Flow may mean:

Flow, another name for "flux" in physics, which is the rate at which something travels through a given cross section
In fluid mechanics, the word flow is often used to mean a complete description of the motion of a fluid.  See also volumetric flow rate
In circulatory physiology, the word flow (e.g. of blood or lymph fluid) is commonly used as shorthand for regional flow, i.e., flow standardised to the volume or mass of a region of tissue under study (SI units: mL/s/mL or mL/s/g)
Flow cytometry, abbreviated "flow", in certain laboratory applications, is a technique for counting, examining and sorting microscopic particles suspended in a stream of fluid
 Environmental flow, in ecology, the discharge or level of water necessary in a river or water source to sustain a healtly ecosystem
Dataflow and workflow, terms that describe the flow of data in a mostly non-linear succession of computing steps
Flow (mathematics), the one-dimensional (continuous, differentiable) action of a group, usually arising in the solution of differential equations
Examples include geodesic flow, Hamiltonian flow and Anosov flow
Network flow, an assignment of flow to the edges of a directed graph in graph theory
Flow (psychology), the feeling of complete and energized focus in an activity, with a high level of enjoyment and fulfillment (a concept popularised by the book Flow by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi)
Flow (television), in television studies and programming, the sequence of television material from one element to the next
Flow (journal), an online journal of television and media studies
FLOW (band), a J-Pop group
Flow binding system, abbreviated "flow", a US based manufacturer of proprietary snowboard bindings*flOw, a Flash game that will be available on the PlayStation 3
Flow, the total value of sales or purchases in an accounting period, usually a quarter or a year in economics and accounting
"Flow", in hip hop and poetry, a verb or noun described as the ability to start and maintain a verse of lyrics
"Flow", the section of a skatepark which is meant to be ridden without pushing, usually consisting of banks, hills, funboxes, etc.

Flow


Botany Bay is a bay in Sydney, New South Wales.  It is a few kilometres south of the Sydney central business district. The Cooks River and the Georges River are the two major tributaries that flow into the bay. Two runways of Sydney Airport extend into the bay.

On 29 April 1770, Botany Bay was the site of James Cook's first landing of HMS Endeavour on the continent of Australia. Later the British planned Botany Bay as the site for a penal colony. Out of these plans came the first European to live in Australia at Sydney Cove.

Aboriginal lived in this area dating back 5,000 years. The Aboriginal people of Sydney were known as the Eora.

Even though it is a busy port, there are many types of marine life.  The area around its entrance is some of the best scuba diving in the Sydney area.  The world's largest population of weedy sea dragon found was on the southern side.

Geography of New South Wales
Bays of Australia
Sydney

Botany Bay


Political views and ideas which are far from the  mainstream are called extremist. Such views often violate common moral standards. As an example, a group that wants to replace a democratic form of government with a totalitarian one is almost always considered extremist. Political or religious fundamentalism as well as fanaticism can  also be seen as extremist.

What is seen as extremist varies by country. People who support that Muslim women should wear a burqa may be seen as extremist in France, but such an opinion may not be extremist in Afghanistan or Saudi Arabia.

Political ideologies

Extremism


Rubidium is chemical element 37 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Rb. Its atomic mass is 85.47. It has 37 protons and 37 electrons. It is a soft silver colored metal. It was first discovered in 1861 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff in Heidelberg, Germany.

Properties

Physical properties
Rubidium melts at a very low temperature, for example it could melt in a person's hand. Rubidium is an alkali metal. It can make an amalgam with mercury.

Chemical properties
Rubidium is very reactive. It will ignite in air because it reacts with many other elements in the air like oxygen and nitrogen. Rubidium reacts very violently with water to make hydrogen and rubidium hydroxide, a strong corrosive base. The reaction is normally very hot so the hydrogen ignites.

Chemical compounds

Rubidium forms chemical compounds in only one oxidation state: +1. Some rubidium compounds have a mixed oxidation state, though. Rubidium chloride is the most common rubidium compound. Rubidium hydroxide and rubidium carbonate are also used commonly. Rubidium compounds makes a red-violet color in a flame. Most rubidium compounds are colorless. Rubidium compounds are not as common as other alkali metal compounds, such get sodium compounds. Otherwise, they are similar.

Rubidium chloride, similar to sodium chloride
Rubidium hydride, strong reducing agent
Rubidium hydroxide, powerful base
Rubidium nitrate, strong oxidizing agent
Rubidiumoxide, yellow, strong base when dissolved in water

Occurrence and preparation
Rubidium is about as common as zinc. It is the 23rd most common element in the Earth's crust. Most minerals only have a small amount of rubidium in them. It normally comes in small quantities in other minerals. It is made by reduction of rubidium ores with calcium. It is expensive because calcium is difficult to make and the rubidium needs to be kept in argon and away from water or air.

Uses
There are not many common uses for rubidium. Rubidium compounds are sometimes used in purple fireworks. It and its compounds are used mainly in science research though. It is also used to make superoxide ions. It is used in some special types of glass.

Safety
Rubidium compounds are not very dangerous in the human body; however, if a person gets too much from eating, they could get sick because it acts like other alkali metal ions such as sodium ions in sodium chloride. Rats can live with up to half of their potassium replaced with rubidium, though it is not likely for that to happen.

Rubidium metal is very dangerous. It reacts with air and water and makes the corrosive substance rubidium hydroxide.

References

Alkali metals

Rubidium


The Railway Protection Movement (), also known as the "Railway Rights Protection Movement", was a political protest movement that erupted in 1911 in late Qing China against the Qing government's plan to nationalize local railway development projects and transfer control to foreign banks.  The movement, centered in Sichuan province, expressed mass discontent with Qing rule, galvanized anti-Qing groups and contributed to the outbreak of the 1911 Revolution.  The mobilization of imperial troops from neighboring Hubei Province to suppress the Railway Protection Movement created the opportunity for revolutionaries in Wuhan to launch the Wuchang Uprising, which triggered the revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.

Background
From the 1890s to 1905, nearly all railways in China were planned, financed, built and operated by foreign powers pursuant to concessions from the Qing government.  To help local economies develop and retain earnings from railways, the Qing government granted the provinces the right to organize their own railway construction ventures.

In 1905, Sichuan Province established the Sichuan-Hankou Railway Company.  To raise funds for the 1,238 km railway from Chengdu to Wuhan, the company sold shares to the public and the provincial government levied a special 3% tax on harvests paid by land owners, who were also given share certificates.  In one way or another, much of the Sichuan gentry and merchant class became shareholders of the railway venture.  By 1911, the company had raised 11,983,305 taels of silver of which 9,288,428 or 77.5% came from tax levies, 2,458,147 taels from public investments and 236,730 taels from government.  The company was beset by corruption and mismanagement by government-appointed administrators, and construction efforts made little progress.  In 1907, the company management was replaced by a board of trustees consisting of gentry, merchants and retired officials.   In 1909, Zhan Tianyou, the Yale-educated builder of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway, was hired as chief engineer.  But the board remained divided by squabbles over the route of the planned railway and only about 10 miles of track had been laid by 1911.

Meanwhile, the Qing government, impatient with the progress of locally funded railway projects, returned to foreign lenders.  At the time, the Qing authorities were under the financial pressure of having to pay back huge debts under the terms of the Boxer Protocol. By nationalizing the local rail ventures and then selling the rights to those ventures to foreigners, the government could raise money to pay debts owed to Great Britain, Germany, France and the United States. In early May 1911, lenders of the so-called China Consortium including Hongkong Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) of Britain, Deutsch-Asiatische Bank of Germany, Banque de l'Indochine of France, and J.P. Morgan & Co., Kuhn, Loeb & Co. and First National City Bank of New York (CitiBank) of the United States, agreed with the Qing government to finance the construction of railways in central China.  On May 9, Sheng Xuanhuai, Minister of Posts and Communications, ordered the nationalization of all locally controlled railway projects and on May 20, signed a loan agreement with the China Consortium pledging the rights to operate the Sichuan-Hankou and Hankou-Guangdong Railway in exchange for a 10 million pound loan, to be repaid by custom duties and salt taxes.  The Guangdong-Hankou Railway was a locally backed venture in Hubei, Hunan and Guangdong Province.

Railway Protest Movement

The nationalization order drew strong opposition across southern China, especially Sichuan, which had the largest public shareholding in the Sichuan-Hankou Railway venture.  Investors were unhappy that they would only be partially compensated with government bonds, rather than silver.

The amount offered to Sichuan was much lower than all other provinces.  Pu Dianjun and other influential members of the Sichuan Provincial Assembly organized the Railway Protection League on June 17, and made public speeches against the plan, which was widely regarded as a seizure of valuable economic assets by the Manchu court and conversion of local property to foreign control.

Bloodshed in Chengdu
On August 11–13, more than 10,000 protesters held a rally against the proposal in Chengdu and organized a series of strikes and boycotts by students and merchants.  On September 1, the Sichuan-Hankou Railway Company adopted a shareholders' resolution calling on the Sichuan public to withhold the payment of grain taxes to the Qing government.  On September 7, the Governor-General of Sichuan, Zhao Erfeng had Pu Dianjun and other leaders arrested and closed the company.  Enraged protesters then marched on the Governor-General's office in Chengdu demanding Pu's release.   In what became known as the Bloody Chengdu Incident, Zhao ordered troops to open fire and dozens of protesters were killed.  In Chengdu there were 32 deaths. Authorities closed the Chengdu city gates and had them heavily guarded. Protestors created "water telegrams" by carving a message on to oiled boards, which were smuggled out and floated downriver:

Bloodshed further inflamed the protests.  Underground anti-Qing groups including the Tongmenghui and Gelaohui initiated armed clashes with Qing troops in and around Chengdu.  On September 15, Wang Tianjie, head of the Gelaohui in Rong County south of Chengdu organized the Comrades' Army and led 800 followers to march on Chengdu, vowing to topple Zhao Erfeng.  As tensions escalated in Sichuan, the Qing government removed Zhao Erfeng from the governorship and offered full compensation to investors.  But armed groups numbering as many as over a hundred thousand were overwhelming government authorities in Sichuan. Gelaohui militants were the majority of armed combatants against Qing soldiers and Sichuan government militias.

