Olga is an East Slavic female given name, derived from the Old Norse name Helga. It is used in Russia (Ольга), Ukraine (Ольга, transliterated Olha), Belarus (Вольга, transliterated Vol'ha), Bulgaria (Олга transliterated Ólga), the Czech Republic, Greece and Cyprus (Όλγα, Ólgha), Georgia (ოლგა (Olga) or more archaic ოლღა (Olgha)), Latvia, Lithuania (Alge,Algis), Finland, Poland, Hungary, Romania, the Balkans (Serbian Олга or Оља), Western Europe and Latin America (Olga).

Name days (St. Olga of Kiev): Bulgaria, Poland, Czech Republic, Greece and France – July 11, Slovakia – July 23, Ukraine, Russia – July 24, Hungary – July 27.

The male equivalent is Oleg (Олeг).

People

Kievan Rus'
 Saint Olga of Kiev (890–969), regent of Kievan Rus' and wife of Igor of Kiev

Russian imperial family

 Olga Nikolaevna of Russia (1822–1892), second daughter of Nicholas I of Russia, wife to Charles I, King of Württemberg
 Grand Duchess Olga Feodorovna of Russia (1839–1891), wife of Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia
 Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia (1851–1926), Queen consort to George I, King of Greece; reigned as Queen regent of Greece in 1920
 Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia (1882–1960), sister of Nicholas II of Russia
 Grand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna of Russia (1895–1918), the eldest daughter of Nicholas II of Russia

Other royalty and nobility

 Princess Olga of Greece and Denmark (1903–1997), granddaughter of King George I of Greece and wife of Prince Paul of Yugoslavia
 Princess Olga, Duchess of Apulia (born 1971), Princess of Greece and great-grandchild of Olga, Queen of Greece
 Baroness Olga Vadimovna von Root (1901 – unknown), Russian noblewoman, singer, and stage actress
 Olga Ilyinichna Ulyanova (1871–1891), Russian noblewoman and sister of Vladimir Lenin

Other people

 Olga Ahtinen (born 1997), Finnish footballer
 Olga Aikala (1883–1962), Finnish horologist
 Olga Appell (born 1963), Mexican-American long-distance runner
 Olga Barabanschikova (born 1979), Belarusian tennis player
 Olga Bell (born Olga Balashova 1983), American musician
 Olga Benário Prestes (1908–1942), German-Brazilian communist militant
 Olga Björkegren (1857–1950), Swedish opera singer
 Olga Bodnar (born 1965), Ukrainian politician
 Olga Bogdanova (born 1994), Estonian rhythmic gymnast
 Olga Boznańska (1865–1940), Polish painter
 Olga Bucătaru (1942–2020), Romanian actress
 Olga Bulbenkova (1835–1918), Russian fashion designer
 Olga Buzova (born 1986), Russian media personality and singer
 Olga Carmona (born 2000), Spanish footballer
 Olga Dahl (1917–2009), Swedish genealogist
 Olga Danilov (born 1973), Israeli Olympic speed skater
 Olga Danilović (born 2001), Serbian professional tennis player
 Olga Desmond (1891–1964), German actress and dancer
 Olga ('Olly') Donner (1881–1956), Finnish writer
 Olga Dor-Dogadko (born 1976), Israeli track and field athlete
 Olga Dvirna (born 1953), Soviet middle distance runner
 Olga Fedori (born 1984), Ukrainian actress
 Olga Fonda (born 1982), Russian actress and model
 Olga Fricker (1902–1997), Canadian-born dancer, educator and choreographer
 Olga Fridman (born 1998), Ukrainian-Israeli tennis player
 Olga García Mancheño, organic chemistry professor
 Olga Gerovasili (born 1961), Greek politician
 Olga Golodets (born 1962), Russian economist and politician
 Olga Govortsova (born 1988), Belarusian tennis player
 Olga Grau (born 1945), Chilean writer, professor, philosopher
 Olga di Grésy (1900–1994), Italian fashion designer
 Olga Grushin (born 1971), Russian-American novelist
 Olga Guillot (1922–2010), Cuban singer
 Olga Havlová (1933–1996), Czechoslovak, Václav Havel's first wife
 Olga Herlin (1875–1965), Swedish, first female engraver
 Olga Hrycak (born 1947), Canadian former basketball player and coach
 Olga Ilyin, Russian-born American poet and novelist
 Olya Ivanisevic (born 1988), Serbian fashion model
 Olga Kaniskina (born 1985), Russian racewalker
 Olga Kay (born 1982), Russian-American comedian and actress
 Olga Kazi (born 1941), Hungarian middle distance runner
 Olga Kern (born 1975), Russian pianist
 Olga Knorring (1887–1978), Russian botanist
 Olga Koch (born 1992), Russian born British stand-up comedian
 Olga Korbut (born 1955), Belarusian gymnast
 Olga Kurban (born 1987), Russian heptathlete
 Olga Kurkulina (born 1971), Israeli high jumper
 Olga Kurylenko (born 1979), Ukrainian model and actress
 Olga Korhoven Lakela (1890–1980), Finnish-American botanist and educator
 Olga Lehmann (1912–2001), Chilean born painter and designer
 Olga Lengyel (1908–2001), Hungarian Holocaust survivor and author
 Olga Lenskiy (born 1992), Israeli sprinter
 Olga Malinkiewicz (born 1982), Polish physicist and inventor
 Olga Markova (athlete) (born 1968), Russian long-distance runner
 Olga Markova (figure skater) (born 1974), Russian figure skater
 Olga Mata, Venezuelan woman detained for publishing a humorous TikTok video
 Olga Merediz (born 1956), American Broadway, TV, and film actress
 Olga Mikhaylova (born 1986), Russian race walker
 Olga Morozova (born 1949), USSR (now Russian) former tennis player
 Olga Oinola (1865–1949), Finnish suffragette and President of the Finnish Women Association
 Olga Ozarovskaya (1874–1933), Russian folklorist, performer, writer
 Olga Panfyorova (born 1977), Russian race walker
 Olga Pendleton, American statistician
 Olga Peredery (born 1994), Ukrainian handball player
 Olga Petrova (1884–1977), British-American actress, screenwriter and playwright
 Olga Pikhienko (born 1980), Russian circus performer
 Olga Polyuk (born 1987), Ukrainian freestyle skier
 Olga Puchkova (born 1987), Russian tennis player
 Olga Radke, Lutheran church worker, musician, helped run the Hermannsburg Choir, Australia, in the 1960s
 Olga Raonić (born 1986), Serbian volleyball player
 Olga Rutterschmidt (born 1933), American murderer of two homeless men for life insurance money
 Olga Sandberg (1844-1926), Swedish ballerina
 Olga Savchuk (born 1987), Ukrainian tennis player
 Olga Sehnalová (born 1968), Czech politician
 Olga Seryabkina (born 1985), Russian singer
 Olga Silvestre (born 1964), Portuguese politician
 Olga Sosnovska (born 1972), Polish-British actress
 Olga Souza (born 1968), Brazilian singer
 Olga Šplíchalová (born 1975), Czech freestyle swimmer
 Olga Syahputra (1983–2015), Indonesian comedy artist
 Olga Tañón (born 1967), Puerto Rican singer
 Olga Tass (1929–2020), Hungarian gymnast
 Olga Terho (1910–2003), Finnish politician
 Olga Tokarczuk (born 1962), Polish writer, activist, and public intellectual
 Olga Turchak (born 1967), Kazakh high jumper
 Olga Ulyanova (1922–2011), Russian scientist and niece of Vladimir Lenin
 Olga Vigil (born 1970), Cuban basketball player
 Olga Vymetálková (born 1976), Czech tennis player
 Olga Winterberg (1922–2010), Israeli Olympian in the discus throw
 Olga Zaitseva (born 1978), Russian bi-athlete
 Olga Zhitova (born 1983), Russian volleyball player
 Olga Zrihen (born 1953), Moroccan-Belgian politician

Fictional characters
 Olga Marie Animusphere in the Japanese mobile game Fate/Grand Order
Olga da Polga, a fictional Guinea pig the subject of a book series by Michael Bond
 Olga Fitzgerald in series 10 of the British television programme Waterloo Road, portrayed by Pooky Quesnel
Olga Gurlukovich in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty
 Olga Orly in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney
 Olga Pataki in the American animated television series Hey Arnold
Olga Sergeyevna Prozorova in the Russian play Three Sisters by Anton Chekhov
 Olga in Neighbours From Hell 2: On Vacation, who is Mr Rottweiler's love interest
 Olga, a.k.a. Olgariki, in the Russian animated children's television series GoGoRiki
 Olga "meat" Romanova is a general of "The Volk" in the Crackdown video game series
 Olga Orlova in the VOCALOID song series, Parties are for Losers

See also
 Olga (disambiguation)

External links
 Popularity of the name in the United States
 Diminutives of Olga

Slavic feminine given names
Russian feminine given names
Ukrainian feminine given names
Latvian feminine given names
Lithuanian feminine given names
Serbian feminine given names
Slovene feminine given names
Croatian feminine given names
Bulgarian feminine given names
Polish feminine given names
Czech feminine given names
Slovak feminine given names
Romanian feminine given names
Italian feminine given names
Spanish feminine given names
Portuguese feminine given names
Greek feminine given names
German feminine given names
Hungarian feminine given names
Albanian feminine given names
Feminine given names
Finnish feminine given names

el:Όλγα (όνομα)

Olga (name)


Cornish people (Cornish: Kernowyon) are often regarded as a distinct ethnic group or national identity of the United Kingdom, originating in Cornwall. They are described as a Celtic people.

In the 19th century, many Cornish people moved abroad to find jobs in mining. Today, descendents of Cornish people can be found all over the world, including Australia, Canada, America, Mexico and South Africa.

Other websites
 www.cornwall.gov.uk, the website of Cornwall Council
 www.cornishculture.co.uk, an online guide to Cornish Celtic culture

Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom
Celtic peoples

Cornish people


Pioneer can mean a settler who migrates to previously uninhabited or sparsely inhabited land.

In the United States pioneer often means an American pioneer, a person in American history who migrated west, from Thirteen Colonies to join in settling and developing new areas.

Pioneer, The Pioneer, or pioneering may be:

Pioneer program, a series of U.S. lunar, solar, and interplanetary unmanned space missions launched from 1958 through 1978
Pioneer MRT station, a rapid transit station in Singapore
Pioneer movement, a communist youth organization
RSD-10 Pioneer, a Soviet missile

Places

Australia
Pioneer, Queensland
Pioneer, Tasmania
Pioneer River, in Queensland
Shire of Pioneer, a former local government area

United States
Pioneer, Arizona
Pioneer, California
Pioneer, Florida
Pioneer, Indiana
Pioneer, Iowa
Pioneer, Kansas
Pioneer, Louisiana
Pioneer, Michigan
Pioneer, Missouri
Pioneer, Nevada
Pioneer, Ohio
Pioneer, Tennessee

Other places
Pioneer, Alberta in Canada
Pioneer, Singapore

Related pages

Pioneer


Live Earth was an event developed to increase environmental awareness through entertainment.

