by his son appears in the narrative of Osiris, Set and Horus.

16th-century reception

Outside Scandinavia, the story of Amleth or Hamlet was popularized through François de Belleforest's French Histoires tragiques (Paris, Chez Jean Hupeau, 1572, Fueil 149), where it appears as the fifth story of the fifth volume. An English version, The Hystorie of Hamblet, was published in 1608. An English stage version, conventionally known as the Ur-Hamlet, appeared by 1589. The play is lost but is mentioned in a few other sources, the first being Thomas Nashe's 1589 preface to Robert Greene's Menaphon.

William Shakespeare wrote his play Hamlet sometime between 1599 and 1602. The Ur-Hamlet is thought to be his primary source; his version owes but the outline of the story to Saxo. In character, Shakespeare's Prince Hamlet is diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of Hamlet. However, he resembles him in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies' plans.

Modern adaptations
Henry Treece adapted the story of Amleth from Saxo for his 1966 novel The Green Man.

The legend was taken as the basis of a 1994 film by Gabriel Axel, Prince of Jutland (also known as Royal Deceit), with Gabriel Byrne as Fenge, Helen Mirren as Geruth and Christian Bale as Amled.

The Amleth story was also the basis for the 1994 Disney film The Lion King.

The legend, woven together with Shakespeare's play, forms the basis for Alan Gordon's novel An Antic Disposition (2004),  the fifth novel in Gordon's "Fools' Guild" series.

Amleth's story was also adapted into the 2022 film The Northman, directed by the American director Robert Eggers who also co-wrote the script with Icelandic author Sjón, with Alexander Skarsgård as Amleth.

See also
Sources of Hamlet
Hamlet's Grave

References

Peter Tunstall (trans.)  The Chronicle of the Kings of Lejre (2003)
 Arthur G. Brodeur (trans.) Prose Edda  (1916)
Oliver Elton (trans.) Saxo Grammaticus' "Amleth, Prince of Denmark"   (1894), Books I-IX

Legendary Danish people
Medieval legends
Jutish people
Scandinavian folklore
Danish folklore

Amleth


Lynn Chang () (born 1953) is a Chinese American violinist known for his work as both a soloist and a chamber musician. Chang is a founding member of the Boston Chamber Music Society and is currently a faculty member at MIT, Boston University, the Boston Conservatory, and the New England Conservatory of Music.

Education
A native of Boston, Chang began his violin study at the age of seven with Sarah Scriven and Alfred Krips of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. He continued his studies at the Juilliard School under the tutelage of Ivan Galamian, then went on to receive his bachelor's degree from Harvard University.

Career
Chang has appeared as a soloist with many of the world's finest orchestras including the Miami Symphony Orchestra, Utah Symphony Orchestra, Oakland East Bay Symphony, Seattle Symphony Orchestra, Honolulu Symphony Orchestra, Beijing Symphony Orchestra, Taipei Symphony Orchestra, and Hong Kong Philharmonic among others. He has also performed with several notable musicians such as Yo-Yo Ma and Dawn Upshaw. Chang has also given many recitals throughout the United States and has performed in such halls as Davis Hall in San Francisco, Weill Hall in New York City, and the Kennedy Center in Washington, DC. Chang also makes frequent appearances at music festivals throughout the United States including the Killington Music Festival, Musicorda Festival, Wolf Trap, Great Woods Festival, Marlboro Festival, and the Tanglewood Music Festival.

Chang has also collaborated with members of the Juilliard String Quartet, Guarneri String Quartet, Tokyo String Quartet, Cleveland String Quartet, Vermeer String Quartet, Muir String Quartet and Orion String Quartet.

Lynn Chang has led a busy and successful teaching career for over three decades. His former students now perform in such orchestras as the Chicago Symphony, Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra in New York.  His former student, Joseph Lin was recently named first violin of the Juilliard String Quartet. Chang also leads Hemenway Strings at The Boston Conservatory, a conductorless string chamber ensemble.

