A computer programmer is a person who makes computer programs using a programming language. Programmers are also called software developers, coders.

A programmer's main jobs are writing program source code, testing if it works, and debugging (fixing) the program if there are problems. Programmers often use software tools such as text editors and IDEs (Integrated Development Environments) to help them work.

Computer programming is a profession that can be done from a computer anywhere in the world. This is called telecommuting - doing work on the Internet instead of in an office.

Some programmers are famous because their software is used by many people. One example is Linus Torvalds, who created an important part of the Linux operating system.

Programming can be done in many different languages and can look very different but do the same thing.  An example of this is the Hello world program.

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The Robert P. Parker House is a house located in the Chicago suburb of Oak Park, Illinois, United States. The house was designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright in 1892 and is an example of his early work. Real-estate agent Thomas H. Gale had it built and sold it to Robert P. Parker later that year. The house was designed by Wright independently while he was still employed by the firm Adler & Sullivan, run by engineer Dankmar Adler and architect, Louis Sullivan; taking outside commissions was something that Sullivan forbade. The Parker House is listed as a contributing property to a U.S. federally Registered Historic District.

History
The Robert P. Parker House is one of three houses along Chicago Avenue in Oak Park which have come to be known as American architect Frank Lloyd Wright's "Bootleg Houses." The triplet of houses includes the Thomas H. Gale House and the Walter Gale House as well as the Parker House and they were designed by Wright independently while he was still employed by Adler and Sullivan. Architect Louis Sullivan loaned Wright money during the construction of his own home and studio and Wright was working it off at the firm.  Independent work was forbidden by Sullivan. The Parker house is especially similar to the Thomas H. Gale House. The houses were designed on a speculative basis for Wright neighbor Walter Gale in 1892. In all, Wright designed nine "bootleg houses" moonlighting while still under contract with Sullivan. When Sullivan found out about the side projects, in late 1892 or early 1893, Wright was dismissed. The Parker House is one of four that still stand.

They were built later that same year, 1892, by real-estate agent Thomas Gale, who sold the Parker House to attorney Robert Parker. The three houses were part of a series of homes that had nearly identical plans with only small differences. They include the aforementioned Walter Gale House and Thomas H. Gale House, the Francis Woolley House, also located in Oak Park, and the Robert G. Emmond House in LaGrange, Illinois. Parker, an attorney, bought the house from the Gales early on in the building process as his name appears on the plans.

Architecture

The design for the Parker House and the Thomas Gale House, and to some extent the Walter Gale House, were derived from the more expensive Emmond House in LaGrange. The homes all feature irregular roof composition with high pitches and polygonal dormers. The Parker House reflects the style of Wright's first teacher Joseph Silsbee. Sullivan's influence can also be seen in the taut masses of the house, his philosophy of "geometric simplification" is evident in the Parker House's design. While generally cast in the Queen Anne style of architecture the Parker House has more ample rounded forms than the common Queen Anne homes being built at the time.

The small size is deceiving as the Parker House is spacious. The turret bays have walls that are more than half consisted of windows. The fireplace is set in the center of the house which allows it to heat and service two rooms, the parlor and the dining room. The side elevations of the Parker House are symmetrical but adjacent buildings are built too close for the design to be seen clearly.

Significance
Though small in size and adorned with inexpensive detailing, the Parker House and the Gale House are of significance because of what they reveal about Frank Lloyd Wright's development as an architect. The house is listed as a contributing property to the Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District. The historic district was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on December 4, 1973.

See also
 List of Frank Lloyd Wright works

Notes

References
 Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. University Of Chicago Press, 2006,  (S.017)

Frank Lloyd Wright buildings
Frank Lloyd Wright Prairie School of Architecture Historic District
Houses completed in 1892
Houses in Cook County, Illinois
Historic district contributing properties in Illinois
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Cook County, Illinois

Robert P. Parker House


The Discovery Expedition of 1901–1904, known officially as the British National Antarctic Expedition, was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since the voyage of James Clark Ross sixty years earlier (1839–1843). Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society (RGS), the new expedition carried out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent. It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition, Ernest Shackleton, Edward Wilson, Frank Wild, Tom Crean and William Lashly.

Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology, zoology, geology, meteorology and magnetism.  The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow-free Antarctic valleys, which contains the longest river of Antarctica. Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony, King Edward VII Land, and the Polar Plateau (via the western mountains route) on which the South Pole is located. The expedition tried to reach the South Pole travelling as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82°17′S.

As a trailbreaker for later ventures, the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history.

Background to the expedition

Forerunners
Between 1839 and 1843 Royal Naval Captain James Clark Ross, commanding his two ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, completed three voyages to the Antarctic continent. During this time he discovered and explored a new sector of the Antarctic that would provide the field of work for many later British expeditions.

Ross established the general geography of this region, and named many of its features; the Ross Sea, the Great Ice Barrier (later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf), Ross Island, Cape Adare, Victoria Land, McMurdo Sound, Cape Crozier and the twin volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror. He returned to the Barrier several times, hoping to penetrate it, but was unable to do so, achieving his Farthest South in a small Barrier inlet at 78°10′, in February 1842. Ross suspected that land lay to the east of the Barrier, but was unable to confirm this.

After Ross there were no recorded voyages into this sector of the Antarctic for fifty years. Then, in January 1895, a Norwegian whaling trip made a brief landing at Cape Adare, the northernmost tip of Victoria Land. Four years later Carsten Borchgrevink, who had participated in that landing, took his own expedition to the region, in the Southern Cross. This expedition was financed by a donation of £35,000 from British publishing magnate Sir George Newnes, on condition that the venture be called the "British Antarctic Expedition". Borchgrevink landed at Cape Adare in February 1899, erected a small hut, and spent the 1899 winter there. The following summer he sailed south, landing at Ross's inlet on the Barrier. A party of three then sledged southward on the Barrier surface, and reached a new Furthest South at 78°50′.

The Discovery Expedition was planned during a surge of international interest in the Antarctic regions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. A German expedition under Erich von Drygalski was leaving at about the same time as Discovery, to explore the sector of the continent south of the Indian Ocean. The Swedish explorer Otto Nordenskiöld was leading an expedition to Graham Land, and a French expedition under Jean-Baptiste Charcot was going to the Antarctic Peninsula. Finally, the British scientist William Speirs Bruce was leading a scientific expedition to the Weddell Sea.

Royal Navy, Markham and Scott
Under the influence of John Barrow, Second Secretary to the Admiralty, polar exploration had become the province of the peacetime Royal Navy after the Napoleonic War. Naval interest diminished after the disappearance in 1845 of the Franklin expedition, and the many fruitless searches that followed. After the problems encountered by the 1874–76 North Pole expedition led by George Nares, and Nares's own declaration that the North Pole was "impracticable", the Admiralty decided that further polar quests would be dangerous, expensive and futile.

However, the Royal Geographical Society's secretary (and later president) Sir Clements Markham was a former naval man who had served on one of the Franklin relief expeditions in 1851. He had accompanied Nares for part of the 1874–76 expedition, and remained a firm advocate for the navy's resuming its historic role in polar exploration. An opportunity to further this ambition arose in November 1893, when the prominent biologist Sir John Murray, who had visited Antarctic waters as a biologist with the Challenger Expedition in the 1870s, addressed the RGS. Murray presented a paper entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration", and called for a full-scale expedition for the benefit of British science. This was strongly supported, both by Markham and by the country's premier scientific body, the Royal Society. A joint committee of the two societies was established to decide the form in which the expedition should take. Markham's vision of a full-blown naval affair after the style of Ross or Franklin was opposed by sections of the joint committee, but his tenacity was such that the expedition was eventually moulded largely to his wishes. His cousin and biographer later wrote that the expedition was "the creation of his brain, the product of his persistent energy".

It had long been Markham's practice to take note of promising young naval officers who might later be suitable for polar responsibilities, should the opportunity arise. He had first observed Midshipman Robert Falcon Scott in 1887, while the latter was serving with HMS Rover in St Kitts, and had remembered him. Thirteen years later, Scott, by now a torpedo lieutenant on , was looking for a path to career advancement, and a chance meeting with Sir Clements in London led him to apply for the leadership of the expedition. Scott had long been in Markham's mind, though by no means always his first choice, but other favoured candidates had either become in his view too old, or were no longer available. With Markham's determined backing, Scott's appointment was secured by 25 May 1900, followed swiftly by his promotion to commander.

