Theriac or theriaca is a medical concoction originally labelled by the Greeks in the 1st century AD and widely adopted in the ancient world as far away as Persia, China and India via the trading links of the Silk Route. It was an alexipharmic, or antidote for a variety of poisons and diseases. It was also considered a panacea, a term for which it could be used interchangeably: in the 16th century Adam Lonicer wrote that garlic was the rustic's theriac or Heal-All.<ref>A. Vogel, "Allium sativum". 'Plant Encyclopedia.</ref>

The word theriac comes from the Greek term θηριακή (thēriakē), a feminine adjective signifying "pertaining to animals", from θηρίον (thērion), "wild animal, beast".  The ancient bestiaries included information—often fanciful—about dangerous beasts and their bites. When cane sugar was an exotic Eastern commodity, the English recommended the sugar-based treacle as an antidote against poison, originally applied as a salve. By extension, treacle could be applied to any healing property: in the Middle Ages the  treacle (i.e. healing) well at Binsey was a place of pilgrimage.

Norman Cantor observes that the remedy's supposed effect followed the homeopathic principle of "the hair of the dog", whereby a concoction containing some of the poisonous (it was thought) flesh of the serpent would be a sovereign remedy against the creature's venom: in his book on medicine, Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, wrote that "the treacle is made of poison so that it can destroy other poisons". Another rationale for including snake flesh was the widespread belief that snakes contained an antidote to protect themselves against being poisoned by their own venom. Thinking by analogy, Henry Grosmont also thought of theriac as a moral curative, the medicine "to make a man reject the poisonous sin which has entered into his soul". Since the plague, and notably the Black Death, was believed to have been sent by God as a punishment for sin and had its origins in pestilential serpents that poisoned the rivers, theriac was a particularly appropriate remedy or therapeutic. By contrast, Christiane Fabbri argues that theriac, which very frequently contained opium, actually did have palliative effect against pain and reduced coughing and diarrhea.

History

According to legends, the history of theriac begins with the king Mithridates VI of Pontus who experimented with poisons and antidotes on his prisoners. His numerous toxicity experiments eventually led him to declare that he had discovered an antidote for every venomous reptile and poisonous substance. He mixed all the effective antidotes into a single one, mithridatium or mithridate. Mithridate contained opium, myrrh, saffron, ginger, cinnamon and castor, along with some forty other ingredients. When the Romans defeated him, his medical notes fell into their hands and Roman medici began to use them. Emperor Nero's physician Andromachus improved upon mithridatum by bringing the total number of ingredients to sixty-four, including viper's flesh, a mashed decoction of which, first roasted then well aged, proved the most constant ingredient. Lise Manniche, however, links the origins of theriac to the ancient Egyptian kyphi recipe, which was also used medicinally.

Greek physician Galen devoted a whole book Theriaké to theriac. One of his patients, Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, took it on a regular basis.

In 667, ambassadors from Rûm presented the Emperor Gaozong of the Tang dynasty in China with a theriac. The Chinese observed that it contained the gall of swine, was dark red in colour and the foreigners seemed to respect it greatly. The Tang pharmacologist Su Kung noted that it had proved its usefulness against "the hundred ailments". Whether this panacea contained the traditional ingredients such as opium, myrrh and hemp, is not known.

In the Middle East, theriac was known as Tiryaq, and makers of it were known as Tiryaqi.

In medieval London, the preparation arrived on galleys from the Mediterranean, under the watchful eye of the Worshipful Company of Grocers. Theriac, the most expensive of medicaments, was called Venice treacle by the English apothecaries.

At the time of the Black Death in the mid 14th century, Gentile da Foligno, who died of the plague in June 1348, recommended in his plague treatise that the theriac should have been aged at least a year. Children should not ingest it, he thought, but have it rubbed on them in a salve.

In 1669, the famous French apothecary, Moyse Charas, published the formula for theriac, seeking to break the monopoly held by the Venetians at that time on the medication, thereby opening up the transfer of medical information.

Production
The production of a proper theriac took months with all the collection and fermentation of herbs and other ingredients. It was supposed to be left to mature for years. As a result, it was also expensive and hence available only for the rich.

According to the commentary on Exodus, Ki Tisa, the Spanish scholar Moses ben Nachman lists the ingredients of theriac as leaven, honey, flesh of wild beasts and reptiles, dried scorpion and viper.

According to Galen, theriac reached its greatest potency six years after preparation and kept its virtues for 40 years. It was therefore good practice to make large batches; in 1712, 150 kg of theriac was prepared at one session in Maastricht in the Netherlands.

By the time of the Renaissance, the making of theriac had become an official ceremony, especially in Italy. Pharmacists sold it as late as 1884.

Theriaca Andromachi SeniorisTheriaca andromachi or Venice Treacle contained 64 ingredients. In addition to viper flesh and opium, it included cinnamon, agarics and gum arabic. The ingredients were pulverized and reduced to an electuary with honey.

The following ingredients for the theriac were taken from the Amsterdammer Apotheek'' (1683) and translated from the old Latin names into the Latin names now used where possible. Not all ingredients are known, and identifications and assignments below are tentative.

Roots: Iris, Balsamorhiza deltoidea, Potentilla reptans (creeping cinquefoil), Rheum rhabarbarum (garden rhubarb), Zingiber officinale, Angustifolia odorata, Gentiana, Meum athamanticum (spignel), Valeriana, Corydalis cava (hollowroot), glycyrrhiza

Stems and barks: Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon), Cinnamomum aromaticum (cassia)

Leaves: Teucrium scordium (water germander), Fraxinus excelsior, Clinopodium calamintha (lesser calamint), Marrubium vulgare (white or common horehound), Cymbopogon citratus (West-Indian lemongrass), Teucrium chamaedrys (wall germander), Cupressasae, Laurus nobilis (bay laurel), Polium montanum,  Cytinus hypocistis

Flowers: Rosa, Crocus sativus, Lavandula stoechas (French lavender), Lavandula angustifolia (common or English lavender), Centaurea minoris

Fruits and seeds: Brassica napus (rapeseed), Petroselinum (parsley), Nigella sativa, Pimpinella anisum (anise), Elettaria cardamomum, Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort), seseli, thlaspi, Daucus carota (carrot), Piper nigrum (black pepper), Piper longum (long pepper), Juniperus (juniper), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Canary Island wine, Agaricus fruiting bodies

Gums, oils and resins: Acaciae (acacia), Styrax benzoin, Gummi arabicum, Sagapeni (wax of an unknown tree, possibly some kind of Ferula), Gummi Opopanax chironium, Gummi Ferula foetida, Commiphora  (myrrh), incense, Turpentine from Cyprus, oil from Myristica fragans (nutmeg), Papaver somniverum latex (opium).

Animal parts and products: Castoreum, Trochisci Viperarum, Narbonne white honey

Mineral substances: Boli armen. verae, Chalciditis (copper salts), Dead sea bitumen

See also
 Mithridate

Notes

References
 .
 .
 .

Further reading

 Raj D, Pękacka-Falkowska K, Włodarczyk M, Węglorz J. The real Theriac - panacea, poisonous drug or quackery? J Ethnopharmacol. 2021 Dec 5;281:114535. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114535. Epub 2021 Aug 17. PMID: 34416297.

External links

Ancient Greek medicine
History of ancient medicine

Theriac


The Hunting of the Snark (An Agony in 8 Fits) is a nonsense poem written by Lewis Carroll, the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson.

The poem was written from 1874 to 1876. The setting, some creatures, and eight portmanteau words are taken from Carroll's earlier poem Jabberwocky in his children's novel Through the Looking-Glass (1871). The eight words are:  bandersnatch, beamish, frumious, galumphing, jubjub, mimsiest (which previously appeared as mimsy in "Jabberwocky"), outgrabe and uffish.

The first two stanzas contain one of the most famous quotations in nonsense poetry:

"Just the place for a Snark!" the Bellman cried,
As he landed his crew with care;
Supporting each man on the top of the tide
By a finger entwined in his hair.

"Just the place for a Snark! I have said it twice:
That alone should encourage the crew.
Just the place for a Snark! I have said it thrice:
What I tell you three times is true."

The Bellman refers the mediaeval use of a town crier or bellman. He would ring his bell, and shout Oyez, Oyez, Oyez! at set places in a town, and read out proclamations of legal decisions made by courts or the town council. This was necessary because most people were illiterate.

Another curiosity of the poem is that the crew of ten all have occupations beginning with the letter "B".

What I tell you three times is true: The idea of repetition as a grounds for truth is sometimes called the Bellman's theory. That, of course, is humour. All the same, repetition is a recurring trope in many kinds of discussion and argument.

The Hunting of the Snark has been many times adapted for the theatre, and many times referred to in fiction.

References

Other websites

1876
19th-century British poems
Lewis Carroll
1876 books

The Hunting of the Snark


Hollywoodland is a 2006 American mystery drama film directed by Allen Coulter and written by Paul Bernbaum. The story presents a fictionalized account of the circumstances surrounding the death of actor George Reeves (played by Ben Affleck), the star of the 1950s film Superman and the Mole Men and television series Adventures of Superman. Adrien Brody stars as a fictional character, Louis Simo, a private detective investigating Toni Mannix (Diane Lane), who was involved in a long romantic relationship with Reeves and was the wife of MGM studio executive Eddie Mannix (Bob Hoskins). Reeves had ended the affair and had become engaged to a younger woman, aspiring actress Leonore Lemmon (Robin Tunney).

Development for Hollywoodland began in 2001 when Focus Features purchased Bernbaum's script, titled Truth, Justice, and the American Way. Michael and Mark Polish were set to direct with Benicio del Toro in the lead role, but Focus Features placed the film in turnaround to Miramax Films the following year. Ultimately, Truth, Justice, and the American Way became a joint production between the two studios and filming commenced in May 2005, with veteran television director Coulter making his feature film directorial debut. Due to copyright issues with DC Comics, the film was retitled Hollywoodland and released to generally positive reviews with high praise for Affleck's performance.

