The slide rule, or slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer. The slide rule is used mainly for multiplication and division, and also for "scientific" functions such as roots, logarithms and trigonometry, but usually not for addition or subtraction.

There are many different styles of slide rules. They are usually linear or circular. They have a standardised set of markings or scales. These scales are used for mathematical computations. Some slide rules have been made for special use, as for aviation or finance. Those slide rules have special scales for those applications, as well as normal scales.

The slide rule is based on the work on logarithms by John Napier and was invented by William Oughtred. Before electronic calculators were developed, slide rules were the tool used most often in  science and engineering. The use of slide rules continued to grow through the 1950s and 1960s even as digital computing devices were  gradually introduced; but around 1974 the pocket calculator made the slide rule largely obsolete and most suppliers left the business.

Basic concepts
In its most basic form, the slide rule uses two logarithmic scales to allow rapid multiplication and division of numbers. These common operations can be time-consuming and error-prone when done on paper. More complex slide rules allow other calculations, such as square roots, exponentials, logarithms, and trigonometric functions.

Mathematical calculations are done by aligning a mark on the sliding central strip with one on one of the fixed strips.
The relative position of other marks can then be observed. Numbers aligned with the marks give the approximate value of the product, quotient, or other calculated result.

The user determines the location of the decimal point in the result, based on mental estimation. Scientific notation is used to track the decimal point in more formal calculations. Addition and subtraction steps in a calculation are generally done mentally or on paper, not on the slide rule.

Most slide rules have three linear strips of the same length. The strips are aligned in parallel and interlocked so that the central strip can be moved lengthwise relative to the other two. The outer two strips are fixed so that their relative positions do not change.

Some slide rules ("duplex" models) have scales on both sides of the rule and slide strip, others on one side of the outer strips and both sides of the slide strip, still others on one side only ("simplex" rules). A sliding cursor with a vertical alignment line is used to find corresponding points on scales that are not next to each other or, in duplex models, are on the other side of the rule. The cursor can also record an intermediate result on any of the scales.

Using a slide rule for calculation

Multiplication
A logarithm transforms the operations of multiplication and division to addition and subtraction according to the rules  and .
Moving the top scale to the right by a distance of , by matching the beginning of the top scale with the label  on the bottom, aligns each number , at position  on the top scale, with the number at position  on the bottom scale. Because , this position on the bottom scale gives , the product of  and . For example, to calculate 3 × 2 (represented as 3*2 on a calculator), the 1 on the top scale is moved to the 2 on the bottom scale. The answer, 6, is read off the bottom scale where 3 is on the top scale. In general, the 1 on the top is moved to a factor on the bottom, and the answer is read off the bottom where the other factor is on the top.

Operations may go "off the scale;" for example, the diagram above shows that the slide rule has not positioned the 7 on the upper scale above any number on the lower scale, so it does not give any answer for 2×7. In such cases, the user may slide the upper scale to the left until its right index aligns with the 2, effectively multiplying by 0.2 instead of by 2, as in the illustration below:

Here the user of the slide rule must remember to adjust the decimal point appropriately to correct the final answer. We wanted to find 2×7, but instead we calculated 0.2×7=1.4. So the true answer is not 1.4 but 14. Resetting the slide is not the only way to handle multiplications that would result in off-scale results, such as 2×7; some other methods are:

 (1) Use the double-decade scales A and B.
 (2) Use the folded scales. In this example, set the left 1 of C opposite the 2 of D. Move the cursor to 7 on CF, and read the result from DF.
 (3) Use the CI inverted scale. Position the 7 on the CI scale above the 2 on the D scale, and then read the result off of the D scale, below the 1 on the CI scale. Since 1 occurs in two places on the CI scale, one of them will always be on-scale.
 (4) Use both the CI inverted scale and the C scale. Line up the 2 of CI with the 1 of D, and read the result from D, below the 7 on the C scale.

Method 1 is easy to understand, but entails a loss of precision. Method 3 has the advantage that it only involves two scales.

Division
The illustration below demonstrates the computation of 5.5/2. The 2 on the top scale is placed over the 5.5 on the bottom scale. The 1 on the top scale lies above the quotient, 2.75. There is more than one method for doing division, but the method presented here has the advantage that the final result cannot be off-scale, because one has a choice of using the 1 at either end.

Other operations
In addition to the logarithmic scales, some slide rules have other mathematical functions encoded on other auxiliary scales. The most popular were trigonometric, usually sine and tangent, common logarithm (log10) (for taking the log of a value on a multiplier scale), natural logarithm (ln) and exponential (ex) scales.  Some rules include a Pythagorean scale, to figure sides of triangles, and a scale to figure circles.  Others feature scales for calculating hyperbolic functions. On linear rules, the scales and their labeling are highly standardized, with variation usually occurring only in terms of which scales are included and in what order:

The Binary Slide Rule manufactured by Gilson in 1931 performed an addition and subtraction function limited to fractions.

Roots and powers
There are single-decade (C and D), double-decade (A and B), and triple-decade (K) scales. To compute , for example, locate x on the D scale and read its square on the A scale. Inverting this process allows square roots to be found, and similarly for the powers 3, 1/3, 2/3, and 3/2. Care must be taken when the base, x, is found in more than one place on its scale. For instance, there are two nines on the A scale; to find the square root of nine, use the first one; the second one gives the square root of 90.

For  problems, use the LL scales. When several LL scales are present, use the one with x on it. First, align the leftmost 1 on the C scale with x on the LL scale. Then, find y on the C scale and go down to the LL scale with x on it. That scale will indicate the answer. If y is "off the scale," locate  and square it using the A and B scales as described above.

Trigonometry
The S, T, and ST scales are used for trigonometric functions and multiples of trig functions, for angles in degrees.  Many slide rules have their S, T, and ST scales marked with degrees and minutes. So-called decitrig models use decimal fractions of degrees instead.

Logarithms and exponentials
Base-10 logarithms and exponentials are found using the L scale, which is linear. Some slide rules have a Ln scale, which is for base e.

The Ln scale was invented by an 11th grade student, Stephen B. Cohen, in 1958. The original intent was to allow the user to select an exponent x (in the range 0 to 2.3) on the Ln scale and read ex on the C (or D) scale and e–x on the CI (or DI) scale. Pickett, Inc. was given exclusive rights to the scale. Later, the inventor created a set of "marks" on the Ln scale to extend the range beyond the 2.3 limit, but Pickett never incorporated these marks on any of its slide rules.

Addition and subtraction
Slide rules are not typically used for addition and subtraction, but it is nevertheless possible to do so using two different techniques.

The first method to perform addition and subtraction on the C and D (or any comparable scales) requires converting the problem into one of division. For addition, the quotient of the two variables plus one times the divisor equals their sum:

For subtraction, the quotient of the two variables minus one times the divisor equals their difference:

This method is similar to the addition/subtraction technique used for high-speed electronic circuits with the logarithmic number system in specialized computer applications like the Gravity Pipe (GRAPE) supercomputer and hidden Markov models.

The second method uses a sliding linear L scale available on some models. Addition and subtraction are performed by sliding the cursor left (for subtraction) or right (for addition) then returning the slide to 0 to read the result.

Physical design

Standard linear rules
The length of the slide rule is quoted in terms of the nominal length of the scales. Scales on the most common "10-inch" models are actually 25 cm in length, as they were made to metric standards, though some rules offer slightly extended scales to simplify manipulation when a result overflowed. Pocket rules are typically 5 inches. Models a couple of meters long were sold to be hung in classrooms for teaching purposes.

Typically the divisions mark a scale to a precision of two significant figures, and the user estimates the third figure. Some high-end slide rules have magnifying cursors that make the markings easier to see.  Such cursors can effectively double the accuracy of readings, permitting a 10-inch slide rule to serve as well as a 20-inch.

Various other conveniences have been developed. Trigonometric scales are sometimes dual-labeled, in black and red, with complementary angles, the so-called "Darmstadt" style. Duplex slide rules often duplicate some of the scales on the back. Scales are often "split" to get higher accuracy.

Specialized slide rules were invented for various forms of engineering, business and banking. These often had common calculations directly expressed as special scales, for example loan calculations, optimal purchase quantities, or particular engineering equations. For example, the Fisher Controls company distributed a customized slide rule adapted to solving the equations used for selecting the proper size of industrial flow control valves.

Circular slide rules

Circular slide rules come in two basic types, one with two cursors (left), and another with a movable disk and a single cursor (right). The dual cursor versions perform multiplication and division by maintaining a fixed angle between the cursors as they are rotated around the dial. The single cursor version operates more like the standard slide rule through the appropriate alignment of the scales.

The basic advantage of a circular slide rule is that the longest dimension of the tool was reduced by a factor of about 3 (i.e. by π). For example, the outer scale of a 10 cm circular would have a maximum precision equal to a 30 cm ordinary slide rule. Circular slide rules also eliminate "off-scale" calculations, because the scales were designed to "wrap around"; they never have to be re-oriented when results are near 1.0—the rule is always on scale. However, for non-cyclical non-spiral scales such as S, T, and LL's, the scale length is shortened to make room for end margins.

Circular slide rules are mechanically more rugged and smoother-moving, but their scale alignment precision is sensitive to the centering of a central pivot; a minute 0.1 mm off-centre of the pivot can result in a 0.2 mm worst case alignment error. The pivot, however, does prevent scratching of the face and cursors. The highest accuracy scales are placed on the outer rings. Rather than "split" scales, high-end circular rules use spiral scales for more complex operations like log-of-log scales. One eight-inch premium circular rule had a 50-inch spiral log-log scale.

The main disadvantages of circular slide rules are the difficulty in locating figures along a rotating disc, and limited number of scales. Another drawback of circular slide rules is that less-important scales are closer to the center, and have lower precisions. Most students learned slide rule use on the linear slide rules, and did not find reason to switch.