Science versus adventure
The command structure of the expedition had still to be settled. Markham had been determined from the beginning that its overall leader should be a naval officer, not a scientist. Scott, writing to Markham after his appointment, reiterated that he "must have complete command of the ship and landing parties", and insisted on being consulted over all future appointments. However, the Joint Committee had, with Markham's acquiescence, secured the appointment of John Walter Gregory, Professor of Geology at the University of Melbourne and former assistant geologist at the British Museum, as the expedition's scientific director. Gregory's view, endorsed by the Royal Society faction of the Joint Committee, was that the organisation and command of the land party should be in his hands: "...The Captain would be instructed to give such assistance as required in dredging, tow-netting etc., to place boats where required at the disposal of the scientific staff." In the dispute that followed, Markham argued that Scott's command of the whole expedition must be total and unambiguous, and Scott himself was insistent on this to the point of resignation. Markham's and Scott's view prevailed, and Gregory resigned, saying that the scientific work should not be "subordinated to naval adventure".

This controversy soured relations between the Societies, which lingered after the conclusion of the expedition and was reflected in criticism of the extent and quality of some of the published results. Markham claimed that his insistence on a naval command was primarily a matter of tradition and style, rather than indicating disrespect for science. He had made clear his belief that, on its own, the mere attainment of higher latitude than someone else was "unworthy of support."

Personnel

Markham had hoped for a fully-fledged Royal Naval expedition, but was warned by the Admiralty that "the present exigencies of the Naval Service [would] prevent them from lending officers..." However, the Admiralty agreed to release Scott and Charles Royds, and later allowed Michael Barne and Reginald Skelton to join the expedition. The remaining officers were from the Merchant Marine, including Albert Armitage, the second-in-command, who had experience with the Jackson–Harmsworth Arctic expedition, 1894–97, and Ernest Shackleton, designated Third Officer in charge of holds, stores and provisions, and responsible for arranging the entertainments. The Admiralty also released around twenty petty officers and seamen, the rest of the crew being from the merchant service, or from civilian employment. Among the lower deck complement were some who became Antarctic veterans, including Frank Wild, William Lashly, Thomas Crean (who joined the expedition following the desertion of a seaman in New Zealand), Edgar Evans and Ernest Joyce. Although the expedition was not a formal Navy project, Scott proposed to run the expedition on naval lines, and secured the crew's voluntary agreement to work under the Naval Discipline Act.

The scientific team was inexperienced. Dr George Murray, Gregory's successor as chief scientist, was due to travel only as far as Australia (in fact he left the ship at Cape Town), using the voyage to train the scientists, but with no part to play in the detailed work of the expedition. The only scientist with previous Antarctic experience was Louis Bernacchi, who had been with Borchgrevink as magnetic observer and meteorologist. The geologist, Hartley Ferrar, was a 22-year-old recent Cambridge graduate who Markham thought "might be made into a man." Marine biologist Thomas Vere Hodgson, from Plymouth Museum, was a more mature figure, as was the senior of the two doctors, Reginald Koettlitz, who, at 39, was the oldest member of the expedition. He, like Armitage, had been with the Jackson–Harmsworth expedition. The junior doctor and zoologist was Edward Wilson, who became close to Scott and provided the qualities of calmness, patience and detachment that the captain reportedly lacked.

Organisation and objectives

Finance
The total cost of the expedition was estimated at £90,000 (2009 equivalent about £7.25 million), of which £45,000 was offered by the British Government provided that the two Societies could raise a matching sum. Lord Curzon and Edward Somers Cocks, Treasurer of the society played important roles in the finance of the expedition. Thanks largely to a donation of £25,000 from wealthy RGS member Llewellyn W. Longstaff. The RGS itself contributed £8,000, its largest single contribution to any expedition to date, and £5,000 came from Alfred Harmsworth, later Lord Northcliffe, who had earlier financed the Jackson–Harmsworth expedition to the Arctic, 1894–97. The rest was raised from smaller donations. The expedition also benefited from significant commercial sponsorship: Colman's provided mustard and flour, Cadbury's gave 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) of chocolate, Bird's donated baking and custard powders, Evans, Lescher & Webb provided all the lime juice. Jaeger gave a 40% discount on special clothing, Bovril supplied beef extract, and others made significant contributions.

Ship

The expedition's ship was built by the Dundee Shipbuilders Company as a specialist research vessel designed for work in Antarctic waters, and was one of the last three-masted wooden sailing ships built in Britain. The construction cost was £34,050 (2009 = £2.7 million), plus £10,322 (£830,000) for the engines, and the final cost after all modifications was £51,000 (£4.1 m). The name had historic naval associations, most recently as one of the ships used in the Nares expedition, and certain features of this older vessel were incorporated into the design of the new ship. She was launched by Lady Markham on 21 March 1901 as S.Y. Discovery (the Royal Research Ship designation was acquired in the 1920s).

As she was not a Royal Naval vessel the Admiralty would not allow Discovery to fly the White Ensign. She eventually sailed under the Merchant Shipping Act, flying the RGS house flag and the Blue Ensign and burgee of the Royal Harwich Yacht Club.

Dogs
Scott contacted Fridtjof Nansen in Oslo, whom he trusted more than his own "quarrelling" committee in London, and followed his advice on equipment. Subsequently, Armitage ordered 25 Siberian sledge-dogs via a Scots dog and ski expert based in Archangel, Russia. According to Huntford, however, this expert was not invited to join the expedition.

Objectives
The Discovery Expedition, like those of Ross and Borchgrevink before it, was to work in the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica. Other areas of the continent had been considered, but the principle followed was that "in going for the unknown they should start from the known".
The two main objectives of the expedition were summarised in the joint committee's "Instructions to the Commander" as: "to determine, as far as possible, the nature, condition and extent of that portion of the south polar lands which is included in the scope of your expedition", and "to make a magnetic survey in the southern regions to the south of the fortieth parallel and to carry out meteorological, oceanographic, geological, biological and physical investigations and researches". The instructions stipulated that "neither of these objectives was to be sacrificed to the other".

The instructions concerning the geographical objective became more specific: "The chief points of geographical interest are [...] to explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross to its eastern extremity; to discover the land which was believed by Ross to flank the barrier to the eastward, or to ascertain that it does not exist [...] If you should decide to winter in the ice...your efforts as regards geographical exploration should be directed to [...] an advance to the western mountains, an advance to the south, and an exploration of the volcanic region".

Expedition

First years

Outward journey

Discovery left Isle of Wight on 6 August 1901, and arrived in New Zealand via Cape Town on 29 November after a detour below 40°S for a magnetic survey. Quail Island in Lyttelton Harbour was used as the quarantine station for the expedition's dogs. After three weeks of final preparation she was ready for the journey south. On 21 December, as the ship was leaving Lyttelton to the cheers of large crowds, a young able seaman, Charles Bonner, fell to his death from the top of the mainmast, which he had climbed so as to return the crowd's applause. He was buried at Port Chalmers, two days later.

Discovery then sailed south, arriving at Cape Adare on 9 January 1902. After a brief landing and examination of the remains of Borchgrevink's camp, the ship continued southwards along the Victoria Land coast. At McMurdo Sound Discovery turned eastward, touching land again at Cape Crozier where a pre-arranged message point was set up so that relief ships would be able to locate the expedition. She then followed the Barrier to its eastern extremity where, on 30 January, the land predicted by Ross was confirmed, and named King Edward VII Land.

On 4 February, Scott landed on the Barrier and unpacked an observation balloon which he had acquired for aerial surveys. Scott climbed aboard and rapidly ascended to above 600 feet (180 m) in the firmly tethered balloon. Shackleton followed with a second flight. All either could see was unending Barrier surface. Wilson privately thought the flights "perfect madness".

Winter Quarters Bay

Discovery then proceeded westward in search of permanent quarters. On 8 February she entered McMurdo Sound and later that day anchored in a spot near its southern limit which was afterwards christened Winter Quarters Bay. Wilson wrote: "We all realized our extreme good fortune in being led to such a winter quarter as this, safe for the ship, with perfect shelter from all ice pressure." Stoker Lashly, however, thought it looked "a dreary place." Work began ashore with the erection of the expedition's huts on a rocky peninsula designated Hut Point. Scott had decided that the expedition should continue to live and work aboard ship, and he allowed Discovery to be frozen into the sea ice, leaving the main hut to be used as a storeroom and shelter.

