The Battle of the Mediterranean was the name given to the naval campaign fought in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II.

Characteristics

For the most part, the campaign was fought between the forces of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina), supported by other Axis naval forces, and the forces of the British Royal Navy, supported by other Allied naval forces.

Each side had three overall goals in this battle.  The first was to attack the supply lines of the other side.  The second was to keep open its own supply lines, the Axis to their own armies in North Africa and the Allies to supply the island of Malta.  The third was to destroy the ability of the opposing navy to wage war at sea.

Outside of the Pacific ocean, the Mediterranean saw the largest conventional naval warfare during the war. In particular, Allied forces struggled to supply and retain the key naval and air base of Malta.

Radar and fuel

Italian warships had a general reputation as well-designed and good-looking.  But some Italian cruiser classes were rather deficient in armour.  All Italian warships lacked radar for most of the war, although this was partly offset by their good "rangefinder" and "fire-control" systems.  In addition, whereas Allied commanders at sea had discretion on how to act, Italian commanders were closely and precisely governed by Italian Naval Headquarters (Supermarina).  This could lead to action being avoided when the Italians had a clear advantage (e.g., During "Operation Hats"). Italian Naval Headquarters was conscious that the British could replace ships lost in the Mediterranean, whereas Italian Navy resources were limited and there was a terrible lack of fuel.

The Italian Navy entered the war with only one year of fuel required to operate normally. By 1943 the lack of fuel prevented naval operations far away from the coasts of Italy.

The Allies had "Ultra" intercepts from Bletchley Park, which predicted the Italian movements, and radar, which enabled them to locate the ships and to range their weapons at distance and at night. The better air reconnaissance skills of the Fleet Air Arm and their close collaboration with surface units were other major causes of the initial Italian defeats (like in the Battle of Cape Matapan).

Forces

The Axis forces in this campaign were:-
Italian Navy, Air Force and Army
German Navy (u-boat force), Air Force and Army

The Allied forces in this campaign were:-
British Navy, Air Force and Army
Australian Navy, Air Force and Army
New Zealand Navy, Air Force and Army
Greek Navy, Air Force and Army
French (at the beginning; later they were neutral)
United States (at the end)

History
On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France. On the following day, Italian bombers attacked Malta on what was to be the first of many raids.

The first clash between the rival fleets,  the Battle of Calabria, took place on 9 July 1940, just four weeks after the start of hostilities. This was inconclusive (neither side won), and was followed by a series of small ship actions (the battle of the Espero convoy,  battle of Cape Spada)  during the autumn.

In spring 1940 the British Royal navy attacked at Mers el Kebir (Algeria) the French navy of Vichy, sinking two battleships and other minor ships.

In November, the RN mounted an aerial attack  on the Italian fleet in Taranto harbour, crippling three capital ships and changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean.

Three months later the fleets clashed again at the Battle of Cape Matapan. This was a major Allied victory; three Italian cruisers were sunk, and a battleship damaged in a two-day battle ending in a night action.

Following this the Allies suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Crete, supporting the army when the island was invaded by the Germans.

In spring 1941 the Greek and Yugoslavian navy were destroyed and/or made captive by the Italians (with help from the German air force) during the Italo-German war in the western Balkans against Greece and Yugoslavia.

Following the battle of Crete in  the summer of 1941, the Royal Navy got the better of things in the central Mediterranean in a series of successful convoy attacks, (such as the Duisburg convoy and the Battle of Cape Bon) until the events  around  the First Battle of Sirte and the Raid on Alexandria in December swung the balance of power in the Axis favour.

The Italian Navy's most successful attack was when divers planted mines on British battleships during the raid on Alexandria harbour (19 December 1941). HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant were sunk (but ten months later raised and returned to active service). During those ten months the Italian Navy enjoyed a temporary control of the Mediterranean sea (called by Mussolini's propaganda the Mare Nostrum, meaning "our sea").

A series of hard fought convoy battles (Second Battle of Sirte in March,  Operations Harpoon and Vigorous in June, and Operation Pedestal in August) were victories for the Axis but ensured Malta's survival, until the  Allies regained the advantage in November 1942.

In Sept 1943 with the Italian collapse and the surrender of Italian fleet, naval actions in Mediterranean  became  restricted to actions against U-boats and by small craft in the Adriatic and Aegean seas.

Major surface actions of the campaign
28 June 1940, Battle of the Espero Convoy. Italian convoy attacked, destroyer Espero sunk.
9 July 1940, Battle of Calabria. Inconclusive fleet action.
19 July 1940, Battle of Cape Spada. Cruiser action, Bartolomeo Colleoni sunk.
12 October 1940, Battle of Cape Passero.
11 November 1940, Battle of Taranto. Aerial attack on Italian fleet in harbour, 3 battleships sunk.
27 November 1940, Battle of Cape Spartivento. Inconclusive fleet action.
6-11 January 1941, Operation Excess. British convoy to Malta.
26 March 1941,battle of Suda Bay. British cruiser sunk by torpedo boats.
27-29 March 1941, Battle of Cape Matapan. Fleet action, 3 Italian cruisers sunk.
16 April 1941, Battle of the Tarigo Convoy. Italian convoy attacked.
20 May-1 June 1941, Battle of Crete. Series of actions supporting army in Crete, 9 British warships sunk.
July 1941, Operation Substance. British convoy to Malta.
September 1941, Operation Halberd. British convoy to Malta.
8 November 1941, Battle of the Duisburg Convoy. Axis convoy destroyed.
13 December 1941, Battle of Cape Bon. Italian convoy attacked.
17 December 1941, First Battle of Sirte. British convoy attacked.
19 December 1941, Raid on Alexandria. Manned torpedoes attack British fleet, 2 battleships were sunk and a destroyer damaged.
22 March 1942, Second Battle of Sirte. British convoy attacked.
June 1942, Operation Harpoon. British convoy attacked.
June 1942, Operation Vigorous. British convoy attacked.
August 1942, Operation Pedestal. British convoy attacked.
November 1942, Operation Stone Age. British convoy to Malta.
2 December 1942, Battle of Skerki Bank. Italian convoy attacked.
11 December 1942, Raid on Algiers. Manned torpedoes attack Allied shipping.
16 April 1943, Battle of the Cigno Convoy. Italian convoy attacked.

Major Axis and Allied amphibious operations
The following are the major amphibious operations staged during the Battle of the Mediterranean:
 25 February 1941, Allied assault on Kastelorizo.
 20 May 1941, start of the Battle of Crete, the Axis invasion of Crete.
 19 September 1942, Allied assault on Tobruk.
 3 November 1942 Italian landing in Corsica, and occupation of the island.
 8 November 1942, start of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of Vichy-controlled Morocco and Algeria.
 9 July 1943, start of Operation Husky, the Allied invasion of Sicily.
 3 September 1943, start of the Allied invasion of Italy.
 8 September 1943, start of the Dodecanese Campaign, the failed Allied attempt to invade the Dodecanese Islands.
 9 September 1943, start of the Allied Salerno landings in Italy.
 22 January 1944,  start of Operation Shingle, the Allied landings at Anzio in Italy.
 15 August 1944, start of Operation Dragoon, the Allied landings in southern France.

Related pages
Italian Mare Nostrum

References
 Stephen Roskill: The War at Sea 1939-1945 Vol I (1954).
 Stephen Roskill: The War at Sea 1939-1945 Vol II (1956).
 Eric Groves: Sea Battles in Close-Up Vol II (1993).

Mediterranean
1940 in Europe
1941 in Europe
1942 in Europe
1943 in Europe
1944 in Europe
1945 in Europe
Mediterranean Sea

Battle of the Mediterranean


George Herbert "Bert" Walker Sr. (June 11, 1875 – June 24, 1953) was an American banker and businessman. He was the maternal grandfather of United States President George H. W. Bush and a great-grandfather of President George W. Bush, both of whom were named in his honor.  He was also the amateur heavyweight-boxing champion of Missouri while studying law at Washington University.

Early life
George Herbert Walker was born on June 11, 1875, in St. Louis, Missouri. Walker was descended from a Maryland family. He was the youngest son of David Davis Walker, a dry goods merchant from Bloomington, Illinois, and Martha Adela (Beaky). Ely, Walker & Company, which grew into a leading regional wholesaler, was later acquired by Burlington Industries.

Walker, who was Roman Catholic, was educated at Stonyhurst College, a Jesuit boarding school in England. He graduated from Washington University in St. Louis in 1897.

Business career
Walker started a banking and investment firm named G.H. Walker & Co. in 1900. His family had developed many international banking contacts, and he helped organize the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair. Walker was known as the power behind the local Democratic Party.

In 1920, Walker became the President of the W.A. Harriman & Co. investment firm, and quickly arranged the credits that W. Averell Harriman needed to take control of the Hamburg-Amerika Line. Walker also organized the American Ship and Commerce Corp. to be subsidiary of the W.A. Harriman & Co., with contractual power over the affairs of the Hamburg-Amerika. W.A. Harriman & Co. (renamed Harriman Brothers & Company in 1927) well-positioned for this enterprise and rich in assets from their German and Russian business, merged with the British-American investment house Brown Bros. & Co. on January 1, 1931.  Walker retired to his own G.H. Walker & Co.  This left the Harriman brothers, his son-in-law Prescott Bush and Thatcher M. Brown as senior partners of the new firm of Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. The firm's London branch continued operating under its historic name Brown, Shipley & Co.

Walker was a director of the W.A. Harriman & Company; Harriman Fifteen, American International Corporation; Georgian Manganese Corporation; Barnsdall Corporation; American Ship & Commerce Corporation; Union Banking Corporation; G.H. Walker & Company; Missouri Pacific Railroad; Laclede Gas and the New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railroad.

Golf and horseracing
In addition to his business concerns, Walker was also a golf enthusiast and a President of the United States Golf Association (USGA). The USGA's Walker Cup (the famous biennial golf match) acquired Walker's namesake for his role in the event's creation. Walker was a member of Deepdale Golf Club as well as National Golf Links of America, the location of the first Walker Cup.

He also coheaded the syndicate, (with W. Averell Harriman), which rebuilt the famed sports venue of Madison Square Garden and the Belmont Race Track, 1925.