One slide rule remaining in daily use around the world is the E6B. This is a circular slide rule first created in the 1930s for aircraft pilots to help with dead reckoning. With the aid of scales printed on the frame it also helps with such miscellaneous tasks as converting time, distance, speed, and temperature values, compass errors, and calculating fuel use. The so-called "prayer wheel" is still available in flight shops, and remains widely used. While GPS has reduced the use of dead reckoning for aerial navigation, and handheld calculators have taken over many of its functions, the E6B remains widely used as a primary or backup device and the majority of flight schools demand that their students have some degree of its mastery.

In 1952, Swiss watch company Breitling introduced a pilot's wristwatch with an integrated circular slide rule specialized for flight calculations: the Breitling Navitimer. The Navitimer circular rule, referred to by Breitling as a "navigation computer", featured airspeed, rate/time of climb/descent, flight time, distance, and fuel consumption functions, as well as kilometer–nautical mile and gallon–liter fuel amount conversion functions.

Materials
Traditionally slide rules were made out of hard wood such as mahogany or boxwood with cursors of glass and metal. At least one high precision instrument was made of steel.

In 1895, a Japanese firm, Hemmi, started to make slide rules from bamboo, which had the advantages of being dimensionally stable, strong and naturally self-lubricating. These bamboo slide rules were introduced in Sweden in September, 1933 , and probably only a little earlier in Germany. Scales were made of celluloid or plastic. Later slide rules were made of plastic, or aluminum painted with plastic. Later cursors were acrylics or polycarbonates sliding on Teflon bearings.

All premium slide rules had numbers and scales engraved, and then filled with paint or other resin. Painted or imprinted slide rules were viewed as inferior because the markings could wear off. Nevertheless, Pickett, probably America's most successful slide rule company, made all printed scales. Premium slide rules included clever catches so the rule would not fall apart by accident, and bumpers to protect the scales and cursor from rubbing on tabletops. The recommended cleaning method for engraved markings is to scrub lightly with steel-wool. For painted slide rules, and the faint of heart, use diluted commercial window-cleaning fluid and a soft cloth.

History

The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after John Napier's publication of the concept of the logarithm. Edmund Gunter of Oxford developed a calculating device with a single logarithmic scale, which, with additional measuring tools, could be used to multiply and divide. The first description of this scale was published in Paris in 1624 by Edmund Wingate (c. 1593 – 1656), an English mathematician, in a book entitled "L'usage de la reigle de proportion en l'arithmetique & geometrie". The book contains a double scale on one side of which is a logarithmic scale and on the other a tabular scale. In 1630, William Oughtred of Cambridge invented a circular slide rule, and in 1632 he combined two Gunter rules, held together with the hands, to make a device that is recognizably the modern slide rule. Like his contemporary at Cambridge, Isaac Newton, Oughtred taught his ideas privately to his students, but delayed in publishing them, and like Newton, he became involved in a vitriolic controversy over priority, with his one-time student Richard Delamain and the prior claims of Wingate. Oughtred's ideas were only made public in publications of his student William Forster in 1632 and 1653.

In 1677, Henry Coggeshall created a two-foot folding rule for timber measure, called the Coggeshall slide rule. His design and uses for the tool gave the slide rule purpose outside of mathematical inquiry.

In 1722, Warner introduced the two- and three-decade scales, and in 1755 Everard included an inverted scale; a slide rule containing all of these scales is usually known as a "polyphase" rule.

In 1815, Peter Roget invented the log log slide rule, which included a scale displaying the logarithm of the logarithm. This allowed the user to directly perform calculations involving roots and exponents. This was especially useful for fractional powers.

Modern form
The more modern form was created in 1859 by French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, "who was fortunate in having his rule made by a firm of national reputation and in having it adopted by the French Artillery." It was around that time, as engineering became a recognized professional activity, that slide rules came into wide use in Europe. They did not become common in the United States until 1881, when Edwin Thacher introduced a cylindrical rule there. The duplex rule was invented by William Cox in 1891, and was produced by Keuffel and Esser Co. of New York.

Astronomical work also required fine computations, and in 19th century Germany a steel slide rule about 2 meters long was used at one observatory. It had a microscope attached, giving it accuracy to six decimal places.

In World War II, bombardiers and navigators who required quick calculations often used specialized slide rules. One office of the U.S. Navy actually designed a generic slide rule "chassis" with an aluminum body and plastic cursor into which celluloid cards (printed on both sides) could be placed for special calculations. The process was invented to calculate range, fuel use and altitude for aircraft, and then adapted to many other purposes.

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s the slide rule was the symbol of the engineer's profession (in the same way that the stethoscope symbolizes the medical profession). German rocket scientist Wernher von Braun brought two 1930s vintage Nestler slide rules with him when he moved to the U.S. after World War II to work on the American space program. Throughout his life he never used any other pocket calculating devices; slide rules served him perfectly well for making quick estimates of rocket design parameters and other figures. Aluminum Pickett-brand slide rules were carried on five Apollo space missions, including to the moon, according to advertising on Pickett's N600 slide rule boxes .

Some engineering students and engineers carried ten-inch slide rules in belt holsters, and even into the mid 1970s this was a common sight on campuses. Students also might keep a ten-or twenty-inch rule for precision work at home or the office while carrying a five-inch pocket slide rule around with them.

In 2004, education researchers David B. Sher and Dean C. Nataro conceived a new type of slide rule based on prosthaphaeresis, an algorithm for rapidly computing products that predates logarithms. There has been little practical interest in constructing one beyond the initial prototype, however.

Decline

The importance of the slide rule began to diminish as electronic computers, a new but very scarce resource in the 1950s, became widely available to technical workers during the 1960s. The introduction of Fortran in 1957 made computers practical for solving modest size mathematical problems. IBM introduced a series of more affordable computers, the IBM 650 (1954), IBM 1620 (1959), IBM 1130 (1965) addressed to the science and engineering market. John Kemeny's BASIC programming language (1964) made it easy for students to use computers. The DEC PDP-8 minicomputer was introduced in 1965.

Computers also changed the nature of calculation. With slide rules, there was a great emphasis on working the algebra to get expressions into the most computable form. Users of slide rules would simply approximate or drop small terms to simplify the calculation. Fortran allowed complicated formulas to be typed in from textbooks without the effort of reformulation. Numerical integration was often easier than trying to find closed form solutions for difficult problems. The young engineer asking for computer time to solve a problem that could have been done by a few swipes on the slide rule became a humorous cliché. Many computer centers had a framed slide rule hung on a wall with the note "In case of emergency, break glass."

Another step toward the replacement of slide rules with electronics was the development of electronic calculators for scientific and engineering use. The first included the Wang Laboratories LOCI-2, introduced in 1965, which used logarithms for multiplication and division and the Hewlett-Packard HP-9100, introduced in 1968. The HP-9100 had trigonometric functions (sin, cos, tan) in addition to exponentials and logarithms. It used the CORDIC (coordinate rotation digital computer) algorithm, which allows for calculation of trigonometric functions using only shift and add operations. This method facilitated the development of ever smaller scientific calculators.

The last nail in the coffin for the slide rule was the launch of pocket-sized scientific calculators, of which the 1972 Hewlett-Packard HP-35 was the first. Such calculators became known as "slide rule" calculators since they could perform most or all of the functions on a slide rule. At several hundred dollars, even this was considered expensive for most students. While professional slide rules could also be quite expensive, drug stores often sold basic plastic models for under $20 USD. But by 1975, basic four-function electronic calculators could be purchased for under $50. By 1976 the TI-30 offered a scientific calculator for under $25. After this time, the market for slide rules dried up quickly as small scientific calculators became affordable.

Advantages
 A slide rule tends to moderate the fallacy of "false precision" and significance. The typical precision available to a user of a slide rule is about three places of accuracy. This is in good correspondence with most data available for input to engineering formulas. When a modern pocket calculator is used, the precision may be displayed to seven or more decimal places, while in reality the results can never be of greater accuracy than the input data available.
 A slide rule requires a continual estimation of the order of magnitude of the results. On a slide rule 1.5 × 30 (which equals 45) will show the same result as 1,500,000 × 0.03 (which equals 45,000). It is up to the engineer to continually determine the reasonableness of the results, something that can be lost when numbers are carelessly entered into a computer program or a calculator.
 When performing a sequence of multiplications or divisions by the same number, the answer can be often determined by merely glancing at the slide rule without any manipulation. This can be especially useful when calculating percentages, e.g., for test scores, or when comparing prices, e.g., in dollars per kilogram. Multiple speed-time-distance calculations can be performed hands-free at a glance with a slide rule.
 A slide rule does not depend on electricity.
 A slide rule is an easily replicated technology. From a given example of a slide rule, more can be constructed by a competent craftsperson from rudimentary materials using non-industrial processes.
 Slide rules are highly standardized, so there is no need to relearn anything when switching to a different rule.
 Slide rules are versatile, and can be operated in situations and environments where a human user might have reduced dexterity (for example, due to requiring protective gloves). Conversely, a calculator can be difficult to operate in such situations – a slide rule is unlikely to result in an error similar to that resulting from mistakenly pressing the wrong button on a calculator.
 Slide rules can be made out of cardboard or paper. Many free charts or specialized calculating devices made out of cardboard are actually specialized linear or circular slide rules.

One advantage of using a slide rule together with an electronic calculator is that an important calculation can be checked by doing it on both; because the two instruments are so different, there is little chance of making the same mistake twice.

Disadvantages
 Errors may arise from mechanical imprecision.
 Calculations using the slide rule are of limited precision because of their analog inputs and outputs. Conversely, because of the discrete numerical input and floating point electronic operations, even modest modern calculators have output resolutions of at least six significant figures.