Plot
In June 1959, Louis Simo, a Los Angeles private investigator more interested in generating an income than in devotion to his clients, is spying on the wife of a man named Chester Sinclair to find if she is cheating. On a visit to his own ex-wife Laurie, Simo learns that his son is upset over the recent death of actor George Reeves, who played Superman on television. Reeves was found dead inside his Beverly Hills home with a gunshot wound to the head, which the police ruled as a suicide.

Simo learns from a former police colleague that the Reeves suicide has aspects that the police do not want to touch. Sensing the potential for making a name for himself, Simo begins investigating and notes several apparent conflicts with the official version of Reeves' death. He also bickers with Laurie over his failures as a father, particularly now when his son seems so troubled.

In 1951, Reeves, whose acting career has stalled since appearing in Gone with the Wind, catches the eye of a beautiful woman and they end the night in each other's arms. In the morning, a newspaper photo reveals to Reeves that the woman is Toni Mannix, the wife of Eddie Mannix, a fixer and the general manager of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Frightened that an affair with a studio boss's wife will destroy what is left of his career, Reeves is angry that Toni did not tell him. She claims to have an open relationship with Mannix and tells him not to worry. The much wealthier Toni begins to buy Reeves expensive gifts such as a house, a car and jewelry.

Reeves lands the starring role in the television series Adventures of Superman, based on the comic book hero. The role makes Reeves famous and gives him a steady income, but he longs for more "serious" work and is uncomfortable with the public's stereotype of him as Superman. When a sneak preview of the war film From Here to Eternity results in snickers from the audience when Reeves is seen on screen, film executives attending the preview decide to drastically reduce his formerly prominent role.

As the years pass, Reeves becomes bitter at being a kept man and at Toni for not using her clout to help out his career. He barbecues his Superman costume to "celebrate" the program's cancellation in 1958. He also meets a young woman in New York City, actress Leonore Lemmon, and leaves Toni for her. Toni is brokenhearted and furious and seethes at her "mistreatment" by Reeves.

Simo initially suspects that Leonore might have accidentally shot Reeves during an argument and imagines how the scenario might have played out. Simo is beaten at his home by thugs, apparently working for Mannix, who are trying to scare him off the case. This, and other evidence, leads Simo to suspect that Mannix was the one who had Reeves murdered. Simo has a vision of how that killing would have occurred.

Simo's original client, Sinclair, murders his wife, having grown impatient waiting for Simo's report. A guilt-plagued Simo gets drunk, then visits his son's school, where his inebriation scares the boy. Simo visits Reeves' manager, Arthur Weissman, who has a home movie that Reeves shot in order to promote some wrestling work. Reeves' sadness and disappointment with his life are evident in the footage. Simo's final imagined variation on Reeves' death concludes with the actor shooting himself. This is the most vivid of the three scenarios, and Simo imagines himself in the upstairs bedroom, watching the suicide.

Each of the scenes imagined by Simo begins with Reeves playing a guitar and singing "Green Eyes (Aquellos Ojos Verdes)" in Spanish for his house guests. After each of the three imagined renditions, Reeves says good night to his guests, then retires to his bedroom upstairs, just before the gunshot.

Reeves' quest for success and Simo's realization of parallels to his own existence cause the detective to reevaluate his life. Simo watches another home movie, this one of himself and Laurie and their son in happier days. He goes to Laurie's house wearing a suit and tie, greeting his son hopefully.

Cast

Production
Focus Features acquired a spec script written by Paul Bernbaum in December 2001 titled Truth, Justice, and the American Way. They courted Michael and Mark Polish to direct, with Diane Lane attached to costar, but Focus placed the film in turnaround in June 2002. Miramax Films picked up the rights and hoped for the Polish brothers to begin filming that year with Benicio del Toro as the potential lead, a role also considered for Joaquin Phoenix. Kyle MacLachlan was in the running to play George Reeves, after an audition and having worked with the Polish brothers on Northfork, while Hugh Jackman, Colin Firth and Mark Ruffalo were reportedly the top contenders. However, the Polish brothers were replaced with television director Allen Coulter over creative differences.

Filming was delayed to April 2004, and Del Toro was still attached to the lead role, pending script revisions. Ben Affleck, Dennis Quaid and Viggo Mortensen were added to the list of actors under consideration for George Reeves, alongside Sharon Stone and Annette Bening for Toni Mannix. The film was finally greenlit when the project moved back to Focus Features in 2005, and Howard Korder was brought on to do an uncredited rewrite of Bernbaum's script.

Adrien Brody was cast as Louis Simo and Affleck eventually won the supporting role of Reeves. He saw Truth, Justice, and the American Way as an opportunity to disassociate himself from the many big budget action films he had been starring in. It marked his first leading or supporting role in a film in two years. "I was really unhappy finding myself perpetually in the sights of paparazzi cameras and in the gossip magazines. This character was broken, but he's also the archetype of all those kinds of guys I had played — the actual, real version, which is damaged and somehow unhappy and trying to be something other than what he is. And to me that made it infinitely more interesting." Affleck watched all 108 episodes of the Adventures of Superman, met with Jack Larson, the actor who portrayed Jimmy Olsen in the TV show, read various books about Reeves' life and death, and gained 20 pounds to closely resemble the actor with contact lenses and subtle use of facial prosthesis. In addition he listened to hours of Reeves' voice on CD so he could get the same intonations and timbre. Filming began in Toronto, Canada in May 2005.

Copyright

During its production, Hollywoodland went through many rounds of getting clearance from Warner Bros. Pictures to use different aspects of Reeves' Superman persona to reflect the actual nature of his career. Time Warner is the parent company of both Warner Bros. and DC Comics and has the final say in the depiction of characters relating to their properties.

The film's first title was Truth, Justice, and the American Way, Superman's well-known patriotic catchphrase, but Warner Bros. threatened legal action unless the film's title was changed so as not to associate the classic slogan with Reeves' death—especially since Warner Bros. was banking the film Superman Returns, which was released a few months earlier in June 2006. The filmmakers changed the title to Hollywoodland, not as a reflection of the ailing Hollywood Sign, but in reference to the milieu of "movieland". The film makers wished to use the familiar filmed opening of Adventures of Superman in context within Hollywoodland, but Warner Bros. refused to license clips from the show. The film recreated the show's opening and substituted a re-recorded version of the opening theme.

Historical liberties
Hollywoodland takes liberties with events for dramatic purposes. Several events and places are condensed to fit into the film, including:

 The film states that if the first season of Adventures of Superman was successful, they would film in color the second season. The series did not film in color until the third season.
 During a personal appearance at a children's Western show, George Reeves meets a boy with a loaded gun, who almost shoots bullets at him. Reeves talks him into giving up the gun by saying that they would bounce off him, but hurt innocent bystanders. Although Reeves repeated this story himself, researchers have never been able to find anything to corroborate the story.
 The depiction of Reeves' scenes in From Here to Eternity suffering audience derision at a test screening (and subsequent cutting of all of his scenes) is part of a mostly false urban legend. No such test screening took place, and the finished film purportedly includes all of Reeves' scenes that were present in the original shooting script. Reeves name does not appear on the supporting cast credits page, giving rise to the implication his presence, if not his role, was somewhat diminished. Despite the premise that the role of Maylon Stark was pared down, no alternate cuts of Reeves in the film have ever been proven to exist.

Reception

Critical response

On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 68% based on 186 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "More than a movie star murder mystery, Hollywoodland takes it slow in order to reveal the intriguing details of the rise and fall of superstar fame." According to Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 62 out of 100 based on 33 critics, the film received "generally favorable reviews".

Ben Affleck earned the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the Venice Film Festival for his portrayal of George Reeves. He was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture, but lost to Eddie Murphy for his performance in Dreamgirls. Hoskins and Lane were also applauded for their performances. Critics at The Wall Street Journal and Vanity Fair called Hollywoodland a possible Academy Award contender, but the film received no Oscar nominations.

Box office
Hollywoodland grossed $14.4 million in the United States and $2.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $16.8 million.

The film grossed $6 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office.

The film made $9.1 million in DVD rentals and a spot in the top ten DVD sales for its first three weeks of release.

Accolades

References

External links

2006 films
2006 drama films
Adventures of Superman (TV series)
American detective films
American drama films
American LGBT-related films
American mystery films
Cultural depictions of actors
Drama films based on actual events
2000s English-language films
Films distributed by Disney
Films scored by Marcelo Zarvos
Films directed by Allen Coulter
Films set in 1951
Films set in 1959
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in New York (state)
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in Toronto
Focus Features films
Miramax films
American neo-noir films
Films about Hollywood, Los Angeles
2006 directorial debut films
Biographical films about actors
2000s American films

Hollywoodland


The Creative MuVo (in some markets, formerly Creative NOMAD MuVo) is a range of digital audio players produced by Creative Technology Limited, launched in 2002. Most models in the MuVo range use flash memory for storing data; the only exceptions being the MuVo² and MuVo² FM models, which use microdrives.

The distinguishing feature of the range, beginning with the original MuVo and carried on to newer models, is that the players are split into two unequal parts. The smaller part functions as the audio player, bearing all the controls, inputs and outputs, internal microphone, and a male USB-A plug. The larger part has a female USB-A receptacle, and holds one AAA battery: this provides power to the player. The player/flash drive section is a USB mass storage device, therefore it requires no drivers on most operating systems. Data files, as well as audio files, can be stored on the flash memory, therefore the player can also be used as a USB flash drive. However, players like the MuVo², MuVo² FM, MuVo² XT, MuVo Slim, and the MuVo Vidz are an exception. The MuVo N200 looks like a typical MuVo player, but the two unequal parts are merged and inseparable. Many, but not all, models also include an internal microphone, allowing the device to be used as a low-quality audio recorder. The MuVo line was discontinued in 2009.

Models

Most models share a similar shape and design, except for the players listed above.

