Waties Island is an undeveloped barrier island in the eastern coast of South Carolina. It is under the jurisdiction of Coastal Carolina University and is used primarily as an educational research facility.

History
Waties Island is named for either William Waties Jr. or Sr., who searched out and claimed large tracts of land in the Waccamaw, Pee Dee, and Horry/Georgetown areas.

The island was inhabited by the Waccamaw Indians prior to the arrival of Europeans. The area was originally given to James Minor via a land grant, eventually coming into possession by Waties' family. For a short period, the island was known as Waiters Island on maps, due to a typographical error. The land was purchased in the 1920s by Horace Tilghman and given to Coastal Carolina University as a grant by his daughter, Anne.

Significance
Waties Island is, for the most part, land untouched by human development. This is the result of the entire mass tending to fall under the jurisdiction of a single family or facility who choose not to develop it or have a distinct purpose in keeping the island undeveloped. This underdevelopment of the island contrasts sharply with the surrounding Grand Strand area, a beach region that is mostly developed. In addition, Waties Island is a barrier island with a significantly varying climate and ecology compared to the surrounding city land. It is one of the last remaining undeveloped barrier islands on the South Carolina coast. These factors have contributed to its use as a research area by students and faculty of Coastal Carolina University. The island has a conservation easement with The Nature Conservancy placed on it.

Apart from its significance as an ecological research facility, it also has a rich anthropological history. The island is home to many American Indian artifacts, including burial mounds and ceramics.

Sources
CCU Official Website for Waties Island
Google Maps Overview
Topographic Map - TIFF TFW FGD TIGER
Ben's Page - A collection of documents from Ben Burroughs, Research Specialist (local history) at CCU.

Coastal Carolina University
Landforms of Horry County, South Carolina
Islands of South Carolina
Protected areas of Horry County, South Carolina
Barrier islands of South Carolina

Waties Island, South Carolina


Peter N. Davies (born Birkenhead, 14 July 1927, died Caldy, Wirral, 19 March 2020) was a British economic historian with interests in the port of Liverpool, sea-based trade with West Africa, the Canary Islands and Japan, the international fruit trade and the military history of the River Kwai campaign in World War II. He was an Emeritus Professor in the School of History at the University of Liverpool, England.

Davies was the author of several books, including "The Trade Makers, Elder Dempster in West Africa" (Allen and Unwin, 1973), "Trading in West Africa" (Croom Helm, 1976), "Sir Alfred Jones: Shipping Entrepreneur par Excellence" (Europa, 1978), "Fyffes and the Banana, Musa Sapientum" (Athlone Press, 1990), "Japanese Shipping and Shipbuilding Industries: A History of Their Modern Growth" (with T. Chida, Athlone Press, 1990), "The Man Behind the Bridge: Colonel Toosey and the River Kwai" (Athlone Press, 1991), and "From Orchard to Market" (with D.Hope-Mason, Lockwood Press, 2005).

During a long career at the University of Liverpool which began in 1958 when he entered as an undergraduate in the Department of Commerce and Economics, Davies studied Economic History with a focus on maritime affairs, in the department later known as 'Economic and Social History'. He became Acting Head of Department in 1979 and was Head of Department from 1980–89, after which he was awarded a personal Chair.  Davies continued the tradition of commitment to Maritime History which had been initiated by Francis Hyde and maintained by John Harris (subsequently Professor of Economic History at the University of Birmingham) and Sheila Marriner. Taken together, Hyde, Harris, Marriner and Davies have become known as the "Liverpool School of Maritime Historians". His interests in the maritime affairs of Japan resulted in Visiting Professor appointments at Musashi University, Tokyo in 1979 and at Hiroshima Shudo University in 1990-91.

"The Business, Life and Letters of Frederick Cornes : Aspects of the Evolution of Commerce in Modern Japan, 1861-1912"  (Global Oriental: ) was published in September 2008. In this book Davies examined the surprisingly well-preserved papers of Frederick Cornes, a merchant from Cheshire, England who spent much of his life trading in Japan's port city of Yokohama during and after the Meiji Restoration, including the entire correspondence of "Cornes and Company" extending over a forty-year period in the early years of Anglo-Japanese trade.

Davies's last book, "Across the Three Pagodas Pass: The Story of the Thai-Burma Railway" (Renaissance Books: ), was published in August 2013. Davies acted as editor to Ewart Escritt's translation of the personal records of Japanese Railway Engineer Yoshihiko Futamatsu. Davies had come to know Futamatsu through his research for the 1991 biography of Philip Toosey "The Man Behind the Bridge" and secured his agreement that his memoirs could be published in English after his death. The book is therefore a rare account from the Japanese viewpoint of the construction of the Thai-Burma Railway (and the River Kwai Bridge) during World War II.

References

Academics of the University of Liverpool
1927 births
2020 deaths
People from Birkenhead
Economic historians
British historians
British maritime historians

Peter Davies (economic historian)


Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a local area network or LAN. It has been the most widely used method of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is that multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time. This is comparatively easy to engineer.

If two computers send data at the same time, a collision will occur. When this happens, the data sent is not usable. In general, both computers will stop sending, and wait a random amount of time, before they try again. A special protocol was developed to deal with such problems. It is called Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection or CSMA/CD.

Different cable types
There are different Ethernet standards.  Today, Ethernet cables look like thick telephone cables.  They connect to boxes called hubs or switches. Each cable runs from a computer's network interface card (NIC) to such a box. This cable is called 10BaseT or 100BaseT, or 1000BaseT Cable.

All cable types:
 10Base2 and 10Base5: These coaxial cables are like those used in television, but thinner.  They are also called "thinnet" or "coax". Each computer has a "T" plugged into it, and cables plug into each side of the "T". Sometimes, instead of a "T", a vampire tap is used. It supports 10MBits per second transfer speed. It was the first to be adopted, and became rare during the 21st century.
 10BaseT: Cables look like thick phone cables, but with 8 copper wires instead of 2 or 4, and they go from each computer' to a Hub or a Switch. Supported speed is 10 MBit/second.
 10BaseF: Same as 10BaseT, but cables transmit light pulses, instead of electrical signals.
 100BaseT:  Cables look the same as 10BaseT, but can run at up to  100 MBits per second
 1000BaseT: Cables look the same as 10BaseT, but can run at up to 1GBit (1000MBit) per second.

Today, the cables for 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT are the same. Their transmission medium is unshielded twisted pair for Category 5 (UTP-Cat5) or 5e. Shielded cable (STP-Cat5 or Cat5e) can be used when there is a lot of electrical noise, and Category 6 (UTP-Cat6 or STP-Cat6) works better with faster signals such as 1GBit or 10GBit.

Different devices
Other devices, such as video game consoles, can also be connected using the same kind of cabling. Certain computer peripherals, for example printers and certain hard disks can be directly connected to the network with such cables.

Different speeds
Ethernet can go at different speeds. In the beginning, Ethernet was at 10 MBits per second. The Ethernet most often used today is at 100 MBits per second.  Most new computers now have the NIC built in, and can go at 1GBit per second. There are also standards for 1GBit per second and 10 GBit per second.  100 MBit can usually talk to 10 MBit, and 1 GBit can talk to 100 MBit and usually to 10 MBit (both full and half duplex).

