Sir William Fettes Douglas  (1822–1891) was a Scottish painter and art connoisseur, rising to be President of the Royal Scottish Academy.

Life
He was born on 12 March 1822 at 26 Rankeillor Street in Edinburgh's South Side, the eldest son of James Douglas, a banker in the Commercial Bank of Scotland and his wife, Martha Brook, grand-niece of Sir William Fettes, bart., the founder of Fettes College.

On the completion of his education at the High School of Edinburgh, in 1836 he entered the Commercial Bank of Scotland, in which his father was accountant. His father was an amateur artist of some talent, and the son was encouraged to devote the free time of his ten years bank's service to painting and drawing.

In 1847, he resolved to become an artist.
Beyond a few months in the Trustees' Academy, then under Sir William Allan, he did not receive any systematic training, but he disciplined his hand and eye by the care and accuracy of the drawing he did by himself, and he attended the botany and anatomy classes of the university, while at a somewhat later date he painted a good deal in the country with the Faeds and Alexander Fraser, the landscape painter.

In 1845, he exhibited for the first time at the Royal Scottish Academy, and soon his pictures attracted such notice that in 1851 he was elected an associate, and three years later a full member. Some of his finest pictures belong to about this time, and in such as The Ruby Ring (1853); The Execution (1854); The Alchemist (1855); Hudibras and Ralph visiting the Astrologer (1856), an incident from Butler's famous work; The Rosicrucians (1856), one of his finest works in colour; and The False Astrologer, the painter's interest in mystical subjects and his definite leaning to archaeology are clearly visible. Many of them show much of the Pre-Raphaelite spirit, and are remarkable for perfect and detailed handling and rich and beautiful colour. The Summons to the Secret Tribunal (1860); David Laing, LL.D., a portrait picture (1862) ; and The Spell (1864), are among the more important works of a later date.

In 1859, he made the first of several visits to Italy, where he devoted much time to studying coins and ivories, enamels and bookbindings, of which and other rare and beautiful things he subsequently made a fine collection.
Many of his smaller pictures are masterly studies of such objects, and in nearly all of his principal pictures they figure as accessories.

As a collector he is said to have combined the specific knowledge of the connoisseur with the practical and general discernment of the artist ; but the only contributions he made to the literature of the subject were the notes in Mr. Gibson Craig's privately issued 'Facsimiles of old Bookbinding' (1882).
He also possessed a wide and accurate knowledge of pictorial art, which fitted him admirably for the curatorship of the National Gallery of Scotland, in which he succeeded James Drummond (1816–1877).
But here again he wrote nothing, although he incorporated much of what he knew in the catalogue of the gallery.
This office he held from 1877 to 1882, when he was elected to the presidential chair of the Royal Scottish Academy, vacant through the death of Sir Daniel Macnee.
He was knighted at Windsor on 17 May 1882, and appointed a member of the Board of Manufactures, while in 1884 the university of Edinburgh conferred the degree of LL.D. upon him.

After 1870 he turned more to landscape, and in 1874-5 he produced Stonehaven Harbour and A Fishing Village, which are perhaps the finest pictures that he painted. At this time he lived at 21 Coates Crescent in Edinburgh's affluent West End.
But for some time after 1879, the effects of a serious illness laid him aside, and when he resumed his art it was to practise in water-colour only.

From 1877 to 1882 he served as Principal Curator of the National Gallery of Scotland, being succeeded by Gourlay Steel.

His drawings are small in size but very charming, and show a true appreciation of the medium.
In the National Gallery of Scotland, he is represented by three characteristic works ; South Kensington Museum has The Alchemist, and Glasgow Corporation Galleries Bibliomania.
His works are displayed at such notable museums as the National Galleries of Scotland, Harvard University Art Museums, the National Portrait Gallery, Tate Gallery, and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

He died at Newburgh, Fife, on 20 July 1891, but is buried in the south-west spur of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh with other family members.

Family
His youngest brother was Charlie Douglas, who after working for the bank for some years went to New Zealand and became a notable explorer.

In November 1880, he married Marion, second daughter of Baron Grahame of Morphie (who lived at Ravelrig House, Balerno).
There were no children.
His portrait, painted by Sir George Reid in 1883, hangs in the library of the Scottish Academy.
It is reproduced in photogravure in the selection from his works published by the Royal Association for the Promotion of Fine Arts (1885), and edited by John Miller Gray.

References

Attribution

Further reading

External links
Victoria and Albert Museum
Artcyclopedia
National Galleries of Scotland

1822 births
1891 deaths
19th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
Royal Scottish Academicians
Scottish knights

William Fettes Douglas


Akkar () is a destrict (Qadaa) in the North Govrenorate, Lebanon. It covers an aurie o 788 km2 (304 sq mi) an haes a population of 198,174. The caipital lees at Halba.

The destrict is characterized bi the presence o a relatively muckle coastal plain, wi heich muntains tae the east. Akkar haed been govrened durin the last 400 year bi the Emirs an the beiks o the Merheb faimily. Efter the ceevil war this wis nae langer the case as peasants teuk ower the land wi the aid o Sirie troops durin the ceevil war. The mucklest ceeties in Akkar are Halba, al-Bireh (previously cried "Biret el Hokem" whaur we fynd the Castle o Merheb Family), Kobayat (Quobayet).

Akkar haes mony important Roman an Arabic airchaeological steids. Ane o the maist famous airchaeological steids an the birth place o the Emperor Alexander Severus, is the Tell o Arqa near the toun o Miniara.

Demographics
The inhabitants o the Akkar region are largely Sunni Muslims then Greek Orthodox Christians. Maronites inhabit the aurie in fairly muckle numbers, mairower, this region haes the mucklest population o Alawites in Lebanon. Melkites or Greek Catholics are an aw present in sma numbers in the region.

References

Akkar Destrict
Destricts o Lebanon

Akkar Destrict


Carrubbers Christian Centre is a church on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh, Scotland.

History
Carrubbers Close Mission was founded in 1858 and its 'workers' originally met in a former Atheist Meeting House in Carrubbers Close. The Rev. James Gall (1808–1895) was the founder of the  Mission. In 1883 the American evangelist Dwight L. Moody came to Edinburgh. He was accompanied by Ira D. Sankey who sang his self-composed songs while Moody preached. During their visit, they managed to raise £10,000 to pay for a permanent home for the mission and later that year, the foundation stone was laid. The building was designed by the Edinburgh architect, John Armstrong.

As a mission rather than a church, Carrubbers has supported other Edinburgh churches in teaching and outreach. Run by a board of directors representing other churches of various denominations throughout the city, Carrubbers has concentrated through most of its history on evangelism, Bible teaching and alleviating suffering amongst the poor, the ill and those prone to addiction.  Saturday night rallies have been a feature of the Carrubbers ministry and the Free Breakfast for the homeless every Sunday morning of the year is still a feature of Carrubbers life.

Carrubbers transformed
In the 1980s, with large scale rallies becoming culturally less popular, and with an ageing building, the directors decided to refurbish the fabric of the building. The project was named, "Carrubbers into the nineties." In 1990, work began and a floor was inserted at balcony level. This created an inviting main hall capable of seating 350 people. In the new basement, a café was built along with lower halls and office space. Upstairs from the main hall are further halls and office space along with a library and a private flat.

The focus moved to building a small congregation as an independent, non-denominational church.  Carrubbers main meetings are now on Sundays at 9:45am, 11:30am and 6:30pm with a range of over 30 different activities and ministries including home groups on the second and fourth Tuesdays of each month, with church prayer meetings on other Tuesdays. Carrubbers Christian Centre attracts many students and young people and is known for its expository Bible preaching and a range of courses to train and equip Christians. In addition, many find faith in Jesus through contact with its members or through its courses for enquirers or outreach enterprises.

References

External links
 Carrubbers Christian Centre website

Churches in Edinburgh
Royal Mile
Category B listed buildings in Edinburgh
Listed churches in Edinburgh
Christian charities based in Scotland

Carrubbers Christian Centre


JamisonParker were an American emo duo in the early to mid-2000s, consisting of singer/guitarist Jamison Covington and guitarist/bassist/drummer Parker Case. While active, they released an EP titled Notes & Photographs (2003) and an album titled Sleepwalker (2005), and managed to play over 200 concerts across the United States.

History
Growing up in the small town of Guthrie, Kentucky and working at a Piggly Wiggly supermarket, singer/guitarist Jamison Covington realized he would not be able to find his musical fulfillment within the boundaries of his hometown. In 2002, he moved to Orange County, California, but soon learned that building a career in the music industry from scratch can be a hard and frustrating thing to do. Being a fan of the Orange County based band Astoria, Covington was delighted when, a mere week before his return to Kentucky, he was introduced to their drummer Parker Case through mutual friends. Case and Covington kept in touch, exchanging song ideas via mail for about eight months, until Covington returned to California in early 2003.

On April 25, 2003, the duo went to Skate and Surf 2003 in Asbury Park, New Jersey, where they randomly performed so-called "guerilla sets" at merchandise booths and at a nearby hotel. The arising buzz around them was overheard by one of the festival's bookers, who immediately hired them to replace a band that had dropped out at the last minute. Having no time to think of a proper band name, the two combined their first names and played an all-acoustic set as JamisonParker. Their rudimentary but convincing performance quickly gained the attention of several record labels and finally landed them a recording contract with Interscope Records.

In August 2003, JamisonParker went into the studio to record a handful of songs for their debut EP titled Notes & Photographs, which was released on October 28, 2003. The release was supported by the band's first national tour with Straylight Run, followed by stints with Plain White T's, Motion City Soundtrack and Coheed and Cambria. The CD spawned a music video to the third track, "Your Song", which consisted of a collage of self-shot material, in analogy to the Polaroid pictures on the cover artwork for Notes & Photographs. In November, they support Hey Mercedes on their headlining US tour. While the buzz quieted down around the duo after January 2004, as they took most of the year off. In April 2004, the band performed at the Skate and Surf Festival. JamisonParker returned to the stage with newly written songs under their belt in February 2005. In the meantime, they had recorded their first full-length album.

In April and May 2005, they appeared at The Bamboozle and Flipside festivals. In June 2005, they appeared on the compilation album Punk Goes 80s with a cover version of Tears for Fears' "Everybody Wants to Rule the World". However, due to their busy schedule, they did not have the time to rent a proper studio. Instead, they recorded the entire song while on tour – a hotel room became their recording studio, their laptop served as their mixing console and a bathroom closet was turned into a vocal booth.

