The phrase Investment Bank refers to a business that helps other businesses (and also governments) borrow money from other people and businesses and/or allow businesses to partially or fully sell themselves to other people and businesses. Unlike a regular bank, they do not typically lend their own money or use their own money to purchase part or all of a business, but instead they help to match the business financing need to those other business and personal investors who are seeking to earn money by either lending to the business or owning part of the business.

In the mid twentieth century, certain investment banks started to also try and help their business clients to sell their business entirely to other businesses instead of to investors, as well as to help businesses decide what other business they should buy, in exchange for a fee based on the sale price of the business. This activity became known as Mergers and Acquisitions and today falls into the category of investment banking. In fact, there are many small investment banks that only offer this activity, and do not help businesses to borrow money or sell ownership in the business.

An investment bank most often helps businesses to borrow money using a form of a contract known as a bond, and to sell ownership in the company using a contract known as stock. Most countries have developed government rules that in exchange for requirements that the business operate in a certain manner and disclose their financial results in a certain manner, they are then allowed to borrow money using bonds and sell ownership using stock to the general public, and the general public is allowed to sell bonds and stock to other members of the public without being responsible for the operations and financial disclosures of the business.

Some reasons that a business might choose to borrow money from investors instead of a bank may include the following:

 The potential for lower interest rates
 The potential for an interest rate that is fixed (cannot changed) for a longer time frame than what most banks would normally allow
 Investors might be more willing to lend to a company more at risk at not being able to pay than what a bank would be willing to do

Some reasons that a business owner would agree to use an investment bank to sell part or all of their business to other investors include the following:

 To earn a profit on the amount they initially invested in the business (because there might be a larger number of buyers willing to buy businesses that are publicly traded, the price received for the business might be higher than if the owner sold the business to another individual)
 To raise money that the business can use to further grow
 To raise funds to pay back money that was borrowed for the business that the business owner might not be able to otherwise pay back
Investment Banks therefore work with two kinds of customers, one being the businesses/governments which desire to borrow funds or sell ownership, and the individuals and other businesses who want to earn a profit on their money by lending to or owning other businesses.

Banks

Investment bank


The tilde ( ~ ) can be many things, such as a diacritic. Many languages use tildes. Two of these are Spanish and Portuguese.

In Spanish, the tilde, which is only put over the N ( Ñ ), makes it sound like [ɲ] (like 'ny' in canyon) instead of [n].

The tilde also appears in Portuguese where it is used to nasalise (meaning to sound them through the nose) the vowels "a" (ã) and "o" (õ).

In UNIX operating systems, a tilde represents the user's "home" directory.

The tilde is also used to denote when something is an estimate, such as ~24 meaning approximately 24.

On most QWERTY keyboards, you can type a tilde by holding down the shift key and pressing the "`" (single back quote). This key is in the upper left corner of the keyboard, below the esc (escape) key and to the left of the key that you use to type the number 1 or an exclamation mark (!).

Wikipedia editors sign their comments on Talk pages with four tildes (~~~~).

Alphabetic diacritics

Tilde


Cri-Cri is a fictional talking cricket. The character was created by Francisco Gabilondo Soler and introduced in 1934 on his own musical radio show in Mexico. Cri-Cri is known as el grillito cantor, which is Spanish for "the singing cricket".

The character was created by Gabilondo Soler when he was a child. It became so famous and gave its author such renown, that it became a second name for Gabilondo. In the mid part of the 20th century, he became the most recognizable singer of children's songs in Spanish. Gabilondo's dedication to this segment of the population has been greatly admired, comparable to Walt Disney in his honest approach to making life fun for those who are beginning to live it.

It was made into a movie that was released on 12 December 1963 in Mexico. It was produced by Producciones Carlos Amador.

References

Other websites
 Music files and lyrics in Spanish

Fictional animals

Cri-Cri


Generally the concept of the neighborhood unit, crystallised from the prevailing social and intellectual attitudes of the early 1900s by Clarence Perry, is an early diagrammatic planning model for residential development in metropolitan areas. It was designed by Perry to act as a framework for urban planners attempting to design functional, self-contained and desirable neighbourhoods in the early 20th century in industrialising cities. It continues to be utilised (albeit in progressive and adapted ways, such as in New Urbanism), as a means of ordering and organising new residential communities in a way which satisfies contemporary "social, administrative and service requirements for satisfactory urban existence".

History
Clarence Perry's conceptualisation of the neighbourhood unit evolved out of an earlier idea of his, to provide a planning formula for the arrangement and distribution of playgrounds in the New York region. The necessity for a formula such as this was attributed to the rise of the automobile in the early 20th century. During a period where road sense had not yet amalgamated with the social conscious, and many of the urban tools we now use to manage the threat posed by vehicular traffic did not exist, or were not in abundance (such as pedestrian crossings, traffic lights and road signs), developing cities such as New York, which embraced the motor car, suffered street fatality rates in excess of one child a day.

Perry conceived of neighbourhoods in this time period as islands locked amidst a burgeoning sea of vehicular traffic, a dangerous obstacle which prevented children (and adults) from safely walking to nearby playgrounds and amenities. Perry's neighbourhood unit concept began as a means of combating this obstacle. Ultimately, however, it evolved to serve a much broader purpose, of providing a discernible identity for the concept of the "neighborhood", and of offering to designers a framework for disseminating the city into smaller subareas (suburbs).

While there is evidence that the concept of the neighbourhood unit emerged as early as 1923, at a joint meeting of the National Community Center Association and the American Sociological Society in Washington, D.C., it was the publication of Clarence Perry's paper, in the 1929 Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, which led to its promotion as a planning tool. Titled "The Neighborhood Unit, a Scheme for Arrangement for the Family-Life Community", Clarence Perry's monograph offered in concrete terms a diagrammatic model of the ideal layout for a neighborhood of a specified population size. This model provided specific guidelines for the spatial distribution of residences, community services, streets and businesses.

Perry's concept of the neighbourhood unit employed a variety of institutional, social and physical design principles, influenced by such popular notions in the 1920s as the separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic, and arterial boundaries demarcating the inwardly focused neighbourhood cell from the greater urban lattice. The cellular nature of the neighbourhood unit allowed it to be utilised as a building block in the development of neighbourhood arrays, leading to its systematic modular usage during periods of rapid residential expansion in many countries across the globe.

While Perry's name is most commonly associated with the notion of the neighbourhood unit, the idea of "re-defining and re-planning the city of the basis of neighbourhoods", was not Perry's in isolation.  In a paper on the Neighbourhood Unit, Lewis Mumford considers the neighbourhood as it is organically experienced as well as the various – theoretical and practical - influences that lead to Perry's formalisation of the neighbourhood unit as an urban planning mechanism. Mumford credits Perry as taking:
	"the fact of the neighbourhood; and showing how, through deliberate design, it could be transformed into what he called a neighbourhood unit, the modern equivalent of a medieval quarter or parish: a unit that would now exist, not merely on spontaneous or instinctual basis."

William E. Drummond - a central architect in Frank Lloyd Wright's studio between 1899 and 1909 - defined the 'Neighbourhood Unit' within his submission to the Chicago City Club's planning competition of 1912. The competition wanted to address, "the theoretical and practical parameters, social and physical, of a micro-community in a suburban context with a focus on housing; the second concerned a community centre", calling for proposals for a 'quarter-section' site south of central Chicago. Drummond's plan advocated for the neighbourhood unit to be the organising basis of the whole city; to be 'regarded as a unit in the social and political structure of the city'.

The competition was largely a reaction to the squalid urban living conditions in the early part of the twentieth-century. It was part of the larger progressive and reformist era in American politics. Progressives saw the slums as a consequence of corruption and exploitation which they believed could be overcome through local political activation. Drummond was influenced by notable sociologist Charles Cooley, who he credited and surmised in his submission saying, 'in the social and political organization of the city [the neighbourhood] is the smallest local unit'. These sociological and political foundations are interesting when considered against the various applications and permeations of neighbourhood planning (see Urban Application).

Principles
The neighbourhood unit was conceived of as a comprehensive physical planning tool, to be utilised for designing self-contained residential neighbourhoods which promoted a community centric lifestyle, away from the "noise of the trains, and out of sight of the smoke and ugliness of industrial plants" emblematic of an industrialising New York City in the early 1900s.

The core principles of Perry's Neighbourhood Unit were organised around several physical design ideals:

"Centre the school in the neighbourhood so that a child's walk to school was only about one-quarter of a mile and no more than one half mile and could be achieved without crossing a major arterial street. Size the neighbourhood to sufficiently support a school, between 5,000 and 9,000 residents, approximately 160 acres at a density of ten units per acre. Implement a wider use of the school facilities for neighbourhood meetings and activities, constructing a large play area around the building for use by the entire community.

Place arterial streets along the perimeter so that they define and distinguish the "place" of the neighborhood and by design eliminate unwanted through-traffic from the neighborhood. In this way, major arterials define the neighborhood, rather than divide it through its heart.

Design internal streets using a hierarchy that easily distinguishes local streets from arterial streets, using curvilinear street design for both safety and aesthetic purposes. Streets, by design, would discourage unwanted through traffic and enhance the safety of pedestrians.

Restrict local shopping areas to the perimeter or perhaps to the main entrance of the neighborhood, thus excluding nonlocal traffic destined for these commercial uses that might intrude on the neighborhood.

Dedicate at least 10 percent of the neighborhood land area to parks and open space, creating places for play and community interaction"

The neighbourhood unit was embraced for its community idealism, and many of the public sectors in those countries which were exposed to the theorem have since adopted its purpose; of protecting and promoting the public health and of considering the safety and welfare of citizens. Furthermore, private developers and investors continue to construct and fund planned communities based upon many of the concepts tenets, due to consumer demand for the idealistic community intimacy associated with living with heteronormative homo reciprocans of similar socioeconomic status. These attractive qualities of the concept of the neighbourhood unit are referred to by Allaire, "as reflecting a nostalgia for rural living".