In 2008, Lynn Chang was elected to the Board of Overseers at Harvard University.

Awards and honors

 Chang is a second prize winner at the International Paganini Competition.
 Chang is a winner of the Concert Artists Guild and the Young Concert Artists International Auditions.
 Chang was the first recipient of the Distinguished Leadership Award given by the Institute for Asian American Studies at the University of Massachusetts Boston.
 In 1995, Chang and Yo-Yo Ma performed the world premiere of Ivan Tcherepnin's Double Concerto which received the Grawmeyer Award for best new composition.
 On December 10, 2010, Lynn Chang was the solo violinist at the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony in Oslo, Norway in honor of 2010 Peace Prize laureate, Liu Xiaobo.
On December 4, 2011, Lynn Chang joined musicians Pamela Frank, Sharon Robinson, Jaime Laredo and Emmanuel Ax to salute honoree Yo-Yo Ma at the Kennedy Center Honors
In 2020 he was elected fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Recordings
In addition to being heard on CDs released by the Boston Chamber Music Society, Chang can be heard on Yo-Yo Ma's Made in America CD on Sony, and Dawn Upshaw's Girl with Orange Lips Grammy Award winning CD on Nonesuch.

References

American classical violinists
American musicians of Taiwanese descent
Harvard University alumni
MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty
Living people
Paganini Competition prize-winners
American classical musicians of Chinese descent
1953 births
21st-century classical violinists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Lynn Chang


Jacob Obrecht (born Ghent, 1457 or 1458; died late July, 1505) was a composer from the south Netherlands.  He was one of the greatest composers of his time.  He is best known for his church music, including many masses as well as motets and songs.

His life
Obrecht's father was a trumpeter.  His mother died when he was about 2 years old and his father remarried.  We know nothing about Obrecht's musical education.  He may have learned to play the trumpet like his father, who worked for the Burgundian court.  Perhaps his father introduced him to people at the court, such as the famous composer Antoine Busnois.  He certainly must have known Busnois' music.

From 1480 to 1484 he was a choirmaster at Bergen-op-Zoom.  Then he got a very good job as choirmaster at Cambrai Cathedral. However, a year later he took another job in Bruges.  He wrote a lot of church music during his years in Bruges.  He travelled to Italy and went to the town of Ferrara where a lot of famous musicians worked.  He stayed there for several months.  This may have been the reason why he then lost his job in Bruges.  His next job was in Antwerp where he worked from 1492 to 1498.  He then got his old job back in Bruges.  From 1501 to 1503 he once again worked at Antwerp where he was choirmaster at the church of Our Lady.  In 1504 he got the job of maestro di cappella at Ferrara, but the following year he died of the plague.

His reputation
Obrecht composed extremely quickly.  He is supposed to have written one of his masses in one night.  This was different to Josquin des Prez who spent a long time composing his pieces and making changes to them before he let anyone have copies.  Obrecht was influenced by the music of Busnois and Ockeghem.  Obrecht himself was a big influence on Josquin, even though Josquin was older than Obrecht.

In recent years musicologists have studied Obrecht's music a lot and made many discoveries, including the correct dates for many of his works.

1450s births
1505 deaths
Renaissance composers
Franco-Flemish composers
Musicians from Ghent

Jacob Obrecht


Daniel Duchaine (1952 – January 12, 2000) was an American bodybuilder. Nicknamed the steroid guru, Duchaine gained worldwide notoriety due to his outspoken opinions on the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and made numerous television appearances discussing the subject on shows such as 20/20, Geraldo, and 60 Minutes. Steroid Nation author and ESPN writer Shaun Assael calls Duchaine "a founding father of the steroid movement." Duchaine was a low-carbohydrate diet advocate and promoted his own diet, the "Bodyopus diet".