Computer hardware
Computer networking

Ethernet


Joseph Hunter  (6 February 1783 – 9 May 1861) was a Unitarian Minister, antiquarian, and deputy keeper of public records now best known for his publications Hallamshire. The History and Topography of the Parish of Sheffield in the County of York, the two-volume South Yorkshire (a history of the Deanery of Doncaster), still considered among the best works written on the history of Sheffield and South Yorkshire, and his 1852 pamphlet on Robin Hood in which he argued that a servant of this name at the court of Edward II was identical with the famous outlaw. His name was adopted by the Hunter Archaeological Society.

Biography
Hunter was born in Sheffield on 6 February 1783 to cutler Michael Hunter (1759–1831) and Elizabeth Girdler (1761–1787) in a house on the north side of New Church Street (a site now occupied by the Town Hall). Following the death of his mother in 1787 he was placed under the guardianship of Joseph Evans, a minister at Upper Chapel. He went to school in Attercliffe and subsequently served an apprenticeship as a cutler, obtaining his freedom of the Cutler's Company in September 1804.
However, in 1805 he left Sheffield to study theology at Manchester College in York.

In 1809 he moved to Bath to take up a post as a Unitarian Minister at Trim Street Chapel, there he met and married Mary Hayward, with whom he would have six children, one of whom, Sylvester Joseph Hunter, converted to Catholicism and became a Jesuit priest. In 1833 he moved to London to work at the Record Commission as Assistant Keeper of Public Records. In 1843, he was granted a coat of arms and chose as his motto Vita si Cervina (avoid me if you are a deer). He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1856. He died in 1861 and is buried at Ecclesfield Parish Church in Sheffield.

From his schooldays onwards, he had been an enthusiastic collector of memorial inscriptions and similar genealogical gleanings. At the time of his death, much of his research remained unpublished. His papers were deposited in the British Museum (now the British Library). Between 1894 and 1896, the Harleian Society published four volumes of his collection of pedigrees under the title Familiae Minorum Gentium.

Hunter Archaeological Society
The Hunter Archaeological Society, which was formed in 1912 "to study and report on the archaeology, history and architecture of South Yorkshire and North Derbyshire", was named in his honour.

List of publications (excluding articles and papers)
 The Ameliorated Condition of the Poor one Benefit derived to the World from Christianity (1811)
 A Tribute to the Memory of the Rev. John Simpson (1813)
 Who Wrote Cavendish's Life of Wolsey? (1815)
 Scripture the Delight and Guide of the Unitarian Christian (1817)
 The Deist, the Christian, and the Unitarian (1819)
 Hallamshire: the History and Topography of the Parish of Sheffield in the County of York (1819)
 Golden Sentences: a Manual that may be used by all who desire to be Moral and Religious (1826)
 South Yorkshire: the History and Topography of the Deanery of Doncaster, in the Diocese and County of York. 2 vols. (1828–31)
 The Life of Sir Thomas Moore, by his Great-Grandson Cresacre More (1828) (ed. J. Hunter)
 The Hallamshire Glossary (1829) (compiled by J. Hunter)
 The Diary of Ralph Thoresby, F.R.S. 2 vols. (1830) (ed. J. Hunter)
 Letters of Eminent Men addressed to Ralph Thoresby, F.R.S. 2 vols. (1832) (ed. J. Hunter)
 English Monastic Libraries (1831) (compiled by J. Hunter)
 Magnum Rotulum Scaccarii, vel Magnum Rotulum Pipæ [etc.] (1833) (ed. J. Hunter)
 Rotuli Selecti ad res Anglicas et Hibernicas (1834) (ed. J. Hunter)
 The Attorney-General versus Shore (1834)
 Fines sive Pedes Finium [etc.] 2 vols. (1835–42) (ed. J. Hunter)
 A Letter to Patrick Frazer Tytler, Esq., etc. (1837)
 Three Catalogues describing the Contents of the Red Book of the Exchequer [etc.] (1838) (compiled by J. Hunter)
 A Disquisition on the Scene, Origin, Date, etc. of Shakespeare's "Tempest" (1839)
 A Few Words in Reply to the Animadversions of the Rev. Mr. Dyce on Mr. Hunter's "Disquisitions on The Tempest" [etc.] (1853)
 Ecclesiastical Documents (1840) (ed. J. Hunter)
 A True Account of the Alienation and Recovery of the Estates of the Offleys of Norton, in 1754 (1841)
 The Rise of the Old Dissent exemplified by the Life of Oliver Heywood, 1630–1702 (1842)
 The Diary of Dr. Thomas Cartwright, Bishop of Chester (1843) (ed. J. Hunter)
 Gens Sylvestrina: Memorials of some of my good and Religious Ancestors (1846)
 Notes of an English Traveller during a Two Days' Sojourn at Ober-Wesel, on the Rhine (1847)
 Collections Concerning the Early History of the Founders of New Plymouth, the first Colonists of New England (1849)
 Agincourt: a Contribution towards an Authentic List of the Commanders of the English Host [etc.] (1850)
 Milton: a Sheaf of Gleanings after his Biographers and Annotators (1850)
 Antiquarian Notices of Lupset, the Heath, Sharlston, and Ackton (1851)
 The Great Hero of the Ancient Minstrelsy of England, Robin Hood; his Period, real Character, etc., investigated and perhaps ascertained (1852)
 The Connection of Bath with the Literature and Science of England (1853)
 Collections Concerning the Church or Congregation of Protestant Separatists formed at Scrooby, the Founders of New Plymouth [etc.] (1854)
 New Illustrations of the Life, Studies, and Writings of Shakespeare. 2 vols. (1854)
 Pope: his Descent and Family Connections (1857)

References

External links

The Hunter Archaeological Society
Archival Material at

1783 births
1861 deaths
English antiquarians
19th-century antiquarians
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Clergy from Sheffield
English archivists
People associated with The National Archives (United Kingdom)
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Historians of Yorkshire
Writers from Sheffield
People from Darnall

Joseph Hunter (antiquarian)


Napoleon Bonaparte () was a French politician and army leader who ruled France from 1799 to 1814 and for a short period (the "Hundred Days") in 1815. He became Emperor of the French and King of Italy as Napoleon I. He had power over most of Europe at the height of his power, and his actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century.

Bonaparte was born in Corsica into a noble family in 15th of August, 1769. He learned the Corsican language first before learning French. He moved to mainland France and trained to become an army officer. He became an important army leader during the First French Republic, helping to stop the countries that wanted to end the French Revolution. In 1799, he overthrew the government and took control of France for himself (a coup d'état). At first his title was Consul. Five years later, he was made Emperor of France. In the first ten years of the nineteenth century, the French Empire under Napoleon waged the Napoleonic Wars. Every European great power joined in these wars. After a number of victories, France became very important in continental Europe.  He increased his power by making many alliances. He also made other European countries into French client states by letting his friends and family members rule them.

The French invasion of Russia in 1812 became Napoleon's first big defeat. His army was badly damaged and never fully recovered. In 1813, another Coalition defeated his forces at Leipzig. The year after that, they attacked France and won. The Coalition exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba. Less than a year later, he escaped Elba and briefly returned to be the Emperor of France. However, he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. Napoleon spent the last six years of his life exiled to the island of Saint Helena, which was controlled by the British, and died at the age of 51. A doctor said he died of stomach cancer. Some scientists think he was poisoned, though others disagree.