Background
Founded by Emmy-winning producer Kevin Wall, in partnership with former U.S. Vice President Al Gore, Live Earth was built upon the belief that entertainment has the power to transcend social and cultural barriers to move the world community to action. Live Earth seeks to leverage the power of entertainment through integrated events, media, and the live experience to ignite a global movement aimed at solving the most critical environmental issues of our time.

Live Earth 2007

The 1st series of benefit concerts were held on 7 July 2007. The concerts brought together more than 150 musical acts in eleven locations around the world and were broadcast to a mass global audience through television, radio, and live internet streams.

Live Earth India 2008
The 2nd Live Earth concert was scheduled for 7 December 2008 at the Andheri Sports Complex on Veera Desai Road in  Andheri West, Mumbai, India and was managed by Kevin Wall who, after a request from former U. S. Vice President Al Gore, planned to have the entire event take place in India. In September 2008 Reuters stated that, "the December event will see U.S. rocker Jon Bon Jovi and Bollywood's biggest superstar, Amitabh Bachchan share the stage, and is described by organisers as one of the biggest events held in India." Shekhar Kapur, Nobel laureate Rajendra Pachauri,  Abhishek Bachchan, and Aishwarya Rai also planned to star in the event. Additional acts included Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, Hrithik Roshan, Preity Zinta, Roger Waters of Pink Floyd, will.i.am, Hard Kaur, and Anoushka Shankar. Palash Sen stated that his band, Euphoria, was scheduled to launch a song written for the concert on the topic of global warming.

Live Earth would have been broadcast by STAR TV (Asia), which works in conjunction with the STAR Plus channel (United Kingdom, Middle East) and the Star World Channel. MSN was "the exclusive global broadband partner for Live Earth India."

The concert was cancelled shortly after the November 2008 Mumbai attacks on 26 November 2008. Wall, Gore, and Pachauri stated in a joint press release that, "due to circumstances far beyond our control, we are saddened to announce that Live Earth India has been cancelled. We will continue to work for solutions to the climate crisis for the good of the people of India and around the world. But for now, our thoughts and our prayers are with the victims of this terrible attack, with the bereaved, with the people of Mumbai and with everyone in India." Some argued against the cancellation stating that "music could have helped fear-hardened Mumbai to ride the storm." Jethro Tull and Anoushka Shankar, who also cancelled their 29 November Mumbai concert after  the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, reorganized the performance as A Billion Hands Concert,  a benefit performance for victims of the attacks, and held it in Mumbai on 5 December 2008.

Dow Live Earth Run for Water
The Dow Live Earth Run for Water took place 18 April 2010 and consisted of a series of 6 km run/walks (the average distance many women and children walk every day to secure water) taking place over the course of 24 hours in countries around the world, featuring concerts and water education activities aimed at igniting a tipping point to help solve the water crisis. Jessica Biel, Alexandra Cousteau, Pete Wentz, Angélique Kidjo and Jenny Fletcher were due to lend their names and their time in support.

Controversy
Before and after the event there was concern over the sponsorship of the Run For Water by Dow Chemical, whose sponsorship of this event has been described as "the ultimate in greenwashing", given Dow's ownership of Union Carbide, their refusal to clean up the Bhopal site, plus their direct responsibility for groundwater poisoning incidents in Morrisonville, Louisiana and the Tittabawassee River in Michigan. Their much-publicised water filtration plants in India have failed because the local population cannot afford to replace the expensive high-tech filters.

Host cities
The Dow Live Earth Run for Water was hosted by about 200 cities around the world, including: Amsterdam, Atlanta, Brussels, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Cape Town, Chicago, Chongqing, Copenhagen, Hong Kong, Istanbul, Jakarta, Jerusalem, Jimbaran, Karachi, Lima, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Mexico City, Minneapolis, Monterrey, Montreal, New York City, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, San Diego, Santiago, Santo Domingo, Seattle, Singapore City, Sydney, Toronto, Vancouver and Washington, D.C.

Live performances
Many of the cities featured live entertainment following the 6K run/walk. Artists include Melissa Etheridge in Los Angeles with The Roots; special guest John Legend in Brooklyn's Prospect Park; Rob Thomas in Atlanta; Collective Soul with special guest Sam Moore in Chicago; Kany García in Mexico City; Kevin Johansen and The Nada in Buenos Aires; and Slank in Bali.

Cancellations and protests
Demonstrations against the run had been planned by the International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal.

The Dow sponsorship of the Run For Water was protested by organizations representing the victims of the Bhopal tragedy, supported by Amnesty International. Planned events were also cancelled in Milan.

In New Delhi, the event was protested by a group of activists who disguised their involvement by creating a fictitious front organization, the Hindustan Sea Turtle Alliance, to register their event with Live Earth.

Beneficiaries
All donations raised by the Dow Live Earth Run for Water will be disseminated to fund sustainable and scalable water programs. A growing global network of NGO partners including Global Water Challenge, A Child's Right, Akvo, Fondo Para La Paz, Indonesia Water Partnership, Lien Aid, Pump Aid, Wildlands Conservation Trust, and many others.

See also

List of historic rock festivals
 An Inconvenient Truth
 Climate change
 Earth Hour
 Global warming
 Hurricane Katrina
 Individual and political action on climate change
 Politics of global warming
 Save Our Selves
 Denmark plants trees

References

External links

 Official Live Earth website
 Live Earth video site

2007 in music
2008 in music
2010 in music
Benefit concerts
Musical advocacy groups
International environmental organizations
Music festivals established in 2010
Music festivals established in 2007
2007 in the environment
July 2007 events

Live Earth


War and Peace () is a famous novel written by Leo Tolstoy, a Russian writer. It is about four families of noblemen in Russia during the wars with Napoleon, and how they deal with the war and with one another.

Tolstoy described War and Peace as "not a novel, even less is it a poem, and still less an historical chronicle."

The book describes Russian life in the 19th century, and also tells about Tolstoy's own idea about free will, history, and how events unfold.

Main characters

There are 580 characters in War and Peace, but these are the main characters:

Pierre Bezukhov: a thoughtful man. Even though he is quite clever, he does not think cleverness is the most important thing, like his friend Andrei. He can be very emotional, and this can get him into trouble. His final marriage with Natasha makes him happy in the end. Some people think he is like Tolstoy.
Natasha Rostova: she is a very happy, energetic, lively girl. She is the opposite of Helene (Elena) Kuragina, her husband's first wife. Almost everybody she meets likes her. Even though she is very charming, she is not proud or silly. She is very emotional. By the end of the book she has married Pierre. Throughout the book her character goes through many changes.
Andrei Bolkonski: he is a good man, like Pierre, but in a very different way. He is much less emotional than his friend, even though he loves his country and is honest.
Maria (Marya) Bolkonskaya: Andrei's sister. She is a very gentle, patient girl, who never complains even when her father is unkind to her. She is lonely and plain, but the book says she has beautiful eyes, and her heart is loving and Christian. She marries Nikolai and is happy.
Nikolai Rostov: like his sister Natasha, Nikolai is very impetuous. He gets angry easily, but loves his family. Although his gambling habits cause his family to go into debt.
Napoleon: the small, plump, and very proud emperor of France. He is also the leader in battle. He is selfish and loves power: Tolstoy wrote about him mostly in a negative way.
General Kutuzov: An old, fat general with only one eye who leads Russia in battle. He is very different from proud Napoleon, because he is humble and fears God. He is also more careful and thoughtful.
Elena Kuragina (Helene Kuragina): Pierre's first wife. She is cold, selfish, stupid, and proud, but very beautiful. She marries Pierre, but cheats on him and has a relationship with Dolokhov.
Dolokhov: A handsome Russian army soldier. He is a friend of Nikolai. He likes Helene and has a love affair with her at first, but after he fights with Pierre because of it, he starts liking Sonya. He even asks her to marry him. However, Sonya says no, and he angrily goes away. He makes Nikolai gamble and lose a lot of money. Later, he tries to help Anatoly Kuragin run away with Natasha.
Sonya Rostova: The pretty, shy, and humble cousin of Nikolai and Natasha. She lives with them and used to love Nikolai, but generously lets him marry rich Princess Marya to help the family and make him happy.
Anatoly Kuragin: Helene's brother. He spends too much money and does wrong. At first he was going to marry rich Princess Marya just for her money, but she said no. He fell in love with Natasha at an opera and tried to run away with her. Because of this, Natasha and Prince Andrei fought, and could not marry.

References

1869 books
Books by Leo Tolstoy
Russian novels

War and Peace


Smuggler's Run released in Japan as  is an early video game developed by Angel Studios (now Rockstar San Diego) and published by Rockstar Games for the PlayStation 2 console. In the game you drive multiple vehicles including trophy trucks, SUVs, and cars. The game is rated T for teen and you can hit cops and animals but they will not die.

One sequel to the game was produced: Smuggler's Run 2, which was released for the Sony PlayStation 2 on October 30, 2001. The game was later ported to the Nintendo GameCube on August 7, 2002 and renamed Smuggler's Run: Warzones.

The original Smuggler's Run is now a part of the Sony Greatest Hits series of games that have reached a particular sales milestone for the Sony PlayStation 2.

Plot Summary
In the game you are a drug and weapons smuggler battling against rival factions. You must completed objectives such as drop offs, races, and smash-up derbies. This game is been questioned because it is very repetitive.

Critical reception

Although some reviews criticize the game for being repetitive and frustrating, the overall response was positive. It achieved an average score of 79/100 on review aggregator Metacritic.

Japanese versions
In Japanese versions, there are no cars, peoples, or animals on the stage.

References

Other websites
 Official Smuggler's Run web site

2000 video games
Game Boy Advance games
PlayStation 2 games

Smuggler's Run


The Kate Greenaway Medal is an award that was created in the United Kingdom in 1955.  It was named after the children's illustrator, Kate Greenaway. The medal is given every year to an extremely good work of illustration in children's literature. It is awarded by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP).

The first award was given to Edward Ardizzone for Tim All Alone in 1956. The winner gets a golden medal and £500 worth of books to give to a library of their choice.

Since the year 2000, the winner of the Kate Greenaway Medal has also been presented with the Colin Mears Award of £5000.