Personal life
Walker married Lucretia Wear (1874–1961), daughter of James H. Wear and they had six children: Dorothy Wear Walker, New York Mets cofounder George Herbert Walker Jr., Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center CEO Dr. John M. Walker Sr. (father of Judge John M. Walker Jr.), James Wear Walker, Nancy Walker, and Louis Walker (S&B 1936). His brother-in-law Joseph Walker Wear was one of the founders of the Davis Cup. His son-in-law Prescott Bush was a member of the executive committee of the USGA, serving successively as Secretary, Vice President and President, 1928–1935. Walker not only maintained the Walker's Point estate in Kennebunkport, but also a mansion on Long Island, and a stunning residence at One Sutton Place in Manhattan.   In the 1930s Walker purchased the 10,000-acre (40 km2) Duncannon Plantation near Barnwell, South Carolina, as a private hunting retreat. In the 1940s Walker moved out of the circa 1835 plantation house, and the property became a hunting club. Much of the land was later purchased by the U.S. Government for development of the Savannah River Site.

Death and legacy
Walker died in 1953 in New York City, New York, aged 78. He was survived by his wife, daughter Dorothy Walker Bush, several grandchildren including George H. W. Bush, Ambassador to Hungary and Stifel Nicolas CEO George Herbert Walker III, William H. T. (Bucky) Bush, Nancy Ellis Bush, Ray Walker, Betty Walker Holden, and many great-grandchildren including George W. Bush and Jeb Bush.

References

1875 births
1953 deaths
American bankers
American financiers
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American racehorse owners and breeders
People educated at Stonyhurst College
Businesspeople from St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis alumni
Missouri Democrats
Golf people

George Herbert Walker


Clan Ged is a Scots clan. The clan daes no currently hae a chief recognised bi the Lord Lyon King of Arms an is considered an armigerous clan. Athoot a recognised chief the clan haes nae staundin unner Scots Law. In Scotland, the surname Ged an Geddes mey be derived frae the place-name Geddes in Nairn. Anither possibility is that it is derived frae the Auld Inglis gedda, a nickname meanin pike. The coats o airms o Ged an Geddes contain three pike, referrin tae thair surnames. The Inglis wird for pike is luce, an several Norman families named de Lucy hae pike on thair coats o airms. Ane unsupportit possibility is that ane sic faimily moved tae Scotland an adoptit the surnames Ged or Geddes. An early record o the clan name is foond in the Privy Council, which records the respite grantit tae James Tweedie efter the murther o William Geddes in 1558.

The crest badge suitable for members o Clan Ged is derived frae the airms o Ged o that Ilk, which is recordit in the Lyon Register. The crest badge contains the crest a pike's head Proper an the motto DURAT DITAT PLACET (frae Latin: "it sustains, it enriches, it pleases"). The crest o a pike is a pun on the clan name. The uise o pike on the airms is an example o cantin airms, as a ged is the heraldic term for a pike.

See an aa
Geddes (surname), fowk wi the surname Geddes
Ged, things named Ged

References

Ged
Ged

Clan Ged


The White Book of Rhydderch (Welsh: Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch, National Library of Wales, Peniarth MS 4-5) is one of the most notable and celebrated surviving manuscripts in Welsh. Mostly written in southwest Wales in the middle of the 14th century (c. 1350) it is the earliest collection of Welsh prose texts, though it also contains some examples of early Welsh poetry. It is now part of the collection of the National Library of Wales, having been preserved in the library at Hengwrt, near Dolgellau, Gwynedd, of the 17th century antiquary Robert Vaughan, who inherited it from the calligrapher John Jones and passed it to his descendants. The collection later passed to the newly established National Library of Wales as the Peniarth or Hengwrt-Peniarth Manuscripts.

What was one manuscript was divided into two in the medieval period and has been bound as two separate volumes, known as Peniarth MS 4 and Peniarth MS 5. Peniarth MS 4 contains the most important material: medieval Welsh tales now collectively known as the Mabinogion. Peniarth MS 5 (the first part of the original manuscript) contains Christian religious texts in Welsh, mostly translated from Latin and French, including Lives of various saints and a tale of Charlemagne.

The White Book was copied in the mid 14th century, most probably for Rhydderch ab Ieuan Llwyd (c. 1325–1400) from Parcrhydderch in the parish of Llangeitho in Ceredigion. Rhydderch, who came from a family with a long tradition of literary patronage, held posts under the English Crown but was also an authority on native Welsh law. The hands of five scribes have been identified in the manuscripts, very likely working in Strata Florida Abbey, not far from Rhydderch's home, and certainly in South Wales based on the dialect used by the scribes. The remainder of the name refers to the book being bound in white.

The contents of the manuscript are very similar to the Red Book of Hergest, and may have been its exemplar; but it is more likely that the two descend from a lost common ancestor. The White Book is no longer complete, but it was copied in 1573 by Richard Langford, before some of the text was lost. Langford's copy is itself now lost, but two copies descending from it do survive: Peniarth 111 (made by John Jones of Gellillyfdy in 1607), whose spelling is very close to the White Book's, and London, British Library, Add. MS 31055 (made by Thomas Wiliems in 1596, from a lost intermediary copy made in 1596 by Roger Maurice).

References

Sources
'White Book of Rhydderch'. In Meic Stephens (Ed.) (1998), The new companion to the literature of Wales. Cardiff : University of Wales Press. .
Parry, Thomas (1955), A history of Welsh literature. Translated by H. Idris Bell. Oxford : Clarendon Press.

14th-century books
Welsh-language manuscripts
Mabinogion
Medieval Welsh literature
Welsh-language literature
Welsh mythology
Peniarth collection

White Book of Rhydderch


Modern Angeln, (Danish: Angel; Latin: Anglia, which also means in direct translation from Latin: England), is a peninsula in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
Ancient Angeln may have been somewhat larger than the Angeln of today, but following the ancient sources it included the territory of modern Angeln.

Angeln has an importance far beyond its small area, as it seems to have been the original home of the Angles who invaded the southern part of Great Britain, which was named after them, England. And so the name of the major world language, English, seems to have taken its name from this little region.

Following the departure of the Angles from Anglia about 350, the region was occupied by Danish settlers not later than the 8th century.

References

Related pages
 Angles
 Germanic peoples
 Anglo-Saxons

Other websites

Crop circles in Angeln
Angeln cattle
Tourism in Angeln
Cinarchea (Archaeological films of Schlesvig-Holstein)
County and Municipal Flags (Schleswig-Holstein, Germany)
Genealogy in Schleswig Holstein, Germany

Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Regions of Germany

Angeln


A double play is a play in baseball. It is when two outs are performed in one playing action. Double plays are called "the pitcher's best friend", because they cause more problems for offenses than any other plays. The most common type of double play is when there is a player on first base and a ground ball is hit toward the middle of the infield.

Baseball

Double play


Saint John or St. John could mean:

People

Saints

Scriptural saints
 John the Baptist, also known as John of Jerusalem, who baptised Jesus at the start of Jesus' ministry
 John the Apostle, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus
 John the Evangelist, author of the Gospel of John. In some traditions, the same person as John the Apostle.
 John of Patmos, author of the Book of Revelation

Later, ecclesiastical saints
(in chronological order)
 Saint John (d. 303), martyred with Cyrus (see Cyrus and John)
 Saint John (d. 366), a priest martyred with Abda and Abdjesus
 Saint John of Egypt (d. 394) hermit
 Saint John Chrysostom (347–407), Archbishop of Constantinople
 Saint John Cassian (c. 360–433)
 Pope John I (523–526)
 Saint John Climacus (c. 579–649), also known as John of the Ladder, John Scholasticus and John Sinaites
 Saint John the Merciful (d. c. 620), also known as John the Almoner, John the Almsgiver, John V of Alexandria, and Johannes Eleemon
 Saint John of Ephesus (c. 505 – c. 585)
 Saint John of Damascus (c. 676–749)
 Saint John of Beverley (d. 721)
 Saint John of Rila (876 – c. 946), also known as Ivan Rilski, Bulgarian hermit
 Saint John of Matha (1169–1218), French founder of the Trinitarian Order
 Saint John of Nepomuk (c. 1340–1396), Bohemian priest
 Giovanni da Capistrano (1386–1456)
 Saint John Fisher (1469–1535), Bishop of Rochester, professor at Cambridge
 Saint John of God (1495–1550)
 Saint John of Avila (1500–1569)
 Saint John of the Cross (1542–1591), Spanish mystic
 Saint John Sarkander (1576–1620), Moravian priest
 Saint John Ogilvie (1579–1615), Scottish Catholic martyr
 Saint Jean-Baptiste de la Salle (1651–1719), the patron saint of teachers
 Saint John Joseph of the Cross (1654–1739), Italian Franciscan
 Saint John Neumann (1811–1860), Bishop of Philadelphia
 John Bosco born Giovanni Melchior Bosco (1815–1888)
 John Baptist Con, John Charles Cornay, John Dat, John Hoan Trinh Doan, John Louis Bonnard, and John Thanh Van Dinh of the Vietnamese Martyrs (16th–19th century)
 John, (era unknown), one of the Ethiopian saints Abraham, Ethnus, Acrates, James, and John
 John of Sammanud, (era unknown), martyred with James of Manug
 John of Kiev, the name used to refer to an infant of Kiev and an adult monk, both saints – see Abraham and Onesimus of Kiev

In other languages
 Mar Yohanna (Arabic)
 Sant Joan (Catalan)
 Saint-Jean (French)
 Sankt Johann (German)
 Agios Ioannis (Greek)
 San Giovanni (Italian)
 São João (Portuguese)
 San Juan (Spanish)
 Sant Ioan (Welsh)
 Sankt Hans (Danish)
 San Joan or Donibane (Basque)
 Johannes de Doper (Dutch)

With 'St. John' as a surname
 Austin St. John, American actor
 Bridget St John, British singer
 Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751), English statesman and philosopher
 Ian St. John, former footballer and now pundit
 John St. John (1833–1916), U.S. politician
 Kate St John, British musician and composer
 Lara St. John, Canadian violinist
 Oliver St John (c. 1598–1673), English statesman and judge
 Spenser St. John, British Consul in Brunei (19th century)
 Pamela St. John, American composer

Places

Canada
 Saint John, New Brunswick
 Saint John (electoral district), federal electoral district in New Brunswick
 Saint John River, in New Brunswick and Maine (United States)

United Kingdom
 St John, Cornwall, a village near Millbrook, Cornwall, England
 St John, Hackney, England
 St. John, Powys, Wales
 Saint John, Jersey – a parish on Jersey.

