The East Coast Greenway is a  pedestrian and bicycle route between Maine and Florida along the East Coast of the United States. The nonprofit East Coast Greenway Alliance was created in 1991 with the goal to use the entire route with off-road, shared-use paths; , over  of the route (35%) meets this criteria. In 2020, the Greenway received over 50 million visits.

History

In 1991, a group of cyclists and long-distance trail enthusiasts met in New York City and formed a national non-profit organization, the East Coast Greenway Alliance (ECGA), to plan and promote a greenway linking existing and planned trails into a contiguous "spine route" between Atlantic coast cities.

In summer 1992, the ECGA sent nine cyclists from Boston, New York City, Vermont, and Washington, D.C., on a 30-day "exploratory" cycle tour.

In 1993, tours went along the route to explore options and promote the idea of the greenway. In 1994, the first promotional tour took place from Maine to Washington, D.C. "East Coast Greenway" became a trademark in 1995.

The first five trail segments were designated in 1996. These segments were the Baltimore & Annapolis Trail in Maryland, the Charter Oak Greenway in Connecticut, the Coventry Greenway in Rhode Island, the Farmington Canal Greenway in Connecticut, and the Delaware & Raritan Canal Trail in New Jersey. These trails make up  of the greenway.

Between 1997 and 2000, about  of trail segments were designated throughout the region. In 2000, Amtrak became a partner, helping to open access to various parts of the route. Between February and June 2000, the ECG Wave non-motorized relay carried a bottle of seawater from Key West to Canada along the route of the ECG. From 2001 to 2004, another  were designated, and multiple states stepped in to help finalize their section of the route. This brought in more partnerships with government organizations, such as NJDOT, that would be essential for trail development. In 2003, members of the House of Representatives and the Senate signed letters to President Bush in support of the greenway.

In 2004, seven cyclists rode the entire route, from Key West to Calais, in 55 days. Later that year, the first Maine-to-Florida tour was held; four cyclists completed the event in 52 days, raising $75,000. In the following years, more people would complete the ride outside of ECG events. A 2005 GQ magazine article about a ride by Wil Hylton brought national attention to the greenway.

The entire spine route was finalized and mapped in 2008. The accessibility of the trail expanded with support of the states, and more events were held each year.

In 2020, the route reached over  of completed off-road greenway. Efforts to increase the amount of off-road routes are continuing. In 2020 the greenway received over 50 million visits.

On June 25, 2021, the North Carolina General Assembly passed a law adding the state's section of the greenway as its tenth State Trail.

Route

Major cities connected by the spine route are:

 Calais, Maine
 Bangor, Maine
 Augusta, Maine
 Portland, Maine
 Portsmouth, New Hampshire
 Newburyport, Massachusetts
 Boston, Massachusetts
 Worcester, Massachusetts
 Providence, Rhode Island
 Hartford, Connecticut
 New Haven, Connecticut
 Bridgeport, Connecticut
 Norwalk, Connecticut
 Stamford, Connecticut
 New Rochelle, New York
 New York, New York
 Jersey City, New Jersey
 Newark, New Jersey
 New Brunswick, New Jersey
 Trenton, New Jersey
 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 Wilmington, Delaware
 Baltimore, Maryland
 Annapolis, Maryland
 Washington, District of Columbia
 Richmond, Virginia
 Durham, North Carolina
 Raleigh, North Carolina
 Fayetteville, North Carolina
 Wilmington, North Carolina
 Myrtle Beach, South Carolina
 Charleston, South Carolina
 Savannah, Georgia
 Brunswick, Georgia
 Jacksonville, Florida
 St. Augustine, Florida
 Daytona Beach, Florida
 Titusville, Florida
 Melbourne, Florida
 Fort Pierce, Florida
 West Palm Beach, Florida
 Boca Raton, Florida
 Fort Lauderdale, Florida
 Miami, Florida
 Key West, Florida
Other cities may be connected by an alternate route in some locations.

Active segments
As of 2016, designated trails and locations of the East Coast Greenway include:

New England region

Maine

Travelers start in Calais, Maine, at the Canada–US border, and pedal southwest through Ellsworth, where they can stay on the inland spine route through Bangor or veer off along a  coastal route. The routes rejoin north of Portland, then head on towards Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The route through Maine is  long, and 39% of that is currently off-road.
 Calais Waterfront Walkway – Calais
 Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge Trail – Baring
 Downeast Sunrise Trail – Washington & Hancock counties
 Kennebec River Rail Trail – Augusta, Hallowell, Farmingdale, to Gardiner
 Rotary Centennial Trail – Benton
 Lewiston Riverside Trail – Lewiston
 Lisbon Trail – Lisbon
 Topsham Trail – Topsham
 Androscoggin River Bicycle Path – Brunswick
 Beth Condon Memorial Pathway – Yarmouth
 Martin's Point Bridge – Falmouth to Portland
 Eastern Promenade/Connector/Back Cove Trail – Portland
 South Portland Green Belt – South Portland
 Eastern Trail – Scarborough, Saco, to Old Orchard Beach

New Hampshire
Riders enter the state on the Memorial Bridge in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and follow the coastline to Seabrook and then on to the Massachusetts border. New Hampshire has the shortest portion of the greenway: about , all on-road.

On August 14, 2019, the New Hampshire Executive Council approved the purchase of Pan Am Railways' abandoned rail corridor from Hampton to Portsmouth for $5 million, to be part of the New Hampshire Seacoast Greenway, a segment of the East Coast Greenway. The  corridor runs through Hampton, North Hampton, Rye, Greenland, and Portsmouth, and will connect to the south with corridor already purchased by the state but not yet developed. The purchase was paid for with federal funds: eighty percent from the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality program, and twenty percent from turnpike toll credits.

Massachusetts

The greenway enters the state near Salisbury, Massachusetts, and heads south towards Boston and then to Waltham. Next, it travels on from Worcester to the Rhode Island border. The route travels along the Charles River and past the birthplace of the American Industrial Revolution.
 Border to Boston Trail – Salisbury, Newburyport, Wenham, Danvers, to Peabody
 Peabody Independence Greenway – Peabody
 Salem Bike Path – Salem
 Lynn Beach Promenade – Lynn
 Lynnway Sidepath – Lynn
 Northern Strand Community Trail – Malden to Everett
 Everett Bike Path – Everett
 North Bank Park Path – Boston to Cambridge
 Charles River Bike Path – Boston, Watertown, Newton, to Waltham
 Mass Central Rail Trail – Boston to Cambridge
 Mass Central Rail Trail - Wayside – Weston to Wayland
 Upper Charles Trail – Holliston to Milford
 Blackstone River Bikeway – Worcester to Millbury & Uxbridge to Blackstone

Rhode Island

The greenway enters from Massachusetts on the Blackstone River Bikeway and follows the historic Blackstone Canal. It travels down to Pawtucket and then into Providence, where it goes around India Point Park at Narragansett Bay, and then on to Cranston. This  section of greenway is 52% off-road, with another 30% being developed.
 Blackstone River Greenway – Woonsocket, Cumberland, to Lincoln
 East Bay Bike Path – East Providence to Warren
 Providence Riverwalk in Waterplace Park – Providence
 Washington Secondary Rail Trail, which combines:
 Cranston Bike Path – Cranston
 Warwick Greenway – Warwick
 West Warwick Greenway – West Warwick
 Coventry Greenway and Trestle Trail – Coventry

Connecticut

Connecticut has the most rural stretch of trail in the region. It runs through historic mill towns, such as Willimantic, and major cities like Hartford, New Haven, Bridgeport, and Stamford. Users can travel on the Farmington Canal Greenway to get to New Haven from Simsbury and then ride along the Long Island Sound as they exit the state. Currently, 28% of the  route is off-road, with an additional 28% in development.
 Moosup Valley State Park Trail – Plainfield
 Quinebaug River Trail – Killingly
 Tracy Road Smart Parks Trail – Killingly to Putnam
 Air Line State Park Trail North – Windham County
 Veterans Memorial Greenway – Willimantic
 Hop River State Park Trail - Willimantic to Bolton
 Charter Oak Greenway – Manchester to East Hartford
 Founders Bridge Path – Hartford to East Hartford
 Phoenix Plaza – Hartford
 Travelers Plaza – Hartford
 Bushnell Park Path – Hartford
 Farmington Canal Heritage Trail – Simsbury, Avon, Farmington, Southington, Cheshire, Hamden, to New Haven
 Savin Rock Trail – West Haven
 Long Wharf Nature Preserve Trail – New Haven
 Silver Sands State Park Path – Milford

Mid-Atlantic region

New York

The New York segments starts in Westchester County and heads south into New York City through the Bronx and Manhattan. The route travels down sections of Broadway and along the Hudson River, which travelers can cross via the George Washington Bridge or by taking a NY Waterway ferry into New Jersey. New York is home to  of greenway, with 62% of the route, the highest percentage on the greenway, being off-road. In Manhattan, 90% of the trail is off-road. Part of the New York City segment is concurrent with the Empire State Trail, which also goes up the west side of Manhattan but diverges from the East Coast Greenway in the Bronx, heading northward through the state instead of towards Connecticut.
 Shore Road Greenway – Bronx
 Pelham Parkway Greenway – Bronx
 Bronx Park Greenway – Bronx
 Bronx River Pathway – Bronx
 Mosholu Parkway Greenway – Bronx
 Van Cortlandt Park Greenway – Bronx
 Hudson River Greenway – Manhattan
 Randall's Island Greenway – Manhattan
 103rd Street Footbridge – Manhattan
 East River Esplanade – Manhattan
 NY Waterway Ferry – Manhattan to Jersey City, NJ