Napoleon is remembered as a brilliant army leader, and his campaigns are studied at military schools all over the world. People have many different views on whether he was a good or bad ruler. He brought many ideas of liberalism and the French Revolution to the countries he conquered, such as the Napoleonic code, freedom of religion and making education and government more modern. His enemies remembered him as a tyrant and some historians criticise him for causing many wars.

Birth and education
Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Casa Buonaparte in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica, on the 15th of August 1769. This was one year after the island was given to France by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second of eight children. He was named Napoleone di Buonaparte. He took his first name from an uncle who had been killed fighting the French. However, he later used the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte.

The Corsican Buonapartes were from lower Italian nobility. They had come to Corsica in the 16th century. His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte became Corsica's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777.

The greatest influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, Maria Letizia Ramolino. Her firm education controlled a wild child. He had an older brother, Joseph. He also had younger siblings Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme. Napoleon was baptized as a Catholic just before his second birthday, on 21 July 1770 at Ajaccio Cathedral.

Although raised a Catholic, Napoleon was a deist.

Early military career

Napoleon was able to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He was nine years old when he entered the academy. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant of artillery. Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica. There he played an active part in political and military matters. He came into conflict with the Corsican nationalist Pasquale Paoli, and his family was forced to flee to Marseille in 1793.

The French Revolution caused much fighting and disorder in France. At times, Napoleon was connected to those in power. Other times, he was in jail. In the French Revolutionary Wars he helped the Republic against royalists who supported the former king of France. In September 1793, he assumed command of an artillery brigade at the siege of Toulon, where royalist leaders had welcomed a British fleet and troops. The British were driven out on December 17, 1793, and Bonaparte was rewarded with promotion to brigadier general and assigned to the French army in Italy in February 1794.

13 Vendémiaire
General Napoleon Bonaparte was later appointed by the republic to repel the royalists on October 5, 1795 (13 Vendémiaire Year IV in French Republican Calendar). More than a 1400 royalists died and the rest fled. He had cleared the streets with "a whiff of grapeshot" according to the 19th-century historian Thomas Carlyle. He was then promoted to major general and marked his name on the French Revolution.

The defeat of the Royalist rebellions ended the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new Directory. On March 9, 1796, Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais, a widow older than he was and a very unlikely wife to the future ruler.

Italian Campaign
The campaign in Italy is the first time Napoleon led France to war. Late in March 1796, Bonaparte began a series of operations to divide and defeat the Austrian and Sardinian armies in Italy. He defeated the Sardinians in April 21, bringing Savoy and Nice into France. Then, in a series of brilliant battles, he won Lombardy from the Austrians. Mantua, the last Lombard stronghold fell in February 1797.

Egyptian Campaign
In May 1798, General Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt. The French needed to threaten British India and the French Directory was concerned that Napoleon would take control of France. The French Army under Napoleon won an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Pyramids. Barely 300 French soldiers died, while thousands of Mamluks (an old power in the Middle East) were killed. But his army was weakened by bubonic plague and poor supplies because the Navy was defeated at the Battle of the Nile. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure but a cultural success. The Rosetta Stone was found by French engineer Captain Pierre-François Bouchard, and French scholar Jean-François Champollion was able to read the words in the stone. Napoleon went back to France because of a change in the French government. Some believe that Napoleon should not have left his soldiers in Egypt. Napoleon helped lead the Brumaire coup d'état of November 1799.

Ruler of France

Bonaparte returned to Paris in October 1799. France's situation had been improved by a series of victories but the Republic was bankrupt, and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population. He was approached by one of the Directors, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, for his support in a coup to overthrow the constitutional government. The leaders of the plot included his brother Lucien Bonaparte (the speaker of the Council of Five Hundred), Roger Ducos, another Director, Joseph Fouché, and Charles Maurice Talleyrand. Other deputies realised they faced an attempted coup. Faced with their protests, Bonaparte led troops to seize control and disperse them, which left a rump legislature to name Bonaparte, Sièyes, and Ducos as the three provisional Consuls to administer the government.

Sieyès expected to dominate the new regime, but he was outmaneuvered by Bonaparte. Napoleon drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII, and secured his own election as First Consul. This made Bonaparte the most powerful person in France, and he took up residence at the Tuileries.

In 1800, Napoleon ensured his power by crossing the Alps and defeating the Austrians at Marengo. He then negotiated a general European peace that established the Rhine River as the eastern border of France. He also concluded an agreement with the pope (the Concordat of 1801), which contributed to French domestic tranquility by ending the quarrel with the Roman Catholic Church that had arisen during the French Revolution.

In France the administration was reorganized, the court system was simplified, and all schools were put under centralized control. French law was standardized in the Napoleonic Code, or civil code, and six other codes. They guaranteed the rights and liberties won in the Revolution, including equality before the law and freedom of religion.

Emperor of France

In February 1804, a British-financial plot against Bonaparte was uncovered by the former police minister Joseph Fouche. It gave Napoleon a reason to start a hereditary dynasty. On December 2, 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself "Emperor of the French". The people of France did not see him as the monarch of the old regime because of his holding a Roman Empire title. He invited Pope Pius VII to see his coronation at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. During the ceremony, Napoleon I took the crown from the pope's hand and placed it on his own head. This had been agreed on between Napoleon and the Pope. At Milan Cathedral on May 26 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

Reforms
To restore prosperity, Napoleon modernized finance. He regulated the economy to control prices, encouraged new industry, and built roads and canals. To ensure well-trained officials and military officers, he promoted a system of public schools under firm government control. He also repealed some social reforms of the revolution. He made peace with the Catholic Church in the Concordat of 1801. The Concordat kept the Church under state control but recognized religious freedom for Catholics.

Napoleon I won support across class lines. He encouraged the émigré population to return, provided they gave an oath of loyalty. Peasants were relieved when he recognized their right to lands they had bought during the revolution. Napoleon's chief opposition came from royalists and republicans.

Napoleonic Code

Among Napoleon's most lasting reforms was a new law code, popularly called the Napoleonic Code. It embodied Enlightenment principles such as equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration, and advancement based on virtue. But the Napoleonic Code undid some reforms of the French Revolution. Women, for example, lost most of their newly gained rights under the new code. The law considered women minors who could not exercise the rights of citizenship. Male heads of households regained full authority over their wives and children. Again, Napoleon valued order and authority over individual rights.

The Grand Empire

Emperor Napoleon abandoned plans to invade England and turned his armies against the Austro-Russian forces, defeating them at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2, 1805. In 1806 Napoleon destroyed the Prussian army at Jena and Auerstädt and the Russian army at Friedland. He crowned his elder brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Naples and Sicily in 1806 and converted the Dutch Republic into the kingdom of Holland for his brother Louis. Napoleon also established the Confederation of the Rhine (most of the German states) of which he was protector.

To legitimize his rule, he divorced his wife Joséphine and married Marie Louise, duchess of Parma and daughter of the Emperor Francis I of Austria. Soon she delivered a son and heir to the Bonaparte Dynasty. He was named Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte or Napoleon II and crowned King of Rome from his birth.

At Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon made an ally of Russian tsar Alexander Romanov and greatly reduced the size of Prussia. He also added new states to the empire: the kingdom of Westphalia, under his youngest brother Jerome, the duchy of Warsaw, and other states.

Defeat

The Congress of Erfurt sought to preserve the Russo-French alliance and the leaders had a friendly personal relationship after their first meeting at Tilsit in 1807. However, on June 23, 1812, Napoleon went to war with Russia. The French invasion of Russia defeated many Russian cities and villages, but by the time they reached Moscow it was winter. Due to the Russian army's scorched earth tactics, the French found little food for themselves and their horses. Napoleon's army was unable to defeat the Russians. The Russians began to attack. Napoleon and his army had to go back to France. The French suffered greatly in during Napoleon's retreat. Most of his soldiers never returned to France. His army was reduced to 70,000 soldiers and 40,000 stragglers, against more than three times as many Allied troops. Finally at the 1813 Battle of the Nations he was defeated by the Allies: Sweden, Russia, Austria, and Prussia.

Exile in Elba
Napoleon had no choice but to abdicate in favor of his son. However, the Allies refused to accept this. Napoleon abdicated without conditions on April 11, 1814. Before his official abdication, Napoleon attempted suicide with a pill but it did not work. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau the victors exiled him to Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediterranean. The Allies allowed Napoleon to keep an imperial title "Emperor of Elba" and an allowance of 2 million francs a year. Napoleon even requested a 21 gun salute as emperor of the island of Elba. Many delegates feared that Elba was too close to Europe to keep such a dangerous force.

The Hundred Days

Separated from his son and wife, who had come under Austrian control, cut off from the allowance guaranteed to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours he was about to be banished to a remote island in the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon escaped from Elba on February 26 1815. He made a surprise march on March 1, 1815 to Paris. His former troops joined him and Louis XVIII fled to exile. He again became ruler of France for a length of 100 days. Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the British under Duke of Wellington and Prussians on June 18 1815, which was his last battle. Napoleon was again captured and taken to his second exile on the island of Saint Helena on the Atlantic Ocean.

Second exile and death

Napoleon was sent to the island of Saint Helena, off the coast of Africa. He died on May 5 1821 of stomach cancer. Napoleon kept himself up to date of the events through The Times and hoped for release in the event that Holland became Prime Minister. There were other plots to rescue Napoleon from captivity including one from Texas, where exiled soldiers from the Grande Armée wanted a resurrection of the Napoleonic Empire in America. There was even a plan to rescue him with a primitive submarine. For Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. The news that Napoleon had taken up gardening at Longwood also appealed to more domestic British sensibilities.

Legacy

French people remain proud of Napoleon's glory days. The Napoleonic Code reflects the modern French Constitution. Weapons and other kinds of military technology remained largely static through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th century operational mobility underwent significant change. Napoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. His popularity would later help his nephew Louis-Napoléon to become ruler of France more than 30 years later.

On the world stage, Napoleon's conquest spread the ideas of the revolution. He failed to make Europe into a French Empire. Instead, he sparked nationalist feeling across Europe. He was also known as "The Leader Of France".

Historians have many different views on Napoleon. Some historians say that he caused wars that killed many people in Europe, and therefore he was a bad ruler. Vincent Cronin disagrees with the view, saying that most of the Napoleonic Wars were started by Napoleon's enemies. Others argue that Napoleon made the mistake of trying to conquer too much land and that if he had stopped in 1808, his enemies might have left him alone. Other historians have said that he was a good ruler. They usually focus on the changes he brought to France and the countries he conquered. Andrew Roberts lists the greatest ideas that Napoleon brought to France and other countries as the Napoleonic code, freedom of religion, better civil services, better education, more equality, support for science and art and others.

Sources

Notes

Citations

Other websites

1769 births
1821 deaths
Deaths from stomach cancer
Emperors and empresses
Former dictators
French deists
French generals
House of Bonaparte
People with foods named after them
Princes of Andorra

Napoleon


Ocean acidification is the decrease in the pH (scale of acidity and alkalinity) and increase in acidity of the Earth's oceans. It is caused by the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) that humans have put into the atmosphere. More than 30% of the carbon dioxide in the air goes into the oceans. Therefore, when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, the carbon dioxide in the ocean increases, too.

When carbon dioxide enters the oceans, it makes it more acidic.

Problems
The skeletons and shells of many sea animals need what is known as calcium carbonate minerals. Due to ocean acidification, there are fewer of these minerals and there are species that could no longer produce or keep their shells. With more carbon dioxide in the ocean, this problem becomes worse and many species will be at risk. As a result, if humans continue to emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, ocean life will be in severe danger. Also, coral is at risk, as it is being eroded by the acid in the ocean.

Between 1751 CE and 1994 CE the ocean's pH on the surface went from 8.25 to 8.1.

Other websites
 The Climate Change Guide easy-to-understand information on the effects of climate change

Acidification
Environmental issues
Climate change

Ocean acidification


Tatra(s) National Park (; abbr. TANAP) is one of the nine national parks in Slovakia. It is situated in North Central Slovakia in the Tatra Mountains. The park is important for protecting a diverse variety of flora and fauna, with many endemic species, including the Tatra chamois.

The Tatra Mountains form a natural border between Slovakia to the north and Poland to the south, and the two countries have cooperated since the early 20th century on efforts to protect the area. Poland created an adjoining national park, and UNESCO later designated the combined effort a transboundary biosphere reserve.

Geography
The Tatra National Park protects the Slovak areas of the High Tatras mountain range in the Eastern Tatras (Východné Tatry) ranges, and areas of the Western Tatras (Západné Tatry) ranges.  The west part of the Tatra National Park is situated in the Žilina Region and the east part in the Prešov Region.

The national park covers an area of 738 km2 (284.9 mi2), and the buffer zone around the park covers an area of 307 km2 (118.5 mi2); 1045 km2 together.
The park offers 600 km of hiking trails and 16 marked and maintained bike trails.

Mountains
The Western Tatras are divided into Osobitá, Roháče, Sivý vrch (literally Grey Mountain), Liptovské Tatry (Liptov Tatras), Liptovské Kopy, Červené vrchy (Red Mountains). The Eastern Tatras consist of High Tatras (Vysoké Tatry) and Belianske Tatras (Belianske Tatry).

The highest peak in Slovakia at  in elevation, Gerlachovský štít, is located within the park. It is also the highest point in the Tatra Mountains and the Carpathian Mountains. Bystrá is the highest mountain in the Western Tatras at , and Havran mountain (English: Raven) is the highest point in the Belianske Tatras at .

Lakes and streams
There are more than a hundred tarns, or mountain lakes, in the park. Veľké Hincovo pleso is the biggest with an area of 0.2 km2, and the deepest at .

The area around the settlement of Štrbské Pleso is a drainage divide for two drainage basins. To the east of this divide, streams are the headwaters of the Poprad River, of the Baltic Sea drainage basin. To the west of the divide streams are tributaries of the Váh, of the Black Sea drainage basin. The most popular waterfalls include Studenovodské vodopády, Kmeťov vodopád, Vajanského vodopád, Roháčsky vodopád, and Vodopád Skok.