Full list of winners

 2007 Mini Grey, The Adventures of the Dish and the Spoon
 2005 Emily Gravett, Wolves
 2004 Chris Riddell, Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver"
 2003 Shirley Hughes, Ella's Big Chance
 2002 Bob Graham, Jethro Byrde, Fairy Child
 2001 Chris Riddell, Pirate Diary
 2000 Lauren Child, I Will Not Ever Never Eat a Tomato
 1999 Helen Oxenbury, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
 1998 Helen Cooper, Pumpkin Soup
 1997 P. J. Lynch, When Jessie Came Across the Sea
 1996 Helen Cooper, The Baby Who Wouldn't Go To Bed
 1995 P. J. Lynch, The Christmas Miracle of Jonathan Toomey
 1994 Gregory Rogers, Way Home
 1993 Alan Lee, Black Ships Before Troy
 1992 Anthony Browne, Zoo
 1991 Janet Ahlberg, The Jolly Christmas Postman
 1990 Gary Blythe, The Whales' Song
 1989 Michael Foreman, War Boy: a Country Childhood
 1988 Barbara Firth, Can't You Sleep Little Bear?
 1987 Adrienne Kennaway, Crafty Chameleon
 1986 Fiona French, Snow White in New York
 1985 Juan Wijngaard, Sir Gawain and the Loathly Lady
 1984 Errol Le Cain, Hiawatha's Childhood
 1983 Anthony Browne, Gorilla
 1982 Michael Foreman, Long Neck and Thunder Foot and Sleeping Beauty and Other Favourite Fairy Tales
 1981 Charles Keeping, The Highwayman
 1980 Quentin Blake, Mr Magnolia
 1979 Jan Pienkowski, The Haunted House
 1978 Janet Ahlberg, Each Peach Pear Plum
 1977 Shirley Hughes, Dogger
 1976 Gail E. Haley, The Post Office Cat
 1975 Victor Ambrus, Horses in Battle and Mishka
 1974 Pat Hutchins, The Wind Blew
 1973 Raymond Briggs, Father Christmas
 1972 Krystyna Turska, The Woodcutter's Duck
 1971 Jan Pienkowski, The Kingdom under the Sea
 1970 John Burningham, Mr Gumpy's Outing
 1969 Helen Oxenbury, The Quangle Wangle's hat and The Dragon of an Ordinary Family
 1968 Pauline Baynes, Dictionary of Chivalry
 1967 Charles Keeping, Charley, Charlotte and the Golden Canary
 1966 Raymond Briggs, Mother Goose Treasury
 1965 Victor Ambrus, The Three Poor Tailors
 1964 C. Walter Hodges, Shakespeare's Theatre
 1963 John Burningham, Borka: The Adventures of a Goose With No Feathers
 1962 Brian Wildsmith, A.B.C
 1961 Antony Maitland, Mrs. Cockle's Cat
 1960 Gerald Rose, Old Winkle and the Seagulls
 1959 William Stobbs, Kashtanka and A Bundle of Ballads
 1958 Prize withheld because no book was good enough
 1957 V. H. Drummond, Mrs Easter and the Storks
 1956 Edward Ardizzone, Tim All Alone
 1955 Prize withheld because no book was good enough

Art awards

Kate Greenaway Medal


Adam Opel (9 May 1837 – 8 September 1895) was a German entrepreneur who founded the automobile company Adam Opel AG.

Biography

Adam Opel was born on 9 May 1837 to Wilhelm, a locksmith, and his wife in Rüsselsheim. Opel studied with his father until the age of 20, when he received his travel pass. The pass enabled him to be an apprentice locksmith in Belgium, in Liège, Brussels, and then Paris, where he arrived in mid-1858. While in Paris, he took an interest in an innovation—the sewing machine. In 1859, he went to work for a maker of sewing machines to get a closer look. Opel's younger brother, George, also came to Paris to absorb this new technology. In 1862, Adam Opel returned to Rüsselsheim.

Opel's uncle offered him an unused cow stall in Rüsselsheim to set up a workshop in which to build his own sewing machine. In 1863, George returned from France to help in the slow production of the machines. In April 1867, Opel was preparing to build a new two-story factory near the railroad station, when his father died. Opel attached a new home to his factory and married the daughter of a guest-house and brewery family, Sophie Scheller. Sophie brought with her a substantial dowry, which she invested in the Opel plant. Sophie convinced two of her sisters to invest as well, and a steam engine was purchased, helping to expand the firm. In 1870 a new sewing machine called "Sophia" was introduced, named after Opel's wife.

In the 1880s, sewing machine production jumped ahead, with steady expansion of the plant, and by 1899 more than a half million machines had been made. The milestone of one million machines was reached in 1911, the same time a fire destroyed much of the plant. The Opel brothers decided to give up sewing machine production, which by this time was much more commodified, and thus commercially unrewarding, than when they had started in the business. Looking to move upmarket in their manufacturing efforts, they decided to try to produce the more profitable products of bicycles and automobiles.

Adam and Sophie Opel had five sons (Carl, Wilhelm, Heinrich, Friedrich, and Ludwig), who took wholeheartedly to wheels. Together with Sophie, who became main shareholder after the death of her husband, they would pilot the Opel enterprises down the automotive path. Bicycles came into the picture when Adam Opel's curiosity was stirred by a high-wheeled bicycle he saw in Paris. Intrigued, he ordered a set of parts from England. After putting together the bike Opel tried it with disastrous results. He decided he'd have nothing further to do with those "bone breakers." Two things changed his mind: he found them easy to sell, with a greater profit than he could earn with the sewing machines; and his sons begged him mercilessly for bicycles of their own.

By 1886 the Opels had made a bicycle of their own, and the following year young Carl went to England to study the new industry and bring back samples of the latest designs. This led to serious production of cycles, including low-wheeled and three-wheeled types, by the end of 1887. The growing bands of enthusiasts for the novel means of locomotion knew they could count on Opel for the newest and best ideas in cycling in Germany. In fact, all Opel brothers were outstanding, prize-winning racers.

Adam Opel never lived to see the automobiles built by the company he founded. He died in 1895. His will set up a new organization for the company, in which his widow Sophie held the primary interest and his two eldest sons had lesser shares.

Their first crisis was a sudden deflation of the boom in bicycles in 1898, a collapse caused by the over-expansion among the many makers of cycles. They managed to carry on. New products were introduced that kept on the more than 1,500 employees, most of whom had grown up in the industry with Opel. The bicycle plant expanded, eventually becoming the largest in the mid-1920s, with a capacity of 4,000 cycles a day, with innovative equipment such as automatic painting and plating equipment in halls pressurized for ideal cleanliness.

By the 1930s, times had changed. In a series of transactions between 1929 and 1931, the Opel family sold their business, Adam Opel AG, to General Motors Corporation, of which it became a subsidiary. In 1936, Opel sold its bicycle plant to NSU in Neckarsulm (which had started making bicycles at about the same time as Opel). Under the company's many different names, 2.5 million bikes had been produced in all.

See also

 Fritz von Opel
 Rikky von Opel
 Wilhelm von Opel
 Carl von Opel
 Sophie Opel

Sources

Opel's official biography

1837 births
1895 deaths
People from Rüsselsheim
German industrialists
German founders of automobile manufacturers
Adam
People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse
German expatriates in France

Adam Opel


Soil is loose material which lies on top of the land. It has many things in it, like tiny grains of rock, minerals, water and air. Soil also has living things and dead things in it: "organic matter". Soil is important for life on Earth.

Because soil holds water and nutrients, it is a very good place for plants to grow. Soil holds the roots, and lets plants stand above the ground to collect the light they need to live. Almost as important are the fungi. There are fungi which grow into plant roots, a symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. This helps trees grow. There are many other fungi that live by breaking down dead organic material: the remains of other living things. The broken down material is a main source of plant nutrients.  The soil also has many microorganisms living in it. Many of them eat the organic material in the soil. They use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. They also release mineral nutrients into the soil.

Many animals dig into the soil and make the soil their home. The large animals use soil to make dens for sleeping and giving birth. The small animals live most of their life in the soil.  Earthworms are famous for improving soil. This is because the holes they make let air go into the soil. The holes also let water go through.

Soil is different in different places on Earth. This is because the climate and rocks in the Earth are different in different places on Earth.  Soils are usually thicker in places where ice sheets covered the land during the Pleistocene ice ages.  This is because the ice sheets ground the rock into powder as they slowly moved over the surface.

What is soil
Soil is made of four things.
Rock pieces and the rocks are made of minerals,
dead and living things (organic matter, humus),
water (soil moisture),
air.

Soil has rock pieces made small by wind and rain and sun and snow.  The rocks are made of minerals and some of the minerals dissolve in water.  Some of the minerals dissolved in water can be used as food by plants. Soil also has dead and living things (organic matter) in it.  When a plant dies, it is eaten by animals including bacteria in the soil. When the bacteria are done eating, what is left behind is called humus. When the bacteria die the plant food (minerals) goes back into the soil.  A food for plants is called a "plant nutrient".  There are many kinds of plant nutrients.

Water can enter the gaps in the soil.  Half of the soil is gaps filled with water and air.  Water in soil is called soil moisture.  Plants drink the water and the minerals in the water. Plant roots need air to live. If plant roots do not have air, the roots will die. If the plant roots die, the plant will die. A plant that dies is eaten by bacteria and becomes plant nutrients again.

There are many kinds of soil. Each kind of soil has big and small rocks in it and some humus. If rocks in a soil are as big as your fingers, we call those rocks "gravel". Smaller rocks are called sand. Very small rocks are called silt. Very, very small rocks are called clay. You can see sand with your eye. Sand feels rough between your toes. Silt rock is very small and you must use a lens to see silt. Silt rock is smooth between your toes. Clay rock is too small to see with a lens. To see the smallest things you must use a big microscope. You must use a big microscope to see clay too. Clay rock feels slippery between your toes. Most soils contain all kinds of small rocks. The three best rocks for making soil are sand, silt, and clay.

Soil texture
Every soil has different amounts of sand and silt and clay. The mix of sand and silt and clay is the "texture" of the soil. We can also say the mix has a "soil texture". A soil with a lot of sand is called a "sandy soil texture". A soil with a lot of silt is called a "silt soil texture". A soil with a lot of clay is called a "clay soil texture". Farmers like to grow food in the best soil. The best soil is half sand and some silt and a little clay. The organic matter found in the soil is not counted in the soil texture. Only the rocks are counted when we discover the soil texture. Soil texture is very important.

Clay and humus are special parts of the soil. They help keep water and plant food (plant nutrients) in the soil. Water and plant nutrients stick to clay and humus. Water sticks to all of the rock in the soil. But, water sticks best to clay. Water is taken into (absorbed) into humus like a sponge absorbs water. Humus holds a lot of water and plant nutrients. Clay and humus keep water and plant nutrients in the soil. Sand will hold only a little water in the soil. If the soil has too much sand, the water will flow down into the earth. The water that flows down takes plant nutrients down too. The plant roots can not get at water and plant nutrients if they go too deep. It is best for soil to have a little bit of clay and humus in it for growing plants.

Soil structure (clumps)
The smallest parts of soil are sand and silt and clay. Those small parts join to make larger parts we call "clumps" or "aggregates". The clumps are made when sand and silt and clay stick together. The humus and clay and minerals in the soil are like glue. The glue sticks the sand and silt and clay together and makes clumps. The clumps make shapes by themselves. Some soils have small round clumps. Other soils have large, hard and flat clumps. The soil with small round clumps is best because it lets in air and water. A little glue is best. If the soil has only a little glue there will be space for water and air and the soil will be soft. If the soil has too much glue the soil will be hard. If the soil has no glue, there will be no space in the soil for air and water. A soil with no spaces is not healthy. Worms in the soil make a slippery glue. When worms make holes in the soil they leave some glue in the soil. Plant roots also make spaces in the soil. When the roots die they leave holes in the soil.