Duchaine and steroids
Duchaine began competitive bodybuilding in his home state of Maine in 1977; however, after he had no luck (describing himself as a "miserable bodybuilder"), he began using anabolic steroids that he persuaded his family physician in Portland to prescribe as a training aid. However, after beginning their use he said "I still wasn't very good. Obviously something wasn't working, and the doctors and the pharmacists couldn't really answer my questions. So I started looking into steroids on my own." This was the start of the quest for knowledge that would eventually land him the title of "Guru" on the subject. He moved to Los Angeles in 1978.

In mid-1987, Duchaine was caught and indicted on conspiracy and mislabeling charges. He pleaded guilty to the two counts and was sentenced to a maximum of three years in federal prison with five years of probation by Judge J. Lawrence Irving of San Diego Federal Court. In November 1988 Duchaine was profiled by The New York Times on its front page as part of an Olympics-inspired series on steroids in sports.

Duchaine was released after ten months. In 1991, while still on probation he met up with a friend who was selling gamma-hydroxybutyrate (commonly known as GHB) and began working with him. One of their customers, however, was an undercover Food and Drug Administration (FDA) agent, and Duchaine was convicted a second time and sentenced to 36 months in prison. While in prison, he says he learned to make money through "legitimate avenues".

In 1988, Duchaine introduced Clenbuterol to bodybuilders. Duchaine is also credited with introducing 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) into bodybuilding through an interview on one of ten cassettes included with bodybuilding magazine Muscle Media 2000. In 2007 Duchaine was featured prominently in the book Steroid Nation by ESPN writer Shaun Assael.

Writing career

First published in 1981, The Underground Steroid Handbook was an 18-page pamphlet which focused on bodybuilders who used the drugs for competition, defines the different types of steroids and explains what they look like, what they should cost, where to get them and how to use them. After placing ads in fitness and martial-arts magazines, as well as Soldier of Fortune, he printed and sold between 40,000 and 50,000 copies of the Underground Steroid Handbook at $6 a copy, over a four-year period. In 1988 Robert Voy, the chief medical officer of the United States Olympic Committee called it "a fabulous pharmacological text." The New York Times reported that both Voy and Don Catlin of UCLA, who did most of the drug tests for the United States Olympic Committee and the National Collegiate Athletic Association in the 1980s had the book in their files.

In 1992 after being released from prison for a second time Duchaine began working for Bill Phillips' Muscle Media 2000 magazine writing a monthly Q&A column called "Ask the Guru". By this time Duchaine had published several books in his Underground Steroid Handbook series (co-authored with Michael Zumpano), and referred to himself as a Human Performance Theorist.

Duchaine was a low-carbohydrate diet advocate. In his 1996 book Underground Bodyopus: Militant Weight Loss & Recomposition, Duchaine advocated a ketogenic diet known as the "Bodyopus diet".

Death
Duchaine was found dead on January 12, 2000, by his close friend Shelley Hominuk in his apartment in Carlsbad, California. Cause of death was complications resulting from polycystic kidney disease.

Quotes
 "If you can't grow on Deca and Dbol, you can't grow on anything!" – taken from Duchaine's Dirty Dieting Newsletter in 1997

Duchaine's books
 Duchaine, Dan. The Original Underground Steroid Handbook, 1981
 Duchaine, Dan. Underground Steroid Handbook, 1983
 Duchaine, Dan. Underground Steroid Handbook II HLR Technical Books, 1988.
 Duchaine, Dan. Underground Body Opus: Militant Weight Loss & Recomposition XIPE Press, March 1996. ()

See also
Experimental and Applied Sciences

References

External links
Dan Duchaine at qfac.com

1952 births
2000 deaths
20th-century American criminals
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American bodybuilders
Low-carbohydrate diet advocates
People from Carlsbad, California
Sportspeople from California
Writers from California

Dan Duchaine


The November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état took place between November 13 and November 18, 1963, when, following internal party divisions, pro-Nasserist Iraqi officers led a military coup within the Ba'ath Party. Although the coup itself was bloodless, 250 people were killed in related actions.

The government subsequently lasted until the 17 July Revolution in 1968.