Urban application

The concept of the neighbourhood unit is a notable aspect of designs of the new town movement . The neighbourhood unit seems to have an uneasy relationship to the Garden City Movement of the same period – consider garden suburbs. Raymond Unwin – an architect working for Ebenezer Howard – was an advocate of the neighbourhood unit.

Mumford observes a bidirectional relationship between the neighbourhood unit realtor's residential subdivision model. Clarence Perry in fact resided within Forest Hills Gardens at the time he presented his treatise on neighbourhoods 1923. While spatial elements of 'neighbourhoods' such as Forest Hills Gardens or Westwood Highlands are in keeping with those championed by reformers and progressive planners, these suburbs do not have common ideological origins. Instead realtors playing the role of 'community builder' had quite insidious consequences for ideas about public space, community inclusion and political agency.

The use of deed restrictions by neighbourhood corporations wanting to control undesirable externalities in the early 1900s (and beyond) has been linked to ongoing racial segregation in the United States. The use of the 'neighbourhood unit' in this way emphasises exclusion rather than inclusion as initially intended. Traces of the exclusion remain evident within the streetscape of neighbourhoods such as Forest Hill Gardens with signs delineating the ownership of commonly considered public space. In contemporary Melbourne, Australia, the Owners Corporations Act 2006 enables access restrictions upon facilities generally considered public. Western Leisure Management makes this explicit on their website relating to use of facilities within the 'un-gated' neighbourhoods they manage;
	 "These estates are part of an Owners Corporation and the facilities within are accessible by 	Residents Only and are not open to the general public."

In the Soviet Union, the neighborhood unit schema was being widely criticized and disfavored for its waste of space and "bourgeois in nature" during the Stalin era. However, the idea of Microdistrict, proposed by the Soviet planners in 1950s and had been practiced in several communist countries, was essentially similar to the neighborhood unit schema.

Sociological implications
The concept of the neighbourhood unit historically correspond to activities of American wave of school of urban studies and ecology called Chicago school, operating mostly in the 1920s and 1930s. It is closely linked to activities of Jane Jacobs, American urbanist and humanist in the field of migrant integration and child labour force.

The schema of neighbourhood unit further refers to Charles Horton Cooley´s theory of primary groups and to the concept of neighbourhood as a type of a residential community.

The concept of the neighbourhood unit should have enhanced the feeling of identification with the environment for the incomers, support their spatial integration, foster social cohesion and avoid social pathology, taking the form of alienation and civic indifference.

Criticism

Several major criticisms of neighborhood unit have been mentioned in the planning literature. In the late 1940s the neighbourhood unit concept came under attack from Reginald Isaacs, then Director of Planning for Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago. Isaacs believed that the overwhelming endorsement of the neighbourhood unit, as a "panacea for all urban ills", was misguided; suggesting that the mystical powers ascribed to the concept by its most enthusiastic adherents engendered a dangerously sectarian discourse surrounding its application.

Isaacs's critical commentary of the neighbourhood unit centred on its (mis)use as an instrument for the segregation of racial, ethnic, religious and economic groups by private developers willing to utilise the gated-community aspects of the neighbourhood units physical design for this purpose. Supporting this argument, Isaacs pointed to examples of promotional material for new pre-planned neighbourhoods, as well as excerpts from government planning reports and information provided by social scientists – all championing the neighbourhood unit as a bastion for the gentry, keeping the undesirables, as well as through-traffic, out.

Isaacs's argument became a rallying point for the collective opposition of the neighbourhood unit, as planners began to question the unintended consequences of its repeated use, its socially divisive nature and its emphasis on the physical environment as the sole determinant of wellbeing. In developed countries across the globe, the spread of urban systems which embrace obsolete or impractical uses of space in order to manifest a synthetic 'rural' community lifestyle is increasingly viewed as blight upon attempts to achieve sustainable metropolitan growth.

In the past, Isaacs's argument was weakened through its inability to provide an alternative framework for community planning, in the present, planning bodies internationally, both private and public as of 2009, continue to adapt and make modular use of the neighbourhood unit when planning new communities. It is becoming increasingly difficult however, to mask the problems associated with the continued and ubiquitous use of variations on this model, and urban sprawl is proving to be one such problematic consequence of this usage facing many developed cities. It is becoming increasingly apparent that a rethinking of the current heteronormative approach to planning new communities on the urban fringe, or in the redevelopment of existing neighbourhoods, is required to meet density goals and forge sustainable growth.

References

Metrics
Communities
Neighbourhoods
Urban design
Urban studies and planning terminology

Neighbourhood unit


In music, organ is a word that can mean several kinds of musical instruments. The word comes from the Greek ὄργανον organon, which means "organ", "instrument", or "tool".

Most organs are played using keyboards, one or more of which may be played using the feet. They are found and used in churches, concert halls, and even in theatres, especially older movie theatres or cinemas. A person who plays the organ is called an organist.

Here are some different types of organs:

Pipe organ

Pipe organs are the most common kind of organ, and many people mean this kind of organ when they use the word "organ". They sound different notes when air flows through pipes of different lengths and types. They take up a lot of room, and the noise they make are meant to fill large spaces.

The earliest pipe organs were water organs, which were powered by the flow of water, sometimes from a natural resource or using a pump. Later ones used foot pedals or hand cranks to pump a bellows, which in turn produces the air that goes through the pipes. These kinds of organs are still made today, and are called harmoniums. Today's pipe organs use an electric motor to move air, and some, like those in theaters, play different instruments as well. The Wurlitzer company was well known for making instruments that make different sounds.

Mechanical organ

Mechanical organs have a mechanism that controls which notes are played and when they are played. One type of mechanical organ is the barrel organ, which usually get their music printed on cardboard sheets, although some use piano rolls or a barrel similar to that of a carillon or music box.

Mechanical organs can be all shapes and sizes. The smaller barrel organs are often heard on streets in Europe and is a common way of getting money from people who pass by. These types are sometimes called hurdy gurdies, but this is not true. Larger barrel organs can be found on fairgrounds and are loud so that they can be heard above all the other noise at a fair. Meanwhile, smaller barrel organs can be found indoors, and play songs when someone puts in a coin, similar to a slot machine. Some clocks have barrel organ mechanisms that play music at certain times, such as every hour.

Electronic organ

The electronic organ is one of the newest types of organ. They use electronics to simulate the sound of a pipe organ and many other instruments. Because of this, they do not need to be very big and many are no bigger than a piano so that they can fit in homes, schools, or can be moved around as needed. They also do not go out of tune because they hold all their sounds on computerized chips. Many organists think they do not feel as good to play as a traditional, mechanical pipe organ.

There are electronic organs that look and sound like those played in churches, and even many churches use electronic organs when they do not have the money or space for a full pipe organ. The best-known electronic organs include the Hammond organ heard in jazz, and other organs, like those made by the Japanese company Yamaha, are in fact synthesizers that can sound like a whole orchestra playing together. These types of organs are often used for music education, especially in Asia.

References

Keyboard instruments

Organ (music)


The patella (: patellae or patellas), also known as the kneecap, is a flat, rounded triangular bone which articulates with the femur (thigh bone) and covers and protects the anterior articular surface of the knee joint. The patella is found in many tetrapods, such as mice, cats, birds and dogs, but not in whales, or most reptiles.

In humans, the patella is the largest sesamoid bone (i.e., embedded within a tendon or a muscle) in the body. Babies are born with a patella of soft cartilage which begins to ossify into bone at about four years of age.

Structure
The patella is a sesamoid bone roughly triangular in shape, with the apex of the patella facing downwards. The apex is the most inferior (lowest) part of the patella. It is pointed in shape, and gives attachment to the patellar ligament.

The front and back surfaces are joined by a thin margin and towards centre by a thicker margin. The tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle attaches to the base of the patella., with the vastus intermedius muscle attaching to the base itself, and the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis are attached to outer lateral and medial borders of patella respectively.

The upper third of the front of the patella is coarse, flattened, and rough, and serves for the attachment of the tendon of the quadriceps and often has exostoses. The middle third has numerous vascular canaliculi. The lower third culminates in the apex which serves as the origin of the patellar ligament. The posterior surface is divided into two parts.

The upper three-quarters of the patella articulates with the femur and is subdivided into a medial and a lateral facet by a vertical ledge which varies in shape.

In the adult the articular surface is about  and covered by cartilage, which can reach a maximal thickness of  in the centre at about 30 years of age. Owing to the great stress on the patellofemoral joint during resisted knee flexion, the articular cartilage of the patella is among the thickest in the human body.

The lower part of the posterior surface has vascular canaliculi filled and is filled by fatty tissue, the infrapatellar fat pad.

Variation

Emarginations (i.e. patella emarginata, a "missing piece") are common laterally on the proximal edge. Bipartite patellas are the result of an ossification of a second cartilaginous layer at the location of an emargination.  Previously, bipartite patellas were explained as the failure of several ossification centres to fuse, but this idea has been rejected. Partite patellas occur almost exclusively in men.  Tripartite and even multipartite patellas occur.

The upper three-quarters of the patella articulates with the femur and is subdivided into a medial and a lateral facet by a vertical ledge which varies in shape.  Four main types of articular surface can be distinguished:
 Most commonly the medial articular surface is smaller than the lateral.
 Sometimes both articular surfaces are virtually equal in size.
 Occasionally, the medial surface is hypoplastic or
 the central ledge is only indicated.

Development
In the patella an ossification centre develops at the age of 3–6 years. The patella originates from two centres of ossification which unite when fully formed.

Function
The primary functional role of the patella is knee extension. The patella increases the leverage that the quadriceps tendon can exert on the femur by increasing the angle at which it acts.

The patella is attached to the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle, which contracts to extend/straighten the knee. The patella is stabilized by the insertion of the horizontal fibres of vastus medialis and by the prominence of the lateral femoral condyle, which discourages lateral dislocation during flexion. The retinacular fibres of the patella also stabilize it during exercise.

Clinical significance

Dislocation

Patellar dislocations occur with significant regularity, particularly in young female athletes. It involves the patella sliding out of its position on the knee, most often laterally, and may be associated with extremely intense pain and swelling. The patella can be tracked back into the groove with an extension of the knee, and therefore sometimes returns into the proper position on its own.