Of the entire party, none were skilled skiers and only Bernacchi and Armitage had any experience with dog-sledges. The results of the men's early efforts to master these techniques were not encouraging, and tended to reinforce Scott's preference for man-hauling. The dangers of the unfamiliar conditions were confirmed when, on 11 March, a party returning from an attempted journey to Cape Crozier became stranded on an icy slope during a blizzard. In their attempts to find safer ground, one of the group, Able Seaman George Vince, slid over the edge of a cliff and was killed. His body was never recovered; a cross with a simple inscription, erected in his memory, still stands at the summit of the Hut Point promontory.

During the winter months of May–August the scientists were busy in their laboratories, while elsewhere equipment and stores were prepared for the next season's work. For relaxation there were amateur theatricals, and educational activities in the form of lectures. A newspaper, the South Polar Times, was edited by Shackleton. Outside pursuits did not cease altogether; there was football on the ice, and the schedule of magnetic and meteorological observations was maintained. As winter ended, trial sledge runs resumed, to test equipment and rations in advance of the planned southern journey which Scott, Wilson and Shackleton were to undertake. Meanwhile, a party under Royds travelled to Cape Crozier to leave a message at the post there, and discovered an emperor penguin colony. Another group, under Armitage, reconnoitred in the mountains to the west, returning in October with the expedition's first symptoms of scurvy. Armitage later blamed the outbreak on Scott's "sentimental objection" to the slaughter of animals for fresh meat. The entire expedition's diet was quickly revised, and the trouble was thereafter contained. Nevertheless, the scurvy outbreak did cause concern about the expedition's safety when news of it reached Britain, leading to demands for a relief expedition. For instance, The Yorkshire Evening Post claimed that 'the lives of the gallant explorers and scientific staff of the Discovery may actually be in peril if they have to stay out for another winter.'

Southern journey

Scott, Wilson and Shackleton left on 2 November 1902 with dogs and supporting parties. Their goal was "to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can, reach the Pole if possible, or find some new land". The first significant milestone was passed on 11 November, when a supporting party passed Borchgrevink's Farthest South record of 78°50′. However, the lack of skill with dogs was soon evident, and progress was slow. After the support parties had returned, on 15 November, Scott's group began relaying their loads (taking half loads forward, then returning for the other half), thus travelling three miles for every mile of southward progress. Mistakes had been made with the dogs' food, and as the dogs grew weaker, Wilson was forced to kill the weakest as food for the others. The men, too, were struggling, afflicted by snow blindness, frostbite and symptoms of early scurvy, but they continued southwards in line with the mountains to the west. Christmas Day was celebrated with double rations, and a Christmas pudding that Shackleton had kept for the occasion, hidden with his socks. On 30 December 1902, without having left the Barrier, they reached their Furthest South at 82°17′S. Troubles multiplied on the home journey, as the remaining dogs died and Shackleton collapsed with scurvy. Wilson's diary entry for 14 January 1903 acknowledged that "we all have slight, though definite symptoms of scurvy". Scott and Wilson struggled on, with Shackleton, who was unable to pull, walking alongside and occasionally carried on the sledge. The party eventually reached the ship on 3 February 1903 after covering  including relays, in 93 days' travel at a daily average of just over .

Arrival of relief ship
During the southern party's absence the relief ship Morning arrived, bringing fresh supplies. The expedition's organisers had assumed that the Discovery would be free from the ice in early 1903, enabling Scott to carry out further seaborne exploration and survey work before winter set in. It was intended that Discovery would return to New Zealand in March or April, then home to Britain via the Pacific, continuing its magnetic survey en route. Morning would provide any assistance that Scott might require during this period.

This plan was frustrated, as Discovery remained firmly icebound. Markham had privately anticipated this, and Mornings captain, William Colbeck, was carrying a secret letter to Scott authorising another year in the ice. This now being inevitable, the relief ship provided an opportunity for some of the party to return home. Among these, against his will, was the convalescent Shackleton, who Scott decided "ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health". Stories of a Scott-Shackleton rift date from this point, or from a supposed falling-out during the southern journey which had provoked an angry exchange of words. Some of these details were supplied by Armitage, whose relationship with Scott had broken down and who, after Scott, Wilson and Shackleton were all dead, chose to reveal details which tended to show Scott in a poor light. Other evidence indicates that Scott and Shackleton remained on generally good terms for some while; Shackleton met the expedition on its return home in 1904, and later wrote a very cordial letter to Scott.

 Second year
After the 1903 winter had passed, Scott prepared for the second main journey of the expedition: an ascent of the western mountains and exploration of the interior of Victoria Land. Armitage's reconnaissance party of the previous year had pioneered a route up to altitude  before returning, but Scott wished to march west from this point, if possible to the location of the South Magnetic Pole. After a false start due to faulty sledges, a party including Scott, Lashly and Edgar Evans set out from Discovery on 26 October 1903.

Ascending the Ferrar Glacier, which they named after the party's geologist, they reached a height of  before being held in camp for a week by blizzards. This prevented them from reaching the glacier summit until 13 November. They then marched on beyond Armitage's furthest point, discovered the Polar Plateau and became the first party to travel on it. After the return of geological and supporting parties, Scott, Evans and Lashly continued westward across the featureless plain for another eight days, covering a distance of about 150 miles to reach their most westerly point on 30 November. Having lost their navigational tables in a gale during the glacier ascent, they did not know exactly where they were, and had no landmarks to help them fix a position. The return journey to the Ferrar Glacier was undertaken in conditions which limited them to no more than a mile an hour, with supplies running low and dependent on Scott's rule of thumb navigation. On the descent of the glacier Scott and Evans survived a potentially fatal fall into a crevasse, before the discovery of a snow-free area or dry valley, a rare Antarctic phenomenon. Lashly described the dry valley as "a splendid place for growing spuds". The party reached Discovery on 24 December, after a round trip of seven hundred miles covered in 59 days. Their daily average of over 14 miles on this man-hauling journey was significantly better than that achieved with dogs on the previous season's southern journey, a fact which further strengthened Scott's prejudices against dogs. Polar historian David Crane calls the western journey "one of the great journeys of polar history".

Several other journeys were completed during Scott's absence. Royds and Bernacchi travelled for 31 days on the Barrier in a SE direction, observing its uniformly flat character and making further magnetic readings. Another party had explored the Koettlitz Glacier to the south-west, and Wilson had travelled to Cape Crozier to observe the emperor penguin colony at close quarters.

 Second relief expedition
Scott had hoped on his return to find Discovery free from the ice, but she remained held fast. Work had begun with ice saws, but after 12 days' labour only two short parallel cuts of  had been carved, with the ship still  from open water. On 5 January 1904 the relief ship Morning returned, this time with a second ship, the Terra Nova. Colbeck was carrying firm instructions from the Admiralty that, if Discovery could not be freed by a certain date she was to be abandoned and her complement brought home on the two relief ships. This ultimatum resulted from Markham's dependence on the Treasury for meeting the costs of this second relief expedition, since the expedition's coffers were empty. The Admiralty would foot the bill only on their own terms. The deadline agreed between the three captains was 25 February, and it became a race against time for the relief vessels to reach Discovery, still held fast at Hut Point. As a precaution Scott began the transfer of his scientific specimens to the other ships. Explosives were used to break up the ice, and the sawing parties resumed work, but although the relief ships were able to edge closer, by the end of January Discovery remained icebound, two miles (approx. 3 km) from the rescuers. On 10 February Scott accepted that he would have to abandon her, but on 14 February most of the ice suddenly broke up, and Morning and Terra Nova were at last able to sail alongside Discovery. A final explosive charge removed the remaining ice on 16 February, and the following day, after a last scare when she became temporarily grounded on a shoal, Discovery began the return journey to New Zealand.

 Homecoming and results

On its return to Britain, the expedition's reception was initially muted. Some press reporters were surprised at the good physical condition of the men when they arrived in Portsmouth, as they had read previous reports about the expedition's problems with scurvy and bad food. Markham was present to meet the ship in Portsmouth when Discovery docked there on 10 September 1904, but no dignitaries greeted the party when it arrived in London a few days later. However, there was considerable public enthusiasm for the expedition, and official recognition followed. Scott was quickly promoted to captain, and invited to Balmoral Castle to meet King Edward VII, who invested him as a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO). He also received a cluster of medals and awards from overseas, including the French Légion d'honneur. Polar Medals and promotions were given to other officers and crew members.

The main geographical results of the expedition were the discovery of King Edward VII Land; the ascent of the western mountains and the discovery of the Polar Plateau; the first sledge journey on the plateau; the Barrier journey to a Furthest South of 82°17′S. The island nature of Ross Island was established, the Transantarctic Mountains were charted to 83°S, and the positions and heights of more than 200 individual mountains were calculated. Many other features and landmarks were also identified and named, and there was extensive coastal survey work.