Related pages
 Abacus
 Logarithm

Notes

Other websites

General information, history:
 International Slide Rule Museum – Galleries of slide rule scans, downloadable instruction manuals, slide rule encyclopedia and Glossary of Terms, historical dating of specimens, Slide Rule Course, Loaner Slide Rules for Schools, etc.
 The history, theory and use of the engineering slide rule – By Dr James B. Calvert, University of Denver
 Oughtred Society Slide Rule Home Page – Dedicated to the preservation and history of slide rules
 Early Calculators: Slide Rules – At the Museum of HP Calculators
 "How a slide rule works"  – From the Slide Rule Universe

How-to's:
 International Slide Rule Museum – Illustrated Self-Guided Course On How To Use The Slide Rule (with simulators)
 A Collection of Photo-realistic Pickett Slide Rule Simulators, by Derek Ross

Mathematical tools

Slide rule


Space Cadet is a 1948 science fiction novel by Robert A. Heinlein about Matt Dodson, who joins the Interplanetary Patrol to help preserve peace in the Solar System. The story translates the standard military academy story into outer space: a boy from Iowa goes to officer school, sees action and adventure, shoulders responsibilities far beyond his experience, and becomes a man. It was published as the second of the series of Heinlein juveniles and inspired the media franchise around the character Tom Corbett, including the 1950s television series Tom Corbett, Space Cadet and radio show which made "Space Cadet" a household phrase whose meaning later shifted in popular culture.

Plot summary
In 2075, teenager Matt Dodson applies to join the prestigious Interplanetary Patrol. After a number of physical, mental, and ethics tests, he is accepted as a cadet. He makes friends with fellow recruits William "Tex" Jarman, Venus-born Oscar Jensen, and Pierre Armand from Ganymede. His first roommate is Girard Burke, the arrogant son of a wealthy spaceship builder. They are transported to the orbiting school ship PRS James Randolph for further training. Burke eventually either resigns or is asked to leave, and goes into the merchant service, but the remainder do well enough to be assigned to working Patrol ships.

Dodson, Jarman and Jensen ship out on the Aes Triplex. Their first real mission is to help search for a missing research vessel, the Pathfinder, in the asteroid belt. They find it, but all aboard are dead, the unlucky victims of a fast-moving object that punctured the ship when the armored outer airlock door was open. Before the accident, a researcher on the Pathfinder had found evidence that the planet which blew up to form the asteroids was inhabited by an intelligent species, and that the explosion had been artificial. The captain of the Aes Triplex transfers half the crew to the repaired Pathfinder so that they can take the ship and the news of the startling discovery back to Earth quickly. With the remainder (including all three cadets), he plots a slower, fuel-efficient, elliptical voyage back to Earth.

Then, he receives an urgent message to investigate an incident on Venus. He sends Lieutenant Thurlow and the cadets to the planet's surface. The lander touches down on a sinkhole, giving the crew barely enough time to get out before it disappears in the mud. With Thurlow comatose, injured when the lander fell over, Jensen assumes command. He contacts the sentient, usually friendly Venerians, but the entire party is taken captive. They soon find out why.

These particular natives had never seen human beings before, until old classmate Burke showed up in a prospecting ship. He had taken the matriarch of the local clan hostage when she refused to give him permission to exploit a rich deposit of radioactive ores. The locals promptly attacked the ship and killed his crew; Burke managed to send a message for help before being taken prisoner.

Jensen gains the matriarch's trust and convinces her that they are honorable and civilized, unlike Burke, and the Patrolmen are released. Unfortunately, neither the lander nor Burke's ship is flightworthy. To their amazement, the matriarch takes the stranded humans to the carefully preserved Astarte, the legendary first ship to set out for Venus over a century before and thought to have been lost en route. According to the log, the crew perished from disease. With the help of the natives, the cadets recommission the ship and fly it back to Venus's South Pole colony. Dodson is initially disappointed when they are not treated as heroes, but then realizes that what they accomplished was simply what was expected of Patrolmen.

Themes
The Patrol is entrusted by the worldwide Earth government with a monopoly on nuclear weapons, and is expected to maintain a credible threat to drop them on Earth from orbit as a deterrent against breaking the peace. Matt, on a visit home, causes a family argument when his parents refuse to believe that the Patrol—and especially their son—would actually bomb Iowa.

The cadets are expected to renounce their loyalty to their respective countries and replace it by a wider allegiance to humanity as a whole and to the sentient species of the Solar System. They are told the stories of four Patrol heroes/martyrs who exemplify this quality.  One of them, Rivera, leaves orders to annihilate his hometown if he is held captive there during negotiations. Heinlein later expanded another of these anecdotes into "The Long Watch".

The young, idealistic Matt feels that he should be able, if the need arose, to emulate Rivera and destroy his own Iowa hometown. His father tells him such a need would never arise, since the Patrol's cosmopolitan allegiance is little more than a sham and in fact it is controlled by the "North American Federation" and serves its interests. Later, Matt's mentor in the Patrol makes him understand that if such an unlikely dilemma should arise, his commanding officer would lock him in his room rather than expect him to participate in the attack.  The mentor uses this scenario to force Matt to confront the personal and political issues involved in the institutional control of atomic weapons in a more mature way.

Written almost a decade before the American Civil Rights Movement, and at a time when non-white characters were almost entirely absent from science fiction, the book also explores the theme of racism, both literally, in discussions about the cosmopolitan racial makeup of the (all-male) Patrol, and metaphorically, in its description of conflict with the Venerians.  Venus is described  as intensely hot and (incorrectly, as is now known) swampy, but habitable. The Venerians are at first thought to be primitive, but it is later revealed that they have a high level of technological sophistication, though developed along radically different lines than that of humans.

There is also a subplot revolving around the issue of what it means to be a good soldier. Discouraged by the intellectual demands of his Patrol training, and attracted to the glamor and esprit de corps of the Marines, Matt requests a transfer, but is dissuaded by his mentor. The mentor, dividing human motivations into three types, explains that the Patrol, which has the responsibility of holding the ultimate weapon and keeping overall peace, is manned by a certain sort of person, the man of ideals (its motto is Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?). In contrast, the Marines, the service branch which deals with ordinary military affairs, are trained to prize unquestioning loyalty and bravery as the highest ideals, and are deliberately recruited from the type of person who seeks glory and excitement. Matt belongs to the former category. The Merchant Service, by implication, is for a third category, those motivated by economic concerns — which is where Burke fits in.

The novel contains an early description of a mobile phone:

The phone "was limited by its short range to the neighborhood of an earth-side [i.e. terrestrial] relay office". A cadet avoids having to talk to his family while traveling by packing his phone in luggage.

Critical reception
Surveying Heinlein's juvenile novels, Jack Williamson characterized Space Cadet as "a long step forward. ... The characters are stronger [and] the background is carefully built, original, and convincing, the story suspenseful enough." Williamson noted that Heinlein was "perfecting the bildungsroman form that shapes the whole series."

P. Schuyler Miller gave the book a favorable review as "a first-rate historical novel of the near future," saying "So subtly has the scientific detail been interwoven with plot and action that the reader never realizes how painstakingly it has been worked out."

Tom Corbett, Space Cadet
The novel inspired Joseph Greene of Grosset & Dunlap to develop the Tom Corbett, Space Cadet comic books, television series, radio show, comic strip, and novels that were popular in the early 1950s. Greene had originally submitted a radio script for "Tom Ranger and the Space Cadets" on January 16, 1946, but it remained unperformed when Heinlein's novel was published. Heinlein influenced the evolution of "Tom Ranger" into "Tom Corbett" and launched his student astronaut title's common mention; they share credit for the popularity of both formal and later slang uses of "space cadet."

In popular culture
The Tom Corbett, Space Cadet television series and radio show made "space cadet" a household phrase. By 1955, Jackie Gleason spoke the phrase on The Honeymooners television show in an episode called "TV or Not to TV," original airdate October 1, 1955.

The popular meanings of "space cadet" later shifted in popular culture away from astronaut-in-training to indicate, by the 1960s, an "eccentric person disconnected with reality" (often implying an intimacy with hallucinogenic drugs) although by the 2010s, drug use was rarely implied by this phrase, nor was low intelligence implied; "space cadet" was more simply associated with "spacing out," wandering from present concerns, especially of others present, and being a "space case." Both the "trainee astronaut" and "person regarded as being out of touch with reality" entered the Oxford English Dictionary, though by 2014 Oxford noted that, in American English, the phrase had also recouped the positive connotations originally meant by Heinlein and Joseph Greene, the Tom Corbett, Space Cadet writer: "An enthusiast for space travel, typically a young person."

References

External links

1948 American novels
1948 science fiction novels
Fiction set in the 2070s
Novels set in the 21st century
American science fiction novels
Children's science fiction novels
Space exploration novels
Novels by Robert A. Heinlein
Novels set on Venus
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into comics
Novels adapted into radio programs
American novels adapted into television shows

Space Cadet


John Ireland (8 September 1761 – 2 September 1842) was an English Anglican priest, who served as Dean of Westminster from 1816 until his death. In this role, he carried the crown during the coronation services at Westminster Abbey of two monarchs (George IV in 1821, William IV in 1831).  Theologically and politically conservative, as shown in his writings, he was generous with the considerable riches that he acquired during his career, making large donations to support education and relieve poverty in his home town.  In 1831, as Ireland was "a distinguished Benefactor of the University", Oxford had sought and obtained his permission to put on display a marble bust of him by the sculptor Sir Francis Leggatt Chantrey. The bust is now in the Examination Schools of the university. During his lifetime, he established scholarships at the University of Oxford, and in his will, he left money to establish the post of Dean Ireland's Professor of the Exegesis of Holy Scripture.