New Jersey
The New Jersey section of the greenway is accessed from New York across the Hudson River by the George Washington Bridge or ferry, and from Pennsylvania by the Calhoun Street Bridge across the Delaware River. The route travels through Jersey City, Newark, New Brunswick, and Trenton while also traveling through rural areas. New Jersey has the second-highest percentage of off-road trails at 54%.
 Hudson River Waterfront Walkway – Hudson Waterfront – Fort Lee to Jersey City
 Local streets – Jersey City
 Lincoln Park Path – Jersey City
 Lincoln Highway Hackensack River Bridge and Passaic River Bridge (Wittpenn Bridge, once completed )
 Newark Riverfront Trail – Newark
 Weequahic Park – Newark
 Rahway River Parkway – Union County
 Black Brook Park Path – Kenilworth
 Lenape Park Path – Union County
 Nomahegan Park Path – Cranford
 Roosevelt Park Path – Metuchen
 Merrill Park Path – Middlesex County
 Middlesex Greenway – Middlesex County
 Donaldson Park Path – Middlesex County
 Johnson Park Path – Piscataway
 Landing Lane Bridge Path – Piscataway & New Brunswick
 D&R Canal Trail – New Brunswick & Trenton
 D&R Canal Towpath – Hamilton & Bordentown
 Calhoun Street Bridge – Trenton, New Jersey, to Morrisville, Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania

The greenway travels through the smaller towns of Bucks County, then through the city of Philadelphia, where it passes numerous historical landmarks and travels over Spring Garden Street, which has bike lanes going both ways. The route follows the Schuylkill River Trail south towards Delaware. The  route is 31% off-road, but there is a third of the trail that has no route yet. Planning is being done to close the gaps.
 Delaware Canal State Park Trail – Bucks County
 Bristol Spur Line Park Trail – Bristol
 Pennypack Creek Park Trail – Philadelphia
 Port Richmond Trail – Philadelphia
 K&T Trail at Lardner's Point Park – Philadelphia
 Penn Street Trail – Philadelphia
 Schuylkill River Trail – Philadelphia
 Bartram's Gardens Trail – Philadelphia
 Grays Ferry Crescent – Philadelphia
 Cobbs Creek Trail – Philadelphia
 58th Street Connector – Philadelphia
 Heinz NWR Trail – Philadelphia
 Route 291 Sidepath – Eddystone
 Chester Riverwalk – Chester

Delaware

The greenway runs for  through Delaware. Greenway users travel down the Northern Delaware Greenway to historic Wilmington and continue on to the Christina Riverwalk. Next, travelers head to historic New Castle and ride along the New Castle Riverfront before reaching Newark and heading west towards Maryland.
 Northern Delaware Greenway – New Castle County
 Christina Riverwalk – Wilmington
 Jack A. Markell Trail – New Castle
 New Castle Riverfront Greenway – New Castle
 Penn Farm Trail – New Castle
 Churchmans Road sidepath – New Castle County
 Delaware Route 4 sidepath – New Castle County
 Library Road sidepath – Newark
 James F. Hall Trail – Newark

Maryland
The route starts in Elkton, Maryland, and heads west to Perryville and the Susquehanna River. Travelers pass the Perry Point VA Medical Center and have great views of the Chesapeake Bay. They cross the Susquehanna at the Thomas J. Hatem Memorial Bridge, but they are limited to crossing between dawn and dusk on weekends, holidays, and special events that have been arranged in advance, and they must be at least 18 years old or have a valid driver's license. Havre de Grace is after the bridge, followed by Harford County, Monkton, and Cockeysville. Next, riders travel south through Baltimore and then on to Annapolis before finishing the  stretch of greenway in Hyattsville and entering Washington, D.C. About 32 percent of the route is off-road.
 Torrey C. Brown Rail Trail – MD border to Ashland (Cockeysville)
 Jones Falls Trail – Baltimore
 Gwynns Falls Trail – Baltimore
 BWI Trail – BWI Airport
 Baltimore & Annapolis Trail – Glen Burnie to Annapolis
 Colonial Annapolis Maritime Trail System – Annapolis
 South Shore Trail – Anne Arundel County
 Odenton Road Bicycle Path – Odenton
 Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Trail – Anne Arundel County
 Anacostia Tributary Trail System – Prince George's County

District of Columbia

The trail splits in Bladensburg, Maryland, just before it reaches Washington, D.C. Travelers can follow the Metropolitan Branch Trail, which runs past Union Station; or the Anacostia Riverwalk Trail, which follows the Anacostia River past the Washington Navy Yard. The two trails rejoin at the National Mall, the ECG's official midpoint, then head for Virginia via the Arlington Memorial Bridge over the Potomac River. Just under half of the  segment through the District is off-road; the downtown area offers no off-road option.
 Metropolitan Branch Trail
 Anacostia Riverwalk Trail
National Mall Path

South Atlantic region

Virginia
Leaving Washington, D.C., travelers pick up the Mount Vernon Trail to Mount Vernon, head towards Fredericksburg on the Potomac Heritage Trail, and continue on to the state capital of Richmond. At this point, the greenway splits: the  spine route (16% off-road) continues southwest to the Piedmont region of North Carolina. The alternate route, the  Historic Coastal Route (46% off-road), travels southeast through Jamestown and Williamsburg, then towards Wilmington, North Carolina.
 Mount Vernon Trail – Arlington Memorial Bridge, Washington, D.C., to Mount Vernon
 Silverbrook Road Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Ox Road Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Richmond Highway Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Telegraph Road Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Fairfax County Parkway Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Grist Mill Park Multi-use Trail – Fairfax County
 Virginia Central Railway Trail – Fredericksburg
 Ashland Railside Park Trail – Ashland
 Cannon Creek Greenway – Cannon Creek Greenway
 Belle Isle Bridge – Richmond
 Belle Isle Trail – Richmond
 Lower Appomattox River Trail – Petersburg
 Tobacco Heritage Trail – Lawrenceville, La Crosse, to Brodnax
 Virginia Capital Trail – Richmond to Williamsburg

North Carolina
The Greenway's spine route travels south through rural North Carolina into the Research Triangle Region, passing through Durham, Raleigh, and Cary. This section is on the American Tobacco Trail, which runs past the East Coast Greenway Alliance Headquarters in Durham. The route continues southwest through the Sandhills region and into Fayetteville before following the Cape Fear River into Wilmington and traveling along the coast. Alternatively, the Historic Coast Route, entering from southeastern Virginia, moves onto the Dismal Swamp Canal Trail and follows the coast down through Greenville and Jacksonville before reaching Wilmington where the routes connect. The  spine route is 25% off-road at this time.  The state designated the greenway as a part of its State Trail System.
 Ellerbe Creek Trail – Durham
 South Ellerbee Creek Trail – Durham
 Downtown Trail – Durham
 American Tobacco Trail – Durham County, Chatham County, to Wake County
 Black Creek Greenway – Cary
 White Oak Greenway – Cary, Apex
 Umstead State Park Trail – Wake County
 Reedy Creek Greenway – Raleigh
 Walnut Creek Trail – Raleigh
 Rocky Branch Trail – Raleigh
 Pullen Park Trail – Raleigh
 Little Rock Trail – Raleigh
 Lower Walnut Creek Trail – Raleigh
 Chavis Way Sidepath – Raleigh
 Central Raleigh Trail – Raleigh
 Neuse River Trail – Raleigh & Clayton
 Buffalo Creek Greenway – Smithfield
 Dunn-Erwin Trail – Dunn & Erwin
 South Tar River Greenway - Greenville
 Cape Fear River Trail – Fayetteville
 Jacksonville Rail-Trail – Jacksonville
 Greenfield Lake Path – Wilmington
 Wilmington Riverwalk – Wilmington
 Cross-City Greenway – Wilmington
 Dismal Swamp Canal Trail – South Mills
 Carolina Beach Greenway – Carolina Beach
 North Carolina Aquarium at Fort Fisher Trail – Kure Beach
 Southport to Fort Fisher Ferry
 Emerald Path – Emerald Isle

South Carolina

The  trail travels along South Carolina's coast through Myrtle Beach, Georgetown, Charleston, and Beaufort. The route is 15% off-road, with 20% more in development.
 North Myrtle Beach Greenway, Barefoot Resort Segment – North Myrtle Beach
 Colonel Robert Bell Pass Trail – Myrtle Beach
 Grissom Parkway Trail – Myrtle Beach
 Harrelson Boulevard Trail – Myrtle Beach
 King's Highway Trail – Myrtle Beach
 Waccamaw Neck Bikeway – Litchfield, Murrells Inlet, to Pawleys Island
 Ben Sawyer Boulevard Sidepath – Mount Pleasant to Sullivan's Island
 Garret P. Wonders Memorial Bike/Ped Lane – Charleston to Mount Pleasant
 East Bay Trail – Charleston
 West Ashley Greenway – Charleston
 New River Trail – Bluffton

Southeast region

Georgia

Greenway riders in Georgia will use the Coastal Georgia Greenway to travel from South Carolina to Florida. The route travels through Savannah, Richmond Hill, Midway, Riceboro, Darien, Brunswick, Woodbine, Kingsland, and St. Marys. The  route is only 6% off-road but has another 14% in development. There are  of gaps, but efforts are being made to connect the route.
 Belles Ferry – Savannah
 Tom Triplett Park Trail – Savannah
 Chief Of Love Trail – Chatham County
 Canebrake Road Sidepath – Chatham County
 Highlander Trail – Darien
 Marshes of Glynn Trail – Brunswick
 White Oak Trail – White Oak
 Woobine Riverwalk – Woodbine
 St. Mary's Downtown Trail – St. Marys

Florida

The Florida section of the ECG starts in Fernandina Beach and travels south along the coast through small beach towns and major cities, such as Jacksonville and Miami. The route continues down through islands and bridges to the southernmost point of the continental United States, Key West. This segment of greenway is  long, the longest of the ECG, and is 31% off-road. There is another 13% in development and another 38% in public control and is to be developed. There are some gaps.
 Amelia Island Trail – Nassau County
 River to Sea Trail – Flagler County
 Jacksonville North Bank Riverwalk – Jacksonville
 St. Johns River Ferry – Ft. George to Mayport
 Timucuan Trail – Jacksonville
 Palatka–St. Augustine State Trail – St. Johns County
 Mickler Trail – St. Augustine Beach
 Halifax River Trail – Holly Hill to Daytona Beach
 Spring-to-Spring Trail – Volusia County
 East Coast Central Regional Rail Trail – Volusia County
 A1A Sidepath – Brevard County
 Prima Vista Blvd Sidepath – St. Lucie County
 Walton Rd Sidepath – St. Lucie County
 Green River Parkway Trail – Martin County to Port St. Lucie
 Seabranch Trail – Martin County
 Jupiter Riverwalk – Jupiter
 West Palm Beach Trail – West Palm Beach
 A1A Sidepath – Boca Raton
 Hollywood Broadwalk – Hollywood
 Atlantic Greenway – Miami Beach
 M Path Trail / The Underline – Miami-Dade County
 South Dade Rail Trail – Miami-Dade County
 Overseas Heritage Trail – Key Largo to Key West

East Coast Greenway Alliance
The East Coast Greenway Alliance (ECGA) is a nonprofit organization that oversees, but does not own, the greenway. The Alliance is based in Durham, North Carolina, next to the American Tobacco Trail. Six Greenway coordinators work remotely in their regions.