Soil horizons (layers)

A soil has a "soil texture" (sand and silt and clay) and it has organic matter mixed in it. But weather changes the soil. It is cold on the Earth near the north and south poles. It is hot near the equator of the Earth. Some places on Earth get a lot of rain and some places get no rain. Hot and wet weather make one kind of soil. Cold and dry weather make another kind of soil. Rain water makes small things in the soil move down with the water. When the things in the water get stuck in the soil those things make a layer in the soil. If you dig down into the soil you may find many layers in the soil. The layers may have different colors. The layers may have different "soil textures". The top part of the soil may have a lot of humus and sand. Below that layer there may be a layer of silt. Below that layer there may be a layer of clay.

The sand stays on the top because it is large. The silt goes down a little with the water and makes a layer because it is small. The silt is smaller than some of the spaces in the soil. The clay can go down even lower with the water because it is the smallest. The sand will make one layer, the silt will make another layer and the clay will make another layer. The humus can move down with the water and make a layer too. The silt and clay and humus can move down because of the spaces in the soil. But, the silt, clay, and humus will fill the spaces in the soil. When the spaces in the soil are closed, it makes it hard for air to go into the soil. Plant roots do not go where there is no air. When we dig down we find layers in the soil.

We call those layers "soil horizons". The top horizon may be an inch (25mm) thick. We call that layer the "O" horizon or sometimes "topsoil". The next layer (horizon) is the "B" horizon.  The next lower layer of soil is the "C" horizon. The bottom layer has many rocks and may be called the bedrock or "R" horizon for "rock".   Deep down, there is always bedrock.   But you may have to dig down a mile (a km) or more. When the soil dries, the soil may shrink and cracks will form in the soil. The soil in the top layer may fall down into the cracks. This causes the layers of soil to be changed because they are mixed. There may be many types soil where you live or only one type of soil. Different rocks make different soil textures. Different weather makes the different soil textures different. And so, there are different soils all over the world.

Soil carbon

People want to keep carbon in the soil, because when it is in the air (in carbon dioxide or methane) it makes the world hotter. If people dig or plow too much then carbon can escape from the soil into the air.

Related pages
 Agronomy
 Soil fertility

References

Other websites

 Short video about soil from The Guardian newspaper

Soil

Soil


A creditor is a person who loans money to another person. The person who gets the loan is called the borrower. Creditors are sometimes called moneylenders. Creditors expect the borrower to pay the money back at a later time. The creditor usually gets extra money from the borrower. This extra money is called interest.

Business

Creditor


Westfalenstadion (German for "Westphalia Stadium"), officially known since November 2005 as Signal Iduna Park, is an association football stadium in Dortmund, Germany. With 80,708 spectator places, it is the largest football stadium in Germany, and is classified by UEFA as an "elite stadium", allowing it to host the finals of major club competitions. It is home to the German Bundesliga Team Borussia Dortmund, whose spectator set up a new European record there to million spectators (average approx. 76,500 per play) in the season 2003/2004 with 1,35. The stadium is south B 1 to the Strobelallee beside the stadium red ones earth and in the proximity that Westfalen resounding.

History

The stadium was established between 1971 and 1974 for the soccer world championship with a spectator capacity by 54.000 spectators. The stadium with a friendship game between Borussia Dortmund and Schalke 04 (0 was opened: 3). To the season 1974/75 Borussia Dortmund of the stadium red one earth moved into the new arena.

The first federal league play, which was delivered in this stadium, found between VfL Bochum (during the new building of the Ruhr stadium in April here 1976 moved) and Schalke 04 instead of. The Borussia at this time still kickte in the regional league.

History Westfalenstadion

Change

The stadium remained structurally almost unchanged to beginning of the 90's. In the 1992 was reequipped on the north grandstand being located present into seats, whereby the capacity was reduced to 42.800. Between 1995 and 1999 successively the grandstands were supplemented. One began with west and east grandstand at the long sides of the playing field, in which second stage of development became also north and south grandstand covered (capacity: 68.600).

2003/2004 the stadium corners were removed. As standing place grandstand the south grandstand seizes 25,000 spectators and is the largest thereby in Europe. With international plays seats can be used here. Altogether itself the capacity of the stadium amounted after the change to scarcely 83,000 spectators.
The south grandstand signal of the Iduna park
increase

The exterior of the north grandstand glassed, on the inside are catering trade ranges and the BVB museum. Remarkable structural characteristic are, bright the yellow steel girders led outside, which exceed far over daas roof and are visible from many points of the city.

A last stage of development for the preparation of the stadium on the football world cup 2006 took place in the summer break 2005. It took place the installation of an electronic entrance system, which revaluation of the places for handicapped ones, the change of the VIP ranges, the cabs and the sanitary mechanisms.

Due to the structural alteration measures of the grandstands 1,500 spectator places were omitted and the stadium offer still place for 81.264 spectators. The south grandstand of the stadium offers today 25,000 places. It is thereby the largest standing place grandstand of Europe.

Renaming
On 1 December 2005 the Westfalenstadion was named in Signal Iduna Park. For the rights of the use of a name of the stadium Borussia Dortmund releases estimated 20 million euro with optimal sporty success. The contract over renaming between Borussia Dortmund and the signal Iduna group of insurance applies up to the season 2010/2011. The Dortmunder fan scene is divided opinion over this step, since he offers on the one hand the financial safety device, but on the other hand a tradition break represents.

The district agency city center west decided at the beginning of the year 2006 to call a road in stadium proximity at the Westfalenstadion. The association rated this decision as unsensibel opposite the sponsor, while many BVB fans and Dortmunder were pleased that the steeped in tradition name remained now with the road.

Buildings and structures in North Rhine-Westphalia
Dortmund
Football stadiums in Germany
Sport in North Rhine-Westphalia

Signal Iduna Park


Ivan Konstantinovich Grigorovich () (26 January 1853 – 3 March 1930) served as Imperial Russia's last Naval Minister from 1911 until the onset of the 1917 revolution.

Early career
Grigorovich was from a Russian noble family and opted for a military career after the death of his father, Konstantin Ivanovich Grigorovich. Graduating from the Sea Cadet Corps in 1874 Grigorovich served as an officer on various ships. In 1893, he was promoted to captain, 1st rank. In 1896 to 1898 he was appointed Russian naval attaché in London. In 1899 he was appointed to command the battleship , which was being completed in France. In 1903 Tsesarevich sailed to Port Arthur.

During the surprise Japanese torpedo boat attack on Port Arthur, starting the Russo-Japanese War, Tsesarevich was hit by a Japanese torpedo but remained afloat and contributed to driving off the Japanese attack. Grigorovich was awarded the Order of St Vladimir, 3rd class with swords for his role in the battle. After the death of Admiral Stepan Makarov, he was promoted to rear admiral and appointed chief of Port Arthur's port. Under his effective management, Russian Pacific squadron had no shortage of coal, munitions or any supplies during the Siege of Port Arthur. In 1904 he was also awarded with the Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st class.

As admiral
After the end of the war Grigorovich was appointed chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet. He was appointed commander of the naval base at Libau in 1908 awarded the Order of St Anna, 1st class, and became commander of the naval base at Kronstadt in 1909. In 1909 he was appointed Deputy Navy Minister and promoted to admiral in 1911. From 1911 until the onset of revolution in 1917 he served as Russia's Naval Minister, overseeing a huge rearmament programme. The naval build-up included building four Gangut-class battleships for the Baltic Fleet and four Imperatritsa Mariya-class battleships for the Black Sea Fleet. He personally visited the shipyards and the different fleets of Imperial Russia to supervise the progress of the construction of warships, training of crew and sailors. He enjoyed good relationships with the Duma and used his popularity to secure huge extra funds to expand the navy. He remained in charge of the Imperial Russian Navy through most of World War I. He was chairman of the Admiralty Board from 1911 to 1915, and was a member of the State Council from 1913 to 1917.

Grigorovich was politically sympathetic to the Octobrist Party and was nominated as a candidate for Prime Minister in 1916; however his candidacy was rejected due to objections from dowager tsarina Maria Feodorovna over Grigorovich's liberal views.

Post-Revolution
Grigorovich was dismissed from office in the wake of the February Revolution on 31 March 1917. He served on the Historical Commission and was asked to write his memoirs (which were only published in 1993, after the fall of the Soviet Union. However, he was dismissed in October 1921 due to downsizing, and lived in extreme poverty, suffering frequently from pneumonia and for sometime lived in the apartment of Aleksey Krylov. From his retirement he asked for permission to get medical treatment abroad, and left for France in the autumn of 1924. He lived in exile in France in poverty until his death in 1930, with an income by selling his own oil paintings of seascapes. On his death, he was initially buried in the Russian Cemetery in Menton. In 2005 the urn containing his ashes was taken aboard the cruiser , which carried his remains to Novorossiysk. The ashes were then flown to Saint Petersburg and buried in his family vault in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in accordance with his will.

The Russian Navy has named the first of the Admiral Grigorovich-class frigates after Ivan Grigorovich.

He was awarded Order of Prince Danilo I, Order of the Cross of Takovo and a number of other decorations.

Notes

References

External links

 Short biography

1853 births
1930 deaths
Government ministers of Russia
Imperial Russian Navy admirals
Politicians from the Russian Empire
Members of the State Council (Russian Empire)
Russian military personnel of the Russo-Japanese War
Russian military personnel of World War I
Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus (Russian), 1st class
Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class
Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class
Admirals of World War I
Burials at Nikolskoe Cemetery
Naval Cadet Corps alumni

Ivan Grigorovich


A cameo role or cameo appearance (often shortened to just cameo) is a brief appearance of a known person in a work of the performing arts, such as plays, movies, video games and television. Such a role does not have to be an actor: short appearances by movie directors, politicians, athletes, and other celebrities are common.

Some examples would be Alfred Hitchcock briefly appearing in some of his movies or Stan Lee always briefly appearing in Marvel-related movies or Salman Khan's apperance in Pathaan.

Movie terminology

Cameo appearance


Appointment can mean:

An appointment is a time reserved for something such as a doctor visit, much like a .
An appointment, in government also refers to the assignment of a person by an official to perform a duty, such as a presidential appointment of a judge to a court.  This may also happen for an office which is normally elected, but has an unexpected vacancy.  A person appointed but not yet in office is a designate.
The power of appointment, in law, is the ability of a testator to select another person to dispose of the testator's property.
An appointment of clergy, in Christianity, is made by a bishop to a particular ministry setting, particularly in denominations which practice episcopal forms of church government and polity (such as Anglicanism and United Methodist Church.) Typically, a pastor is appointed to a particular church or parish.
Appointment is used to describe a system of selecting candidates in which the choice is made by an individual or panel rather than by a poll of the populace in general (election), or through random selection (allotment/sortition) as used to select juries.