Vertical alignment

A patella alta is a high-riding (superiorly aligned) patella. An attenuated patella alta is an unusually small patella that develops out of and above the joint.

A patella baja is a low-riding patella. A long-standing patella baja may result in extensor dysfunction.

The Insall-Salvati ratio helps to indicate patella baja on lateral X-rays, and is calculated as the patellar tendon length divided by the patellar bone length. An Insall-Salvati ratio of < 0.8 indicates patella baja.

Fracture

The kneecap is prone to injury because of its particularly exposed location, and fractures of the patella commonly occur as a consequence of direct trauma onto the knee. These fractures usually cause swelling and pain in the region, bleeding into the joint (hemarthrosis), and an inability to extend the knee. Patella fractures are usually treated with surgery, unless the damage is minimal and the extensor mechanism is intact.

Exostosis
An exostosis is the formation of new bone onto a bone, as a result of excess calcium formation. This can be the cause of chronic pain when formed on the patella.

In animals
The patella is found in placental mammals and birds; most marsupials have only rudimentary, non-ossified patellae although a few species possess a bony patella. A patella is also present in the living monotremes, the platypus and the echidna. In other tetrapods, including living amphibians and most reptiles (except some Lepidosaurs), the muscle tendons from the upper leg are attached directly to the tibia, and a patella is not present. In 2017 it was discovered that frogs have kneecaps, contrary to what was thought. This raises the possibility that the kneecap arose 350 million years ago when tetrapods first appeared, but that it disappeared in some animals.

Etymology
The word patella originated in the late 17th century from the diminutive form of Latin  or  or paten, meaning shallow dish.

See also

 Patellar reflex
 Knee pain
 Osteoarthritis
 Lateral retinaculum
 Lateral release

References

External links

Knee
Sesamoid bones
Bones of the lower limb

Patella


Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller (12 Julie, 1895 - 1 Julie, 1983) wis an American visionary, designer, architect, an inventor. He wis a professor at Southern Illinois Varsity forbye an an eydent writer.

Major design projects
Fuller wis best kent for his geodesic domes, that can be seen as pairt o military radar stances, ceivic biggins, an exhibeetion attractions. Their construction is foondit on extendin some basic preenciples ti big semple tensegrity structurs (tetrahedron, octahedron, an the closest packin o speres). Biggit in this gate thay are unco lichtwecht an stable. The patent for geodesic domes wis awairdit in 1954, pairt o Fuller's decades-lang ettles til splore naiture's princeeples o biggin for ti finnd design solutions.

1895 births
1983 daiths
American airchitects
American airchitectur writers
American industrial designers
American inventors
Geodesic domes
American militar personnel o Warld War I
American non-feection environmental writers
American technology writers
Bates College alumni

Harvard Varsity alumni
Futurologists
Presidential Medal o Freedom recipients
Modrenist airchitects
The Hunger Project
Milton Academy alumni
Fowk frae Penobscot Coonty, Maine
Solar biggin designers
Heich-tech airchitectur
Modrenist airchitectur
Organic airchitectur
Sustainability advocates
Seestems scientists
Washington Varsity in St. Louis faculty
American Unitarians
Whole Yird
Fowk frae Milton, Massachusetts
Soothren Illinois Varsity Carbondale faculty
Recipients o the Ryal Gowd Medal
Black Mountain College faculty
Fellaes o the American Academy o Airts an Sciences
Buirials at Mount Auburn Seemetry
Mensans

Buckminster Fuller


Higashi-Nagasaki Station is the railway station of the Seibu-Ikebukuro line in Toshima Ward, Tokyo, Japan.
The station is near the "Ikebukuro" station that is center of Tokyo. Only local train stops this station. Limited express, rapid express, semi express and rapid train pass this station. The next station of this station to east is "Shinamachi". The next station of this station to west is "Ekoda".

The area near the Higashi-nagasaki station is named "Nagasaki", but Nagasaki and Nagasaki Prefecture in Kyushu are not related. "Nagasaki" in Toshima Ward is located in east Japan. So this station's name have "Higashi"(means "east") to distinguish between this station and Nagasaki station in Kyushu.

Railway stations in Tokyo

Higashi-Nagasaki Station


Capitol Hill is the largest historic residential neighborhood in Washington D.C.. The neighborhood covers an area east of the United States Capitol along wide avenues. It is one of the oldest residential communities in Washington. Its two square miles house 35,000 people, so it is one of the most densely populated neighborhoods. The phrase "Capitol Hill" can sometime mean the United States Congress instead of the neighborhood.

Capitol Hill is also a hill as well as a neighborhood. The hill rises in the center of the District of Columbia and extends eastward. Pierre L'Enfant, as he began to develop his plan for the new Federal City in 1791, chose to locate the "Congress House" on the crest of the hill, facing the city, a site that L'Enfant characterized as a "pedestal waiting for a monument."

A large portion of the neighborhood is now designated as the Capitol Hill historic district. The name Capitol Hill is often used to refer to both the historic district and to the larger neighborhood around it. To the east of Capitol Hill lies the Anacostia River, to the north is the H Street corridor, to the south are the Southeast/Southwest Freeway and the Washington Navy Yard, and to the west are the National Mall and the city's central business district.

History
L'Enfant referred to the hill chosen as the site of the future Congress House as "Jenkins Hill" or "Jenkins Heights." However, the tract of land had for many years belonged to the Carroll family and was noted in their records of ownership as "New Troy." Some people have said that a man named Jenkins had once pastured some livestock at the site of the Capitol (and thus his name was associated with the site), artist John Trumbull, who would paint several murals inside the Capitol's rotunda, reported in 1791 that the site was covered with a thick wood, making it an unlikely place for livestock to graze. Noone knows who Jenkins was and how his name became associated with the hill, as reported by L'Enfant.

The neighborhood that is now called Capitol Hill started to develop when the government began work at two locations, the Capitol and the Washington Navy Yard. It became a distinct community between 1799 and 1810 as the federal government became a major employer. The first stage in its early history was that of a boarding house community developed for members of Congress. In the early years of the Republic, few Congressmen wished to establish permanent residence in the city. Instead, most preferred to live in boarding houses within walking distance of the Capitol.

In 1799 the Washington Navy Yard was established on the banks of the Anacostia River, and provided jobs to craftsmen who built and repaired ships. Many of the craftsmen who were employed both at the Navy Yard and in the construction of the Capitol chose to live within walking distance, to the east of the Capitol and the north of the Navy Yard. They became the original residential population of the neighborhood. In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson selected the location of the Marine Barracks, which had to be within marching distance of both the Capitol and the White House, not far from the Washington Navy Yard. By 1810, shops, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, and churches were flourishing in the area.

The Civil War resulted in more building in the Capitol Hill area, including new hospitals. Building new houses continued in the 1870s and 1880s. The neighborhood began to divide along racial and economic class lines.

Electricity, piped water, and plumbing were introduced in the 1890s, and were first available in the downtown areas of the District of Columbia, including Capitol Hill. There was a real estate development boom between 1890 and 1910 as the Capitol Hill area became one of the first neighborhoods having these modern conveniences.

In 1976, the National Park Service added the Capitol Hill Historic District to the National Register of Historic Places. It is one of the largest historic districts in the United States. The boundaries of the historic district are irregular, extending southward from F Street NE, as far east as 14th Street, as far west as South Capitol Street, and with a southern limit marked chiefly by Virginia Avenue but including some territory as far south as M Street SE. It includes buildings from the Federal period (1800 to 1820) through 1919, but most of the buildings are late Victorian.

Capitol Hill has remained a fairly stable middle-class neighborhood throughout its existence. It suffered a period of economic decline and rising crime in the mid-20th century but gradually recovered. During the so-called "Crack Epidemic" of the 1980s, its fringes were often affected. More recently, the neighborhood has undergone intense gentrification.

Description
Capitol Hill's landmarks include not only the United States Capitol, but also the Senate and House office buildings, the Supreme Court building, the Library of Congress, the Marine Barracks, the Washington Navy Yard, and Congressional Cemetery.

It is, however, largely a residential neighborhood composed predominantly of rowhouses of different stylistic varieties and periods. Side by side exist early 19th century manor houses, Federal townhouses, small frame dwellings, ornate Italianate bracketed houses and the late 19th century press brick rowhouses with their often whimsical decorative elements combining Richardsonian Romanesque, Queen Anne, and Eastlakian motifs.

The main shopping corridor of Capitol Hill is Pennsylvania Avenue. It has shops, restaurants and bars. Eastern Market is an 1873 public market on 7th Street SE, where vendors sell fresh meat and produce in indoor stalls and at outdoor farmers' stands. It is also the site of an outdoor flea market every weekend. After a major fire gutted the main market building on April 30, 2007, it underwent restoration and reopened on June 26, 2009.

Barracks Row (8th Street SE), so called because of its proximity to the U.S. Marine Barracks, is one of the city's oldest commercial corridors. It dates to the late 18th century and has recently been revitalized.

More recently, the Old Naval Hospital has been converted into Hill Center, a new community center. It is at the corner of 9th and Pennsylvania Avenue SE. The rehabilitation of the Old Naval Hospital combines the restoration of a historically significant landmark with the cutting edge technologies of modern "green" architecture. Hill Center is a vibrant new home for cultural, educational and civic life on Capitol Hill.

Recent estimates in Capitol Hill newspapers suggest as many as a third of all Members of Congress live on Capitol Hill while in Washington.

Famous people who were born in the Capitol Hill neighborhood include John Philip Sousa (whose birthplace, on G St., is still standing) and J. Edgar Hoover. Frederick Douglass's former house can be found in the 300 block of A Street Northeast. (In the 1970s the Douglass house was later used as an African Art Museum by Warren M. Robbins).
Capitol Hill has several local community newspapers, such as the Hill Rag. The Voice of the Hill closed in May 2010.

References

Other websites
 Capitol Hill Historic District
 Capitol Hill at Cultural Tourism DC
 Capitol Hill Restoration Society
 Friends of the Old Naval Hospital

Neighborhoods in Washington, D.C.