See also
 Creative Technology Limited
 Creative NOMAD
 Creative ZEN

External links
Creative Labs - MuVo Players

Digital audio players
Portable media players
Creative Technology products
Singaporean brands
Consumer electronics brands
Screenless digital audio players

Creative MuVo


सः विख्यातः वैज्ञानिकः।
 जीवनी

बाह्यसम्पर्कतन्तुः
 "The First Reactor: 40th Anniversary Commemorative Edition", United States Department of Energy, (December 1982).
 Nobel prize page for the 1938 physics' prize
 The Story of the First Pile
 Enrico Fermi's Case File  at The Franklin Institute with information about his contributions to theoretical and experimental physics.
 "Remembering Enrico Fermi". Session J1. APS April Meeting 2010, American Physical Society.
 Time 100: Enrico Fermi  by Richard Rhodes 29 March 1999

अन्यदेशीयवैज्ञानिकाः
विदेशीयव्यक्तिसम्बद्धाः स्टब्स्
सर्वे अपूर्णलेखाः

एन्रीको फर्मी


Sport utility vehicle (SUV) is a category o motor vehicles that combine elements o road-goin passenger caurs wi featurs frae aff-road vehicles, such as raised ground clearance an fower-wheel drive.

Thare is nae commonly agreed definition o an SUV, an uisage varies atween kintras. Some definitions claim that an SUV must be biggit on a licht larrie chassis; housomeivver, broader definitions consider ony vehicle wi aff-road design featurs tae be an SUV. A crossover SUV is defined as an SUV biggit wi a unibody construction (as per passenger caurs), housomeivver in mony cases crossovers are simply referred tae as SUVs. In some kintras—such as the Unitit States—SUVs hae been classifee'd as "licht larries", resultin in mair lenient regulations compared tae passenger caurs.

References

Caur clessifications

Sport utility vehicle


Narodno rvanje (lit. folk wrestling) is a style of traditional wrestling in  Serbia.

In Narodno rvanje it is usual to begin a match with opponents stepping into the ring and taking one of the following holds :

Back hold : the wrestlers lock the arms behind opponents back in full fingers grip.
Belt hold : the wrestlers grab each other's belts or pants.
Chest hold : this hold has two variations:
The wrestlers start by putting their arms on the side of their opponent's chest, or
Right arm on the side of their opponent's chest and hold opponent's right elbow with their left arm.

But the opponents may disengage from the holds and start as it is usual in other styles such as Greco-Roman wrestling depending on the rules of the tournament. The objective is to throw and pin your opponent to the ground. All types of throws are legal, and even double leg take-down can be seen. And on some festivals the wrestlers may even wear traditional clothing from their respective area as effort to preserve culture.

See also
 Sport in Serbia

References

Folk wrestling styles
Wrestling in Serbia
Serbian martial arts
European martial arts

Narodno rvanje


A liquid nitrogen vehicle is powered by liquid nitrogen, which is stored in a tank. Traditional nitrogen engine designs work by heating the liquid nitrogen in a heat exchanger, extracting heat from the ambient air and using the resulting pressurized gas to operate a piston or rotary motor. Vehicles propelled by liquid nitrogen have been demonstrated, but are not used commercially. One such vehicle, Liquid Air, was demonstrated in 1902.

Liquid nitrogen propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g., battery electric propulsion and fuel tanks to recharge the batteries. This kind of system is called a hybrid liquid nitrogen-electric propulsion. Additionally, regenerative braking can also be used in conjunction with this system.

One advantage of the liquid nitrogen vehicle is that the exhaust gas is simply nitrogen, a component of air, and thus it produces no localized air pollution in the tailpipe emissions.  This does not make it completely pollution free, since energy had been required to liquify the nitrogen in the first place, but that liquification process can be remote from the vehicle operation, and could in principle be powered by a renewable energy or clean energy source.

Description
Liquid nitrogen is generated by cryogenic or reversed Stirling engine coolers that liquefy the main component of air, nitrogen (N2).  The cooler can be powered by electricity or through direct mechanical work from hydro or
wind turbines.
Liquid nitrogen is distributed and stored in insulated containers.  The insulation reduces heat flow into the stored nitrogen; this is necessary because heat from the surrounding environment boils the liquid, which then transitions to a gaseous state.  Reducing inflowing heat reduces the loss of liquid nitrogen in storage.  The requirements of storage prevent the use of pipelines as a means of transport.  Since long-distance pipelines would be costly due to the insulation requirements, it would be costly to use distant energy sources for production of liquid nitrogen.  Petroleum reserves are typically a vast distance from consumption but can be transferred at ambient temperatures.

Liquid nitrogen consumption is in essence production in reverse.  The Stirling engine or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power vehicles and a means to generate electricity.  Liquid nitrogen can also serve as a direct coolant for refrigerators, electrical equipment and  air conditioning units.  The consumption of liquid nitrogen is in effect boiling and returning the nitrogen to the atmosphere.

In the Dearman Engine the nitrogen is heated by combining it with the heat exchange fluid inside the cylinder of the engine.

In 2008, the US Patent Office granted a patent on a liquid nitrogen powered turbine engine. The turbine flash-expands liquid nitrogen that is sprayed into the high-pressure section of the turbine, and the expanding gas is combined with incoming pressurized air to produce a high-velocity stream of gas that is ejected from the back of the turbine. The resulting gas stream can be used to drive generators or other devices. The system has not been demonstrated to power electric generators of greater than 1 kW, however higher output may be possible.

Carnot Cycle
Although the liquid nitrogen is colder than the ambient temperature, the liquid nitrogen engine is nevertheless an example of a heat engine.  A heat engine runs by extracting thermal energy from the temperature difference between a hot and a cold reservoir; in the case of the liquid nitrogen engine, the "hot" reservoir is the air in the ambient ("room temperature") surroundings, which is used to boil the nitrogen.

As such, the nitrogen engine is extracting energy from the thermal energy of the air, and the conversion efficiency with which it converts energy can be calculated from the laws of thermodynamics using Carnot efficiency equation, which applies to all heat engines.

Tanks
The tanks to store the liquid nitrogen must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel, such as ISO 11439.

The storage tank may be made of:
 steel
 aluminium
 carbon fiber
 Kevlar
 other materials, or combinations of the above.

The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically. Liquid nitrogen, LN2, is commonly transported in insulated tanks, up to 50 litres, at atmospheric pressure. These tanks, being non-pressurized tanks, are not subject to inspection. Very large tanks for LN2 are sometimes pressurized to less than 25 psi to aid in transferring the liquid at point of use.

Liquid nitrogen vehicles

A vehicle propelled by liquid nitrogen, the Liquid Air, was demonstrated in 1902.

In June 2016 trials will begin in London, UK on supermarket J. Sainsbury's fleet of food delivery vehicles:  using a Dearman nitrogen engine to provide power for the cooling of food cargo when the vehicle is stationary and the main engine is off. Currently delivery lorries mostly have second smaller diesel engines to power cooling when the main engine is off.

Emission output
Like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, a liquid nitrogen vehicle displaces the emission source from the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where emissions-free sources are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced. Emission control measures at a central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of widely dispersed vehicles.

Advantages
Liquid nitrogen vehicles are comparable in many ways to electric vehicles, but use liquid nitrogen to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include:

 Much like electrical vehicles, liquid nitrogen vehicles would ultimately be powered through the electrical grid, which makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the road.
 Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel transportation would be eliminated.
 Lower maintenance costs
 Liquid nitrogen tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.
 Liquid nitrogen vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems associated with current battery systems.
 The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.
 It can work as part of a combined cycle powertrain in conjunction with a petrol or diesel engine, using the waste heat from one to run the other in a turbocompound system. It can even run as a hybrid system.

Disadvantages
The principal disadvantage is the inefficient use of primary energy. Energy is used to liquefy nitrogen, which in turn provides the energy to run the motor. Any conversion of energy has losses. For liquid nitrogen cars, electrical energy is lost during the liquefaction process of nitrogen.

Liquid nitrogen is not available in public refueling stations; however, there are distribution systems in place at most welding gas suppliers and liquid nitrogen is an abundant by-product of liquid oxygen production.

Criticisms

Cost of production

Liquid nitrogen production is an energy-intensive process. Currently practical refrigeration plants producing a few tons/day of liquid nitrogen operate at about 50% of Carnot efficiency. Currently surplus liquid nitrogen is produced as a byproduct in the production of liquid oxygen.

Energy density of liquid nitrogen
Any process that relies on a phase-change of a substance will have much lower energy densities than processes involving a chemical reaction in a substance, which in turn have lower energy densities than nuclear reactions.  Liquid nitrogen as an energy store has a low energy density. Liquid hydrocarbon fuels, by comparison, have a high energy density. A high energy density makes the logistics of transport and storage more convenient. Convenience is an important factor in consumer acceptance. The convenient storage of petroleum fuels combined with its low cost has led to an unrivaled success. In addition, a petroleum fuel is a primary energy source, not just an energy storage and transport medium.

The energy density—derived from nitrogen's isobaric heat of vaporization and specific heat in gaseous state—that can theoretically be realised from liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure and 27 °C ambient temperature is about 213 watt-hours per kilogram (W·h/kg), while typically only 97 W·h/kg can be achieved under realistic circumstances.   This compares with 100–250 W·h/kg for a lithium-ion battery and 3,000 W·h/kg for a gasoline combustion engine running at 28% thermal efficiency, 14 times the density of liquid nitrogen used at the Carnot efficiency.

For an isothermal expansion engine to have a range comparable to an internal combustion engine, a  insulated onboard storage vessel is required. A practical volume, but a noticeable increase over the typical  gasoline tank. The addition of more complex power cycles would reduce this requirement and help enable frost free operation. However, no commercially practical instances of liquid nitrogen use for vehicle propulsion exist.

Frost formation
Unlike internal combustion engines, using a cryogenic working fluid requires heat exchangers to warm and cool the working fluid. In a humid environment, frost formation will prevent heat flow and thus represents an engineering challenge. To prevent frost build up, multiple working fluids can be used. This adds topping cycles to ensure the heat exchanger does not fall below freezing.  Additional heat exchangers, weight, complexity, efficiency loss, and expense, would be required to enable frost free operation.