Appointment


The following are the Pulitzer Prizes for 1922.

Journalism awards
Public Service:
New York World - For articles exposing the operations of the Ku Klux Klan, published during September and October, 1921.
Reporting:
Kirke L. Simpson of the Associated Press - For articles on the burial of the Unknown Soldier.
Editorial Writing:
Frank M. O'Brien of the New York Herald - For an article entitled, "The Unknown Soldier".

Editorial Cartooning:
Rollin Kirby of the New York World - For "On the Road to Moscow".

Letters and Drama Awards
Novel:
Alice Adams by Booth Tarkington (Doubleday)
Drama:
Anna Christie by Eugene O'Neill
History:
The Founding of New England by James Truslow Adams (Little)
Biography or Autobiography:
A Daughter of the Middle Border by Hamlin Garland (Macmillan)
Poetry:
Collected Poems by Edwin Arlington Robinson (Macmillan)

References

External links
Pulitzer Prizes for 1922

Pulitzer Prizes by year
Pulitzer Prize
Pulitzer Prize

1922 Pulitzer Prize


Chikee or Chickee ("house" in the Creek and Mikasuki languages spoken by the Seminoles and Miccosukees) is a shelter supported by posts, with a raised floor, a thatched roof and open sides. Chickees are also known as chickee huts, stilt houses, or platform dwellings.
The chickee style of architecture—palmetto thatch over a bald cypress log frame—was adopted by Seminoles during the Second (1835–42) and Third (1855-58) Seminole Wars as U.S. troops pushed them deeper into the Everglades and surrounding territory. Before the Second Seminole War, the Seminoles had lived in log cabins. Similar structures were used by the tribes in south Florida when the Spanish first arrived in the 16th century. Each chickee had its own purpose and together they were organized within a camp-type community. Chickees were used for cooking, sleeping, and eating.

Modern use
Chickees continue to be used by Native American villages of the Miccosukee in the Everglades. Some upscale homes in southern Florida feature chickee-inspired buildings as garden or poolside structures. A few restaurants in Florida still use this indigenous design to attract visitors.

Chickees are also used in backcountry areas of Everglades National Park including along the Everglades Wilderness Waterway where mangroves or wetlands prevent camping on dry land.  Made and maintained primarily for backcountry campers, these wooden structures stand several feet above the water and can usually accommodate four to five campers. These structures have portable restrooms. Some "double chickees" are linked by a walkway and can accommodate eight to ten people.
There are about eight to ten chickees in one village. Chickees are very helpful, especially in the rain. Similar structures, while not referred to as chickees, are present further north, in the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge in southern Georgia.

See also
Palapa – a structure with thatched roof and open sides in Mexico

Notes

Huts
Pavilions
Stilt houses
Thatched buildings
Seminole culture
Traditional Native American dwellings
Native American history of Florida
Everglades

Chickee


From 2002–2011 the Newcastle Vipers were an ice hockey club based in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. The club was a member of the Elite Ice Hockey League, and the British National League.

History

Predecessors
Previously, the city was represented by the Newcastle Jesters, who were founded in 1999 by Finnish businessman Harry Harkimo who purchased the franchise from the Ice Hockey Superleague.

The franchise had previously been owned by John Hall who had owned the club as part of his ambitious "Newcastle Sporting Club" project and known as the Newcastle Cobras and later the Newcastle Riverkings. The Cobras had previously played as the Durham Wasps who had moved to Newcastle upon Tyne Arena following a season at the Crowtree Leisure Centre in Sunderland as a result of Hall purchasing them after a number of years of financial problems. The Durham ice rink closed shortly thereafter.

Formation and playing history
The club was founded August 2002 after a season without a professional ice hockey team in Newcastle.

After playing its first three seasons in the British National League, the Vipers joined the Elite Ice Hockey League in the 2005–06 season along with the Edinburgh Capitals; a move which ultimately led to the dissolution of the BNL. During their first season the Vipers finished as runners-up to the Belfast Giants in the league and won the EIHL Play-Off Championship at the National Ice Centre, defeating the Sheffield Steelers 2-1 in the Grand Final.

Demise of the club
Due to low crowds and problems getting regular ice time at the Arena, in November 2010 the Vipers were forced to move in with rivals Whitley Warriors and play for part of their final season out of the Hillheads rink in Whitley Bay.

On 6 May 2011, the EIHL confirmed that the Vipers would fold and not take part in the 2011-12 season after months of financial difficulty, leaving the North East with no top-flight ice hockey club for 2011-12. GM Jaimie Longmuir said he was "Incredibly sad to confirm that the Vipers will no longer participate in the Elite League following Tuesday's meeting."

Honours
 EIHL Play-Off Champions 2005-06
 Findus Cup Winners 2002-03, 2003–04
 Elite League Runners Up 2005-06
 EIHL First Team All-Stars
 2005–06 Trevor Koenig, Jan Krajíček
 EIHL Second Team All-Stars
 2005–06 Jonathan Weaver
 2006–07 Jonathan Weaver
 2008–09 Andrew Verner

Retired jerseys
8. Shaun Johnson
34. Petri Rautiainen (retired by Newcastle Jesters

Media coverage (Vipers Hockey TV)
From September 2009 until March 2011 the students of Gateshead College's ND Media Production course filmed every home game and produced a weekly edited highlights package for the team website.

External links
Newcastle Vipers News from ChronicleLive

Ice hockey teams in England
Sport in Newcastle upon Tyne
Ice hockey clubs established in 2002
Sports clubs and teams disestablished in 2011
Former Elite Ice Hockey League teams
2002 establishments in England
2011 disestablishments in England

Newcastle Vipers


The Battle of Arkansas Post, also known as the Colbert Raid or Colbert's Raid, was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought at Arkansas Post, Louisiana (present-day Arkansas County, Arkansas), on April 17, 1783.

The Colbert Raid was a part of a series of small engagements fought between the Spanish and Great Britain in the Lower Mississippi River region from 1779, when Spain entered the Revolutionary War on the side of the United States. The early morning attack on the small Spanish settlement at Arkansas Post and siege of Fort Carlos III by about 70 British partisans was led by Captain James Colbert of the 16th Regiment of Foot. A surprise sortie by the Spanish and Quapaw defenders, caused the British and their Chickasaw allies to rout.

The event took place three months after a treaty between Spain and Britain was signed on January 20, but word of it had not yet reached the Lower Mississippi River region. The raid was the only American Revolutionary War battle fought in present-day Arkansas.

Background
In the years prior to the Colbert Raid, Spanish forces had won several victories in the Lower Mississippi River region, driving out the British from Manchac and Baton Rouge and taking numerous prisoners of war. By 1783, British forces in the region were severely scattered, almost non-existent, and consisted only of small partisan groups engaged in guerrilla warfare. A British officer, James Colbert, was a leader of one such group, managing to rally a small number of ragtag fellow loyalists to continue the fight against the Spanish forces.

Colbert's primary target was Arkansas Post because of its strategic location at the confluence of the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers, and he had been planning an attack on the Spanish trading post for about a year. If the post could be captured, Colbert and his fighters could easily harass Spanish traffic on the Mississippi without consequence.

Arkansas Post was inhabited by a garrison of 33 soldiers of the Fixed Infantry Regiment of Louisiana and four Quapaw warriors, in addition to the commander, Jacobo du Breuil; his second-in-command, Lieutenant Luis de Villars; and Sergeant Alexo Pastor. The settlement was guarded by Fort Carlos III, a stockade fort, half a mile upriver.

Prelude
In early April, Colbert and his flotilla set off from their encampment on the Wolf River. On the Mississippi, Colbert's party encountered American vessels headed downriver to Natchez for settlement. These settlers were ordered to land and wait ashore for six days. Further down, near the mouth of the White River, Colbert encountered trading vessels from both New Orleans and Arkansas Post. These were seized along with their goods. The flotilla then proceeded up the Arkansas river.

Not far from the post, on April 16, Colbert ordered several Chickasaw to scout ahead.  These scouts encountered the Quapaw village, Osotouy. Here they told the local chief, Angaska, who was allied to the Spanish and regularly corresponded with Dubreuil, that they were only going upriver "with a dozen Americans to shake hands with Captain Dubreuil." They then presented the chief with rum as a gift. As a result of this deception, Angaska did not report upriver to Dubreuil that anything was suspicious. The scouts then rendezvoused with the main party and proceeded upriver. By midnight, April 17, the Loyalists had made it to the habitant shore of the post. To ensure no villagers or guards would be alerted by the approach, Colbert had the paddles of his vessels muffled with leather. Colbert landed his force slightly downriver from the village, leaving seven men to guard the canoes.

Battle
The battle began with an initial Loyalist raid of the village at about 2:30 a.m., resulting in an occupation by the attacking force. Although four families escaped the village and proceeded to seek shelter in nearby Fort Carlos III the attackers took most prisoner, including Luis de Villars and Alexo Pastor. Awakened by the commotion, the garrison launched a counter-attack, led by Jacobo du Breuil. During this engagement, the Spanish garrison sustained two losses and Pastor escaped from Loyalist captivity, reaching the fort in the chaos of battle. No other prisoners escaped during the fighting. Afterward, the Spanish garrison retreated to the fort, unmolested by Loyalist fire.

At about 3:00 a.m., the attacking force began to entrench themselves in a ravine just outside the fort, which, due to its location among trees and bush, they could approach "within pistol shot". The two sides exchanged gunfire for six hours, with neither sustaining casualties because of both the strength of the fort's palisade walls and the attackers' entrenched position, which offered good shelter from the 4-pounder cannons that the defenders employed. At 9:00 a.m., Commander Dubrueil ordered Sergeant Pastor, nine soldiers, and four Quapaw warriors to prepare to make a sortie. Dubreil suspected that the attackers might be setting up artillery with which to breach the fort. At the same time, Colbert sent forth one of his officers under a flag of truce to deliver a peace offer demanding surrender. Marie Luisa Villars, the wife of the lieutenant and fellow prisoner, accompanied Colbert's officer to ensure he would not be shot approaching the fort. At this point, the exchange of gunfire ceased. Colbert's officer fled suddenly in fright, and Dubreuil received the peace offer, written by Colbert in French, from Madame Villars alone:

M. Le Capitaine Colbert is sent by his superiors to take the post of the Arkansas and by this power Sir, he demands that you capitulate. It is his plan to take it with all his forces, having already taken all the inhabitants, together with the Lieutenant Luis de Villars and his family.

Dubreuil refused to surrender, and ordered a sally. Sergeant Alexo Pastor and his force of 13 sallied out of the fort toward the 82 attackers, shouting Quapaw war cries. The apparent shock of this sally, mixed with war cries and volleys of musket fire, scattered the attacking force, which immediately retreated to the river and boarded the canoes with their prisoners. According to Dubreil, the Loyalist yelled "Let's go! Let's go! The Indians are upon us," as they fled. One attacker was killed in the retreat.