There were also discoveries of major scientific importance. These included the snow-free Dry Valleys in the western mountains, the emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier, scientific evidence that the Ice Barrier was a floating ice shelf, and a leaf fossil discovered by Ferrar which helped to establish Antarctica's relation to the Gondwana super-continent. Thousands of geological and biological specimens had been collected and new marine species identified. The location of the South Magnetic Pole had been calculated with reasonable accuracy. On the medical side, Wilson discovered the anti-scorbutic effects of fresh seal meat, which resolved the lethal threat of scurvy to this and subsequent expeditions.

A general endorsement of the scientific results from the navy's Chief Hydrographer (and former Scott opponent) Sir William Wharton was encouraging. However, when the meteorological data were published their accuracy was disputed within the scientific establishment, including by the President of the Physical Society of London, Dr Charles Chree. Scott defended his team's work, while privately acknowledging that Royds's paperwork in this field had been "dreadfully slipshod".

The expedition succeeded in combating incipient scurvy through a fresh seal meat diet, and Scott recommended it for future polar expeditions. This was despite the medical profession being ignorant of the causes of the disease. At that time it was known that a fresh meat diet could provide a cure, but not that lack of fresh meat or other fresh food containing the as yet undiscovered vitamin C was a cause. Thus, fresh seal meat was taken on the southern journey "in case we find ourselves attacked by scurvy", On his 1907–09 Nimrod expedition Shackleton also avoided the disease through careful dietary provision, including extra penguin and seal meat. However, Lieutenant Edward Evans almost died of presumably self-inflicted scurvy during the 1910–13 Terra Nova Expedition, and scurvy was particularly devastating to Shackleton's marooned Ross Sea party during 1915–16. It remained a danger until its causes were finally established, some 25 years after the Discovery Expedition.

 Aftermath

Scott was given leave from the Navy to write the official expedition account, The Voyage of the Discovery; this was published in 1905, and sold well. However, Scott's account in the book of Shackleton's breakdown during the southern journey led to disagreement between the two men, particularly over Scott's version of the extent to which his companion had been carried on the sledge. The implication was that Shackleton's breakdown had caused the relatively unimpressive southern record.

Scott eventually resumed his naval career, first as an assistant to the Director of Naval Intelligence and then, in August 1906, as Flag-captain to Rear-Admiral George Egerton on HMS Victorious. He had by this time become a national hero, despite his aversion to the limelight, and the expedition was being presented to the public as a triumph. This euphoria was not conducive to objective analysis, or to thoughtful appraisal of the expedition's strengths and weaknesses. In particular, the glorification by Scott of man-hauling as something intrinsically more noble than other ice travel techniques led to a general distrust of methods involving ski and dogs, a mindset that was carried forward into later expeditions. This mystified seasoned ice travellers such as Fridtjof Nansen, whose advice on such matters was usually sought, but often set aside.

The Discovery Expedition launched the Antarctic careers of several who became stalwarts or leaders of expeditions in the following fifteen years. Apart from Scott and Shackleton, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce from the lower deck returned repeatedly to the ice, apparently unable to settle back into normal life. William Lashly and Edgar Evans, Scott's companions on the 1903 western journey, aligned themselves with their leader's future plans and became his regular sledging partners. Tom Crean followed both Scott and Shackleton on later expeditions. Lieutenant "Teddy" Evans, first officer on the relief ship Morning, began plans to lead an expedition of his own, before teaming up with Scott in 1910.

Soon after resuming his naval duties, Scott revealed to the Royal Geographical Society his intention to return to Antarctica, but the information was not at that stage made public. Scott was forestalled by Shackleton, who early in 1907 announced his plans to lead an expedition with the twin objectives of reaching the geographic and magnetic South Poles. Under duress, Shackleton agreed not to work from McMurdo Sound, which Scott was claiming as his own sphere of work. In the event, unable to find a safe landing elsewhere, Shackleton was forced to break this promise. His expedition was highly successful, its southern march ending at 88°23′, less than 100 geographical miles from the South Pole, while its northern party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole. However, Shackleton's breach of his undertaking caused a significant break in relations between the two men, with Scott dismissing his former companion as a liar and a rogue.

Scott's plans gradually came to fruition – a large-scale scientific and geographical expedition with the conquest of the South Pole as its principal objective. Scott was anxious to avoid the amateurism that had been associated with the Discovery Expedition's scientific work. He appointed Edward Wilson as his chief scientist, and Wilson selected an experienced team. The expedition set off in June 1910 in Terra Nova, one of Discovery's relief ships. Its programme was complicated by the simultaneous arrival in the Antarctic of Roald Amundsen's Norwegian expedition. Amundsen's party reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911 and returned safely. Scott and four companions, including Wilson, arrived at the Pole on 17 January 1912; all five perished on the return journey.

 See also
 Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
 List of Antarctic expeditions

 Notes and references NotesReferences Sources
 Armston-Sheret, Edward. "Tainted Bodies: Scurvy, Bad Food and the Reputation of the British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904." Journal of Historical Geography 65 (July 1, 2019): 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhg.2019.05.006 .

 Online sources'''

 Further reading
 Landis, M: Antarctica: Exploring the Extreme: 400 Years of Adventure. Chicago Review Press 2003
 Seaver, George: Edward Wilson of the Antarctic John Murray 1933
 Skelton, J V & Wilson, D W: Discovery Illustrated: Pictures from Captain Scott's First Antarctic Expedition'' Reardon Publishing 2001

External links

 Expedition information at CoolAntarctica.com Additional images and brief account of expedition
 Scott Polar Research Institute Provides extensive Antarctic information, with comprehensive list of expeditions.
 A biography of Scott

1901 in the United Kingdom
1901 in Antarctica
1902 in Antarctica
1903 in Antarctica
1904 in Antarctica
Antarctic expeditions
Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
Robert Falcon Scott
Expeditions from the United Kingdom
South Pole
History of the Ross Dependency

Discovery Expedition


Events
 King Mindaugas of Lithuania renounces Christianity, returning to his pagan roots and reverting to Grand Duke of Lithuania.
 The Icelandic Commonwealth enters into a treaty establishing a union with Norway and acknowledges Norwegian King Haakon IV as its ruler.
 Strasbourg becomes an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire.
 King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull releasing him from the Provisions of Oxford, preceding the Second Barons' War, a civil war started in 1263.
 King Mengrai of the Lannathai kingdom in present-day Thailand founds the city of Chiang Rai as the kingdom's first capital.
 Adam de la Halle writes the first operetta, "Le Jeu de la Feuillee".
 Richard of Chichester is canonized as a saint; he is best known for writing the prayer later adapted into the song Day by Day in the musical Godspell.

Births
 July 2 – Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (died 1312)
 Ladislaus IV of Hungary (died 1290)
 Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester (died 1326)

Deaths
 July 15 – Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, English soldier (born 1222)
 Aegidius of Assisi, companion of Saint Francis of Assisi
 Shinran Shonin, Japanese founder of the Jodo Shinshu branch of Pure Land Buddhism
 Matilda II of Boulogne, Queen of Portugal, spouse of King Afonso III of Portugal (born 1202)

1262


The history of Tamil Nadu goes back to the early Stone Age. The region of Tamil Nadu (now one of the states in the south of the Republic of India) has been under continuous human habitation since prehistoric times.

Overview

The civilisation of the Tamil people is among the oldest in the world and has been influenced by, influenced, and coexisted with many external cultures.

The three Tamil dynasties of Chera, Chola and Pandya were all of ancient origins. Together they ruled over Tamil Nadu with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of Sangam Literature, some of the oldest literature in the world.

They had extensive oversee trade contacts with the Roman and Greek empires later on. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other as they wanted hegemony over the land.

Invasion by the Kalabhras during the third century disturbed the tradition, and order of the land by displacing the three traditional ruling dynasties. These occupiers were overthrown by the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the kingdoms. The Cholas, who came back from obscurity in the ninth century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire had spread from Bengal in the northeast to Sri Lanka in the south. The Chola navy held sway over the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to the incursions of Muslim armies from the northwest marked a turning point in the history of Tamil Nadu. With the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the fourteenth century, the Tamil country became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire the Telugu speaking Nayak governors ruled the Tamil land. The brief appearance of the Marathas gave way to the European trading companies, who began to appear during the seventeenth century and eventually assumed greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land. The Madras Presidency comprising of most of southern India including what is now Tamil Nadu, was created in the eighteenth century and was ruled directly by the British East India Company. After the independence of India by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, the Tamil Nadu state was created based on linguistic boundaries, due to a Telugu man who wished the Telugu speaking land bordering Tamil Nadu to become its own state, which it did, Andra Pradesh was born. This caused a chain reaction because the other languages also wanted their own states. This led to state boundaries because of linguistic reasons, and gave birth to many other linguisticly devised states, including Tamil Nadu.