In one of Xinhai Revolution's first major battles, Zhao's modernized New Army soldiers opened fire from Chengdu's gates onto Gelaohui fighters, killing more than a thousand. The New Army forces were equipped with repeating weapons and artillery. They pushed back the rebel siege of Chengdu. Continued fighting over the next two months required Qing leaders to divert troops from central China to Sichuan.

New Army orders and mutiny

The Qing court also ordered the Governor-General of Hubei and Hunan, Duan Fang, to reinforce Sichuan with troops from Hubei.  The situation in Hubei and Hunan was slightly different; elites in those provinces were not as outraged as elites in Sichuan over the nationalization of the provincial railways.  The press together with radical students in both provinces reproached local elites for their perceived passivity and servility, and compared them unfavorably to the protesters in Sichuan.  As Joseph Esherick has explained, it was in this atmosphere of heated rhetoric that the public mood in both provinces began to radicalize: "[T]he general belief that the Manchu dynasty was coming to an end ... was slowly transformed into a wish that the dynasty would fall."

In turn, the mobilization of New Army troops from Hubei forced underground revolutionary groups there to expedite their planned uprising.  The diversion of New Army troops weakened defenses in Wuhan but also took away some of the army units sympathetic to the revolutionaries.  Nonetheless, the diversion of Qing troops from central China to fight in Sichuan was a major reason why the Wuchang Uprising, which began on October 10, 1911, was successful.

Aftermath

After the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution, uprisings and clashes in Sichuan between loyalists and revolutionaries continued into November. Duanfang was killed by Liu Yifeng after a mutiny by the New Army. On November 14, Zhao Erfeng released Pu Dianjun from prison and negotiated an agreement to hand over power to a newly established Great Han Military Government of Sichuan.   On November 27, Pu Dianjun declared Sichuan's independence from the Qing dynasty.  Zhao Erfeng was subsequently accused of fomenting a coup that briefly swept Chengdu in December and was executed by the revolutionaries on December 28.

Ironically, the Sichuan–Hankou Railway, the underlying cause of all this trouble, remained unbuilt for decades due to political turmoil, warfare, inadequate funding, and extremely difficult terrain.  The Chengdu–Chongqing Railway, built in 1955, and the Xiangyang–Chongqing Railway, completed in 1979, eventually connected Chengdu and Wuhan, but the journey takes an indirect path through Shaanxi Province.  The long-dormant plans for a railway along the original Sichuan-Hankou Railway route were eventually brought to fruition a century later as the Shanghai–Wuhan–Chengdu Passenger Dedicated Line, the last section of which opened on July 1, 2012.

As late as 1983, over 300 American investors tried, unsuccessfully, to force the government of China to redeem the worthless Hukuang bonds.

References

Bibliography

Qing dynasty
History of Sichuan
History of rail transport in China
Social movements in China
1911 in China
1911 Revolution

Railway Protection Movement


Abel Pardo (born in 1974 in León, province of León, Spain), also known as Auslli, is a Neo-Nazi politician and a Leonese language writer.

Laureated in Italian Language and Culture by ICON and Advanced Studies Diplomat in Romance Languages by the Open University of Catalonia, Abel Pardo wrote in  (1996),  (2006) and El Dialecto Leonés (2006), when he collaborated with tales about modern and ancient themes, and was the prologuer in the 2003 edition of Brañas d'antanu ya xente d'anguanu.

As an Italian language and culture for foreigners bachelor, Abel Pardo is the author of the first works about contractive language between Leonese language and Italian, being the author of "Linguistica Constrativa Italiano-Leonese" (Contractive Linguistic Italian-Leonese) presented and approved in the University of Pavia Italy as a bachelor final project .

Translator
Abel Pardo also developed a certain activity as a translator into Leonese language. He translated the leaflet Campus Stellae (1999). He collaborated with "La Nuesa Tierra" newspaper with more than 200 articles in Leonese language, and with Logos Group (Italia) where he's official Leonese language translator. As city councilor of León, he promoted Leonese language bilingualism, starting Leonese language courses in the city of León for the first time and created with the University of León the title "Monitor de Llingua Llïonesa" for teaching Leonese language in official courses.

He also has written scientific works about Leonese language and New Technologues as "Nuevas Teunoloxías y Llingua Llïonesa" (New Technologies and Leonese language), the first pre-doctorate work presented and approved in Leonese language in one university, presented in the Open University of Catalonia or "El Llïonés y las TICs" in the scientific magazine Mikroglottika.

Collective books
 Cuentos de Lleón (1996)
 Brañas d'antanu ya xente d'anguanu (prologue) (2003)
 Cuentos del Sil (2006)
 El Dialecto Leonés (2006)

Translations
 Campus Stellae (1999)

Scientific works
 Nuevas Teunoloxías y Llingua Llïonesa (2006)
 Linguistica contrastiva Italiano-Leonese (2006)

Scientific publications
 El Llïonés y las TIC's  (2007) in Mikroglottika
 Linguistica contrastiva italiano-leonese: Vocalismo (2007) in Mikroglottika

References

Spanish writers
1974 births
Living people

Abel Pardo


A Different American Dream is a 2016 American documentary film by Simon Brook and Jane I. Wells. It was produced by 3 Generations and Brook Productions. In 2016, the film was selected for a number of festivals, including the Thessaloniki International Film Festival, the Margaret Mead Film Festival and the Reykjavík International Film Festival.

Synopsis
The documentary focuses on the inhabitants of the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in the Badlands of North Dakota as their lives, their communities and their environment are profoundly transformed by the tight oil (shale oil) industry that promises wealth but sometimes delivers devastation.

References

American documentary films
2016 films
Films shot in North Dakota
Films set in North Dakota
2010s American films

A Different American Dream


A Soxhlet extractor is a kind of laboratory equipment. It is made of glass. Franz von Soxhlet invented it in 1879.  It has a flask, an extraction chamber, and a condenser. It can be used for solid-liquid extractions.

In this discontinuous extraction process, the extraction solvent inside the boiling flask is evaporated and re-condensed in the distillation column above. It then falls down onto the solid material requiring extraction. The chamber containing the solid material is connected to the boiling flask below by a syphoning mechanism seen in the Pythagorean cup, which allows the chamber to fill to a point, at which it will empty its contents and start to fill again and the extracted compounds will accumulate in the boiling flask below.

Uses
Chemists use it to remove a material from a solid. It is useful when removing materials that do not dissolve well in any solvent. Chemists use a solvent such as ether or alcohol in the extractor. The Soxhlet extractor applies the solvent repeatedly to the solid until enough of the material dissolves.

Related pages
 Solubility

Laboratory equipment
Analytical chemistry

Soxhlet extractor


Bayville is an incorporated village on the north shore of Nassau County on Long Island, in the state of New York.  The 2010 census showed that 6,669 people lived there, down from 7,213 in 2009.  Bayville was purchased from the Native Americans (the Matinecock tribe) by Daniel Whitehead in 1658.

In the 1800s, Bayville was mostly used for asparagus farming.  Five or six men owned large sections of Bayville and made their living from farming asparagus.  One of those men was Nicholas Godfrey, a native of Cape May township in New Jersey.  At the height of his land ownership, Godfrey owned more than half of Bayville's land.  Godfrey died in 1899. He is buried in the Bayville Cemetery.  He was a Lieutenant for the Union Army during the Civil War. He was also an inventor and he was Bayville's first postmaster in 1877.

The village wasn't named "Bayville" until 1859.  Before that, the village had two names.  The western and middle parts were called "Oak Neck". The eastern part was called "Pine Island".

Bayville's total area is 1.5 square miles.  1.4 is made up of land and .1 is made up of water.  Frank M. Flower & Sons, Inc. is Bayville's only commercial business. It has been there since 1887.  Bayville got electricity in 1906.  The Bayville Bridge that is there today is the fourth bridge.  The first bridge there was built in 1898.  Before that, people went between Bayville to Oyster Bay by water taxi.

Villages in New York (state)

Bayville, New York


The Shyok River is a river flowing through Disputed Area Ladakh and the Northern Areas of Pakistan (Ghanche District). Shyok river (a tributary of the Indus) originates from the Rimo glacier, one of the tongues of Siachen Glacier and becomes very wide at the confluence with the Nubra River (a tributary of Shyok, originating from Siachen Glacier).

The alignment of the Shyok river is very unusual, originating from the Rimo glacier it flows in a SE direction and at joining the Pangong range it takes a NW turn and flows parallel to its previous path. The Shyok flowing in a wide valley suddenly enters a narrow gorge after Chalunka and then joins the Indus at Skardu (Pakistan). The Nubra river originating from the Siachen glacier also behaves like the Shyok, before Tirit the SE flowing river takes a NW turn on meeting the river Shyok. The similarity in the courses of these two important rivers probably indicates a series of palaeo fault lines trending NW-SE in delimiting the upper courses of the rivers. The importance of the Indus River and the Shyok rivers is in the deposition of a huge thickness of Quaternary sediments a treasure trove for geology researchers.