Life
Ireland was the son of Thomas Ireland, a butcher from Ashburton, Devon; his mother was called Elizabeth.  He was born in Asbburton on 8 September 1761 and was taught at the grammar school there before moving to the University of Oxford.  He matriculated at Oxford on 8 December 1779, as a member of Oriel College.  He obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in June 1783; he later obtained the degrees of Master of Arts (June 1810), and Bachelor and Doctor of Divinity (October 1810).  After obtaining his first degree, he was ordained as a priest in the Church of England, and was a curate near his home town for a time, before travelling abroad with the son of Sir James Wright, 1st Baronet, acting as the boy's tutor.  He was then vicar of Croydon, south of London, between 1793 and 1816.

Westminster Abbey
As well as ministering in Croydon, he was chaplain to the statesman Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool, who used his influence to have Ireland appointed as a prebend of Westminster Abbey in 1802.  Ireland rose to become subdean in 1806, and was additionally appointed as the Abbey's theological lecturer – the post dated from the time of Queen Elizabeth I, but had fallen into disuse. In this capacity, he addressed the king's scholars at the adjoining Westminster School between 1806 and 1812, and preached to the House of Commons at St Margaret's Church, Westminster in 1813.  He was offered, but declined, the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford at this time.

The Dean of Westminster, William Vincent, died in December 1815; Ireland was chosen as his successor and was installed in February 1816. In addition, he was Dean of the Order of the Bath and rector of Islip, Oxfordshire (holding the latter post, which was under the control of the Abbey, from 1816 to 1835).  As Dean, he had the right of carrying the crown at the coronation service; he did so in 1821 for George IV and in 1831 for William IV.  He was too ill for this role in 1838, when Victoria was crowned, and his place was taken by the subdean.  Ireland remained Dean of Westminster until his death in 1842.

Wealth and benefactions
Ireland became rich through his ecclesiastical appointments, but he made a number of charitable donations in his lifetime, and was regarded as generous with his money.  In 1825, he founded four scholarships at Oxford "for the promotion of classical learning and taste" at a personal cost of £4,000 (approximately £ as of ). Westminster School received £500 to institute prizes for Latin verse. A further £2,000 was donated to Ashburton to purchase a house for the schoolmaster, together with money for its repair and an annual fund for the assistance of elderly residents.  At his death, he left more than £20,000 (over £ as of ); £10,000 went to the University of Oxford to establish the post of Dean Ireland's Professor of the Exegesis of Holy Scripture, and a further £2,000 went to Oriel College.  A gift of £5,000 to build a new church in Westminster was later declared to be legally invalid.

Publications
Some of his sermons from his time in Croydon were published in 1796 as Five Discourses... for and against the Reception of Christianity by the Antient Jews and Greeks.  Lectures at Westminster School between 1806 and 1808 were published in 1809 as Paganism and Christianity Compared, with a second edition in 1825; his later lectures to the school were not published.  On political and religious topics, his works included Vindicae regiae, or, A Defence of the Kingly Office (1797); Letters of Fabius (1801), opposing repeal of the Test Act in relation to Irish Roman Catholics; and The Claims of the Establishment (1807), a sermon on the levels of tolerance and civil rights to be afforded to those who departed from traditional Anglican doctrines.  In 1801, he published anonymously Nuptiae sacrae, or, An Enquiry into the Scriptural Doctrine of Marriage and Divorce, at a time when William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland, was proposing to make it illegal for those who were divorced on the grounds of adultery from marrying their partner in adultery.  Ireland proved in the Quarterly Review in 1823 that an 1821 pamphlet was a plagiarised version of his earlier work, which was re-issued in 1830.  After two lectures on plagues, addressed to the Royal College of Physicians and published in 1832 and 1834, Ireland did not publish further.

Reputation
One historian of the abbey has said that Ireland was "essentially an eighteenth-century clergyman who lived long enough to feel the winds of change blowing around him". He has been criticised for failing to act to protect the position of Westminster School (which was in decline in this period) by increasing its funding from the abbey, although this would have meant reduced incomes for the abbey clergy and may not have been agreed.  He had a conservative attitude to political and religious affairs, shown in his writings.  He was a friend from schooldays of William Gifford, the satirist and first editor of the Quarterly Review; both assisted the other with their writings.  Gifford described Ireland as "my delight in youth, my pride and consolation in age", and tried to persuade George Canning (Foreign Secretary, and founder of the Review) to appoint Ireland as a bishop.

Illness and death
Ireland died in the Deanery at Westminster on 2 September 1842, shortly before his 81st birthday, having been in poor health since 1838.  He was buried in Westminster Abbey on 8 September, alongside William Gifford, whose burial Ireland had arranged as executor of his will. A bust by the English sculptor John Ternouth was later erected.  Ireland outlived his wife Susannah, who had died in 1826 at the rectory in Islip when she was 71 years old; there were no children of the marriage.

References

External links

1761 births
1842 deaths
18th-century English Anglican priests
19th-century English Anglican priests
Deans of Westminster
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
English philanthropists
Canons of Westminster
People from Ashburton, Devon

John Ireland (Anglican priest)


Sexual slavery is a special case of slavery or forced labour. Sexual slaves are like normal slaves, except for the following:
They may have been forced into prostitution;
The people are slaves, forced to do non-sexual labour. However, sexual relations with the slaves may be permitted, or even common;
They may be forced into sexual slavery with only one master. Often the fact that they really are slaves is hidden through marriages.

This term is also used by the Vienna Declaration for the women's rights and by the name of humanitarian international law.

Sex industry
Modern-day slavery

Sexual slavery


Chinese Garden MRT Station (EW25) is an above-ground Mass Rapid Transit station on the East West Line in Jurong East, Singapore. It serves residents in Yuhua and Hong Kah, as well people visiting tourist attractions in Jurong Lake, including the Chinese Gardens, which give the station its name. Its station colour is yellow. The roof of the station is based on a Chinese design.

The original name for Chinese Garden was Jurong Lake.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Chinese Garden MRT station


Alan & Denise were a British male/female vocal pop duo, consisting of Alan Whittle and his wife Denise.

In April 1983, they scored medium chart success (#43) in the German charts with their single, "Rummenigge". It was a tribute to the German football player  Karl-Heinz Rummenigge. Rummenigge, who played for FC Bayern Munich, was at that time at the height of his career.

References

External links
 Alan Whittle's website

English pop music duos
English vocal groups

Alan & Denise


The Bernese mountain dog is a breed of dog from Switzerland.

These dogs are tricolour, which means their coat of fur is made up of three colors: black, white, and tan. They are gentle, loyal, and good with children. Bernese Mountain Dogs are very large dogs, weighing from 70 to 120 pounds (32 to 54 kilograms) as adults. They were first used to pull carts and worked as all-around farm dogs.

Dog breeds
FCI breeds

Bernese mountain dog


Thrash metal is a kynd o hivy metal muisic that stairtit as an affshuit o hivy metal in the late 1970s an early 1980s. The term Speed metal wis uised for this genre in the aichties, but for ordinar that nou is uised whan talkin anent Pouer metal that pits a wheen emphasis on fast playin - baunds sic as DragonForce bein guid exemplars.

History
Thrash metal stairtit slaw, wi a stauchered development as first the guitar style, then the drummin, then vocals emerged an wis jyned thegither tae mak Thrash metal. Things really stairtit tae get muivin in the mid-aichties. Baunds sic as Metallica, Slayer, Anthrax an Megadeth led the chairge as the first o the sae cried "Extreme Metal" (Thrash, Deid an Black) genres teuk aff.

Bi the early nineties, housome'er, the Thrashers haed been ootpaced bi the ither developin forms o metal. Pouer metal baunds wis playin faster an mair technical muisic, takkin the "Speed metal" tag for thaimsels, while Deid an Black metal wis mair extreme baith muisically an ideologically, an sae chored the thunner o the Thrashers' pouer tae shock. Nae langer the fastest, hiviest, scariest or maist bruital strynd o metal, Thrash tint muckle o its appeal, as young fowk turned tae the mair extreme expressions o whit Thrash haed ance cried its ain territory.

Still, haen gien birth tae (in chronological reddin) Deid metal, Black metal an Metalcore, Thrash still haes a wheen o influence on the metal scence the day. An tho new Thrash baunds arna as nummersome as they ance wis (wi baunds sic as Trivium bein airgieable exceptions) the auld gaird sic as Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth an Testament still tours an pits oot new material quite aften.

Muisical Chairacteristics
 Guitar wark is aften based on fast, sneddy riffs an heich pitched solos, wi the strings aften doun-tuined tae Drop-D tuinin or laicher. Shreddin an soupin techniques is common forby.
 Drummin tends tae be unco fast, an maist thrash drummers uises aither twa bass drums, or a dooble-kick pedal.
 For tae haud up wi the gey fast pace o the muisic, maist bassits will uise a plectrum, tho this isna aye true. Distortin on the bass isna byordinar ava.
 Vocals is for ordinar naither as melodic as in Pouer metal nor as harsk as in Deid metal or Black metal. Maistlie they are gruff, e'en yelloched - but this isna aye the case, syne some are melodic lilters.
 Leerical themes kivvers quite a braid reenge, frae poleetics tae daith; society tae nihilism.

Kenspeckle Baunds
 Anthrax
 Death Angel
 Forbidden
 Kreator
 Megadeth
 Metallica
 Slayer
 Sodom
 Testament

Fremmit Airtins
 The Metal Crypt, wi a guid page anent genres
 Metal Archives - wi a muckle list o Thrash metal baunds
 A guid steid wi reviews an news anent Thrash metal

Thrash metal
Hivy metal subgenres

Thrash metal


Peter Glassen (1920–1986) was a professor of philosophy at the University of Manitoba from 1949 until his death in 1986. He was an analytic moral philosopher, publishing several articles in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He was also known for his arguments against metaphysical materialism, and spent a year (1948–49) in the psychology department at the University of Saskatchewan.