Capitol Hill


Carbonation is the process of carbon dioxide dissolving in a liquid. For example, carbon dioxide is added to flavored water under pressure to make it "fizz" as a carbonated water soft drink.

Geology
When rain passes through the atmosphere, it takes in or mixes with carbon dioxide, turning it into a weak carbonic acid.  When the rain falls in limestone, it dissolves the calcium carbonate in the rock, turning it into calcium bicarbonate and taking it away.  Holes and large cracks can form in the rock.  Such a place is called karst.  If a stream or river passes through it, it could be swallowed up by a hole called a swallow hole.  It  can go through a series of underground caves and may appear on the surface again.  An example of a karst area is the Burren National Park, in County Clare, Ireland.

Chemistry

Carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas. The process of carbon dioxide bubbling out (effervescing) from a solution is represented by the following chemical reaction. This shows aqueous carbonic acid converts to carbon dioxide and water:

Biochemistry

Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds. Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. This carbonation process is so important that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme.

References

Matter
Physics
Geochemistry

Carbonation


Hydrogen peroxide is a chemical compound. Its molecular formula is H2O2. It is used as a cleaner, and as hair bleach. In a concentration of 3% (meaning that there are 3 grams of hydrogen peroxide for 100 grams of a water solution), it can be used to treat wounds. Over time it will slowly become oxygen gas and water through decomposition.

Chemists often use hydrogen peroxide in chemical reactions. It is a very strong oxidising agent when used with acid and water. Oxidising agents take electrons from other compounds.

2 Fe2+(aq) + H2O2 + 2 H+(aq) → 2 Fe3+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Here hydrogen peroxide takes an electron from the Fe2+ ions and becomes water.

It can also be a reducing agent when used with other compounds. When it acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced. Reducing agents give electrons to other compounds. This method is often used to make oxygen in laboratories.

NaOCl + H2O2 → O2 + NaCl + H2O

Hydrogen peroxide can be bought in shops when mixed with lots of water but is very dangerous when the concentration is higher. It is flammable and causes burns.

Oxygen compounds
Hydrogen compounds

Hydrogen peroxide


The Penguin English Dictionary is a one-volume English-language dictionary published by Penguin Books.  It is their flagship dictionary with over 70,000 entries, first published in 2000.

The Penguin English Dictionary is currently in its third edition, and its chief editor is Robert Allen.  The specialist contributors and advisers involve writers for books, newspapers, magazines etc.

The dictionary is also variously known as The New Penguin English Dictionary (1st edition) or The Penguin Complete English Dictionary.  The second edition was published in 2003 and the third in late 2007.

English dictionaries

Penguin English Dictionary


A crocodile is a large amphibious reptile. It lives mostly in large tropical rivers, where it is an ambush predator.

The Crocodylia is an order of mostly large, predatory, semiaquatic reptiles. Their ancestors, the clade Pseudosuchia, appeared about 250 million years ago in the early Triassic period.

Crocodiles as we know them first appeared 94 million years ago in the Upper Cretaceous period. They are the closest living relatives of birds: the two groups are the only survivors of the Archosauria.

One species, the Australian saltie, travels in coastal salt water as well as rivers. In very dry climates, crocodiles may aestivate and sleep out the dry season.

They are basically Archosaurs, a group which also includes the dinosaurs. There are various species of crocodiles including the American, slender-snouted and Orinoco crocodile.

The crocodile can quickly snap its jaw shut with much power. However, crocodiles have little strength when opening their jaws, such that a person can hold the jaw shut with their hands.

Present-day crocodiles range in size from African dwarf crocodiles that measure rarely over 5 feet (1.5 m) to saltwater crocodiles which can approach 23 feet (7 m).

Description
Crocodiles live in rivers, lakes and dams in parts of America, Asia, Africa and Australia. Some of the crocodiles from Australia live in salt water. These saltwater crocodiles are normally bigger than the ones that live in fresh water. While crocodiles spend most of their time in water, they can come out and move around on the land.

Crocodiles cannot breathe underwater: they breathe air. This is usual for land animals which take to the water later in their evolution. Whales, turtles, ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs are good examples of this.

When they are not active, crocodiles can hold their breath for about two hours underwater before drowning. Normally, when underwater, they are active and can hold their breath for a maximum of 20 minutes to one hour.

Behavior

Feeding
Crocodiles in East Africa take their chances when herds migrate in search of food. To make their annual journey up the East coast, herbivores have to cross rivers.

The crocodile looks like it is a log, and hides beneath the surface of the water. When an animal comes down to the water to drink, the crocodile lunges out of the water, grabs the animal in its jaws, and pulls it underwater, where it drowns. The crocodile grab a piece of meat in its jaws and tears it off with a spin-around.

Adult crocodiles can go long periods without eating. When crocodiles are very young, they mainly eat insects, crustaceans, snails, small fish, frogs and tadpoles.

Reproduction
Reproduction is different in several ways from other reptiles.
First of all, their sex at birth depends on their temperature, not upon sex chromosomes (which they do not have). Eggs are laid in mounds near the water in sand or mud. They are guarded by the female, though she does have to go into the river to eat. The females are unusual for reptiles in that they continue to guard and protect the babies once they are born and in the river. They have a very distinctive behaviour when in the river: if the mother opens her mouth they swim back into it. When danger passes, she opens her mouth, and they swim out. Protection of the babies is one possible explanation of how the crocodiles have been able to survive. Much of this applies to alligators as well.

What they look like

Their colors range from brown to grey or greenish-brown. Crocodile tongues are not free. They are held in place by a membrane that can not move. Crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.

Alligators and crocodiles
Although there is not much difference in their life-style, biologists put alligators in a separate family. Gharials are also in a separate family, and Caimans are a sub-family of alligators.

An obvious difference between an alligator and a crocodile is that one can not see the fourth tooth in the lower jaw of an alligator when the alligator's mouth is closed. The fourth tooth in the lower jaw of a crocodile sticks out when its mouth is closed.

Ancient crocodiles
Some ancient crocodiles walked on two legs like dinosaurs.  The scientists found preserved footprints in South Korea.  They found hind foot prints but no front foot prints or marks from a tail dragging behind.

They were able to tell that these ancient crocodiles walked on their hind legs with their front legs and tails off the ground.  They used the whole foot, the way a human or bear does, not just the toes, the way a dinosaur, bird or dog does.

Crocodylomorpha
Crocodylomorpha is a group of pseudosuchian archosaurs which includes the crocodilians and their extinct relatives. They were the only members of Pseudosuchia to survive the end-Triassic extinction.

During Mesozoic and early Cenozoic times, crocodylomorphs were far more diverse than they are now. Triassic forms were small, lightly built, active terrestrial animals.  These were a mixed group of small-bodied forms with long limbs that walked upright. This was the ancestral form of the Crocodylomorphs. These forms persisted until the end of the Jurassic.

Largest crocodile
There are several examples of present-day crocodiles reaching 6 m (20 ft) in length and weighing 1,200 kg (2,600 lb).

The diagram left shows that the largest crocodyliforms were about 30 feet long.

Species
The order Crocodilia has 27 living species in nine genera. This does not include hybrid species or extinct prehistoric species. Modern molecular studies indicate that the nine genera can be grouped into three families.

Family Alligatoridae (Alligators and caimans)
Genus Alligator: two species
Genus Caiman: three species
Genus Melanosuchus: one species
Genus Paleosuchus: two species
Family Crocodylidae ("True" crocodiles)
Genus Crocodylus: fourteen species
Genus Mecistops: two species
Genus Osteolaemus: one species
Family Gavialidae (Gharial and false gharial)
Genus Gavialis: one species
Genus Tomistoma: one species

References

Other websites

 Crocodile (Wikiversity)
 Saltwater crocodiles in freedom: Authentic pictures and descriptions
 Supersize Crocs - an interactive guide to crocodiles from PBS
 Man shares bungalow with crocodile BBC News.
 Crocodile -Citizendium

Crocodilia
Living fossils
Reptiles

Crocodile


In computer science, synchronization refers to one of two different but related concepts: synchronization of processes, and synchronization of data.

 Process synchronization refers to the idea that multiple processes are to link or handshake at a certain point, so as to reach an agreement or commit to a certain sequence of action.
 Data synchronization refers to the idea of keeping multiple copies of a dataset in coherence (in-constancy) with one another, or to maintain data integrity.

Process synchronization is commonly used to implement Data synchronization.

Other websites
 Anatomy of Linux synchronization methods at IBM developerWorks

Computer science

Synchronization (computer science)


West is one of the 4 main directions on a compass. West is normally to the left on most maps. For example: (Germany is located to the west of Poland, which is itself located to the west of Lithuania). When "The West" is used in everyday speech: it usually refers to the nations of Europe (Especially from Croatia Westward) and its daughter states in the Americas and Australasia. The sun and moon also set in the west.

Basic English 850 words
Compass directions

West


Robert Chapatte (14 October 1921 – 19 January 1997) was a French cyclist and sports journalist, voice of the Tour de France on television and radio and the inventor of Chapatte's Law.

Racing career
Chapatte started cycling at the Vélodrome d'Hiver in Paris, where he became popular with the crowd in madison races. In 1944, he won the amateur team pursuit championship with Roger Riol, Jean Guegen and André Chassang. He was a professional for 11 seasons, from 1944 to 1954. He rode the Tour de France from 1948 to 1952, finishing 16th in 1949. He won the Circuit des Pyrénées in 1949 and the Grand Prix d'Espéraza in 1952. In 1949, riding for France in the Tour de France, he was the first rider to answer a live question on French television.

Journalism
On retirement from cycling, he became a sports writer for L'Aurore and another daily paper, Le Provençal.

In 1955, he provided the commentary for the Tour de l'Ouest on Radio Monte Carlo. A technical error during the race led to his voice going out on a rival network. Engineers switched his commentary to the state channel, ORTF, and that of George Briquet to Radio Monte Carlo. The incident forged a friendship between the two men and Briquet was able to bring Chapatte to ORTF. He stayed there until 1959 and then moved to television. There he stayed until 1968, when he became one of many taken off the air in the shake-up that hit state television after the student riots and other political protests across France in May that year. He returned to radio, working for Europe 1.