Background

After seizing Iraqi state power in February 1963, divisions between pro and anti-Nasser Ba'ath leaders, as well as between right and left pan-Arab nationalist Ba'ath leaders led to the first Ba'ath government in Iraq's collapse in November 1963, while 7,000 Iraqi communists remained imprisoned.

Qasim's former deputy Abdul Salam Arif (who was not a Ba'athist) was given the largely ceremonial title of President, while prominent Ba'athist general Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr was named Prime Minister. The most powerful leader of the new government was the secretary general of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, Ali Salih al-Sa'di, who controlled the National Guard militia and organized a massacre of hundreds—if not thousands—of suspected communists and other dissidents following the coup.

al-Sa'di supported a union with Syria, while the more conservative military wing supported Qasim's "Iraq first policy". Factionalism, coupled with the ill-disciplined behaviour of the National Guard, led the military wing to initiate a coup against the party's leadership; al-Sadi was forced into exile in Spain. al-Bakr, in an attempt to save the party, called for a meeting of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party. The meeting exacerbated the Party's problems. Aflaq, who saw himself as the leader of the pan-Arab Ba'athist movement, declared his intent to take control of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party. The "Iraq first" wing was outraged, President Arif lost patience with the Ba'ath, and the Party was ousted from government on 18 November 1963. The 12 Ba'ath members of government were forced to resign and the National Guard replaced by the Republican Guard.

Coup
On Tuesday, November 12, al-Sadi and 18 of his Ba'ath Party colleagues were seized at gunpoint and flown to Madrid. The next day, without mentioning al-Sadi, Radio Baghdad announced that the ruling Ba'athist Party was now led by a 15-member council headed by al-Bakr. A few minutes before 11:00, the radio went off the air and fighter jets strafed the Presidential Palace in Baghdad; large crowds of al-Sadi supporters demonstrated in Baghdad. By the afternoon, Prime Minister al-Bakr's forces had reclaimed control. The next evening in Madrid, al-Sadi announced that eight of the new Ba'ath leaders had been ousted and flown to Beirut, and that al-Sadi would return to Baghdad with Syrian Ba'athists. By Monday, November 18, Iraqi president Abdul Salam Arif, his brother, Brigade General Abdul Rahman Arif and their Iraqi Army supporters suppressed the Ba'ath National Guard Militia (which had increased in size from 5,000 to 34,000 between February and August 1963) and bombed the Ba'ath National Guard Militia headquarters while other senior officers and supporters of Abdul Salam Arif, such as Khaleel Jassim AlDabbagh, Saeed Hamo, Abdul Aziz Al Aqili and Younis Atar Bashi took control of the fourth and third divisions and suppressed the Ba'ath National Guard Militia in Mosul and Karkuk. Then he removed al-Bakr as Premier; al-Sadi was not included in the new council and remained in exile.

As a result, the first Ba'ath government was overthrown and a new, pro-Nasserist government was established with Abdul Salam Arif as Head of State. The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Iraq was banned, along with all other political parties, and the Arab Socialist Union of Iraq was declared the only legal party in the Iraqi Republic.

See also
14 July Revolution
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

Notes

Iraq
1963 in Iraq
Arab nationalism in Iraq
Arab nationalist rebellions
Ba'athism
Conflicts in 1963
History of the Ba'ath Party
Military coups in Iraq
Nasserism
Rebellions in Iraq

November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état


George III (George William Frederick; 4 Juin 173829 Januar 1820) wis King o Great Breetain an Ireland frae 25 October 1760 til the union o the twa kintras on 1 Januar 1801, efter whilk he wis King o the Unitit Kinrick o Great Breetain an Ireland till his daith. He wis concurrently Duke an prince-elector o Brunswick-Lüneburg ("Hanover") in the Hsly Roman Empire afore becomin King o Hanover on 12 October 1814. He wis the third Breetish monarch o the Hoose o Hanover, but unlik his twa predecessors, he wis born in Ingland, spake Inglis as his first leid, an niver veesitit Hanover.