Safety
However efficient the insulation on the nitrogen fuel tank, there will inevitably be losses by evaporation to the atmosphere. If a vehicle is stored in a poorly ventilated space, there is some risk that leaking nitrogen could reduce the oxygen concentration in the air and cause asphyxiation. Since nitrogen is a colorless and odourless gas that already makes up 78 per cent of air, such a change would be difficult to detect.

Cryogenic liquids are hazardous if spilled. Liquid nitrogen can cause frostbite and can make some materials extremely brittle.

As liquid nitrogen is colder than 90.2K, oxygen from the atmosphere can condense. Liquid oxygen can spontaneously and violently react with organic chemicals, including petroleum products like asphalt.

Since the liquid to gas expansion ratio of this substance is 1:694, a tremendous amount of force can be generated if liquid nitrogen is rapidly vaporized. In an incident in 2006 at Texas A&M University, the pressure-relief devices of a tank of liquid nitrogen were sealed with brass plugs. As a result, the tank failed catastrophically, and exploded.

See also

 Energy storage
 Cryogenic energy storage
 Future energy development
 Ultra-low-emission vehicle

Further reading
 C.A. Ordonez, M.C. Plummer, R.F. Reidy "Cryogenic Heat Engines for Powering Zero Emission Vehicles", Proceedings of 2001 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 11–16, 2001, New York, NY.
 Kleppe J.A., Schneider R.N., "A Nitrogen Economy", Winter Meeting ASEE, Honolulu, HI, December, 1974.
 Gordon J. Van Wylen and Richard F. Sontag, Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics SI Version 2nd Ed.

References

External links
Video of car powered by liquid air, embedded in BBC News report (car appears at 0m 52s).
LN2 Vehicle 1 , a liquid nitrogen–powered car using a Cryogenic Heat Engine at the University of North Texas.
Discussion on LN2 vehicle feasibility at How stuff works
Thermodynamic Properties of various fuels (tabulated data).

Sustainable energy
Automotive technologies
Nitrogen
Peak oil
Fuels
Energy storage

Liquid nitrogen engine


Whyalla Norrie is a suburb of Whyalla on the Eyre Peninsula of South Australia. It was gazetted as a distinct suburb in 1967, and had its boundaries altered in 1975 and 2000. It is bounded by Iron Knob Road, Norrie Avenue, Broadbent Terrace and MacDouall Stuart Avenue. It is part of the City of Whyalla.

It contains the Westland Shopping Centre, the largest shopping centre on the Eyre Peninsula. It also includes the Whyalla Public Library, Bennett Oval, the largest sporting oval in Whyalla, the Whyalla Health and Leisure Centre, and the Anderson Raceway.

Whyalla Norrie has a number of educational facilities: Fisk Street Primary School, Hincks Avenue Primary School, Long Street Primary School, Nicolson Avenue Primary School (opened 1954), Edward John Eyre High School (opened 1968 as the Whyalla Technical School), Sunrise Christian School, the Whyalla Special Education Center, the Whyalla TAFE campus and the Whyalla campus of the University of South Australia.

The suburb includes the National Trust of Australia-owned Mount Laura Homestead Museum heritage village, consisting of the former Mount Laura Station homestead, the Gay Street Cottage and Wash House, the Whyalla Policemen's Dwelling Lockup, engine sheds, a blacksmith shop, harness shed, telecommunications museum, and a former steam train from the Iron Knob mines. The cottage and police lockup are both separately listed on the South Australian Heritage Register; both buildings were relocated to the site in 1978.

Whyalla Norrie was in the top five country localities in South Australia for real estate price growth in the decade to 2013.

Whyalla Norrie has its own branches of the Rotary Club and Country Women's Association.

References

Suburbs of Whyalla

Whyalla Norrie, South Australia


The Austin Ten is a small car that was produced by Austin. It was launched on 19 April 1932 and was Austin's best-selling car in the 1930s and continued in production, with upgrades, until 1947. It fitted in between their "baby" Austin Seven which had been introduced in 1922 and their various Austin Twelves which had been updated in January 1931.

Design
The design of the car was conservative with a pressed steel body built on a ladder chassis.  The chassis  was designed to give a low overall height to the car by dipping down by 2.75 inches (70 mm) between the axles.  The 1125-cc four-cylinder side-valve engine producing  drove the rear wheels through a four-speed gearbox and open drive shaft to a live rear axle.  Steering was by worm and wheel. Suspension was by half-elliptic springs all round mounted on silent-bloc bushes and damped by frictional shock absorbers. The four-wheel brakes were cable and rod operated by pedal or by hand lever on the offside of the speed lever. The electrical system was 6 volt. For the first year only, a four-door saloon was made in two versions.  The basic model cost £155 and was capable of reaching  with an economy of 34 and the Sunshine or De-Luxe with opening roof and leather upholstery at £168. Bumpers were provided. The chassis was priced at £120.

Road test

1933 saw the saloons joined by an open two-seater or Open Road tourer, a Colwyn cabriolet and a van. A sports model, the ,  Ripley joined the range in 1934. Mechanical upgrades for 1934 included a stronger chassis, synchromesh on the top two gears and 12-volt electrics.

The Ripley was a close-coupled four-door tourer with lowered front doors and no running boards. Improved engine breathing—Zenith downdraught carburettor, revised manifolds and camshaft—all combined to improve engine output to 30 bhp.

Austin's range now included five "sports cars":
 Seven open two-seaters: Speedy and Nippy
 Ten-Four sports tourer: Ripley
 Light Twelve-Six sports tourer: Newbury and sports saloon Kempton

Facelift for 1935
The first styling change came in August 1934 with a change to the radiator when the plated surround or cowl was replaced by one painted in body colour and it was given a slight slope.  Synchromesh was added to second gear and dual screenwipers, flush-fitting self-cancelling trafficators (worked by the steering) and a foot-operated headlamp dip switch were fitted. The engine controls were simplified by the adoption of automatic ignition, compensated voltage control, and the provision of a "choke" (combined strangler and throttle control). The saloon was given the name Lichfield and got a protruding boot which enclosed the spare wheel. During 1935 the friction dampers were replaced with hydraulic dampers.

Six-light Sherborne

A new six light (three windows down each side, with one behind the rear door) Sherborne body style was added in January 1936, the roof line swept to the rear without interruption to provide a flush back, the then fashionable 'Airline' style. The new seating was extra deep at the rear, now with armrests and somewhat longer from back to front than on previous models. The new Sherborne with fixed or sliding roof was priced at £10 more than the equivalent Lichfield.

The forward doors opened rearwards which was considered safer, steering was now by worm and sector with an hour-glass worm. The road-tester described the engine in The Times as having "a steady plodding nature'" and advised that its trustworthiness and simplicity made up for any lack of refinement. The weight of this car was quoted as 17 cwt  as compared with the Lichfield's 15½ cwt,

New body for 1937

A big change came in December 1936 with the almost streamlined Cambridge saloon and Conway cabriolet. Compared with the preceding cars the passengers and engine were positioned much further forward, the back seat now being rather forward of the back axle. There were six side windows like the Sherborne and the quarter lights were fixed. Again like the Sherborne the forward doors opened rearwards. At the back there was now a compartment large enough to take a trunk as well as more luggage on the open compartment door when it was let down.

A new smoother single plate spring-drive clutch was now fitted, the two friction rings carried by the centre plate were held apart by leaf springs. Other changes included Girling brakes with wedge and roller shoe expansion and balance lever compensation using operating rods in tension with automatic compensation between front and rear brakes all four of which might be applied by hand or foot. Drums were now 9 inches diameter. 16-inch steel disc wheels replaced the 18-inch wires Top speed rose to .

The car's wheelbase was now ¾ inch,  longer. Rear track was now increased to 3' 10½", . The vehicle's weight was now reported to be 18½ cwt,

The Times, when they had a car on test, commented favourably on the new clutch, saying no previous Austin clutch had engaged smoothly and added "the car is built for steady economical running rather than for speed or brilliance".

These changes did not appear on the open cars, which no longer included the Ripley sports, until 1938 when the Cambridge and the Conway cabriolet gained an aluminium cylinder head on the engine and a higher compression ratio.

Semi-unitary construction for 1940

A virtually new car was launched in May 1939 with the body shell incorporating the floor to give a semi-unitary structure.  The car was completely restyled by Argentine born Dick Burzi who had joined Austin from Lancia in 1929. The bonnet was hinged at the rear, replacing the side-opening type on the old car and the radiator grille became rounded and there was no cabriolet. It was now available as four-door saloon with fixed or sliding head or as a sporting type four-seated tourer.

The new chassis consisted of a platform braced with box members bounded by reversed U channelling the full length of each side. The body was then bolted, not welded, alternately to the top and bottom of that channelling. The forward end was strengthened by diagonal bracing and the centre given extra strength by the tunnel over the transmission. Windows were of toughened glass. The cylinder head was now aluminium for high compression and output now 32 bhp at 4,000 rpm.  Shock absorbers were now hydraulic and of the double acting piston type. Bumpers were now given over-riders, lighting was 12-volt.

New dimensions: track front and rear: 3' 11",  and 4' 0",
Overall height length and width were: 5' 4", , 13' 2", , and 4' 10½", ,

War

Despite the outbreak of World War II, production of the Ten continued in large numbers; there were no tourers but there was a pick-up. In all during the war, 53,000 of the saloons and utilities—pick-ups and vans—the last two unofficially known as "Tillys", were made.

Postwar

With peace in 1945 a change was immediately made to civilian production but because of the post-war financial crisis the cars were nearly all exported, with the first one arriving in the United States in July 1945. In September 1945 the first passenger cars produced after World War II's end to arrive in Switzerland were two Austin Tens exported from England.

The car continued in production in saloon form only until October 1947 to be replaced by the A40. The van also re-appeared post-war with a slightly larger 1237-cc engine.

Military operators
 British Army, Royal Navy, RAF

References

 "Austin's Top Ten". Jonathan Wood. The Automobile May 1999.