United States

 St. John, Indiana
 St. John, Kansas
 St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana
 Saint John Plantation, Maine
 St. John, Missouri
 St. John, North Dakota
 Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands
 St. John, Washington
 Saint John River, Maine and New Brunswick (Canada)

Other uses
 Knights of St. John
 St. John Ambulance
 Venerable Order of Saint John
 York St John University
 St. John (comic book publisher)
 St John (restaurant), Smithfield, London
 St. John (store), an upscale, luxury American fashion brand
 St. John Catholic School, Toronto

Related pages
 John (disambiguation)
 Saint John's (disambiguation)
 St. John's Cathedral (disambiguation)
 Saint John Cemetery (disambiguation)
 St. John's Church (disambiguation)
 Saint John's College (disambiguation)
 Saint John Parish (disambiguation)
 St. John's School (disambiguation)
 Saint John's University (disambiguation)

Saint John


John Franklin "Johnny" Sain (September 25, 1917 – November 7, 2006) was an American right-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who was best known for teaming with left-hander Warren Spahn on the Boston Braves teams from 1946 to 1951. He was the runner-up for the National League's Most Valuable Player Award in the Braves' pennant-winning season of 1948, after leading the National League in wins, complete games and innings pitched. He later became further well known as one of the top pitching coaches in the majors.

Military service
Beginning in late 1942, Sain served in the United States Navy during World War II. As a navy pilot, he spent the next three years stateside, while also playing baseball on the navy bases. He was discharged in November 1945.

Pitching star of post-war Boston Braves
Born in Havana, Arkansas, Sain pitched for 11 years, winning 139 games and losing 116 in his career and compiled an earned run average of 3.49. His best years were those immediately after World War II, when he won 100 games for the Boston Braves, before being traded to the New York Yankees during the 1951 season for Lew Burdette and cash.

Sain had the distinction of being the first pitcher in the Major Leagues to face Jackie Robinson.  In 1943, while participating in a benefit game for the Red Cross, Sain became the last man to pitch against Babe Ruth in organized baseball.

In 1948, Sain won 24 games against 15 losses and finished second in the voting for the Most Valuable Player Award behind the St. Louis Cardinals' Stan Musial, who had won two legs of the Triple Crown. Sain and teammate Spahn achieved joint immortality that year when their feats were the subject of sports editor Gerald V. Hern's poem in the Boston Post which was eventually shortened to the epigram "Spahn and Sain; then pray for rain." According to the Baseball Almanac, the original doggerel appeared in Hern's column on September 14, 1948:

First we'll use Spahn
then we'll use Sain
Then an off day
followed by rain
Back will come Spahn
followed by Sain
And followed
we hope
by two days of rain.

The poem was inspired by the performance of Sain and Spahn during the Braves' 1948 pennant drive.  The team swept a Labor Day doubleheader, with Spahn throwing a complete game 14-inning win in the opener, and Sain pitching a shutout in the second game.  Following two off days, it did rain.  Spahn won the next day, and Sain won the day after that.  Three days later, Spahn won again.  Sain won the next day.  After one more off day, the two pitchers were brought back, and won another doubleheader.  The two pitchers had gone 8–0 in twelve days' time.

That year, the Boston Braves won their second, latter National League pennant of the post-1901 era, but fell in six games to the Cleveland Indians in the 1948 World Series. Sain won the first game of the Series, a 1–0 shutout at Braves Field that included a memorable play in which Boston catcher Phil Masi was called safe after an apparent pickoff at second base. Masi went on to score the game's only run.

With the Yankees, Sain became a relief pitcher and enjoyed late-career success, leading the American League in saves with 22 in 1954. He finished his career in 1955 with the Kansas City Athletics.

When Sain was pitching, he thought that merely throwing the ball was not enough to get the ball to vary its course as it travelled to home plate. In order to throw a pitch such as a curveball or a screwball, he had to snap his wrist.

A very good hitting pitcher in his 11 year major league career, Sain posted a .245 batting average with 69 runs, 3 home runs and 101 RBI.

Pitching coach
After retiring as a player, Sain spent many years as a well-regarded but outspoken pitching coach for the Athletics, Yankees, Minnesota Twins, Detroit Tigers, Chicago White Sox and Atlanta Braves. During the 1960s, Sain coached the pitchers of five of the American League's ten pennant-winning teams.

While serving as the Yankees pitching coach, Sain picked up an apple one day and poked a broken car antenna through it. Spinning the apple, Sain came to the idea that he could do the same with a baseball by inserting a wooden rod into it, enabling him to spin the ball differently, imitating the spins used for different pitches. Sain eventually patented the idea and sold it from his home in Arkansas.

An independent thinker among coaches, Sain tended to be admired by his pitchers, but he battled with at least two of his managers—Sam Mele of the Twins and Mayo Smith of the Tigers—when he disagreed with them. In each case, Sain was fired, but the manager's dismissal soon followed when his pitching staff suffered from Sain's absence. Sain did not make friends among owners and general managers, either, when he would advise pitchers to "climb those golden stairs" to their teams' front offices to demand more money in salary talks. Sain was also well known for ignoring running drills that pitchers despised. He frequently told pitchers and managers "You don't run the damn ball across the plate. If running did it, they'd look for pitchers on track teams."

Jim Bouton, in his book Ball Four, expressed unreserved admiration for Sain, who had been his pitching tutor in New York during his first two Major League seasons, 1962 and 1963. Bouton openly wished to pitch for the 1969 Tigers in order to have a chance to again benefit from Sain's coaching. Sain and Bouton were briefly reunited in the Atlanta Braves system in 1978. Ned Garver said that Sain was the best pitching coach he ever encountered. "If he had an idea that he thought could be of value to you, he would tell you about it to try to help you. But by the time he finished visiting with you about it, you would think that you'd thought of it yourself," Garver described Sain's approach.

Tommy John, on the other hand, had trouble working with Sain, who kept trying to get the pitcher to throw a slider, a pitch that gave John trouble. "Sain could show you how to throw any pitch in the book, but he couldn't look at your motion and tell if your mechanics were off," recalled John. "For a sinkerballer [which John was], that spells trouble."

Pitchers who won 20 or more games under Sain's coaching include Jim Kaat, Whitey Ford, Mudcat Grant, Denny McLain, Jim Bouton, Al Downing, Jim Perry, Wilbur Wood, and Stan Bahnsen.

Personal life

Sain was married twice.  His first wife was Doris May McBride of Dallas.  They were married on October 1, 1945 and had four children: John Jr., Sharyl, Ronda and Randy.  The couple divorced in 1970.  Sain's second wife was Mary Ann Zaremba, whom he married on August 24, 1972.  They had no children together.  Sain was disabled by a stroke in 2002.  He died at age 89 in Downers Grove, Illinois.  At the time of his death, Sain had 11 grandchildren.

See also

 List of Major League Baseball annual saves leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
 Pitcher of the Year Award

References

External links

 Cool of the Evening: The 1965 Minnesota Twins – Biography from author of 1965 Minnesota Twins' book
April 15, 1947

1917 births
2006 deaths
American League All-Stars
Atlanta Braves coaches
Baseball coaches from Arkansas
Baseball players from Arkansas
Boston Braves players
Chicago White Sox coaches
Detroit Tigers coaches
Kansas City Athletics coaches
Kansas City Athletics players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball pitching coaches
Minnesota Twins coaches
Nashville Vols players
National League All-Stars
National League wins champions
Newport Cardinals players
New York Yankees players
New York Yankees coaches
Osceola Indians players
People from Yell County, Arkansas

Johnny Sain


Ironmongery originally referred, first, to the manufacture of iron goods and, second, to the place of sale of such items for domestic rather than industrial use. In both contexts, the term has expanded to include items made of steel, aluminium, brass, or other metals, as well as plastics.

The term ironmonger as a supplier of consumer goods is still widely used in Great Britain, the US equivalent being "hardware store". Many architectural ironmongery items (for example, door handles, locks, hinges, etc.) are also manufactured for wholesale and commercial use in offices and other buildings.

History
Dealing in ironware has a long tradition, dating back to the first recorded use of the metal to fashion useful objects as long ago as 1200 BC, and studying the movement of such goods around the world, often over long distances, has provided valuable insight into early societies and trading patterns.

By the Middle Ages, skilled metalworkers were highly prized for their ability to create a wide range of things, from weaponry, tools and implements to more humble domestic items, and the local blacksmith remained the principal source of ironmongery until the Industrial Revolution saw the introduction of mass production from the late 18th century. In the areas where ironware and nails were manufactured, particularly the Black Country, an ironmonger was a manufacturer operating under the domestic system, who put out iron to smiths, nailers, or other metal workers, and then organised the distribution of the finished products to retailers.

In the second half of the 19th century, Victorian ironmongery offered a treasurehouse of appealing metalwork, with elaborate manufacturers' catalogues offering literally thousands of objects to meet each and every need, almost all of which sought to combine practicality with pleasing design.

The second half of the 20th century saw the steady decline of ironmongers' shops. Although every small town in Britain used to have at least one, their fate has mirrored that of many traditional emporia. The number of ironmongers has fallen dramatically with the advent of DIY superstores that offer a complete range of ironmongery and associated products under one roof, and more recently the arrival of comprehensive mail order catalogues and internet suppliers.

However, there has been a simultaneous revival in the fortunes of old-style hand-forged ironmongery, with strong interest in the authentic restoration of period homes leading to demand for items such as traditional iron door handles, door knobs, door knockers, letter plates, locks, hinges, hooks, cabinet fittings and window furniture. There has even been renewed use of  "blacksmith nails" – four-sided hand-made rosehead nails. This is typical of a trend that has seen greater appreciation of designs that have stood the test of time, that has allowed hand-forged ironmongery to find a much wider application than use in property restoration – although the practice of incorporating traditional ironmongery into contemporary housing has been helped by thoroughly modern techniques like galvanising and powder coating to inhibit rust.