Caves
About 300 caves are located within the national park, however Belianska Cave (Belianska jaskyňa) is the only one open to public. It is located near the village of Lendak.

The longest cave system discovered to date is the Cave of Javorinka.

Park history
Tatra National Park was established on 1 January 1949 and it is the oldest national park in Slovakia. In 1987, a section of the Western Tatras was added to the national park.

In 1992 the national park became a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme, jointly with the adjoining Tatra National Park of Poland.

The areas of the park and its buffer zone were adjusted in 2003. Since 2004, the national park belongs to the Natura 2000 ecological network.

Ecology and biota
The geological composition, soil properties and climate conditions all contribute to the original flora and fauna in the park.

Flora
Almost two thirds of the park are covered with forests, mainly with spruce and Norway spruce (Picea abies). The most widespread tree is the Norway spruce, followed by the Scots pine, Swiss pine (Pinus cembra), European larch (Larix decidua), and mountain pine. Leafy trees, especially maples, mainly grow in the Belianske Tatras.

About 1,300 species of vascular plants grow in the park, of which 37 are endemic to the Tatras, 41 are endemic to the Western Carpathians and 57 are endemic to the Carpathians. Notable plants endemic to the Tatras include Tatra scurvy-grass (Cochlearia tatrae), yellow mountain saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides), Erysimum wahlenbergii of the wallflower genus, Cochlearia tatrae, Erigeron hungaricus of the genus Erigeron, and others. Ice age relicts include Ranunculus alpestris of the genus Ranunculus, glacier crowfoot, Dianthus glacialis of the genus Dianthus, Gentiana frigida of the gentian genus, Primula minim of the genus Primula, yellow mountain saxifrage, dwarf willow, net-leaved willow (Salix reticulata), and others.

Fauna
Animals are represented by 115 species of birds, 42 mammals, 8 reptiles, and 3 amphibians. There are also many invertebrates. Notable ice age relicts are Branchinecta paludosa fairy shrimp, the three-toed woodpecker, ring ouzel, spotted nutcracker, and others.

Mammals in the park include the endemic Tatra chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra tatrica), a unique goat—antelope that is an IUCN critically endangered species. Other mammals include the Eurasian brown bear, Eurasian lynx, marten, wolf, fox, and the Alpine marmot.

See also
Tatra National Park, Poland — biosphere reserve partner.
Western Carpathians Ranges
List of national parks of Slovakia

References

External links

official  Tatra National Park administration website
Slovakia.travel: Tatra National Park

National parks of Slovakia
Biosphere reserves of Slovakia
Protected areas of the Western Carpathians
High Tatras
Eastern Tatras
Western Tatras
Geography of Prešov Region
Geography of Žilina Region
Natura 2000 in Slovakia
Protected areas established in 1949
Tourist attractions in Prešov Region
Tourist attractions in Žilina Region
Tatra Mountains
1949 establishments in Czechoslovakia

Tatra National Park, Slovakia


Peter Binsfeld (alternate spelling Peter of Binsfeld, lat. Petrus Binsfeldius; c. 1540 – 1598 or 1603) was a German auxiliary bishop and theologian.

Peter, a son of a farmer and craftsman, was born in the village of Binsfeld in the rural Eifel region, located in the modern state of Rhineland-Palatinate; he died in Trier as a victim of the bubonic plague. Binsfeld grew up in the predominantly Catholic environment of the Eifel region.

Education and career
Considered by a local abbot to be a very gifted boy, Peter Binsfeld was sent to Rome for study.

After his studies, Binsfeld returned to his home region and became an important personality in the anti-Protestant Catholic activities of the late 16th century. He was elected Auxiliary bishop of Trier and became a well-known writer on theology, who achieved notoriety as one of the most prominent witch-hunters of his time. Binsfeld was one of the main drivers of the Trier witch trials that ravaged the area under the dominion of Archbishop Johann von Schönenberg between 1581-93. Binsfeld wrote the influential treatise De confessionibus maleficorum et sagarum ('Of the Confessions of Warlocks and Witches'), translated into several languages (Trier, 1589). This work discussed the confessions of alleged witches, and claimed that even if such confessions were produced by torture, they should still be believed. He also encouraged denouncements.

He thought that girls under age twelve and boys under age fourteen could not be considered guilty of practising witchcraft, but due to the precocity of some children the law should not be completely strict. This point of view can be considered as moderate, taking into account that some tribunals had condemned children between two and five years of age to be burnt at the stake.

Contrary to other authors of the time, Binsfeld doubted the ability of shapeshifting and the validity of the diabolical mark.

In 1589 Binsfield published an influential list of demons and their associated sins, including the demons associated with the Seven Deadly Sins: Lucifer (pride), Mammon (greed), Asmodeus (lust), Leviathan (envy), Beelzebub (gluttony), Satan (wrath) and Belphegor (sloth).

See also
Classification of demons

References

1540s births
1598 deaths
1603 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
16th-century German Catholic theologians
Roman Catholic bishops of Trier
People from Bernkastel-Wittlich
16th-century deaths from plague (disease)
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the Holy Roman Empire
Witch hunters
Demonologists
German male non-fiction writers
Academic staff of the University of Trier
16th-century German male writers
Witch trials in Germany

Peter Binsfeld


The liverworts are a group of simple plants. Scientists believe that liverworts were the first bryophyte to evolve. They believe that mosses, hornworts, and more complex plants then evolved from liverworts. Scientists decided this from mitochondrial DNA.p75

Liverworts are usually placed in the bryophytes, a group of plants without tissue to conduct water. That is why they always need to live near a spring, a river, or in a place where there is a lot of fog or has a lot of rainfall. This group also includes with mosses and hornworts. Recent taxonomy gave them their own division called the Marchantiophyta. However, since the classification is not yet settled, we use the old terms.

Liverworts, as the picture shows, are small plants with flattened bodies, or with flattened stems bearing overlapping scales.p135

The name liverwort comes from the Middle Ages, when plants were selected as medicines according to the false belief that similia similibus curentur (similar heals similar). The liver shape seen in the liverwort Marchantia, for example, was  boiled in wine as a medicine against liver problems. The name was then transferred to the whole group.

Reproduction
Liverworts have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle. This means that most parts of them only have one copy of DNA, like mosses. In most plants and animals, most parts have two copies of DNA. Some parts of liverworts have two copies, and they're called the sporophytes. These are stalks that grow sporangia, sacs with spores inside. They're simple, and don't last long.

References

Bryophytes

Liverwort


(King of Heaven, welcome), 182, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed it in Weimar for Palm Sunday, and first performed it on 25 March 1714, which was also the feast of the Annunciation that year.

History and words
In Weimar, Bach was the court organist of Johann Ernst von Sachsen-Weimar. On 2 March 1714, he was promoted to , an honour which included a monthly performance of a church cantata in the . According to Bach scholar Alfred Dürr, this cantata is Bach's first cantata in a series which was meant to cover all Sundays within four years. However, Widerstehe doch der Sünde, BWV 54 has also been proposed as the first.
In any event, BWV 182 preceded .