Tributaries
 The Chang Chen Mo River is formed in the vicinity of Pamzal in Changchinmo plains of Disputed Area Ladakh and flows westward. It ends when it empties into the Shyok River.
 The Galwan River is in the southern part of Disputed Area Aksai Chin, Galwan originates in the area of Samzungling and flowing to the west joins the Shyok River.
 The Nubra River is a tributary of the Shyok River, which flows into the Indus River. It flows in the Disputed Area Ladakh area of Disputed Area Jammu and Kashmir.
 The Saltoro River begins in the skirts of the Saltoro Kangri peak ridge and flows to the southwest. Another branch starts from the slopes of the Masherbroom peak and flows to the south to join Saltoro. In the end this river empties into Shyok River near the coldest part of Pakistan the town of Khaplu.

Related pages
 List of rivers of Pakistan

Tributaries of the Indus River
Gilgit-Baltistan
Kashmir
Rivers of India
Rivers of Pakistan

Shyok River


George Washington Campbell (February 9, 1769–February 17, 1848) was an American statesman. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives as the Representative from Tennessee's at-large congressional district in 1803. He served in the House from 1805-1809, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th Congresses. During the 10th Congress, he was the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. He was also one of the managers appointed in 1804 to conduct the impeachment hearings for John Pickering, judge of the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, and later in the same year, the impeachment hearings against Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Life
Born in Scotland, he immigrated to North Carolina in 1772 with his parents. He graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1794 and began studying law. He was admitted to the bar in North Carolina and began practicing in Knoxville, Tennessee.

Political life
He left Congress in 1809 to become judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1811.

He served as a United States Senator from Tennessee twice, once from 1811 to 1814, having been elected to fill the seat of Jenkin Whiteside, and again from 1815 to 1818. His first service was from October 8, 1811 to February 11, 1814, when he resigned to accept appointment as the United States Secretary of the Treasury. He returned to the Senate on October 10, 1815. He served as the first chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and its predecessor from December 4, 1815, until his resignation from the Senate on April 20, 1818; on this occasion to accept appointment as United States Ambassador to Russia, a position he held from 1818-1821. Campbell served as a member of the French Spoliation Claims Commission in 1831.

Appointed Secretary of the Treasury by James Madison, he faced national financial disorder brought on by the War of 1812. Congress had failed to recharter the First Bank of the United States after its charter expired in 1811, and appropriations for the war were unavailable, so Campbell had to convince Americans to buy government bonds. He was forced to meet to lenders terms, selling government bonds at exorbitant interest rates. In September, 1814 the British occupied Washington, D.C. and the credit of the government was lowered even further. Campbell was unsuccessful in his efforts to raise money through additional bond sales and he resigned that October after only eight months in office, disillusioned and in bad health.

He died in 1848 and is buried at Nashville City Cemetery in Nashville, Tennessee.

Campbell County, Tennessee, is named in his honor.

1769 births
1848 deaths
United States Secretaries of the Treasury

George W. Campbell


Metric time is a way of measuring how long a period of time is using the metric system. The metric system uses the second as a main unit of time. There are periods of time that are based on the second but shorter. They are named with metric prefixes. Some of these are kiloseconds and milliseconds. Other units of time, like the minute, hour, and day, are accepted for use with the modern metric system, but are not part of it.

History
The metric system was first used in France in 1795. It had units for length, area, dry volume, liquid capacity, weight or mass, and even amounts of money, but not for time. Decimal time of day had been first used in France two years earlier, but was set aside at the same time the metric system was started and did not follow the metric pattern of a base unit and prefixed units. James Clerk Maxwell and Elihu Thomson (through the British Association for the Advancement of Science - BAAS) came up with the Centimetre gram second system of units (cgs) in 1874.
The ephemeris second (1/86400 of a mean solar day) was made one of the original base units of the modern metric system, or International System of Units (SI), at the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1954. The SI second was later made even more exact. It was made into the time of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation from the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.

Other units
People have had ideas for other base units of metric time (other than the second). On March 28, 1794, Joseph Louis Lagrange, the president of the commission which developed the metric system, wrote a report to the commission. His report suggested the names déci-jour and centi-jour (deciday and centiday in English). Base units that are decimal divisions of the day, such as 1/10, 1/100, 1/1000, or 1/100,000 day, or other divisions of the day, such as 1/20 or 1/40 day, have also been suggested, with names such as tick, meck, chi, chron, moment, etc. These other units have not caught on with people, however.

In computing
In computing, metric time became widely used because it is easy to use with computers. Unix time gives date and time as the number of seconds since January 1, 1970, and Microsoft's FILETIME as multiples of 100ns since January 1, 1601. VAX/VMS uses the number of 100ns since November 17, 1858, and RISC OS the number of centiseconds since January 1, 1900. (Each of these is not exactly linear, as there are some interruptions with leap seconds.)

Problems
The main problem with metric time is in the units. The International System of Units has only come up with prefixes for 10 units exponentially in both the multiple and submultiple directions. The first three multiples would be viable for use within a metric time system; they are 101 (decasecond = 10 seconds), 102 (hectosecond = 100 seconds; 1.666 minutes) and 103 (kilosecond = 1 000 seconds; 16.666 minutes) respectively. However, the fourth value in the SI Units is 106 (megasecond = 1 000 000 seconds; 16 666.666 minutes; 277.777 hours; 11.574 days). Followed by 109 (gigasecond = 1 000 000 000 seconds; 16 666 666.666 minutes; 277 777.777 hours; 11 574.074 days; 31.689 years); a relatively nonviable unit with which to measure human time/life. To make this system of prefixes work for metric time, standard units and prefixes would have to be made for the 4th and 5th exponents to make metric time work for talking about the time of human life.  These would be:
104 seconds (10 000 seconds; 166.6 minutes; 2.777 hours)
105 seconds (100 000 seconds; 1 666.6 minutes; 27.77 hours; 1.157 days)

References

Other websites
 Metric unit of time (second) Official text of SI brochure from International Bureau of Weights and Measures
 Metric Time?  University of Illinois Physics Department
 Decimal Time - Metric Time  explains the difference between decimal time and metric time (broken link)
 c# Metric Time Open Source Project

Time

Metric time


Osório is a coastal municipality and a town in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Its population is about 46,000 inhabitants.

Osório is located 90 km east of the state capital, Porto Alegre.  The municipality was created in 1857 by fission from Santo Antonio da Patrulha and named Conceição do Arroio.  It was renamed in 1934 by decree to honor Manuel Luís Osório, 19th century military commander and politician who was born there.

The Osório wind farm, the largest wind power park in Latin America (300MW) was built in 2006 in the outskirts of the town.

References

Populated coastal places in Rio Grande do Sul
Municipalities in Rio Grande do Sul
1857 establishments in Brazil

Osório, Rio Grande do Sul


Satpura Range is one of the most prominent mountain ranges in India. It is spread like that, on it's south Tapi river and on it's north large Narmada river is flowing, it generally spread most part from eastern in Madhya Pradesh and towards western Nandurbar district in Maharashtra. It also rich in biodiversity and generally consists of indigenous tribes. Toranmal hill station is most prominent in Satpuras. Its altitude higher in west and gently slope eastwards.

Hills of Asia
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra

Satpura Range


Alderney is one of the Channel Islands in the English Channel between England and France.  It forms part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, but its parliament, The States of Alderney, still has the right to make laws for the island.

The traditional language was Auregnais, but nobody speaks it now.

During World War II Alderney was used to house four concentration camps by the Germans, who had occupied each of the Channel Islands.

Alderney


The Arabic word Dhikr means remembrance. Another word is Dhikrullah (remembrance of God).

Dhikr is a kind of worship to God. It is often performed by the Sufis in congregation, and each Sufi order has its special kind of Dhikr.
However all Muslims must do dhikr.There are many benefits of doing Dhikr according to Islamic theology.Such as the fact that it is a polisher of the heart, a way of gaining closeness to Allah, one can even gain trees in Paradise for it.

Islam

Dhikr


A mebibyte is a unit of measure. It represents 1024 * 1024 bytes.

A mebibyte (a contraction of mega binary byte) is a unit of information or computer data storage, symbol MiB.

1 MiB = 220 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes = 1,024 kibibytes

The mebibyte is closely related to the megabyte (MB). Megabyte can either be a synonym for mebibyte, or refer to 106 bytes = 1,000,000 bytes, depending on context (see binary prefix for background). The two numbers are relatively close together, but mistaking the two has nevertheless led to problems.

The unit MiB was defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in December 1998.  Use of mebibyte and related units is strongly endorsed by IEEE and CIPM and is becoming more common.

One mebibyte equals 1024 (= 210) kibibytes, and 1024 mebibytes equal one gibibyte.

Mibibyte is a common misspelling, presumably from the "i" in the abbreviation or confusion about how the surrounding prefixes (i.e., "kibi" and "gibi") were actually formed.  The "i" is actually from the end of the prefix.  Tebi- and pebi- are similarly abbreviated Ti- and Pi-, but they are not usually misspelled.

Related pages
Megabyte
Kibibyte
Gibibyte
Tebibyte

Other websites
NIST Prefixes for binary multiples

Units of information

Mebibyte


In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient (BC) of a bullet is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. A high BC means the object will slow down less. It will have more of its speed left when it reaches the target. BC depends on mass, diameter, and drag coefficient. Ballistic coefficient has units of lb/in² or kg/m². BCs for bullets are normally stated in lb/in² by their manufacturers without referring to this unit. The values for BC can be as low as 0.12 and as high as 1.00 for commonly used bullets.

Bullet performance

A bullet with a high BC will travel farther than one with a low BC since  it will keep its speed better, resist the wind better, and "shoot flatter" (see external ballistics).