Early years
Born in Szeged, Hungary (then the Austro-Hungarian Empire) on October 19, 1920, Glassen emigrated with his parents to Toronto, Canada in 1929, residing on Gladstone Avenue in the city's west end. He graduated from Bloor Collegiate Institute in 1940. Among other academic awards, Glassen received the R.W. Leonard Entrance Scholarship for General Proficiency from the University of Toronto, valued at what was then the very substantial sum of $900. He graduated from the university with a B.A. in 1944 and an M.A. in 1945.

Studies at Harvard

In 1945, Glassen entered Harvard University, having been awarded the Philip H. Sears scholarship. There he studied with Ralph Barton Perry, C. I. Lewis, Henry D. Aiken, W. T. Stace, Henry Austryn Wolfson and others. In October 1947 he qualified for the A.M. degree and, under Aiken's supervision, continued to work on his doctoral dissertation ("The Ethics of Shaftesbury and Hutcheson", later changed to "The Criterion of Rightness in Action") for several years, but never completed his Ph.D. due to his commitments as an assistant professor.

Career at the University of Manitoba

Glassen's first set of publications consisted in eight papers published in major philosophical journals in 1957, 1958 and 1959. These reflected his core interests: analytic moral theory (where he was a cognitivist and champion of ordinary language analysis), value theory (particularly the classification of, and distinctions among, moral and non-moral varieties of normative judgment), and epistemology (notably the question of the possibility of synthetic a priori knowledge). There followed a period of reduced activity, with two papers on cognitivism in 1962 and 1963, several reviews for Dialogue from 1963 to 1970, and finally a series of papers on another subject of enduring interest—the refutation of arguments against dualism—between 1976 and 1984. Glassen also authored a number of conference papers, including two that were published in the proceedings of the 12th and 13th meetings of the International Congress of Philosophy, in 1958 and 1963 respectively. Several other papers were unpublished and—with one or two exceptions—are likely lost.

In 1961, Glassen travelled to England on a Canada Council grant, meeting with many leading moral philosophers of the time, including Sir David Ross, H. B. Acton and others.

Glassen's early promise was not entirely realized. This was at least partly due to the lasting effects of a personal tragedy. While returning from Toronto to Winnipeg for the beginning of the 1965–66 school year, Glassen was involved in a car accident that took the life of the other driver. Though not ultimately found at fault, Glassen never fully recovered from the shock. His scholarly output declined and he turned down an opportunity to move to the more prominent department at the University of Toronto in 1967. His career might have faded into complete obscurity had it not been for the development of eliminative materialism by fellow University of Manitoba philosophers Paul Churchland and Patricia Churchland in the 1970s. This aroused his vehement opposition and revived his interest in writing and publishing. After several years of good health, a series of illnesses in 1985-86 brought on a recurrence of depression and alcoholism, leading to his death by suicide on or about March 24, 1986 in Winnipeg.

List of known writings

Synopses of major articles

Some Questions about Relations (1957) is an analysis of the ontology of relations. Glassen argues that a relation has both properties (e.g. reflexivity (R), symmetry (S), transitivity (T)) and content. There must be content because many relations share the same set of properties while not being the same relation (e.g. "to the left of" and "before" are both [-R, -S, T]). Thus a relation "r" may be defined in terms of content and properties, e.g. as {r =df con, p1, p2, p3}. Glassen proceeds to point out several troubling questions that arise when we try to understand whether the relationship between content and properties is necessary or accidental. He admits in his conclusion that, "given the Bradleyan flavour of the problems to which it gives rise", there may be something wrong—and perhaps quite importantly wrong—with the initial distinction between content and properties. This paper was reviewed by Alonzo Church in The Journal of Symbolic Logic 32:3 (Sept. 1968), p. 408.

A Fallacy in Aristotle's Argument about the Good (1957) is a close analysis of a crucial paragraph in Book I, chapter 7 of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. Glassen argues that Aristotle fails to show (or even to attempt to argue) that it follows from the fact that the function of a good man is activity of the soul in accordance with virtue that the good of man—his final goal—is precisely that function. This reflects Glassen's attention to the distinction between morality and the broader theory of value. Glassen's argument has been referred to in a number of subsequent papers. Aurel Kolnai, referring to the same problem although not specifically to Glassen's paper, called this the "Aristotelian Equivocation".

Are There Unresolvable Moral Disputes? (1962) was influential in the field of ethical objectivism in its introduction of subjective bases of approval on top of the objective bases for approval outlined in emotivist theory - an introduction which made possible the resolution of moral disputes theoretically unresolvable under the emotivist theory. In a way, his work can be seen as straddling the line between emotivism and ethical objectivism.

References

1920 births
1986 deaths
Metaphysicians
University of Toronto alumni
Harvard University alumni
20th-century Canadian philosophers
20th-century Hungarian philosophers
1986 suicides
Hungarian emigrants to Canada
Canadian expatriates in the United States

Peter Glassen


A chairperson is a person who presides over meetings, such as a board of directors for a corporation, or any other meeting.  The chairman of a corporation is not the chief executive officer, and only conducts the meetings in most companies.

Although "chairman" has been used for both men and women, some prefer to use the terms "chairperson", "madame chairman" or "chairwoman." The conduct of meetings is governed by the organization's by-laws or charter, or, more formally, Parliamentary procedure for government organizations or large meetings generally.  Rarely the chairperson is called the "chair," though in educational institutions a "chair" indicates a specific endowed position on a faculty.

References

Business occupations

Chairperson


Boyce and Hart were a musical and songwriting duo, who worked together in the 1960s and 1970s. Tommy Boyce (born Sidney Thomas Boyce in 1939 and died in 1994) and Bobby Hart (born Robert Luke Harshman in 1939) wrote and produced hit records for The Monkees ("Last Train to Clarksville", "Valleri"), Jay and the Americans ("Come a Little Bit Closer"), Chubby Checker ("Lazy Elsie Molly"), and for themselves, with "I Wonder What She's Doing Tonight" and other songs.

Their biggest success was with the Monkees, as writers, producers and performers. Many of the early Monkees recordings featured Boyce and Hart's band, the Candy Store Prophets, before the Monkees were even selected from auditions. When the Monkees themselves took charge of their recordings, they still recorded Boyce and Hart's songs, and praised the duo to the public.

Ten years after the Monkees's heyday, two former members, Micky Dolenz and Davy Jones, teamed up with Boyce and Hart, touring and performing the band's hits. They also issued a new album on Capitol Records.

American boy bands
Musical groups from Virginia

Boyce and Hart


A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a "clarinet trio". Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a "horn trio".

Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

Famous music for piano trio

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven's last piano trio has the nickname Archduke because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

Famous piano trios

Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.

Musical groups
Piano

Piano trio


Pakistan's official national religion is Islam, and about 97% of the people in Pakistan follow Islam.  But there are people of many other religions living in Pakistan.

Christianity
Christians are the largest minority group in Pakistan. They live all over the country.  Pakistani Christians belong to many ethnic groups and speak many languages.  There are many different churches, and many different types of churches, in most cities in Pakistan.

Although Pakistani Christians do not only do one type of job, they have often done a lot of work in areas like health care, education, railways and the police force. They are also starting to do a lot of work in the civil and defence services.

Hinduism
Hindus are the second biggest minority in Pakistan.

These are people (and children of people) who followed the Hindu religion during the days when Pakistan and India were together. In those days, they were part of the lowest caste. They were called "untouchable," and had to do work that no one else would do.

In a "caste system," there are different groups of people who are thought of as more or less important than each other.  People would become a member of their caste when they were born, because their parents were part of that group. The lowest caste was thought of as the least important of all.

In Pakistan today, the law says that people are not allowed to treat this group badly. But people still do treat them badly, and make them do jobs that do not pay much money.  Now some of these low-caste people are going to school and getting better jobs.

The Hindus of Pakistan are mostly found in Sindh, where they do a lot of farming. In the larger cities (like the city of Karachi), Hindus do a lot of buying and selling. They celebrate the Hindu holy days with all their traditional colour.

Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadis follow the things Mirza Ghulam Ahmad taught at the end of the 1800s. Their doctrine (religious beliefs) is very close to Islam on most points. However, the Ahmadis do not believe that Mohammad was God's last Prophet.

The Ahmadis do not call themselves non-Muslim. Only in the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan written by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto after the secession of East Pakistan they were declared non-Muslim.

Ahmadis are mainly of Punjabi origin (from the Punjab area of India and Pakistan). They do all kinds of Humanitarian work not only in Pakistan, but all over the world.

Zoroastrianism
The Parsis or (Zoroastrians) are a very small minority who live mostly in Pakistan's larger cities. Almost all of them work in business. Some of Pakistan's most successful shipping businessmen are Parsis. The richer members of this community are well-known for their philanthropic activities (giving money to people or organizations, with the goal of helping them or doing good).

Buddhism
There are very few Buddhists in Pakistan.  However, their ancestors' culture made a difference in Pakistan. Many ancient Buddhist temples, schools, and cities have been found by archaeologists in Pakistan.

Religions of Pakistan


Abdelghani Bousta (18 February 194921 September 1998), was a Moroccan politician who opposed the monarchical power of his country. Like many of his fellow fighters at the time, his democratic views in favour of the separation of powers and taking absolute power away from King Hassan II forced him into exile for over twenty years.

He often quoted Max Frich, who once said: "he who fights might lose; he who gives up the fight has already lost".

1949-1969: birth and studies
Bousta was born on 18 February 1949 in Marrakesh. In 1957, after Morocco gained independence, he gave his first speech, with the support of his school. In his speech, he expressed how urgent it was for all Moroccans to be involved in the construction of a freed and free Moroccan and how the whole country should get together to do so.

In 1965, aged 16, he passed his scientific baccalauréat. He then went on to study at the École Mohammadia d'ingénieurs (EMI) in Rabat. During that time, he took part in student protest movements and in university strikes. He became an electronics engineer at the age of 20.