They went on a two-week tour with the Forecast and Fire When Ready. On July 12, 2005, their album Sleepwalker finally hit music store shelves. It was promoted with a two-week West Coast tour supporting the Rocket Summer, and then a two-month headlining tour in August and September 2005. From late October to late November, the band toured with June, The Juliana Theory, We Are the Fury and For the World.

While the demand for JamisonParker was at an all time high, the band-internal chemistry decreased steadily, up to an incident where during a concert, Covington walked off the stage in the middle of the band's set, leaving Case behind. From there on, it all went downhill, with a continuous lack of enthusiasm until JamisonParker gave their final performance at Chain Reaction in Anaheim, California on November 5, 2005, and canceled the remainder of their scheduled tour dates with The Juliana Theory.

On November 8, 2005, Covington officially declared the disbandment of JamisonParker. In the announcement posted online, he made it clear that he and Case will not be collaborating again in the future. After the split, Covington formed the shoegazing band E for Explosion. His band's name was changed to Covington but again changed to E for Explosion. A debut EP titled Paper Flowers, was released on October 2, 2007. On May 20, 2008, E for Explosion released their debut album Reinventing the Heartbeat. Case announced that up until the release of his upcoming project I and the Universe's debut record, he will be touring as part of Say Anything. Case has ended up staying with the band since, though, and is counted as the second longest remaining member, behind original member Max Bemis.

Discography

Albums
Sleepwalker (2005)

EPs
Notes & Photographs (2003)

Non-album tracks
"Paper, Rock, Scissors (Acoustic)" – released on In Honor: A Compilation to Beat Cancer (2004)
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" – released on Punk Goes 80s (2005)
"Anthem for the Broken Hearted" – Unreleased
"Hold Your Breath" – Unreleased

References

External links
Official website no longer
Interview with Jamison Covington from Sept 2006
I and the Universe's official website

American emo musical groups
American musical duos
Rock music duos
Musical groups from Orange County, California
Musical groups established in 2003
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
Rock music groups from California
Interscope Records artists

JamisonParker


Eleazar of Worms (אלעזר מוורמייזא - also מגרמייזא of Garmiza or Garmisa) (c. 1176–1238), or Eleazar ben Judah ben Kalonymus, also sometimes known today as Eleazar Rokeach ("Eleazar the Perfumer"  אלעזר רקח) from the title of his Book of the Perfumer (Sefer ha rokeah ספר הרקח)—where the numerical value of "Perfumer" (in Hebrew) is equal to Eleazar, was a leading Talmudist and Kabbalist, and the last major member of the Hasidei Ashkenaz, a group of German Jewish pietists.

Biography
Eleazar was most likely born in Mainz. Through his father Judah ben Kalonymus, he was a descendant of the great Kalonymus family of Mainz. Eleazar was also a disciple of Judah ben Samuel of Regensburg (Judah he-Hasid), who initiated him into the study of the Kabbalah, at that time little known in Germany. According to Zunz, Eleazar was hazzan at Erfurt before he became rabbi at Worms. In 1233 he took part in the Synod of Mainz which enacted the body of regulations known as "Takkanot Shum" (ShUM = "Speyer, Worms, Mainz"), of which he was a signatory.

According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Eleazar underwent great sufferings during the Crusades. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that on the night of 22 Kislev, 1196, he was engaged in his commentary on Genesis (Eleazar relates that he had reached the parashah Vayeshev), when two Crusaders entered his house and killed his wife Dulca (Dolce), his two daughters Belet (Belette) and Hannah, and wounded him and his son Jacob who did not escape. His wife had conducted a business in parchment scrolls in order to support the family and enable him to devote all his time to study.  Many of the piyyutim he authored protest at Israel's suffering and hope for redemption and revenge against her tormentors. He also recorded the deaths of his family in a moving and poetic eulogy.

Eleazar developed a vigorous activity in many directions. On the one hand, he was a Talmudist of vast erudition, a liturgist gifted with a clear and easy style, and an astronomer, and was well versed in the sciences open to the Jews of Germany at that time. At the same time, he was an adventurous mystic who experienced visions, seeing legions of angels and demons. He exerted himself to spread mystical systems which went far beyond the conceptions of the classical authors of Jewish esoterica. In his mystical works he developed and gave a new impulse to the mysticism associated with the letters of the alphabet.  By the gematria and notarikon systems of interpretation found in the Talmud, Eleazar invented new combinations by which miracles could be performed. The haggadic anthropomorphism which he had combated in his earlier works (Ha-Roḳeaḥ, Sha'are ha-Sod weha-Yiḥud) occupied later the foremost place in his mystical writings.
Eleazar's great merit therefore lies not only in his new mystical system, but also in his ethical works. In these he shows greatness of soul and a piety bordering upon asceticism. Though so severely tried by fate, he inculcates cheerfulness, patience, and love for humanity. He died at Worms in 1238.

Ethical works
 Ha-Roḳeaḥ, ("The Perfumer"), a halachic guide to ethics and Jewish Law for the common reader.  The title derives from the numerical value of the word רקח, which corresponds to that of אלעזר. The book is divided into 497 paragraphs containing halachot and ethics; first published at Fano, 1505.
 Adderet ha-Shem, still extant in manuscript in the Vatican Library.
 Moreh Ḥaṭṭa'im, or Seder ha-Kapparot, on penitence and confession of sin, first published at Venice, 1543. This work, which is included in the Hilkot Teshubah of the Ha-Roḳeaḥ, has been reproduced many times under various titles. It appeared under the title Darke Teshubah at the end of the responsa of Meir of Rothenburg in the Prague edition; as Inyane Teshubah, or Seder Teshubah, in the Sephardic ritual of 1584; as Yesod Teshubah, with additions by Isaac ben Moses Elles, first published in 1583; as Yore Ḥaṭṭa'im ba-Derek; and as Sefer ha-Kapparot. The title adopted here is the same as that given in the Kol Bo, in which the work was reproduced.
 Sefer ha-Ḥayyim, treating of the unity of God, of the soul and its attributes, and of the three stages (recognized by the ancients as "plant, animal, and intellectual") in man's life.
Sha'are ha-Sod ha-Yiḥud weha-Emunah, a treatise on the unity and incorporeality of God, combating the anthropomorphism of the Aggadah (published by Adolf Jellinek in the Kokabe Yiẓḥaḳ collection [xxvii.].
Kether Shem Tov. The Crown Of The Good Name, by Avraham ben Alexander of Cologne, disciple of Eleazar Ben Yehudah of Worms: Ethical-Kabbalist book.

Pietistic works
 Yir'at El, still extant in manuscript in the Vatican Library, containing mystical commentaries on Psalm 67, on the Menorah, and on Sefirat ha-Omer. In 2001 this work was published as part of the book דרוש המלבוש והצמצום.
 Sefer ha-Kabod, mystical explanations of various Biblical passages (Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. No. 1566, 1).
 Yayin ha-Reḳaḥ, mystical commentaries on the five Megillot. Those on Book of Ruth and the Song of Songs were published at Lublin, 1608.
 A commentary on Psalm 145. (MS. De Rossi No. 1138).
 A commentary on the prayers mentioned by Joseph Solomon Delmedigo in his Maẓref la-Ḥokmah (p. 14b). Printed by Hirshler.
 Ta'ame we-Sodot ha-Tefillah (Neubauer, ib. No.1575.)
 Perush 'al Sefer Yeẓirah, a commentary on the Sefer Yetzirah, being extracts from Shabbethai Donnolo's commentary. Fragments of this work were first published at Mantua in 1562, later in several other places; a complete edition was printed at Przemysl, 1883.
 Midrash we-Perush 'al ha-Torah, mystical commentary on the Pentateuch, mentioned by Azulai, recently printed by klugman.
Sha'are Binah, in which, interpreting Biblical verses by the system of gemaṭriyyot, he shows the origin of many haggadot of the Talmud. This work is frequently quoted by Solomon al-Ḳabiẓ, in his Manot ha-Lewi.
 Shi'ur Komah, a commentary on the Shi'ur Komah, the Pirḳe de-Rabbi Yishma'el, and the Merkabah (MS. Michael).
Sefer ha-Ḥokmah, mystical treatise on the various names of God and of angels, and on the seventy-three "Gates of the Torah", שערי תורה.
 Sefer ha-Shem, mystical dissertations on the names of twenty-two letters, with a table of permutations (Neubauer, ib. No. 1569, 4).
 Eser Shemot, commentary on the ten names of God (MS. Michael, No. 175).
 A commentary on the piyyuṭ "Ha-Oḥez."
 Six small cabalistic treatises entitled Sod ha-Ziwwug, Sefer ha-Ne'elam, Sefer Mal'akim, Sefer Tagim, Sefer Pesaḳ, and Sefer ha-Ḳolot, all of which are still extant in manuscript (Neubauer, ib. No. 1566).
 Liḳḳuṭim, mystical fragments, mentioned by Menahem Recanati.
 Sode Raza, a treatise on the mysteries of the "Merkabah." Part of this work was published at Amsterdam in 1701, under the title Sefer Razi'el ha-Gadol. In the introduction the editor says that he decided to publish this book after having seen that the greater part of it had been produced in French under the title Images des Lettres de l'Alphabet.

In addition to these works, Eleazar wrote tosafot to many Talmudical treatises, referred to by Bezalel Ashkenazi in his Shiṭṭah Meḳubbeẓet; a commentary on "Sheḳalim" in the Jerusalem Talmud, cited by Asheri in his commentary to that treatise in the Babylonian Talmud; thirty-six chapters on the examination of slaughtered animals (MS. Michael No. 307). Zunz enumerates fifty-five liturgical poems and dirges composed by Eleazar and occurring in the Ashkenazic maḥzorim, ḳinot, and seliḥot.

Sources

Kabbalists
Medieval Jewish astronomers
German Tosafists
1170s births
1238 deaths
Rabbis from Mainz
Rabbis from Worms, Germany
12th-century German rabbis
13th-century German rabbis
Angelic visionaries
13th-century astrologers
12th-century German writers
13th-century German writers
Authors of books on Jewish law
Exponents of Jewish law
Jewish liturgical poets

Eleazar of Worms


The melodica, also known as the "blow-organ" or "key-flute", is a wind instrument with a keyboard on top, and is played by blowing air through a mouthpiece that fits into a hole in the side of the instrument. The keyboard is usually two or three octaves long. Melodicas are small, light, and portable. They are popular in music education, especially in Asia.

Keyboard instruments

Melodica


Doukin for aiples, is a gemme aft played on Hallae E'en. The gemme is played by fillin a bowie or a byne wi watter an pittin aiples in the watter. Acause aiples are less thrang  nor watter, thay will fleet at the surface. Players (for ordinar bairns) than try tae catch ane wi thair teeth. Uise o haunds isna alloued, an aften are tied ahint the back for tae hinder cheatin.