His life an wi it his ring, that war langer than thon o ony o his predecessors, war merked bi a series o militar conflicts involvin his kinricks, muckle o the rest o Europe, an places forder afield in Africae, the Americaes an Asie. Early in his ring, Great Breetain defeatit Fraunce in the Seiven Years' War, becomin the heichmaist European pouer in North Americae an Indie. Houiver, mony o Britain's American colonies war suin lost in the American War o Unthirldom. Forder wars agin revolutionary an Napoleonic Fraunce frae 1793 endit in the defeat o Napoleon at the Battle o Waterloo in 1815.

In the later pairt o his life, George III haed recurrent, an eventually permanent, mental illness. Awtho it haes syne been suggestit that he haed the bluid disease porphyria, the cause o his illness remains unkent. Efter a final relapse in 1810, a regency wis established, an George III's auldest son, George, Prince o Wales, ruled as Prince Regent. On George III's daith, the Prince Regent succeedit his faither as George IV.

Historical analysis o George III's life haes gane throu a "kaleidoscope o cheengin views" that have dependit hivily on the prejudices o his biographers an the soorces available tae them. Till it wis reassessed in the seicont hauf o the 20t century, his reputation in the Unitit States wis ane o a teerant; an in Breetain he becam "the scapegait for the failyie o imperialism".

Teetles an styles

4 Juin 1738 – 31 Mairch 1751 His Ryal Highness Prince George.
31 Mairch 1751 – 20 Aprile 1751 His Ryal Highness The Duke o Edinburgh.
20 Aprile 1751 – 25 October 1760 His Ryal Highness The Prince o Wales.
25 October 1760 – 29 Januar 1820 His Majesty The King

References

Soorces
 Brooke, John (1972). King George III. London: Constable. .
 Butterfield, Herbert (1957). George III and the Historians. London: Collins.

1738 births
1820 daiths
19t-century monarchs in Europe
Blind fowk frae Ingland
Blind ryalty an nobility
Breetish fowk o the American Revolution
Buirials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Deafblind fowk
Deaf ryalty an nobility
Edinburgh
Dukes o Bremen an Verden
Dukes o Brunswick-Lüneburg
Dukes o Edinburgh
Dukes o Saxe-Lauenburg
Electors o Hanover
Inglis fowk wi disabeelities
Inglis pretenders tae the French throne
Inglis fowk o German strynd
Inglis fowk o Scots strynd
Keengs o Hanover
Knichts o the Gairten
Monarchs o Great Breetain
Monarchs o the Unitit Kinrick
Fowk frae Wastmeenster
Princes o Wales
Protestant monarchs
Regency era
Ryal Botanic Gairdens, Kew

George III


The Paper is a 1994 comedy movie. It was directed by Ron Howard. The movie is about people who work for a newspaper in New York City. It involves personal affairs between members of staff. The movie stars Michael Keaton as Henry, Glenn Close as Alicia Clark and Marisa Tomei as Henry's wife Martha. The Paper was well liked by critics but earned less than $50 million at the box office.

1994 comedy movies
American comedy movies
Movies directed by Ron Howard
English-language movies

The Paper


Arhitectura etiopiană variază foarte mult de la o regiune la alta și a încorporat, de-a lungul anilor, diferite stiluri și tehnici.

D`mt (c. 800-400 î.Hr.)

Clădirea cea mai cunoscută din această perioadă în regiune este turnul ruinat din secolul al VIII-lea de la Yeha (Etiopia), despre care se crede că a fost capitala D'mt. Zidăria din piatră cioplită era dominantă în acea perioadă, ca urmare a influenței arhitecturii din Arabia de Sud în care acest stil era foarte obișnuit pentru realizarea de structuri monumentale.