He then went to Grenoble in France to study for a postgraduate certificate (DEA), specialising in industrial system controls at the Institut Polytechnique de Grenoble (IPG).

1969-1973: politics
When he arrived in Grenoble, he joined the National Union of Popular Forces (Union nationale des forces populaires - UNFP) and was very active in the party and in the National Union of Moroccan students (Union nationale des étudiants du Maroc - UNEM).

In 1971, he joined the trend that chose to fight with weapons, which was led by Mohamed Basri (also known as le Fquih).

Once he had gained his degree in industrial control systems, and defended his thesis, he returned to Morocco in 1972 where he became the head of dams for South Morocco.

1973: 3 March and life in hiding
The March 1973 events, which were mainly organised by Mohamed Basri, forced him into hiding and then exile. At the beginning of 1973, after the two military coups in 1971 and 1972, there was a period of armed actions against national establishments in some towns and countries in Morocco.

At the beginning of March 1973, some UNFP activists crossed the border between Algeria and Morocco and reach the Atlas to carry out substantial armed action against the Moroccan regime. They were surrounded on 3 March 1973 by the police. Several of them, including Mahmoud Bennouna, Assekour Mohamed and Brahim Tizniti, were killed. Other activists risked their lives trying to reach Algeria.

After the events, many activists were arrested and eight were sentenced to death and executed on 1 November 1973, the day of Eid al-Adha. They were: Omar Dahkoun, Abdellah Ben Mohamed, Aît Lahcen, Barou M'Barek, Bouchakouk Mohamed, Hassan Idrissi, Moha Nait Berri and Taghjite Lahcen.

From May 1973 to September 1974, Abdelghani Bousta lived in hiding. During this time, he realised the mistakes made when the March 1973 events were organised. In 1975, he wrote a critical analysis of UNFP on behalf of the Option Révolutionnaire (Revolutionary option) movement, harshly criticising the events and the leaders: "[…] the March 1973 events helped shed light on the internal contradictions of the Party and show the true nature of its leaders: putschist and adventurous leaders who did not see any problem in sacrificing dozens of activists in a hazardous battle."

1974-1994: exile in Paris
Abdelghani chose to go into exile in Paris in September 1974.

After the founding congress of the Socialist union of popular forces (Union socialiste des forces populaires) in 1975, he considered that the Party leaders were taking a step backwards: he believed that they were not simply changing the name of the party (USPF instead of UNFP) but more importantly giving up fundamental principles. With a number of other activists, he decided to found a school of thought as a political alternative, which criticised populist and putschist decisions and activities on the one hand and opportunistic and reformist trends on the other.

1975-1983: the Option révolutionnaire movement
On 1 May 1975, the El Ikhtiar Attaouri (revolutionary option) movement was founded, mainly instigated by Abdelghani. In 1976, he started a monthly magazine with the same name. The many articles he wrote helped train many activists, including some political prisoners. He coordinated the movement's activities and played an active part in determining its leanings, its activities, and its different positions, in the monthly magazine and in several brochures (e.g. the Sahara issue, critical analysis of the Mouvement de Libération Nationale (National liberation movement) and UNFP).

In 1977 he co-founded the Trois Continents association, which welcomed many Arab activists (Syrians, Algerians, Palestinians...). They published the first issue of a magazine in support of the Third-World, which aimed at being in line with the revolutionary views of Mehdi Ben Barka. Unfortunately, as early as the first issue, the magazine could not be published because its financing had to be withdrawn.

He then founded the Centre Averroès (Ibn Ruchd) and supervised the translation of several books into Arabic: The commander of the faithful by J. Watherbury, Le fellah marocain, détenteur du trône by Rémi Leveau, Maroc, Impérialisme et Immigration by A. Baroudi.

The Option révolutionnaire movement spread abroad, not only to the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Italy, Germany and France but also to Libya and Algeria. The encounters led to ideological and political debates. Action programmes were set up to criticise the Moroccan regime and Moroccan politics, and develop activist links with the different left-wing Moroccan trends. At the same time, it became more and more obvious that he and Mohamed Basri were starting to disagree.

On 30 March 1982, the Option révolutionnaire movement publicly declared that any national and international political declarations made by Mohamed Basri did not express the views of the movement. As Mohamed Basri kept on making such declarations, the movement released a statement on 2 February 1983 clearly saying that they were breaking off their relationship with him.

In 1983, the Alikhtiar Attaouri magazine wrote: 'The Option Révolutionnaire movement has always fought the reformist-adventurous trend of the Party. […] It has always considered that reformism and adventurism are intertwined".

1984: dissolution of the Option révolutionnaire movement
In 1983 most of the activists of the national administrative commission of the Union socialiste des forces populaires (USFP-CAN, which later became PADS) voted against the party executives and broke off from them. According to them, the party executives were making compromising decisions which went against the fundamental principles of the party.

Abdelghani Bousta then suggested dissolving the Option Révolutionnaire movement, which meant that many activists joined USPF-CAN, which he represented abroad.

1989: founding of the Centre marocain pour la coopération et les droits de l'homme (Moroccan centre for cooperation and human rights)
In 1986 he founded Alwatane (the Nation) magazine, which dealt with the topics of liberation, development and socialism in Morocco and other Arab countries.

The development of cooperation and friendship relationships with the international progressive movement, particularly in Europe, led him to create the Centre marocain pour la coopération et les droits de l'homme (CMCDH) with other fellow activists.

1993: founding congress of PADS
In 1993 the founding congress of PADS (Parti de l'Avant-garde démocratique socialiste – Socialist democratic avant-garde party), formerly the USFP-CAN, took place; exiled activists were able to take part over the phone.

On this occasion, Abdelghani Bousta made a speech to the PADS congress on behalf of the exiled activists, in which he said: "Though we are far apart and circumstances separate us today, be assured that we are with you. […] We are experiencing this historical moment and this great change of direction in the splendid development of our Party. This change of direction shows that our party is firmly rooted in its elaborate fundamental principles, which have been developed and fine-tuned by generations of sincere activists. […] Our people has fought many battled and uprisings, shed many tears and drops of blood to see our aims and aspirations triumph."

From this date on, he was the PADS representative for foreign affairs in his capacity as a member of the national executive board and the central committee. He spread the views of his party by creating the magazine La lettre du Maroc, the organ of the PADS abroad, in September 1993. He took part in many congresses in France, Spain, Portugal... and chaired conferences and workshops about human rights and the political situation in Morocco.

1994: Return from exile and creation of Droits pluriels
Following the general amnesty in 1994, and after much hesitation, he decided to return to Morocco from time to time, so as to help his comrades develop and strengthen the ideological, political, economic and strategic aspects of the Party.

He regularly took part in central committee meetings and made concrete suggestions about action programmes, wrote analytical articles in the Party newspaper (Attarik), giving a critical history of the national movement and the UNFP, and writing about the principles and foundations of the constitution of a united democratic front.

In October 1995 he wrote an explicit internal memorandum in which he resigned from the national board of PADS, whilst still remaining a member of the central committee.

From then on, his main concern was to write a political history of Morocco and of the Moroccan political movement, and UNFP in particular.  At the same time, he and his family worked on gathering all the texts written by Ben Barka.  By analysing the politics of Ben Barka, he wanted to give a clear analysis of present politics.
Furthermore, being deeply committed, he intended to take part in the next congress of his party in 1999, by making ideological and political contributions.

In July 1996, he was diagnosed with a form of cancer which was particularly advanced for his age (47), but which was maybe brought on by the vicissitudes of exile, disillusion and deep deception.  Despite his illness, for more than two years, he started writing texts which were to remain unfinished, and he often helped write, publish and broadcast Droits pluriels; he also took part in conferences and workshops.

He died on 21 September 1998, and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. He wished to experience the year 2000 with new technology, and created a website about Morocco and human rights, which he called Maroc-Réalités. One of the main aims of the site was to gather texts written by martyrs and democrats, especially Mehdi Ben Barka. He simply could not imagine that no voice would remain to speak out against injustice, and hoped that one day, the future would be brighter.

Notes
Free text taken from Maroc Réalités - Abdelghani Bousta - English Biography

References

1949 births
1998 deaths
Moroccan politicians
Politicians from Marrakesh
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Abdelghani Bousta


is a party video game developed by Game Republic and published by Microsoft Game Studios. It was a Japanese launch title for the Xbox 360.

Gameplay
The game plays as a board game in which up to four players compete to be the first to reach a goal.  Each board features multiple routes, with some being shorter and riskier, while others are longer but potentially more lucrative in terms of prizes.  There are a number (30+) of different mini games which can be triggered during play, similar to the Mario Party series.

Before play begins, players select a character and customize the character with a variety of items and accessories unlocked during previous sessions.  When playing online via Xbox Live, this helps provide a unique appearance as compared to other players.

Roulette wheels

Movement is handled by spinning roulette wheels, although players actually collect the wheels themselves during the course of the game and pick which wheel to use each turn.  There are 37 different wheels, with different distributions of numbers, allowing some strategy in trying to get the desired number to come up.  Players can store up to five different roulette wheels at once.

Some roulette wheels contain star spaces.  If the wheel lands on one of these locations, the player is subjected to the bonus or penalty from the current square again.  While this can be helpful if on a particularly beneficial square, such spaces usually have little or no movement accompanying them, and so ultimately hinder progression towards the goal.

Medals
In addition to collecting roulette wheels, players also collect medals (frequently referred to as "coins", due to their resemblance to gold coins).  These medals are used as payment to pass certain obstacles, to avoid certain negative effects, or to make purchases (often of coveted roulette wheels).

Development
The characters in the game were designed by Japanese writer and manga artist Momoko Sakura, known for her work on Chibi Maruko-chan.