See also
Blacksmith

References

External links

Sales occupations
Retailers by type of merchandise sold
Industrial history
Ironmongers

Ironmongery


The First Jewish–Roman War was the first and biggest of the Jewish–Roman wars in the Judaea province. It is often called The Great Revolt. It happened from 66–70 AD, and ended with the Empire winning.

It began in 66 AD in Caesarea, where there was religious tension between the Greek and Jewish population. It turned into an anti-taxation protest against Rome. In Caesarea, the Greeks sacrificed animals in front of a Jewish Synagogue. This resulted in the Jews ceasing sacrifices to the Roman Emperor. General Gallus went up against the rebels and lost a crucial battle at Beth Horon in 68 AD.

After this defeat, Emperor Nero replaced Gallus with Vespasian. He crushed the Northern and Southern leadership and the rebellion began to fall apart. Later that year, Nero was deposed. The Roman forces besieged Jerusalem and breached the walls by 70 AD. Once they got into the walls, the Roman soldiers burned and ransacked the city also destroying the Second Temple. The final stronghold at Masada was taken in 73 AD and when the Roman soldiers broke through the defences, they discovered all the defenders had committed suicide. As a result, most of the Jews in the area were scattered or sold into slavery. The final death toll, according to Josephus who was often wrong about numbers, was over one million.

Wars and battles of Ancient Rome
60s
70
Jewish history

First Jewish–Roman War


Aljama (, , ) is a term of Arabic origin used in old official documents in Spain and Portugal to designate the self-governing communities of Moors and Jews living under Christian rule in the Iberian Peninsula. In some present-day Spanish cities, the name is still applied to the quarters where such communities lived, though they are many centuries gone.

The Jewish communities of Spain, owing to their social isolation and to the religious and political regulations imposed upon them, had always formed groups apart from the rest of the population. The authority exercised by their own rabbis and the system of tax-collection by the heads of the congregations for the administration of communal affairs, placed them almost completely without the jurisdiction of the government of the country; and, as a result, they soon came to be dealt with by the officials not as subjects amenable to the general law of the land, but as collective bodies with special privileges and special duties.

Thus, the Visigothic kings imposed a tax not upon each individual Jew or upon the heads of families, but upon the community as a whole, allowing the communal authorities to fix the individual rate of taxation. But both under the Visigoths and under the Moors there was neither regularity in the transactions of the rabbis and elders nor system in the attitude of the government toward the Jewish communities. With the reestablishment of Christian rule, however, the relation between the government and its Jewish subjects gradually became a well-defined one.

In 1219 and 1284 in Toledo, in 1273 in Barcelona, in 1290 at Huete, and on more than one occasion during those years in Portugal, councils were held of Spanish officials and Jewish representatives for the purpose of establishing a just rate of taxation for Jewish communities, and of devising adequate means for tax-collection. This first official recognition by the government of the Jewish communities as separate bodies led to a still further change in the treatment of the Jewish congregations and in the legislation, both local and national, regarding them.

The bishops of the various districts assumed immediate authority over them, and, in conjunction with Jewish representatives, formed rules which were henceforth to govern the communities. The elections of rabbis and judges were to be held at stated intervals, and the names of these dignitaries submitted to the bishop for approval; there was to be a Rabino mayor (Rab de la corte; "court rabbi") for the presentation of communal questions before the proper authorities; and the heads of the congregation were made answerable for the conduct of the community. In all government action, whether local or general, the unit considered was in most cases the community, not the individual Jew.

The governing authority of the state sometimes nominated a member of the Jewish community to the administrative position of crown rabbi to act as intermediary between the aljama and the state. For example, in the Kingdom of Aragon King John I issued edicts in 1386 defining the functions and duties of the . There were various requirements as to the good character and faith of the person holding the position, as well as a requirement that he live among the entourage of the Court, and thus away from his community, and in constant contact with the Christian majority population. His powers and authorities over the  of Castile, economic, judicial, and otherwise, were specified.

Etymology and development of the concept

The word aljama comes from Arabic and refers to the Jama Masjid of a Muslim community, where believers pray Jumu'ah, the communal Friday prayer.

The word aljama is derived from the Arabic jama ("gather") plus the definite article al. It originally meant "congregation", "assembly", "group", but was, even before the establishment of Spanish rule, applied by the Moors to their own religious bodies and the larger mosques, and especially to the Jewish communities in the midst of them, and to the synagogues and schools which formed the center of all Jewish life. The term was adopted by the Christians, and its meaning extended so as to designate also the quarters that Jews and Moors had made their own. In some Spanish cities, the former Jewish quarters are still known by that name, even though the Jews were expelled in 1492.

Very often, for purposes of distinction, such phrases as Aljama de los Judíos ("Aljama of the Jews") and Aljama de los Moros ("Aljama of the Moors") were used. But the circumstance that the Moors of Spain had by the term designated more especially the Jewish community has left its trace in the use of the word in the Spanish language; for in Spanish literature Aljama, without any further specification, stands for Sanedrin or for Judería ("Jewry"), or even for the Jewish place of worship, in the concrete as well as in the abstract sense. This use occurs at a very early date. In the "Poem of Alexander", in the "Milagros de Nuestra Señora", and in the "Duelo de la Virgen" of Gonzalo de Berceo, all of the 13th century, Aljama or Alfama is employed to designate the people of ancient Jerusalem; and the historian of the 16th century, Mariana, uses Aljama for the synagogue: "they devastated their houses and their aljamas."

Tecana of Valladolid

A good example of how much self-government was granted to the Jewish Aljamas is afforded by the "resolution of the meeting", in Spanish called  (from takkanah, תקנה, a Hebrew word that, like sanedrín, has been incorporated into the Spanish language) arrived at by the Aljama of Valladolid in 1432. This report is written partly in Hebrew, and partly in Spanish with Hebrew characters, and is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris ("Fonds Hébreux," No. 585).

From this document it is learned that, at Valladolid, electoral meetings were held by the community every ten years, and that the particular meeting of which an account is given in the document took place in the latter part of Iyar (end of May) and lasted for ten days. The following were some of the matters decided or discussed:
 The necessity of the Talmud Torah, or Hebrew school, and the rate of taxation for the maintenance of the same, which was decided upon as follows: five maravedis for each of the cattle killed, and one for each sheep; five maravedis for every flask of wine. Five maravedis were also to be paid by a married couple on the day of their wedding, and by a boy on the day of his bar mitzvah. A certain tax was also laid upon inheritances, and various other means of revenue were devised. In connection with this question the employment and salary of private or itinerant teachers were discussed.
 The election of the judges and of the rab de la corte (rabbi of the court), to which much space is accorded in this .
 The attitude of the individual Jew in his relations with the state. This was by far the most important question discussed. Since permission to decide civil and criminal cases before Jewish judges had been granted by the Spanish government, and since "the Christians, though they be well versed in law, know nothing of Jewish laws," no Jew might plead before a Christian judge, whether religious or civil, except in cases where the taxes and imposts due to the ruler were in litigation, or where special permission was obtained from the dayyan, or chief judge of the Aljama. A Jew who arrested another Jew with the aid of a Christian was to be apprehended by the dayyan; for a second offense of the same nature, he was to be branded on the forehead and expelled; while the third offense was made punishable by death.

This ability to impose a capital punishment in indicative of how wide was the Jewish community's autonomy.

Derived words
From aljama are derived:
Aljamado, adjective and noun, the inhabitant of an aljama.
Aljamía, the Spanish vernacular used by the Jews or Moors, but more especially the Spanish or Mozarabic language written with Hebrew characters by the Jews, and with Arabic letters by the Moors
Aljamiado (adjective and noun), one who speaks or knows the Aljamia.

Similar unrelated words
Spanish Alhama and Portuguese Alfama derive from Arabic hammam, "baths".
Arabic Ra's al-Galut meaning exilarch.

References

Sources

 William Milwitzky Aljama, in the Jewish Encyclopedia. That article, in turn references:
 Francisco Fernandes y Gonzales, in Boletín de la Real Academia de la Historia, vii. 156 et seq.;
 F. Fita, "Acta de Toma de Posesión de Una Aljama Israelita", in Ilustración Católica, Nov. 21, 1880.
 Diccionario de la Real Academia Española.
aljama. There is a homonymy with a different etymology meaning "mosque".
aljamía.

Christianity and Judaism
Islam in Spain
Jewish Spanish history
Jewish self-rule
Arabic words and phrases

Aljama


Glenn Martin National Wildlife Refuge includes the northern half of Smith Island (in Somerset County, Maryland), which lies  west of Crisfield, Maryland, and Watts Island (in Accomack County, Virginia), which is located between the eastern shore of Virginia and Tangier Island. Both islands are situated in the lower Chesapeake Bay.

The refuge was established in 1954 when the late Glenn L. Martin donated  to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Since then, donation and purchase has increased the size of the refuge to . The tidal marsh, coves and creeks, and vegetated ridges of the refuge form an important stopover and wintering area for thousands of migratory waterfowl and nesting habitat for various wildlife species.

Martin National Wildlife Refuge is the largest unit of the Chesapeake Islands Refuges, which also includes Spring Island, Barren Island, and Bishops Head in Dorchester County, Maryland. The management of the Chesapeake Islands Refuges falls under the umbrella of the Chesapeake Marshlands National Wildlife Refuge Complex. Located in Cambridge, Maryland, the complex also manages Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge and Susquehanna River National Wildlife Refuge.

Wildlife
The tidal marsh, coves, creeks and ridges of the refuge provide an important rest area and winter home for thousands of migratory waterfowl and nesting habitat for a variety of wildlife that change with the seasons.

Winter residents on the refuge include black ducks, pintail, mergansers, long-tailed ducks, scoters, bufflehead, Canada geese, and tundra swans. During spring and summer, the salt marsh grasses, abundant insects, and underwater vegetation attract black ducks, mallards, gadwall, and green-winged teal to nest on the refuge. Gulls, terns, black skimmers, oystercatchers, and willets nest and feed along the marsh grasses, mudflats, and sand bars. The wooded ridges provide nest sites for several water birds. Ten different species, including herons, egrets, and glossy ibis have been seen in rookeries on the refuge. Rookeries are groups or colonies of birds that nest together. Martin NWR supports the largest colony of brown pelicans in the Maryland portion of the Chesapeake Bay.