The Alliance coordinates the Greenway's growth by working with local, state, regional, and national organizations and agencies. The Alliance is in charge of designating new trail segments and finding routes for the greenway, posting signs designating the path, spreading awareness of the project, and providing maps and information about the greenway.

ECGA advocates for safe access to bike paths on roadways and bridges, as well as convenient access to public transportation for cyclists. In addition, the Alliance promotes the use of alternate transportation, such as use of greenways.

Awards
 Named one of the National Millennium Trails by the White House in 1999
 Kodak American Greenway Award in 1999 by The Conservation Fund in Washington, DC, by the National Geographic Society
 GoSmart Golden Modes Community Impact Award in 2015
 GSK IMPACT Award in 2015
 Bicycle Friendly Business for 2016 – 2020 by the League of American Bicyclists

See also

 Appalachian Trail
 Ohio River Trail
 List of rail trails
 U.S. Bicycle Route 1

References

External links

 Mapping tool
East Coast Greenway State Trail, official website for the North Carolina State Trail.

Long-distance trails in the United States
Rail trails in Maine
Rail trails in New Hampshire
Rail trails in Massachusetts
Rail trails in Rhode Island
Rail trails in Connecticut
Rail trails in New York (state)
Rail trails in New Jersey
Hiking trails in New Jersey
Rail trails in Pennsylvania
Rail trails in Delaware
Rail trails in Maryland
Rail trails in Virginia
Rail trails in North Carolina
Rail trails in South Carolina
Rail trails in Georgia (U.S. state)
Rail trails in Florida
Greenways in New York City
1996 establishments in the United States

East Coast Greenway


Farid-Es-Sultaneh v. Commissioner, 160 F.2d 812 (2d Cir. 1947) is a United States federal income tax case.  It is notable (and thus appears frequently in law school casebooks) for the following holding:
 Appreciated property, transferred to a wife pursuant to an antenuptial agreement, was not a gift, but was consideration for which she sold her inchoate marital rights.
 This applies the general rule, that a taxpayer recognizes a gain on the transfer of appreciated property in satisfaction of a legal obligation.
 Therefore, the property's basis in her hands was not a "carryover" (gift) basis from her husband.  Instead, the court set its basis at its fair market value.

Facts

The taxpayer-wife sold stock which she had received from her husband, S. S. Kresge, pursuant to an antenuptial agreement, under which she accepted the shares in consideration for surrendering all marital property rights in her husband's estate.  (When they married, she was 32 years old; he was 57 years old and worth approximately $375,000,000 and owned real estate of the approximate value of $100,000,000.)  The stock had a basis in the husband's hands of 15 cents a share, but a fair market value of $10 a share when transferred to her.

The Commissioner contended that the taxpayer's basis in the shares was the same as her husband's--15 cents—because the shares had been received by her as a "gift," as used in Sec. 113(a) (2) of the Revenue Act of 1936.  The taxpayer sued, arguing the transfer from husband to wife was not a gift for income tax purposes, but an exchange of valuable property interests—stock for marital property rights—such that her basis for the shares should be $10, their fair market value at the date transferred.

Issue

"The problem presented by this petition is to fix the cost basis to be used by the petitioner in determining the taxable gain on a sale she made in 1938 of shares of corporate stock. She contends that it is the adjusted value of the shares at the date she acquired them because her acquisition was by purchase. The Commissioner's position is that she must use the adjusted cost basis of her transferor because her acquisition was by gift."

Holding

There was sufficient consideration, underlying the taxpayer's receipt of the corporate stock pursuant to an antenuptial contract in exchange for relinquishing her inchoate interest in her affianced husband's property, because this inchoate interest greatly exceeded the value of the stock transferred to her.  Hence she did not acquire the stock by "gift", and need not take her husband's cost basis in determining her taxable gain on subsequent sale of the stock. Revenue Act 1938 §113(a)(2), 26 U.S.C.Int.Rev.Acts, page 1048.

Academic Commentary

The Farid and Davis decisions are undoubtedly defensible in terms of the realization criterion: in general, transfers of property in satisfaction of contract obligations, fixed or disputed, are taxable events, with the amount realized being measured by the value of the property transferred. But as against the larger Code policy embodied in the gift exclusion--§102 and its corollary, §1015—the cases seem misguided, or at least doubtful, in result.
 If property transfers between spouses are "gifts" when they take place during marriage (with the result that the basis of the property in the transferor's hands carries over to the transferee), it is difficult to see why transfers which are prompted by the formation of the marital unit should be treated differently.
 And if transfers from deceased husbands to surviving widows are viewed as non-realization events even though the marital relationship thus comes to an end [under the exemption for life insurance payouts], it is hard to see why a realization should be deemed to occur when the marriage is terminated through divorce.

The presence of a contract obligation, though it otherwise justifies a finding of taxable event, seems insufficient on the whole to remove pre-marital and (much more important) post-marital property arrangements from the ambit of the gift provisions. Quite obviously, family wealth is being divided between husband and wife in both instances, and it is this circumstance—rather than the presence of "consideration" in Farid or of arm's length dealing in Davis—that ought to govern the tax outcome.
 This logic explains why Congress in 1984 added §1041, which provides that a transfer of property between spouses, or between former spouses where the transfer is incident to divorce, shall be treated as a "gift" for income tax purposes.

References

External links
 Linda Galler, Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Farid But Were Afraid to Ask, 13 Fla. Tax Rev. 461 (2012-2013)

United States taxation and revenue case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit cases
1947 in United States case law
United States marriage case law

Farid-Es-Sultaneh v. Commissioner


An estate in land is, in the law of England and Wales, an interest in real property that is or may become possessory. It is a type of personal property and encompasses land ownership, rental and other arrangements that give people the right to use land. This is distinct from sovereignty over the land, which includes the right to government and taxation.

This should be distinguished from an "estate" as used in reference to an area of land, and "estate" as used to refer to property in general.

In property law, the rights and interests associated with an estate in land may be conceptually understood as a "bundle of rights" because of the potential for different parties having different interests in the same real property.

Categories of estates
Estates in land can be divided into four basic categories:
 Freehold estates: rights of conveyable exclusive possession and use, having immobility and indeterminate duration
 fee simple
 fee simple absolute—most rights, least limitations, indefeasible
 defeasible estate—voidable possession and use
 fee simple determinable
 fee simple subject to a condition subsequent
 fee simple subject to executory limitation
 finite estate—limited to lifetimes
 life estate—fragmented possession and use for duration of someone's life
 fee tail—inalienable rights of inheritance for duration of family line
 Leasehold estates: rights of possession and use but not ownership.  The lessor (owner/landlord) gives this right to the lessee (tenant).  There are four categories of leasehold estates:
 estate for years (a term of year absolute or tenancy for years)—lease of any length with specific begin and end date
 periodic estate (periodic tenancy)—automatically renewing lease (month to month, week to week)
 estate at will (tenancy at will)—leasehold for no fixed time or period.  It lasts as long as both parties desire.  Termination is bilateral (either party may terminate at any time) or by operation of law.
 tenancy at sufferance—created when tenant remains after lease expires and becomes a holdover tenant, converts to holdover tenancy upon landlord acceptance.
Types of leases:
 gross lease
 net lease
 percentage lease
 Concurrent estates: owned or possessed by two or more individuals simultaneously.
 tenancy by the entirety
 joint tenancy
 tenancy in common
 statutory estates: created by law
 community property
 homestead — protection from claim by creditors
 dower—interest a wife has in the property of her husband
 curtesy—interest a husband has in the property of his wife
 Equitable estates: neither ownership nor possession
 Future interests — interests in real or personal property, a gift or trust, or other things in which the privilege of possession or of enjoyment is in the future and not the present
 reversions
 possibilities of reverter
 powers of termination, also known as rights of reentry for condition broken
 remainders
 executory interests
 Incorporeal interests — those that cannot be possessed physically, since they consist of rights of a particular user, or the right to enforce an agreement concerning use
 easement
 easement in gross
 easement appurtenant
 ingress
 egress
 profits a prendre
 real covenants
 covenant appurtenant
 covenant in gross
 equitable servitudes
 licenses
 Lien
 general
 specific

References

Real property law

Estate in land


Criminal law is the part of law that is about social norms. People who violate these norms are punished for their violation. It is different from civil law. Criminal law wants to protect certain values, such as life and limb, or property.

Criminal law has different objectives:
Retribution – Criminals ought to suffer in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Because of what they did, they profited from others, or they caused harm to them. As a consequence, criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales". People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if other people act against these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by these law. For this reason, one who murders may be executed himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance."
Deterrence – Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other people are discouraged from committing those offenses.
Incapacitation – Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today.  The death penalty or banishment have served the same purpose.
Rehabilitation – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong.
Restoration – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment.  The goal is to repair, through state authority, any injury inflicted upon the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restoration is commonly combined with other main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law, i.e., returning the victim to his or her original position before the injury.