Chapatte wrote from the end of his racing career for the sports magazine Miroir Sprint, particularly for its Tour de France issue. In January 1961 he joined the staff of a new monthly, Miroir du Cyclisme, writing "Robert Chapatte's Notebook", but his name vanished from the editorial committee in autumn 1962.

In 1975 he returned to television as head of sport at Antenne 2. He created the sports analysis programme, Stade 2, which is still broadcast on Antenne 2's successor, France 2. He presented the programme from 1975 to 1985, then became consultant commentator on the Tour de France with a man who eventually followed him as head of sport, Patrick Chêne.

Chapatte's Law
Chapatte's Law was a calculation drawn from his experience as a rider and commentator. It held that it took a group of chasing riders  to make a one-minute gain on a lone rider. A sole breakaway with more than a minute for each remaining  was therefore likely to win the race. The law is still frequently cited in television and radio commentaries and still holds largely true.

Chapatte held that the minute was precise. Anything less and the break would fail, as when Bjarne Riis was caught a few hundred metres before the line when he held 56 seconds rather than a minute on the Gap stage of the 1993 Tour de France.

Chapatte insisted too that a lone rider with a minute's lead had more chance than a group with a larger lead. While a lone rider would ride hard to the end, a group will ease up to gather breath for the sprint and to watch each other for surprise attacks.

The law has suffered in modern times by committed chases organised by teams to get their sprinters to the front. Chapatte's minute is more likely now to be 90 seconds.

Death
Chapatte covered his last Tour de France in July 1994, abandoning the race in the Pyrenees when he fell ill. "I fell asleep in Lourdes and I woke up in hospital in Paris," he said.

Chapatte fell ill again in 1997. His last appearance in public was to attend the funeral of another veteran cycling journalist, Pierre Chany. Chapatte died in the Pitié-Salpêtrière in Paris at 74. He is buried in the cimetière ancien at Neuilly-sur-Seine.

Chapatte was awarded the Légion d'Honneur.

Teams
1945 Génial-Lucifer-Hutchinson
1946 Génial-Lucifer
1947-1949 Mercier-Magne
1950 Olympia-Dunlop
1951 Helyett-Hutchinson
1952 Vanoli
1953-1954 Rochet-Dunlop

References

1921 births
1997 deaths
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Cycling journalists
French television journalists
Tour de France journalists
French male cyclists
Cycling announcers
Cycle racing in France
Sportspeople from Neuilly-sur-Seine
Cyclists from Île-de-France

Robert Chapatte


Fish mortality is a parameter used in fisheries population dynamics to account for the loss of fish in a fish stock through death. The mortality can be divided into two types:

 Natural mortality: the removal of fish from the stock due to causes not associated with fishing. Such causes can include disease, competition, cannibalism, old age, predation, pollution or any other natural factor that causes the death of fish. In fisheries models natural mortality is denoted by (M).
 Fishing mortality: the removal of fish from the stock due to fishing activities using any fishing gear. It is denoted by (F) in fisheries models.

(M) and (F) are additive instantaneous rates that sum up to (Z), the instantaneous total mortality coefficient; that is, Z=M+F. These rates are usually calculated on an annual basis. Estimates of fish mortality rates are often included in mathematical yield models to predict yield levels obtained under various exploitation scenarios. These are used as resource management indices or in bioeconomic studies of fisheries.

Estimating mortality

Natural
Estimating natural mortality (M) is one of the most difficult and critical elements of a stock assessment (Hewitt et al. 2007).
There are two basic approaches used to estimate natural mortality: tagging studies and growth parameters.
Tagging studies are used in the Brownie Model, where multiyear tagging studies are used to estimate natural mortality based on recaptures:
fi = ri(1 – Si)

The Paulys Model (using growth parameters) is an indirect way of estimating natural mortality. It assumes that there is a relationship between size and natural mortality. Pauly's original method was based on the correlation of M with von Bertalanffy growth parameters (K and L∞) and temperature (Gunderson 2002):
N0 = N 1*e(-Z*∆t)

In the Hoenigs method, M was inversely correlated with longevity across a wide variety of taxa (Hewitt and Hoenig 2005):
Ln(M) = 1.44-0.982*ln(tmax)

Fishing
Fishing mortality (F) can be estimated by dividing the catch by the mean stock size. The catch includes annual commercial and recreational landings, along with dead discards. Bycatch discards would be estimated by estimating the percent of fish that are captured in a certain gear and the mortality associated with being captured in this gear. These mortality studies are generally done by using cages for a certain period of time following capture to determine the percentage of fish that die during being held in holding cages. These deaths are assumed to be associated with physical injury or physiological stress from being captured in the gear used during capture.

Why estimating mortality is important

Mortality estimates are important to managers. Determining mortality rates are critical for determining abundance of fish populations. Using the model Z=M+F with M being Natural mortality and F being Fishing mortality (combined mortality from landings plus discard mortality) you can estimate the trend of a population. The mortality rates give you the total deaths of a population when you compare these to the total births or recruits to the population, you can determine if a population is increasing or decreasing. Knowing these rates can help managers to set harvest limits to (MSY) maximum sustainable yield or (OSY) optimum sustainable yield to give the maximum benefit to the stakeholders of the resource.

See also
 Mortality rate
 Population dynamics of fisheries
 Fish kill

References

Fisheries science

Fish mortality


A falsetto voice is a special way of speaking or singing. If a man tries to imitate a woman's voice he does it by speaking in a falsetto voice. When a man sings with a falsetto voice it sounds high like a soprano. Actors do this sometimes, e.g. Robin Williams in the film Mrs Doubtfire or Kevin Clash when voicing the character Elmo in Sesame Street and Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees, with his R&B falsetto. Also, Kellin Quinn from the band sleeping With Sirens uses falsetto sometimes.

Women can also use falsetto, but when they do there is not as big of a change in sound from their normal voices as there is in men. When women use falsetto the voice sounds lighter or weaker than it does when they speak or sing normally.

It is like stretching the mouth out into a wide smile and saying 'ee', except it is sung.

Processes and uses of falsetto
When people speak or sing, their vocal cords vibrate.  When a man sings falsetto only the edges of his vocal cords vibrate.  These produce harmonics.  It is similar to playing harmonics on a string instrument by lightly touching the string at a certain point so that only part of the string vibrates.  When a man sings falsetto his vocal range is usually one octave higher than his normal singing voice. When people sing in falsetto, their voice can be breathy sometimes.

Falsetto singing was used in the days when women were not allowed to sing in churches.  Instead, men sang countertenor.  Later the popularity of the countertenor disappeared, but in the mid 20th century it became popular again for performing Renaissance and Baroque music. Today the tradition of men singing alto (with countertenor voices) still exists in Britain in cathedral choirs and some church choirs which are all-male choirs.  It is not a big, operatic voice, and it blends in well with boys' treble voices in the acoustic of churches and cathedrals.

Occasionally falsetto can be used for comic effect, as in the roasted swan in the Carmina Burana by Carl Orff.

Other websites
 Definition of falsetto  at Virginia Tech's website

Vocal ranges

Falsetto


Anglo-Saxon England is the history of England from the 5th to 11th centuries.

The Anglo-Saxons were people from Germanic tribes. They first came as migrants to southern Britain from central Europe. Anglo-Saxon history begins after the end of Roman control.

In the 5th and 6th centuries there were seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex.

Anglo-Saxon Christianity arrived in the 7th century. Viking invasions and Danish settlers started in the 8th century. The gradual unification of England under Wessex hegemony occurred during the 9th and 10th centuries.

Anglo-Saxon England ended with the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.
Anglo-Saxon identity survived beyond the Norman Conquest, and slowly developed into the modern English people.

References

History of England

Anglo-Saxon England


The Royal Commission on the Constitution, also referred to as the Kilbrandon Commission (initially the Crowther Commission) or Kilbrandon Report, was a long-running royal commission set up by Harold Wilson's Labour government to examine the structures of the constitution of the United Kingdom and the British Islands and the government of its constituent countries, and to consider whether any changes should be made to those structures. It was started under Lord Crowther on 15 April 1969, Lord Kilbrandon took over in 1972, and it finally reported on 31 October 1973.

Various models of devolution, federalism and confederalism were considered, as well as the prospect of the division of the UK into separate sovereign states. Northern Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man were dealt with separately from the core issue of Scotland and Wales.

A total of 16 volumes of evidence and 10 research papers were published between 1969 and 1973. The final report was delivered to Edward Heath's Conservative Government, which had come to power at the general election in June 1970. The report rejected the options of independence or federalism, in favour of devolved, directly elected Scottish and Welsh assemblies. Two members of the commission, Lord Crowther-Hunt and Professor Alan Peacock, did not sign the report, disagreeing with the interpretation of the terms of reference and the conclusions. Their views were published in a separate Memorandum of Dissent.

Background
The royal commission was set up in response to growing demands for home rule or full independence for Wales and Scotland, which came into public focus after the ground-breaking by-election wins of Plaid Cymru's Gwynfor Evans at the 1966 Carmarthen by-election, and the Scottish National Party's Winnie Ewing in Hamilton in 1967.

Terms of reference
The commission's terms of reference were:
 To examine the present functions of the present legislature and government in relation to the several countries, nations and regions of the United Kingdom;
 To consider, having regard to changes in local government organisation and in the administrative and other relationships between the various parts of the United Kingdom, and to the interests of the prosperity and good government and our people under the Crown, whether any changes are desirable in those functions or otherwise in present constitutional and economic relationships;
 To consider also whether any changes are desirable in the constitutional and economic relationships between the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.

Membership
Chairmen:
 Lord Crowther (1969 until his death in February 1972)
 Lord Kilbrandon (from February 1972).

Members:

Proposals
The commission was unable to reach unanimous agreement, with the final report including a number of options supported by different members. Two commissioners did not sign the report, producing instead a memorandum of dissent.