Aftermath
Following the rout, Colbert drove a tomahawk into the ground near the riverbank, symbolizing his intent to return, and had another message sent to Dubreil via one of the village inhabitants:

You can form an idea of my forces, at 12 today 500 Chickasaws are due to arrive and also two bateaux loaded with men, armed with four swivels and a cannon and if the Commandant of the fort does not surrender before the said hour and I am victorious, as I have no doubt I shall be, I do not know whether I can hold my people or not, and if the... [Quapaw] are used against us I myself will order the prisoners killed.

This message was ignored by Dubreil and the reinforcements mentioned by Colbert never materialized when Dubreil failed to surrender the fort. Chief Angaska arrived at the post at noon that day, and was scolded by Dubreil for his failure to send word about the approaching force. Angaska, after explaining the deception by Colbert's scouts, was sent with 100 Quapaw and 20 Spanish soldiers to recover the prisoners taken by the retreating Loyalists. On April 24, Angaska reached Colbert's flotilla near the mouth of the Arkansas River and proceeded to negotiate for the release of the prisoners. Bluffing that he had 250 men, Angaska convinced Colbert to release all but eight of his prisoners. Lieutenant de Villars and his wife were among those freed, but before being released, the lieutenant was allowed to sign an agreement securing the release of five Loyalist irregular arrested by the local Spanish government for rebellious activities in Natchez.

De Villars agreed to this under pain of re-imprisonment by Colbert or a fine, and the agreement was later fulfilled when the rebels were paroled on Villar's request. On May 5, Dubreil wrote to the Spanish governor of Louisiana, Esteban Rodríguez Miró, detailing the battle and praising the competence of his men. On May 16, Miró wrote to Colbert, informing him of the January 20 preliminary peace treaty between the two sides and requesting that all property and prisoners be returned unconditionally. Although the remaining prisoners were released, Colbert refused to return the property seized in the raid.

References

1783 in New Spain
Battle
Arkansas Post, 1783
Conflicts in 1783
Battle
Invasions by Great Britain
Invasions of Spain
Louisiana (New Spain)
Military raids
Battle
Sieges of the Anglo-Spanish War (1779–1783)

Battle of Arkansas Post (1783)


Prophylaxis is a term in chess, as well as being a general idea. It was introduced by the grandmaster Aaron Nimzovich in his book My system in the 1920s. The term refers to actions taken by a player to anticipate and thwart the opponent's plans, and moves of these type are often called prophylactic moves.

Example #1
One simple example of a prophylactic move is when a player moves a rook's pawn forward h3 or h6 to prevent a back rank mate, and at the same time prevent an enemy bishop or knight from occupying g4 or g5. In the example, mate was not an issue, but h3 was still played by world champion Karpov. Then he could develop his QB to the best place on e3.

Example #2
Other examples are so subtle that club players would probably never think about them as possible moves. In the second example Nimzovich himself was playing black. In general, he wanted to turn his KP into a passed pawn by advancing it. However, the direct ...e5 does not work well, because the black king gets pushed back:
1....  e5
2.fxe5 fxe5
3.g4+ hxg4
4.hxg4+ Ke6
5.Rd6+ and the black king is kept out of play.

Nimzovich found another way to go:

1....  Rf8! and now after
2.Be1  g5! is best because
3.fxg5 fxg5
4.g4+  hxg4
5.hxg4+ Ke5+ wins the white rook.

To avoid this, White himself needs to play a prophylactic move, namely:
2.Kg1. This would prevent the discovered check on the f-file. Nimzovich's opponent did not find this, and Black went on to win the game. The game was won and lost on the players' relative awareness of prophylactic moves.

References

Chess

Prophylaxis (chess)


A stigma is a part of a flower that gets pollen from pollinators such as bees.  The stigma is part of the female reproductive part of a flower, the pistil. The stigma is on top of the style. The stigma can be either hairy or sticky, or both to trap pollen. When the pollen lands on the stigma, the pollen will grow a pollen tube down the style, and into the ovary of the pistil.

Flowers
Plant anatomy

Stigma (botany)


How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying: The Dastard's Guide to Fame and Fortune is a humorous 1952 book  by Shepherd Mead. It inspired a successful 1961 musical How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, which was made into a movie in 1967.

Description
The book is a satire of an instructional manual, very similar in form and subject matter to Stephen Potter's Gamesmanship. How to Succeed satirizes office life in the United States in the guise of a self-help book. Its subtitle is "The Dastard's Guide to Fame and Fortune".

Inspiration
How to Succeed was inspired by Mead's corporate experiences at the Benton & Bowles advertising agency, which he joined in 1936 as a mail-room clerk, eventually working his way up to a vice-presidency. During his journey up the corporate ladder, Mead wrote the book in his spare time—before work and on weekends. The book was a best-seller.

Musical adaptation
In 1961, the book was adapted into a musical by Dr. Jacob Weinstock and Willie Gilbert. To successfully bring the piece to Broadway, the renowned Abe Burrows was brought in as co writer, and Frank Loesser was brought in to write the music. The musical differs significantly from the book. It satirizes Mead's own career by depicting the rise of eager young J. Pierrepont Finch, a window-washer who joins a huge corporation by starting in the mail room, and becomes chairman of the board two weeks later. The musical starred Robert Morse as the young striver J. Pierrepont Finch, Rudy Vallee as the company president J.B. Biggley, and Charles Nelson Reilly as Biggley's perpetually peeved nephew Bud Frump.

The musical was a smash hit, with a Broadway run of 1,417 performances between October 1961 and March 1965. It won eight Tony Awards and the 1962 Pulitzer Prize for best drama. It was adapted into a movie, also starring Morse and Vallee with Anthony 'Scooter' Teague as Frump, in 1967. It was successfully revived on Broadway in 1995, starring Matthew Broderick as Finch, and again in 2011 with Daniel Radcliffe playing the role. Then in 2012, Darren Criss played the role of Finch for a three-week engagement, and was replaced by Nick Jonas who took the lead until the show closed on May 20, 2012.

Classification
The Library of Congress catalogs the 1995 reprint as non-fiction under "business books", with the subject headings "Success in business", "Management", and "Career development".

Editions

 London: Cedar Book, 1955 (reprint)
 New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995 (reprint), and 2011 (reprint)

References

1952 non-fiction books
Non-fiction books adapted into films
Books adapted into plays
Business books
Simon & Schuster books
Comedy books

How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (book)


Manoj Nelliyattu Shyamalan (; ;  Maṉōj Nelliyāṯṯu Ṣiyāmaḷaṉ, lahir 6 Ogos 1970), dikenali secara profesional sebagai M. Night Shyamalan, adalah seorang pembuat filem dan penulis skrip lakon layar Amerika kelahiran India, terkenal kerana membuat filem dengan plot kuasa ghaib kontemporari yang memuncak dengan akhiran putarbalik. Beliau juga dikenali membuat filemnya (dan meletakkan plotnya) di sekitar dan dalam kawasan Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, tempat beliau dibesarkan. Shyamalan menerbitkan filem pertamanya, Praying with Anger, pada 1992 semasa masih lagi seorang mahasiswa Universiti New York. Filem keduanya, Wide Awake, dibuat pada 1995 tetapi tidak dikeluarkan sehingga tiga tahun kemudian, gagal dari segi komersil.

Shyamalan gained international recognition when he wrote and directed 1999's The Sixth Sense, which was a commercial success and nominated for six Academy Awards, including: Best Picture, Best Director and Best Original Screenplay. He followed The Sixth Sense by writing and directing Unbreakable, released in 2000, which received positive reviews. His 2002 film Signs, where he also played Ray Reddy, gained both critical and financial success. His next movie The Village (2004) was a critical disappointment whose box office fell hard after a strong opening weekend, and Lady in the Water (2006) performed even worse. The film The Happening (2008) did financially better than his previous effort but was also panned by critics. His film, The Last Airbender (2010) has also received negative reviews. His latest film, Devil (2010), which he produced and wrote the story for, but did not direct, was released on September 17, 2010 and has received mixed reviews.

Kehidupan awalnya

Shyamalan dilahirkan  Mahé, Puducherry, India. Ayahnya, Nelliyattu C. Shyamalan, seorang Indian Malayali physician belonging to a famous "Thiyya" tharavad dari Mahe, Kerala. Ibunya, Jayalakshmi, seorang Tamil Indian and an obstetrician and gynecologist by profession. In the 1960s, after medical school (di Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research di Puducherry) dan kelahiran anak pertama mereka, Veena, ibu bapanya berpindah ke Amerika Syarikat. His mother returned to India to spend the last five months of her pregnancy with him at her parents' home in Chennai (Madras).

Shyamalan spent his first six weeks in Puducherry, dan dibesarkan di Penn Valley, Pennsylvania, an affluent suburb of Philadelphia. He attended the private Roman Catholic grammar school Waldron Mercy Academy, though he was a Hindu (they chose it for disciplinary reasons), followed by the Episcopal Academy, a private Episcopal high school located at the time in Merion, Pennsylvania. Shyamalan went on to New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, in Manhattan, graduating in 1992. It was while studying there that he adopted Night as his second name.

Shyamalan had an early desire to be a filmmaker when he was given a Super-8 camera at a young age. Though his father wanted him to follow in the family practice of medicine, his mother encouraged him to follow his passion. By the time he was 17 the Steven Spielberg fan had made 45 home movies. Beginning with The Sixth Sense, he has included a scene from one of these childhood films on each DVD release of his films, which he feels represents his first attempt at the same kind of film (with the exception of Lady in the Water).

Kerjaya
Shyamalan made his first film, the semi-autobiographical drama Praying with Anger, while still an NYU student, using money borrowed from family and friends.  It was screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 1992, and played commercially at one theater for one week. When the film debuted at the Toronto Film Festival, Shyamalan was introduced by David Overbey who predicted that the world would see more of Shyamalan in the years to come. Praying with Anger has also been shown on Canadian television. Filmed in Chennai, it is his only film to be shot outside of Pennsylvania.

Shyamalan wrote and directed his second movie, Wide Awake, in 1995, though it was not released until 1998. His parents were the film's associate producers. The drama dealt with a ten-year-old Catholic schoolboy (Joseph Cross) who, after the death of his grandfather (Robert Loggia), searches for God. The film's supporting cast included Dana Delany and Denis Leary as the boy's parents, as well as Julia Stiles, and Camryn Manheim. Wide Awake was filmed in a school Shyamalan attended as a child and earned 1999 Young Artist Award nominations for Best Drama, and, for Cross, Best Performance. Only in limited release, the film grossed $305,704 in theaters.

That same year Shyamalan co-wrote the screenplay for Stuart Little with Greg Brooker. In 2010, he directed The Last Airbender, based on the Nickelodeon TV show Avatar: The Last Airbender.

In 2008, Shyamalan was awarded the Padma Shri by the government of India.