External links

 Austin Ten Four at AustinMemories.com
 Austin Ten Drivers Club for more information

105
1930s cars
1940s cars
Cars introduced in 1932
Limousines
Cars discontinued in 1947

Austin 10


Ghajini – The Game is a third-person action game based on the 2008 film Ghajini  It was published in 2008 by FXLabs and Geetha Arts, and distributed by Eros Home Entertainment.  It was hailed as India's first true 3D PC game. The Game consisting of five levels of play, following the story of the protagonist, Sanjay Singhania (portrayed by Aamir Khan), avenging the death of his girlfriend Kalpana by using martial arts, various weapons, and other artefacts.  Ghajini – The Game has earned Rs40 million. and has a manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP) of US$14.99

The game was designed by Shashi Reddy, who is the chairman of FX Labs, and Ghajini's co-producer Madhu Mantena.

See also
 Ghajini (2005 film)

References

2008 video games
Action games
India-exclusive video games
Video games based on films
Video games developed in India
Windows games
Windows-only games

Ghajini – The Game


Naturescaping (or nature scaping) is a method of landscape design and landscaping that allows people and nature to coexist with landscaping. By incorporating certain native plants into one's yard, one can attract beneficial insects, birds, and other creatures, and help keep our rivers and streams healthy.

Extensive urban growth and urban sprawl over the last century has had a significant impact on habitat that birds and other wildlife once called home. Homeowners with yards and gardens have a unique opportunity to curtail this loss of habitat by creating their own backyard wildlife garden, a wildlife sanctuary.

Origins
Naturescaping takes some of its principles from the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) "GreenScaping" or "Beneficial Landscaping" programs — which strive to reduce water, energy, and chemical usage. Naturescaping is an organic discipline of this practice, that is easily adapted to backyards.

The EPA has worked together with the Department of Homeland Security to encourage energy independence and reduce needs for hazardous materials. Water and energy use in residential landscaping accounts for x% (please cite correct figure) of the total water and energy use in the country. The EPA has found that one hour of lawn mowing contributes as much smog pollution as driving 10 cars for one hour (about 650 miles).

Since the 1995 Oklahoma City federal building bombing with explosives made from fertilizer, the distribution and use of household and garden chemicals has been more closely scrutinized. By providing alternatives, their use can be reduced.

History
Most universities throughout the country, that have agricultural programs, also have university cooperative extensions. These programs include Master Gardeners. The practice of naturescaping is being taught at several of these universities.

Current acceptance
The practice has spawned many non-profit groups to form near universities teaching this practice. Many include some form of the phrase "naturescaping" in their name. Some states have recognized the benefits to society of this practice and those who either volunteer or create a naturescaped garden. For instance, Oregon offers a state tax incentive.

See also
 Landscape ecology
 Sustainable landscaping

External links
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) promotes Naturescaping
NatureScaping of Southwest Washington
Nature Scaping for Clean Rivers
North Carolina Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance

Horticulture
Organic gardening
Landscape architecture
Types of garden

Naturescaping


Euripides (c. 480 BC–406 BC) was an Ancient Greek writer from Athens who wrote about 90 plays. Only 18 of his tragedies have survived complete, more than all other surviving ancient Greek tragedies put together.  A nineteenth play, Rhesus is sometimes thought to be by Euripides, but not all classicists agree on this.

Euripides was the last of the three greatest Ancient Greek writers of tragedies, the others being Aeschylus and Sophocles.

Surviving plays
Alcestis (439 BC, second prize)
Medea (431 BC, third prize)
Heracleidae (c. 430 BC)
Hippolytus (428 BC, first prize)
Andromache (c. 425 BC)
Hecuba (c. 424 BC)
The Suppliants (c. 423 BC)
Electra (c. 420 BC)
Heracles (c. 416 BC)
Trojan Women (415 BC, second prize)
Iphigeneia in Tauris (c. 414 BC)
Ion (c. 414 BC)
Helen (412 BC)
Phoenician Women (c. 410 BC)
Orestes (408 BC)
Bacchae and Iphigeneia at Aulis (405 BC, posthumous)
Cyclops (408 BC)

Related pages

Theatre of Ancient Greece

Ancient Greek writers
480s BC births
406 BC deaths

Euripides


High power light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can use 350 milliwatts or more in a single LED.  Most of the electricity in an LED becomes heat rather than light (about 70% heat and 30% light).  If this heat is not removed, the LEDs run at high temperatures, which not only lowers their efficiency, but also makes the LED less reliable.  Thus, thermal management of high power LEDs is a crucial area of research and development.  It is necessary to limit both the junction and the phosphor particles temperatures to a value that will guarantee the desired LED lifetime.

Thermal management is a universal problem having to do with power density, which occurs both at higher powers or in smaller devices. Many lighting applications wish to combine a high light flux with an extremely small light emitting substrate, causing concerns with LED power management to be particularly acute.

Heat transfer procedure
In order to maintain a low junction temperature to keep good performance of an LED, every method of removing heat from LEDs should be considered. Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three means of heat transfer.  Typically, LEDs are encapsulated in a transparent polyurethane-based resin, which is a poor thermal conductor.  Nearly all heat produced is conducted through the back side of the chip.  Heat is generated from the p–n junction by electrical energy that was not converted to useful light, and conducted to outside ambience through a long path, from junction to solder point, solder point to board, and board to the heat sink and then to the atmosphere.  A typical LED side view and its thermal model are shown in the figures.

The junction temperature will be lower if the thermal impedance is smaller and likewise, with a lower ambient temperature.  To maximize the useful ambient temperature range for a given power dissipation, the total thermal resistance from junction to ambient must be minimized.

The values for the thermal resistance vary widely depending on the material or component supplier.  For example, RJC will range from 2.6 °C/W to 18 °C/W, depending on the LED manufacturer.  The thermal interface material's (TIM) thermal resistance will also vary depending on the type of material selected. Common TIMs are epoxy, thermal grease, pressure-sensitive adhesive and solder. Power LEDs are often mounted on metal-core printed circuit boards (MCPCB), which will be attached to a heat sink.  Heat conducted through the MCPCB and heat sink is dissipated by convection and radiation.  In the package design, the surface flatness and quality of each component, applied mounting pressure, contact area, the type of interface material and its thickness are all important parameters to thermal resistance design.

Passive thermal designs
Some considerations for passive thermal designs to ensure good thermal management for high power LED operation include:

Adhesive
Adhesive is a thermal conductive interface layer, which is commonly used to bond LED and board, and board and heat sinks and further optimizes the thermal performance. Current commercial adhesive is limited by relatively low thermal conductivity ~1 W/(mK).

Heat sink
Heat sinks provide a path for heat from the LED source to outside medium. Heat sinks can dissipate power in three ways: conduction (heat transfer from one solid to another), convection (heat transfer from a solid to a moving fluid, which for most LED applications will be air), or radiation (heat transfer from two bodies of different surface temperatures through Thermal radiation).
 Material – The thermal conductivity of the material that the heat sink is made from directly affects the dissipation efficiency through conduction.  Normally this is aluminum, although copper may be used with an advantage for flat-sheet heat sinks.  New materials include thermoplastics that are used when heat dissipation requirements are lower than normal or complex shape would be advantaged by injection molding, and natural graphite solutions which offer better thermal transfer than copper with a lower weight than aluminum plus the ability to be formed into complex two-dimensional shapes.  Graphite is considered an exotic cooling solution and does come at a higher production cost.  Heat pipes may also be added to aluminum or copper heat sinks to reduce spreading resistance.
 Shape – Thermal transfer takes place at the surface of the heat sink. Therefore, heat sinks should be designed to have a large surface area. This goal can be reached by using a large number of fine fins or by increasing the size of the heat sink itself.
Although a bigger surface area leads to better cooling performance, there must be sufficient space between the fins to generate a considerable temperature difference between the fin and the surrounding air.
When the fins stand too close together, the air in between can become almost the same temperature as the fins, so that thermal transmission will not occur. Therefore, more fins do not necessarily lead to better cooling performance.
 Surface Finish – Thermal radiation of heat sinks is a function of surface finish, especially at higher temperatures. A painted surface will have a greater emissivity than a bright, unpainted one. The effect is most remarkable with flat-plate heat sinks, where about one-third of the heat is dissipated by radiation. Moreover, a perfectly flat contact area allows the use of a thinner layer of thermal compound, which will reduce the thermal resistance between the heat sink and LED source. On the other hand, anodizing or etching will also decrease the thermal resistance.
 Mounting method – Heat-sink mountings with screws or springs are often better than regular clips, thermal conductive glue or sticky tape.
For heat transfer between LED sources over 15 Watt and LED coolers, it is recommended to use a high thermal conductive interface material (TIM) which will create a thermal resistance over the interface lower than 0.2 K/W. Currently, the most common solution is to use a phase-change material, which is applied in the form of a solid pad at room temperature, but then changes to a thick, gelatinous fluid once it rises above 45 °C.

Heat pipes and vapor chambers
Heat pipes and vapor chambers are passive, and have effective thermal conductivities ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 W/m K.  They can provide the following benefits in LED thermal management:
 Transport heat to a remote heat sink with minimum temperature drop
 Isothermalize a natural convection heat sink, increasing its efficiency and reducing its size.  In one case, adding five heat pipes reduced the heat sink mass by 34%, from 4.4 kg to 2.9 kg.
 Efficiently transform the high heat flux directly under an LED to a lower heat flux that can be removed more easily.

PCB (printed circuit board)
 MCPCB – MCPCB (Metal Core PCB) are those boards which incorporate a base metal material as heat spreader as an integral part of the circuit board. The metal core usually consists of aluminum or copper alloy. Furthermore MCPCB can take advantage of incorporating a dielectric polymer layer with high thermal conductivity for lower thermal resistance.
 Separation – Separating the LED drive circuitry from the LED board prevents the heat generated by the driver from raising the LED junction temperature.