Arhitectura axumită
Aksumite architecture flourished in the region from the 4th century BC onward, persisting even after the transition of the Aksumite dynasty to the Zagwe in the 12th century, as attested by the numerous Aksumite influences in and around the medieval churches of Lalibela. Stelae (hawilts) and later entire churches were carved out of single blocks of rock, emulated later at Lalibela and throughout Tigray, especially during the early-mid medieval period (ca. 10th-11th c. in Tigray, mainly 12th c. around Lalibela). Other monumental structures include massive underground tombs often located beneath stelae. Among the most spectacular survivals are the giant stelae, one of which, now fallen (scholars think that it may have fallen during or immediately after erection) is the single largest monolithic structure ever erected (or attempted to be erected). Other well-known structures employing the use of monoliths include tombs such as the "Tomb of the False Door" and the tombs of Kaleb and Gebre Mesqel in Axum.

Most structures, however, like palaces, villas, commoner's houses, and other churches and monasteries, were built of alternating layers of stone and wood. The protruding wooden support beams in these structures have been named "monkey heads" and are a staple of Aksumite architecture and a mark of Aksumite influence in later structures. Some examples of this style had whitewashed exteriors and/or interiors, such as the medieval 12th century monastery of Yemrehanna Krestos near Lalibela, built during the Zagwe dynasty in Aksumite style. Contemporary houses were one-room stone structures or two-storey square houses or roundhouses of sandstone with basalt foundations. Villas were generally two to four stories tall and built on sprawling rectangular plans (cf. Dungur ruins). A good example of still-standing Aksumite architecture is the monastery of Debre Damo from the 6th century.

Dinastia Zagwe

Ethiopian architecture (including modern-day Eritrea) continued to expand from the Aksumite style, but also incorporating new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in commoner's architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially during the 10th-12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region of Tigray, which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. However, rock-hewn churches have been found as far south as Adadi Maryam (15th c.), about 100 km south of Addis Abeba. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the 11 monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town. Though later medieval hagiographies attribute all 11 structures to the eponymous king Lalibela (the town was called Roha and Adefa before his reign), new evidence indicates that they may have been built separately over a period of a few centuries, with only a few of the more recent churches having been built under his reign. Archaeologist and Ethiopisant David Phillipson postulates, for instance, that Bete Gebriel-Rufa'el was actually built in the very early medieval period, some time between 600 and 800 A.D., originally as a fortress but was later turned into a church.

Arhitectura gondarină

During the early modern period, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian style began with the arrival of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Portuguese soldiers had initially come in the mid-16th century as allies to aid Ethiopia in its fight against Adal, and later Jesuits came hoping to convert the country. Some Turkish influence may have entered the country during the late 16th century during its war with the Ottoman Empire (see Habesh), which resulted in an increased building of fortresses and castles. Ethiopia, naturally easily defensible because of its numerous ambas or flat-topped mountains and rugged terrain, yielded little tactical use from the structures in contrast to their advantages in the flat terrain of Europe and other areas, and so had until this point little developed the tradition. Castles were built especially beginning with the reign of Sarsa Dengel around the Lake Tana region, and subsequent Emperors maintained the tradition, eventually resulting in the creation of the Fasil Ghebbi (royal enclosure of castles) in the newly-founded capital (1635), Gondar. Emperor Susenyos (r.1606-1632) converted to Catholicism in 1622 and attempted to make it the state religion, declaring it as such from 1624 until his abdication; during this time, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the Jesuits), and Jesuit masons and their styles, as well as local masons, some of whom were Beta Israel. With the reign of his son Fasilides, most of these foreigners were expelled, although some of their architectural styles were absorbed into the prevailing Ethiopian architectural style. This style of the Gondarine dynasty would persist throughout the 17th-18th centuries especially and also influenced modern 19th century styles and later.

Note

Legături externe
Ethiopian Architecture

Arhitectura africană
Imperiul Axumit

Arhitectura etiopiană


Pär Fabian Lagerkvist (23 May 1891 – 11 July 1974) was a Swedish author who received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Lagerkvist wrote poetry, plays, novels, short stories, and essays of considerable expressive power and influence from his early 20s to his late 70s. One of his central themes was the fundamental question of good and evil, which he examined through such figures as Barabbas, the man who was freed instead of Jesus, and Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew. As a moralist, he used religious motifs and figures from the Christian tradition without following the doctrines of a church.