Kehidupan peribadi
In 1993, Shyamalan married Indian psychologist Bhavna Vaswani, a fellow student whom he met at NYU and with whom he has two daughters. The family resides on a sprawling estate in Willistown, Pennsylvania, near Shyamalan's usual shooting site of Philadelphia. His production company, Blinding Edge Pictures is located in Berwyn, PA.

Filemografi
 Praying with Anger
 Wide Awake
 The Sixth Sense
 Unbreakable
 Signs
 The Village
 Lady in the Water
 The Happening
 The Last Airbender
 Devil

Televisyen

Saluran Sci-Fi
In 2004, Shyamalan was involved in a media hoax with the then Sci-Fi Channel, which was eventually uncovered by the press. Sci-Fi claimed in its "documentary" special — The Buried Secret of M. Night Shyamalan, shot on the set of The Village — that Shyamalan was legally dead for nearly a half-hour while drowned in a frozen pond in a childhood accident, and that upon being rescued he had experiences of communicating with spirits, fueling an obsession with the supernatural. The Sci-Fi Channel also claimed that Shyamalan had grown "sour" when the "documentary" filmmakers' questions got too personal, and had therefore withdrawn from participating and threatened to sue the filmmakers.

In truth, Shyamalan developed the hoax with Sci-Fi, going so far as having Sci-Fi staffers sign non disclosure agreements with a $5-million fine attached and requiring Shyamalan's office to formally approve each step. Neither the childhood accident nor the supposed rift with the filmmakers ever occurred. The hoax included a non-existent Sci-Fi publicist, "David Westover", whose name appeared on press releases regarding the special. Sci-Fi also fed false news stories to the Associated Press and Zap2It.com, among others. A New York Post news item, based on a Sci Fi press release, referred to Shyamalan's attorneys threatening to sue the filmmakers; the attorneys named were non-existent.

After an AP reporter confronted Sci-Fi Channel president Bonnie Hammer at a press conference, Hammer admitted the hoax, saying it was part of a guerrilla marketing campaign to generate pre-release publicity for The Village. This prompted Sci-Fi's parent company, NBC Universal, to state that the undertaking was "not consistent with our policy at NBC. We would never intend to offend the public or the press and we value our relationship with both." Other critics have since deemed viewers to be victim of a somewhat 'cheap' promotional trick that went too far.

Rujukan

Pautan Luar

M. Night Shyamalan Online
2006 M. Night Shyamalan interview (Interview with Jon Niccum)
Interview with Rajeev Masand on CNN-IBN/ibnlive.com
M. Night Shyamalan Interview at www.sci-fi-online.com
2010 M. Night Shyamalan Time Magazine Interview

Kelahiran 1970
Orang hidup
Pengarah filem Amerika Syarikat
Warganegara naturalisasi Amerika Syarikat
Orang Hindu

M. Night Shyamalan


A Puerto Rican is a person from Puerto Rico or anyone who is descended from some one who was originally from Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans are American citizens, even though Puerto Rico is only a territory of the United States and not an official state. People from Puerto Rico can also be known as a "Boricua," "Borinquen," "Puertoriqueño," or the most known slang of "Boricua."

The name of "Boricua," and "Borinqueños" came from the island's original name of Boriken, meaning Land of the Brave People. This name was created by the Taino-Arawak people, who were highly advanced. Taino-Arawak ancestors date back to 4,000 B.C.

Famous Puerto Ricans
•Marc Anthony, singer
•Giannina Braschi, poet, novelist
•Neil deGrasse Tyson, scientist
•Jennifer Lopez, singer, actress
•Ricky Martin, singer, activist
•Renee Marques, playwright
•Lin-Manuel Miranda, creator of Broadway musicals
•Sonia Sotomayor, Supreme Court judge

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican


Euclidean geometry is a system in mathematics. People think Euclid was the first person who described it; therefore, it bears his name. He first described it in his textbook Elements. The book was the first systematic discussion of geometry as it was known at the time. In the book, Euclid first assumes a few axioms. These form the base for later work. They are intuitively clear. Starting from those axioms, other theorems can be proven.

In the 19th century other forms of geometry were found. These are non-Euclidean geometry. Carl Friedrich Gauss, János Bolyai, and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky were some people that developed such geometries. Very often, these do not use the parallel postulate, but the other four axioms.

The axioms
Euclid makes the following assumptions. These are axioms, and need not be proved.
Any two points can be joined by a straight line
Any straight line segment can be made longer (extended) to infinity, so it becomes a straight line.
With a straight line segment it is possible to draw a circle, so that one endpoint of the segment is the center of the circle, and the other endpoint lies on the circle. The line segment becomes the radius of the circle.
All right angles are congruent
 Parallel postulate. If two lines intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.

Status
Euclidean geometry is a first-order theory. With it, statements like For all triangles... can be made, and be proven. Statements like For all sets of triangles... are outside the scope of the theory.

Fields of geometry

Euclidean geometry


The May Revolution happened from May 18 to 25, 1810, in Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires was the capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. It was a Spanish colony that included roughly the territories of present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay. The result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and the forming of a local government now called the "Primera Junta". In Argentina this is now celebrated as "May Week" ().

The May Revolution was a direct reaction to Spain's Peninsular War of the previous two years. In 1808, King Ferdinand VII of Spain abdicated in favor of Napoleon.  Napoleon gave the throne to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

The May Revolution began the Argentine War of Independence. No formal declaration of independence was made. The Primera Junta continued to govern in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII. The Argentine Declaration of Independence was made at the Congress of Tucumán on July 9, 1816.

1810
19th-century rebellions
Buenos Aires
19th century in Argentina
19th century in Spain
Revolutions

May Revolution


The word "ciao" is a greeting in Italian. It is used for both "hello" and "goodbye". It is less formal than other greetings in Italian, such as buongiorno or salve.

The word originally comes from the Venetian language. It is also sometimes used by English speakers and speakers of other languages around the world. Other words that mean both "hello" and "goodbye" are shalom in Hebrew, salaam in Arabic, annyeong in Korean, and aloha in Hawaiian. In Vietnamese, the word chào also means "hello" or "goodbye". It sounds similar, but is not related to the Italian word.

Italian language

Ciao


Kookaburras are birds of the genus Dacelo and are native to Australia and New Guinea. An adult kookaburra is generally 28–42 centimetres from the head to the tip of the tail.

Taxonomy

 Genus Dacelo
 Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo novaeguineae) – Native to eastern mainland Australia, introduced to Tasmania, Flinders Island, Kangaroo Island and Western Australia. Some were also introduced to New Zealand between 1866 and 1880; but only those that were freed by Sir George Grey on Kawau Island are still there today.
 Blue-winged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachii) – Native to northern Australia and southern New Guinea.
 Spangled Kookaburra (Dacelo tyro) – Found only on the Aru Islands and Trans Fly savanna and grasslands of southern New Guinea.
 Rufous-bellied Kookaburra (Dacelo gaudichaud) – Widely distributed through forests of lowland New Guinea and has also been seen on Saibai Island in Queensland.

Life
Kookaburras usually eat small animals: small mammals (like mice), insects, small birds, lizards and snakes.

Kookaburras usually live in family groups. Young kookaburras help their parents to hunt and care for the smaller children.

Kookaburras are well known for their loud call, which sounds a bit like human laughter. Kookaburras use their calling to show others what is their land.

Coraciiformes
Birds of Australia
Birds of Oceania

Kookaburra


The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (); or colloquially San Andrés y Providencia is one of the departments of Colombia. It consists of two  island groups about  northwest of Colombia and  from the coast of Nicaragua, and eight outlying banks and reefs. Its capital is San Andrés.

In 2005, about 65.000 people lived on San Andrès, and about 5.000 on Providencia. About 200 lived on Santa Catalina, which lies right next to Providencia.

Departments of Colombia


Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of length of the wave that has been emitted, reflected or shone through a solid, liquid, or gas.

To be analysed the chemical is heated, because each chemical glows differently. The various wavelengths of the glow make a color spectrum which differs in some detail from other chemicals. Spectroscopy separates and measures the brightness of the different wavelengths. It can identify the chemicals in a mixture, and determine some other things, such as how hot the thing is.

Spectroscopy allows scientists to investigate and explore things that are too small to be seen through a microscope, such as molecules, and the even smaller subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and  electrons. There are special instruments to measure and analyze these light waves.

Methods
Infrared spectroscopy measures light in the infrared electromagnetic spectrum. The highlight of IR spectroscopy is that it is very useful in identifying functional groups of organic molecules.  The absorption of infrared light by organic molecules causes molecular vibrations.  The vibrational frequencies are unique to the individual functional groups. IR spectra is given graphically by transmittance(%) vs. wavenumber (cm-1)

X-ray crystallography can look at the structure of a crystalline molecule. The electron cloud of each atom diffracts the X-rays thus revealing the positions of the atoms. Various inorganic and organic molecules can be crystallized and used in this method including DNA, proteins, salts and metals. The sample used for analysis is not destroyed.

Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy uses visible and ultraviolet light to look at how much of a chemical is in a liquid. The colour of the solution is the basis for how UV-Vis works. The color of the solution we are working with is colored because of its chemical composition. So the solution absorbs some light colors and reflects other colors, the light it reflects is the color of the solution.  UV-Vis spectroscopy works by passing light through a sample of your solution then determining how much light gets absorbed by the solution.

Nuclear magnetic resonance can look at nuclei. It uses the magnetic properties of certain nuclei, the most common being 13C and 1H.  The NMR instrument generates a large magnetic field that makes the nuclei act like tiny bar magnets.  The nuclei either align with the instruments magnetic field or against it.  At this point we have two possible orientations the nuclei could be in α or β. Next the nuclei are exposed to radio waves that make α go to the β orientation. When this change occurs energy is given off and detected.  The data is interpreted graphically (Intensity vs. chemical shifts in ppm) by a computer system.  NMR does not destroy the sample you use for analysis.  Below is a 900 MHz NMR system.

Related pages
 Absorption spectroscopy
 Astronomical spectroscopy
 Time-domain spectroscopy
 Auger electron spectroscopy
 Cauchy distribution
 Optics

Other websites

Measurement

Spectroscopy


The Ghost Road is a war novel by Pat Barker, first published in 1995 and winner of the Booker Prize. It is the third volume of a trilogy that follows the fortunes of shell-shocked British army officers towards the end of the First World War. The other books in the trilogy are Regeneration and The Eye in the Door.

The war poet Siegfried Sassoon, who appears as a major character in the first book, Regeneration, is relegated to a minor role in this final volume, in which the main players are the fictional working-class officer Billy Prior and the real-life psychoanalyst William Rivers. Thus Barker explores possible relationships between real people and fictional characters.

Plot summary
Prior, despite his new-found peace of mind and engagement to munitions worker Sarah, has been affected by the war and therefore does not have a lot of concern for his safety. Prior has been cured of shell-shock and is preparing to return to France. Prior experiences numerous and risky sexual encounters; his only rule is that he never pays for sex – a rule he eventually breaks.