Reception
As the title was released only in Japan, most English language review sites previewed the game but neglected to perform a full review.  Positives which were highlighted included customizable online play and a unique artistic style.  Negative comments focused on long load times, dated graphics, and overly-simplistic mini games.

Japanese review scores:
 Weekly Famitsū: 30 out of 40 (75%)
 Famitsū Xbox 360: 24 out of 40 (60%)

References

External links
Official website

2005 video games
Digital board games
Game Republic games
Japan-exclusive video games
Microsoft games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games developed in Japan
Xbox 360 games
Xbox 360-only games

Every Party


A slide projector is a device that is used to view photographic slides by using optical and mechanical
methods. It contains an electric light bulb. focusing lenses.
reflector and condensing lenses. a holder that holds the slide.

A flat piece of heat absorbing glass is often placed between the condensing lens and the slide, to avoid damaging the slide. This glass absorbs infrared. Light passes through the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected onto a screen. So the audience can view its reflection.

The image may be projected onto a translucent "rear projection" screen. That is used for continuous automatic display for close viewing. This form of projection also avoids that people who look at the show interrupt the light stream or bump into the projector.

Slide projectors were common in the 1950s and 1960s as a form of entertainment; family members and friends would gather to view slideshows.

In-home photographic slides and slide projectors have largely been replaced by low cost paper prints, digital cameras, DVD media, video display monitors and digital projectors.

As of October 2004, Kodak no longer manufactures slide projectors. It is also increasingly difficult in some countries to locate photo processors who will process slide film. this is how to make an easy and cheap slide projector at home !! this can be also used for projects.

Other websites
 Kodak: Slide projectors family

Photography
Machines

Slide projector


A kiss is the titch or pressin o ane's lips against anither person or an object. Cultural connotations o kissin vary widely. Dependin on the cultur an context, a kiss can express sentiments o luve, passion, romance, sexual attraction, sexual acteevity, sexual arousal, affection, respect, greetin, freendship, peace, an guid luck, amang mony ithers. In some situations, a kiss is a ritual, formal or seembolic gestur indicatin devotion, respect, or sacrament. The wird came frae Auld Inglis cyssan ("tae kiss"), in turn frae coss ("a kiss").

Greetins
Interpersonal relationships
Sexual acts

Kiss


A Calendar date is a way to refer to a certain day in a calendar. With the calendar date and the calendar, the exact day can be identified. With a different calendar, the same calendar date may refer to a different day. This can be seen easiest when comparing the Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar.

Calendar dates are important to refer to events (most holidays are fixed with reference to a particular event or calendar date.) One example may be Easter. In the Middle Ages, it has been fixed that Easter is to be the first Sunday that is (on or after) the 14th day after the spring equinox.

Most calendar systems have a date format that has three parts, the day of a certain month, the month and the year. Sometimes the week is added.

Other websites
On This Day In History

Calendars

Calendar date


A Milankovich cycle is any slow but regular change in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, and the tilt of the Earth's axis.

The dynamics are complex. The changes affect the 'insolation' (sunlight falling on parts of the Earth). This leads to cycles of climate on Earth, at about 21,000, 41,000 years, 100,000 and 400,000 years. This whole field is still under active research.

Using applied mathematics, Milutin Milanković predicted that variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit caused climate patterns on Earth.

Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar, James Croll and others. However, there was at first no reliable dated evidence. The issue was not settled until deep-ocean cores were taken and a paper published in Science in 1976.

The cycles

Orbital shape (eccentricity)
Earth's orbit is an ellipse. The eccentricity is a measure of the departure of this ellipse from circularity. The shape of the Earth's orbit varies in time between nearly circular and mildly elliptical.

Axial tilt (obliquity)
The angle of the Earth's axial tilt varies with respect to the ecliptic plane, because perturbations from other planets shift the Earth's orbit.

When the obliquity increases, the summers in both hemispheres receive more heat and light from the Sun, and winters less. Conversely, when the obliquity decreases, summers receive less sunshine and winters more. These slow 2.4° obliquity variations are roughly periodic. They take about 41,000 years to shift between a tilt of 22.1° and 24.5° and back again.

Axial precession
Precession is the wobble of the Earth's axis. This gyroscopic motion is due to the tidal forces exerted by the Sun and the Moon on the solid Earth, which has the shape of an oblate spheroid rather than a sphere. The Sun and Moon contribute roughly equally to this effect. Its period is about 26,000 years.

When the axis points toward the Sun, one polar hemisphere has a greater difference between the seasons while the other has milder seasons. The hemisphere that is in summer at perihelion receives much of the corresponding increase in solar radiation, but that same hemisphere in winter at aphelion has a colder winter. The other hemisphere will have a relatively warmer winter and cooler summer.

Apsidal precession
Planets orbiting the Sun follow elliptical (oval) orbits that rotate gradually over time (apsidal precession).

In addition, the orbital ellipse itself precesses in space, primarily as a result of interactions with Jupiter and Saturn. This shortens the period of the precession of the equinoxes from 25,771.5 to ~21,636 years.

Orbital inclination

The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit with a period of about 70,000 years. Milankovitch did not study this three-dimensional movement. This movement is known as 'precession of the ecliptic' or 'planetary precession'.

Researchers noted this drift, and also that the orbit moves relative to the orbits of the other planets.  The invariable plane, the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System, is approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter.  The inclination of the Earth's orbit has a 100,000 year cycle relative to the invariable plane. This is very similar to the 100,000 year eccentricity period.  This 100,000-year cycle closely matches the 100,000-year pattern of ice ages.

It has been proposed that a disk of dust and other debris exists in the plane, which affects the Earth's climate.  The Earth moves through this plane around January 9 and July 9, when there is an increase in radar-detected meteors and meteor-related noctilucent clouds.

A study of the Antarctic ice core, using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice, concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by Northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis. This is an additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis by a relatively new method. It is not consistent with the "inclination" theory of the 100,000-year cycle.

Related pages
Orbital forcing

References

Earth
Climate
Celestial mechanics

Milankovich cycle


Sourcing advisory is the use of third-party (external entity) advice during the sourcing process. As such, it may refer to advice sought during outsourcing, offshoring or global sourcing.

Sourcing advisors
Given the strategic nature of the advisory and the prevalence of sourcing amongst global organizations, most management consulting firms today offer sourcing advisory services. In addition, there exist a host of specialized sourcing advisory firms that focus on providing sourcing advisory and research inputs to the industry. Sourcing advisors can also be independent freelance consultants.

In recent years software tools to automate sourcing advisory emerged. Building on Software as a Service (SaaS), the trade mark "Sourcing Advisory as a Service" (SAaaS) is used in the market.

Services
The range of services provided by sourcing advisory firms include:
 Helping buyers identify functions to be outsourced or offshored (sourcing opportunity areas, shoring strategy)
 Helping buyers identify and evaluate capable suppliers (provider selection )
 Advising buyers through stages of the outsourcing transaction
 Helping buyers manage established outsourcing relationships (in issues such as governance and change management); improve sourcing contracts
 Helping buyers re-negotiate or renew transactions
 Support escalation management
 Execution of operational audits with the aim of project recovery
 Research relevant to the sourcing industry

See also
 Management consulting
 Outsourcing
 Offshoring
 Global sourcing

References

Offshoring
Offshore finance
Legal entities
Business terms
Outsourcing
International business

Sourcing advisory


Sienna Tiggy Guillory (said like "Gil-ir-ee" (IPA: [ˈɡɪlɜːɪ])) (born 16 March 1975) is an English actress and she used to be a model. She is famous for acting as Jill Valentine in Resident Evil: Apocalypse and as Elf Arya Drottningu in Eragon.

She is daughter of Isaac Guillory, an Anglo-Cuban folk guitarist, and his first wife, Tina. Guillory has acted in many British movies, and later in American movies. Not long ago, she acted in a number of science-fiction and fantasy movies written for teenagers.

While working on the 1996 movie The Future Lasts A Long Time, Guillory met English actor Nick Moran, and she was married to Moran from July 1997 until 2000. Later, she married Enzo Cilenti, in 2002, and Guillory wore her grandmother's wedding gown. In 2007, they moved to Los Angeles, California, USA.

1975 births
Living people
English models
English movie actors
English television actors

Sienna Guillory


San Juan Bautista de La Salle (born 30 April 1651 in Reims, France – died 7 April 1719) was a priest and an educational reformer. He was the creator of the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. He was beatified on 19 February 1888 and canonized on 29 May 1900 by Pope Leo XIII. He had to take the administration of family business after his parents died, so he completed his theological studies and was ordered to the priesthood at the age of 26 on 9 April 1678. Two years later he received a doctorate in theology.

De La Salle was a pioneer in programs for training lay teachers. In 1685, he founded what is generally considered the first normal school — that is, a school with the purpose of train teachers — in Rheims, France. He was a pedagogical thinker of note and is among the founders of distinctively modern pedagogy.

1651 births
1719 deaths
French Roman Catholic priests
Christian saints
People from Reims

Jean-Baptiste de La Salle


The Last Judgment is a fresco by Michelangelo painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. Clement VII commissioned the painting in 1534, the last year of his papacy. After the election of Paul III Farnese, Michelangelo, aged 61, began work in 1536. He completed the Last Judgement in the autumn of 1541.

The Last Judgment shows the Second Coming of Christ, as described by John the Evangelist in the apocalypse. The painting depicts the moment when the living and dead are judged by Christ, and their souls consigned to heaven or hell.

The painting was not unanimously admired at the time. Due to his depiction of holy persons in the nude, with exposed genitals, Michelangelo was accused of immorality and obscenity. The cardinal said that this could not be tolerated inside the most important church of Christianity. A censorship campaign was started, known as the "Fig-leaf campaign". Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua's ambassador) launched the campaign to remove the frescoes.  When the Pope's own Master of Ceremonies, Biagio da Cesena, said "it was mostly disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully," and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather "for the public baths and taverns," Michelangelo worked the Cesena's semblance into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld (far bottom-right corner of the painting). It is said that when Cesena complained to the Pope, the pontiff responded that his jurisdiction did not extend to hell, so the portrait would have to remain.