References

Criminal justice

Criminal law


USS Penguin (AM-33) was a  acquired by the United States Navy, named after the bird.

Penguin was laid down on 17 November 1917 at the New Jersey Dry Dock and Transportation Co., Elizabethport, New Jersey; launched on 12 June 1918; and commissioned on 21 November 1918.

North Sea minesweeping operations
Penguin, commissioned too late for service during World War I, performed minesweeping and salvage work in the New York City area until sailing for Kirkwall, Scotland, on 22 May 1919. On 5 June she reported to the North Sea Minesweeping Detachment. Fitted out with "electrical protective devices", she was soon busy in the post-war clearing of the North Sea Mine Barrage.

On 9 July a mine exploded in her kite, causing minor damage. In August, while laying buoys for the sixth sweeping operation, she suffered a similar explosion, with more severe results. Temporary repairs restored her to working condition until a lengthy repair and overhaul period at Chatham prepared her to sail homeward.

Pacific Ocean operations
Penguin returned to New York in November, then sailed to join the Pacific Fleet's Mine Squadron 4, with which she operated, in the eastern Pacific, until decommissioned and placed in reserve at Pearl Harbor on 1 June 1922.

Recommissioned on 13 October 1923, she was fitted out for temporary service as a gunboat and assigned to the Asiatic Fleet. Sailing west she took up duties as a Yangtze Patrol vessel, operating out of Shanghai. She remained on China station until the end of the decade, then sailed to Cavite, whence she steamed to Guam, where she was homeported for the remainder of her naval career.

During the 1930s she performed various services for the administrators of Guam, including patrol and rescue missions in areas traversed by the newly established transpacific air routes. However, with increased political tension in the Far East, and increased possibilities for war, her patrol duties were stepped up and took on a more defensive posture.

World War II and sinking

Early on the morning of 8 December 1941 (7 December east of the International Date Line) she returned to Guam's Agana Harbor from a patrol to receive word of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Soon thereafter Japanese aircraft attacked the island, starting the Battle of Guam. Bombs fell on fuel storage tanks and shore installations. Penguin slipped her mooring and moved outside the harbor to gain maneuvering space and attacked the bombers with anti-aircraft fire, shooting down one aircraft, but she was then bombed and strafed. There were no direct bomb hits, but a group of bombs straddled the ship, killing one, wounding over sixty, and causing extensive damage. Then, in  of water, she was scuttled to prevent her capture by the enemy. Her crew made the shore in life rafts; those not seriously wounded continued the defense of Guam.

References

External links

 USN Ships - USS Penguin (Minesweeper # 33, later AM-33)
 Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940-1945 AM-33 USS Penguin

Lapwing-class minesweepers
Ships built in Elizabeth, New Jersey
1918 ships
World War I minesweepers of the United States
World War II minesweepers of the United States
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in December 1941

USS Penguin (AM-33)


The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of humans and other mammals, at the front of each cerebral hemisphere. It is in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobes.

The frontal lobes takes action based on sensory information (sight, sound, touch) from the three rear areas of the cerebrum. The action is moderated by the influence of the pre-frontal cortex. The system is a delicate balance between the need to satisfy urges from the most ancient parts of the brain, such as hunger, self-defence and sex, with the need to act in a way which is socially acceptable.

The precentral gyrus, forming the back of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex. This controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.

Evolution
For many years, many scientists thought that the frontal lobe was comparatively larger in humans than in other primates. They thought that this was an important feature of human evolution and was the main reason why human cognition is different from that of the other primates.

However, this view has been challenged by later research. Magnetic resonance imaging was used to find the volume of the frontal cortex in humans, all living ape species and several monkey species. The human frontal cortex is not relatively larger than the cortex in the other great apes, but it is relatively larger than the frontal cortex in the lesser apes and the monkeys.

References

Anatomy of the brain

Frontal lobe


The Bering Strait (Russian: Берингов пролив) is a sea strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43' W) of the Asian continent and Cape Prince of Wales on the edge of the Seward Peninsula, Alaska, the westernmost point (168°05' W) of the North American continent, with latitude of about 65° 40' north, slightly south of the Arctic Circle. The strait was made around 40,000 years ago, when an old landmass between Asia and America known as Beringia was flooded at the end of the last ice age. The strait is passed through by the international date line, making from the view of the Russian side from the Alaskan side like looking at tomorrow.

Geography

The Bering Strait is 82 km at its narrowest point, and 90 meters deep at its deepest point (with an average depth of 50 meters), making the strait rather shallow. There are three small islands located in the strait. There are the two Diomede Islands in the middle of the strait, and a small rock (or islet) known as Fairway Rock southeast of the Diomede Islands.

Proposed crossing
There have been ideas of building a bridge or tunnel to link Alaska and Russia, where cars and trains could cross the strait. The crossing would have three parts, one connecting Big Diomede Island to Russia, one connecting Small Diomede with Alaska, and a final link between the islands. This would link the North American road system with the connected road systems of Asia, Europe, and Africa. There have not been any physical work done on such a crossing, mostly due to the remoteness of the strait, and the little demand for it. There are no major highways or railroads that connect the Bering Strait to the rest of Asia or America, so if either a tunnel or bridge was built across the strait, new connections to the rest of the highways and railways would have to be made for cars or trains to get there. The crossing might become more useful in the future however.

Sources

Straits
Geography of North America

Bering Strait


An "Old World warbler" is the name used to describe one of a large group of birds that used to be in the bird family Sylviidae. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and was the source of much taxonomic confusion. Two families were separated later, the Cisticolidae and the Regulidae. In the past ten years they have been researched and many species are now put into other families. These families include the Acrocephalidae, Cettiidae, Phylloscopidae, and Megaluridae.

Characteristics

Most Old World warblers are of generally unseparate appearances. The sexes are often identical. However, some may be different, especially in the genus Sylvia. They are of small to medium size, from 9 to 16 centimeters in length. Their bills are small and pointed. Almost all species are mostly insectivorous. However, some will also eat fruit, nectar, or small seeds.

Most of the species are monogamous and build simple, cup-shaped nests in plants. They lay between two and six eggs each time, depending on species. Both parents help in raising the young, which are able to fly at around two weeks of age.

References

Passeri

Old World warbler


Santo Domingo in Mexico City refers to the Church of Santo Domingo and its Plaza, also called Santo Domingo. Both are located three blocks north of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral following República de Brasil Street with Belisario Dominguez Street separating the two.

The Church

Officially known as the Señor de la Expiración Chapel, the church is located on the north side of Belisario Dominguez and faces the plaza. It is all that is left from one of the first monasteries (now, now more commonly called a friary) to be established in New Spain. This monastery was established soon after the Dominicans arrived to New Spain in 1526. They moved into houses that were donated to them by the Guerrero family, where later the Palace of the Inquisition would be built. The initially replaced the houses to found a church, living quarters and a jail for those found guilty of religious crimes. (The Dominicans were in charge of the Inquisition.) A couple of decades later, it was decided that expansion was needed and the first church on the Santo Domingo site was consecrated in 1590. Around it was built the monastery, funded by Philip II of Spain, with four patios which divided the monks and laypeople associated with the monastery by rank as well as a main hall, a rectory, a library and an infirmary. However, poor construction, the soft soil and earthquakes made rebuilding a necessity. The second church was built between 1556 and 1571. The current church the third to be built on this site. It is Baroque architecture made of pink stone, begun in 1717 and finished in 1736. The monastery and atrium that the church used to be part of was destroyed in 1861 during anti-clerical movement, destroying the chapel of Del Rosario and Tercera Orden as well. This opened up what is now Leandro Valle Street on the church's west side.

Due to its style, the church is attributed to Pedro de Arrieta. The general style is considered to be Mexican Baroque but before the introduction of the common "estipite" column with its signature inverted truncated pyramids. The front facade is covered in tezontle, a blood-colored volcanic stone and the portal is made mostly of cantera, a white/grey stone. It has twelve columns around the main entrance, with Saint Francis and Saint Augustine on the first floor. On the second floor, a stone relief depicts Saint Dominic kneeling as he receives the keys of heaven from Saint Peter and the Epistles from Saint Paul as the Holy Spirit rises above the group. In the center at the top is a bas relief of the Assumption located between two windows that light the choir area. It is decorated on the east side with stone figures of Saint Dominic and Saint Francis. Their arms are intertwined and shown to be literally holding up the Church of Letrán.

Inside, the floor plan of the church is that of a Latin cross. The main altarpiece is neoclassical and the work of Manuel Tolsá, which was created to replace the original Baroque one done by Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque. The altar to the left of the transept is dedicated to the Virgin of Covadonga. On a wall in the wide central area, there is a large niche containing the image of the Virgin Mary. Above this is a sculpture depicting the scene at the Calvary. Higher still is an oil painting of the Coronation of Mary and at the crest is the cross of the Battle of Covandonga between two windows. Each of the lateral windows has two oil paintings decorating them and finished with the coat-of-arms of Castile as well as the emblem of the Dominican order. This area is completed with the reliefs of saints and the carvings of cherubs. At the right of the transept, there is the Virgin del Camino altarpiece created by Alonso López de Herrera. The altarpiece contains figures called the "Descent," "Saint Dominic in Soriano," and gilded statues of the martyrs Saint Peter and Vicente Ferrer. The church also has a choir in the shape of a horseshoe with 32 seats made of cedar, each with an image of a different saint carved in relief into the backs.

Next to it is the neo-Baroque Rosario Chapel which dates from 1946.

This church also contains the tomb of Conquistador and explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado. He is well known for having explored what is known today as the US Southwest. It was one of the largest expeditions carried into the North.