Bach composed the cantata for the Marian feast of the Annunciation, always celebrated on 25 March, which fell on Palm Sunday in 1714. Other than in Leipzig, where tempus clausum was observed during Lent and no cantatas were permitted, Bach could perform in Weimar a cantata especially meant for the entry of Jesus into Jerusalem. The prescribed readings for the day were from the Epistle to the Philippians, "everyone be in the spirit of Christ" (), or from the First Epistle to the Corinthians, "of the Last Supper" (), and from the Gospel of Matthew, the entry into Jerusalem ().

The poetry was written by the court poet Salomon Franck, although the work is not found in his printed editions. Bach's biographer Philipp Spitta concluded this from stylistic comparison and observing a lack of recitatives between arias. The poetry derives from the entry into Jerusalem a similar entry into the heart of the believer, who should prepare himself and will be given heavenly joy in return. The language intensifies the mystical aspects:  (King of Heaven), "" (You have taken our hearts from us), "" (Lay yourselves beneath the Savior). The chorale in movement 7 is the final stanza 33 of Paul Stockmann's hymn for Passiontide "Jesu Leiden, Pein und Tod" (1633).

A da capo sign after the last aria in some parts suggests that originally the cantata was meant to be concluded by a repeat of the opening chorus.

Bach first performed it in the Schlosskirche on Palm Sunday, 25 March 1714. As Bach could not perform the cantata in Leipzig on Palm Sunday, he used it on the feast of the Annunciation on 25 March 1724, which had coincided with Palm Sunday for the first performance as well. He performed it in Leipzig two more times.

Structure and scoring

The cantata in eight movements is scored for alto, tenor, and bass soloists, a four-part choir, recorder, two violins, two violas and basso continuo.

 Sonata
 Chorus:
 Recitative (bass):
 Aria (bass):
 Aria (alto):
 Aria (tenor):
 Chorale:
 Chorus:

Music
The cantata is intimately scored to match the church building. An instrumental Sonata in the rhythm of a French Overture depicts the arrival of the King. (In his cantata , for Advent that same year on the same reading, Bach went further and set a chorus in the form of such an overture). The recorder and a solo violin are accompanied by pizzicato in the divided violas and the continuo. The first chorus is in da capo form, beginning with a fugue, which leads to a homophonic conclusion. The middle section contains two similar canonic developments.

The following biblical quotation is set as the only recitative of the cantata. It is given to the bass as the vox Christi (voice of Christ) and expands to an arioso. The instrumentation of the three arias turns from the crowd in the Biblical scene to the individual believer, the first accompanied by violin and divided violas, the second by a lone recorder, the last only by the continuo.

The chorale is arranged as a chorale fantasia in the manner of Pachelbel; every line is first prepared in the lower voices, then the soprano sings the cantus firmus, while the other voices interpret the words, for example by fast movement on "" (joy). The closing chorus is, according to conductor John Eliot Gardiner, "a sprightly choral dance that could have stepped straight out of a comic opera of the period".

Recordings
 Les Grandes Cantates de J. S. Bach Vol. 9, Fritz Werner, Heinrich-Schütz-Chor Heilbronn, Pforzheim Chamber Orchestra, Claudia Hellmann, Helmut Krebs, Erich Wenk, Erato 1961
 J. S. Bach: Kantaten 106 · 182, Jürgen Jürgens, Monteverdi-Chor Hamburg, Leonhardt Consort, Julia Falk, Bert van t'Hoff, Jacques Villisech, Telefunken 1963
 Bach Cantatas Vol. 2 – Easter, Karl Richter, Münchener Bach-Chor, Münchener Bach-Orchester, Alto: Anna Reynolds, Peter Schreier, Theo Adam, Archiv Produktion 1975
 Die Bach Kantate Vol. 29, Helmuth Rilling, Gächinger Kantorei, Bach-Collegium Stuttgart, Doris Soffel, Aldo Baldin, Philippe Huttenlocher, Hänssler 1975
 J. S. Bach: Das Kantatenwerk – Sacred Cantatas Vol. 9, Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Tölzer Knabenchor, Concentus Musicus Wien, Paul Esswood, Kurt Equiluz, Robert Holl, Teldec 1988
 J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 2, Ton Koopman, Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir, Kai Wessel, Christoph Prégardien, Klaus Mertens, Antoine Marchand 1995
 J. S. Bach: Christ lag in Todesbanden; Lobet den Herrn; Himmelskönig sei willkommen, Philippe Pierlot, Choeur de Chambre de Namur, Ricercar Consort, Steve Dugardin, Ian Honeyman, Max van Egmond, Ricercar 1995
 Cantata BWV 182, Masaaki Suzuki, Bach Collegium Japan, Yoshikazu Mera, Makoto Sakurada, Peter Kooy, BIS 1996
 Bach Cantatas Vol. 21: Cambridge/Walpole St Peter, John Eliot Gardiner, Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists, Nathalie Stutzmann, James Gilchrist, Peter Harvey, Soli Deo Gloria 2000

References

Sources

 Himmelskönig, sei willkommen BWV 182; BC A 53 / A 172 / Sacred cantata (Palm Sunday) Bach Digital

 Cantata BWV 182 Himmelskönig, sei willkommen: history, scoring, sources for text and music, translations to various languages, discography, discussion, Bach Cantatas Website
 BWV 182 Himmelskönig, sei willkommen: English translation, University of Vermont
 BWV 182 Himmelskönig, sei willkommen: text, scoring, University of Alberta

Church cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach
1714 compositions
Music for the Holy Week

Himmelskönig, sei willkommen, BWV 182


Ruggero Raimondi (born 3 October 1941) is an Italian bass-baritone opera singer who has also appeared in motion pictures.

Life and career

Early training and career
Ruggero Raimondi was born in Bologna, Italy, during World War II. His voice matured early into its adult timbre, and at the age of 15, he auditioned for conductor Francesco Molinari-Pradelli, who encouraged him to pursue an operatic career. He began vocal studies with Ettore Campogalliani, and was accepted at age 16 as a student at the Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory in Milan. He then continued his studies in Rome, under the guidance of Teresa Pediconi and Armando Piervenanzi.

After having won the National Competition for young opera singers in Spoleto, he made his debut in the same city in the role of Colline in La bohème in the Festival dei Due Mondi. Subsequently, an opportunity arose for him at the Teatro dell'Opera in Rome when he was called upon to substitute in the role of Procida in Giuseppe Verdi's I vespri siciliani, and he received enormous success from the public and the critics. The young singer was very shy and stiff at first, but his early directors helped him, and he was soon an accomplished opera actor.

Opera, film and television
Raimondi's career soon extended to the major opera houses in Italy, such as La Fenice in Venice, the Teatro Regio in Turin, Teatro Comunale in Florence and abroad, beginning with the Glyndebourne Festival (Don Giovanni in 1969). His La Scala debut was as Timur in Turandot in 1968, his Metropolitan Opera debut was as Silva in Ernani in 1970, and his Covent Garden debut was as Fiesco in Simon Boccanegra in 1972. In 1975, he made his Paris Opera debut as Procida, followed by the title role in Boris Godunov, and his Salzburg Festival debut in 1980 as the King in Aida. In 1986, he first directed a production of Don Giovanni, and decided to continue his career as a director as well.