The genitalia in the fresco were later covered by the artist Daniele da Volterra, whom history remembers by the derogatory nickname "Il Braghettone" ("the breeches-painter").

In the painting, Michelangelo does a self portrait depicting himself as St. Bartholomew after he had been flayed (skinned alive) This is reflective of the feelings of contempt Michelangelo had for being commissioned to paint the Last Judgement.

References

Paintings with Christian themes
16th-century paintings

The Last Judgement (Michelangelo)


Gravamen (from Lat. gravare, to weigh down; gravis, heavy), (plural gra·va·mens or gra·vam·i·na) is a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an accused person. In legal terms, it is the essential element of a lawsuit.

In English the term is used chiefly in legal submissions and judicial opinions. The word is commonly misspelled .

Apart from the normal usage of the word, the gravamen test is used in contract law to distinguish between the sale of goods and services in "hybrid" transactions. Under the test each component of the sale is isolated and individually determined to be either a good or a service. The more common approach used by courts is the predominant purpose test which looks at the general thrust of the exchange rather than each individual component.

The term is also used in ecclesiastical courts, being the technical designation of a memorial presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation, setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to breaches in church discipline.

References

Canon law of the Anglican Communion
Criminal law

Gravamen


Teaninich distillery is a scotch whiskey distillery in Alness, Scotland.

History
It was founded and built in 1817 by Hugh Munro on his estate of Teaninich Castle. Despite an initial difficulty of procuring barley whisky owing to a high demand from illegal distilleries, by 1830 Teaninich produced 30 times more spirit than it did at its founding. At that point Munro sold the distillery to his younger brother Lieutenant-General John Munro.  As an officer he spent most of his time in India, so he decided to rent the distillery out to Robert Pattison in 1850. The lease lasted to 1869 after which Munro leased it to John McGilchrist Ross. Ross relinquished the lease in 1895, and in 1898 Robert Innes Cameron took a stake in the distillery, and Munro and Cameron renovated and extended the distillery, investing £10,000 in to the renovations. In 1904 Cameron, who also owned stakes in Benrinnes, Linkwood and Tamdhu, took over the distillery completely. After Cameron died in 1933 the distillery was sold to Scottish Malt Distillers. The distillery suspended production between 1939 and 1946 due to barley shortages during World War II.

In 1970 the distillery was greatly expanded, and an entire new building with six new stills was taken in operation. The four older stills remained in operation alongside the new stills. The old side of the distillery was then updated over the next decade. First, new installations for milling, mashing and fermentation were built in 1973, and in 1975 the distillery added a dark grains plant, which produces cattle feed from the draff. In 1984 the old side of the distillery was mothballed, and the new side followed the next year, temporarily ending production entirely. The new side of the distillery resumed production in 1991. The old side didn't resume production, and was demolished in 1999. In 2000 a mash filter press was installed in the distillery, which is unique in Scottish malt whisky production; all other Scottish whisky distilleries use mash tuns.

In April 2013 owner Diageo announced a new renovation of the distillery. They also announced a new distillery with 16 new stills will be placed next to the old distillery. The new distillery is planned to have a different name than Teaninich, and produce a separate whisky.

The distillery mainly produces malts for blending, and it is used in Johnnie Walker Red Label. There are no official bottlings of the malt. Since 1992 a 10-year-old malt has been available in the flora and fauna series.

References

Distilleries in Scotland
1817 establishments in Scotland
Alness

Teaninich distillery


WYSIWYM is an acronym that stands for What you see is what you mean.  This was positioned to not be confused with WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). The idea behind WYSIWYG is to display text on screen in much the same way as they will appear when printed on paper. WYSIWYM is different from this: The content is structured. When the content is entered, this meaning is added to the text. This will mean that presentation is separated from the content. The content is translated before it is rendered. This also means that it can be translated differently, the same content can lead to different output formats. More importantly though, the person editing the document can focus on the content, and is not easily distracted by what the content looks like. One of the drawbacks of the method is that the user is forced to think ahead. LaTeX is an example of a document processing system that uses WYSIWYM.

Web design
Acronyms

WYSIWYM


A blade is the flat, sharp part of a tool or weapon used to cut or stab, such as a knife or sword. Most blades have handles. Blades can be used to stab, cut, or separate things. It can also be the top part of grass or the leaf of a plant. Blades come in all different sizes and shapes, sharpness and materials.

Basic English 850 words
Blades

Blade


The British Rail Class 29 consisted of 20 diesel locomotives which were rebuilt from the North British Class 21. The original licence-built MAN engines of the Class 21s had proved unreliable, so in 1963 locomotive D6123 was sent to Paxman's Colchester works to receive a new Paxman Ventura V12 engine.  A further 19 were re-engined in 1964–1965 at Polmadie Works, with other changes made at the same time. This included the fitting of four-character headcode displays in the nose ends. After rebuilding, they returned to service from Eastfield depot in Glasgow.

Although these offered more power and much improved reliability over the original Class 21s, they did not survive much longer, due to their small class size and the use of a non-standard high-speed diesel engine. D6108 was withdrawn in May 1969 and scrapped by McWilliams of Shettleston in 1971, while the other 19 were withdrawn between April and December 1971 and scrapped at BR's Glasgow Works in 1971–72. No Class 21 or Class 29 locomotives survive today.

29

British Rail Class 29


The Telecinema was a small cinema built especially for the Festival of Britain's London South Bank Exhibition in the summer of 1951.  It was situated between Waterloo station and the Royal Festival Hall.

The Telecinema was one of the most popular attractions of the Festival, with 458,693 visitors. Many people had to be turned away.  When the Festival of Britain ended, the press and public called for its retention, and, following discussion with the London County Council and the film industry, "the building was formally handed over to the BFI for use as a  members-only repertory cinema club. It was re-equipped with 400 seats,  projection facilities for both 16mm and 35mm, and re-opened in October  1952 as the National Film Theatre. It remained until 1957 when the NFT relocated to a cinema under Waterloo Bridge.

Building

The Festival of Britain Office appointed Wells Coates to design a building on the South Bank where 35mm film, stereoscopic (3-D) and stereophonic film and large-screen television broadcasts could be shown. He created a grey, oblong building, constructed from light steel and soundproofed, in what Today's Cinema magazine at the time called, "a fly-away linear design [with a] gay façade and bold modern stare". It could seat 410 people, 252 in the stalls and 158 in the balcony. The foyer doubled as a television studio.  It was operated and programmed by the BFI.

Although the Festival literature and British Film Institute (BFI) press releases called it the "Telecinema", the name on the outside of the building was Telekinema.

Screenings

The Telecinema was the first cinema in the world specially designed and built to show both films and television.
It created a heightened sense of realism by special effects that involved the audience more closely in what was shown.  Among the techniques employed were a borderless screen and film with multiple soundtracks whose sound was reproduced through a series of loudspeakers behind the screen and in the auditorium.  J.D. Ralph and R.J. Spottiswoode were responsible for the presentation and programme, which comprised a feature film, fourteen documentaries, four experimental films and four 'stereoscopic' (3-D) films.

References

Festival of Britain
Modernist architecture in London
Wells Coates buildings
Former cinemas in London
World's fair architecture in London

Telecinema


i-net Clear Reports (formerly known as i-net Crystal-Clear) is a Java-based cross-platform reporting application providing a report designer and a server component to create reports in numerous output formats like PDF, HTML, PS, RTF, XLS, TXT, CSV, SVG, XML, as well as being viewable in a Java applet or Swing component. Application programmers can integrate i-net Clear Reports using the public API which spans over 200 classes. Starting with release 11.0 i-net Clear Reports also supports the .NET programming language and offers a public API for further integration in other products.

History
In Version 11.0 i-net Crystal-Clear was renamed to i-net Clear Reports. At this time it also gained .NET integration as a major feature.

i-net Crystal-Clear was primarily designed to read Crystal Reports templates. It had to be capable of reading the RPT report format and producing a reasonable output. For exporting and saving reasons a new file format had to be created later on, enabling Crystal-Clear to save the API results back and make them editable by a designer.

In 2002 the first version of i-net DesignerXML, the report designer, was written using Java Swing. The editing concept is slightly different from some other designers, using a band-oriented report template format, meaning that reports are designed based on rows of data.

The development efforts have changed in more recent years to a full reporting platform approach, rather than the developer-only, framework-based one.

True to its roots, i-net Crystal-Clear still has the ability to read and execute Crystal Reports report templates up until the latest versions of Crystal Reports.

Unlike Crystal Reports, however, the i-net Crystal-Clear report file format has always been an open format. Until version 9.0 it was an XML format. Since version 9, the report file format is in a zip-based format similar to OpenDocument.

Flexibility

Being a Java application, i-net Clear Reports has the ability to run on a variety of platforms and environments. There is virtually no restriction concerning data sources that can be used, as long as there is a JDBC driver available for accessing the data. For non-JDBC data sources, there are how-to's to write simple mini-drivers. With the new .NET API it got even more flexible and allows integration into .NET based applications.

i-net Clear Reports comes as a standalone server as well as a servlet which can be run on any Java EE application server such as Tomcat, Jetty, IIS, or Apache (via PHP).

Features can be added using the public API, or by adding custom JavaBeans which can be added to reports. User defined functions (UDF) extend the formula features of the embedded formula calculation routines.

Notes and references

External links
 i-net Clear Reports Homepage
 Sample Reports
 Screenshots

Java platform software
.NET Framework software
Reporting software
Business intelligence software

I-net Crystal-Clear