Biography and works
Lagerkvist was born in Växjö (Småland). He received a traditional religious education – he would later say, with little exaggeration, that he "had had the good fortune to grow up in a home where the only books known were the Bible and the Book of Hymns". In his teens he broke away from Christian beliefs, but, unlike many other writers and thinkers in his generation, he did not become vehemently critical of religious beliefs as such. Though he was politically a socialist for most of his life, he never indulged in the idea that "religion is the opium of the people". Much of his writing is informed by a lifelong interest in man and his symbols and gods, and in the position of Man (both as individual and mankind) in a world where the Divine is no longer present, no longer speaking.

In his early years Lagerkvist supported modernist and aesthetically radical views, as shown by his manifesto Ordkonst och bildkonst (Word Art and Picture Art, 1913) and the play Den Svåra Stunden ("The Difficult Hour").

One of the author's earliest works is Ångest (Anguish, 1916), a violent and disillusioned collection of poems. His anguish was derived from his fear of death, the World War, and personal crisis. He tried to explore how a person can find a meaningful life in a world where a war can kill millions for very little reason. "Anguish, anguish is my heritage / the wound of my throat / the cry of my heart in the world." ("Anguish", 1916.) "Love is nothing. Anguish is everything / the anguish of living." ("Love is nothing", 1916.) This pessimism, however, slowly faded, as testified by his subsequent works, Det eviga leendet (The Eternal Smile, 1920), the autobiographical novel Gäst hos verkligheten (Guest of Reality, 1925) and the prose monologue Det besegrade livet (The defeated Life, 1927), in which the faith in man is predominant. From The Eternal Smile on, his style largely abandoned the expressionist pathos and brusque effects of his early works and there was a strong striving for simplicity, classical precision and clean telling, sometimes appearing close to naivism. The content, however, was never truly naive. A Swedish critic remarked that "Lagerkvist and John the Evangelist are two masters at expressing profound things with a highly restricted choice of words".

Ten years after Ångest, Lagerkvist married for the second time, a union which was to provide a pillar of safety in his life until the death of his wife forty years later. Hjärtats sånger (Songs of the Heart) (1926) appeared at this time, bearing witness to his pride and love for his consort. This collection is much less desperate in its tone than Ångest, and established him as one of the foremost Swedish poets of his generation.

His prose novella Bödeln ("The Hangman", 1933), later adapted for the stage (The Hangman, 1933; play, 1934), shows his growing concern with the totalitarianism and brutality that began to sweep across Europe in the years prior to World War II. Nazism was one of the main targets of the work and Der Stürmer responded with a very dismissive review. Criticism against Fascism is also present in the play Mannen utan själ (The Man Without a Soul, 1936).

In September 1940 Lagerkvist was elected a member of the Swedish Academy, succeeding Verner von Heidenstam on chair 8 in December the same year.

Lagerkvist's 1944 novel Dvärgen (The Dwarf), a searching, ironic tale about evil, was the first to bring him positive international attention outside of the Nordic countries. The work was followed in 1949 by the unusual, lyrical play Låt människan leva (Let Man Live).

Barabbas (1950), which was immediately hailed as a literary masterpiece (by fellow Nobel laureate André Gide, among others) is probably Lagerkvist's most famous work. The novel is based on a Biblical story. Jesus of Nazareth was sentenced to die by the Roman authorities immediately before the Jewish Passover, when it was customary for the Romans to release someone convicted of a capital offense. When the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate offers to free either Jesus or Barabbas (a convicted thief and murderer), a Jerusalem mob demands the release of Barabbas, who later watches Jesus as he bears the cross to Golgotha, witnesses the crucifixion, and then spends the rest of his life trying to understand why he was chosen to live rather than Jesus. A movie based upon the novel was filmed in 1961, with Anthony Quinn playing the title role.