A small population of red fox, muskrat, mink, otter, voles, northern diamondback terrapin, and various nonvenomous water snakes also live in the marsh areas. Clapper rails, seaside sparrows, and marsh wrens also depend on the protected refuge habitat. Peregrine falcons have been nesting on the refuge every year since the first peregrine nesting tower was installed in 1984. The marsh and estuary are important in the production of marine species such as crabs and oysters that help form the food chain.

References

External links

Glenn Martin National Wildlife Refuge

Protected areas of Accomack County, Virginia
Smith Island, Maryland
National Wildlife Refuges in Maryland
National Wildlife Refuges in Virginia
Protected areas of Somerset County, Maryland
Protected areas established in 1954
1954 establishments in Maryland
1954 establishments in Virginia
Wetlands of Maryland
Wetlands of Virginia
Landforms of Accomack County, Virginia
Landforms of Somerset County, Maryland

Glenn Martin National Wildlife Refuge


The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel is a document that announced the establishment of the independent and sovereign state (country) of Israel.

The term
This term describes the announcement of establishment of a Jewish state, named State of Israel. This State of Israel was established on 14th May 1948. In Hebrew language,  means the State of Israel. The British Mandate of Palestine was a part of the British Empire. This was the land where the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah had once been. The State of Israel covered more or less the same land.

Some persons call this as the beginning of "Third Jewish Commonwealth". The "First Jewish Commonwealth" ended with the destruction of Solomon's Temple, and the second with the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem two thousand years ago.

The declaration

On November 29th 1947, the United Nations had adopted a resolution. The resolution recommended the establishment of an Arab State and a  Jewish State in Palestine. The resolution recommended taking steps to establish such a state.

On May 12th 1948, the Jewish national administration met at Tel Aviv Museum of Art. They had gathered to decide acceptance of an American proposal for a truce or to declare a new state of Israel. Six of the ten voting members supported declaration of a state of Israel. Two days later, on May 14th 1948, the Jewish National Council (Vaad Leumi) met at Tel Aviv. At mid night of May 14th, 1948, a member of the Council read the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel.

The declaration followed a style generally seen in the United Nations documents. First few sentences stated the reasons for the declaration and the right of the Jews for an independent country. Then, the sentences gave the features and characteristics of the new Jewish state.

Quotes

A few quotes from the declaration:

...the Land of Israel, was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.

After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.

Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.

The recognition
The United States, the Soviet Union, and many other major countries of the world accepted the state of Israel. Using terms of international law, these countries recognized the state of Israel. However, many Arab countries and countries of the Middle East opposed the establishment of Israel. They did not recognize the state of Israel as a sovereign state, that is, an independent country. Many countries of the world did not recognize Israel, but establish trading and other relations with it.

Other websites

1940s in Israel
Declarations of independence
1948 in Asia


Gregory VI of Cilicia (; also Gregory VI Apiratsi or Grigor VI Apirat) was the Catholicos of the Armenian Church from 1194 to 1203, located in Sis. In 1198, he proclaimed a union between Rome and the Armenian Church.

Gregory VI was a nephew of Gregory III of Cilicia and Nerses IV the Gracious. He was favorable to the Latins and had been nominated by Prince Levon I of Armenia (the future King Levon I), because of the need of an alliance. This election created a schism in the Armenian Church however, and a rival anti-patriarch was elected in Greater Armenia.

Gregory's announcement of union was not followed in deeds however, as the local clergy and populace was strongly opposed to it.

When Levon, Lord of Cilicia, asked to the Pope and to the Emperor that he be recognized as king, the condition was that the Armenian Church should join the Roman rite. He formally accepted the union, but this again was without effect as the Armenian clergy was strongly opposed to it, and never accepted the doctrine of the double nature of Christ. Gregory VI crowned him King of Armenia in 1198/1199 and the Cilician Armenian kingdom began.

References
René Grousset, L'Empire du Levant : Histoire de la Question d'Orient, 1949

Catholicoi of Cilicia
Armenian Apostolic Christians
Pahlavuni family
13th-century Oriental Orthodox archbishops
12th-century Oriental Orthodox archbishops

Gregory VI of Cilicia


Pier Francesco Mola, called Il Ticinese (9 February 1612 – 13 May 1666) was an Italian painter of the High Baroque, mainly active around Rome.

Biography
Mola was born in Coldrerio (now in Ticino, Switzerland). At the age of four, he moved to Rome with his father Giovanni Battista Mola, a painter. With the exception of the years 1633–40 and 1641–47, during which he resided in Venice and Bologna, respectively, he lived for the rest of his life in Rome.

His early training was with the late mannerist painter Cavalier d'Arpino, and he worked under the classicizing Francesco Albani.

His masterpiece as a fresco painter is widely considered to be the fresco in the gallery of Alexander VII in the Quirinal Palace  Gallery, entitled Joseph making himself known to his Brethren (1657). However, Mola is considered to have been better as a painter of small pictures, especially landscapes. He made six versions of The Flight into Egypt, the earliest of which is The Rest on the Flight into Egypt.

He was elected Principe of the Accademia di San Luca, the Roman artists' professional association, in 1662, but his last years were neither profitable nor prolific. Among his pupils were Jean-Baptiste Forest, Antonio Gherardi, and Giuseppe Bonati.

With his looser style and handling, more naturalistic palette, and interest in exploring landscape elements, Mola differs from the prevailing, highly-theoretical classicism of such leading 17th-century Roman painters as Andrea Sacchi.

Notes

Sources

 Pier Francesco Mola 1612 - 1666, Electa 1989, Lugano, Museo Cantonale d'Arte

1612 births
1666 deaths
People from Ticino
17th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian Baroque painters

Pier Francesco Mola


Luritja is the name of an Australian Aboriginal group of the Western Desert. They speak the Luritja dialect of Wati, the language of the Western Desert people. The dialect itself has several varieties. The Luritja lands include areas to the west and south of Alice Springs. The region is centred on Kings Canyon. Their neighbours are the Arrernte (east), the Warlpiri (north), the Pintupi (west), and the Pitjantjatjara (south).

In recent decades, many from this group have inter-married with Pintupi-speaking people. During the mid 20th-century, the Pintupi were forced to leave their lands and were settled into government-built stations. Papunya became a settlement for both Pintupi and Luritja. In the 1980s, many of these people moved back west to Kintore. Both communities now mainly speak a hybridised dialect known as Pintupi-Luritja.

The name luritja is thought to come from the Arrernte word lurinya, which means "foreigner". Over time younger generations have taken on the name as their ethnonym. The total population of Luritja people (including those at Papunya) is probably in the thousands. This makes them the third largest of the Central Australian Aboriginal populations, behind the Arrernte and Pitjantjatjara.

References

Australian Aboriginal groups

Luritja


Lee Redmond (born February 2, 1941) is a woman from the Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. She is famous for having the longest fingernails in the world.

She has not cut her fingernails since 1979. The combined length of her fingernails are 7 meters and 51 centimeters long (24 feet, 8 inches) . She has an active life despite of her long fingernails. Lee Redmond is in the Guinness Book of World Records in the category Longest Fingernails - Female.

On February 10, 2009, Lee was in a car crash, and was thrown out of the car. She was badly hurt and all her fingernails were broken off.

References

Other websites
 Guinness World Records: Longest Fingernails - Female.

1941 births
Living people
People from Utah
World record holders

Lee Redmond


The Nashville sit-ins, which lasted from February 13 to May 10, 1960, were part of a protest to end racial segregation at lunch counters in downtown Nashville, Tennessee. The sit-in campaign, coordinated by the Nashville Student Movement and the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, was notable for its early success and its emphasis on disciplined nonviolence. It was part of a broader sit-in movement that spread across the southern United States in the wake of the Greensboro sit-ins in North Carolina.

Over the course of the Nashville sit-in campaign, sit-ins were staged at numerous stores in the central business district.  Over 150 students were eventually arrested for refusing to vacate store lunch counters when ordered to do so by police. At trial, the students were represented by a group of 13 lawyers, headed by Z. Alexander Looby. On April 19, Looby's home was bombed, although he escaped uninjured. Later that day, at least 3,000 people marched to City Hall to confront Mayor Ben West about the escalating violence. When asked if he believed the lunch counters in Nashville should be desegregated, West agreed that they should. After subsequent negotiations between the store owners and protest leaders, an agreement was reached during the first week of May. On May 10, six downtown stores began serving black customers at their lunch counters for the first time.

Although the initial campaign successfully desegregated downtown lunch counters, sit-ins, pickets, and protests against other segregated facilities continued in Nashville until passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended overt, legally sanctioned segregation nationwide. Many of the organizers of the Nashville sit-ins went on to become important leaders in the Civil Rights Movement.

Background

In 1896, the United States Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal". This decision led to the proliferation of Jim Crow laws throughout the United States. These laws mandated or explicitly allowed segregation in virtually all spheres of public life and allowed racial discrimination to flourish across the country, especially in the southern United States.

In Nashville, like most Southern cities, African Americans were severely disadvantaged under the system of Jim Crow segregation. Besides being relegated to underfunded schools and barred from numerous public accommodations, African Americans had few prospects for skilled employment and were subject to constant discrimination from the white majority.

Although serious efforts were made to oppose Jim Crow laws in Nashville as early as 1905, it was not until 1958, with the formation of the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, that Nashville's African American community would lay the foundation for dismantling racial segregation.

Precursors and organization

The Nashville Christian Leadership Council (or NCLC), was founded by the Reverend Kelly Miller Smith, pastor of First Baptist Church, Capitol Hill. This organization was an affiliate of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and was established to promote civil rights for African Americans through nonviolent civil disobedience. Smith believed that White Americans would be more sympathetic to desegregation if African Americans obtained their rights through peaceful demonstration rather than through the judicial system or violent confrontation.

From March 26 to 28, 1958, the NCLC held the first of many workshops on using nonviolent tactics to challenge segregation. These workshops were led by James Lawson, who had studied the principles of nonviolent resistance while working as a missionary in India. Later workshops were mainly attended by students from Fisk University, Tennessee A&I (later Tennessee State University), American Baptist Theological Seminary (later American Baptist College), and Meharry Medical College. Among those attending Lawson's sessions were students who would become significant leaders in the Civil Rights Movement, among them: Marion Barry, James Bevel, Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, Diane Nash, and C. T. Vivian.