Pre-historic period

Although there is very little concrete historical evidence that has been found so far for the period prior to 600 BCE, the history of the Tamil people probably predates this period. Various legends became prevalent after the 5th century BCE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar Agapporul, a 3rd/5th century CE annotation on the Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising of 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during three Sangams. However, there have been no direct archaeological finds supporting these legends.

The prehistoric period during which the Palaeolithic civilisations existed in the Tamil Nadu region has been estimated to span the period from about 50,000 BCE until around 3000 BCE. For most part of the lower Palaeolithic stage, humans lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. One of these is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE. Humans in South India, belonging to the species of Homo erectus, lived in this primitive 'old Stone Age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting on food he hunted and gathered instead of actively growing it according to his needs.

The ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could fabricate thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district.
In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.

Humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.

Early history (500 BCE – 300 CE)

Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Ventar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir. During the third century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Mauryan kingdom, and from the middle of the first century BCE to second century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires.

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralaputras or Cheras are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.

Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry.

Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the third century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.

The kingdom of the Cheras comprised of the modern state of Kerala, along the western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa.
Internal and external trade was well organised and active.

Interregnum (300 – 600)

After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the country. They did not leave many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.

Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.

Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil.

Age of empires (600  - 1300)
The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas.
The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became more dominant, with temples being built and Dravidian architecture being supported by empires replacing the significance of Nastik Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements.

Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period.

Pallavas
The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II.

During the sixth and the seventh centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts - against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.

Pandyas

Pandya Kadungon (560 - 590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650 - 700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power.

After some decades of expansion, the Pandya kingdom was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power.

The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories.

Cholas

Around 850 rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes.

European colonisation (1650 - 1850)

European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 miles North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626.

Anglo French Conflicts

The conflict between the British and the French had as result in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a firman (decree) recognizing the British possessions in southern India.

British Government Control
Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.

The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the English. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799, the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 andPolygar Wars of 1800-1805 Dheeran chinnamalai,the Tamil king won three polygar wars against Britishers and at last he was hanged along with his two brothers.Then Britishers took entire control of Tamil Nadu by settling east India company after the death of chinnamalai the brave Tamil king.

End of Company rule

The discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it.

British rule (1850 – 1947)

In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India.

Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876 - 1877.The government instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise effects of any future famines.

Independence struggle
The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran died during a protest march against the British.

In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.

Post Independence period

The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. Rajaji was the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State.

The Madras state was named Tamil Nadu (the land of the Tamils) in 1968.

Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu.

Evolution of regional politics
The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in the 1960s. This phase lasted until towards the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and coalition governments.

Related pages
 History of India
 Polygar Wars

Notes

References
 Theeran Chinnamanlai Gounder by Pulavar S. Rasu, Samba Publications, 152 Peters Road, Chennai, India 600 086, 1996.
 Knogu Nattu Lion Singham Theeran Chinnamalai by Kavignar Magudam Manickam, Sakunthla Publications, Rangoli Graphics, 329 E.V.N.Road, Erode, TH, India 638 009, year 2001.
 http://kongu-usa.org/cms/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=74

History of Tamil Nadu


In commercial and consumer transactions, a warranty is an obligation that an article or service that is sold has the quality the buyer can reasonably expect from the seller.

That often means that there must be a remedy. That means repair or replacement if the article or service is not as good as the warranty says. It is a breach of the warranty when the promise is broken, i.e., a product is defective or not as good as should be expected by a reasonable buyer.

In business and legal transactions, a warranty is an assurance by one party to the other party that certain facts or conditions are true or will happen. The other party is allowed to rely on that assurance and seek some type of remedy if it is not true or followed.

A warranty may be express or implied.

Express warranty

An express warranty is typically a guarantee from the seller of a product that specifies the extent to which the quality or performance of the product is assured and states the conditions under which the product can be returned, replaced, or changed.

Implied warranty

An implied warranty is one that arises from the nature of the transaction, and the understanding by the buyer.
To be "merchantable", the goods must reasonably conform to an ordinary buyer's expectations, i.e., they are what they say they are. For example, a fruit that looks and smells good but has hidden defects would violate the implied warranty of merchantability if its quality does not meet the standards for such fruit "as passes ordinarily in the trade".

Breach of warranty
A warranty is violated when the promise is broken; when goods are not as should be expected, at the time the sale occurs, whether or not the defect is apparent. Most warranties exclude parts that normally wear out, and supplies that must be periodically replaced as they are normally used up (e.g., tires and lubrication on a vehicle).

Many people do not realize that extended warranties are not always provided through the manufacturer, but in some circumstances it may work to the consumer's benefit. For instance, when an auto warranty is provided through a dealership from the manufacturer, repairs on the vehicle are reimbursed at a lower negotiated rate.

Legal aspects of warranties and disclaimers

In the United States, the rights and remedies of buyers and sellers of goods are governed by the Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) as it has been adopted with variations from state to state.

Car warranty
A car warranty is at least one year. Three years is more common. Five years is an extended warranty.

Home warranty
A home warranty protects against the high costs of home and appliance repair by offering insurance coverage for appliances and equipment in the house.

Other websites
(US) Federal Trade Commission: Warranty Information
Home Warranty Companies
Introduction to Laptop Warranties
American Home Shield

References

he:ערבות
Business law

Warranty


John J. Liney (1912 – January 29, 1982) was an American cartoonist who drew the daily Henry comic strip for 44 years.

Early life
Growing up in Philadelphia, Liney attended the George C. Thomas Middle School and South Philadelphia High School.

Career
Liney was working as a cartoonist at the Philadelphia Evening Ledger when he began selling gags to Henry'''s creator, Carl Thomas Anderson in 1936. He continued as a gagwriter until 1942, penciling the strip for Anderson from 1942 to 1945. When Anderson became ill, Liney took over the daily strip in 1945.Crouch, Bill. "Speak to Me, Henry", Great South Bay Magazine.

Comic books
During the 1940s, Liney taught cartooning at Temple University. He also drew the Henry comic books: Dell's Four Color #122 (October 1946) and #155 (July 1947), followed by 65 issues of Dell's Henry from 1948 to 1961.

Anderson died in 1948 and Liney continued drawing the daily Henry. In 1951, Liney was responsible for guiding the career of illustrator Jerry Pinkney by encouraging him and showing him his studio. Pinkney recalled, "When I was 12 years old, I was selling newspapers on a busy corner in Philadelphia, and John Liney was one of my customers. I realized here was a grown man doing the very same thing I loved doing. I saw the seeds of possibility. I knew if I worked hard, there would be some end to the process."

In 1952, Liney contributed to the USS Iowa's Cruise Book, commenting, "We are both proud and happy to contribute to our bit to your Cruise Book. We salute you and your crew, and will always be available for cartoons or anything else we can offer to the Navy. Thanks for thinking of Henry."

Lectures
In 1965, he contributed to The Cartoonist's Cookbook (Hobbs, Dorman & Company, 1966). He sometimes lectured on cartooning, delivering his "What's Funny about the Funnies" talk for the Women's Club of Morgantown, Pennsylvania, in 1968. He spoke that same year at a National Association of Music Merchants sales-management seminar in Dallas and at the MacMorland Center of Pennsylvania Military College (now Widener University) in Chester, Pennsylvania.

Liney's strips were reprinted internationally, including the Swedish Serie-pressen #12 (1972).

Later life and death
Poor health forced Liney to retire in 1979. He was succeeded by Jack Tippit. The Henry Sunday strip was drawn by Don Trachte.

During 1981, Liney was a resident at the Redeemer Village retirement community in Huntingdon Valley, Pennsylvania. He died on January 29, 1982, of a heart condition at the Ridge Crest Convalescent Center in Feasterville, Pennsylvania, survived by his wife Rosa, his daughter Muriel Liney Zerba (who died October 21, 2006) and his sister Ruth O'Connor.