Raimondi is especially well-known for his Rossini and Mozart roles, although he has also sung a lot of other bass roles in various repertories. Some of his most important roles have been King Philip in Verdi's Don Carlos; Fiesco; the title roles in Boris Godunov (including the Andrzej Żuławski film) and Attila; Silva; Escamillo in Bizet's Carmen (including the Francesco Rosi film, 1984, with Plácido Domingo and Julia Migenes); the title role in Don Giovanni (including the Joseph Losey film, 1979); Count Almaviva in The Marriage of Figaro; and Don Alfonso in Così fan tutte; the title role in Don Quichotte by Massenet; and Scarpia in a recording of Tosca later filmed live from Rome, with Plácido Domingo and Catherine Malfitano, conducted by Zubin Mehta. He also made the television film Six Characters in Search of a Singer. In 2008, Raimondi made his television debut in the mini-series Le Sanglot des anges on French TV, in which he played the role of an Italian opera singer. In July 2011 he played the role of Pagano in Verdi's I Lombardi alla prima crociata on the rooftop of Milan Cathedral. The concert was organized by the Veneranda Fabbrica del Duomo di Milano to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Italian unification.

Recordings

Audio recordings
Mozart: Don Giovanni | Sony | 1978
Mozart: Le nozze di Figaro | Decca | 1985
Mussorgsky: Boris Godunov | Erato | 1989
Puccini: Turandot | Deutsche Grammophon | 1981
Puccini: Tosca | Deutsche Grammophon | 1979
Rossini: Il barbiere di Siviglia | Deutsche Grammophon | 1993
Rossini: Il barbiere di Siviglia | EMI | 1973–74
Rossini: Il barbiere di Siviglia (w/bonus DVD) DVD | Decca | 1993
Rossini: Il viaggio a Reims | Deutsche Grammophon | 1984
Rossini: La Cenerentola| Decca | 1987
Rossini: L'italiana in Algeri | Deutsche Grammophon | 1989
Verdi: Aida | Deutsche Grammophon | 1981
Verdi: I vespri siciliani | RCA Red Seal | 1973
Verdi: Attila | Philips | 1972
Verdi: Don Carlos | Deutsche Grammophon | 1985
Verdi: Un ballo in maschera | Deutsche Grammophon | 1980
Verdi: I masnadieri | Phillips | 1975

TV
2008 : Le Sanglot des Anges, mini series directed by Jacques Otmezguine
2005 : Così fan tutte staged by Patrice Chéreau
2001 : Il turco in Italia with Cecilia Bartoli at Zürich Opera House
1992 : Glyndebourne Festival Opera: A Gala Evening, directed by Christopher Swann
1992 : Tosca: in the settings and at the times of Tosca, directed by Brian Large (with Malfitano and Domingo)
1992 : Le nozze di Figaro, directed by Brian Large
1991 : José Carreras and Friends: Opera Recital
1985 : Faust staged by Ken Russell at the Vienna State Opera
1983 : The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala Directed by Kirk Browning
1983 : Ernani Directed by Kirk Browning (with Milnes and Pavarotti)
1982 : Verdi's Messa da Requiem
1981 : Six personnages en quête d'un chanteur by Maurice Béjart
1980 : Boris Godunov staged by Joseph Losey at Opéra National de Paris

Filmography
2019 : Beaux-parents by Héctor Cabello Reyes
2001 : Tosca by Benoît Jacquot, with Angela Gheorghiu & Roberto Alagna
1997 :  by Alain Jessua
1989 : Boris Godunov by Andrzej Żuławski
1984 : Carmen by Francesco Rosi, with Plácido Domingo
1983 : La vie est un roman by Alain Resnais
1982 : La Truite by Joseph Losey
1979 : Don Giovanni by Joseph Losey, with José van Dam, Kiri Te Kanawa

Honours
 Monaco: Commander of the Order of Cultural Merit (November 1999)

See also
 Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande (Herbert von Karajan recording)

References

Further reading

External links
Raimondi website

Interview with Ruggero Raimondi, November 16, 1987

1941 births
Living people
Operatic bass-baritones
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Bologna
Italian theatre directors
Commanders of the Order of Cultural Merit (Monaco)
20th-century Italian male opera singers
21st-century Italian male opera singers

Ruggero Raimondi


A Cherenkov detector (pronunciation: /tʃɛrɛnˈkɔv/; Russian: Черенко́в)  is a particle detector using the speed threshold for light production, the speed-dependent light output or the speed-dependent light direction of Cherenkov radiation.

Fundamental

A particle passing through a material at a velocity greater than that at which light can travel through the material emits light. This is similar to the production of a sonic boom when an airplane is traveling through the air faster than sound waves can move through the air. The direction this light is emitted is on a cone with angle θc about the direction in which the particle is moving, with cos(θc) =  (c = the vacuum speed of light, n = the refractive index of the medium, and v is the speed of the particle). The angle of the cone θc thus is a direct measure of the particle's speed. The Frank–Tamm formula  = sin2θc gives the number of photons produced.

Aspects
Most Cherenkov detectors aim at recording the Cherenkov light produced by a primary charged particle. Some sensor technologies explicitly aim at Cherenkov light produced (also) by secondary particles, be it incoherent emission as occurring in an electromagnetic particle shower or by coherent emission, for example Askaryan effect.

Cherenkov radiation is not only present in the range of visible light or UV light but also in any frequency range where the emission condition can be met i.e. in the radiofrequency range.

Different levels of information can be used. Binary information can be based on the absence or presence of detected Cherenkov radiation. The amount or the direction of Cherenkov light can be used.

In contrast to a scintillation counter the light production is instantaneous.

Detector types
In the simple case of a threshold detector the mass-dependent threshold energy allows the discrimination between a lighter particle (which does radiate) and a heavier particle (which does not radiate) of the same energy or momentum. Several threshold stages can be combined to extend the covered energy range.

Cherenkov threshold detectors have been used for fast timing and time of flight measurements in particle detectors.

More elaborate designs use the amount of light produced. Recording light from both primary and secondary particles, for a Cherenkov calorimeter the total light yield is proportional to the incident particle energy.

Using the light direction are differential Cherenkov detectors.

Recording individual Cherenkov photon locations on a position-sensitive sensor area, RICH detectors
then reconstruct Cherenkov angles from the recorded patterns. As RICH detectors hence provide information on the particle velocity, if the momentum of the particle is also known (from magnetic bending), combining these two pieces of information enables the particle mass to be deduced so that the particle type can be identified.

See also
Ring imaging Cherenkov detector
Super-Kamiokande

Particle detectors
Russian inventions
Soviet inventions

Cherenkov detector


The Autobianchi Y10 is a city caur manufactured bi the Italian automaker Fiat frae 1985 tae 1996 an marketit unner the Autobianchi brand in Italy an unner the Lancia brand in maist export markets (as Lancia Y10). The caur wis manufactured at the Autobianchi plant in Desio, Milan till 1992 an efter that in Arese, near Alfa Romeo plants. It wis designed on the first-generation Fiat Panda floorpan, shortened bi aboot 10 centimetres (3.9 in) an wi softer suspension settings. It affered a vera hie level o trim for its market segment.