Images of the church

The Plaza

To the south of the church is Plaza San Domingo. It is flanked to the west by the Portal de Evangelistas, which is a Tuscan colonnade with round arches. Scribes with typewriters and antique printing machines work in this Portal. Scribes offer their services to illiterate clients, often offering services similar to that of lawyers, counselors, and financial consultants. A statue of Josefa Ortiz de Dominguez, a heroine of the Mexican War of Independence stands in a fountain in the middle of the plaza. It was sculpted by Enrique Alcati.

Unfortunately, this area is also very well known for the falsification of documents. According to the intelligence division of the Policia Judicial of the Distrito Federal, in addition to the 242 print shops that operate legally in this zone, there have noted 614 cases of printers set up to falsify documents in the various apartments and other living quarters that surround this area. Most of these are located on La Plaza 23 de Mayo, República de Cuba, República de Chile an Justo Sierra Streets.

Images of the plaza

Historic structures near the plaza

A small church called San Lorenzo-Deacon and Martyr, is located at 28 Belisario Dominguez, to the left of the facade of the Santo Domingo Church. This small church is the descendant of a number of chapels that have been on this spot, and that in the 16th century was one of four chapels that were at the corners of the monastery property. One of the oldest structures that was at this spot was called the "Chapel of the "Morenos"" (brown-skinned), named so because here is where the Dominican friars evangelized to the indigenous population. The church currently at the spot originally had 4 altars, dedicated to the crucified Christ, the rosary, Saint Joseph and Saint Dismas respectively. However, these have long since been replaced with one simple altar. The portal of the church is from the 19th century with a simple arch on posts decorated with sculpted vegetation. Above this is a monogram of Christ's name. This church has serious structural problems. It is thought that its cupola could collapse at any moment. There was one case where a stone almost a meter across fell, destroying pews, but this happened at a time when no one was in the church.

At 97 Republica de Cuba is the house on property that once belonged to Juan Jaramillo, husband of La Malinche. The current structure only dates from the 18th century, but it rests on much older foundations.

At 92 Republica de Cuba is a building that dates from the Porfirio Diaz presidency at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th. Today the building houses a music school.

At 37 Republica de Brasil is the house where Leona Vicario, a heroine of the Mexican War of Independence died. Today it is a private museum.

See also
List of colonial churches in Mexico City

References

External links

1590 establishments in New Spain
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1736
18th century in Mexico City
Baroque church buildings in Mexico
Dominican churches in Mexico
Historic center of Mexico City
Mexican art
Roman Catholic churches in Mexico City
Spanish Colonial architecture in Mexico
18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Mexico

Santo Domingo (Mexico City)


The Sea Hawk is a 1924 silent drama movie that was produced and directed by Frank Lloyd. It was released on June 14, 1924 in North America. The movie is based on the book The Sea Hawk by Rafael Sabatini.

Background
The movie is based on The Sea Hawk, a novel by Rafael Sabatini. It premiered on June 2, 1924, in New York City. Its theatrical debut occurred twelve days later. A movie with the same title (but an entirely different story) was made in 1940. It stars Errol Flynn. The studio spliced some key battle scenes from the 1924 movie into the remake.  The life-sized replicas were considered so well recreated, that Warner Bros repeatedly used them in later nautical films. The full-sized ship replicas cost the studio $200,000. The ocean scenes were shot off the coast of California's Catalina Island, with 150 tents set up on the island for housing and support of the movie's 1,000 extras, 21 technicians, 14 actors, and 64 sailors.

Story
At the instigation of his half brother Lionel (Lloyd Hughes), Oliver Tressilian (Milton Sills), a rich baronet, is shanghaied and blamed for the death of Peter Godolphin (Wallace MacDonald), brother of Oliver's fiancée, whom Lionel actually has slain. At sea Oliver is captured by Spaniards and made a galley slave, but when he escapes to the Moors he becomes Sakr-el-Bahr, the scourge of Christendom. Learning of Rosamund's (Enid Bennett) impending marriage to his half brother, he kidnaps both of them, but to avoid the risk of giving her to Asad-ed-Din (Frank Currier), the Basha of Algiers, he surrenders to a British ship. Rosamund intercedes to save his life, and following the death of Lionel they are married.

Other websites

1924 drama movies
1920s American drama movies
American silent movies
Swashbuckler movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Frank Lloyd

The Sea Hawk (1924 movie)


Gerard "Gerry" Adams () (born 6 October, 1948 in Belfast, Northern Ireland) is an Irish politician who was the president of Sinn Féin, a political party that wants Northern Ireland to join the Republic of Ireland. He was a member of the Northern Ireland Assembly in Belfast and was a member of the British Parliament for Belfast West. He does not go to Parliament because he does not believe that Britain should control Northern Ireland, this is called abstentionism.

Adams is a spokesman for the Irish republican movement or the "Provisional movement". This includes Sinn Féin and the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). The IRA is illegal in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, because it is called a terrorist group by both governments. Adams is thought to have persuaded the IRA to give up its "war" against the UK in return for devolved government for Northern Ireland.

From the late 1980s, Adams was an important figure in the Northern Ireland peace process, started when he met first the SDLP (Social Democratic and Labour Party's) leader John Hume and later the Irish and British governments, and then other parties. In 1995 the IRA stopped fighting, and in 2005 the IRA said the war was over.

Adams retired from politics in February 2020.

Background
Gerry Adams was born in West Belfast. He has 4 brothers and 5 sisters.

His parents, Gerry Adams Sr. and Annie Hannaway, came from strong republican backgrounds. Adams's grandfather, also named Gerry Adams, had been a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) during the Irish War of Independence. Two of Adams's uncles, Dominic and Patrick Adams, had been interned (jailed without a trial) by the governments in Belfast and Dublin. His uncle Dominic was a senior figure in the IRA of the mid-1940s, but not the chief of staff as some people say,. Gerry Sr. joined the IRA when he was sixteen.

Adams's mother's grandfather, Michael Hannaway, was a member of the Fenians during their dynamiting campaign in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Michael's son, Billy, was election agent for Éamon de Valera in 1918 in West Belfast but refused to follow de Valera into democratic and constitutional politics upon the formation of Fianna Fáil. Annie Hannaway was a member of Cumann na mBan, the women's branch of the IRA. Three of her brothers (Alfie, Liam, and Tommy) were also IRA members.

Early republican career
In the late 1960s, a civil rights campaign started in Northern Ireland, to get equal treatment for Roman Catholics Adams was an active supporter and joined the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association in 1967. Instead of leading to change, the civil rights movement there were protests counter-demonstrators called Loyalists. In August 1969 there was rioting in Northern Ireland's big cities of Belfast and Derry, and the Government of Northern Ireland asked for the British army to help keep control.

This is when the IRA and its political counterpart in Sinn Féin, restarted. Gerry Adams was active in Sinn Féin at this time. In 1970 the republican movement (that is the peaceful politicians and the fighters like the IRA who all want the United Kingdom not to control Northern Ireland) split. Adams aligned himself with the active Provisional part based in Belfast. The Official part based in Dublin was not interested in fighting for people in Belfast, and the Official Sinn Féin was more interested in spreading Marxism rather than making Ireland united.

In August 1971, internment without trial was introduced in Northern Ireland. Adams was arrested in March 1972 and interned HMS Maidstone, but was set free in June to take part in secret talks in London. There was a short-lived truce and some members of the IRA met with William Whitelaw the British government minister in charge of Northern Ireland. The IRA delegation included Sean Mac Stiofain (Chief of Staff), Daithi O'Conaill, Seamus Twomey, Ivor Bell, Martin McGuinness and Gerry Adams. The IRA insisted Adams be included in the meeting and he was released from internment to participate. Following the failure of the talks, he helped to plan a bombing campaign in Belfast known as Bloody Friday. He was re-arrested in July 1973 and interned at Long Kesh internment camp, which was later called the Maze Prison. After attempting to escape he was sentenced to imprisonment, which was also served at the Maze.

During the Hunger Strikes of 1981, Adams played an important policy-making role. The hunger strikes saw Sinn Féin become more important as a political force. In 1983 he was elected president of Sinn Féin and became the first Sinn Féin MP elected to the British House of Commons since the 1950s. Following his election (as MP for Belfast West) the British government lifted a ban on him traveling to Britain. In line with Sinn Féin policy, he refused to sit in the House of Commons.

On 14 March 1984, Adams was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt when several Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF) gunmen fired about twenty shots into the car in which he was travelling. After the shooting, undercover plain-clothes police officers seized three suspects who were later convicted and sentenced. One of the three was John Gregg. Adams claimed that the British army had prior knowledge of the attack and allowed it to go ahead.

Alleged IRA membership
Adams has often said that he has never been a member of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA). However, several writers and journalists such as Ed Moloney, Richard English, Peter Taylor and Mark Urban have all said Adams was part of the IRA leadership during the 1970s. Adams has called Moloney's claims "libellous."

President of Sinn Féin
In 1978, Gerry Adams became joint-vice-president of Sinn Féin and he led a challenge to the Sinn Féin leadership of President Ruairí Ó Brádaigh and joint-Vice President Dáithí Ó Conaill. Others who supported Adams and were from Belfast included Jim Gibney, Tom Hartley, and Danny Morrison. Some say Ruairí Ó Brádaigh was a more traditional Irish nationalist and that the northern leadership which surrounded Adams wanted to act faster and in different ways if they had to.

The 1975 IRA-British truce is often viewed as the event that began the challenge to the original Provisional Sinn Féin leadership, which was said to be Southern-based and dominated by southerners like Ó Brádaigh and Ó Conaill. However, the Chief of Staff of the IRA at the time, Seamus Twomey, was a senior figure from Belfast. Others in the leadership also lived in the North, including Billy McKee from Belfast. Adams was supposed to have become the most senior figure in the IRA Northern Command because he wanted only military action, but during his time in prison, Adams came to thought about his ideas and became more political.

It is alleged that "provisional" republicanism was founded on its opposition to the communist-inspired "broad front" politics of the Cathal Goulding-led Official IRA, but this too is disputed.