Scots cultur
Hallae E'en practices
Pairty gemmes

Doukin for aiples


The Dixie Flyer was an automobile built in Louisville, Kentucky from 1916 until 1923.  Dixie Flyers were marketed under the slogan of "The Logical Car." They may be classified as Brass Era cars or vintage cars.

The origins of the company can be traced back to 1878, when the Kentucky Wagon Manufacturing Company was established.  In 1912, the local Electric Vehicle Company was acquired, which marked the entrance of Kentucky Wagon into the automotive field.  An electric car called the Kentucky Electric was planned, but did not come to pass.  Erroneously, some lists of old automobiles list the Kentucky Electric from the Kentucky Wagon company in this period.  The sole electric automotive product of the company was the Urban Electric truck, produced from 1912 to 1916.  In 1914, the Hercules Motor Car Company of New Albany across the Ohio River contracted with Kentucky Wagon to build bodies for their cars.  Hercules went out of business in 1915, with its assets acquired by Kentucky Wagon.

There appear to have been plans to continue the Hercules name, but the Hercules instead formed the nucleus of the new Dixie Flyer in 1916.  All cars had four-cylinder engines, originally supplied by Lycoming and later by Herschell-Spillman.  Two distinctive features of early Dixie Flyers were their vertical windshields that were integrated into the curved cowl dash, and the spring-mounted radiators.  This latter feature was to reduce vibration, as well as strain on the chassis.    The Shadburne Brothers acquired the company for a very brief period in 1917, but ownership quickly reverted to Kentucky Wagon.  The Firefly speedster of 1922 was the sportiest Dixie Flyer, unfortunately, it was their last new model as well.

The post-World War I recession claimed another victim in the Dixie Car company.  Truck production was also discontinued at this time; however, wagons were still produced for almost another decade.  Dixie Flyer, National and Jackson, were all merged into Associated Motor Industries and Corporation in 1923.  Dixie Flyers and Jacksons were henceforth discontinued.  Many of the last Dixie Flyers were converted to Nationals by simply exchanging the Dixie radiator emblems and hubcaps with National ones.

In June 2010 a restored 1922 Dixie Flyer was returned from Melbourne, Australia to Louisville, where it will be displayed at Kentucky Trailer, the successor business to Kentucky Wagon.

Notes

References
 Kimes, Beverly Rae and Clark Jr, Henry Austin.  Standard Catalog of American Cars: 1805-1942. (Third Edition). Iola, WI: Krause Publications. 1996.

History of Louisville, Kentucky
Cars introduced in 1916
1916 establishments in Kentucky
1923 disestablishments in Kentucky
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States

Dixie Flyer (automobile)


Boer (IPA: /bur/) is the Dutch word for farmer which is used to call the descendants of the Dutch farmers of Southern Africa during the 1700s, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 1800s to live in the Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal. They did this to escape the British rule, and the wars between the British imperial government and the native tribes on the eastern frontier.

In 1657, "vrybriewe" was granted to 9 burgers, the first farmers or Boers (Boere) at the Cape.  Although they were not known as Afrikaners, they did not regard themselves as living in a European country.  As more immigrants from Europe arrived at the Cape, more international marriages took place.  Soon their language and culture were lost and transformed.  They regarded themselves as a new nation, the Afrikaner people. Paul Heyns, born in 1696 christened his son Michiel Afrikanus (the Afrikaner).

One Hendrik Bieslow in 1707 proclaimed in public "Ik ben een Afrikaander". The Boers later created the Boer Republics, which were defeated in the 1880-1881 and 1899–1902 Anglo-Boer wars (Anglo-Boere-oorloë). After that, many Boers emigrated to other countries, but many still live in modern South Africa, Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) and Zimbabwe.

History of Africa
Ethnic groups in South Africa

Boer


Mollie Orshansky (January 9, 1915 – December 18, 2006) was an American economist and statistician who, in 1963–65, developed the Orshansky Poverty Thresholds, which are used in the United States as a measure of the income that a household must not exceed to be counted as poor.

Life and career
Orshansky was born January 9, 1915, the third of six daughters of Samuel and Fannie Orshansky, Jewish immigrants who settled in the Bronx, New York City after leaving Ukraine. She attended Hunter College High School, and received an A.B. in mathematics and statistics from Hunter College in 1935. Orshansky continued graduate studies in economics and statistics at the Department of Agriculture Graduate School at American University.

In 1939, Orshansky became a research clerk with the Children's Bureau;  working on biometric studies of child health, growth, and nutrition. In January 1942, as a statistician in the New York City Department of Health, she worked on a survey of the incidence of, and therapies for, pneumonia. In 1945, Orshansky moved to the U.S. Department of Agriculture;  where she spent the next thirteen years as a family economist, director of the Program Statistics Division, and a food economist.

In 1958, Orshansky joined the Social Security Administration as a social science research analyst in the Office of Research and Statistics. In this capacity, she was responsible for analytical studies to measure income adequacy, family welfare and patterns of family income. In 1963, Orshansky developed the official measurement of poverty used by the U.S. government (see Poverty in the United States). She used the cost of a nutritionally adequate diet as the basis for a cost-of-living estimate; and to calculate a cost of living for families of different sizes and composition.

Her interest in the subject came from personal experience. "She knew first-hand what it was like to grow up poor… as she grew up, she became quite familiar with the experience of having to forego one small purchase in order to have the money for something else. She later summed up this aspect of her early life by saying, 'If I write about the poor, I don't need a good imagination — I have a good memory.

In 1976, Orshansky received the Distinguished Service Award in recognition for her leadership in creating the first nationally accepted measurements of income adequacy and applying them to public policy. Her retirement came in 1982.

Orshansky was hospitalized in the autumn of 2001, and a legal battle ensued over her care. Orshansky was taken to New York, according to her wishes, but a judge who had appointed a guardian tried to compel her return to Washington DC. The judge was overruled on appeal, and Orshansky died in Manhattan several years later.

Popular culture
Orshansky's development of the Poverty Thresholds was a plot element in an episode of the United States television program The West Wing.  In the episode "The Indians in the Lobby," the federal government was considering a reclassification of poverty that would have made use of a new formula to add four million additional citizens to the category.  Orshansky, a native-born U.S. citizen, was characterized incorrectly in the show as an Eastern European immigrant who created a United States "cost of living formula ... based on life in Poland during the Cold War."

References

External links
 A Chronological Bibliography of Mollie Orshansky's Publications (Including Congressional Testimony). Compiled and annotated by Gordon M. Fisher, at hhs.gov

1915 births
2006 deaths
Hunter College High School alumni
Hunter College alumni
Economists from New York (state)
American women economists
American statisticians
Women statisticians
American University alumni
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Mathematicians from New York (state)
20th-century American economists
Scientists from the Bronx
20th-century American women
21st-century American women

Mollie Orshansky


The Western European Union (WEU) was a European defence and security organization. It was set up by Treaty of Brussels of 1948, West Germany and Italy joined in 1954. It should not be confused with the European Union (EU). The WEU headquarters were in Brussels. After the Cold War its functions were gradually transferred to the European Union and the Council of Europe. It was dissolved on 31 March 2011.

Treaty of Brussels

The Treaty of Brussels was signed by the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands on March 17, 1948. It was changed on October 23, 1954 when West Germany and Italy joined.

The WEU's three main aims are:
 To promote European economic recovery;
 To help each other to resist any attacks or threats of attack;
 To promote the unity in Europe.

The WEU was led by a Council of Ministers, helped by a Council of Permanent Representatives (ambassadors). The Parliamentary Assembly eventually had the same members as the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe). Social and cultural activities were handed to the Council of Europe to avoid duplication.

Other websites
WEU official web site
Assembly of the Western European Union ; Assembly of the Western European Union
Historical fonds of the Western European Union at the Historical Archives of the EU in Florence
History of NATO – the Atlantic Alliance - UK Government site
WEU evolution: The presentation of the Eurocorps-Foreign Legion concept at the European Parliament in June 2003

References

European Union
1948 establishments in Europe
Military alliances

Western European Union


Henry Potez  (Méaulte, 30 September 1891 – Paris, 9 November 1981) was a French aircraft industrialist.

He studied in the French Aeronautics School Supaéro. With Marcel Dassault, he was the inventor of the Potez-Bloch propeller which, after 1917, have been set on most of all Allied planes of World War I.

In 1919, he founded his own company, Aviations Potez, that, between the wars, built many planes and seaplanes, in factories which were at that time considered the most modern in the world. He bought the Alessandro Anzani company in 1923. Many Potez planes, such as the Potez 25, 39, 54, 62, 63, were an international success, setting world records.

Over the course of twenty years, 7,000 planes left the production lines. Forty prototypes were designed and more than twenty passed to production - this was remarkable at that time.

In 1936, his factories, considered to be strategic, were nationalised by the French Front populaire government.

After the Second World War, Potez purchased a controlling interest in Air-Fouga who designed and produced the Magister, a two-seat twin engined trainer aircraft, which was a big success.

See also
 Domaine du Rayol, his villa on the Côte d'Azur

References

French aerospace engineers
Supaéro alumni
1891 births
1981 deaths
Businesspeople in aviation
20th-century French businesspeople
20th-century French inventors

Henry Potez


Alun William Evans (born 30 April 1949) is an English former footballer who made his name as a centre forward in the Liverpool side rebuilt by Bill Shankly at the start of the 1970s. He was born in Kidderminster, Worcestershire.

Career
Evans began his professional career with Wolverhampton Wanderers, breaking into the first team in the 1967/68 season. He had already appeared for the club on their summer success in winning the United Soccer Association under the guise of the Los Angeles Wolves in Summer 1967.

He only had one full season in Wolves' first team as he swiftly joined Liverpool in September 1968 for £100,000, making him Britain's most expensive teenager. He had caught the eye of manager Bill Shankly after he outran and out-thought Liverpool captain Ron Yeats in a match in 1968. Although only 19, and despite Shankly's known desire to introduce new players gradually to the team, Evans was put straight into the side and stayed there until the end of the season.

He made his debut on 21 September 1968 in a league match against Leicester City at Anfield, scoring in a 4–0 win. Evans went on to feature in 33 league games, scoring seven goals as Liverpool finished runners-up to Leeds.

After an unimpressive 1969–70 campaign, he fared better the next season, scoring frequently in the opening games but suffered from injury and ill-luck which forced him out of the team, including facial scarring after being attacked with broken glass in a nightclub.