Thick-film materials system
 Additive Process – Thick film is a selective additive deposition process which uses material only where it is needed. A more direct connection to the Al heat sink is provided; therefore thermal interface material is not needed for circuit building. Reduces the heat spreading layers and thermal footprint. Processing steps are reduced, along with the number of materials and amount of materials consumed.
 Insulated Aluminum Materials System – Increases thermal connectivity and provides high dielectric breakdown strength. Materials can be fired at less than 600 °C. Circuits are built directly onto aluminum substrates, eliminating the need for thermal interface materials. Through improved thermal connectivity, the junction temperature of the LED can be decreased by up to 10 °C. This allows the designer to either decrease the number of LEDs needed on a board, by increasing the power to each LED; or decrease the size of the substrate, to manage dimensional restrictions. It is also proven that decreasing the junction temperature of the LED dramatically improves the LED's lifetime.

Package type
 Flip chip – The concept is similar to flip-chip in package configuration widely used in the silicon integrated circuit industry. Briefly speaking, the LED die is assembled face down on the sub-mount, which is usually silicon or ceramic, acting as the heat spreader and supporting substrate. The flip-chip joint can be eutectic, high-lead, lead-free solder or gold stub. The primary source of light comes from the back side of the LED chip, and there is usually a built-in reflective layer between the light emitter and the solder joints to reflect up the light which is emitted downward.  Several companies have adopted flip-chip packages for their high-power LED, achieving about 60% reduction in the thermal resistance of the LED while keeping its thermal reliability.

LED filament
The LED filament style of lamp combines many relatively low-power LEDs on a transparent glass substrate, coated with phosphor,  and then encapsulated in silicone.  The lamp bulb is filled with inert gas, which convects heat away from the extended array of LEDs to the envelope of the bulb. This design avoids the requirement for a large heat sink.

Active thermal designs
Some works about using active thermal designs to realize good thermal management for high power LED operation include:

Thermoelectric (TE) device
Thermoelectric devices are a promising candidate for thermal management of high power LED owing to the small size and fast response. A TE device made by two ceramic plates can be integrated into a high power LED and adjust the temperature of LED by heat-conducting and electrical current insulation. Since ceramic TE devices tend to have a coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch with the silicon substrate of LED,  silicon-based TE devices have been invented to substitute traditional ceramic TE devices. Silicon owning higher thermal conductivity (149 W/(m·K)) compared with aluminum oxide(30 W/(m·K)) also makes the cooling performance of silicon-based TE devices better than traditional ceramic TE devices.

The cooling effect of thermoelectric materials depends on the Peltier effect. When an external current is applied to a circuit composed of n-type and p-type thermoelectric units, the current will drive carriers in the thermoelectric units to move from one side to the other. When carriers move, heat also flows along with the carriers from one side to the other. Since the direction of heat transfer relies on the applied current, thermoelectric materials can function as a cooler with currents that drive carriers from the heated side to the other side.

A typical silicon-based TE device has a sandwich structure. Thermoelectric materials are sandwiched between two substrates made by high thermal conductivity materials. N-type and p-type thermoelectric units are connected sequentially in series as the middle layer. When a high power LED generates heat, the heat will first transfer through the top substrate to the thermoelectric units. With an applied external current, the heat will then be forced to flow to the bottom substrate through the thermoelectric units so that the temperature of the high power LED can be stable.

Liquid cooling system
Cooling systems using liquids such as liquid metals, water, and stream also actively manage high power LED's temperature. Liquid cooling systems are made up of a driving pump, a cold plate, and a fan-cooled radiator. The heat generated by a high power LED will first transfer to liquids through a cold plate. Then liquids driven by a pump will circulate in the system to absorb the heat. Lastly, a fan-cooled radiator will cool the heated fluids for the next circulation. The circulation of liquids manages the temperature of the high power LED.

See also
 LED lamp – solid state lighting (SSL)
 Thermal resistance in electronics
 Thermal management (electronics)
 Active cooling
 Synthetic jet

References

External links
 Thermal Management of Cree® XLamp® LEDs
 LED Thermal Management
 Thermal management of Osram Soleriq COB LED modules

Light-emitting diodes
Optical diodes
Semiconductor technology

Thermal management of high-power LEDs


Amelia Jessica 'Amy' Pond is a fictional character on the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She is played by Karen Gillan.  Amy is a companion of the main character, The Doctor, in his eleventh form. Much of Amy's part in the story is about her relationship with Rory Williams. They get married in the sixth series, and Amy gives birth to their daughter, Melody. It is later shown that Melody grows up to be the character River Song.

Appearances

Television
Amelia Pond is first seen in the first episode of the 2010 series, "The Eleventh Hour". She is a seven-year-old girl living with only her aunt, Sharon. She asks the Doctor to look at a strange crack in her wall. He is interrupted by the TARDIS. The Doctor tells Amelia that he will be back in five minutes. He does not get back for twelve years. During this time, Amelia's family and friends think The Doctor is her imaginary friend. She is treated by four psychiatrists because she keeps telling people that the "Raggedy Doctor" is real. She bites them when they tell her the Doctor is imaginary. When the Doctor returns, Amy is nineteen years old. She is  working as a kissogram. Amy helps the Doctor save Earth from the Atraxi. Because of the unusual condition of the TARDIS, Amy does not see the Doctor again for two years. He asks her to travel with him. She says she will go with him, but only if he will bring her back by the next morning. She does not tell him that her wedding is the next day.

At the end of "Flesh and Stone", Amy tells the Doctor about her wedding to Rory. Because of "pre-wedding jitters", she tries to seduce him. The Doctor then finds Rory and takes him and Amy to 16th century Venice. At this point in time, Rory travelling with them. In "Amy's Choice", Amy has to deal with her feelings for the Doctor and Rory. She sees how much she loves  Rory. At the end of "Cold Blood", Rory is killed and removed from history by the cracks in the universe. Amy no longer remembers him. The Doctor takes Amy to her favourite places because he feels guilty about Rory. In 19th century France, Amy forms a friendship with painter Vincent Van Gogh. Van Gogh shows a romantic interest in Amy. In "The Pandorica Opens", Rory is found in 102 AD as a Roman centurion. Amy starts to remember him.,As she remembers, it is shown that the centurion Rory is only an Auton—living plastic that looks and acts like Rory. It was made from Amy's memories to trap the Doctor. Rory tries to fight his programming but fails. He shoots and kills Amy. Amy's body is put in the Pandorica. It is a "perfect prison". It was built to keep any person trapped in it alive forever.  Auton Rory guards the Pandorica while Amy is inside. She is kept inside while her body is healed. In 1996, the Pandorica is finally opened, and she is set free, by the younger Amy Pond.

The Doctor learns that Amy is connected to the cracks in the universe. He sees that they come from a temporal explosion on the date of her wedding. He talks to Amy about her house. He tells her that it is too big for only her and her aunt. Amy learns that her family had been erased by the crack in her wall. She had forgotten them. The Doctor helps her remember them. He uses the Pandorica to reset the universe and finds the sleeping Amelia on the night they met. He tells her the story of how he borrowed the TARDIS from his own people. He tells her that it is "old and new," and "big and small" and "the bluest blue that there is". He then steps into the crack in her wall to closes the cracks forever. Amy wakes up on her wedding day and is reunited with her parents. She marries Rory. At the reception, she sees that River Song's diary about time spent with the Doctor is now empty. This causes Amy to start remembering things. She says that her "Raggedy Doctor" was real and her memory of him brings him back to reality. After this, Amy and Rory choose to go with the Doctor again. They are dropped off at a "honeymoon planet" between the end of "The Big Bang" and the start of Death of the Doctor. Part of their honeymoon is on an interstellar cruise ship that the Doctor stops from crashing into a populated planet.

In the 2011 series, after an unknown amount of time, Amy and Rory return to the present. They go back to living a normal life until Amy gets an anonymous "TARDIS blue" invitation to the Utah desert. In the desert, she and Rory find the Doctor. He has aged almost 200 years since they left the TARDIS. They learn that River Song was also invited to this place. They group sees the Doctor's killed by an astronaut. They learn that the older Doctor also invited a younger version of himself. They travel with him to 1969 Washington, D.C. to investigate strange things involving the Silence. The silence is an alien race who cannot be remembered. After a person met one of the silence, they would forget everything about them as soon as they could no longer see them. While there, Amy tells the Doctor she is pregnant. She later shoots a person in an astronaut suit trying to save the future Doctor's life. She sees that the person in the suit is just a little girl. When the Doctor asks Amy later about the pregnancy, she tells him that she was wrong. The Doctor tries to learn more but learns nothing. In "Day of the Moon", Amy finds strange pictures of the astronaut girl in an old orphanage. In one of the pictures, She is holding a baby. She sees the little girl again as well as two Silence. Amy is kidnapped by the Silence. She is set free by the Doctor, Rory, and River a few days later.

During the first six episodes, Amy keeps having strange visions of a woman in an eye-patch. The woman keeps saying that "she must be dreaming". In "The Almost People" it is shown that the Amy with the Doctor is actually an avatar version. It was created with "the Flesh" brought to life by Amy's consciousness. The Doctor destroys it and he and Rory go to find the real Amy. She is, at that time, beginning to have her baby. Amy gives birth to her daughter Melody Pond. In "A Good Man Goes to War", the baby is kidnapped by the eye-patched woman, Madame Kovarian. Korvarian replaced the baby with a "Flesh" version. It is shown at the end of the episode that the name Melody Pond, when translated into an alien language is River Song. River is Amy and Rory's daughter. "Let's Kill Hitler" shows how Melody had regenerated into Mels. Mels was the childhood friend of Amy and Rory. Amy named her daughter after Mels. The episode does not show her true identity until she regenerates into River Song after being shot by Hitler. The episode also shows how Amy and Rory fell in love. In "The God Complex" the Doctor has to break Amy's faith in him. He learns that she is the reason they are brought to a prison for a being that kills by feeding on faith. The Doctor says goodbye to Rory and Amy after giving them a house and car. In "Closing Time" Amy makes a cameo appearance. It is shown that she has become a model and the face of Petrichor perfume.