Some of the main reasons that the Provisional IRA was founded in December 1969 and provisional Sinn Féin was founded in January 1970, was that people like Ó Brádaigh, O'Connell, and Billy McKee wanted new political bodies and did not want to work in or with the existing bodies such as the Parliament in London. Another was the failure of the Goulding leadership to defend nationalist areas against attacks by Loyalists and sometimes even the police. At the December 1969 IRA convention and the January 1970 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (the Irish words for a party conference or convention) the delegates voted to participate in the Dublin (Leinster House), Belfast (Stormont) and London (Westminster) parliaments, the organizations split into Provisional and Official parts. Gerry Adams, who had joined the Republican Movement in the early 1960s, did not go with the Provisionals until later in 1970.

End of abstentionism
Republicans like Ruairí Ó Brádaigh said that the only legitimate country in Ireland was the Irish Republic declared in 1916. They said the legal government was the IRA Army Council because the last remaining anti-Anglo-Irish Treaty deputies of the Second Dáil made them the government. (Adams agreed to this idea of republican political legitimacy until quite recently - however in his 2005 speech to the Sinn Féin Ard Fheis he rejected it.)

When Sinn Féin any won seats in the British or Irish parliaments they never went to the parliaments. At its 1986 Ard Fheis, Sinn Féin changed its and constitution to allow its members to sit in the Dublin parliament (Leinster House/Dáil Éireann). This made Ruairí Ó Brádaigh lead a small walkout, just as he had done years earlier to create Provisional Sinn Féin. This minority which still believed in abstentionism, called themselves Republican Sinn Féin (or Sinn Féin Poblachtach in Irish), and says that they are the true Sinn Féin.

Adams' leadership of Sinn Féin was supported by a Northern-based group that included Danny Morrison and Martin McGuinness. Adams and others, over time, pointed to Sinn Féin election wins in the early and mid-1980s, when hunger strikers Bobby Sands and Kieran Doherty were elected to the British House of Commons and Dáil Éireann, and they pushed to get Sinn Féin to become more political and less paramilitary. This policy was a success and Adams and McGuinness, and others were elected to the House of Commons, but never attend. Sinn Féin still abstains from Westminster.

Voice ban
At this time most ordinary people in Britain knew about Adams because they could not hear him. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher banned radio and television stations from broadcasting his voice. All Irish republican organizations and loyalist terrorist organizations were banned like this, but Adams was the only person important enough to appear regularly on TV. This ban was imposed after the BBC interviewed Martin McGuinness. and the British Government thought that some groups were getting too much publicity.

A similar ban, known as Section 31, had been the law in the Republic of Ireland since the 1970s. However, media outlets soon found ways around the ban, first by the use of subtitles, and later and more commonly by using actors to read his words over the pictures of him speaking.

This ban was made fun of in cartoons and satirical TV shows, notably Spitting Image, and in The Day Today. It was also criticized by freedom of speech organizations worldwide and British media personalities, including BBC Director-General John Birt and BBC foreign editor John Simpson. The ban was lifted by Prime Minister John Major on 17 September 1994.

Moving into mainstream politics
Sinn Féin continued its policy of refusing to sit in the Westminster parliament even after Adams won the Belfast West constituency. He lost his seat to Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in the 1992 general election. However, he easily regained it at the next election in May 1997.

Under Adams, Sinn Féin moved away from being a political voice of the Provisional IRA to becoming a professionally organized political party in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

SDLP leader John Hume MP realized that a negotiated settlement might be possible and began secret talks with Adams in 1988. These discussions led to unofficial contacts with the British Northern Ireland Office under the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Peter Brooke, and with the government of the Republic under Charles Haughey – although both governments maintained in public that they would not negotiate with "terrorists".

These talks provided the basis for what was later to be the Belfast Agreement, as well as the Downing Street Declaration and the Joint Framework Document.

These negotiations led to the IRA ceasefire in August 1994. The new Irish Taoiseach (prime minister) Albert Reynolds had played a key role in the Hume/Adams talks through his Special Advisor Martin Mansergh, thought the ceasefire as permanent. However, the IRA ended its ceasefire because of the slow pace of developments, partly because British prime minister John Major needed the votes of the Ulster Unionist Party in the House of Commons.

Later there was a new ceasefire, and there were talks between teams from the British and Irish governments, the Ulster Unionist Party, the SDLP, Sinn Féin and representatives of loyalist paramilitary organizations, under the chairmanship of former United States Senator Mitchell. The talks produced the Belfast Agreement (also called the Good Friday Agreement as it was signed on Good Friday, 1998). Under the agreement, structures were created to show that some people on the island of Ireland were Irish and others wanted to be British. A British-Irish Council and the Northern Ireland Assembly were set up.

Articles 2 and 3 of the Republic's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann, which claimed sovereignty over all of Ireland, were reworded, and a power-sharing Executive Committee was provided for. As part of their deal Sinn Féin agreed to abandon its abstentionist policy regarding a "six-county parliament", and took its seats in the new Assembly based at Stormont Sinn Féin ran the and running the health and social services and the education ministries in the power-sharing government.

Opponents in Republican Sinn Féin accused Sinn Féin of "selling out" by agreeing to participate in what is called "partitionist assemblies" in the Republic and Northern Ireland. However Gerry Adams insisted that the Belfast Agreement provided a way to make Ireland united by non-violent and legal means, much as Michael Collins had said of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922

When Sinn Féin came to nominate its two ministers to the Executive Council, the party, like the SDLP and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) did not include its leader among its ministers. (When later the SDLP chose a new leader, it selected one of its ministers, Mark Durkan, who then opted to remain a minister.)

Adams remains the President of Sinn Féin, with Caoimhghín Ó Caoláin serving as Sinn Féin parliamentary leader in Dáil Éireann, and Martin McGuinness the party's chief negotiator and effective party head in the Northern Ireland Assembly. His son, Gearoid is a primary school teacher and has represented County Antrim in gaelic football.

On 8 March 2007 it was Adams was re-elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly.

On 26 March 2007, he met with DUP leader Ian Paisley face-to-face for the first time, and the two came to an agreement regarding the return of the power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland.

References

Published works
 Falls Memories, 1982
 The Politics of Irish Freedom, 1986
 A Pathway to Peace, 1988
 An Irish Journal
 An Irish Voice
 Cage Eleven, 1990
 The Street and Other Stories, 1992
 Free Ireland: Towards a Lasting Peace, 1995
 Before the Dawn, 1996, Brandon Books,
 Selected Writings
 Who Fears to Speak...?
 Hope and History, 2003, Brandon Books,

Further reading
 J. Bowyer Bell. The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 -. Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1979.
 Colm Keena. A Biography of Gerry Adams. Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1990.
 Ed Moloney. A Secret History of the IRA. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002.
 O'Callaghan, Sean. The Informer. Corgi. 1999.
 Robert W. White. Ruairi O Bradaigh, the Life and Politics of an Irish Revolutionary. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.
 Anthony McIntyre. Gerry Adams Man Of War and Man Of Peace? , academic lecture examining Gerry Adams' role in the Republican Movement

Other websites
 Sinn Féin - Gerry Adams official profile
 Guardian Politics Ask Aristotle - Gerry Adams
 TheyWorkForYou.com - Gerry Adams MP
 The Public Whip - Gerry Adams voting record

1948 births
Living people
Writers from Northern Ireland
Sinn Féin members of Dáil Éireann
Leaders of political parties in the United Kingdom
Sinn Féin members of the Northern Ireland Assembly
Politicians from Belfast
Sinn Féin MPs
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015

Gerry Adams


Tolkaapiyam (தொல்காப்பியம்) is a book on grammar of the Tamil language.

Tol (தொல்) means Old and Kappiyam (காப்பியம்) means a literary work.
The name of the author could not be identified (usually referred as Tholkappiyar) and the work apparently relates to Grammar in Tamil.
It is learnt that the author was one of the 12 disciples of Sage Agastya the Father of Tamil Grammar. This sage was living in the south near Madurai, during the visit of Lord Ram to the south in search of his wife, abducted by the Lankan King Ravan.
The age of Lord Ram precedes that of Lord Krishna and hence the work can safely be said to precede 3000 BC (the ideal period of Mahabharat Yudh).
Lord Shiva and his Son Murugan is said to have laid the first tenets for the Tamil Language, probably long long time before sage Agastya could compile the same.

Tamil language

Tolkāppiyam


Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas. Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Classic liberalism is characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision.

Alexander Rustow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society.

Characteristics of Neoliberalism

In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality.

Neoliberalism is antithetical to the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariffs or subsidies.

Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy.

Contemporary use
Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the late 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.

Examples of neoliberal regimes of Government

 Chile under Augusto Pinochet
 Argentina under Mauricio Macri
 Great Britain under Margaret Thatcher
 New Zealand under David Lange
 The United States of America under Ronald Reagan attempted to establish this but never did.
 Australia under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating
 Brazil under Jair Bolsonaro
 Japan under Shinzō Abe

References

Liberalism
Economic theories

Neoliberalism


The Joint Staff Information Management Division (IMD) is one of two divisions which make up the Joint Staff Secretariat (SJS) of the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff currently located in the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia (USA).  The other division is called Actions Division (AD) which manages the daily workflow of the staff.

Mission:  To support the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by providing information management services that include Joint Staff and Combatant Command records management policy and oversight; forms, directives, and NATO document management; staff action research, archiving, and content management; mandatory and automatic declassification and security reviews; and Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request processing.

Information Management Division has approximately thirty personnel divided into two branches:  the Records, Research and Content Branch (RRCB), and the Declassification Branch (DB).  The division chief position is held by a Department of Defense civil servant of GS-15 pay grade.  The division also has a military officer as a deputy with the rank of O-5, but all other personnel are civilians, a mix of federal and contract workers.  The SJS falls within the Joint Staff's Directorate of Management (DOM) headed by an officer of two-star flag rank.