Scotland

Eight members favoured a devolved legislature for Scotland. Executive power would be exercised by ministers appointed by the Crown from members of a directly elected assembly. Areas of responsibility to be transferred to the devolved body would be some of those already under the supervision of the Secretary of State for Scotland and the Lord Advocate. These included:
Education
The environment
Health
Home affairs
Legal matters
Social services

Responsibility for agriculture, fisheries and food would be divided between the Assembly and the United Kingdom government, while the latter would retain control of electricity supply.

With the establishment of the devolved government, it was proposed that the number of MPs elected to Westminster from Scottish constituencies would be reduced from 71 to about 51.

The assembly was to be a single chamber body of about 100 members, elected under the single transferable vote system of proportional representation, with multi-member constituencies. The Commission did not propose to give the assembly a name, feeling this was a matter for the Scottish people, although the term "convention" had been suggested. The determination of the number of seats and boundaries was to be reserved to the United Kingdom parliament.

The new constitutional arrangements would not require the appointment of a governor, while the title "Scottish Premier" was suggested for the head of the executive.

The office of Secretary of State for Scotland would be abolished, although a cabinet minister would continue to have special responsibility in representing Scotland as well as having other duties.

Wales
Six commissioners favoured legislative devolution for Wales. This would be similar to the scheme envisaged for Scotland, but with less responsibility in legal affairs, reflecting that Scotland had a discrete legal system separate from England and Wales.

As in Scotland, a 100-member unicameral assembly was proposed, elected by proportional representation. A title suggested to the commission for the body was "Senate". Similarly, the head of the executive might be titled "Welsh Premier", and the office of Secretary of State for Wales would be abolished. The number of Westminster MPs elected by Welsh constituencies would be reduced from 36 to about 31.

England
The signatories to the main report were unanimous in their opposition of legislative devolution to England as a whole, or to any English region. There were however proposals for some powers being devolved to regional level:
Eight members supported the idea of non-executive co-ordinating and advisory councils to make representations and give advice to central government on government policy affecting the regions. Each council was to have about 60 members, the majority elected by local authorities in the region with about 20% nominated by the minister responsible for regional affairs to represent industry, agriculture, commerce, trade unions, and statutory promotional bodies in the region.
Two members favoured the establishment of regional assemblies with executive powers, elected in a similar manner to those in Scotland and Wales.

In each case the regions to be used were to be those already established for economic planning, with boundaries adjusted to reflect the changes made by the Local Government Act 1972, although names were not suggested:
Cleveland, Cumbria, Durham, Northumberland, Tyne and Wear
Humberside, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire
Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Merseyside, Lancashire
Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire
Hereford and Worcester, Salop, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands
Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk
Avon, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Wiltshire
Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Essex, Greater London, Hampshire, Hertfordshire, Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey, West Sussex

Cornwall
The Commission recognised that "a very small minority" in Cornwall existed that claimed a separate national identity for the Cornish people, and who wished to have separate arrangements for their government. They however felt that "despite its individual character and strong sense of regional identity, there is no evidence that its people have a wish to see it separated for the purposes of government from the rest of England". However they recognised that "the people of Cornwall regard their part of the United Kingdom as not just another English county" and accordingly they recommended that the designation "Duchy of Cornwall" be used on all appropriate occasions to emphasise the "special relationship and the territorial integrity of Cornwall".

Northern Ireland
The Commission did not make any recommendations on devolution in Northern Ireland, for which the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973 had made provision. However, the report did recommend that the number of Westminster MPs from the province be increased in line with the rest of the UK, from 12 to about 17.

Channel Islands and the Isle of Man
The Commission did not propose to make any changes in the relationship between the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. They rejected a suggestion that responsibilities for external affairs be divided between the UK and island governments, but supported a Home Office proposal that a more formal process of consultation be carried out in future over the application of international agreements in the islands.

Memorandum of dissent
Lord Crowther-Hunt and Professor Peacock did not sign the report, producing a separate series of proposals in a minority memorandum. The main differences between the document and the main report were:

Regional assemblies
There would be seven elected regional assemblies, one for Scotland, one for Wales and five regional assemblies in England. They would have considerably greater powers than proposed in the majority report, taking over much of the machinery of central government within their area, and each having their own civil service. They would also replace ad-hoc authorities such as regional health authorities and water authorities, which were due to be introduced in reorganisation of the National Health Service and water industry. They would also have supervisory powers over gas and electricity boards. They would also be able to make policy through strategic plans for the physical, social and economic development of their regions.

A Minister for the Regions would hold a cabinet seat.

Commons reform
The memorandum also suggested changes in the function of the United Kingdom House of Commons. Members of parliament were to form "functional committees" corresponding to central government departments. Each committee was to have a supporting staff and would consider the implications of both United Kingdom and European legislation, as well as having policy-making powers. To reflect their greater responsibilities, MPs would be paid full-time professional salaries.

Political reaction
There was mixed reaction to the commission's report:
The chairman of Plaid Cymru regarded it as a "real breakthrough", and called for the government to provide a commitment to introduce a Welsh government with legislative power. However, they called for the assembly to have additional powers over economic and industrial planning.
Winifred Ewing, vice-chairman of the Scottish National Party, described it as a "step in the right direction", and that the proposed Scottish assembly "would lead to the self-government the SNP sought".
The secretary of the Welsh Labour Party welcomed the introduction of an assembly, but opposed the reduction in the number of Westminster MPs.
The leader of the Welsh Liberal Party believed it to be a "major breakthrough" which would lead to proportional representation being introduced in Westminster.
An official of the Welsh Conservative Party called for people not to be "over-influenced by the vocal minority, which includes extremists and nationalist fanatics."
The chairman of the Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party expressed doubts about the reduction in the number of MPs.
The secretary of Mebyon Kernow, while noting that their proposal for a Cornish Regional Council had been rejected, said they were encouraged by the establishment of assemblies in Scotland and Wales, and the emphasis on the "Duchy of Cornwall".

Consequences
Following a change of government at the February 1974 election, the new Labour administration published a white paper Democracy and Devolution: Proposals for Scotland and Wales based on the final report in September 1974. The white paper led directly to the unsuccessful Scotland and Wales Bill, which was withdrawn in February 1977. Two separate pieces of legislation were passed in the following year: the Scotland Act 1978 and the Wales Act 1978. The provisions of the Acts would not come into force unless approved by referendums, and accordingly Scottish and Welsh devolution referendums were held on 1 March 1979. The Welsh assembly was rejected by a majority of voters, while Scottish devolution was supported by 51.6% of those voting, or 32.9% of those on the electoral register. An amendment to the Scotland Act, introduced by government backbencher George Cunningham, had specified that it must have the support of 40% of the entire electorate, and the referendum was lost. The results of the referendums led to the repeal of the respective Acts in March 1979. A vote of no confidence was subsequently lost by the government on 28 March when the Scottish National Party voted with the Conservatives, Liberals and Ulster Unionist Party, leading to the general election of 1979 and the beginning of 18 years of Conservative rule.

Scottish and Welsh devolution was finally implemented under the next Labour government, elected in 1997, by the Scotland Act 1998 and the Government of Wales Act 1998.

See also
Commonwealth of Britain Bill
Constitutional reform in the United Kingdom
Constitutional status of Cornwall
Cornish self-government movement
Declaration of Perth (1968)
Devolution in the United Kingdom

References

External links
Abstract, British Official Publications Collaborative Reader Information Service
"Dicey, Kilbrandon and Devolution", DG Boyce, The Political Quarterly, Volume 46 Issue 3 Page 280–292, July 1975

Constitutional commissions
Politics of Scotland
Politics of Wales
Politics of Jersey
Politics of Guernsey
Politics of the Isle of Man
Politics of Cornwall
History of Wales
History of Jersey
History of Guernsey
History of the Isle of Man
History of Cornwall
Celtic nationalism
Devolution in the United Kingdom
Cornish nationalism
Constitution of the United Kingdom
1973 in British politics
1969 in British politics
1973 in Scotland
20th century in Jersey
Constitution
1969 establishments in the United Kingdom
1973 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Federalism by country
Politics of the United Kingdom
British Islands

Royal Commission on the Constitution (United Kingdom)


The Johnson–Forest Tendency, whose supporters are called the Johnsonites, is a radical left tendency in the United States associated with Marxist humanist theorists C. L. R. James and Raya Dunayevskaya, who used the pseudonyms J. R. Johnson and Freddie Forest respectively.  They were joined by author/activist Grace Lee Boggs (pseudonym: Ria Stone), who was considered the third founder.

History

Much of the story of the Johnson–Forest Tendency relates to disputes between various factions of the Trotskyist parties in the US. James and Dunayevskaya first met in the Socialist Workers Party.  From 1939–1940, there was a bitter fight amongst the members of the Socialist Workers Party, and in 1940, James, Dunayevskaya, and Max Shachtman, among others, split to form the Workers Party.  James and Dunayevskaya set up a study group within the Workers Party to work on the idea of state capitalism, and were soon joined by Grace Lee Boggs.

While this new group rapidly cohered around politics which were very similar to those of the Socialist Workers Party, there were certain differences which eventually led to the formation of the Johnson–Forest Tendency.  The majority of the Workers Party members believed, as did Shachtman, that the class nature of the Soviet Union was such that it should be designated a bureaucratic collectivist society.  The minority opinion, held by James, Dunayevskaya, and Lee, held that it was state capitalist.  Further, James was unhappy with the WP's lack of interest in Black activism.  This resulted in their secession from the Workers Party.

Their disgruntlement with the Shachtmanite majority within the Workers Party led Johnson–Forest in 1947 to rejoin the Socialist Workers Party.  It was during this time that the Johnson–Forest Tendency reached the conclusion that, as there was no true socialist society existing anywhere in the world, a return to the fundamentals of Marxism was in order.  Their emphasis on Hegel's philosophy as being the foundation of Marxism was largely due to Dunayevskaya, who was deeply immersed in both Marx's and Lenin's writings.