He returned to the fray near the end, and bagged a hat-trick during this season in a European Fairs Cup fourth round 1st leg tie at home to German giants Bayern Munich in a 3–0 win that ultimately saw them through 4–1 on aggregate. He also scored a magnificent equaliser against Merseyside rivals Everton as Liverpool came from behind to win their FA Cup semi-final at Old Trafford. However, Evans played disappointingly in the final and was substituted midway through the second half. Liverpool eventually lost 2–1 to Arsenal after extra time.

His Anfield career did not last much longer, as the signing of Kevin Keegan pushed him aside, and he managed only a handful of appearances in 1971–72. After 111 first team appearances, he departed for Second Division, newly promoted, Aston Villa for £72,000 on 20 June 1972; Evans could have joined the Villa Park club straight from school as he impressed during a trial in 1964, however, he had decided to sign for Midland rivals Wolves.

He remained at Villa Park for just two-and-a-half seasons, before being allowed to leave for fellow Midlanders Walsall for £30,000 on 14 December 1975, after 71 games and 17 goals. Ironically, 5 months after Evans departed, Villa gained the promotion back to the big time they yearned for, finishing runner-up to Manchester United by 3 points. Following two full seasons at Walsall, which included scoring a goal that knocked Leicester out of the F.A. Cup and won 'Goal of the Month' on Match of the Day, the striker ended his career abroad playing in both the US and Australia (with South Melbourne FC, Morwell Falcons and Sandringham City SC).

Honours
Aston Villa
Football League Cup: 1974–75

References

External links
 Thisisanfield.com Forgotten Heroes
Player profile at LFChistory.net

1949 births
Living people
English men's footballers
England men's under-23 international footballers
English people of Welsh descent
Men's association football forwards
English Football League players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. players
Aston Villa F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
South Melbourne FC players
Los Angeles Wolves players
United Soccer Association players
Sportspeople from Kidderminster
Falcons 2000 SC players
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
English expatriate men's footballers
Footballers from Worcestershire

Alun Evans


In the Euclidean space, R3 is called orientable if a two-dimensional figure (for example, ) cannot be moved around the surface and back to where it started so that it looks like its own mirror image (). Otherwise the surface is non-orientable. A concept connected to this is chirality. This means that no matter what, a human right hand, cannot be rotated in such a way that it becomes a human left hand. The right hand is therefore orientable.

Geometry

Orientability


Latacunga is a plateau toun o Ecuador, caipital o the Cotopaxi Province, 89 km (55 mile) sooth o Quito, near the confluence o the Alaques an Cutuchi rivers tae form the Patate, the heidstream o the Pastaza. At the time o census 2001 Latacunga haed 51,689 indwallers, largely mestizo an indigenous.

Latacunga is an oor an hauf sooth frae Quito on the Pan-American Highway. It wis previously an aa on the auld road frae Quito tae Guayaquil, an haes a railwey station  atween those ceeties. It is 9,055 ft (2,760 m). abuin sea level. Its climate is cauld an windy, due tae the neighborin snawclad heights, an the barren, pumice-covered tableland on which it staunds.  The active volcano Cotopaxi is anerlie 25 km. away, an the toun haes suffered repeatedly frae eruptions.  Foondit in 1534, it wis fower times destroyed bi yirdquauks atween 1698 an 1798. The neighborin ruins o an aulder native toun are said tae date frae the Incas Empire.

Latacunga's maist notit fuid is chugchucaras, empanadas, plantains, popcorn, an tostado (a teep o toastit corn.)  Aften mixed wi ají, a teep o condiment that can be mild tae vera spicy dependin on hou it's prepared.

The Latacunga economy is dependent on agricultur, an floricultur. It haes an internaitional airport, the Cotopaxi International Airport, that is no uised for internaitional passenger uise, but as an Air Force base an some special commercial flichts.  The local volcanic activity haes led tae the accumulation o pumice deposits which are currently mined, as well as the presence o naitural sparklin watter, which is bottled unner the brand name San Felipe.

The airplane scene in the film Maria Full of Grace wis filmed oot o the Latacunga airport uisin local extras. The landscape seen frae the plane is the aurie surroondin Latacunga.

Traditional festivals

" La Fiesta de la Mama Negra"  is a weel kent traditional festival in Latacunga. It is a mixture o indigenous, Spainyie an African influences. It takes place twice a year. The first ane wis organized in September bi the fowk frae the mercats "La Merced y Del Salto" in honour o the "Virgen de la Merced". The Virgin is veneratit acause she stopped the Cotopaxi Volcano eruption in 1742. That is the reason why Latacunga's indwallers caw her "Abogada y patrona del volcan" meanin (lawyer an boss o the volcano).

The seicont celebration is a pairty which aw Latacunga's indwallers celebrate ivery year on Unthrildom Day. It is a parade wi the participation o well-kent fowk, the airmy, clergy an ithers.

Baith o thir fiestas include a lengthy parade o various cultural characters, aw dressed-up in various colors.  The 'mama negra' is the last body tae pass throu, which is the culmination o each parade.  It is a body wi thair face paintit in black, ridin a horse, an sprayin the croud wi milk.  Hamemade strang alcoholic drinks are freely passed atween ane anither alang the parade route, which can be quite chaotic, closin the road at times an makin the route unpassable.

Historic dountoun

Latacunga's historic dountoun extends aboot 30 squares. Prominent biggins tae veesit are:

Saint Francis's kirk, the first kirk biggit in the ceety.
The municipal palace; it wis biggit wi pumice stane in a neoclassical style.
The Main Square in which staunds a statue o Dr. Vicente Leon.

Sports
Sociedad Deportiva Flamengo is the ceety's fitbaa club. Thay play thair hame gemmes at Estadio La Cocha.

References

Freemit airtinss

 www.codeso.com Map of the Cotopaxi Province
 Travel Information about Latacunga

Populatit places in Cotopaxi Province
Populatit places established in 1534
Provincial caipitals in Ecuador

Latacunga


Artivism combines art and activism. Artivism developed since the Berlin wall collapsed while the anti-globalization and antiwar protests emerged and proliferated. In most of the cases artivists attempt to push political agendas by the means of art and especially, but not only street art.

The years 1967-1968
Protesting against the War in Vietnam, American "hippies" could use poetry, songs, sittings and other non traditional demonstration techniques.

From The fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) to the 9/11 (2001)
In 1993, Act Up-Paris put a gigantic pink condom on the Concord Obelisk. It was Land art in a way. And it rose interest in France about VIH infection risks. In Mexico the "intergalactic" anonymous Chiapas mouvement used "phony icons", like sub-commander Marcos to attract attention from the media.

Since the 9/11 (2001)
In some cases, in Paris in 2003 for instance, artivists were arrested for acts of political art that verged on property destruction. A typical short term goal of artivists is to reclaim public space, especially by subvertising or destroying ads in urban areas or city transportation systems. Nevertheless, artivists engage in different media like the internet not only for actions which could be described as hacktivism.

Often the acts of artivists can be referred to as part of the larger concept of culture jamming.

Social Centres

Artivists are often found in social centers.

Activism

Artivism


Dry plate, also known as gelatin process, is an improved type of photographic plate.  It was invented by Dr. Richard L. Maddox in 1871. By 1879 the first dry plate factory had been established. With much of the complex chemical work done at the factory, the new process simplified the work of photographers.

History

The first practical way to take photographs was called the daguerreotype. It was introduced in 1839. It used sheets of copper coated with silver. The plate was then exposed to chemical fumes, then taken to the camera. Introduced in the 1850s the Collodion process was introduced. It used what were called wet plates. But a wet plate had to be prepared and used within minutes. It also had a very slow photographic speed. The preparation of wet plates required numerous chemicals. These had to be mixed in the dark in a portable tent if the photographer was planning on photographing away from the studio. In the 1880s the gelatin dry plate replaced the wet plates. The dry plate allowed much faster exposure times. Now a moving subject could be captured on film. The dry plates could be manufactured in a factory and used whenever the photographer wanted.

References

Photography

Dry plate


Calvados is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the  other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).

How Calvados is made
The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.

Since 1942, the Calvados has its own Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC), which means it is from one place. The rules are:
 The « Calvados Pays d'Auge » (25% of production): The Cidre needs to come from apples of the « Pays d'Auge ». Two rounds of distillation in a multi-pass still
 The « Calvados » (74 % of production): The apples used for the cidre need to be from Normandy.
 The « Calvados Domfrontais » (1% of production) : Base for the production are apples and pears from the region called « domfrontais », there is only one round of distillation in a still.

How Calvados is served
Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice cream. Crepes can also be served with Calvados.

Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.

Other websites
 Apples, cider and Calvados in Pays d'Auge, Normandy (Multilingual)*
 Ferme du Ponctey Normandy (Multilingual) *

Alcoholic spirits
Calvados
Apple products

Calvados (drink)


We Have a Pope (original title: Habemus Papam) is a 2011 Italian-French comedy-drama film directed by Nanni Moretti and starring Michel Piccoli and Moretti. Its original title is Latin for "We have a pope", the phrase used upon the announcement of a new pope. The story revolves around a cardinal who, against his wishes, is elected pope. A psychoanalyst is called in to help the pope overcome his panic. The film premiered in Italy in April 2011 and played in competition at the 64th Cannes Film Festival.

Plot
On the death of the pope, the conclave meets in Rome. Early ballots end with black smoke, since none of the main candidates reaches the quorum. After several rounds of voting, Cardinal Melville is elected, though he had not previously been considered a frontrunner. After a moment of hesitation, he accepts his election and becomes pope immediately.

At the moment of the public announcement, with the faithful are gathered in St. Peter's Square and the cardinal proto-deacon ready to announce the name of the new pope, the newly elected pope has a panic attack and fails to appear on the balcony.

The spokesman of the Holy See evades questions from the press and the curiosity of the outside world by reporting that the new pontiff felt the need to sequester himself in prayer and reflection before being introduced to the public, and by explaining that he will make his official appearance within a few hours. This does not happen.

In accordance with the laws of the Church, until the identity of the new pope is announced publicly, the ceremony of election is not over and no one in the conclave can leave the Vatican (In reality, the conclave ends the moment the pope assents to his election).

The College of Cardinals, deeply concerned by the crisis and the depression from which the new pope seems to be suffering, calls in the psychoanalyst Professor Brezzi (whose role is played by director Nanni Moretti). The cardinals react to the psychoanalyst with some suspicion, but still allow him to examine the new pope. Brezzi, in the presence of the cardinals, tries to initiate a psychotherapy session which, however, fails to reveal anything to explain the depression and helplessness that plague the pontiff.