Records, Research and Content Branch

This branch maintains the corporate archive of record of the top five general officers of the Joint Staff: The Chairman (CJCS), the Assistant to the Chairman, the Vice Chairman (VCJCS), the Director (DJS), and Vice Director (VDJS).  They are referred to collectively as the "Top Five."  The VDJS is dual hatted as the Director of Management of the Joint Staff.  The records maintained within this archive are available for Action Officers (AOs) on the Joint Staff to conduct research as a part of processing current business actions on the staff.  They are also available for the Joint Staff History Office to prepare official historical accounts of the actions of the Joint Staff.  An electronic searchable archive of these actions is maintained within internal staff electronic servers for AO convenience, although the actual record copy of all actions is maintained as a paper file.

Additionally, this branch is charged by the Department of Defense Chief Information Officer with records management oversight responsibility for the offices of the Top Five, all the staff's directorates, and, on behalf of the CJCS, with oversight of the Records Management Program (RMP) of all combatant commands.  These commands include:  US Central Command (USCENTCOM), US Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM), US Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), US Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM), US Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), United States Pacific Command (USPACOM), US European Command (USEUCOM), and the new US Africa Command (USAFRICOM) which achieved full fledged Unified Combatant Command status in October 2008.

Official records of the Joint Staff and combatant commands are managed in accordance with internally developed policy and procedures using a disposition schedule  which has been approved by the Archivist of the United States—which makes it law, in effect.  Records are managed by the Joint Staff or originating combatant command's records officer throughout their lifecycle until the disposition schedule calls for them to be accessioned to the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), at which time NARA assumes physical and legal custody of those records which have been deemed permanent.

Also, the Records, Research and Content Branch is responsible for Enterprise Content Management policy for the Joint Staff.

Finally, the RRC Branch maintains the system of directives for the Joint Staff.  It also maintains an official repository of NATO documents for staff reference.

Declassification Branch

This branch processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and conducts declassification review of Joint Staff records as part of the Automatic Declassification requirements mandated by Executive Order 12958 as amended.  The branch conducts Mandatory Declassification Reviews (MDRs) when required outside of FOIA, as well as Security Reviews of scholarly works with potential Joint Staff classified equities written by DOD members for publication or for educational purposes.
Members of the public who wish access to Joint Staff records must make their requests via the DOD's Freedom of Information Office.  This group of government and contract civilians works to insure the public has access to Joint Staff unclassified information as an informed (and supportive) polity is critical for successful democratic government.  The Declassification Branch is also bound to protect classified information to protect the security interests of the country and its citizens both at home and abroad, whether they be civilian or military.

See also
 Information Security Oversight Office
 Public Interest Declassification Board

References

External links
 Official Joint Chiefs of Staff Home Page (United States)
 CJCS Directives Electronic Library
 Official National Archives and Records Administration Web Site (United States)
 Legal Basis for Federal Records Management (hosted by NARA)

Content management systems
Joint Chiefs of Staff

Joint Staff Information Management Division (United States)


Copley Press was a privately held newspaper business, founded in Illinois but later based in La Jolla, California. Its flagship paper was The San Diego Union-Tribune.

History
Founder Ira Clifton Copley launched Copley Press c. 1905, eventually amassing over two dozen papers. After selling the Western Utility Corporation, Copley purchased twenty-four newspapers in Southern California for $7.5 million. He managed these publishing holdings as Copley Press, Inc. and was its first president, serving until 1942.

Copley Press purchased Springfield's Illinois State Journal in 1927. In 1942, Copley bought the Journals Democratic-oriented competitor, the Illinois State Register, promising that the Register could keep its independent editorial voice. The two papers were merged in 1974 into The State Journal-Register.

In 1928, Copley bought the San Diego Union and San Diego Tribune, which eventually became the company's flagship publications. Later that year, Senator George W. Norris accused Copley Press of receiving money from public utility companies, but Copley successfully defended his position before the Federal Trade Commission in 1929.  The two papers operated separate editions until 1992, when they were merged as The San Diego Union-Tribune.Copley News Service''' — a wire service that distributed news, political cartoons, and opinion columns —  was founded in 1955.

Dissolution
Copley Press began selling off properties in the 2000s. Hollinger International bought the Company's Chicago-area publications (The Herald News, The Beacon News, The Courier News, and The News Sun, along with several smaller papers) in 2000. The remaining Illinois papers (The State Journal-Register, the Peoria Journal Star, The Repository, and some smaller papers) were sold to GateHouse Media in 2007.

In 2006, the Daily Breeze was sold to Hearst. In December 2007, the Union-Tribune reported that Copley Press was selling La Casa del Zorro, a resort it owned in Borrego Springs. Copley News Service itself was sold to Creators Syndicate for an undisclosed price and renamed Creators News Service, on 1 July 2008.

In late July 2008, the company began seeking buyers for the Union-Tribune, as well as several other businesses like Enlace, a free Spanish-language tabloid, and SignOnSanDiego.com, the online arm of the U-T. The announcement did not make clear what, if anything, would be left with the Copley Press name. Platinum Equity agreed in March 2009 to purchase the Union-Tribune for an unspecified sum. Copley Press currently is working with Evercore Partners, the same company that helped sell off other business units, to determine a price for the remaining assets.

Declining advertising revenue was cited as the reason for the company's dissolution.

Pulitzer Prizes
Copley News Service and The San Diego Union-Tribune, with notable work by Marcus Stern and Jerry Kammer, won the 2006 National Reporting prize for their disclosure that former Congressman Randy Cunningham received bribes, which ultimately led to his criminal conviction and imprisonment.2006 Pulitzer Prize National Reporting

Additionally, the San Diego Evening Tribune, predecessor of the Union-Tribune, won Pulitzer Prizes in 1987 and 1979.

Allegations of collaboration with CIA and FBI
In the late 1970s, the American media reported that the Copley Press was used as a front by the Central Intelligence Agency. Reporters Joe Trento and Dave Roman claimed that James S. Copley, who served as publisher until 1973, had cooperated with the CIA since its founding in 1947. They also reported that a subsidiary division, Copley News Service, was used in Latin America by the CIA as a front.

Trento and Roman also said that reporters at the Copley-owned San Diego Union and Evening News spied on antiwar protesters for the FBI. They alleged that, at the height of these operations, at least two dozen Copley employees were simultaneously working for the CIA. James S. Copley was also accused of involvement in the CIA-funded Inter-American Press Association.Trento, Joseph, Prelude to Terror—The Rogue CIA and the Legacy of America's Private Intelligence Network, Carroll & Graf, 2005

 Publishers
 Ira Clifton Copley — founder, president until 1942
 A. W. Shipton — 1942–1947
 James S. Copley — 1947–1973
 Helen K. Copley — 1973–2001
 David C. Copley — 2001 to 2009

Former properties
 Alhambra Post-Advocate Aurora Beacon News (Illinois)
 Burbank Daily Review Copley News Service
 Daily Breeze (Torrance, California)
 Daily Journal (Wheaton, Illinois) (Wheaton, Illinois)
 Elgin Courier-News (Illinois)
 Glendale News-Press Joliet Herald-News (Illinois)
 KCOP-TV (Los Angeles)
 Lake County News-Sun (Gurnee, Illinois)
 Naperville Sun (Naperville, Illinois)
 Peoria Journal Star San Pedro News-Pilot (Port of Los Angeles area)
 The Repository (Stark County, Ohio)
 The Sacramento Union The San Diego Union-Tribune The Santa Monica Evening Outlook The State Journal-Register (Springfield, Illinois)
 Venice Evening Vanguard''

References

Mass media companies established in 1905
Publishing companies established in 1905
Mass media companies disestablished in 2009
Publishing companies disestablished in 2009
1905 establishments in Illinois
2009 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in California
Copley Press publications
Newspaper companies of the United States
Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting winners

Copley Press


Puddle is a woodcut print by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher, first printed in February 1952.

Since 1936, Escher's work had become primarily focused on paradoxes, tessellation and other abstract visual concepts. This print, however, is a realistic depiction of a simple image that portrays two perspectives at once. It depicts an unpaved road with a large pool of water in the middle of it at twilight. Turning the print upside-down and focusing strictly on the reflection in the water, it becomes a depiction of a forest with a full moon overhead. The road is soft and muddy and in it there are two distinctly different sets of tire tracks, two sets of footprints going in opposite directions and two bicycle tracks. Escher has thus captured three elements: the water, sky and earth.

See also
Three Worlds

Sources
Locher, J.L. (2000). The Magic of M. C. Escher. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. .

Works by M. C. Escher
1952 prints
Woodcuts
Water in art

Puddle (M. C. Escher)


The Battle of Passchendaele  was one of the biggest battles of the First World War. It happened between July and November 1917. Allied troops attacked the German Army in many operations. The Allies were commanded by British leaders. The battle was fought for control of a village named Passchendaele. Passchendaele is near the town of Ypres in West Flanders, Belgium. The purpose of the battle was to "wear out the enemy" and "to secure the Belgian coast and connect with the Dutch front lines". The British commander was Douglas Haig. He planned the battle in three parts. These were capturing Passchendaele Ridge, moving to capture Roeselare, and Operation Hush. In Operation Hush, marines were to land somewhere on the Belgian coast and there would be a breakout attack from Nieuwpoort and the Yser bridgehead.

Background
The British launched many massive attacks. They were helped a lot by artillery, aircraft and sometimes tanks. The British did not win. This is because they were up against a large and modern German defense. The British and French armies eventually became tactically better, and came close to winning later in the year.

The battle was made up of 'bite and hold' attacks. This captured ground that could be useful. It also wore down the German army with attacks and counter-attacks by the German army to stop the Allied attacks and take back ground. It lasted until the Canadian Corps captured Passchendaele on 6 November 1917. The battle ended on 10 November, apart from small operations. Causing huge casualties for the Germans, the Allies had captured 5 miles (8 km) of some of the best defended territory in the world. They lost 140,000 men. This is a ratio of about 2 inches (5 cm) of ground taken by every dead soldier. The Germans took back the lost ground when the line was shortened five months later, during the Battle of the Lys, losing it forever on 28 September 1918.