When hunting with a rifle, a higher BC is good for several reasons.  A higher BC results in a flatter flight. The effect of mistakes in estimating the distance to the target is smaller for  bullet with a higher BC.  This is important when attempting an effective hit on a game animal.  If the target animal is closer than estimated, then the bullet will hit higher than expected.  On the other hand, if the animal is further than estimated the bullet will hit lower than expected.  Such a difference in bullet drop can make the difference between a clean kill and a wounded animal.

This difference in flight path becomes more important at longer distances. Sometimes, the difference in two bullet designs fired from the same rifle can result in a difference between the two of over 30 cm (1 foot) at 500 meters (550 yards). A bullet with a high BC arrives at the target faster and with more energy than one with a low BC.
Since the higher BC bullet gets to the target faster, it is also less affected by crosswinds.

General trends
Sporting bullets have BC's in the range 0.12 to slightly over 1.00, with high being the most aerodynamic, and low being the least. Very-low-drag bullets with BCs ≥ 1.10 can be designed and produced on special lathes using mono-metal rods. These special bullets often have to be fired from custom made full bore rifles with special barrels.

Bullet makers often offer several weights and types for a given size.  Heavy-for-caliber pointed (spitzer) bullets with a boat tail design have high BCs. Lighter bullets with square tails and blunt noses have lower BCs.

In the United States, hunting cartridges such as the .25-06 Remington (a 6.35 mm caliber), the .270 Winchester (a 6.8 mm caliber), and the .284 Winchester (a 7 mm caliber) are used when high BCs are desired.
In the larger sizes, the .338 Lapua Magnum and the .50 BMG are popular with very high BC bullets for shooting beyond 1000 meters. They have very high BCs. Other choices in the larger size are the .375 and .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .416 Barrett.

Changes in bullet ballistic coefficients
Differences in BC claims for exactly the same projectiles can be explained by differences in the air density used for these BC statements or differing range-speed measurements on which the stated G1 BC averages are based. The BC changes during a projectile's flight and stated BCs are always averages for certain distances and speeds. Some more explanation about the transient nature of a projectile's G1 BC  during flight can be found at the external ballistics article. This article suggests that knowing how a BC was established is almost as important as knowing the stated BC value itself.

To find the correct BC (osome scientists would call it drag coefficients), Doppler radar-measurements are required. The normal shooting or aerodynamics person, however, does not have this expensive equipment. Weibel 1000e Doppler radars are used by governments, professional ballisticians, defense forces, and a few ammunition manufacturers to get exact real world data on the flight behavior of projectiles of interest.

Test results came from many shots, not just a single shot. Any single bullet can have a  very different BC than another. It is important to know the average behavior of a bullet. How different speed regimes affect several rifle bullets made by Lapua can be seen in the .338 Lapua Magnum product brochure which states Doppler radar established BC data.

Mathematical models and bullet ballistic coefficients
Most ballistic mathematical models and hence tables or software assume that one specific drag function correctly describes the drag and hence the flight characteristics of a bullet related to its ballistics coefficient. Those models do not have any differences for wadcutter, flat-based, spitzer, boat-tail, very-low-drag, etc. bullet types or shapes. However, some different drag curve models have been made for several standard projectile shapes.

Related pages
External ballistics - The behavior of a projectile in flight.
Trajectory of a projectile Ballistic coefficient can be used to calculated the path of a projectile. The above page lacks any practical application of BC. BC is an easy way to account for air resistance.

Freeware small arms ballistic coefficient calculators
These free computer programs can be used to calculate ballistic coefficient if other information is known.
JBM Ballistic Coefficient (Velocity)
JBM Ballistic Coefficient (Time)

References

Chuck Hawks Article on Ballistic Coefficient
Ballistic Coefficient Tables
Exterior Ballistics.com
#header How do bullets fly? The ballistic coefficient (bc) by Ruprecht Nennstiel, Wiesbaden, Germany

Ballistics

Ballistic coefficient


James Ussher (or Usher; 4 January 1581 – 21 March 1656) was the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland between 1625 and 1656. He was a prolific scholar and church leader, who today is most famous for his identification of the genuine letters of the church father, Ignatius of Antioch, and for his chronology that sought to establish the time and date of the creation as "the entrance of the night preceding the 23rd day of October... the year before Christ 4004"; that is, around 6 pm on 22 October 4004 BC, per the proleptic Julian calendar.

Education

Ussher was born in Dublin to a well-to-do family. His maternal grandfather, James Stanihurst, had been speaker of the Irish parliament. Ussher's father, Arland Ussher, was a clerk in chancery who married Stanihurst's daughter, Margaret (by his first wife Anne Fitzsimon), who was reportedly a Roman Catholic.

Ussher's younger and only surviving brother, Ambrose, became a distinguished scholar of Arabic and Hebrew. According to his chaplain and biographer, Nicholas Bernard, the elder brother was taught to read by two blind, spinster aunts. A gifted polyglot, he entered Dublin Free School and then the newly founded (1591) Trinity College Dublin on 9 January 1594, at the age of thirteen (not an unusual age at the time). He had received his Bachelor of Arts degree by 1598 and was a fellow and MA by 1600 (though Bernard claims he did not gain his MA till 1601). In May 1602, he was ordained in the Trinity College Chapel as a deacon in the Protestant, established, Church of Ireland (and possibly priest on the same day, while Martin Gorst says that he became a priest on 20 December 1601) by his uncle Henry Ussher, the Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland.

Ussher went on to become Chancellor of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin in 1605 and Prebend of Finglas. He became Professor of Theological Controversies at Trinity College and a Bachelor of Divinity in 1607, Doctor of Divinity in 1612, and then Vice-Chancellor in 1615 and vice-provost in 1616. In 1613, he married Phoebe, daughter of a previous Vice-Provost, Luke Challoner, and published his first work. In 1615, he was closely involved with the drawing up of the first confession of faith of the Church of Ireland, the Irish Articles of Religion.

Early life and career
In 1619 Ussher travelled to England, where he remained for two years. His only child was Elizabeth (1619–93), who married Sir Timothy Tyrrell, of Oakley, Buckinghamshire. She was the mother of James Tyrrell. He became prominent after meeting James I. In 1621 James I nominated Ussher Bishop of Meath. He became a national figure in Ireland, becoming Privy Councillor in 1623 and an increasingly substantial scholar. A noted collector of Irish manuscripts, he made them available for research to fellow scholars such as his friend, Sir James Ware. From 1623 until 1626 he was again in England and was excused from his episcopal duties to study church history. He was nominated Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh in 1625 and succeeded Christopher Hampton, who had succeeded Ussher's uncle Henry twelve years earlier.

Primate of All Ireland

After his consecration in 1626, Ussher found himself in turbulent political times. Tension was rising between England and Spain, and to secure Ireland Charles I offered Irish Catholics a series of concessions, including religious toleration, known as The Graces, in exchange for money for the upkeep of the army. Ussher was a convinced Calvinist and viewed with dismay the possibility that people he regarded as papists might achieve any sort of power. He called a secret meeting of the Irish bishops in his house in November 1626, the result being the "Judgement of the Arch-Bishops and Bishops of Ireland".  This begins:

The Judgement was not published until it was read out at the end of a series of sermons against the Graces given at Dublin in April 1627. Following Thomas Wentworth's attainder in April 1641, King Charles and the Privy Council of England instructed the Irish Lords Justices on 3 May 1641 to publish the required Bills to enact the Graces. However, the law reforms were not properly implemented before the rebellion in late 1641.

During a four-year interregnum between Lord Deputies from 1629 on, there was an increase in efforts to impose religious conformity on Ireland. In 1633, Ussher wrote to the new Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, in an effort to gain support for the imposition of recusancy fines on Irish Catholics. Thomas Wentworth, who arrived as the new Lord Deputy in Ireland in 1633, deflected the pressure for conformity by stating that firstly, the Church of Ireland itself would have to be properly resourced, and he set about its re-endowment. He settled the long-running primacy dispute between the sees of Armagh and Dublin in Armagh's favour. The two clashed on the subject of the theatre: Ussher had the usual Puritan antipathy to the stage, whereas Wentworth was a keen theatre-goer, and against Ussher's opposition, oversaw the foundation of Ireland's first theatre, the Werburgh Street Theatre.

Ussher soon found himself at odds with the rise of Arminianism and Wentworth and Laud's desire for conformity between the Church of England and the more Calvinistic Church of Ireland. Ussher resisted this pressure at a convocation in 1634, ensuring that the English Articles of Religion were adopted as well as the Irish articles, not instead of them, and that the Irish canons had to be redrafted based on the English ones rather than replaced by them. Theologically, he was a Calvinist although on the matter of the atonement he was (somewhat privately) a hypothetical universalist. His most significant influence in this regard was John Davenant, later an English delegate to the Synod of Dort, who managed to significantly soften that Synod's teaching regarding limited atonement.

In 1633, Ussher had supported the appointment of Archbishop Laud as Chancellor of the University of Dublin. He had hoped that Laud would help to impose order on what was, Ussher accepted, a somewhat mismanaged institution. Laud did that, rewriting the charter and statutes to limit the authority of the fellows, and ensure that the appointment of the provost was under royal control. In 1634, he imposed on the college an Arminian provost, William Chappell, whose theological views, and peremptory style of government, were antithetical to everything for which Ussher stood. By 1635, it was apparent that Ussher had lost  control of the church to John Bramhall, Bishop of Derry, in everyday matters and to Laud in matters of policy.