Brezzi reveals that his ex-wife is also a psychoanalyst and the newly elected pope is taken secretly to see her. After meeting with her he escapes his minders and runs away during a walk. Unaware of his absence, the cardinals kill time by playing games, ranging from cards to an international volleyball tournament organized by Brezzi.

The spokesman makes everyone believe that the Pope is in his quarters in prayer, and eventually the cardinals find Melville and give him another chance to announce his acceptance. Melville comes out onto the balcony claiming "I am not the leader you need", asks the crowd to pray "for  what he is about to do", and then retreats back into St. Peter's Basilica.

Cast
 Michel Piccoli as Cardinal Melville/The Pope
 Nanni Moretti as the psychoanalyst
 Jerzy Stuhr as spokesman
 Massimo Dobrovic as Swiss Guard
 Renato Scarpa as Cardinal Gregori
 Margherita Buy as female psychoanalyst
 Franco Graziosi as Cardinal Bollati
 Leonardo Della Bianca as boy
 Camilla Ridolfi as girl
 Camillo Milli as Cardinal Pescardona
 Roberto Nobile as Cardinal Cevasco
 Gianluca Gobbi as Swiss Guard
 Ulrich von Dobschütz as Cardinal Brummer

Production
We Have a Pope was announced in May 2009 as a co-production between Sacher Film, Rai Cinema and the French company Le Pacte. Fandango joined as a co-producer later in the year. The production involved a budget of eight million euro. French actor Michel Piccoli was cast in the leading role after auditioning six scenes in Italian in August 2009. The character's name, Melville, was inspired by the French filmmaker Jean-Pierre Melville. Some of the minor characters were played by members of the production team, whom Moretti found suitable for the roles when working on the set.

Principal photography started 1 February 2010 and was finished by the end of May. Studio constructions at the Cinecittà studios in Rome included replicas of the Sala Regia and the Sistine Chapel. Other scenes were shot in the Palazzo Farnese and Villa Medici, which otherwise house the French embassy and the French Academy in Rome, respectively.

Themes

Portrayal of the conclave proceedings
The film reveals the overwhelming reluctance of a pope-elect to assent to his election as Supreme Pontiff. Director Nanni Moretti explained his aim with the film at the press conference following the press screening in Rome: "I wanted to depict a fragile man, Cardinal Melville, who feels inadequate in the face of power and the role he's called to fill ... I think this feeling of inadequacy happens to all cardinals elected Pope, or at least that's what they say."

The procedure of papal conclave requires a two-thirds supermajority vote to elect a new pope. Then, when the Cardinal Dean asks the pope-elect if he accepts his election, the Pope-elect is free to decline, though typically Cardinals who intend to refuse their election explicitly state this to their colleagues before a two-thirds majority is reached. The Pope-elect immediately enters office and ends the conclave once he accepts his election. All ceremonies regarding his installation are purely ceremonial.

Release

The film was released in Italy on 15 April 2011 through 01 Distribution in collaboration with Sacher Distribuzione. It was launched on 460 screens. With 1,298,524 euro in revenues during the first weekend, the film entered the Italian box-office chart as number two, behind the American film Rio which premiered simultaneously. We Have a Pope showed In Competition at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival.

Reception
In France Les Cahiers du cinéma listed the film as the best picture of the year 2011.

Deborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter called the film "a well-written, surprisingly mainstream comedy" and noted how it was less political than earlier works by Moretti, such as The Mass Is Ended and The Caiman: "Here the storyteller overpowers the moralist in every sense. Not a hint of clerical sex scandals clouds the surreal image of frolicking white-haired Cardinals; the most critical line in the film suggests the Church needs a leader who will bring great change, but even that plays as an offhand remark." Young went on to compliment the production design and cinematography, and called Moretti "one of the most creative filmmakers working in Italy". However, Young wrote, "the finale is a let-down, leaving the feeling of an artist paralyzed by his own perfectionism and his desperate search for originality at all costs." The film has a 65% rating at Rotten Tomatoes.

Reactions from the Roman Catholic community were mixed. Vatican correspondent Salvatore Izzo called for a boycott of the film in the newspaper Avvenire, owned by the Italian Episcopal Conference. Izzo wrote: "We shouldn't touch the pope – the rock on which Jesus founded his Church." He continued: "Why should we support financially that which offends our religion?" Vatican Radio commented on the film and found it to contain "no irony, no caricature" of the pope. Regarding the prospect of an official condemnation of the film from church authorities, Sandro Magister, an Italian journalist specialising in Vatican issues, said: "If there were to be one, it would only help the producer. He would be very happy with a polemic that is completely without foundation."

See also
 Cinema of Italy
 List of fictional clergy and religious figures
 Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI
 The Young Pope

References

External links

2011 films
2011 comedy-drama films
Italian comedy-drama films
Religious comedy films
Films about fictional popes
Films about theatre
Films set in Vatican City
Films shot in Rome
Films directed by Nanni Moretti
2010s Italian-language films
Fandango (Italian company) films
France 3 Cinéma films
Le Pacte films

We Have a Pope (film)


A scientist is a person who studies or has mastered the field in science. A scientist tries to understand how our world, or other things, work. Scientists make observations, ask questions and do extensive research work in finding the answers to many questions.

Scientists may work in laboratories for governments, companies, schools and research institutions. Some scientists teach at universities and other places and train people to become scientists. Scientists often do experiments to find out more about reality, and sometimes may repeat experiments or use control groups. Scientists who are doing applied science try to use scientific knowledge to improve the world.

Scientists use the Scientific method to test theories and hypotheses.

Types of scientists
Scientists can work in different areas of science.
Here are some examples:
 Scientists that study physics are physicists.
 Scientists that study chemistry are chemists.
 Scientists that study biology are biologists
 Scientists that study rocks are geologists
 Scientists that study plants are botanists
 Scientists that study minds are psychologists
 Scientists that study farming are agricultural scientists

Related pages

History of science
List of scientists from Africa
List of scientists from Asia
List of scientists from Europe
List of scientists from North America
List of scientists from Oceania
List of scientists from South America

Science occupations

Scientist


The Lieutenant Marvels are fictional characters, a team of superheroes in the Fawcett Comics and DC Comics universes. They first appeared in Whiz Comics #21 in 1941. The physical appearance of the three characters was based on three real-life members of the Fawcett Comics staff: Paul Peck (Tall Billy), Ed Hamilton (Hill Billy), and Frank Taggart (Fat Billy).

Publication history
The Lieutenants appeared periodically in the adventures of Captain Marvel and the Marvel Family through the early 1950s, and also when the characters were revived by DC Comics in the 1970s under the title Shazam!, although rarely. They were retconned out of existence during the Crisis on Infinite Earths in 1985. Some people, such as Jonathan Woodward in his Annotated Crisis on Infinite Earths website, suggest that the Lieutenant Marvels died in the last battle of the Crisis on Infinite Earths, although Who's Who in the DC Universe claims they survived but lost their powers.

The characters were reintroduced in Trials of Shazam! #2 (2006), only to lose their powers in the same issue. They also appeared as inhabitants of Earth-5 in Grant Morrison's The Multiversity miniseries in 2015.

Fictional team history
Brooklyn, New York City, has its own Billy Batson, and he travels to the W.H.I.Z. radio station with two other Billy Batsons, one from the Western United States and one from the Southern United States, to visit the "real" Billy. To prevent confusion, the western Billy suggests he be called "Tall" Billy, the southern Billy is renamed "Hill" Billy and Brooklyn's Billy is given the title "Fat" Billy. At the "real" Billy's suggestion, all four Billys form the Billy Batson Club. Billy reveals he is Captain Marvel to them, and says they should only say "Shazam!" when he gives them a wink.

The nefarious Dr. Sivana hatches a plan to kill the "real" Billy Batson and sends his three henchmen to find out where Billy lives. Sivana's goons mistakenly find the other Billy Batsons instead and capture them. The mysterious Captain Death captures Tall Billy, Nazi Agent Herr Geyer captures Fat Billy, and bandit "Biggy" Brix captures Hill Billy. Sivana uses them as bait to trap the real Billy after hearing he is their friend, having Brix deliver a note, and demanding he comes to the Mill as Billy. When this happens he is knocked out and captured.

Sivana and his henchmen gag Billy and tie him and the other Billys to a log heading towards a buzzsaw, then leave. Billy is able to remove his gag on the buzzsaw, but his shout of "Shazam" can not be heard over the roar of the buzzsaw. With seconds to spare, Billy enlists the aid of his club members and they all shout "Shazam!" together.

When the smoke clears, Captain Marvel sees that the other Billys have transformed as well, into Tall Marvel, Hill Marvel, and Fat Marvel. Hill Marvel remarks that they have each changed into Captain Marvel but Fat Marvel counters that by saying that there is only one Captain Marvel. Tall Marvel suggests that they are really Lieutenant Marvels, hence the trio's name.

The Captain and his three Lieutenants easily defeat Sivana and his henchmen, knocking their plane down and apparently killing all the villains except Sivana. After shouting "Shazam!" and transforming back into their civilian identities, the three Billys head back home.  The Lieutenants returned from time to time during the Fawcett Comics era to aid their hero. In Captain Marvel Adventures #4 they are again kidnapped by Sivana's henchmen. Captain Marvel follows the kidnappers to Sivana's base. The three Billys are tied up under three sharp pendulums. However Billy transforms with them and they defeat the henchmen. They hear a noise in a shed, and find Sivana's daughter Beautia bound and gagged inside. They release her and she reveals Sivana did this. They fly away before Sivana detonates tons of dynamite under the house, then defeat him. They were probably put in suspended animation until 1973, along with many Marvel characters, by the Sivanas. They make their first DC appearance in Shazam! #30, when the whole Marvel Family is called upon to destroy Sivana's steel menagerie, which is threatening to wreck Pittsburgh. Incongruously, the three are able to transform on their own, while in a later story, "Assault on the Rock of Eternity" in World's Finest Comics #267, Captain Marvel has to gather the three Billies together so they could simultaneously say the magic word in order to transform.

The Lieutenant Marvels exist, without powers though still helping the Marvel Family to fight crime, on Earth-5, as seen in The Multiversity miniseries by writer Grant Morrison.

Powers and abilities
By shouting "Shazam!", the Four Billy Batsons are transformed into the Lieutenant Marvels. In this form, they each have the powers of Captain Marvel: the wisdom of Solomon, the strength of Hercules, the stamina of Atlas, the power of Zeus, the courage of Achilles, and the speed of Mercury. Since they have to share the power, they are each only one-third as powerful as Captain Marvel.