Initially introduced in 1985 unner the Autobianchi brand, uisin the FIRE ingine in 1.0 and 1.1 L guises an Fiat's Brazilian built SOHC 1049 cc ingine ance uised in the Autobianchi A112 Abarth an the Fiat 127's hottest version, this time turbocharged tae produce 85 PS (62.5 kW) in the Y10 Turbo. Eventually, the Autobianchi badge wis dropt in favour o Lancia's except in Italy; a textbook case o badge ingineerin. Alang wi the Autobianchi badge the turbocharged ingine wis dropped an a mair refined, if slower, version topped the range, the 1.3 GT i.e., with 76 PS (56 kW).

It wis pipped tae the European Caur o the Year for 1986 bi the Ford Scorpio.

It sauld rather well, especially tae women, for its unique style, luxurious trim an the continuously variable transmission that equipt certain versions. Its excellent aerodynamics, characterized bi vera clean lines an a Kammback, an aa providit great fuel economy. Sales in the Unitit Kinrick wur no so strang, though it remained on sale till Lancia's wi'drawal frae the Breetish market (an aw ither richt-hand drive markets) in 1994.

References

Freemit airtins
 Lancia Motor Club (UK)
 Registro Autobianchi

Y10
Ceety caurs
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1985
Aw-wheel-drive vehicles
Front-wheel-drive vehicles

Autobianchi Y10


Augustus Charles Pugin (born Auguste-Charles Pugin; 1762 – 19 December 1832) was an Anglo-French artist, architectural draughtsman, and writer on medieval architecture.  He was born in Paris, then in the Kingdom of France, but his father was Swiss, and Pugin himself was to spend most of his life in England.

Pugin left France during the Revolutionary period for unclear reasons about 1798 and later entered the Royal Academy Schools in London to improve his skills. Shortly afterwards he obtained a position as an architectural draughtsman with the architect John Nash. After considering and abandoning a career in architecture Pugin married and settled on a career as a commercial artist working primarily for publishers of illustrated books. He was a skilful watercolourist as well as an accomplished draftsman.

Drawings
Pugin produced views of London, jointly creating the illustrations for the Microcosm of London (1808-1811) published by Rudolph Ackermann, followed by plates for Ackermann's books about Westminster Abbey, Oxford and Cambridge universities, and Winchester College. He often collaborated with other artists, notably Thomas Rowlandson. His later works included illustrations for Specimens of Gothic Architecture (1821–23), The Royal Pavilion at Brighton (1826), Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain (1826), Specimens of the Architectural Antiquities of Normandy (1827), Illustrations of the Public Buildings of London (1825 to 1828), and Paris and its Environs (1829 to 1831), and Examples of Gothic Architecture (1831). He also produced a book of furniture designs called Gothic Furniture, and assisted architects with detailing for their gothic designs. He ran a drawing school at his house in Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury. His students included W. Lake Price, James Pennethorne, Talbot Bury, J. D'Egville, B. Ferrey, the architect Francis T. Dollman, and the comedian Charles James Mathews.

Pugin, along with J. Morgan, also designed the diorama building in Regent's Park in 1823, to house and display the Dioramas of Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (1787–1851), a year after the debut of his Paris original in 1822. These exhibitions in London displayed eight of the Daguerre Dioramas (1823-1832), which were also exhibited on tour in Liverpool, Manchester, Dublin and Edinburgh (1825-1836).

Pugin married Catherine Welby of the Lincolnshire Welby family of Denton and his developing interest in the Gothic was to be magnified in the career of their son Augustus Welby Pugin, an architect who was the leading advocate of Gothicism in 19th century England and the designer of the Palace of Westminster, home of the United Kingdom Parliament. Catherine Welby's brother Adlard Welby was great-great-grandfather to Joyce Lussu and Max Salvadori. His son also sometimes assisted him in some of his publications.

References

Further reading
 . 1904 reprint + Illustrations

External links

1762 births
1832 deaths
French people of Swiss descent
Artists from Paris
French emigrants to the Kingdom of Great Britain
English artists
French emigrants to England
English people of Swiss descent
French architects
English architects

Augustus Charles Pugin


Optics is the science of light and how it interacts with the world. Optics explains how rainbows exist, how light reflects off mirrors, how light refracts through glass or water, and what splits light shining through a prism. In addition to visible light in the standard "spectrum" of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, optics also deals with invisible parts of the whole electromagnetic spectrum of which visible light is only a small part.

Optics is both a science and an area of engineering. It has been used to make many useful things, including eyeglasses, cameras, telescopes, and microscopes. Many of these things are based on lenses, which focus light and can make images of things that are bigger or smaller than the original.

While optics is an old science, new things are still being discovered in it. Scientists have learned how to make light travel through a thin optical fiber made of glass or plastic. Light can go long distances in a fiber. Fibers are used to carry phone calls and the Internet through cities and around the world.

Related pages
Spectroscopy

Optics


Samuel Vince FRS (6 April 1749 – 28 November 1821) was an English clergyman, mathematician and astronomer at the University of Cambridge.

Life
He was born in Fressingfield. The son of a plasterer, he had laboured with his father up to the age of 12, but came to the attention of a clergyman who saw to it that he entered higher education. Vince was admitted as a sizar to Caius College, Cambridge in 1771. In 1775 he was Senior Wrangler, and Winner of the Smith Prize at Cambridge. Migrating to Sidney Sussex College in 1777, he gained his M.A. in 1778 and was ordained a clergyman in 1779. He was among seven men of that college who subscribed to the Abolition Society in 1787.

He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1780 and was Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge from 1796 until his death. He became Archdeacon of Bedford in 1809, and died in Ramsgate.

Works
As a mathematician, Vince wrote on many aspects of his expertise, including logarithms and  imaginary numbers. His Observations on the Theory of the Motion and Resistance of Fluids and Experiments upon the Resistance of Bodies Moving in Fluids had later importance to aviation history. He was also author of the influential A Complete System of Astronomy (3 vols. 1797–1808).

Vince also published the pamphlet The Credibility of Christianity Vindicated, In Answer to Mr. Hume's Objections; In Two Discourses Preached Before the University of Cambridge by the Rev. S. Vince. In this work, Vince made an apology of the Christian religion and, like Charles Babbage, sought to present rational arguments in favor of the belief in miracles, against David Hume's criticism. A review of this work with direct quotations can be found in The British Critic, Volume 12, 1798.

References

External links

On the divisions among Christians: A charge, delivered to the clergy of the archdeaconry of Bedford (1810)

Royal Society
Janus (Cambridge library)

1749 births
1821 deaths
18th-century English mathematicians
19th-century English mathematicians
Archdeacons of Bedford
Plumian Professors of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Fellows of the Royal Society
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Alumni of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
Senior Wranglers
18th-century English Anglican priests
19th-century English Anglican priests
People from Fressingfield

Samuel Vince


The Regnitz is a river in Bavaria, Germany. It is a left tributary of the Main and is 58 km in length.

The river is formed by the confluence of the rivers Rednitz and Pegnitz, which meet in the city of Fürth. From there the Regnitz runs northwards through the cities of Erlangen and Forchheim. It finally meets the Main in the city of Bamberg.

Geography of Bavaria
Rivers of Germany

Regnitz