During these workshops it was decided that the first target for the group's actions would be downtown lunch counters. At the time, African Americans were allowed to shop in downtown stores but were not allowed to eat in the stores' restaurants. The group felt that the lunch counters were a good objective because they were highly visible, easily accessible, and provided a stark example of the injustices black Southerners faced every day.

In late 1959, James Lawson and other members of the NCLC's projects committee met with department store owners Fred Harvey and John Sloan, and asked them to voluntarily serve African Americans at their lunch counters. Both men declined, saying that they would lose more business than they would gain. The students then began doing reconnaissance for sit-in demonstrations. The first test took place at Harveys Department Store in downtown Nashville on November 28, followed by the Cain-Sloan store on December 5. Small groups of students purchased items at the stores and then sat at their lunch counters and attempted to order food. Their goal was to try to sense the mood and degree of resistance in each store. Although they were refused service at both lunch counters, the reactions varied significantly. At Harveys, they received surprisingly polite responses, while at Cain-Sloan they were treated with contempt. These reconnaissance actions were low-key and neither of the city's newspapers was notified of them.

Full-scale demonstrations
Before the students in Nashville had a chance to formalize their plans, events elsewhere brought renewed urgency to the effort. During the first week of February 1960, a small sit-in demonstration in Greensboro, North Carolina, grew into a significant protest with over eighty students participating by the third day. Although similar demonstrations had occurred previously in other cities, this was the first to attract substantial media attention and public notice. When Lawson's group met the subsequent Friday night, about 500 new volunteers showed up to join the cause. Although Lawson and other adult organizers argued for delay, the student leaders insisted that the time had come for action.

The first large-scale organized sit-in was on Saturday, February 13, 1960. At about 12:30 pm, 124 students, most of them black, walked into the downtown Woolworths, S. H. Kress, and McLellan stores and asked to be served at the lunch counters. After the staff refused to serve them, they sat in the stores for two hours and then left without incident.

On the Monday following the first sit-in, the Baptist Minister's Conference of Nashville, representing 79 congregations, unanimously voted to support the student movement, thus throwing the weight of Nashville's black religious community behind the students. Local religious leaders called on people of good will to boycott downtown merchants who practiced segregation. Nashville's black community strongly supported the boycott, causing economic hardship for the merchants.

The second sit-in occurred on Thursday, February 18, when more than 200 students entered Woolworths, S. H. Kress, McLellan's, and Grants. The lunch counters were immediately closed. The students remained for about half an hour and then left, again without incident. The third sit-in occurred on February 20 when about 350 students entered the previous four stores and the downtown Walgreens drugstore. As the students sat at the counters, crowds of white youths gathered in several of the stores. Police kept a watchful eye on all five locations, but no incidents of violence occurred. The students remained for nearly three hours until adjourning to a mass meeting at the First Baptist Church.

Tensions mounted over the following week as sit-in demonstrations spread to other cities and race riots broke out in nearby Chattanooga. On February 27, the Nashville student activists held a fourth sit-in at the Woolworths, McLellan's, and Walgreens stores. Crowds of white youths again gathered in the stores to taunt and harass the demonstrators. This time, however, police were not present. Eventually, several of the sit-in demonstrators were attacked by hecklers in the McLellan's and Woolworths stores. Some were pulled from their seats and beaten, and one demonstrator was pushed down a flight of stairs. When police arrived, the white attackers fled and none were arrested. Police then ordered the demonstrators at all three locations to leave the stores. When the demonstrators refused to leave, they were arrested and loaded into police vehicles as onlookers applauded. Eighty-one students were arrested and charged with loitering and disorderly conduct.

The arrests brought a surge of media coverage to the sit-in campaign, including national television news coverage, front-page stories in both of Nashville's daily newspapers, and an Associated Press story. The students generally viewed any media coverage as helpful to their cause, especially when it illustrated their commitment to nonviolence.

Several other sit-ins took place over the following two months, resulting in more arrests and further attacks against sit-in participants. Over 150 students were arrested. Throughout the demonstrations, the student activists maintained a policy of disciplined nonviolence. Their written code of conduct became a model followed by demonstrators in other cities:
"Do not strike back or curse if abused. Do not laugh out. Do not hold conversations with the floor walker. Do not leave your seat until your leader has given you permission to do so. Do not block entrances to stores outside nor the aisles inside. Do show yourself courteous and friendly at all times. Do sit straight; always face the counter. Do report all serious incidents to your leader. Do refer information seekers to your leader in a polite manner. Remember the teachings of Jesus, Gandhi, Martin Luther King. Love and nonviolence is the way."

Trials and Lawson expulsion
The trials of the sit-in participants attracted widespread interest throughout Nashville and the surrounding region. On February 29, the first day of the trials, a crowd of more than 2000 people lined the streets surrounding the city courthouse to show their support for the defendants. A group of 13 lawyers, headed by Z. Alexander Looby, represented the students. Initially, the trial was presided over by City Judge Andrew J. Doyle. Doyle dismissed the loitering charges against the students and then stepped down from the bench, turning the trial over to Special City Judge John I. Harris.

Despite strong support from the black community, all the students who had been arrested were convicted of disorderly conduct and fined $50. The students refused to pay the fines, however, and chose instead to serve thirty-three days in the county workhouse. Diane Nash issued a statement on behalf of the students explaining the decision: "We feel that if we pay these fines we would be contributing to and supporting the injustice and immoral practices that have been performed in the arrest and conviction of the defendants."

The same day the trials began, a group of black ministers, including James Lawson, met with Mayor Ben West to discuss the sit-ins. Coverage of the meeting by the local press, including a scathing editorial in the Nashville Banner denouncing Lawson as a "flannel-mouth agitator", brought Lawson's activities to the attention of Vanderbilt University where he was enrolled as a Divinity School student. The newspaper was owned by James G. Stahlman, a Vanderbilt trustee who was "strongly anti-integration"; it published misleading stories, including the suggestion that Lawson had incited others to "violate the law." When Lawson was confronted by Vanderbilt's executive committee and told he would have to end his involvement with the sit-ins, Lawson refused. He was immediately expelled from the university by Chancellor Harvie Branscomb, and arrested the next day. Dean J. Robert Nelson resigned in protest and paid Lawson's bail with three of his colleagues, and the school was placed on probation for a year by the American Association of Theological Schools.

Biracial Committee

On March 3, in an effort to defuse the racial tensions caused by the sit-ins, Mayor West announced the formation of a Biracial Committee to seek a solution to the city's racial strife. The committee included the presidents of two of the city's black universities, but did not include any representatives from the student movement. The committee met several times over the next month and delivered its recommendations in a report on April 5. The committee recommended to partially integrate the city's lunch counters. Each store would have one section that was for whites only and another section for whites and blacks. This solution was rejected by the student leaders, who considered the recommendations to be morally unacceptable and based upon a policy of segregation. Less than a week after the Biracial Committee issued its report, the sit-ins resumed and the boycott of downtown businesses was intensified.

Looby residence bombing
At 5:30 am on April 19, dynamite was thrown through a front window of Z. Alexander Looby's home in north Nashville, apparently in retaliation for his support of the demonstrators. Although the explosion almost destroyed the house, Looby and his wife, who were asleep in a back bedroom, were not injured. More than 140 windows in a nearby dormitory were broken by the blast.

Rather than discouraging the protesters, this event served as a catalyst for the movement. Within hours, news of the bombing had spread throughout the community. Around noon, nearly 4000 people marched silently to City Hall to confront the mayor. Mayor West met the marchers at the courthouse steps. Reverend C. T. Vivian read a prepared statement accusing the mayor of ignoring the moral issues involved in segregation and turning a blind eye to violence and injustice. Diane Nash then asked the mayor if he felt it was wrong to discriminate against a person based solely on their race or skin color. West answered that he agreed it was wrong. Nash then asked him if he believed that lunch counters in the city should be desegregated. West answered, "Yes", then added, "That's up to the store managers, of course."

Coverage of this event varied significantly between Nashville's two major newspapers. The Tennessean emphasized the mayor's agreement that lunch counters should be desegregated, while the Nashville Banner emphasized the mayor's statement that it was up to the city's merchants to decide whether to desegregate. This was largely indicative of the two papers' opposing stances on the issue. Regardless, the mayor's response was later cited as an important turning point by both activists and Nashville business owners.

The day after the bombing,  Martin Luther King Jr. came to Nashville to speak at Fisk University. During the speech, he praised the Nashville sit-in movement as "the best organized and the most disciplined in the Southland." He further stated that he came to Nashville "not to bring inspiration but to gain inspiration from the great movement that has taken place in this community."

Desegregation
After weeks of secret negotiations between merchants and protest leaders, an agreement was finally reached during the first week of May. According to the agreement, small, selected groups of African Americans would order food at the downtown lunch counters on a day known in advance to the merchants. The merchants would prepare their employees for the event and instruct them to serve the customers without trouble. This arrangement would continue in a controlled manner for a couple of weeks and then all controls would be taken off, at which point the merchants and protest leaders would reconvene to evaluate the results. Also as part of the agreement, the media was to be informed of the settlement and requested to provide only accurate, non-sensational coverage.

On May 10, six downtown stores opened their lunch counters to black customers for the first time. The customers arrived in groups of two or three during the afternoon and were served without incident. At the same time, African Americans ended their six-week-old boycott of the downtown stores. The plan continued successfully and the lunch counters were integrated without any further incidents of violence. Nashville thus became the first major city in the southern United States to begin desegregating its public facilities.

Although the end of the sit-in campaign brought a brief respite for civil rights activists in Nashville, institutionalized racism remained a problem throughout the city. Over the next few years, further sit-ins, pickets, and other actions would take place at restaurants, movie theaters, public swimming pools, and other segregated facilities across Nashville. These actions continued until Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited segregation in public places throughout the United States. In that year, many of the key figures of the sit-ins, including James Lawson and Kelly Miller Smith, were interviewed by Robert Penn Warren for his book Who Speaks for the Negro?, in which they reflected on their experiences.