In other media

Film
In the direct-to-video animated film Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, three superpowered henchmen with powers similar to the Marvels are employed by Superwoman, a criminal, parallel universe incarnation of Wonder Woman, and referred to as her Lieutenants. However, instead of the "classic" Lieutenant Marvels, the trio appear as criminal counterparts of Captain Marvel, Captain Marvel Jr., and Uncle Marvel (listed in the film's credits as, respectively, "Captain Super", "Captain Super Jr.", and "Uncle Super").

Television
In the TV series Young Justice, Freddy Freeman and Mary Bromfield, under the names Lieutenant Marvel and Sergeant Marvel, joined the Team AND left the Team in between Seasons One and Two. Mary appears in the fourth season, having given up the Sgt. Marvel moniker.

References

External links
The Lieutenant Marvels at Marvel Family website
Earth-S Marvel Family Index
The Lieutenant Marvels at Captain Marvel Culture website

Characters created by C. C. Beck
DC Comics sidekicks
Comics characters introduced in 1941
Comics spin-offs
DC Comics superhero teams
Marvel Family
Fictional trios
DC Comics characters who use magic
DC Comics characters who are shapeshifters
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters who can teleport
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
Fictional characters granted magic or power through dealings
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities

Lieutenant Marvels


Nitrogen generators and stations are stationary or mobile air-to-nitrogen production complexes.

Adsorption technology

Adsorption concept

The adsorption gas separation process in nitrogen generators is based on the phenomenon of fixing various gas mixture components by a solid substance called an adsorbent. This phenomenon is brought about by the gas and adsorbent molecules' interaction.

Pressure swing adsorption technology
The technology of air-to-nitrogen production with the use of adsorption processes in nitrogen generators is well studied and widely applied at industrial facilities for the recovery of high-purity nitrogen.

The operating principle of a nitrogen generator utilizing the adsorption technology is based upon the dependence of the adsorption rates featured by various gas mixture components upon pressure and temperature factors. Among nitrogen adsorption plants of various types, pressure swing adsorption (PSA) plants have found the broadest application world-wide.

The system's design is based on the regulation of gas adsorption and adsorbent regeneration by means of changing pressures in two adsorber–adsorbent-containing vessels. This process requires constant temperature, close to ambient. With this process, nitrogen is produced by the plant at the above-atmospheric pressure, while the adsorbent regeneration is accomplished at below-atmospheric pressure.

The swing adsorption process in each of the two adsorbers consists of two stages running for a few minutes. At the adsorption stage oxygen, H2O and CO2 molecules diffuse into the pore structure of the adsorbent whilst the nitrogen molecules are allowed to travel through the adsorber–adsorbent-containing vessel. At the regeneration stage the adsorbed components are released from the adsorbent vented into the atmosphere. The process is then multiplely repeated.

Advantages
 High nitrogen purity: PSA nitrogen generator plants allow production of high-purity nitrogen from air, which membrane systems are unable to provide – up to 99.9995% nitrogen. But in most cases they do not produce more than 98.8% nitrogen with the remainder being argon that is not separated from the nitrogen by the usual PSA process. The argon is not normally a problem, as argon is more inert than nitrogen. This nitrogen purity may also be ensured by cryogenic systems, but they are considerably more complex and justified only by large consumption volumes. The nitrogen generators use CMS (carbon molecular sieve) technology to produce a continuous supply of ultra high purity nitrogen and are available with internal compressors or without.

 Low operating costs: By substitution of out-of-date air separation plants nitrogen production savings largely exceed 50%. The net cost of nitrogen produced by nitrogen generators is significantly less than the cost of bottled or liquefied nitrogen.

 Environmental impact: Generating nitrogen gas is a sustainable, environmentally friendly and energy efficient approach to providing pure, clean, dry nitrogen gas. Compared to the energy needed for a cryogenic air separation plant and the energy needed to transport the liquid nitrogen from the plant to the facility, generated nitrogen consumes less energy and creates far fewer greenhouse gases.

Membrane technology

Gas separation concept
The operation of membrane systems is based on the principle of differential velocity with which various gas mixture components permeate membrane substance. The driving force in the gas separation process is the difference in partial pressures on different membrane sides.

Membrane cartridge

Structurally, a hollow-fiber membrane represents a cylindrical cartridge functioning as a spool with specifically reeled polymer fibers. Gas flow is supplied under pressure into a bundle of membrane fibers. Due to the difference in partial pressures on the external and internal membrane surface gas flow separation is accomplished.

Advantages
 Economic benefits: By substitution of cryogenic or adsorption systems nitrogen production savings generally exceed 50%. The net cost of nitrogen produced by nitrogen complexes is significantly less than the cost of cylinder or liquefied nitrogen.

 Module design: With respect to the simplicity of the system, a nitrogen generator can be split into modules. This is in direct contrast to classical systems where the equipment is designed for a certain stage of the separation process. Using a modular system, the generation facility may be built from a selection of preexisting equipment and where necessary, the output capacity of a plant may be increased at the minimum cost. This option appears all the more useful where a project envisages a subsequent increase in enterprise capacity, or where demand may simply require on site production of nitrogen by employing equipment that is already present.

 Dependability: Gas separation units have no moving component parts, thus ensuring exceptional reliability. Membranes are highly resistant to vibration and shocks, chemically inert to greases, moisture-insensitive, and capable of operating over a wide temperature range of –40°С to +60°С. With appropriate maintenance, membrane unit useful life ranges between 130,000 and 180,000 hours (15 to 20 years of continuous operation).

Disadvantages
 Limited capacity
 Relatively low purity compared to PSA units (95% to 99% purity as compared to 99.9995% - higher purity applications are available at lower flow rates ≤ 10L/min)

Applications of nitrogen generators
 Food and beverage industries: The moment food or beverages are produced, or fruits and vegetables harvested, an aging process kicks in until the complete decay of the products. This is caused by chemical reactions with oxygen, bacteria and other organisms. Generators are used to flood the products with N2 that displaces the oxygen and prolongs the product lifetime significantly because these organisms cannot develop. Furthermore, chemical degradation of food caused by oxidation can be eliminated or stopped.

 Analytical chemistry: Nitrogen generators are required for various forms of analytical chemistry such as liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and gas chromatography where a stable and continuous supply of nitrogen is necessary.

 Aircraft & motor vehicle tires: Although air is 78% nitrogen, most aircraft tires are filled with pure nitrogen. There are many tire and automotive shops with nitrogen generators to fill tires. The advantage of using nitrogen is that the tank is dry. Often a compressed air tank will have water in it that comes from atmospheric water vapor condensing in the tank after leaving the air compressor. Nitrogen maintains a more stable pressure when heated and cooled as a result of being dry and doesn't permeate the tire as easily due to being a slightly larger molecule (155 pm) than O2 (152 pm).

 Chemical and petrochemical industries: The primary and very important application of nitrogen in chemical and petrochemical industries is the provision of inert environment aimed at ensuring general industrial safety during cleaning and protection of process vessels. In addition, nitrogen is used for pipelines pressure testing, chemical agents transportation, and regeneration of used catalysts in technological processes.
Aircraft tires use nitrogen fill to delay tire rupture on rejected take off events, allowing evacuation time before brake system heat causes an internal tire fire.  Fusible plugs in the tire are the primary protection against heat induced pressure excursion.  Internal tire fires can kindle at initial stop due to local hot sections of the wheels.
 Electronics: In electronics, nitrogen serves to displace oxygen in the manufacture of semi-conductors and electric circuits, heat treatment of finished products, as well as in blowing and cleaning. The most common uses in electronics are in the soldering process. Specifically Selective, Reflow, and Wave Soldering equipment.

Fire Protection: The fire protection industry uses nitrogen gas for two different applications - fire suppression and corrosion prevention. Nitrogen generators are used in hypoxic air fire prevention systems to produce air with a low oxygen content which will suppress a fire. To prevent corrosion, nitrogen generators are used in place of or in conjunction with a compressed air system to provide supervisory nitrogen gas in place of air for dry pipe and pre-action fire sprinkler systems.

 Glass industry: In glass production, nitrogen proves efficient as a cooling agent for electric arc furnace electrodes as well as to displace oxygen during process procedures.

 Metallurgy: The metal industry generally utilizes nitrogen as a means of protecting ferrous and non-ferrous metals during annealing. Also, nitrogen is helpful in such standard industry processes as neutral tempering, cementing, hard brazing, stress relieving, cyanide hardening, metal-powder sintering and extrusion die cooling.

 Paint-and-varnish industry: Paint and varnish production uses nitrogen for the creation of an inert environment in process vessels to ensure safety, as well as for oxygen displacement during packing in order to prevent polymerization of drying oils.

 Petroleum industry: In the petroleum industry, nitrogen is an indispensable component in a number of processes. Most commonly, nitrogen is used to create an inert environment for preventing explosions and for fire safety and to support transportation and transfer of hydrocarbons. Additionally, nitrogen is used for pipeline testing and purging, cleaning technological vessels and cleaning liquefied gas carriers and hydrocarbon storage facilities.

 Pharmaceutical industry: In the pharmaceutical industry, nitrogen finds application in pharmaceuticals packaging, and ensuring against explosion and fire safety in activities where fine dispersed substances are used.

See also
Liquid nitrogen
Industrial gas

References

Gas technologies
Nitrogen
Industrial gases

Nitrogen generator


The Berlin Observatory (Berliner Sternwarte in German) has its origins in 1700 when Gottfried Leibniz initiated the Societät der Wissenschaften (Brandenburgische Science Society) which would later (1744) become the Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Prussian Academy of Sciences). The Society had no observatory, but nevertheless had an astronomer, Gottfried Kirch, who observed from a private observatory in Berlin. A first small observatory was furnished in 1711, financing itself through calendrical computations.

Observatories

Berlin Observatory


GEO or Geo can mean any of these:
 GEO (magazine), a popular scientific magazine
 GEO 600, a detector for gravitational radiation
 Global Environment Outlook, an environmental assessment produced by the United Nations
 Geo (microformat), a microformat for marking up WSG84 geographical coordinates in (X)HTML

In shopping:
 Geo (automobile), a defunct brand of entry-level cars produced by General Motors

People:
 Geo. is sometimes an abbreviation of the name George.
 Geo, the composer for the J-pop group Sweetbox
 Geo (artist), the Korean manhwa artist.
 Geo Bogza, a Romanian poet and essayist.
 Geo Stelar is the main protagonist in Mega Man Star Force.

In science:
 Geography, the study of the Earth and its features
 Geology, the study of the Earth's structure
 Geothermal (geology), heat sources from within the Earth
 Geometry, the study of spatial relationships

Geo


In a modern democracy, a senate is a group of people who are part of a legislature. A legislature passes or changes laws for their country, state, or other area. Members of a senate are called senators. Some legislatures are bicameral, meaning they have two groups of people (working in separate places) called houses. A senate can be called a House of Senators.