Johnson–Forest remained in the Socialist Workers Party until 1950, exiting the party once again with a book co-authored by James and Dunayevskaya, State Capitalism and World Revolution.  In the three years Johnson–Forest remained in the Socialist Workers Party, James also participated in party discussions on the American "Negro question" (as it was then called), arguing for support for separate struggles of blacks as having the potential to ignite the entire U.S. political situation. His hypothesis prefigured the organized civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Finally leaving the Socialist Workers Party, Johnson–Forest founded their own organization for the first time called Correspondence which was renamed the Correspondence Publishing Committee the next year.  However, tensions that had surfaced earlier presaged a split, which took place in 1955.  Through his theoretical and political work of the late 1940s, James had concluded that a vanguard party was no longer necessary, because its teachings had been absorbed in the masses. In 1956, James would see the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 as confirmation of this.

Dunayevskaya had agreed that the Leninist vanguard party was outmoded, but, in contrast to James, felt the need for some kind of revolutionary organization. In 1953, James was deported from the U.S. to Britain for the lack of a visa, and the polemic continued. The split was completed in 1955, when Dunayevskaya and her faction founded the group News and Letters Committees. Grace Lee remained with the Johnsonites who founded Facing Reality, as well as a newsletter based in Detroit of the same name. When Lee moved away from the group in the early 1960s, the continuity of the Johnsonite tradition was maintained by Martin Glaberman until Glaberman's death in 2001.

Publications
The Invading Socialist Society a pamphlet published by the JFT in 1947.
Trotskyism in the United States, 1940-1947 BALANCE SHEET The Workers Party and the Johnson Forest Tendency a pamphlet published by the JFT in 1947.

See also
Autonomist Marxism
Chaulieu–Montal Tendency
Marxist humanism

Notes

References

External links
Marxist Humanism, subject index
Raya Dunayevskaya Archive
C L R James Archive
Boggs Center
News & Letters, the Newspaper
Libertarian Communist Library Raya Dunayevskaya holdings
Libertarian Communist Library CLR James holdings

Socialist Workers Party (United States)
Anti-Stalinist left
Libertarian socialism
Political party factions in the United States
Trotskyism in the United States

Johnson–Forest Tendency


Baron François Joseph Bosio (19 March 1768 – 29 July 1845) was a Monegasque sculptor who achieved distinction in the first quarter of the nineteenth century with his work for Napoleon and for the restored French monarchy.

Biography

Born in Monaco, Bosio was given a scholarship by prince Honoré I to study in Paris with the eminent sculptor Augustin Pajou. After brief service in the Revolutionary army he lived in Florence, Rome and Naples, providing sculpture for churches under the French hegemony in Italy in the 1790s. He was recruited by Dominique Vivant Denon in 1808 to make bas-reliefs for the monumental column in the Place Vendôme in Paris and also to serve as portrait sculptor to Emperor Napoleon I and his family. It was in this capacity that he produced some of his finest work, notably marble portrait busts of the Empress Josephine, which was also modelled in biscuit Sèvres porcelain, and of Queen Hortense (about 1810), which was also cast in bronze by Ravrio.

Louis XVIII made Bosio a Knight of the Order of Saint Michael in 1821 and appointed him premier sculpteur du Roi. In 1828, Bosio saw his grandiose equestrian sculpture of Louis XIV erected in the Place des Victoires in Paris and was made an Officier of the Légion d'honneur.  He was made a baron by Charles X of France in 1825. Though under Louis-Philippe he was stripped of his titles, he continued to receive official commissions, as the ablest portrait sculptor in Paris, and created the statue of Napoleon for the Column of the Grande Armée in 1840 under Napoleon III.  He died in Paris.

Apart from the imperial busts and the statue of Louis XVI, other important works included the quadriga of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and the statue of Hercules fighting Acheloos transformed into a snake (illustration) in the Louvre. Many of his most important sculptures and statues can today be found in the Louvre museum in Paris.

A study of Bosio was published by L. Barbarin, Etude sur Bosio, sa vie et son oeuvre (Monaco) 1910.

Summary of key works

In Paris
 Quadriga of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel (on the Place du Carrousel)
 Hercules Wrestling Achelous, Louvre.
 Equestrian sculpture of Louis XIV (1816–1828) (in Place des Victoires)
 Monument to Louis XVI (begun 1816, installed 1835) in the Chapelle Expiatoire.
 In the Louvre:
 Aristaeus, god of gardens (1813–1817), An official commission for the Imperial palaces through Vivant-Denon, 7 December 1812; marble delivered to Bosio January 1813.
 Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia. This bust was replicated at least fifty-four times
 Hyacinth (1817)
 Henry IV as a child (1824–25) This was commissioned for his study at the Tuileries by Louis XVIII; it was cast in silver by the silversmith Charles-Nicolas Odiot
 Hercules and the Lernaean Hydra (1824)
 Bust of Charles X (1825–29)
 Bust of the Duchess of Angoulême (1825)
 The nymph Salmacis (1826). A reduced replica is used as the top award at the Festival de Télévision de Monte-Carlo
 Bust of Queen Marie-Amélie (1841) Shown at the salon of 1837; the first marble version is at the Louvre; a repetition is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
 Queen Marie-Amélie (1841–43), standing figure. Bosio's original plaster, pointed for a marble version, is at the Louvre Museum at Saint-Omer. The marble, finished after Bosio's death by his nephew, is at Versailles.

Elsewhere
 Cupid with a bow (1808) (Hermitage Museum, Russia)
 Bust of Queen Marie-Amélie of France (1841) (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
 Bust of the marquis d'Aligre (bronze) owner of the Château de Baronville(California Palace of the Legion of Honor)
 Portrait Bust of the Empress Marie-Louise,  1810–1815 Dallas Museum of Art
 Portrait Bust of Catherine, Princess of Wurtemburg,  1810–1815 Dallas Museum of Art
 Bronze bust of King Louis XVIII

Notes

External links

 François Joseph Bosio, Artcyclopedia
 François Joseph Bosio, Insecula
 Ministère de la Culture: François Joseph Bosio
 Life-size Bronze Bust of King Louis XVIII, Attributed to François Joseph Bosio (Monaco, 1768-1845)

1768 births
1845 deaths
Monegasque artists
Members of the Académie des beaux-arts
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French architectural sculptors
18th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
18th-century French male artists

François Joseph Bosio


Mary-Louise Parker (born August 2, 1964) is an American television and movie actress.

Early life
Parker was born in 1964 in Fort Jackson, South Carolina. Her mother was Swedish and her father was a judge and served in the United States Army. They lived in Thailand where she attended the International School Bangkok. Parker studied drama at the North Carolina School of the Arts. Her first job in television was a small part on the soap opera Ryan's Hope in 1975. In the late 1980s, she moved to New York, where she got a job measuring feet at ECCO (a shoe shop). After a few small roles, she had her first part in a Broadway play in 1990. The play was called Prelude to a Kiss and she played the main character called Rita. She won the Clarence Derwent Award for this play and was nominated for a Tony Award. Parker dated her co-star Timothy Hutton for a short time.

That same year, Parker was noticed by critics when she appeared in a movie called Longtime Companion. It was one of the first movies about AIDS. After that, she acted in 1991's Grand Canyon, which also starred Mary McDonnell, Danny Glover, Alfre Woodard and Kevin Kline. Parker's next film was Fried Green Tomatoes, with Jessica Tandy, Mary Stuart Masterson, Kathy Bates and Cicely Tyson.

Movies
1990: Longtime Companion as Lisa
1991: Grand Canyon as Dee
1991: Fried Green Tomatoes as Ruth Jamison
1993: Mr. Wonderful as Rita
1994: The Client as Dianne Sway
1994: Bullets Over Broadway as Ellen
1995: Boys on the Side
1996: The Portrait of a Lady as Henrietta Stackpole
1998: Goodbye Lover as Peggy Blane
1999: Let the Devil Wear Black as Julia Hirsch
2002: Red Dragon as Molly Graham
2004: Saved! as Lillian
2005: Romance & Cigarettes as Constance
2007: The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford as Zee James
2008: The Spiderwick Chronicles as Helen Grace
2009: Solitary Man as Jordan

Television
1975: Ryan's Hope
2001–2006: The West Wing as Amy Gardner (23 episodes)
2003: Angels in America as Harper Pitt (six episodes)
2005–2009: Weeds as Nancy Botwin (61 episodes)

References

Other websites

1964 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Actors from South Carolina

Mary-Louise Parker


World IPv6 day was an event on January 12, 2011.  On World IPv6 day, many websites tested IPv6, the new version of the "Internet protocol".  There was another event on June 6, 2012 called "World IPv6 Launch Day".  On World IPv6 Launch Day, the Internet Society hoped that IPv6 would really be enabled and work on many websites.

Internet

World IPv6 Day


Cowboy Bebop is a Japanese anime television show aired from 1998 to 1999. It was created by Sunrise and directed by Shinichiro Watanabe. The show is about a group of bounty hunters who travel in outer space to catch criminals. It has 26 episodes. The series has received a TV-14 rating in the United States, while six episodes received a TV-MA and three episodes receiving a TV-PG. The series aired in the United States in 2001 on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim. It was the first anime to be aired on Adult Swim. It was very successful. It was so successful that Cartoon Network decided to put more anime on Adult Swim. There is a movie, a manga, and two video games based on the show. The movie is called Cowboy Bebop: Knockin' on Heaven's Door. The video games are for Playstation and Playstation 2 were not released in the United States. The series is inspired by American culture. Jazz music is mostly played in the show. The episodes are called "Sessions."

Story
In 2071, the members of the space ship Bebop travel through outer space trying to catch criminals. Bounty hunters are known as "Cowboys". If they catch the criminals alive then they get a reward. If the criminals die, the cowboys get nothing. The criminals are called bounties. Most episodes are about catching a bounty. Some episodes are about the characters' pasts and lives. At the beginning there are two main heroes, Spike and Jet. Later they would meet with others. They had become the crew of the space ship Bebop. Other members of the Bebop are Faye, computer hacker Ed, and a dog named Ein.