Legacy
Liney's work was included in Keith Mayerson's NeoIntegrity: Comics Edition'' exhibition at the Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art from March 12 to August 29, 2010. The exhibit included "over 210 cartoonists, illustrators, animators, and fine artists who work with the spirit and power of iconographic languages. With creators young and old, historic, currently famous and soon-to-be-famous, the exhibition is also about the community and legacy of iconographic art and its ability to productively influence the world."

References

External links
Lambiek: John Liney
The New York Times obituary
USS Iowa Cruise Book cartoons

1912 births
1982 deaths
American comic strip cartoonists
South Philadelphia High School alumni
 Temple University faculty

John Liney


Lincoln Park Zoo is a free zoo. It is in Lincoln Park neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois. The zoo was founded in 1868. This was when the Lincoln Park Commissioners were given a gift of  2 pair of swans. In 1874, the swans were joined by a bear cub. This was the first animal bought for the zoo. The bear became quite good at escaping from its home. It could often be found wandering around Lincoln Park at night. The first bison ever born in captivity was born in Lincoln Park. Marlin Perkins, who later gained fame as the host of the television program Wild Kingdom, was director of the zoo from 1944 until 1962. Now, Lincoln Park Zoo is home to a wide variety of animals. The zoo includes polar bears, penguins, gorillas, reptiles, monkeys, and other species totalling nearly 1,250 animals. Also located in Lincoln Park Zoo is a burr oak tree which dates to 1830, three years before the city was founded. Lincoln Park Zoo is one of four zoos in the Chicago area, the others being the large Brookfield Zoo, and the minor Phillips Park Zoo, and Cosley Zoo. Lincoln Park Zoo is the only one within the Chicago city limits.

Two sections of Lincoln Park Zoo have been set aside for children. The first is the Pritzker Family Children's Zoo. The Children's Zoo contains an indoor structure for children to play in. People used to be able to pet animals at the Children's Zoo, but in recent years, due to health concerns, Lincoln Park Zoo has stopped this at the Children's Zoo. Also, baby animals who are rejected by their parents are no longer kept in the Children's Zoo because the zoo has found that it is harder to reintroduce them into their habitats once they grow up if they are kept away from their own species. The second area of the zoo for children in the Farm-in-the-Zoo, presented by John Deere. This small farm contains pigs, cows, horses and other animals which can be found on farms. Children can feed and pet the animals. In addition, the cows are milked in public for children to see. Regenstein Center for African Apes is home to Keo, the oldest male chimpanzee in a North American zoo.

Near the southern end of Lincoln Park Zoo, one can rent a paddle boat for a spin around the Lincoln Park Lagoon. The Lagoon is surrounded by trees and offers a relaxing time (and, of course, paddling exercise). Kayakers and canoers also take to the lagoon and one can often see scullers as well.

List of animal houses and locations

 Antelope and Zebra Area
 Blum-Kovler Penguin/Seabird House: Chinstrap penguins, common murres, king penguins, razorbills, southern rockhopper penguins, and tufted puffins.
 Helen V. Brach Primate House: Allen's swamp monkeys, black howler monkeys, black-and-white colobus monkeys, Bolivian gray titi monkeys, De Brazza's monkeys, Francois langurs, Geoffrey's marmosets, Goldi's marmosets, pied tamarins, and white-cheeked gibbons.
 Farm-in-the-Zoo (presented by John Deere)
 Kovler Lion House: African lions, Amur leopards, Amur tigers, Eurasian lynxes, jaguars, Pallas' cats, cougars, red pandas, servals, and snow leopards.
 Kovler Sea Lion Pool: Grey seals
 McCormick Bird House:
 Hope B. McCormick Swan Pond: Hooded mergansers, northern pintails, ruddy ducks, and trumpeter swans.
 Robert R. McCormick Bear Habitat: Malayan sun bears, polar bears, and spectacled bears.
 Pritzker Family Children's Zoo: American black bears, American kestrels, American toads, Blanding's turtles, eastern box turtles, eastern screech owls, midland painted turtles, mudpuppies, North American beavers, North American river otters, red wolves, smooth green snakes, spotted turtles, wood ducks, and wood turtles.
 Regenstein African Journey: Aardvarks,
 Regenstein Birds of Prey Exhibit: Bald eagles, black vultures, white storks, and snowy owls.
 Regenstein Center for African Apes: common chimpanzees and western lowland gorillas.
 Regenstein Small Mammal/Reptile House

References

Other websites

Lincoln Park Zoo official website

1868 establishments in the United States
Zoos in Illinois
Buildings and structures in Chicago
1860s establishments in Illinois

Lincoln Park Zoo


Sur () is a caipital ceety o Ash Sharqiyah Region, northeastern Oman, on the coast o the Gulf o Oman. It is locatit at aroond , and is 93 mile (150 km) sootheast o the Omani caipital Muscat.  Historically the ceety is kent for being an important destination point for sailors.  The day the sea still plays an important pairt o life in Sur.

Bi the 6t century, Sur wis an established centre for trade wi East Africae. In the 16t century, it was under Portuguese rule but wis liberatit bi the Omani imam Nasir ibn Murshid an unnerwent an economic revival, as a trade centre wi Indie an East Africae. This continued till the mid-19t century, when the Breetish ootlawed the slave trade. The ceety wis further ruined bi the openin o the Suez Canal, which saw it lose trade wi Indie.

The day the ceety haes retained its reputation as a major dhow-buildin toun, the vera same vessels that wur uised for trade twa centuries previously.

The main college in Sur is the Sur College o Applied Sciences. The college haes ower 4000 students an affers degrees in Business, Communication, Information Technology an Design. It is considered ane o the better institutions o heichher learnin in Oman.

Ane o the famous ceeties in the Gulf o Oman in buildin widden ships, its historical location gives it the hand tae monitor the Gulf o Oman an the Indian Ocean. Mony ships been built in this ceety an went tae Cheenae, Indie, Zanzibar, Iraq an mony kintras.

Sur wis battered badly bi Cyclone Gonu in Juin, 2007.

External links
 World66
  http://www.surcity.net

Populatit places in Oman
Populatit coastal places in Oman

Sur, Oman


A federation is a union of a number of self-governing states or regions, which are joined together under a central government.  The central government is not able to do a lot of things that central government in more centralized states can.  These things are done by the states (or regions) in a federalized state.

The United States of America is a federation. The federal (central) government has the highest executive role. However, state governments can exercise any powers as long as those powers are not assigned to the federal government (by the United States Constitution) and if those powers are not prohibited by the states themselves.

Australia became a Federation in 1901.

After the 1971 civil war, Pakistan became a Federation adopted in the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan.

Other examples of federal states are Austria, Belgium (since 1993), Canada, Germany, Russia and Switzerland.

Federation


The Trinity and Brazos Valley Railway  of Texas came into existence on October 7, 1902, originally chartered to build a railroad from Johnson County to the Beaumont area near the Gulf coast. It took its name from the Trinity and Brazos rivers. It was commonly known as the "Boll Weevil," though it referred to itself as the "Valley Road."

The first line opened between Hillsboro and Mexia in October 1903. It was extended north to Cleburne in January 1904, making a total of 78 miles of track between Cleburne and Mexia.

Financial problems in the system led to its purchase by Colorado and Southern Railway (C&S) on August 1, 1905. Benjamin F. Yoakum, a railroad executive who was a director of the C&S, was contracted to build more track in Trinity and Brazos Valley system. As part of the construction deal, C&S sold one-half of the securities issued for the project to Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway (CRIP), making the T&BV half-owned by both CRIP and C&S parent Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad.

A southern extension of 224 miles from Mexia to Houston was built from 1905-1907. An extension was also completed between Teague and Waxahachie in 1907. T&BV contracted with the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad (MKT) between Waxahachie and Dallas, while it used Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway (GC&SF) tracks on its northwestern end between Cleburne and Fort Worth and on its southeastern end between Houston and Galveston. In Houston, T&BV took a one-quarter interest in the Houston Belt and Terminal Railway, which was being built by Yoakum at the time.

The Trinity and Brazos Valley was placed into receivership on June 16, 1914, having been unprofitable since 1905. Its trackage rights with MKT and GC&SF were canceled at that time. The receiver appointed was John W. Robins, replaced by L.H. Atwell and then John A. Hulen in 1919.

In 1930, the business was reorganized as the Burlington-Rock Island Railroad Company with Hulen as the first president. Operating 303 miles of track at that time, BRI was still owned by CRIP and C&S.

Today, the trackage from Teague to Houston is still in use as part of BNSF Railway. The portion from Teague to Cleburne has been abandoned.