Passchendaele has become popular with the misery of grinding attrition warfare. This type of warfare was often fought in thick mud. The land between Dixmude and the river Lys was crossed by streams and ditches that were used for drainage. Most of these flowed west, moving towards the Ypres—Commines canal which went north-south. The land was flat and swampy but for good drainage. August 1917 was very cold and wet. This was not usual. Very big artillery strikes had also destroyed the ground surface. There were times where it was dry. It was most dry in September, but mud was still in parts of the battlefield. Tanks got stuck in mud and some soldiers and horses drowned in it.

Ridges went in a curve pattern from south of Ypres, east then north to Passchendaele and Staden. They were sixty metres high at the most. This high ground had been fought over a lot since 1914.

Many historians have different opinions on this battle. Most of this debate is in Britain. The volume of the British Official History of the War that wrote about the Battle of Passchendaele was the last ever published. Some people say that it was written to make Field Marshal Douglas Haig look better, and to make General Hubert Gough, the commander of the Fifth Army, look worse. The many dead and injured men the British Army had only to capture a very small amount of land have made many historians follow the example of David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister at the time, and use it as an example of wasting soldiers and being a bad leader. Lloyd George, who was almost certainly affected by Basil Liddell Hart, wrote 100 pages of memoirs to a review of British generalship at Third Ypres.

There is also a revisionist way of thinking which tries to say that the British Army did well in the battle. Revisionists say that the British caused many casualties in the German Army, helped the French and came up with attack tactics which could win against German defenses. These tactics made the Germans want winter to come badly. Revisionists say that these things were important in winning the war in 1918.

Death and injury amounts for the battle are still not decided on. Some people say that the Allies suffered much heavier losses than the Germans. Others say different things. However, nobody says that hundreds of thousands of soldiers on both sides were not killed or hurt. The last survivor of the battle, who was also the last survivor of the Western Front in the United Kingdom, Private Harry Patch, died on 25 July 2009.

Related pages
Harry Patch
Western Front (World War I)

Notes

References

Other websites

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/battle_passchendaele.shtml
http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/ypres3.htm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6386991.stm

1917 in Belgium
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Passchendaele
Flanders
West Flanders

Battle of Passchendaele


In mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies a type of algebraic structure called a group. Group theory is often used in mathematics as a starting point for the study of many algebraic structures, such as a set of numbers along with its addition and multiplication. Because group theory is also useful for studying symmetry in nature and abstract systems, it has many applications in physics and chemistry.

Definition
A group is a set (collection) G whose members are called elements. The elements can be numbers of some kind, or other abstract objects. The elements can even be material objects. There is also a binary operation which combines any two elements of G and results in another element of G. This new element may be different from either of the original two, but it does not have to be: it only has to be an element of G. To be a group, the following four conditions must be true of G and the operation defined over G:

Closure: It is required to check if the suggested operation is actually an operation on the set. If an operation is used on any elements in the group, the element that is formed will also be part of the group.
For all a, b in G, the result of the operation a • b is also in G.
Identity element: One element of the group is special. It is called the identity element, often written as e. If the operation is used with the identity element and another element, the other element will not change.
There exists an element e in G, such that for all elements a in G, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds.
Associativity: When there are many operations, it does not matter in what order they are done, the result will be the same.
For all a, b and c in G, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) holds.
Inverse element: Every element in the group has another element in the group known as its inverse. When the operation is performed between them, the result is the identity element.
For each a in G, there exists an element b in G such that a • b = b • a = e, where e is the identity element.

An important property about groups is whether the order of the elements matters when two elements are combined using the operation. Switching the order of two combined elements typically gives a different result. This means that we have many cases with a • b ≠ b • a. However, if the order of a and b actually does not matter (for any a and b, we always have a • b = b • a), then the group is called an abelian group (or commutative group).

If a group contains finitely many elements, then it is called a finite group. If a subset of a group is also a group, then the subset is called a subgroup.

Examples
A simple example of a group is the set of integers (called Z) with the addition operator +. This group is called G = (Z, +). Each of the required conditions is true of G, so G is a group. If we replace • with the + sign, then we can easily check that these conditions are true:
Closure: For any two integers a and b in G, a + b is also in G. For example, 3 and 5 are integers; and if we add them together, we see that 8 is an integer too.
Identity element: For any integer a in G, a + 0 = a. So 0 is the identity element of G. For example, 69+0 is still 69.
Associativity: For any three integers a, b, and c in G, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). For example, (1+3)+7 is the same as 1+(3+7).
Inverse element: For any integer a in G, there is another integer b = −a in G such that a + b = 0. For example, 4 + (−4) = 0. In other words, −4 is the inverse element of 4.

The addition operator is also commutative: the order of a and b does not matter. For any two integers a and b in G, a + b = b + a. For example, 7+3 is the same as 3+7. Thus, G is also an abelian group.

Commutative operators are common in our daily lives. For example, 7 · 3 is also the same as 3 · 7. However, not all operations are commutative. For example, 7÷3 is different from 3÷7 (and neither of these results is an integer), and 73 is different from 37. Therefore, not all combinations of number sets and mathematical operations can form an abelian group—or even a group at all.

Related pages

 Ring theory

References

ml:ഗ്രൂപ്പ് സിദ്ധാന്തം
Group theory

Group theory


A spider web is a sticky net that spiders make from silk to trap their prey. When insects fly or crawl into the web, they get stuck and the spider eats them. Most spider webs are very thin, but are also very strong. Different kinds of spiders make different types of webs. Spiders make different webs in different places to trap many kinds of prey.

Arachnids

Spider web


Healesville Sanctuary, or the Sir Colin MacKenzie Fauna Park, is a zoo at Healesville in  Victoria. It only keeps animals that come from Australia. It has a history of breeding Australian animals. In 1943 it became the first zoo to breed a platypus. The only other zoo to have bred a platypus is Sydney's Taronga Zoo. It also helps by breeding  the endangered Helmeted honeyeater. It is one of three zoos in Victoria run by Zoos Victoria; the others are the Melbourne Zoo and the Werribee Open Range Zoo.

The zoo is in a natural bush setting. Paths wind through different habitat areas with wallabies, wombats, dingoes, kangaroos, and over 200 Australian birds. There are tours, bird shows and information areas for visitors.

History
Dr Colin MacKenzie (knighted in 1929) set up the Institute of Anatomical Research in 1921. It was on  of land which had been part of the Coranderrk Aboriginal Reserve. The Reserve was given to the Healesville Council in 1927. It became the Sir Colin MacKenzie Sanctuary in 1934. By 1947 the sanctuary had grown into a major tourist attraction and the management was taken over by the Victorian government. Since then the zoo has grown with new special features and facilites including the $6 million Australian Wildlife Health Centre in 2005.

Conservation
The Healesville Sanctuary is currently working on breeding programs for endangered species including the:
 Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata)
 Helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix)
 Mountain Pygmy-possum (Burramys parvus)
 Orange-bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster)
 Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri)
 Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii)

References

Zoos in Australia
Buildings and structures in Victoria, Australia
1921 establishments
1920s establishments in Australia

Healesville Sanctuary


A cooking show (also called a cookery programme) is a television program where one or more hosts show people how to cook food dishes in a kitchen studio set. The show's host, often a celebrity chef, will make one or more food dishes in an episode. They will show the inspiration for the dish, how to make it, and the stages of cooking. These types of shows are often meant to be educational, although some shows are competitions that are meant to entertain the viewer.

The cable television network Food Network airs these types of shows.

References

Television programs
Cooking

Cooking show


Ratchet & Clank is a series of video games. As of 2013, there are 13 separate video games. In addition to the games, the characters are featured as action figures, in a manga, comic series and as cameo appearances in several other video games. An animated film has been announced for release in 2015.

The main characters of the series are Ratchet and Clank. Ratchet is a lombax, a type of alien made up for the game. Clank is his robot friend. They travel in space ships through the universe on many adventures. In each game, Ratchet and Clank must work together to fight evil or bring cruel rulers to justice. The series is noted for using unique and extreme weapons and devices. Because of the popularity, the developer Insomniac Games added this feature to its other video games.

Games in the series
Ratchet and Clank was released on November 4, 2002 in North America.

Ratchet & Clank (2002)
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando (Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal (Ratchet & Clank 3 in Europe)
Ratchet Deadlocked (Ratchet Gladiator in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters
Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction
Secret Agent Clank
Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty
Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time
Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One
Ratchet & Clank: Full Frontal Assault
Ratchet & Clank: Into the Nexus
Ratchet & Clank (2016)
Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart

Other websites

The Insomniac Games official website
Official page (redirects to Sony site)
The Ratchet & Clank series at NeoSeeker

3D platform games
Video game series

Ratchet & Clank (series)


Event Horizon is a 1997 Anglo-American science fiction horror movie.
It was directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. It stars Laurence Fishburne, Sam Neill, Kathleen Quinlan and Joely Richardson.

Synopsis
This movie is set in 2047. A spaceship is stuck near Neptune. Sam Neill's character (Dr. William Weir) is very sad because his wife has died. When they go to the space ship, they find that everyone has killed themselves. It all looks very scary. Then they find out that the ship has been to another dimension. It is like hell and everyone sees their worst nightmares.

Sam Neill sees his wife in his dream. She tells him to pull his eyes out. Neill then walks around without any eyes and starts to kill people. They send him out to space, but he does not die. People get very scared. Even after they kill Neill, they still see him.

Other websites

1997 horror movies
1997 science fiction movies
1990s science fiction horror movies
1990s supernatural movies
American science fiction horror movies
American supernatural movies
British horror movies
British science fiction movies
English-language movies
Movies set in the future
Movies directed by Paul W.S. Anderson

Event Horizon