In "The Wedding of River Song," Amy leads a secret organisation. Rory works for her. The Doctor and River meet again in an alternate reality after River stopped the Doctor being killed by the astronaut. Amy remembers all of her past with the Doctor but cannot remember Rory. Amy finally remembers Rory when she saves him from the Silence. She kills Madame Kovarian for taking away Melody. Reality is restored when the Doctor and River marry. Amy and Rory are back at home. They have had no contact with the Doctor since "The God Complex," but they still remember the alternate events. Later River tells Amy that the Doctor did not die in Utah and is in fact alive.

In December 2011, the BBC's Steven Moffat confirmed that Amy and Rory would be leaving the series in 2012 in "heartbreaking" circumstances.

Character creation
Doctor Who executive producer and main writer Steven Moffat came up with the name for the character. In an interview with Kat Angus of Dose magazine, Doctor Who writer Russell T Davies said, "So when the new series starts next year with the new Doctor, you don't just get Matt Smith coming on, you also get Karen Gillan as his new companion. I think Amy Pond will be hugely welcomed, because ... I think he does need someone. A lot of these stories prove that. There's been a huge, empty space on the TARDIS for a long time now and I think her arrival will be every bit as big as Matt's. It's really exciting, and everything I've heard about Karen is that she's brilliant. It's one of our plans that I'm most pleased with, actually. We've held off on companions for a long time, so you'll get rewarded with a great, big, strong character in Amy Pond, when she arrives. I think that plan's been good." Gillan said in an interview with the Radio Times that she was to play Amy Pond with her natural Scottish accent, She auditioned for the part in both her natural accent and with an English one. Gillan has said that she feels using her Scottish accent better fits the character.

Casting and initial filming

Gillan, like some of the people who had been the Doctor's companion before her, had already been on Doctor Who in a smaller role. Gillan was a soothsayer in the episode "The Fires of Pompeii". It was broadcast in 2008.

Steven Moffat said of the casting for the character,
 "We saw some amazing actresses for this part. But when Karen came through the door, the game was up - she was funny, clever, gorgeous and sexy. Or Scottish, which is the quick way of saying it. A generation of little girls will want to be her. And a generation of little boys will want them to be her too." Doctor Who executive producer Piers Wenger agreed, "We knew Karen was perfect for the role the moment we saw her. She brought an energy and excitement to the part that was just fantastic."

Gillan said she was happy to have been cast in the role. She says, "I am absolutely over the moon at being chosen to play the Doctor's new companion. The show is such a massive phenomenon that I can't quite believe I am going to be a part of it. Matt Smith is an incredible actor and it is going to be so much fun to act alongside him – I just can't wait to get started." The role of the young Amelia was played by Gillan's 10-year-old cousin, Caitlin Blackwood.  Gillan asked producers to let her cousin play the part, but Blackwood still had to audition. On set was the first time Gillan and Blackwood had actually met each other.

Reception

When "The Eleventh Hour" was first shown, two viewers quoted in The Telegraph said that Amy's character was too "sexy" for a family programme like Doctor Who. Executive producer Piers Wenger said that Amy was meant to be "feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number. Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with, but she isn't promiscuous."

In an online poll, with 3,000 people, taken in late 2010, Amy Pond was listed as the fifth most popular companion.

References

Other websites
Amy Pond on the BBC's Doctor Who Series 5 website
The Name's Pond. Amy Pond , BBC
Amy Pond at BBC America

Doctor Who characters

Amy Pond


Holwell is a village and civil parish in the county of Dorset in southern England, situated approximately  south-east of Sherborne. It is sited on Oxford clay in the Blackmore Vale. Its name derives from the Old English hol and walu, meaning a bank or ridge in a hollow. The parish includes the hamlets of Sandhills, Westrow, Barnes Cross, The Borough, and Woodbridge. In the 2011 census the parish had a population of 369 and is part of the Cam Vale electoral ward. Until 1844 Holwell was an exclave of Somerset, being part of the parish of Milborne Port.

Holwell parish church is situated with a few houses at the end of a cul-de-sac in a small settlement called The Borough. This is the original medieval part of the village, sited next to the Caundle Brook in the north of the parish. Secondary settlements were established later to the south, east and west; these were outside The Borough's open field system and had their own enclosures. The most southerly part of the parish was enclosed in 1797. The church, dedicated to St Lawrence, largely dates from the late 15th century, though it was restored in 1885. The biblical scholar Henry Adeney Redpath was rector at Holwell between 1883 and 1890.

A short distance north of the church the Caundle Brook is crossed by a packhorse bridge, probably of medieval origin. About  to the west and also crossing the Caundle Brook is Cornford Bridge, dating from the 15th and 18th centuries and designated a grade II* listed building and a scheduled monument. Also grade II* listed is Naish Farm, situated approximately  southeast of The Borough and a good example of a medieval domestic farmhouse.

At Barnes Cross—between The Borough and Cornford Bridge—is a pillar box which is the oldest still in everyday use in Britain. It is hexagonal with a vertical letter slot and was made between 1853 and 1856 by the Gloucester firm John N. Butt & Co. It is also grade II* listed.

Notes

External links

Villages in Dorset
Places formerly in Somerset

Holwell, Dorset


Samba is a kind of music, dancing, and singing, originally from Brazil. It began as a music/dance movement in the 1920s.

The dance of brazil.
Samba is a lively, rhythmical dance of Brazilian origin in 2/4 time. In ballroom dance there are three steps to every bar, making the samba feel something like a 3/4 timed dance. The timing is one, a-two, with the values about one beat, 1/4 beat, 3/4 beat.

There are two main types of samba that differ from each other: the modern ballroom samba, and the traditional samba of Brazil. Traditional Brazilian samba includes the samba which is danced solo at Carnival. In that case, the dancers take just one step on each beat.

Origins
The ballroom samba has its origins in Brazil at the beginning of the 20th century. Many steps can be traced back to the Maxixe danced in 1910s. A book published in France in 1928 already described how to perform the samba. The modern ballroom dance was created in England, mostly with steps adapted from those seen in Brazil. This version is now danced all over the world in international competitive dancing as regulated by the World Dance Council.

Style
Ballroom samba, like other ballroom dances, is a form adapted for its suitability as a partner dance. The dance movements, which do not change depending on the style of samba music being played, borrows some movements from Afro-Brazilian traditional dances such those used in candomblé rituals.

The ballroom samba is danced to music in 2/4 time. The basic movements are counted either 1-2 or 1-a-2, and are danced with a slight bouncing action. This action is created through the bending and straightening of the knees, with bending occurring on the beats of 1 and 2, and the straightening occurring on the "a". Samba is notable for its constantly changing rhythms however, with cross-rhythms being a common feature. Thus, common step values (in beats are):

Traditional Brazilian instruments
The following applies to the type of samba done during street carnivals where the musicians will move along with the dancers, sometimes on foot, sometimes on a motorized 'float' or platform.

The music is played with different instruments – bass drums (a surdo drum, used for keeping a steady beat), snare drums, a whistle (called an apito [a-peet-oh], used for beginning and ending sections of music), other types of untuned percussion, and different varieties of bells.

Other sections are when the apito blasts one rhythm, and all other instruments respond using another rhythm (that lasts the same amount of time as the first), named a call and response section; and a Samba piece can have instrument solos, when one instrument is playing an exciting rhythm. The apito caller signals the end of one section and the beginning of the next by blasting a short call. Pieces always have clear beginnings and ends.

Ballroom sambas are usually played by standard ballroom dance bands with one or two extra percussion instruments.

Other websites
 Dance Resources Samba syllabus
 Demonstration of basic figures by experts Allan Tornsberg and Serena Lecca

References

Music genres
Latin dances

Samba


Charles Robert Knight (October 21, 1874 – April 15, 1953) was an American artist famous for his paintings of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals.

His works were reproduced in many books, and are on display at several major museums in the United States.

Early career

As a child, Knight was deeply interested in nature and animals, and spent many hours copying the illustrations from his father's natural history books. Though legally blind, he was partially sighted. He had severe astigmatism, and a later injury to his right eye, but had specially-designed glasses. At twelve, he enrolled at the Metropolitan Art School to become a commercial artist.

In his free time, Knight visited the American Museum of Natural History, and attracted the attention of Dr. Jacob Wortman. Soon the museum commissioned Knight to produce a series of watercolors for their fossil halls.

These paintings were hugely popular among visitors, and Knight continued to work with the museum well into the 1930s. He painted what would become some of the most celebrated images of dinosaurs, prehistoric mammals, and prehistoric humans.

One of Knight's best-known pieces for the American Museum of Natural History is 1897's Leaping Laelaps, one of the few pre-1960s images to present dinosaurs as active, fast-moving creatures. This was long before the theories of modern paleontologists like Robert Bakker.

Other familiar American Museum paintings include Knight's portrayals of Agathaumas, Allosaurus, Brontosaurus, Smilodon, and the Woolly Mammoth. All of these have been reproduced many times.

Nationwide attention

Soon, natural history museums throughout the country began asking Knight for paintings as background for their own fossil exhibits. In 1925 Knight produced an elaborate mural for the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. This illustrated some of the birds and mammals whose remains had been found in the nearby La Brea Tar Pits.

The following year, Knight began a 28-mural series for Chicago's Field Museum of Natural History, a project which showed the history of life on earth and took four years to complete. At the Field Museum, he produced one of his best-known pieces, a mural featuring Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops.  This confrontation scene between a predator and its prey would inspire many imitations, establishing the two dinosaurs as 'mortal enemies' in the popular consciousness.

Knight's work also found its way to the Carnegie Museums in Pittsburgh; the Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C.; and Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History, among others. Several zoos, such as the Bronx Zoo, the Lincoln Park Zoo, and the Brookfield Zoo, also got Knight to paint murals of their living animals.

Knight illustrated books and magazines, and became a frequent contributor to National Geographic.  He also wrote and illustrated several books of his own, such as Before the Dawn of History (Knight, 1935), Life Through the Ages (1946), Animal Drawing: Anatomy and Action for Artists (1947), and Prehistoric Man: The Great Adventure (1949). Additionally, Knight became a popular lecturer, describing prehistoric life to audiences across the country.