The senate of some such legislatures is weaker than the other house. The other house is called a House of Representatives, House of Commons, or Assembly. In bicameral legislatures, both houses must pass the same bill to make it a law. Modern democratic systems having legislatures with senates include the United States of America (U. S.), Canada, Australia and many states in the United States.

The first ever senate was the Roman Senate. The name comes from their word for "elder".

Senate is also the name of the ruling body of some universities.

Senate chambers
Sometimes, the senators are split into different groups, who then have different responsibilities. These groups  meet in different rooms; each group is called a chamber.

Senate


Eilon () is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located a mile south of Lebanese border and six miles east of the Mediterranean coast, the kibbutz sits on a ridge between two streams, Nahal Betzet and Nahal Kziv and falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Asher Regional Council. As of  it had a population of .

Etymology
The name Eilon is derived from Elah (pistacia) and Allon (oak), two tree species abundant in this heavily forested area of northern Israel, though specifically referred to the "remnants of ancient trees in the vicinity."  The Polish-Jewish immigrants cleared the forest and planted orchards to feed a small population on a rocky hillside.

History

The kibbutz, situated a short distance from the Lebanese border, was established in 1938 on 400 dunams of land in Khirbet Samak, which had been purchased by the Jewish National Fund. It was settled that year by a group of Polish immigrants and Palestinian Jews. The inhabitants found themselves under constant fire in the wake of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. Eilon was one of the early tower and stockade settlements.

By 1947 the kibbutz had a population of 350, successfully reclaiming rocky land that had been designated by the British Mandatory government as uncultivable. The kibbutz was initially affiliated with Hashomer Hatzair.  Calm was achieved after the Galilee was cleared of Lebanese troops and Kaukji's bands in November 1948.  When the Israeli forces, having just occupied the town of Tarshisha appeared coming up the path the inhabitants defending the kibbutz could hardly believe their good fortune.

Economy

Eilon derives its income from agriculture (bananas, avocado, exotic fruit, cotton); industry (Eshet Eilon manufactures agri-industrial systems to sort vegetables and fruit; Eilon Mosaic  manufactures decorative mosaic); and tourism (Keshet Eilon Country Lodging is a guesthouse). A world-renowned violin master course called Keshet Eilon takes place annually in Eilon. Under the musical directorship of Itzhak Rashkovsky, fifty young violinists from around the world spend each summer receiving extensive violin instruction and performing concerts.

Volunteers
Eilon accepts a number of International Volunteers that in return for lodgings, meals and laundry, work in a variety of locations on the kibbutz.  One of the highlights of being a volunteer is the Vollies (Volunteers) Bar, which is situated close to the volunteers quarters.

References

Kibbutzim
Kibbutz Movement
Populated places established in 1938
Jewish villages in Mandatory Palestine
Populated places in Northern District (Israel)
Polish-Jewish culture in Israel
1938 establishments in Mandatory Palestine

Eilon


Mangaka (漫画家?) is the Japanese word for a comic artist or cartoonist. Outside of Japan, manga usually means a Japanese comic book. Mangaka means the author of the manga, who is usually Japanese.

Some artists may study at an art college, manga school, or take on an apprenticeship with another mangaka.  They then enter the world of manga as a professional artist. However, there are some artists that just start in manga.  One way to do this is by applying to contests that magazines run. For example, Naoko Takeuchi, author of Sailor Moon, won such a contest sponsored by Kodansha.  Osamu Tezuka, creator of Astro Boy, began his career without being an assistant.

Manga

Mangaka


Trikala is a Greek city and it is one of 51 prefectures of Greece. Trikala is in the center of Greece in the Thessaly periphery. According to the 2001 census, 57,914 people lived there. Trikala is built on a large plain. This plain is one of the biggest plain in Greece. In the west of Trikala is the Pindus range. Trikala is crossed by Litheus river.

Cities in Greece

Trikala


Scheveningen  is one of the eight districts of The Hague, Netherlands, as well as a subdistrict (wijk) of that city. Scheveningen is a modern seaside resort with a long, sandy beach, an esplanade, a pier, and a lighthouse. The beach is popular for water sports such as windsurfing and kiteboarding. The harbour is used for both fishing and tourism.

History

The earliest reference to the name Sceveninghe goes back to around 1280. The first inhabitants may have been Anglo-Saxons. Other historians favour a Scandinavian origin. Fishing was the main source of food and income.

The Battle of Scheveningen was fought between English and Dutch fleets off the coast of the village on 10 August 1653. Thousands of people gathered on the shore to watch. In 1660 Montagu's flagship picked up the English king at Scheveningen in order to accomplish the Restoration.

A road to neighbouring The Hague was constructed in 1663 (current name: Scheveningseweg).

In 1470, a heavy storm destroyed the church and half the houses. The village was again hit by storms in 1570, 1775, 1825, 1860, 1881, and 1894. After this last storm, the villagers decided to build a harbour. Until then, the fishing boats had had a flat bottom (bomschuiten), and were pulled up the beach. By around 1870, over 150 of these boats were in use. Once the harbour had been constructed in 1904, more modern ships replaced the bomschuiten.

In 1818, Jacob Pronk constructed a wooden building on a dune near the sea, from where people could bathe from four separate rooms. It marked the start of Scheveningen as a bathing resort. Since then, Scheveningen has attracted numerous tourists from all over Europe, notably from Germany.

The hotel Kurhaus was opened in 1886. The village attracted a number of Dutch artists over the centuries, who painted the bomschuiten drawn up on the beach, or fishermen at work in the North Sea. Notable painters who recorded the village include Adriaen van de Velde, Simon de Vlieger, and Hendrik Willem Mesdag, whose large panorama, 14 m high and 120 m wide, preserved the view of Scheveningen in 1881.

The International Skating Union was founded in Scheveningen in 1892.

Anecdotal evidence exists of the name Scheveningen being used as a shibboleth during World War II to identify German spies: they would pronounce the initial "Sch" as one consonant (the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative, pronounced approximately like "Sh"), rather than the native Dutch sequence of the voiceless alveolar sibilant followed by the voiceless uvular fricative, "Skh", as in "Genghis Khan".

Scheveningen was never an independent municipality, but it has its own coat of arms, officially recognised by The Hague local council (proposal 136 of 23 March 1984); even in the Middle Ages, it was part of the same administrative region as The Hague.

Nevertheless, Scheveningen always had a strong identity of its own. For instance, it had its own football club, playing in the highest Dutch division (its name was "Scheveningen Holland Sport"). In the course of the second half of the 20th century, this club was forced to merge with ADO Den Haag.

From 21 April 1960, the pirate radio station Radio Veronica broadcast its programmes from an anchorage in the North Sea about four miles off the Scheveningen coast, originally calling itself Vrije Radio Omroep Nederland (VRON), Free Radio Station [of the] Netherlands. It was joined by Radio Noordzee Internationaal  in 1970 and the relaunched Radio Caroline in late 1972. When the Netherlands ratified the Treaty of Strasbourg on 1 September 1974, Veronica applied for legal status and became the VOO, Caroline moved anchorage to the English coast, and RNI closed down. Memorable episodes during this period included the stranding of Radio Veronica's ship, the Norderney, which lost its anchor in a storm and ran aground on Scheveningen beach on 2 April 1973, and a firebomb attack on RNI's ship, the Mebo II, on 15 May 1971.

Since the 1970s the population of the original Scheveningen changed as the fishing industry declined and some artists and professionals moved in. Most of the fishermen, captains and trawler owners houses were demolished. Some still remain and have been protected by the authorities, including some of the original 'hofjes', in an enclosed area with small row houses on each side.

Slobodan Milošević, the 3rd president of Serbia and Montenegro was found dead in his prison cell on 11 March 2006 while he was being held in the UN war crimes tribunal's detention center in Scheveningen.

Culture
Until recently, some elderly women still wore local Scheveningen costume, while the local Scheveningen dialect is hardly spoken by young people anymore.

Because of the closedness of the original village community, many shared the same surnames. This led to the introduction of nicknames in order to distinguish families better. For example, certain members from the Pronk family were known as 'the horse man', 'Piet the mouse', 'Born without a tooth' or 'Gerrit de sermon'. Some common 'typical Scheveningen' family names are, for example, Bal, Dijkhuizen, Groen, Korving, Den Heijer, Knoester, De Niet, Plugge, Pronk, Rog, Spaans, Taal, Toet, Vrolijk, Zuurmond and Van der Zwan. Through the opening up of the fishing village from the beginning of the 20th century, this phenomenon has gradually become obsolete.

Events and attractions

Annual events include:
Winter swim on New Year's Day, locally known as Nieuwjaarsduik (New Year's dive)
Flags Day in spring when the first new herring of the year is auctioned
Fireworks in summer: once a week and several days during a festival week
Vreugdevuur from second christmas day to new year's eve: a large competition between two subdivisions of Scheveningen (Duindorp and Scheveningen dorp) to build the largest tower made out of pallets and then light it on fire to signal the beginning of the year, Duindorp currently holds the world record.
A visit to Scheveningen can include:
The Muzee Museum (official museum of Scheveningen)
The pier
Bungy jumping
Ziplining
The miniature city Madurodam
The sculptures at sea museum Beelden aan Zee
The Panorama Mesdag
The four different beaches of Scheveningen
Our Lady of Lourdes (RC) Silent Center, housing a replica of the Lourdes Grotto in Massabielle (France).
Night life includes the Pathé Scheveningen movie theatre, and the sea-front boulevard with its bars, restaurants, casino and other entertainment.

Museums
 Atlantikwall Museum Scheveningen
 Bunker Museum Den Haag
 Beelden aan Zee

 Museumschip Hr. Ms. Mercuur, former Aggressive-class minesweeper

Lighthouse

The light beam flashes at alternate intervals of 2.5 and 7.5 seconds. The location is .

Chess
In the game of chess, the Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defense takes its name from a 1923 chess tournament played in the district. During the tournament, the variation was played by several players, for instance by the future Dutch world chess champion Max Euwe.