William M. Abbott, Associate Professor of History at Fairfield University, argues that he was an effective and politically important bishop and archbishop. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography notes that he was reactive and sought conciliation rather than confrontation. The story that he successfully opposed attempts to reintroduce the Irish language for use in church services by William Bedell, the Bishop of Kilmore, has been refuted.

Ussher certainly preferred to be a scholar when he could be. He engaged in extensive disputations with Roman Catholic theologians, and even as a student he challenged a Jesuit relative, Henry Fitzsimon (Ussher's mother was Catholic), to dispute publicly the identification of the Pope with the Antichrist. Ussher had an obsession with "Jesuits disguised as" Covenanters in Scotland, highwaymen when he was robbed, non-conformists in England, it was a remarkable list.   However, Ussher also wrote extensively on theology, patristics and ecclesiastical history, and these subjects gradually displaced his anti-Catholic work. After Convocation in 1634, Ussher left Dublin for his episcopal residence at Drogheda, where he concentrated on his archdiocese and his research. In 1631, he produced a new edition of a work first published in 1622, his "Discourse on the Religion Anciently Professed by the Irish", a ground-breaking study of the early Irish church, which sought to demonstrate how it differed from Rome and was, instead, much closer to the later Protestant church. This was to prove highly influential, establishing the idea that the Church of Ireland was the true successor of the early Celtic church.

In 1639, he published the most substantial history of Christianity in Britain to that date, Britannicarum ecclesiarum antiquitates – the antiquities of the British churches. It was an astonishing achievement in one respect – in gathering together so many previously unpublished manuscript sources. Ussher was very reluctant to arrive at firm judgements as to the sources' authenticity – hence his devotion of a whole chapter to the imaginative but invented stories of King Lucius and the creation of a Christian episcopate in Britain.

Wars of the Three Kingdoms

In 1640, Ussher left Ireland for England for what turned out to be the last time. In the years before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, his reputation as a scholar and his moderate Calvinism meant that his opinion was sought by both King and Parliament. After Ussher lost his home and income through the Irish uprising of 1641, Parliament voted him a pension of £400 while the King awarded him the income and property of the vacant See of Carlisle.

Despite their occasional differences, he remained a loyal friend to Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford, and when the latter was sentenced to death by Parliament, pleaded with the King not to allow the execution of the verdict: unlike some of his episcopal colleagues, he insisted that the King was absolutely bound in conscience by his promise to Strafford that whatever happened his life would be spared. The King did not take his advice, but clearly afterwards regretted not doing so, as is shown by his reference on the scaffold to Strafford's death as "that unjust sentence which I suffered to take effect".

In early 1641 Ussher developed a mediatory position on church government, which sought to bridge the gap between the Laudians, who believed in an episcopalian church hierarchy (bishops), and the Presbyterians, who wanted to abolish episcopacy entirely. His proposals, not published until 1656, after his death, as The Reduction of Episcopacy, proposed a compromise where bishops operated in a Presbyterian synodal system, were initially designed to support a rapprochement between Charles and the parliamentarian leadership in 1641, but were rejected by the King. They did, however, have an afterlife, being published in England and Scotland well into the eighteenth century. In all, he wrote or edited five books relating to episcopacy.

As the middle ground between King and Parliament vanished in 1641–1642, Ussher was forced, reluctantly, to choose between his Calvinist allies in parliament and his instinctive loyalty to the monarchy. Eventually, in January 1642 (having asked parliament's permission), he moved to Oxford, a royalist stronghold. Though Charles severely tested Ussher's loyalty by negotiating with the Catholic Irish, the Primate remained committed to the royal cause, though as the king's fortunes waned Ussher had to move on to Bristol, Cardiff, and then to St Donat's.

In June 1646, he returned to London under the protection of his friend, Elizabeth, Dowager Countess of Peterborough, in whose houses he stayed from then on. He was deprived of the See of Carlisle by Parliament on 9 October 1646, as the English episcopacy was abolished for the duration of the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. He became a preacher at Lincoln's Inn early in 1647, and despite his royalist loyalties was protected by his friends in Parliament. He watched the execution of Charles I from the roof of the Countess of Peterborough's home in London but fainted before the axe fell.

Scholarship on Ignatius
Ussher wrote two treatises on the epistles of Ignatius of Antioch while doing his work on church hierarchy. They were scholarly achievements that modern experts largely concur with. In Ussher's time, the only collection of Ignatius's writing easily available was the Long Recension, a set of 16 epistles. Ussher closely examined it and found problems that had gone uncommented on for centuries: differences in tone, theology, and apparent anachronistic references to theological disputes and structures that did not exist during Ignatius's time. Additionally, medieval authors commenting on Ignatius did not appear to be reading the same letters of the Long Recension. Ussher researched and found a shorter set, usually called the Middle Recension, and argued that only the letters contained in it were authentically Ignatius's. The unknown compiler of the Long Recension edited Ignatius's work and included some of his own, and seems to have had Arian tendencies. He published this Latin edition of the genuine Ignatian works in 1644. The only major difference between Ussher's stance and modern scholars is that Ussher thought that the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp was also inauthentic; most modern scholars believe it to be a genuine production of Ignatius, however.

Chronology

Ussher now concentrated on his research and writing and returned to the study of chronology and the church fathers. After a 1647 work on the origin of the Creeds, Ussher published a treatise on the calendar in 1648. This was a warm-up for his most famous work, the Annales veteris testamenti, a prima mundi origine deducti ("Annals of the Old Testament, deduced from the first origins of the world"), which appeared in 1650, and its continuation, Annalium pars posterior, published in 1654. In this work, he calculated the date of the Creation to have been nightfall on 22 October 4004 BC. (Other scholars, such as Cambridge academic, John Lightfoot, calculated their own dates for the Creation.) The time of the Ussher chronology is frequently misquoted as being 9 a.m., noon or 9 p.m. on 23 October. See the related article on the chronology for a discussion of its claims and methodology.

Ussher's work is now used to support Young Earth Creationism, which holds that the universe was created thousands of years ago (rather than billions). But while calculating the date of the Creation is today considered a controversial activity, in Ussher's time such a calculation was still regarded as an important task, one previously attempted by many Post-Reformation scholars, such as Joseph Justus Scaliger and physicist Isaac Newton.

Ussher's chronology represented a considerable feat of scholarship: it demanded great depth of learning in what was then known of ancient history, including the rise of the Persians, Greeks and Romans, as well as expertise in the Bible, biblical languages, astronomy, ancient calendars and chronology. Ussher's account of historical events for which he had multiple sources other than the Bible is usually in close agreement with modern accountsfor example, he placed the death of Alexander in 323 BC and that of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Ussher's last biblical co-ordinate was the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II, and beyond this point, he had to rely on other considerations. Faced with inconsistent texts of the Torah, each with a different number of years between the Genesis flood narrative and Creation, Ussher chose the Masoretic version, which claims an unbroken history of careful transcription stretching back centuriesbut his choice was confirmed for him, because it placed Creation exactly four thousand years before 4 BC, the generally accepted date for the Nativity of Jesus; moreover, he calculated, Solomon's Temple was completed in the year 3000 from creation, so that there were exactly 1,000 years from the temple to Jesus, who was thought to be the 'fulfilment' of the Temple.

Death

In 1655, Ussher published his last book, De Graeca Septuaginta Interpretum Versione, the first serious examination of the Septuagint, discussing its accuracy as compared with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. In 1656, he went to stay in the Countess of Peterborough's house in Reigate, Surrey. On 19 March, he felt a sharp pain in his side after supper and took to his bed. His symptoms seem to have been those of a severe internal haemorrhage. Two days later he died, aged 75. His last words were reported as: "O Lord, forgive me, especially my sins of omission". His body was embalmed and was to have been buried in Reigate, but at Oliver Cromwell's insistence he was given a state funeral on 17 April and was buried in the chapel of St Erasmus in Westminster Abbey.

Works
  – The Life of James Ussher, D.D.
  – incl. De Christianorum Ecclesiarum Successione et Statu historica Explicatio (1613)
  – An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuit in Ireland
  – incl. Gotteschalci et Praedestinatione Controversiae abeomotae Historia (1631); Veterum Epistolarum Hibernicarum Sylloge (1632)
  – Brittanicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates; caput I–XIII (1639)
  – Brittanicarum Ecclesiarum Antiquitates; caput XIV–XVII (1639)
  – A Geographical and Historical Disquisition, touching the Asia properly so called; The Original of Bishops and Metropolitans briefly laid down; The Judgment of Doctor Rainoldes, touching the Original of Episcopacy, more largely confirmed out of Antiquity; Dissertatio non-de Ignati solum et Polycarpi scriptis, sed etiam de Apostolicis Constitutionibus et Canonibus Clementi Romano attributis (1644); Praefationes in Ignatium (1644); De Romanae Ecclesiae Symbolo vetere aliisque Fidei Formulis tum ab Occidentalibus tum ab Orientalibus in prima Catechesi et Baptismo proponi solitis (1647); De Macedonum et Asianorum Anno Solari Dissertatio (1648); De Graeca Septuaginta Interpretum Versione Syntagma, cum Libri Estherae editione Origenica et vetere Graeca altera; Epistola ad Ludovicum Capellum de variantibus Textus Hebraei Lectionibus; Epistola Gulielmi Eyre ad Usserium
  – Annales veteris Testamenti, a Prima Mundi Origine deducti, una cum Rerum Asiaticarum Aegypticarum Chronico, a temporis historici principio usque ad Maccabaicorum initia producto (1650)
  – Annales veteris Testamenti (contd.)
  – Annales veteris Testamenti (contd.)
  – Annales veteris Testamenti concludes; Annalium Pars Posterior, in qua, praeter Maccabaicam et novi testamenti historiam, Imperii Romanorum Caesarum sub Caio Julio et Octaviano Ortus, rerumque in Asia et Aegypto Gestarum continetur Chronicon ... (1654)
  – Chronologia sacra (1660); Historia Dogmatica Controversiae inter Orthodoxos et Pontificios de Scripturis et Sacris Vernaculis; Dissertatio de Pseudo-Dionysii scriptis; Dissertatio de epistola ad Laodicenses
  – sermons (in English)
  – Tractatus de Controversiis Pontificiis; Praelectiones Theologicae
  – letters (in English) (incl. first to Richard Stanihurst, his uncle)
  – letters (in English and Latin)
  – indexes