Legacy

Knight worked in an era when new and often fragmentary fossils were coming out of the American west in quantity. Understandably, not all of his creations were based on solid evidence. His painting of ceratopsians as solitary animals in lush grassy landscapes was incorrect. The grasslands which feature in many of his paintings did not appear until the Cainozoic, and ceratopsians are known to have been gregarious animals.

Knight restored many dinosaurs with typical reptilian-like limbs and narrow hips. In the 1920s, studies by palaeontologists had confirmed that dinosaurs had broad avian-like hips rather than those of a present-day reptile.

Knight often restored extinct mammals, birds and marine reptiles in action poses, but his depictions of large dinosaurs as ponderous swamp-dwellers destined for extinction reflected more traditional concepts. In his catalogue to Life through the Ages (1946), he repeated views he had written earlier (Knight, 1935). He described the great beasts as "slow-moving dunces" that were "unadaptable and unprogressive" while conceding that small dinosaurs may have been more active. In fact, by their long survival in a world of many predators, herbivorous dinosaurs were as effective as they needed to be.

The dinosaur tail

The single most obvious fault in his dinosaur paintings was one he shared with all the paleontologists of his day. They did not realise the tail was used as a counterbalance, and so in movement was held horizontal, not dragged along the ground. In many species the ligaments of the tail were ossified (turned into bone), so the tail simply must have been horizontal. Deinonychus is a good example.

This issue, which was certainly not Knight's fault, limits the usefulness today of many of his best illustrations.

Admirers
Other admirers have included special effects artist Ray Harryhausen, who writes in his autobiography An Animated Life, "Long before Obie (Willis O'Brien), myself, and Steven Spielberg, he put flesh on creatures that no human had ever seen. […] At the L.A. County Museum I vividly remember a beautiful Knight mural on one of the walls depicting the way the tar pits would have looked in ancient times.  This, plus a picture book about Knight's work my mother gave me, were my first encounters with a man who was to prove an enormous help when the time came for me to make three-dimensional models of these extinct beings".

Modern publications
Though many other paleoartists have succeeded Knight (most notably Zdeněk Burian) Knight's paintings still remain very popular among paleontology enthusiasts.
 A commemorative edition of Knight's 1946 book Life Through the Ages was recently published by Indiana University Press
 A 2007 calendar  of Knight's paintings is also available.
 Fantasy artist William Stout has been compiling a series of Charles Knight Sketchbooks, which contain many rare and previously unpublished drawings and studies by Knight.

References

American painters
1874 births
1953 deaths

Charles R. Knight


Edith White Bolling Galt Wilson (October 15, 1872 — December 28, 1961), second wife of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, was First Lady of the United States from 1915 to 1921. She met the President in March 1915 and they married nine months later.

Her husband had suffered a long illness. There were many things which the President was needed to do which he could not do. She helped him. Because of this, some people had called her "the Secret President" and "the first woman to run the government".

Early life
Wilson was born in Wytheville, Virginia. Her parents were Sallie White and Judge William Holcombe Bolling. She was their seventh child, out of the total eleven children. Through her grandmother, she was a direct descendant of Pocahontas.

When she was 15 years old, she attended Martha Washington College to study music. She attended the second year at a smaller school in Richmond, Virginia.

Once when she was visiting her married sister in Washington, DC, Edith met Norman Galt. Norman Galt was a rich jeweler. She married him in 1896. For 12 years, she lived a good life in Washington D. C. But, she also faced some tragedies. In 1903, she gave birth to a son. The child only lived for a few days. The problem birth made her unable to have any more children. In 1908, her husband died. Edith Galt picked a manager to run the family's jewelry business. The business continued to earn money.

Marriage and family
In 1915, President Wilson and Edith Galt met each other. President Wilson liked her and asked her to marry him. They married on 18th December 1915. While asking her to marry him, President Wilson had said like a poet: "in this place time is not measured by weeks, or months, or years, but by deep human experiences..."

Their love and romance also created a lot of talks in the social circle. Once an article in a Washington newspaper was about the Wilson couple. It talked of the couple while they were seeing a play in a theater before their marriage. The article stated: "The President gave himself up for the time being to entertaining his fiancee" But a printing error made it read like this: "The President gave himself up for the time being to entering his fiancee." The publishers called back the newspapers with the printing error. Still a few copies could not be called back. These copies are now very wanted items.

The First Lady

Mrs. Wilson had all the qualifications to act as the First Lady. She began her role as the First lady. During this time, World War I started. This limited the social activities at the White House. In 1917, the United States also joined the war. Mrs. Wilson started helping her husband who was under a lot of pressure because of the war. She also went with him to Europe during the process of peace.

President Wilson returned from Europe. He spent much of his time trying to get the Senate's approval for the peace treaty. He was also trying to get approval for an agreement to create the League of Nations. In the meantime, his health was getting bad.

In September 1919, he suffered a stroke. He became partially paralyzed. Edith Wilson always stayed with him. She took over many common duties of the government and helped her husband in many official matters. At the same time, she sent many other official matters to the heads of departments or allowed them to remain undone.

She also wrote a book. The name of the book is My Memoir. Its year of publication is 1939. In this book, she said that her husband's doctors had asked her to take up many responsibilities of her husband. Many historians do not agree with her views.

Phyllis Levin, a historian had described her as "a woman of narrow views and formidable determination". He blamed her for many failures of the policies of the United States after the First World War.

Later life
In 1921, the Wilson couple retired to live in Washington. After three years her husband, Woodrow Wilson, died. She continued to live in Washington. People liked her, and she became a respected figure in the high society of the capital. Some people say that she liked and admired younger men. She lived a long life and lived to see President John F. Kennedy's inaugural parade. She died on December 28, 1961, the 105th anniversary of her second husband's birth. At the time of her death, she was 89 years. This made her the seventh longest-lived First Lady after Bess Truman, Nancy Reagan, Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, Barbara Bush and Rosalynn Carter, respectively.

References

 Original text based on White House biography

1872 births
1961 deaths
Woodrow Wilson
First Ladies of the United States
People from Virginia

Edith Bolling Wilson


The Opera of the Nobility (or Nobility Opera) was an opera company set up and funded in 1733 by a group of nobles (under Frederick, Prince of Wales) opposed to George II of Great Britain, in order to rival the (Second) Royal Academy of Music company under Handel (backed by George II and his queen).

Nicola Porpora was invited to be its musical director and Owen Swiny considered as its talent scout. The company had Senesino (who had fallen out with Handel) as its lead singer and was based at a theatre at Lincoln's Inn Fields under John Rich which had become available on Rich's opening of the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. The company's first opera was Arianna in Nasso by Porpora, a direct challenge to Handel's Arianna in Creta.

The company was not a success in its initial 1733–34 season. Though Farinelli joined it late in the season and thus made it financially solvent, he was unable to prevent its eventual bankruptcy. At the end of its initial season it took over the King's Theatre from Handel.

The company went bankrupt and was dissolved in 1737 (shortly after appointing Giovanni Battista Pescetti its musical director), but not before it had poached some of Handel's best singers such as Francesca Cuzzoni and Antonio Montagnana and forced his company into bankruptcy too.  The remnants of the two companies combined at the King's Theatre for the 1737–38 season. A second Opera of the Nobility was formed in 1741 by the Earl of Middlesex, but it did not survive for long.

Sources
A short history of opera

References

1733 establishments in England
Organizations established in 1733
1737 disestablishments in England
Organizations disestablished in 1737
British opera companies
18th-century theatre
Frederick, Prince of Wales

Opera of the Nobility


In Christianity, the Second Coming is a time when Jesus Christ will come back to earth.  The Apostles Creed and the Nicene Creed state that "Christ will come again". This coming is to judge the living and the dead.  Throughout history, there have been different ideas about the details of this event. These disagreements are related to the Millennium which is described in the Book of Revelation as a 1000 year reign of Christ on the earth. Some Christians, called Amillennialists, think the 1,000 years refers only to the eventual triumph of the Gospel. Others, called Postmillennialists think that Jesus will return physically to earth.  This will happen only after Christianity has been predominant for the 1,000 years. This may be a real 1,000 years or an indefinitely long time.  In recent times, many Christians, especially in the United States, have believed that there will be a Rapture of the Christians.  This means that at a certain time all Christians will go up to heaven to be with Jesus.  After seven years of trouble on earth, Jesus will return with all the Christians to defeat the Antichrist and rule on earth for 1,000 literal years. Others who believe in the rapture put it at in the middle or at the end of the seven years. These different views come mainly from the Book of Revelation, but other Old Testament and New Testament books are also used to develop the different views. Since the Book of Revelation uses highly symbolic language, it can be understood in different ways.  What virtually all Christians agree on is that in some way, Jesus will someday destroy all evil from the earth and bring goodness and peace.

References

Related pages
Acts
Book of Revelation

Christian eschatology
Jesus

Second Coming


Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, towards the string.

Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is made up of two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other. The amount of tension in the string determines whether it will break, as well as its vibrational properties, which are used in musical instruments.

Related pages

 Force (physics)
 Pulley
 Stress (physics)

Force
Mechanics

Tension (mechanics)


Francis Preston Blair, Sr. (12 Aprile 1791 – 18 October 1876) or Preston Blair wis an American journalist, politician, and a spy durin the American Civil War for the North.

Blair wantit to reunite the North and the South durin the war. Blair helpit to create the Republican Party. He supportit many Democrats, but was mostly the ally of Republican President Abraham Lincoln. He is nicknamed The Father of the Republican Party since he foundit the Republican Party.

1971 births
1876 daiths
Writers frae Virginie

Francis Preston Blair


A delicatessen is a shop that sells prepared foods of high quality to retail customers (shoppers). Typical products are cheeses, smoked fish, and cured meats, "delicacies" that have a long shelf life. The foods requiring refrigeration are kept in and sold from a cold case, or as canned foods on shelves.

Neighborhood delicatessens often feature ethnic foods for immigrant and second-generation patrons.

Food and drink
Shops

Delicatessen