Financial information
The capital stock to begin the railroad was $300,000. In 1916, it reported earnings of over $1 million ($842,000 in freight and the rest in passenger). By 1926, it owned 37 locomotives and freight earnings had climbed to $2.6 million, with passenger earnings down 15 percent from 1916 levels.

References

Defunct Texas railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Predecessors of the Burlington Northern Railroad
Predecessors of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad
Predecessors of the Colorado and Southern Railway
Railway companies established in 1902
Railway companies disestablished in 1930

Trinity and Brazos Valley Railway


The Western High Plateau, Western Highlands or Bamenda Grassfields is a region of Cameroon characterised by high relief, cool temperatures, heavy rainfall and savanna vegetation. The region lies along the Cameroon line and consists of mountain ranges and volcanoes made of crystalline and igneous rock. The region borders the South Cameroon Plateau to the southeast, the Adamawa Plateau to the northeast and the Cameroon coastal plain to the south.

Topography and geology
The Western High Plateau lies along the Cameroon line, a series of volcanic swells running from the Atlantic Ocean in the southwestern part of the plateau to the Adamawa Plateau in the northeast. The region is characterised by accidented relief of massifs and mountains. The Western High Plateau features several dormant volcanoes, including the Bamboutos Mountains, Mount Oku and Mount Kupe. The plateau rises in steps from the west. To the east, it terminates in mountains that range from 1,000 metres to 2,500 metres in height, terminating in the South Cameroon Plateau. The plateau gives way to the Adamawa Plateau to the northeast, which is a larger but less accidented region.

The core of the plateau is made up of volcanic rock, which is ringed by plutonic rock. The base is crystalline and metamorphic rock. The base rock is primarily gneiss and granite that dates to the Precambrian period. A layer of basalt covers this. Vulcanism has created fertile black and brown soils. Erosion played a large role.

Climate and drainage
The plateau experiences an equatorial climate of the Cameroon type. The area experiences two major seasons: A long, wet season of nine months, and a short, dry season of three months. During the wet season, humid, prevailing monsoon winds blow in from the west and lose their moisture upon hitting the region's mountains. Average rainfall per year ranges from 1,000 mm to 2,000 mm. High elevations give the region a cooler climate than the rest of Cameroon. For example, the average temperature at Dschang in the West Region is 20°C. Toward the north, rainfall levels are reduced as the Sudan climate becomes predominant.

The Western High Plateau's relief and high rainfall make it a major watershed for Cameroon. Important rivers in the region include the Manyu, which rises in the Bamboutos Mountains and becomes the Cross River on its lower course, and the Nkam, which is known as the Wouri River on its lower course. The region gives rise to important tributaries to the Sanaga River. These rivers follow a Cameroon regime, a subtype of the equatorial regime of other southern Cameroonian rivers. This means that the rivers experience a long, high-water period during the wet season and a short, low-water period during the dry season. The region's rivers ultimately empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The area's accidented geography gives rise to several waterfalls along these waterways. Ekon Falls near Nkongsamba in the West Region is 80 metres high. Crater lakes dot the plateau, the result of dead volcanoes filling with water.

Flora

The Western High Plateau was once heavily forested. However, repeated cutting and burning by human beings has forced the forest back to areas along the waterways and has allowed grasslands to expand into the area. Sudan savanna forms the dominant vegetation. This consists of grassfields—leading to the name Bamenda grassfields around the city of Bamenda—and short shrubs and trees that shed their foliage during the dry season as a defence against brush fires and dry weather. Raffia palms grow in the valleys and depressions.

References

Sources

Plateaus of Cameroon
Highlands
Cameroonian Highlands forests

Western High Plateau


The 4th millennium BC saw major changes in human culture. It marked the beginning of the Bronze Age and of writing.

The city states of Sumer and the kingdom of Egypt were started and grew to prominence. Agriculture spread widely across Eurasia. World population in the course of the millennium doubled to approximately from 7 to 14 million people in the area surrounding them.

Events
Mesopotamia is in the Uruk period, with emerging Sumerian hegemony and development of "proto-cuneiform" writing; base-60 mathematics, astronomy and astrology, civil law, complex hydrology, the sailboat, potter's wheel and wheel; the Chalcolithic proceeds into the early Bronze Age.
c. 4000 BC—First neolithic settlers in the island of Thera (Santorini), Greece, migrating probably from Minoan Crete.
c. 4000 BC—Beaker from Susa (modern Shush, Iran) is made. It is now at Musée du Louvre, Paris.
c. 4000 BC–2000 BC—People and animals, a detail of rock-shelter painting in Cogul, Lleida, Spain, are painted. It is now at Museo Arqueológico, Barcelona.
c. 3900 BC—5.9 kiloyear event, one of the most intense aridification events during the Holocene. It ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and likely initiated the most recent desiccation of the Sahara desert, triggering migration to river valleys, such as from central North Africa to the Nile valley.
Babylonian influence predominant in Mediterranean regions of Asia (to 2000 BC)
In Colombia, circa 3600 BC, first rupestrian art Chiribiquete (Caquetá).
3600 BC—Construction of the Ġgantija megalithic temple complex on the Island of Gozo, Malta: the world's oldest extant unburied free-standing structures, and the world's oldest religious structures. (See Göbekli Tepe for older, buried religious structures.)
3600–3200 BC—Construction of the first temple within the Mnajdra solar temple complex on Malta, containing "furniture" such as stone benches and tables, that set it apart from other European megalith constructions.
3600–3000 BC—Construction of the Ta' Ħaġrat and Kordin III temples on Malta.
3500 Metalcasting began in the Mohenjodaro area.
c. 3500 BC—Figures of a man and a woman, from Cernavodă, Romania, are made. They are now at National Historical Museum, Bucharest.
3500–3400 BC—Jar with boat designs, from Hierakonpolis (today in the Brooklyn Museum) is created. Predynastic Egypt.
3500–2340 BC—First cities developed in Southern Mesopotamia. Inhabitants migrated from north.
The cuneiform script proper emerges from pictographic proto-writing in the later 4th millennium. Mesopotamia's "proto-literate" period spans the 35th to 32nd centuries. The first documents unequivocally written in the Sumerian language date to the 31st century, found at Jemdet Nasr.
3300–2900 BC—Construction of the Newgrange solar observatory/passage tomb in Ireland.
 3300—Bronze Age starts in Indus Valley (Harappa)
c. 3300 BC—Ötzi the Iceman dies near the present-day border between Austria and Italy, only to be discovered in 1991 buried in a glacier of the Ötztal Alps. His cause of death is believed to be homicide.
3250–3000 BC—Construction of three megalithic temples at Tarxien, Malta.
3200–2500 BC—Construction of the Ħaġar Qim megalithic temple complex on Malta, featuring both solar and lunar alignments.
c. 3150 BC—Predynastic period ended in Ancient Egypt. Early Dynastic (Archaic) period started (according to French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal). The period includes 1st and 2nd Dynasties.
c. 3150 BC a lesser Tollmann's hypothetical bolide event may have occurred.
 August 11, 3114 BC—start date of the Mayan calendar.
c. 3100 BC—According to the legend, Menes unifies Upper and Lower Egypt, and a new capital is erected at Memphis.
c. 3100 BC—Narmer Palette
c. 3100–2600 BC—Neolithic settlement at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, Scotland, is inhabited.
First to Fourth dynasty of Kish in Mesopotamia.
Discovery of silver.
The beginnings of Iberian civilizations, arrival to the peninsula dating as far back as 4000 BC.
c. 3000 BC—First pottery in Colombia at Puerto Hormiga (Magdalena), considered one of the first attempts of pottery of the New World. First settlement at Puerto Badel (Bolívar).
Sumerian temple of Janna at Eridu erected.
Temple at Al-Ubaid and tome of Mes-Kalam-Dug built near Ur, Chaldea.