See also
 Dating creation
 Anno Mundi
 Anno Lucis

Footnotes

Further reading

 Alan Ford, James Ussher: Theology, History, and Politics in early-modern Ireland and England Oxford University Press (2007)
 Richard Snoddy, The Soteriology of James Ussher: The Act and Object of Saving Faith, Oxford University Press (2014)

External links

 Ussher bibliography and list of secondary sources
 Armagh Observatory

1581 births
1656 deaths
Academics of Trinity College Dublin
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Anglican bishops of Meath
Anglican archbishops of Armagh
Bishops of Carlisle
Christian Young Earth creationists
Chronologists
Irish book and manuscript collectors
Irish Calvinist and Reformed theologians
Irish chroniclers
Irish evangelicals
17th-century Irish historians
Irish writers in Latin
Christian clergy from County Dublin
Proponents of alternative chronologies
Pseudohistorians
Regius Professors of Divinity (University of Dublin)
Scholars of Trinity College Dublin
17th-century Anglican archbishops
17th-century apocalypticists
17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians
17th-century Christian biblical scholars
17th-century Anglican bishops in Ireland
17th-century Church of England bishops
16th-century Anglican theologians
17th-century Anglican theologians
17th-century writers in Latin

James Ussher


Data mining is a term from computer science. Sometimes it is also called knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Data mining is about finding new information in a lot of data. The information obtained from data mining is hopefully both new and useful.

In many cases, data are stored so they can be used later. The data are saved with a goal. For example, a store wants to save what has been bought. They want to do this to know how much they should buy themselves, to have enough to sell later. Saving this information, makes a lot of data. The data are usually saved in a database. The reason data are saved is called the first use.

Later, the same data can also be used to get other information that was not needed for the first use. The store might want to know now what kind of things people buy together when they buy at the store. (Many people who buy pasta also buy mushrooms for example.) That kind of information is in the data, and is useful, but was not the reason the data were saved. This information is new and can be useful. It is a second use for the same data.

Finding new information that can also be useful from data is called data mining.

Different kinds of data mining
For data, there are a lot of different kinds of data mining for getting new information. Usually, prediction is involved. There is uncertainty in the predicted results. The following is based on the observation that there is a small green apple in which we can structurally adjust our data.

Some kinds of data mining are:
 Pattern recognition: Trying to find similarities in the rows in the database, in the form of rules. Small → green. (Small apples are often green)
 Using a Bayesian network: Trying to make something that can say how the different data attributes are connected/influence each other. The size and the colour are related. So if you know something about the size, you can guess the colour.
 Using a Neural network: Trying to make a model like a brain, which is hard to understand, but a computer can tell that if the apple is green it has a higher chance to be sour, if we tell the computer the apple is green. So this is like a black box model, we do not know how it works, but it works.
 Using Classification tree: With all other knowledge, trying to say what one other thing about the thing we are looking at will be. Here is an apple with a size, a colour and shininess, what will it taste like?

References

Computer science

Data mining


Balanus balanus is a species of acorn barnacle in the Balanidae family. It is native to the colder seas of the northern hemisphere.

Description
Unlike most crustaceans, barnacles are unable to move from place to place. Cement glands near the base of the antennae fix them to the rock. The carapace of this species is conical with a circular base which has an irregular edge and a diameter of up to three centimetres. The surface is ridged and white or pale brown. The cover plates protecting the opening are shaped like the beak of a bird.

Ecology
This species is found at depths of up to  and grows on bedrock, boulders, pebbles and shells. It seems to favour habitats with strong currents and when overcrowding occurs, adopts different shapes to fit the space available. It is often found growing alongside another barnacle, Balanus crenatus. Other species often found in its vicinity include Tubularia larynx, Obelia geniculata, Pomatoceros triqueter, Pecten maximus, Hydroides norvegica, Chlamys opercularis and Sertularia species. Coralline algae was often present as were the whelk, the European edible sea urchin (Echinus esculentus), the great spider crab (Hyas araneus) and the shore crab (Carcinus maenas).

The main predator is the juvenile common starfish (Asterias rubens). Medium sized barnacles seem to be at greatest risk. Small specimens are ignored while large specimens seem able to withstand attack. Other predators are snails, worms and birds.

Distribution
Balanus balanus is found in the Arctic Ocean and the more northerly seas of the northern hemisphere. It has been introduced to Argentina where it is displacing other species and is considered invasive.

Biology
Larvae settle out of the zooplankton in about April and attach themselves to objects on the sea floor. The newly metamorphosed cyprid develops slowly reaching  diameter in a few weeks and  by September. The growth rate then slows over the winter so that the year old barnacle averages . Thereafter it grows at  a year and the largest specimens,  across are probably four to six years old. Under experimental conditions of total submersion growth is faster and more nearly resemble growth rates of Semibalanus balanoides and Balanus crenatus. This may be because these barnacles, being always under water, have a greater continuity of food supply. There is a wide variation in rate of growth and the factors affecting it include currents and nutrient content. A scarcity of diatoms in mid-summer may slow growth at this time.

B. balanus is a cross-fertilising hermaphrodite and the single brood of nauplii is produced in the middle of winter. In mature individuals (barnacles at least ten millimetres in diameter) the white vesiculae seminales are very much enlarged at this time and filled with spermatozoa, occupying much of the body cavity and the penis is also greatly enlarged. At the same time, a creamy mass of eggs are present in the ovarian tubules. Fertilisation takes place over the course of a few days in each group of barnacles and the fertilised eggs change to an orange colour and then to a greyish-brown as the nauplii develop. New ovaries begin to form soon after fertilisation, and the testes re-develop during the summer with the size of the penis being reduced. After about forty days of embryonic development, the nauplii are liberated into the water. Many first year specimens are not fully mature in their first winter but those that are liberate 3,000 to 4,000 nauplii. Second year individuals at an average size of twenty millimetres will produce about 20,000 nauplii, whilst larger individuals of thirty millimetres may produce over 100,000.

The nauplii feed, moult five times and swim with their antennae. It takes about one month for them to develop into the cyprid larvae, the non-feeding stage before adulthood.

References

Barnacles
Crustaceans described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Balanus balanus


Stonewall UK is a gay rights organisation in the United Kingdom which was named after the Stonewall riots.

It was created in 1989 by Labour Party members who were trying to change section 28 of the Local Government Act. Many famous people, such as Sir Ian McKellen and Michael Cashman were among those who made it. Stonewall is in London. Stonewall Scotland has offices in Edinburgh and Glasgow and Stonewall Cymru is based in both Cardiff and Bangor in North Wales.

Stonewall showed ideas for change to the government. It did not start out as a membership organisation. Since Labour came into power in 1997, however, it has now become active in developing policy (political ideas) to protect the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.

Results
Some of Stonewall's best known early work was backing legal test cases in the European Court of Human Rights. These included:
 teenager Chris Morris, who successfully challenged the unequal age of consent laws.
 Duncan Lustig-Prean, Jeanette Smith, Graham Grady and John Beckett, who successfully challenged the ban on gays in the military.
 Lisa Grant, who sued her employer, South West Trains, for equal pay and benefits.

In the last few years it was successful in parliamentary lobbying. Its previous director Angela Mason (1992 to 2002) was awarded an OBE "for services to homosexual rights". Under her direction, Stonewall persuaded parliament to change the 2002 Adoption and Children Bill so that lesbian and gay couples were treated the same as heterosexuals. Under its current Chief Executive, Ben Summerskill, it was closely involved in successful parliamentary campaigns to repeal Section 28 of the Local Government Act (2003); make attacks on gay people separate crimes (that is, anti-gay hate crimes), through the Criminal Justice Act 2003; introduce the Civil Partnership Act 2004 giving gay and lesbian couples "civil union" almost the same as a civil marriage; and introduce the "2007 Sexual Orientation Regulations" under the Equality Act 2006, to stop discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation.

Stonewall helps 300 big employers across Britain by giving advice and support to lesbian and gay staff. These companies include IBM, Credit Suisse, the Inland Revenue and the Royal Navy.

The "Education for All" campaign was started in 2005. Stonewall and 70 other organsiations help to stop homophobic bullying in British schools. Section 28 of the Local government Act made any sort of teaching about homosexuality difficult, and the Education for All campaign started after section 28 was repealed.

Criticism
Grass-roots activists such as Peter Tatchell have accused Stonewall of allowing discrimination by holding regular meetings of celebrities and politicians. The meetings were supported by big businesses such as HSBC, even though HSBC is accused of dismissing someone because of their sexual orientation.

Stonewall supported the Civil Partnership bill. Many other groups did not, and they formed a group called the "Coalition for Marriage Equality", saying that the new Civil Partnership Bill made a separate yet equal system "not unlike apartheid". Many LGBT people who were not part of these groups liked the bill, and Stonewall got a lot of new members. Now Stonewall gets more money from its 10,000 individual supporters than it does money from its business supporters.