Characters
 Spike Spiegel is the main character. He is a master in shooting and martial arts, and is also a good pilot. He is voiced by Koichi Yamadera in the Japanese version and Steven Blum in the English version.
 Jet Black is a former detective and is the owner of the Bebop. He is voiced by Unsho Ishizuka in the Japanese version and Beau Billingslea in the English version.
 Faye Valentine is a novice fighter with a gambling addiction. She joins the crew of the Bebop uninvited. She is voiced by Megumi Hayashibara in the Japanese version and Wendee Lee in the English version.
 Edward is a female character who likes to hack into computers, and walk on her hands. She is voiced by Aoi Tada in the Japanese version and Melissa Fahn in the English version. Her full name is Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV.
 Ein is a pet dog. He is very smart because scientists did experiments on him. Ein cannot speak, but he seems to understand what people say. He also knows how to play the board game Go.
 Vicious is a villain voiced by Norio Wakamoto in the Japanese version and Skip Stellrecht in the English.
 Julia is Spike's love interest. She is voiced by Gara Takashima in the Japanese version and Mary Elizabeth McGlynn in the English version.
 Punch and Judy. Punch is voiced by Tsutomu Taruki in the Japanese version and Paul St. Peter in the English version. Judy is voiced by Miki Nagasawa in the  Japanese version and Lia Sargent in the English version. The name Punch and Judy comes from the popular British puppet show.

Episode List

Notes

References

Other websites

 Mirror of Cowboy Bebop official site
 Animax Japan's official website for Cowboy Bebop
 Animax East Asia's official website for Cowboy Bebop
 Animax South Asia's official website for Cowboy Bebop
 Adult Swim - Cowboy Bebop

 Cowboy Bebop Screenshots Archive
 Cowboy Bebop reviewed at Anime Academy

1998 anime television series

Cowboy Bebop


The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), ( (GRC)), is the national police force of Canada. The force is also called the Mounties.

Unique organization
RCMP is unique in the world because it is a national, federal, provincial and municipal policing organization:
 RCMP is the federal police for all of Canada Greater Area.
 RCMP serves as the police for the three Canadian territories
 RCMP serves in all ten Canadian provinces, although its role is limited in Ontario and Quebec as both provinces have their own provincial police services.
 RCMP provides police services for more than 190 municipalities
 RCMP is the police for 184 native communities -- the First Nations, Inuit and Métis.
 RCMP ensures security at three international airports.

The RCMP/GRC wording is protected under the Canadian Trade-marks Act.

History

The Northwest Mounted Police (NWMP), was founded 1873. The Mounties were created to establish authority and to make accommodations with the native population in the west before settlers began to arrive. The smaller Dominion Police was founded in 1868 to protect federal government buildings.

The Mounties were given the right to use the term Royal by King Edward VII in 1904. Their name was changed to the Royal Northwest Mounted Police (RNWMP).

The modern RCMP was created when the RNWMP merged with the smaller Dominion Police in 1920.

The word mounted suggests that the police ride horses. Before 1920, horses were their main method of travel. However, today the RCMP do not ride horses except at special events.

Uniform

The RCMP are famous for their uniform. The "Review Order" (also "Red Serge") uniform is worn mostly at special events, such as parades. The uniform consists of a red tunic with a large brown belt,(formally known as a "Sam Browne"), a light brown hat, dark blue breeches (trousers) with a yellow stripe and riding boots.

On an ordinary day at work, RCMP officers instead wear a grey shirt, dark blue trousers, ankle boots and a peaked cap (the type worn by most police officers elsewhere). In the winter they may wear a thicker coat, heavier boots and a fur cap.

Ranks
The ranks of the RCMP are, from highest to lowest:
 Commissioner
 Deputy Commissioner
 Assistant Commissioner
 Chief Superintendent
 Superintendent
 Inspector
 Corps Sergeant Major*
 Sergeant Major
 Staff Sergeant Major
 Staff Sergeant
 Sergeant
 Corporal
 Constable
 Cadet

Ranks marked with an asterisk (*) are only found in a few parts of the RCMP and are usually not part of the chain of command. For most staff sergeants, their superior is an inspector and not a staff sergeant major.  While "Cadet" is a term used for RCMP trainees at depot it is not an official rank.

References

Sources
 Wolkomir, Richard. "Mounties forever, but these days rarely on horseback,"  Smithsonian. February 1989, pp. 78-89.

Other websites

 List of Civilian organizations with prefix "Royal" – Heritage Canada.
 History and Uniform of the North-West Mounted Police, 1873 to 1904
 The official website of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
 Royal Canadian Mounted Police Gazette
 The Commission for Public Complaints Against the RCMP
RCMP Watch
 RCMP Wanted list
 RCMP Heritage Centre

 RCMP North-West Mounted Police in Literature and History
 RCMP Honour Roll

Government agencies of Canada
Law enforcement agencies
Law of Canada

Royal Canadian Mounted Police


FTP, also known as File Transfer Protocol, is a communication protocol for the rapid, simple transmission of files across a network supporting the TCP/IP. This network is generally the Internet, or a local network. FTP is a way of accessing files on another computer. FTP uses the Client-Server architecture, meaning that there is a server, that holds the files, and does the authentication, and a client, or the end-user, who is accessing the files. The server listens on the network for connection requests from other computers. The client can make a connection to the FTP server by using FTP client software. Once connected and authenticated (via rsh or SFTP) the client can do things such as uploading files to the server, downloading files (taking the server's files and putting them on his own computer) from the server, and renaming, deleting files on the server, changing file permissions, etc.

Most modern operating systems support FTP. This implies that any computer connected to a TCP/IP based network can manipulate files on another computer on that network regardless of which operating systems are involved, provided that they are open to FTP connections. There are many existing FTP client and server programs, many of these are available free, or open source.

FTP connection is also seen in cellular phones when trying to transfer or receive data from a computer nearby.

FTP return codes

FTP server return codes show their status by the digits within them. A short explanation of various digits' meanings are given below:

 1xx: Positive Preliminary reply. The action requested is being initiated but there will be another reply before it begins.
 2xx: Positive Completion reply. The action requested has been completed. The client may now issue a new command.
 3xx: Positive Intermediate reply. The command was successful, but a further command is required before the server can act upon the request.
 4xx: Transient Negative Completion reply. The command was not successful, but the client is free to try the command again as the failure is only temporary.
 5xx: Permanent Negative Completion reply. The command was not successful and the client should not attempt to repeat it again.
 x0x: The failure was due to a syntax error.
 x1x: This response is a reply to a request for information.
 x2x: This response is a reply relating to connection information.
 x3x: This response is a reply relating to accounting and authorization.
 x4x: Not used.
 x5x: These responses indicate the status of the Server file system vis-a-vis the requested transfer or other file system action.

FTP modes
FTP may run in active or passive mode, which determines how the data connection is established. In both cases, the client creates a TCP control connection from a random, usually an unprivileged, port N to the FTP server command port 21.
 In active mode, the client starts listening for incoming data connections from the server on port M. It sends the FTP command PORT M to inform the server on which port it is listening. The server then initiates a data channel to the client from its port 20, the FTP server data port.
 In situations where the client is behind a firewall and unable to accept incoming TCP connections, passive mode may be used. In this mode, the client uses the control connection to send a PASV command to the server and then receives a server IP address and server port number from the server, which the client then uses to open a data connection from an arbitrary client port to the server IP address and server port number received.

Encryption
 File Transfer Protocol Secured (Using SSL / TLS)
 SSH File Transfer Protocol (Using SSH)

FTP Servers
Some popular open source FTP server implementations are:
 FileZilla Server (Windows)
 Pure-FTPd (Unix)
 VsFTPd (Unix)
 ProFTPd (Unix)

Other websites

 FTP Server Online Tester Authentication, encryption, mode and connectivity.

Internet
Computer protocols

FTP


The International Association of Handicapped Divers, the IAHD, is an association whose aim is to promote, develop and conduct programs for the training of people with a disability in scuba diving. Since it's began in 1993 the IAHD has held many professional and nonprofessional programs at locations all around the world.

The IAHD is a non profit foundation and all the people on the board are volunteers. There are also volunteers in regions around the world. Physical exercise helps people improve their health both physically and mentally. A person with a disability gets these benefits as well as increased social activity by taking up an activity like scuba diving. The risks in training a disabled person in diving are no higher than for able bodied people.

Instructors may have to alter some of the techniques and some equipment may also need changing to meet the individual's need. In some cases extra pool and / or open water training may be needed. In some extreme cases even individual lessons may be needed. IAHD believes that people with a disability should be in a regular class at some point in their training. Being involved with activities like scuba diving may even result in giving a person with a disability a renewed interest in life and provide positive and lasting  benefits.

Other websites
 The IAHD official website

Sports for the disabled
Diving
1993 establishments
Non-profit organizations of Europe

IAHD


The judiciary in Slovenia is one of the three constitutional branches of government and is independent of the other two. Judges enjoy a permanent mandate and are appointed by the National Assembly () after they have been nominated by the Judicial Council (), which itself is not part of the judicial branch of the government.

All lawyers practicing before the courts must have passed a special state examination after they have finished their legal studies and completed a training period at a court or a practicing advocate. Judges are usually not chosen from practicing lawyers but rather they follow a training at a court as one of the judicial officials.

The judicial system comprises several types of courts and is hierarchically divided in three instances. On the first instance, the ordinary courts are divided into civil and criminal courts and are further divided upon the importance of cases before them into 44 Okrajna (local courts for minor offences and small civil cases) and 11 Okrožna (district courts for all other cases) courts.

There exist also specialised labour, social security and administrative courts. On the second instance, there are four appellate courts (Višja sodišča) located in Celje, Koper, Ljubljana and Maribor and a specialised appellate court for labour and social security located in Ljubljana. These courts hear appeals against first instance decisions concerning law and facts.

The highest court is the Supreme Court of the Republic of Slovenia (), which is responsible for the uniform jurisprudence and thus normally only hear appeals concerning the proper application of law.

The Constitutional Court of Slovenia is separated from the regular judiciary system.

References

Government of Slovenia

Judiciary of Slovenia