Rivers, concerned for Prior's safety, finally recognises that his relationship with Prior, and his other patients for that matter, is deeply paternal. In contrast with upper-class officers like Sassoon, with whom Rivers has been able to form warm friendships, he has always found Prior to be a thorn in his side. As Prior returns to the front, Rivers continues to take care of his patients and his invalid sister; amid this, he reminisces uncomfortably about his childhood and memories of his experience ten years earlier on an anthropological expedition to Simbo (then called Eddystone Island) in the Solomon Islands in Melanesia. There, he befriended Njiru, the local priest-healer who took Rivers on his rounds to see sick villagers and also to the island's sacred Place of the Skulls. With him on the expedition was Arthur Maurice Hocart.

This episode is a symbolic capitulation to the inevitability of Prior's death at the Western Front, a fate he shares with the poet Wilfred Owen. In a futile battle that takes place a few days before the Armistice, Billy and his friend Owen are killed.

Themes
War is a theme that is both overt and hidden. Although the most obvious theme is war between nations, The Ghost Road also details war between individuals and war within oneself. The book is written against a background of the end of World War I in 1918, but it is also filled with flashbacks to a pre-World War I time on a South Pacific island. While the Melanesian island of Eddystone isn't caught up in the world's woes, it constantly fights for its own existence

References

External links
 http://www.bookrags.com/studyguide-the-ghost-road/themes.html

Booker Prize-winning works
1995 British novels
Novels by Pat Barker
Novels set during World War I
Fiction set in 1918
Viking Press books

The Ghost Road


George Frank McLardy MPS (17 November 1915 – 16 December 1981) was a member of the British Union of Fascists, a British Nazi collaborator and an Unterscharführer in the Waffen-SS British Free Corps during the Second World War.

Early life
McLardy was born at 8 Sweden Grove in Waterloo, Lancashire in November 1915, the eldest son of a draper, George McLardy, and his wife Mary (née Wood) McLardy. He had two younger brothers. He attended St Edmund's School, Waterloo and St Mary's College, Crosby, where he was a member of the First XV rugby and First XI cricket teams. Academically bright, McLardy progressed into St Mary's College Sixth Form.

Upon leaving school in 1934 he studied pharmacy at the Liverpool School of Pharmacy. McLardy subsequently moved with his family to live in nearby Formby, where he was articled to a chemist. He qualified as a Member of the Pharmaceutical Society in October 1939.

That same year he joined the British Union of Fascists (BUF), becoming first district treasurer, then district leader in Waterloo. McLardy sold the BUF magazine Action around Crosby and Waterloo, and held his BUF meetings in a local public house, The Crosby Hotel. The intelligence service MI5 began monitoring his activities in July 1937.

World War II

On the outbreak of World War II, McLardy volunteered for the Royal Army Medical Corps. He was posted to Aldershot, and owing to his qualifications, was promoted to the rank of sergeant. On 9 May 1940, he landed in France with the British Expeditionary Force. After pushing as far north as Brussels, his unit was beaten back by the Germans towards Dunkirk.

McLardy was captured near Wormhoudt on 31 May 1940. It was suspected that he deliberately became separated from his unit to be captured. He was sent first to Stalag XX-A at Thorn, and soon on to Stalag XXI-A at Schildberg (both in Poland). For three years McLardy remained in Schildberg as an ordinary prisoner of war, performing medical duties for his fellow prisoners in the camp hospital.

Around this time McLardy began complaining of "heart trouble" and "ear problems." He hoped for repatriation to the UK. His hopes were dashed in September 1943, however, when he was told that instead he would be moving to Stalag XXI-D at Posen, reputedly the worst camp in Poland.

Collaboration

McLardy claimed that he "would not survive another Polish winter", and recalled a conversation with a "Dutch officer" in Stalag XXI-A who stated that he had applied to join the Waffen-SS with a view to ultimately escape. McLardy approached a surprised Abwehr officer at Schildberg with the request that he might join the Waffen-SS. His application, written in his own hand in English was translated into German, then typed and forwarded to Berlin.

It stated "I hereby apply to offer my services to Germany in the common struggle against Bolshevism and I express my willingness to serve as a soldier against Soviet Russia." Frank McLardy thus became the first British POW of World War II to volunteer to join the German armed forces. A reply was received three weeks later when an Abwehr guard arrived at the camp to escort him to Berlin.

British Free Corps

McLardy was taken first to Stalag IIID/517S at Genshagen, south of Berlin. This was a "holiday" or Propaganda Camp established by the Germans in early 1943. Batches of prisoners from other camps were regularly sent there and offered special privileges in an attempt to undermine their loyalty.

A recurring dream of Hitler's was the propaganda value of a battalion of British POWs who might be persuaded to go into battle against the Russians. An early attempt at recruitment had ended in abject failure. The Legion of St George had been the brainchild of John Amery. He toured the internment camps of France, distributing leaflets entitled "Why die for Stalin? Why die for the Jews?"

His only recruit was Kenneth Berry, a 17-year-old deckhand from a sunken ammunition ship, and Amery was soon sidelined by the Germans. But a group of men at Stalag IIID now caught the Germans' eye as the potential nucleus for another attempt to form such a foreign legion. Soon to be known as the "Big Six", they were William Brittain, New Zealander Roy Courlander, Canadian Edwin Barnard Martin, Seaman Alfred Minchin and McLardy.

These men were packed off to a requisitioned bierkeller in Pankow, Berlin and placed under the tutelage of Thomas Haller Cooper, a half-German who had already served in the SS Totenkopf and SS Polizei Division and boasted of committing atrocities against Jews and Russian POWs in Poland. The group decided among themselves to change the name of the Legion to the British Free Corps and soon set about designing uniforms and recruitment leaflets.

McLardy was given the rank of SS-Unterscharführer, and put in charge of propaganda. Most members of the BFC changed their names on enlistment, and McLardy went under his mother's surname of Wood.  He regularly travelled to prisoner of war camps, dressed as a civilian, dropping off leaflets and interviewing likely recruits, claiming that there were two full divisions of the BFC – one, led by British officers, supposedly already fighting the Russians with the approval of the British government.

In expectation of a surge of recruits, in February 1944 the BFC were moved to an SS barracks at Hildesheim, a former monastery converted into the SS Nordic Study Centre. The optimistic Germans had 800 Waffen-SS uniforms made, sporting a collar patch with three lions, and a union jack shield on the sleeve together with a "British Free Corps" armband in Gothic script.

Recruits, many realising they had been duped, were subjected to lectures from McLardy on Economics, Bolshevism and the German language, and forced to give Nazi salutes to McLardy and the other ringleaders of the BFC. He would later be described by them as "capable and intelligent", a "fanatical fascist", who "hoped for a fascist England", but "a physical and moral coward", "very anti-Jewish and anti-Russian", "a very learned man of high education", "reserved", but who when aroused "would talk for hours on National Socialism."

Some members of the BFC stayed in it merely for an easy time, the beer and the chance to fraternise with local women. Others attempted to sabotage it, or demanded to be sent back to their POW camps. A schism developed in April 1944, when a group took exception to McLardy's increasingly pro-Nazi, anti-British harangues, and a fist-fight ensued. Thereafter McLardy, Courlander and Co. slept in a separate room, under pictures of Hitler, Himmler and the Nazi flag, while newer recruits occupied a room in which a picture of the Duke of Windsor had pride of place.

On Hitler's birthday, 20 April 1944, the BFC paraded in full uniform for the first time. The Corps continued to be riven by intrigue with Cooper, McLardy and Courlander all jockeying for control, at odds among themselves and with their German masters. Fewer than 60 men ever joined the BFC and its strength never rose above 27, three below the number Hitler had stipulated as the minimum for it to go into battle. By August 1944, McLardy, realising the British Free Corps was a failure, decided to abandon it and volunteered for the Waffen-SS Sanitätswesen (Medical Corps).

Waffen-SS

He was posted to the SS medical supply depot at Lichtenberg, and in his own words "wore an ordinary SS uniform and lived the life of a German soldier." Towards the end of 1944, McLardy was selected for officer training. He was sent first to Graz, then to Stettin to commence his training. He realised the end of the war was near, and had no intention of becoming part of a last-ditch effort of the SS to defend the Third Reich. On reporting to Stettin in January 1945 he reported sick and was excused duties, and allowed to return to Berlin.

McLardy went to the SS Head Office and was offered work at the Rundfunkhaus and with the SS-Standarte Kurt Eggers. Desiring neither, he managed to dupe the SS into granting him leave, each department thinking he had accepted the other. McLardy donned civilian clothes and went to ground in Berlin, living at 33 Sächsische Strasse, while he plotted his escape from the crumbling capital.

In early April he learned that the Propaganda Ministry's Büro Concordia was abandoning Berlin for Helmstedt, and persuaded them to take him along. He declined the job of broadcaster, but instead offered to "monitor" Allied broadcasts. McLardy left Berlin on 10 April 1945. By the time they reached Helmstedt the Reich was falling apart, and after a week McLardy told his associates he was heading for Hamburg.

Instead, he posed as a Belgian, and after hiding on a farm at Döhren for two days, surrendered to the arriving Americans. He was handed into British custody on 19 April 1945 and repatriated to the UK on 13 May 1945.

Post-war

McLardy was charged with voluntarily aiding the enemy whilst a prisoner of war. He was court-martialled at Blacon Camp, near Chester and sentenced to life imprisonment on 1 January 1946.

Security Service files on him are held by the National Archives under references KV 2/251 and KV 2/252. The sentence was later commuted to 15 years, of which McLardy served seven. McLardy received the heaviest sentence of those convicted of membership of the British Free Corps. He served his sentence first at HM Prison Parkhurst, then in open prisons.  During his imprisonment McLardy studied for an external degree in chemistry from Cambridge University.

Last years
Upon his release in 1953, he emigrated to Germany, married a German woman and had two sons. He worked as a pharmacist and died in 1981 at Ingelheim am Rhein, near Mainz, aged 66.

Gallery

See also
Thomas Haller Cooper
Roy Courlander
John Amery
Douglas Berneville-Claye
British Free Corps
List of members of the British Free Corps

Notes

References
 Security Service File from the National Archives
 Renegades: Hitler's Englishmen, Adrian Weale, 2002 Pimlico:
 "Life Sentence For Aiding Enemy." Times, London, England, 30 January 1946, pg. 2, via Times Digital Archive, 18 February 2015.

External links
MI5 Report on the BFC, 27 March 1945  Stephen Stratford's website
History of the British Free Corps War and Game blog
British Free Corps Jewish Virtual Library

1915 births
1981 deaths
Military personnel from Lancashire
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
British Army personnel of World War II
British Army personnel who were court-martialled
Criminals from Merseyside
British Waffen-SS personnel
English emigrants to Germany
English members of the British Free Corps
English members of the British Union of Fascists
English pharmacists
English people of Scottish descent
English prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the British military
People educated at St Mary's College, Crosby
People from Crosby, Merseyside
Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
SS non-commissioned officers
Deserters
World War II prisoners of war held by the United States

Frank McLardy