In 1951 Pär Lagerkvist was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for the artistic vigour and true independence of mind with which he endeavours in his poetry to find answers to the eternal questions confronting mankind.". He had first been proposed for the prize in 1947. Following the publication of Barabbas, Lagerkvist had been one of the favourites to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1950. In 1951 the Nobel committee for literature received nine nominations for Lagerkvist, including nominations from the French authors and previous laureates André Gide and Roger Martin du Gard, and the Swedish Academy decided to award him the prize.

Lagerkvist died in Stockholm in 1974 at the age of 83, his wife having died in 1967.

Works

Prose and poetry

 Människor (1912)
 Ordkonst och bildkonst (1913)
 Två sagor om livet (1913)
 Motiv (1914)
 Järn och människor (1915)
 Ångest (1916)
 Kaos (1919)
 Det eviga leendet, three stories ("The Eternal Smile", 1920)
 Den lyckliges väg (1921)
 Onda Sagor (1924)
 Gäst hos verkligheten ("Guest of Reality", 1925)
 Hjärtats sånger (1926)
 Det besegrade livet (1927)
 Kämpande ande (1930)
 Vid lägereld (1932)
 Den knutna näven ("The Clenched Fist", 1934)
 I den tiden ("In the Terms", 1935)
 Genius (1937)
 Den befriade människan (1939)
 Sång och strid (1940)
 Hemmet och stjärnan (1942)
 Dvärgen ("The Dwarf", 1944)
 Barabbas (1950, filmed in 1953, 1961, and 2012)
 Aftonland ("Evening Land", 1953)
 Sibyllan ("The Sibyl", 1956)
 Ahasverus död ("The Death of Ahasuerus", 1960)
 Pilgrim på havet ("Pilgrim at Sea", 1962)
 Det heliga landet ("The Holy Land", 1964)
 Mariamne ("Herod and Mariamne", 1967)
 Antecknat (diaries and notes, 1977)
 Den svåra resan (written in 1926, published in 1985)

Theatre

 Sista mänskan, play ("The Last Man", 1917)
 Den svåra stunden, three one-act plays ("The Difficult Hour", 1918)
 Teater (1918)
 Himlens hemlighet, play ("The Secret of Heaven", 1919)
 Den osynlige, play ("The Invisible One", 1923)
 Han som fick leva om sitt liv, play ("The Man Who Lived his Life Over", 1928)
 Konungen, play ("The King", 1932)
 Bödeln, play ("The Hangman", 1933)
 Mannen utan själ, play ("The Man Without a Soul", 1936)
 Seger i mörkret, play ("Victory in the Dark", 1939)
 Midsommardröm i fattighuset, play ("Midsummer's Dream in the Workhouse", 1941)
 De vises sten, play ("The Philosopher's Stone", 1947)
 Låt människan leva, play ("Let Man Live", 1950)

English translations
 "Literary Art and Pictorial Art" [Ordkonst och bildkonst], Rainbow Press, 1991, .
 "The Dwarf" [Dvärgen], Hill and Wang, 1958, .
 "Barabbas", Vintage, 1989, .
 "The Sibyl" [Sibyllan], Vintage, 1963, .
 "The Death of Ahasuerus" [Ahasverus död], Vintage, 1982, .
 "Evening Land" [Aftonland], translated by W. H. Auden and Leif Sjöberg; Wayne State University Press, 1975; Souvenir Press, London, 1977, .

References

 Fulvio Ferrari, introduction to Italian edition of Gäst hos verkligheten and Det eviga leendet, Oscar Narrativa #1242, Mondadori, Milan, June 1992
 Everett M. Ellestad, "Lagerkvist and Cubism: A Study of Theory and Practice," Scandinavian Studies 45 (1/1973), S. 38–53.

External links

1891 births
1974 deaths
People from Växjö
Members of the Swedish Academy
Nobel laureates in Literature
Writers from Småland
Swedish-language writers
Swedish-language poets
Uppsala University alumni
Swedish Nobel laureates
20th-century Swedish poets
Swedish male novelists
Christian novelists

Pär Lagerkvist