Subdistricts
The subdistricts of district Scheveningen are:
Scheveningen
Duinoord
Statenkwartier
Belgisch Park
Oostduinen
Maduroplein
Duindorp
Van Stolkpark
Westbroekpark

Noted natives
 Machiel de Graaf (b. 1969), politician
 Romy Haag (b. 1948), dancer, singer and actress
 Theo Jansen (b. 1948), artist
 Cornelis Jol (1597–1641), admiral and privateer
 Dick Jol (b. 1956), football referee
 Martin Jol (b. 1956), football manager and player
 Wim Kan (1911–1983), cabaret artist
 Bert Pronk (1950–2005), cyclist
 Jan Pronk (b. 1940), politician and diplomat
 Tim Smit (b.1954), businessman, composer, environmentalist and archaeologist
  (b.1933), a poet who speaks Schevenings dialect
 Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza (1921–2001), industrialist

References

External links

Tourist Information Scheveningen
Tourist Information Scheveningen (English)
Beach Streaming Livecams

Seaside resorts in the Netherlands
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
Boroughs of The Hague
Populated places in South Holland

Scheveningen


Autarky is an economy that does no trade with the outside world. It is called  a self-sufficient economy or a closed economy too. It does not need any other countries or regions helping.

Autarky is rare in the modern world. An example of a currently run autarky is North Korea, but even it makes a small amount trade between some countries, like China and Japan.

Economics

Autarky


Computer memory is a temporary storage area. It holds the data and instructions that the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before a program can run, the program is loaded from storage into the memory. This allows the CPU direct access to the computer program. Memory is needed in all computers.

A computer is usually a binary digital electronics device. Binary means it has only two states. On or Off. Zero or One. In a binary digital computer transistors are used to switch the electricity on and off. The computer's memory is made from lots of transistors.

Each on/off setting in the computer's memory is called a binary digit or bit. A group of eight bits is called a byte. A byte is made from two nibbles of four bits each. Computer scientists made up the words bit and byte. The word bit is short for binary digit. It takes bi from binary and adds the t from digit. A collection of bits was called a bite. The computer scientists changed the spelling to byte to avoid confusion. When the computer scientists needed a word for half a byte, they thought nibble, as in half a bite, would be a fun word to choose.

Characters in memory
A byte of memory is used to store a code to represent a character such as a number, a letter or a symbol. Eight bits can store 256 different codes. This was thought enough and a byte became fixed at eight bits.
This allows the ten decimal digits, 26 lower-case letters, 26 upper-case letters and many symbols.
Early computers used six bits to a byte. This gave them 64 different codes. These computers did not have lower-case letters.

Computer scientists had to agree on which code would represent each character. Most modern computers use ASCII, the American Standard Code for Information Interchange. In ASCII each code is eight bits – any combination of 0s and 1s – and form one character. The letter A is denoted by the code 01000001.

To allow for all the different characters in all the worlds languages, modern computers need more than 256 different characters. Another code system called Unicode allows for 1,112,064 different characters by using from one to four bytes for each character.

Memory address
The computer's CPU can access each individual byte. It uses an address for each byte. Computer memory addresses start at zero and go up to the biggest number the computer can use. Older computers were limited in how much memory they could address. 32-bit computers can address up to 4GB of memory. Modern computers use 64 bits and could address up to 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes = 16 exabytes of memory.

The numbers that computers use can get very large. To make it easier, the unit K (for kilobyte) or Ki (for kibibyte) can be used. In computer memory numbers are powers of two. One Kibibyte is two to the power of 10, that is 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 and written as 210 = 1024 bytes. For example, 64 Kibibytes, written as 64KiB or 64KB, of memory is the same as 65,536 bytes (1,024 × 64 = 65,536). For larger memory capacities, the units megabyte (MB) or mebibyte (MiB) and gigabyte (GB) or gibibyte (GiB) are used. One megabyte of computer memory means 220 bytes or 1024KB, which is 1,048,576 bytes. One gibibyte means 230 bytes or 1024MB.

The numbers are multiples of two. This is why a kilobyte of memory is 1024 bytes and not 1000 as would be the case for kilogram. To try to avoid this confusion the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) use the names kibibyte, mebibyte, and gibibyte for binary powers. They use kilobyte, megabyte, and gigabyte to mean powers of 10. The Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC) have kept the older names. To make it worse the sizes of computer storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD), are measured in powers of ten. So a 500GB disk drive is 500 x 1000 x 1000 x 1000 bytes. This is a lot less that 500GB of memory which is 500 x 1024 x 1024 x1024. Most computer scientists still use the old names and have to remember that the units are different when talking about memory and storage devices.

Read only memory
There are some programs and instructions which the computer will always need. Read only memory (ROM) is the permanent memory which is used to store these important control programs and systems software to perform functions such as booting up or starting up programs. ROM is non-volatile. That means the contents are not lost when the power is switched off. Its contents are written when the computer is built, but in modern computers, the user can change the contents using special software.

Random access memory
Random access memory (RAM) is used as the working memory of a computer system.  It stores input data, intermediate results, programs, and other information temporarily.  It can be read and/or written.  It is usually volatile, which means that all data will be lost when the power is turned off. In most cases it is loaded again from the hard disk which is used as data storage.

Non-volatile memory

Non-volatile memory is computer memory that keeps the stored information when not powered.
Examples of non-volatile memory include:
 read-only memory
 flash memory

It can sometimes refer to computer storage. These are always non-volatile.
Examples inlcude:
 Solid state devices that use flash memory, like Solid State Drives (SSD) and USB flash drives.
 Magnetic computer storage devices like hard disk drives (HDD), floppy disks and magnetic tape
 optical discs such as CD-ROM, DVD-ROM and Blu-ray
 paper storage such as paper tape and punched cards

References

Computer memory


Portal 2 is a first-person shooter puzzle video game made by Valve Corporation. It is the sequel to the video game Portal. The gameplay is similar to the first game, but it adds new stories, puzzles, and characters. Unlike the first game, it also has a co-op campaign, where two players play as robots built by GLaDOS to solve puzzles that could never be solved by humans.

Plot
After killing GLaDOS and escaping Aperture Science Laboratories, Chell, the protagonist of Portal, is taken back to the labs and placed in suspended animation for many years. While she sleeps, the laboratories become more and more run down, because no one is there to take care of them. Once she wakes up, a small, dim-witted robot, known as a core, named Wheatley tries to help her escape the building. In the process, he accidentally reactivates GLaDOS, who, still angry with Chell for killing her, forces Chell to perform tests similar to the ones she performed in Portal.

While Chell solves the puzzles and GLaDOS repairs the building, Wheatley works behind the scenes to free Chell. Once he does, they try to sabotage GLaDOS's weapons, including her turrets and neurotoxin. In a confrontation with GLaDOS, Chell presses a button that removes GLaDOS from controlling the laboratory and puts Wheatley in her place. In anger, GLaDOS reveals that Wheatley is an intelligence-dampening sphere, created by scientists to distract GLaDOS from evil by distracting her with a constant stream of stupid ideas. Wheatley is outraged and becomes power-mad. He puts GLaDOS's AI into a potato and turns on Chell, sending them both deep underground to an abandoned part of the facility.

Chell and GLaDOS end up in the ruins of Aperture Science Laboratories, started in the 1950s. While exploring the area, recorded messages by Aperture Science founder Cave Johnson and his secretary Caroline tell the history of the company and explain the many dangerous tests performed there. As Chell moves further up in the labs, time moves forward as well, into the 1970s. Cave reveals that the company is bankrupt and must use homeless people as test subjects rather than the astronauts and Olympic athletes they had used before. Here Chell reunites with GLaDOS, whom she places on her portal gun and carries with her.

As they move forward, GLaDOS begins to repeat things that Caroline says and becomes confused. When they move into part of the lab that was used during the 1980s, a message from Cave says he has gotten cancer from working with moon dust and he is dying. After a rant about the unfairness of life, he says that he wants Caroline to run the company after he dies. GLaDOS comes up with a plan to destroy Wheatley once they find him.

Chell and GLaDOS make it to the Enrichment Center near the surface and find Wheatley. GLaDOS attempts to short-circuit him by telling him a paradox. Unfortunately, Wheatley is not smart enough to understand it and the plan fails. Wheatley has discovered his new body gives him a feeling of euphoria when a subject solves a test. He tried to make cubes with legs to solve puzzles, but they were not good at it. Instead, he forces Chell to solve puzzles. As she solves more tests, Wheatley's feelings of euphoria become weaker, so he builds more and more complicated tests by smashing together test chambers that GLaDOS built.

When Wheatley cannot get the result he wants from the tests, he decides to kill Chell and GLaDOS. They escape and eventually find him, leading to the final fight. GLaDOS helps Chell attach broken personality cores to Wheatley to weaken him and she tries to press the button that switched GLaDOS and Wheatley in the first place. When she is unable to, she shoots a portal on the floor below Wheatley and another on the moon, which can be seen through a hole in the roof. Wheatley is pulled from GLaDOS's body and released into space. Chell is almost pulled out too, but GLaDOS saves her and closes the portals.

After saving Chell, GLaDOS speaks kindly to her, explaining that when she was created, she was given part of Caroline's personality. She thanks Chell for helping her find where Caroline's personality is in her "brain", then deletes it. Returning to her former self, GLaDOS tells Chell that she is too difficult to kill so she will stop trying and release her instead. Chell is sent to the surface by an elevator while the turrets sing opera. Once she makes it out, the Companion Cube is thrown at her, and she is free to go. As the credits roll, GLaDOS sings the song "Want You Gone".

References

2011 video games
Cooperative video games
Half-Life series
MacOS games
Platform games
PlayStation 3 games
Puzzle video games
Windows games
Xbox 360 games

Portal 2


The Unique Particle Attribution (UPA) rule is a mechanism to prevent ambiguity in W3C XML Schema version 1.0.

Due to the UPA rule the XML schema fragment given below is prohibited:
  <xsd:sequence>
    <xsd:element name="x" type="xsd:integer" minOccurs="0"/>
    <xsd:any minOccurs="0" maxOccurs="unbounded" processContents="skip"/>
  </xsd:sequence>
Given the XML instance fragment:

  42

it is ambiguous whether <x> should be associated with the element declaration (xsd:element name="x"), or the wildcard (xsd:any). This ambiguity violates the UPA rule and the corresponding XML schema therefore needs to be rejected by XML schema processors compliant to W3C XML Schema version 1.0.

This particular example no longer violates the Unique Particle Attribute constraint in XML Schema version 1.1, which disambiguates it by saying that when an element matches both an element particle and a wildcard, the element particle wins. However, the UPA constraint itself remains in version 1.1.

External links
 Article "UPA in plain English"
 Article "Understanding the Unique Particle Attribution Constraint"
 XML Schema 1.0: Schema Component Constraint: Unique Particle Attribution
 An Approach for Evolving XML Vocabularies Using XML Schema
 XML Schema 1.1 Part 1: Structures
 XML Schema 1.1 Part 2: Datatypes

XML

Unique Particle Attribution