Significant persons
 Ötzi the Iceman lived c. 3300 BC.
 Predynastic pharaohs, Tiu, Thesh, Hsekiu, Wazner
 Early Dynastic Period pharaohs, Ro, Serket, Narmer

Inventions, discoveries, introductions

c. 4000 BC—potter's wheel in Sumer.
4000 BC—Susa is a center of pottery production.
c. 4000 BC—Horses are domesticated in Ukraine.
3500 BC—2340 BC; Sumer: wheeled carts, potter's wheel, White Temple ziggurat, bronze tools and weapons.
c. 3250 BC—potter's wheel appears in Ancient Near East.
3000 BC—Tin is in use in Mesopotamia soon after this time.
Beginnings of urbanisation in Mesopotamia in Sumer and Egypt.
First writings in the cities of Uruk and Susa (cuneiform writings). Hieroglyphs in Egypt.
Kurgan culture of what is now Southern Russia and Ukraine; possibly the first domestication of the horse.
Sails used in the Nile.
Construction in England of the Sweet Track, the World's first known engineered roadway.
Drainage and Sewage collection and disposal created in the Indus Valley civilization.
Dams, canals, stone sculptures using inclined plane and lever in Sumer.
Copper was in use, both as tools and weapons.
Bronze was in use, specifically by the Maykop culture.
Mastabas, the predecessors of the Egyptian pyramids.
The earliest phase of the Stonehenge monument (a circular earth bank and ditch) dates to c. 3100 BC.
The Céide Fields in Ireland, arguably the oldest field system in world, are developed.
Sumerian writing, done on clay tablets, shows about 2,000 pictographic signs.
White painted pottery in Egypt and southeastern Europe.
Harps and flutes played in Egypt.
Copper alloys used by Egyptians and Sumerians; smelting of gold and silver known.
Lyres and double clarinets (arghul, mijwiz) played in Egypt.
Earliest known numerals in Egypt.
Linen is produced in the Middle East.

Religion
 Sri Krishna and Mahabharata.
 Adam, Cain, Enoch, Methuselah, and Noah.

Calendars and chronology
The Maya calendar dates the creation of the Earth to August 11 or August 13, 3114 BC (establishing that date as day zero of the Long Count 184.108.40.206.0).
According to calculations of Aryabhata (6th century), the Hindu Kali Yuga began at midnight (00:00) on 18 February 3102 BC. Consequently, Aryabhata dates the events of the Mahabharata to around 3137 BC.
7 October 3761 BC—Epoch of the Hebrew Calendar (introduced in the 12th century).
3929 BC—Date of creation according to John Lightfoot based on the Old Testament of the Bible, and often associated with the Ussher chronology.
1 January 4000 BC — Epoch of the Masonic calendar's Anno Lucis era.

References

4th millennium BC


කාම (Skt., Pali; Devanagari: काम) means pleasure, sensual gratification, sexual fulfillment, pleasure of the senses, desire, eros, the aesthetic enjoyment of life. In Hinduism, kāma is regarded as one of the four ends of man (purusharthas): the others are worldly status (artha), duty (dharma) and inner freedom (moksha). Kama-deva is the personification of this, a god equivalent to the Greek Eros and the Roman Cupid. Kama-rupa is a subtle body or aura composed of desire, while Kama-loka is the realm this inhabits, particularly in the afterlife.

බෞද්ධ මතය

In Buddhism's Pali Canon, the Buddha renounced (Pali: nekkhamma) sensuality (kāma) en route to his Awakening. The Buddhist lay practitioner recites daily the Five Precepts, the third of which is a commitment to abstain from "sexual misconduct" (kāmesu micchācāra). Typical of Pali Canon discourses, the Dhammika Sutta (Sn 2.14) includes a more explicit correlate to this precept when the Buddha enjoins a follower to "observe celibacy or at least do not have sex with another's wife ".

The Indian god Kama

 is the හින්දු god of love. He is represented as  young and handsome man, sometimes with wings, who wields a bow and arrows. His bow is made of sugar cane, the season of spring, and the gentle breeze. His epithets include Ragavrinta (Stalk of Passion), Ananga (incorporeal), Kandarpa ("God of amour"), Manmatha (churner of hearts), Manosij (He Who Arises from the Mind; the contraction of the Sanskrit phrase Sah Manasah Jāta), Madana (intoxicating), Ratikānta (lord of the seasons), Pushpavān, Pushpadhanva (one with bow of flowers) or just Kāma ("desire").

According to the Shiva Purāna Kāmadeva is a son of Brahma, creator of the universe. According to the Skanda Purāna Kāmadeva is a brother of Prasuti; they are both the children of Shatarupa. Later interpolations consider him Vishnu's son. Kāmadeva is wed to Ratī, a daughter of Prasuti and Daksha (another son/creation of Brahmā). According to some, Kāmadeva was also once reincarnated as Pradyumna, the son of Krishna and Rukminī. The Stala Purāna indicates that Kamadeva was reduced to ashes after disturbing the meditation of Shiva at Kameshwara temple, Aragalur. This temple has ashta Bhairava (8 bhairava) statues.

Theosophy: kama, kamarupa and kamaloka

In the Theosophy of Blavatsky, Kama is the fourth principle of the septenary, associated with emotions and desires, attachment to existence, volition, and lust/

The Kamarupa (desire-form) is a "form" or subtle body created of mental and physical desires and thoughts, a form that survives the death of the body. After death three of the seven "principles" or planes of consciousness, the body, its astral prototype and physical vitality, being of no further use, remain on earth. The three higher principles merge into the state of Devachan, in which state the Higher Ego will remain until reincarnation. The eidolon, the "image", the pale copy of the man that was, persists for a period of time determined by the past life. Bereft as of its higher mind, spirit and physical senses it will gradually fade and disintegrate. But if forcibly drawn back from Kamaloka (desire world) into the terrestrial sphere by the passionate desires and appeals of the surviving friends or by necromantic practices the Kamarupa may become a vampire feeding on the vitality of those anxious for its company. In India these eidola, called Pisachas, are much dreaded.

Kamaloka is a semi-material plane, subjective and invisible to humans, where disembodied "personalities", the astral forms, called Kamarupa remain until they fade out from it by the complete exhaustion of the effects of the mental impulses that created these  eidolons of human and animal passions and desires. It is associated with Hades of ancient Greeks and the Amenti of the Egyptians, the land of Silent Shadows; a division of the first group of the Trailõkya.

Sources
 Ireland, John D. (trans.) (1983). Dhammika Sutta: Dhammika (excerpt) (Sn 2.14). Retrieved 5 Jul 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/snp/snp.2.14.irel.html.

 Khantipalo, Bhikkhu (1982, 1995). Lay Buddhist Practice: The Shrine Room, Uposatha Day, Rains Residence (The Wheel No. 206/207). Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved 5 Jul 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/khantipalo/wheel206.html.

 Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series (n.d.) (SLTP).  (AN 22.214.171.124, in Pali). Retrieved 3 Jul 2007 from "MettaNet-Lanka" at http://mettanet.org/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara3/5-pancakanipata/003-pancangikavaggo-p.html .

 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Dvedhavitakka Sutta: Two Sorts of Thinking (MN 19). Retrieved 3 Jul 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.019.than.html.

 Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). Samadhanga Sutta: The Factors of Concentration (AN 5.28). Retrieved 3 Jul 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.028.than.html.

 H. P. Blavatsky, 1892. The Theosophical Glossary. London: The Theosophical Publishing Society

See also
 Cupid
 Kama sutra

References

External links
 About.com page
 Shiva purānam
 http://www.webonautics.com/mythology/kamadeva.html
 Kamadeva's holy sacrifice
 God Of Desire: Tales Of Kamadeva In Sanskrit Story Literature (book)
 Theosophical dictionary on Kamadeva
 ENCYCLOPEDIC THEOSOPHICAL GLOSSARY: A Resource on Theosophy, G. de Purucker
 Theosophical Glossary, 1892
 Geoffrey Farthing, Exploring the Great Beyond, Theosophical Publishing House, Wheaton, 1978, p.210.

බුදු දහම
හින්දු ආගම
Purusharthas
Buddhist terms
Theosophical philosophical concepts

කාම


Events
 January – The Triple Alliance of 1668 is formed.
 February 13 Lisbon – Peace Treaty between Afonso VI of Portugal and Carlos II of Spain, by mediation of Charles II of England where it is recognized the legitimity of the Portuguese monarch. Portugal yields Ceuta to Spain.
The first Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the War of Devolution.
Bishop Issac Barrow founds a trust to establish a university on the Isle of Man. (King William's College)
July 25 – The magnitude 8.5 Shandong earthquake causes 43,000 to 50,000 deaths in Shandong during the Qing Dynasty, making it the largest historical earthquake in Eastern China.
August 17 – The magnitude 8.0 North Anatolia earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in northern Anatolia, Ottoman Empire, and is the most powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey.
First performance of Molière's comedy, Tartuffe
The British East India Company takes over Bombay
 Foundation of the First National Bank of Europe in Stockholm, Sweden "Riskbank"
 Emperor Yohannes I of Ethiopia convenes a church council in Gondar, which decides to expel all Roman Catholics in Ethiopia.

Births
 November 10 - François Couperin, French composer

1668