Fiftieth anniversary

Several events were held in 2010 in order to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Nashville sit-ins.
 On January 20, Vanderbilt University hosted a panel discussion entitled "Veterans of the Nashville Sit-ins – The Struggle Continues". The featured speakers were Kwame Leo Lillard and Matthew Walker, Jr.
 Tennessee State Museum hosted an exhibition from February 4 to May 16 entitled "We Shall Not Be Moved: The 50th Anniversary of Tennessee's Civil Rights Sit-Ins".
 At Tennessee State University on February 10, the 29th annual Conference on African American History and Culture held a special commemoration of the sit-ins, with Diane Nash as the featured guest speaker.
 On February 12, Vanderbilt University hosted a panel discussion on media coverage of the Nashville sit-ins. The featured speakers were James Lawson and John Seigenthaler.
 The downtown Nashville library hosted a photography exhibit entitled "Visions & Voices: The Civil Rights Movement in Nashville & Tennessee" from February 9 to May 22.
 Author and commentator Juan Williams led a forum to discuss civil rights issues at the downtown Nashville library auditorium on February 13.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 Nashville Sit-ins , Tennessee4me.org maintained by the Tennessee State Museum
 American Experience – Eyes on the Prize: "Ain't Scared of Your Jails (1960–1961)", pbs.org
 Nashville Student Movement (1960–1964), Civil Rights Movement Archive, crmvet.org

1960 in Tennessee
1960 protests
20th century in Nashville, Tennessee
African-American history in Nashville, Tennessee
Civil disobedience
Civil rights movement
Civil rights protests in the United States
F. W. Woolworth Company
History of Nashville, Tennessee
History of racism in Tennessee
Lunch counters
Martin Luther King Jr.
Nashville Student Movement

Nashville sit-ins


Edward Ross Roybal (February 10, 1916 – October 24, 2005) was an American politician. A Democrat, he was a member of the Los Angeles City Council from 1949 to 1962 and of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1963 to 1993.

Biography

Roybal was born on February 10, 1916, into a Mexican family that traced its roots in Albuquerque, New Mexico back hundreds of years, to the Roybals who settled the area before the founding of Santa Fe. In 1922, a railroad strike prevented his father from being able to work, and Roybal, age 6, was brought with his family to the East Los Angeles neighborhood of Boyle Heights, where he graduated from Roosevelt High School in 1934. After graduation, Roybal joined the Civilian Conservation Corps. After serving in the CCC, Roybal studied business at UCLA and law at Southwestern Law School.

He served a stint in the Army, where he worked as an accountant for an infantry unit.

On January 8, 2001, he was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton.

Roybal died of respiratory failure complicated by pneumonia at the age of 89 on October 24, 2005, at Huntington Hospital in Pasadena. He was survived by his wife, Lucille, and children Lucille Roybal-Allard, Lillian Roybal-Rose and Edward Roybal Jr. A funeral service was held at the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, and burial was at Calvary Cemetery, East Los Angeles.

Public service

Community

In 1942, Roybal began work as a public health educator with the California Tuberculosis Association. Upon returning home, he began work as director of health education for the Los Angeles County Tuberculosis and Health Association, a position he held until 1949. In 1949, Roybal teamed with local organizer Fred Ross and Anthony "Tony" P Rios from a group of people who had supported his earlier campaign to form the Community Service Organization (CSO), which tied together a variety of religious, political, and organized labor groups to fight local discrimination. The organization, which organized get-out-the-vote drives, did not explicitly endorse candidates, but Roybal's presence as president of the organization and the personal endorsements of many of its members helped form a groundswell of support that contributed to Roybal's victory.  In 1960 Roybal helped organize the Mexican American Political Association (MAPA) and served as its first president from 1960 to 1962.

After retiring from Congress, Roybal founded the Lucille and Edward R. Roybal Foundation, which awards scholarships to Latino students pursuing careers in the field of health. Edward R. Roybal lived the rest of his life in Pasadena, California as one of the deans of local and national politics, endorsing several candidates in elections throughout the region.

City Council

Elections

In 1947, Roybal ran to fill the Los Angeles City Council District 9 seat held by Parley Parker Christensen. The district, which included Boyle Heights, Bunker Hill, Civic Center, Chinatown, Little Tokyo, and the Central Avenue corridor, was then 45% White, 34% Latino, 15% African American, and 6% "other" residents. Roybal placed third in a field of five. In 1949, though, he defeated Christensen in the runoff election, for a two-year term. He was reelected in every vote thereafter until leaving office in 1962 after 13 years, He was president pro tempore in his last term.

Positions

Roybal was noted as "often the spokesman for minority groups" in the City  Council and "recognized leader of East Side minority groups." He was also seen as a "consistent supporter" of subsidized low-cost public housing.

Other positions taken:

Communists, 1950. Roybal cast the sole negative vote against an ordinance that required "Communists and other subversives" to register with the police. He told the council he believed he was "signing a political death warrant" with his vote, adding that the law "places every citizen and organization . . . at the mercy of any biased crackpot who may decide to report the matter to the Police Department as subversive."

Juveniles, 1950. The council adopted a motion by Don A. Allen asking the Police Department what was being done to enforce curfew laws. Allen said it was his opinion that if policemen were "equipped with a good old-fashioned hair brush, which could be applied to some of these kids," there might be a lessening of juvenile crime. But Roybal disagreed, noting that most of the "hoodlums" were over 21 and recommending closer cooperation by the police with agencies "dealing with youth problems."

Rabies, 1953. He and his public health and welfare committee supported proposed legislation requiring all dogs to be vaccinated against rabies.

Dodgers, 1957. Roybal was opposed to the use of Chavez Ravine as a Major League Baseball stadium, claiming that "Chavez Ravine is the worst place in the world for a baseball park." He favored Wrigley Field.

Employment, 1958. He voted in favor of establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission for the city. The bid lost on a 7–7 tie vote.

Bunker Hill, 1959. Roybal threatened a filibuster when the council would not accede to a request he made for monthly reports on the fate of residents evicted from Bunker Hill to make room for a massive improvement project.

Apology, 1960. Before and during a City Council meeting, he demanded an apology from Police Chief William H. Parker for Parker's having condemned some Latino residents of East Los Angeles as "not too far removed from the wild tribes of the inner mountains of Mexico. I don't think you can throw the genes out of the question when you discuss the behavior patterns of people." Parker made the statement at a hearing  before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights; he refused to apologize but said that the word "wild" was ill-advised.

Statewide
During his time in the City Council, Roybal, as a prominent young Democrat, received encouragement to run for higher office. In 1954, he ran for lieutenant governor, losing to Republican incumbent Harold J. Powers, who had been appointed to the position after Lieutenant Governor Goodwin Knight acceded to the governorship after Earl Warren was named Chief Justice of the United States, by 1,764,035 votes (44.66%) to 2,185,918 (55.34%).

Running in 1958 against Ernest E. Debs for a seat on the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, Roybal lost a bitterly contested election in which he held a slim lead on election night, but lost after four recounts gave the election to Debs.

U.S. Congress

Despite this, Roybal ran for Congress in 1962, winning election in the 25th District, an area that included his native Boyle Heights, the larger East Los Angeles area, Downtown, and parts of Hollywood. Beginning his term in 1963, he became the first Latino Congressperson from California since the 1879 election of Romualdo Pacheco.

As Congressman, Roybal was generally known for a low-key legislative style. In his first term, he served on the Interior and Insular Affairs Committee and the Post Office Committee. In his next term, he served on the Foreign Affairs Committee and on the Veteran's Affairs Committee.

Beginning in 1971, he served on the House Appropriations Committee for more than two decades and authored a number of bills, many of which were not universally popular, which offered support for groups he saw as disenfranchised; many of his actions were on behalf of veterans, the elderly, and Mexican-Americans. In 1967 he wrote the first bill giving federal support to bilingual education, creating specialized language instruction for immigrant populations. As Chairman of the House Select Committee on Aging, he led a successful campaign to restore $15 million in funding the low-cost health programs for senior citizens and an expanded public housing program for seniors. In 1982, he worked to preserve the Meals on Wheels program and veterans' preferences in hiring. In the early 1980s, against the wishes of many of his own constituents, he argued for expanded funding for AIDS research.

In 1976, he became a founder of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC) and later co-founded the National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials. In 1986, as chair of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, he led the unsuccessful opposition to the Simpson-Mazzoli Act.

Koreagate
In 1978, Roybal was involved in a vote-buying investigation known as the Koreagate scandal, in which he failed to properly report to the House Ethics Committee a gift of $1000 from a South Korean lobbyist, Tongsun Park. During the investigation by the Ethics Committee, Roybal mistakenly stated he had never met Park.  Park later testified that he had met Roybal four years earlier, for less than two minutes, and that he hardly remembered the man. In addition, Roybal voted against every bill that would have benefitted Park, thus discrediting allegations of a vote buying scheme.

Requests by Hispanic leaders, and testimony by Representatives Ronald Dellums and Phillip Burton as to the facts of the case, as well as many representatives who spoke against the Ethics Committee recommendation for censure, resulted in the potential censure being reduced to a reprimand (the same punishment given the other two Representatives involved). In a letter dated November 29, 1978, Thomas H. Henderson, Jr., Chief of the Public Integrity Section, stated that "The House Committee found that this change of testimony and other facts testified to on April 25, 1978, concerning the incident was not intentionally untruthful as originally charged."  Undeterred, Roybal ran for reelection the same year and won 70% of the vote.

Roybal retired in 1993 after thirty years in office. That year, following redistricting, his daughter Lucille Roybal-Allard became the Representative for the 33rd District, which contained part of Roybal's district, while Xavier Becerra, with Roybal's endorsement, won election in 30th District, which included much of the remaining territory of Roybal's former 25th District.

Legacy

At the time of his death, more buildings in Los Angeles were named after him than any other single person. Among the buildings named for Roybal are the Edward R. Roybal Federal Building, located in what had been his home district in California, and the main campus of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. The University of Southern California is home to the Edward R. Roybal Institute on Aging.

On March 25, 2008, the Los Angeles Unified School District Board of Education voted to name Central Los Angeles High School #11 (formerly Belmont Learning Center) as Edward R. Roybal Learning Center. The school opened on September 3, 2008.

In August 2022, the Roybal School of Film and Television Production Magnet opened, housed within the Edward R. Roybal Learning Center, aiming to provide a conduit for students from underrepresented backgrounds to gain below-the-line employment in the film and television sector, in fields such as lighting, cinematography and editing. The school arose from an initiative by George Clooney and Grant Heslov.