Related pages
LGBT rights in the United Kingdom

Other websites
 Stonewall official site
 Stonewall Cymru
 Stonewall Scotland

1989 establishments in the United Kingdom
LGBT organisations in the United Kingdom
LGBT politics in the United Kingdom

Stonewall UK


Physical or chemical properties of materials and systems can often be categorized as being either intensive or extensive, according to how the property changes when the size (or extent) of the system changes.
The terms "intensive and extensive quantities" were introduced into physics by German mathematician Georg Helm in 1898, and by American physicist and chemist Richard C. Tolman in 1917.

According to International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), an intensive property or intensive quantity is one whose magnitude is independent of the size of the system.
An intensive property is not necessarily homogeneously distributed in space; it can vary from place to place in a body of matter and radiation. Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T; refractive index, n; density, ρ; and hardness, η.

By contrast, an extensive property or extensive quantity is one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.
Examples include mass, volume and entropy.

Not all properties of matter fall into these two categories. For example, the square root of the volume is neither intensive nor extensive. If a system is doubled in size by juxtaposing a second identical system, the value of an intensive property equals the value for each subsystem and the value of an extensive property is twice the value for each subsystem. However the property √V is instead multiplied by √2 .

Intensive properties
An intensive property is a physical quantity whose value does not depend on the amount of substance which was measured. The most obvious intensive quantities are ratios of extensive quantities. In a homogeneous system divided into two halves, all its extensive properties, in particular its volume and its mass, are divided into two halves. All its intensive properties, such as the mass per volume (mass density) or volume per mass (specific volume), must remain the same in each half.

The temperature of a system in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of any part of it, so temperature is an intensive quantity. If the system is divided by a wall that is permeable to heat or to matter, the temperature of each subsystem is identical. Additionally, the boiling temperature of a substance is an intensive property. For example, the boiling temperature of water is 100 °C at a pressure of one atmosphere, regardless of the quantity of water remaining as liquid.

Any extensive quantity "E" for a sample can be divided by the sample's volume, to become the "E density" for the sample;
similarly, any extensive quantity "E" can be divided by the sample's mass, to become the sample's "specific E";
extensive quantities "E" which have been divided by the number of moles in their sample are referred to as "molar E".

The distinction between intensive and extensive properties has some theoretical uses.  For example, in thermodynamics, the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties, along with one extensive property, such as mass. Other intensive properties are derived from those two intensive variables.

Examples
Examples of intensive properties include:

 charge density, ρ (or ne)
 chemical potential, μ
 color
 concentration, c
 energy density, ρ
 magnetic permeability, μ
 mass density, ρ  (or specific gravity)
 melting point and boiling point
 molality, m or b
 pressure, p
 refractive index
 specific conductance (or electrical conductivity)
 specific heat capacity, cp
 specific internal energy, u
 specific rotation, [α]
 specific volume, v
 standard reduction potential, E°
 surface tension
 temperature, T
 thermal conductivity
 velocity v
 viscosity
See List of materials properties for a more exhaustive list specifically pertaining to materials.

Extensive properties
An extensive property is a physical quantity whose value is proportional to the size of the system it describes, or to the quantity of matter in the system. For example, the mass of a sample is an extensive quantity; it depends on the amount of substance. The related intensive quantity is the density which is independent of the amount. The density of water is approximately 1g/mL whether you consider a drop of water or a swimming pool, but the mass is different in the two cases.

Dividing one extensive property by another extensive property generally gives an intensive value—for example: mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive) gives density (intensive).

Examples
Examples of extensive properties include:

 amount of substance, n
 enthalpy, H
 entropy, S
 Gibbs energy, G
 heat capacity, Cp
 Helmholtz energy, A or F
 internal energy, U
 spring stiffness, K
 mass, m
 volume, V

Conjugate quantities
In thermodynamics, some extensive quantities measure amounts that are conserved in a thermodynamic process of transfer. They are transferred across a wall between two thermodynamic systems or subsystems. For example, species of matter may be transferred through a semipermeable membrane. Likewise, volume may be thought of as transferred in a process in which there is a motion of the wall between two systems, increasing the volume of one and decreasing that of the other by equal amounts.

On the other hand, some extensive quantities measure amounts that are not conserved in a thermodynamic process of transfer between a system and its surroundings. In a thermodynamic process in which a quantity of energy is transferred from the surroundings into or out of a system as heat, a corresponding quantity of entropy in the system respectively increases or decreases, but, in general, not in the same amount as in the surroundings. Likewise, a change in the amount of electric polarization in a system is not necessarily matched by a corresponding change in electric polarization in the surroundings.

In a thermodynamic system, transfers of extensive quantities are associated with changes in respective specific intensive quantities. For example, a volume transfer is associated with a change in pressure. An entropy change is associated with a temperature change. A change in the amount of electric polarization is associated with an electric field change. The transferred extensive quantities and their associated respective intensive quantities have dimensions that multiply to give the dimensions of energy. The two members of such respective specific pairs are mutually conjugate. Either one, but not both, of a conjugate pair may be set up as an independent state variable of a thermodynamic system. Conjugate setups are associated by Legendre transformations.

Composite properties
The ratio of two extensive properties of the same object or system is an intensive property. For example, the ratio of an object's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is density, which is an intensive property.

More generally properties can be combined to give new properties, which may be called derived or composite properties.  For example, the base quantities mass and volume can be combined to give the derived quantity density.  These composite properties can sometimes also be classified as intensive or extensive.  Suppose a composite property  is a function of a set of intensive properties  and a set of extensive properties , which can be shown as .  If the size of the system is changed by some scaling factor, , only the extensive properties will change, since intensive properties are independent of the size of the system.  The scaled system, then, can be represented as .

Intensive properties are independent of the size of the system, so the property F is an intensive property if for all values of the scaling factor, ,

(This is equivalent to saying that intensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 0 with respect to .)

It follows, for example, that the ratio of two extensive properties is an intensive property.  To illustrate, consider a system having a certain mass, , and volume, .  The density,  is equal to mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive):  .  If the system is scaled by the factor , then the mass and volume become  and , and the density becomes ; the two s cancel, so this could be written mathematically as  , which is analogous to the equation for  above.

The property  is an extensive property if for all ,

(This is equivalent to saying that extensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 1 with respect to .)  It follows from Euler's homogeneous function theorem that

where the partial derivative is taken with all parameters constant except . This last equation can be used to derive thermodynamic relations.

Specific properties

A specific property is the intensive property obtained by dividing an extensive property of a system by its mass.  For example, heat capacity is an extensive property of a system.  Dividing heat capacity, , by the mass of the system gives the specific heat capacity, , which is an intensive property.  When the extensive property is represented by an upper-case letter, the symbol for the corresponding intensive property is usually represented by a lower-case letter.  Common examples are given in the table below.

 *Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.

Molar properties

If the amount of substance in moles can be determined, then each of these thermodynamic properties may be expressed on a molar basis, and their name may be qualified with the adjective  molar, yielding terms such as molar volume, molar internal energy, molar enthalpy, and molar entropy. The symbol for molar quantities may be indicated by adding a subscript "m" to the corresponding extensive property.  For example, molar enthalpy is .  Molar Gibbs free energy is commonly referred to as chemical potential, symbolized by , particularly when discussing a partial molar Gibbs free energy  for a component  in a mixture.

For the characterization of substances or reactions, tables usually report the molar properties referred to a standard state. In that case an additional superscript  is added to the symbol. Examples:
  =  is the molar volume of an ideal gas at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
  is the standard molar heat capacity of a substance at constant pressure.
  is the standard enthalpy variation of a reaction (with subcases: formation enthalpy, combustion enthalpy...).
  is the standard reduction potential of a redox couple, i.e. Gibbs energy over charge, which is measured in volt = J/C.

Limitations

The general validity of the division of physical properties into extensive and intensive kinds has been addressed in the course of science. Redlich noted that, although physical properties and especially thermodynamic properties are most conveniently defined as either intensive or extensive, these two categories are not all-inclusive and some well-defined concepts like the square-root of a volume conform to neither definition.

Other systems, for which standard definitions do not provide a simple answer, are systems in which the subsystems interact when combined. Redlich pointed out that the assignment of some properties as intensive or extensive may depend on the way subsystems are arranged. For example, if two identical galvanic cells are connected in parallel, the voltage of the system is equal to the voltage of each cell, while the electric charge transferred (or the electric current) is extensive. However, if the same cells are connected in series, the charge becomes intensive and the voltage extensive. The IUPAC definitions do not consider such cases.

Some intensive properties do not apply at very small sizes.  For example, viscosity is a macroscopic quantity and is not relevant for extremely small systems.  Likewise, at a very small scale color is not independent of size, as shown by quantum dots, whose color depends on the size of the "dot".

References

Physical quantities
Thermodynamic properties
Chemical quantities

Intensive and extensive properties


Johan Ludwig Gebhard Lund (primarily known as J. L. Lund) (16 October 1777 – 3 March 1867) was a Danish painter, born in Kiel, Duchy of Holstein, to master painter Hans Giewert Lund and his wife Maria Magdalena Christina Bremer. An adherent of romanticism, he is known for his history paintings.

Training as artist
Lund came to Copenhagen to train as an artist, and in 1797, at the age of 22, he started his studies at the Royal Danish Academy of Art () with the support of Johan Frederik Clemens, acclaimed royal engraver and influential member of the Academy. He came quickly into contact with the rich and powerful of that time, which had a decided influence on his artistic development. He studied under neoclassicist Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard at the Academy from 1797 to 1799, and taught drawing privately during his student years. He received the Academy's small silver medallion in 1798 and the large silver medallion in 1799, but never competed for the gold medallion.