Every February, on or near Roybal's birthday, the National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials (NALEO) hosts the Edward R. Roybal Legacy Gala  in Washington, D.C., as a tribute to the contributions he made to the nation, to NALEO and to the NALEO Educational Fund, of which he was the Founder Emeritus.

The Metro Gold Line Edward R. Roybal Linea de Oro Eastside Extension opened in November 2009. It runs through East Los Angeles from Union Station to Atlantic.

He was awarded a posthumous Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama on November 24, 2014.

See also
List of federal political scandals in the United States
List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded

References

Other references
  National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials (NALEO) Educational Fund
  John P. Schmal, "Fracturing the Chicano Vote in California," LatinoLA, July 20, 2005, citing (1) Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund and William C. Velasquez Institute, "California Congressional Redistricting Plan," at http://www.maldef.org/publications/pdf/Congressional_Plan_Supplement.pdf, (2) Richard Santillan, "California Reapportionment and the Chicano Community: An Historical Overview 1960-1980," in The Chicano Community and California Redistricting, Vol. I, Rose Institute of State and Local Government, Claremont Men's College, 1981, (3) Richard Santillan,Chicano Politics: La Raza Unida (Los Angeles: Tlaquilo Publications, 1973), p. 11, and (4) Katherine Underwood "Pioneering Minority Representation: Edward Roybal and the Los Angeles City Council, 1949-1962," Pacific Historical Review, 1997.
  John P. Schmal, "Edward Roybal Was a Pioneer," LatinoLA, October 27, 2005, citing (1) Alford, Harold. "The Proud Peoples." New York: David McKay Co., 1972, (2) Diaz, Katherine A., "Congressman Edward Roybal: Los Angeles Before the 1960s," Caminos 4:7 (July–August 1983), (3) Underwood, Katherine. "Pioneering Minority Representation: Edward Roybal and the Los Angeles City Council, 1949-1962." Pacific Historical Review 66:3 (August 1997): 399–425, and (4) Library of Congress, "Hispanic Americans in Congress, 1822-1995: Edward R. Roybal," Online: https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/congress/roybal.html

External links
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The Edward R. Roybal Legacy Gala NALEO

Further reading

 Burt, Kenneth C.  The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics.  Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 2007.

 Sanchez, George J., "Edward R. Roybal and the Politics of Multiracialism," Southern California Quarterly, 92 (Spring 2010), 51–73.

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1916 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Censured or reprimanded members of the United States House of Representatives
Civilian Conservation Corps people
Deaths from pneumonia in California
Deaths from respiratory failure
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California
Hispanic and Latino American members of the United States Congress
Los Angeles City Council members
Neomexicanos
People from Boyle Heights, Los Angeles
People from San Miguel County, New Mexico
Mexican-American people in California politics
Mexican
Mexican-American culture in California
Presidential Citizens Medal recipients
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Southwestern Law School alumni
Ohtli Award winners

Edward R. Roybal


Antoni Grabowski was a Polish chemical engineer, and an early supporter of the Esperanto movement. The books and poems that he changed into Esperanto from other languages helped to make Esperanto more well-known and used.

Learning and work

Grabowski was born on 11 June 1857 in Nowe Dobre, near Chełmno, in Poland. Soon after his birth, his family moved from Nowe Dobre to Toruń. Grabowski's parents did not have a lot of money, so Grabowski started to work before leaving high school. He wanted to learn a lot, though, so he got himself ready to take a test to get into grammar school. He passed the test.

He went to the Nicolaus Copernicus school in Toruń. At that place, he was shown to be smarter than other people that were as old as him. He was put in a higher class twice.
In 1879, his family got more money, so Grabowski started to learn philosophy and natural science at the University of Breslau in Wrocław.

After he was done with school, he started to work as a chemical engineer. After that job, he started to work as a manager of a factory.

At that time, he made many new ideas about chemicals and things that helped with those ideas. He became famous among people in Europe because of that. He also had the job of making new words in the Polish language for technical things. In 1906, he wrote a book, Słownik chemiczny. The book helped other people to learn the words he had made.

Esperanto and writing

At his school, Grabowski started to want to know more about language. Because of that, he joined the Slavic Literary Society (Towarzystwo Literacko-Słowianskie), a group that wanted to learn about the Slavic language. Grabowski did not only want to learn about this language. He learned a lot of other languages.

In 1887, Grabowski read the book Lingvo internacia. Antaŭparolo kaj plena lernolibro.. This book was written by L.L. Zamenhof, a person who wanted to make an easy language that everyone could learn. This language was called "Esperanto." Grabowski liked this language a lot. He learned it, then went to Warsaw to see Zamenhof. They spoke to each other in Esperanto.

Grabowski thought that books and writing were important to languages. He thought that this was much more true with Esperanto. Esperanto was getting used more, so it needed this. So, in 1888, Grabowski started to rewrite books into Esperanto from other languages. (this is called "translation")

In the early 1890s, Grabowski thought that Esperanto was being used by fewer people than before. He thought that this was because Esperanto needed to be remade in a different way. In 1894, though, he said that Esperanto was good like it was at first. He said that all the time after that, too.

Grabowski was the leader of the Warsaw Esperanto Society and the Polish Esperanto society for a long time. In 1908, he became the director of the Grammar Section of the Esperanto Academy. He taught people a lot about Esperanto.

From that year until 1914, he made classes for schools about Esperanto. He wrote something showing that Esperanto was good for learning other languages. People did not know this at that time.

World War I made his family have to leave Poland. They went to Russia, and he was left in Warsaw. While he was there, he rewrote from Polish one of the most important things that have been changed into Esperanto. This was the Polish poem, Pan Tadeusz by Adam Mickiewicz.

Grabowski died of a heart attack in Warsaw on 4 July 1921.

1857 births
1921 deaths
Polish engineers
Esperantists
Chemical engineers

Antoni Grabowski


In music, a drone is a  note which sounds all the time while a piece of music is played.  Some folk instruments always make a drone when they are played: bagpipes and hurdy gurdies in European culture, sitars in Indian music, and many other instruments in Asian and African music.  Sometimes more than one drone is heard (often two notes which are a fifth apart).

Music with drones has to have simple harmonies because it is not possible to modulate to different keys.  Other things can make up for this, for example, Scottish bagpipe music has lots of little ornamental notes to make it interesting.

Some Western Composers  liked to use a drone (especially one in fifths) to make it sound like bagpipes or other folk instruments.  Bach, François Couperin and other Baroque composers often called such pieces "Musette" (the French for "bagpipes").  Sometimes they did this in orchestral music: Haydn used a drone in the last part of his Symphony No. 104 to accompany a folk tune.

Related pages
Pedal point

Musical terminology

Drone (music)


Mie scattering is the way that light scatters when it hits an object.  It is  named after the German physicist, Gustav Mie.  This theory is good for all wavelengths of light, and all object sizes.  If the object is much smaller than the wavelength of light, Rayleigh scattering theory is also quite good.

When the object is big, the light can hit many places on the object.  A quite good formula for the scattering is:

physics

Mie scattering


Sir Denys de Saumarez Bray, KCSI, KCIE, CBE (29 November 1875 – 19 November 1951) was an etymologist and British colonial civil servant in the Empire of India, who served as Secretary of the Foreign Department of the Government of India.

Bray's publications evidence his deep understanding of the Brahui language, and his later work on Shakespeare re-arranged the much disputed order of Shakespeare's Sonnets on the basis of the discovery of a hitherto unexpected rhyme-link or word-link, joining sonnet to sonnet to form an orderly and smoothly flowing whole. This later work culminated with the publication of The Original Order of Shakespeare's Sonnets.

Early life
Bray was born in Aberdeen when his father, the Rev. Thomas William Bray, a Church of England cleric, was serving a cure in the Scottish Episcopal Church. He grew up there and in England and Germany, and was educated at a Realgymnasium in Stuttgart, Blundell's School in Tiverton, and at Balliol College, Oxford (where he was Taylorian Scholar).

Diplomatic career
Bray passed the Indian Civil Service examination of 1898, and served in the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Baluchistan.

After serving as Deputy Secretary of the Foreign Department at New Delhi for four years. Bray was appointed Secretary in 1920, and filled the position with distinction for nearly a decade. He had a large share in shaping the treaty with Afghanistan negotiated at Kabul by Sir Henry Dobbs in 1921 (which amended the Treaty of Rawalpindi, agreed originally in August 1919, and reaffirmed Britain's recognition of Afghanistan's complete independence, and restored to the Afghans the privilege of importing munitions through India).

King Amanullah's impatient forcing of Western ways on his people after visiting Europe in 1928 led to a revolt, and grave danger to the inmates of the British Legation at Kabul. Early in 1929, Bray was responsible for the plans for the evacuation by air (a novel method at that time) of the women and children, and then of the Minister, Sir Francis Humphreys, and his staff as part of the Kabul Airlift.

On leaving India in 1930, Bray was appointed a member of the Council of the Secretary of State for the India Office, which was transformed before the completion of his seven years into a body of advisers. Throughout the time, he was on the Indian delegation to the annual Assembly of the League of Nations. Bray also represented India at the international broadcasting conference in 1936, at the diplomatic conference on terrorism in 1937, and in the mission to Spain on refugee relief in 1938.

Etymological research and publications
Bray's publications included:
1909: The Brahui Language, Part I. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing (Reprinted 1977–78, Quetta: Brahui Academy, Bib ID 1174990).
1913: Life History of a Brahui. London: Royal Asiatic Society (Reprinted 1977, Karachi: Royal Book Co., Bib ID 2902021).
1925: The Original Order of Shakespeare's Sonnets. London: Methuen, Bib ID 2535453.
1934: The Brāhūī Language. Part II. The Brāhūī problem. Part III. Etymological vocabulary. Delhi: Manager of Publications.

References

Sources
 Obituary of Sir Denys Bray, The Times, Wednesday, Nov 21, 1951 (pg. 8; Issue 52164; col E).
 The India list and India Office list, 1905

Denys
1875 births
1951 deaths
People educated at Blundell's School
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Indian Civil Service (British India) officers
Etymologists
Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
British people in colonial India

Denys Bray