Student travels
Lund was friends with Caspar David Friedrich, another student at the Academy and like-minded fellow romanticist, and traveled with him to Dresden, Germany, in 1799 to continue his studies at the Dresden Academy. From there he went on to Paris, where he studied under Jacques-Louis David from 16 September 1800 to April 1802. During this time, he also took excursions to Switzerland and Lake Maggiore (August–October 1801).

He went on to Italy in 1802, first to Florence and then to Rome, where he lived from 1802 to 1810. In Florence,  he was deeply affected by the religious art prior to Raphael's time. He was part of the expatriate colony of Danish and German artists and scientists in Italy, which included Friederike Brun, Charlotte Humboldt, Georg Zoëga and Bertel Thorvaldsen. Cultured, talented and sociable, he secured himself many important contacts during this time, including those within the Danish royal house.

From 1804 to 1807, he received stipends from the Academy, inclusive a travel allowance to support his stay in Italy, between 1804 and 1806.

During that time and also years later during a subsequent stay in Rome, he associated himself with the German painters known as the Nazarenes, a group of romantic painters headed by Johann Friedrich Overbeck and Peter Cornelius. He studied with them the early Italian style of painting, which was then considered primitive.

In 1803 and 1804 he painted a large picture, "" ("Andromache, Powerless at the Sight of Hector's Maligned Corpse") which was seized by English pirates in 1807 on its voyage to Denmark. It was during the Napoleonic Wars when England and Denmark were enemies. This painting is now in the Danish Ambassador's residence in Rome. A companion piece painted between 1807 and 1811, "" ("Pyrrhus and Andromache at Hector's Grave"), was contributed to the Danish Royal Painting Collection, now the Danish National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst), by Baron Schubart, General Consul in Livorno.

These paintings helped establish himself as an idealistic and romantic painter, in contrast to rival neoclassicist Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg's realistic approach to the visual arts. The two artists represented, for many years, opposing viewpoints and cultural ideals in the Danish art scene.

Academic career

In 1809 Lund began attempts to secure the Academy professorship vacated by his former teacher Abildgaard upon his death in 1806. He returned to Denmark in 1810 along with Frederikke Brun in order to more actively pursue the teaching position.

He began exhibiting at Charlottenborg in 1812 and exhibited there routinely until 1861. The Academy also invited him to apply for membership in 1812. He submitted the painting "" (Hagbard and Signy) for consideration, and he was accepted into the Academy in 1814. While his Nordic-themed painting received praise, it was not displayed in the large painting gallery. While he received the Academy's endorsement to become member, he did not receive their recommendation to become either royal history painter or professor.

The Academy, considering not only Lund's bid for the position, but also that of his rival Eckersberg as well as that of Christian Gotlieb Kratzenstein-Stub, wished to postpone a decision until Eckersberg returned home from his student travels. Lund lost his patience with these delays and traveled back to Rome where he lived from 1816 to 1819. He had now decided to establish himself as an altar painter, and as a member of the Nazarenes.

In 1818 with support from Prince Christian Frederik, he was finally named professor at the Academy along with Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg. Kratzenstein-Stub ceased being under consideration upon his death in 1816.

He then returned to Copenhagen accompanied by Bertel Thorvaldsen in 1819, and married Augusta Lorentzen, daughter of the organist, Johan Henrich Lorentzen, and his wife, Frederikke Vilhelmine Lintrup, on 24 December 1820.

The hiring of the two counterparts to the School of Model Painting brought new vitality to the Academy. But while Eckersberg's star and realism were on the ascent, and he would come to be remembered as the father of the Golden Age of Danish Painting, Lund's star and romanticism were primarily on the descent.

But during his 42 years at the Academy Lund had a strong influence on his many students. He encouraged them to study 17th century Dutch landscape art, which could be readily seen in Copenhagen. His Romantic approach to art was greatly appreciated by a group of young landscape painters who were younger than Eckersberg's pupils; they aimed to produce evocative landscapes in reaction to Eckersberg's precise depictions of nature. This trend culminated in the large-scale landscapes of the Nationalist Romantic style, His closest students include historical painter Ditlev Blunck, and landscape painters Johan Thomas Lundbye, Dankvart Dreyer, P.C. Skovgaard, and Vilhelm Kyhn.

He served as Treasurer of the Academy 1821–1832 and again 1854–1866. He stopped teaching in 1861, and was eventually titled  (state advisor or counsellor). He was never named to the highest post at the Academy, Director of the Academy, unlike Eckersberg, his old rival, who served in that capacity from 1827 to 1829.

He had a cheerful and positive personality and was fresh and full of life to the age of 89. He died of natural causes without any sign of sickness during his sleep.

Lund kept his international orientation throughout his life in contrast to the growing nationalism and regionalism in the arts. He continued to keep his contacts in Germany and Italy.

Works

His main works were historical paintings with historical, mythological and biblical themes, such as the five large paintings at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen, which depicted Denmark's various cultural time periods. These include "" ("Christianity's Introduction in Denmark") painted in 1827, until then the largest oil painting to have been painted in Denmark. Again his assignment was matched by a comparable one given to Eckersberg. in which he painted the Oldenborg royal family line in eight large pictures, presumably to replace those painted by Abildgaard and destroyed in the fire of 1794.

The other painting in Lund's series are "" ("Nordic Sacrificial Scene from the Period of Odin") painted in 1831, "" ("Worship of the Sun") painted in 1834, "" ("Corpus Christi Procession from Denmark's Catholic Period") painted in 1834, and "'" ("Lutheran Church Service") painted in 1843.

Lund's and Eckersberg's paintings survived the fire at Christiansborg in 1884.

He is also well known for his altarpieces and paintings of religious themes, which were influenced by his admiration for such Renaissance painters as Fra Angelico, Perugino and Raphael.

His small landscapes also received favour from art historian, critic and advocate of a national art movement, Niels Lauritz Høyen. He painted few portraits. He designed the main curtain of the Royal Theatre () with a view of the Acropolis in 1828, which still hangs to this day. A preliminary sketch of the project is in the Theatre Museum. The Royal Theatre owns other art pieces of his.

Early Italian art, his contact with the Nazarenes, fellow countryman and expatriate Bertel Thorvaldsen, and for romanticism's ideals, all left an indelible influence on his artistic production.

The Royal Library houses a collection of his letters, inclusive correspondence with younger artists that bears witness to his influence on them.

He is portrayed as an old man in a painting by one of his students, Professor August Schiøtt, a prodigious portraitist. This portrait, considered one of his best, led to Schiott's membership in the Academy in 1854.

Lund's works appear in various Danish art museums, including the Danish National Gallery (Statens Museum for Kunst). His works are also in the collections of several Danish castles, as well as religious works to be found at various Danish churches.

He was an educated, cultured and diligent man and artist, with good contacts. He left a lasting impression by his many monumental paintings still widely on display, and by the effect he had on a generation of artists due to his long professorship at the Academy.

References
KID Kunst Index Danmark ("Art Index Denmark")
Danish Biographical Encyclopedia ("Dansk biografisk Leksikion")

See also
List of Danish painters

1777 births
1867 deaths
Danish romantic painters
18th-century Danish painters
18th-century male artists
Danish male painters
19th-century Danish painters
Pupils of Jacques-Louis David
Academic staff of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
19th-century painters of historical subjects
Burials at Holmen Cemetery
Romantic painters

Johan Ludwig Lund


Jaroslav František Julius Věšín (, Yaroslav Veshin; 23 May 1860 – 9 May 1915) was a Czech painter who mainly worked in Bulgaria and who was noted as a master of genre painting. The realistic depiction of battle scenes from the First Balkan War (1912) are the subject of a substantial part of his work.

Life
Věšín was born in the town of Vraný in what is today Kladno District of the Central Bohemian Region. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague, but moved to the Academy of Fine Arts Munich in 1881 and graduated in 1883.

Afterwards he worked in Munich and in Slovakia, with his paintings of the period mainly related to Slovak village life. Věšín arrived in Bulgaria in 1897 and remained there for the remainder of his life.
Until 1904, he was a professor at the National Academy of Fine Arts in Sofia and mainly worked in the area of genre painting, with notable paintings such as Threshing near Radomir (1897), Ploughman (or Land, 1899), Horse market in Sofia (1899), Smugglers (1899), In front of a market (1899), Threshing (1900), etc. The main topic of his interest was the life and labour of the Bulgarian villager.

After 1904, Věšín became the head painter with the Ministry of War and, although he did not abandon his old interests (with works such as Coaler (1910), Lumberjacks (1910), On the game's track (1910), Hunter with hounds (1911), etc.), he became famous with his masterpieces of battle painting: Manoeuvres (series began in 1899 and lasted until the Balkan Wars, The Samara flag (1911), Onslaught (or Bayonet charge, 1913), The Turkish retreat at Lüleburgaz (1913), Lüleburgaz-Çatalca (1913) and a series of sketches and complete works on the siege of Edirne, among which Bibouac in front of Edirne (1913), Resting after 13 March 1913 (1913), etc.

Many of his works are displayed in the National Museum of Fine Arts in Sofia. Among Věšín's students were Nikola Petrov, Atanas Mihov, and other major Bulgarian painters.

References

1860 births
1915 deaths
People from Kladno District
Bulgarian people of Czech descent
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich alumni
Academy of Fine Arts, Prague alumni
19th-century Czech painters
Czech male painters
20th-century Czech painters
19th-century Bulgarian painters
20th-century Bulgarian painters
19th-century Czech male artists
20th-century Czech male artists
Painters from Austria-Hungary
Emigrants from Austria-Hungary
People from the Principality of Bulgaria

Jaroslav Věšín