Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people which leads to friendships and romantic relationships. The study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of research in social psychology. Interpersonal attraction is related to how much we like, love, dislike, or hate someone. It can be viewed as a force acting between two people that tends to draw them together and resist their separation. When measuring interpersonal attraction, one must refer to the qualities of the attracted as well as the qualities of the attractor to achieve predictive accuracy.   It is suggested that to determine attraction, personality and situation must be taken into account. Repulsion is also a factor in the process of interpersonal attraction, one's conception of "attraction" to another can vary from extreme attraction to extreme repulsion.

कारणे Causes
Many factors leading to interpersonal attraction have been studied. The most frequently studied are:
physical attractiveness, propinquity, familiarity, similarity, complementarity, reciprocal liking, and reinforcement.

समिपता/सानिध्य परिणाम Propinquity effect
According to Rowland Miller's Intimate Relationships text, the propinquity effect can be defined as: "the more we see and interact with a person, the more likely he or she is to become our friend or intimate partner."  This effect is very similar to the mere exposure effect in that the more a person is exposed to a stimulus, the more the person likes it; however, there are a few exceptions to the mere exposure effect.

Mere exposure/exposure effect केवळ अभ्यस्तता/अभ्यस्तता परिणाम
As mentioned above, the mere exposure effect, also known as the familiarity principle, states that the more we are exposed to something, the more we come to like it. This applies equally to both objects and people (Miller, 2006). The social allergy effect occurs when a person's annoying habits grow worse over time, instead of growing more fond of his or her idiosyncrasies.

Similarityसारखेपणा
The notion of "birds of a feather flock together" points out that similarity is a crucial determinant of interpersonal attraction. According to Morry's attraction-similarity model (2007), there is a lay belief that people with actual similarity produce initial attraction. Perceived similarity develops for someone to rate others as similar to themselves in on-going relationship. Such perception is either self-serving (friendship) or relationship-serving (romantic relationship). Newcomb (1963) pointed out that people tend to change perceived similarity to obtain balance in a relationship. Additionally, perceived similarity was found to be greater than actual similarity in predicting interpersonal attraction.

Similarity in different aspects वेगवेगळ्या बाबतीतील सारखेपणा
Findings suggest that interpersonal similarity and attraction are multidimensional constructs (Lydon, Jamieson & Zanna, 1988), in which people are attracted to others who are similar to them in demographics, physical appearance, attitudes, interpersonal style, social and cultural background, personality, interests and activities preferences, and communication and social skills. A study conducted by Theodore Newcomb (1961) on college dorm roommates suggested that individuals with shared backgrounds, academic achievements, attitudes, values, and political views became friends.

 Physical appearance शारीरिक ठेवण
 The matching hypothesis proposed by Goffman (1952) suggests why people become attracted to their partner. It claims that people are more likely to form long standing relationships with those who are equally physically attractive as they are. It can be represented in the following equation: physical attractiveness x the probability of acceptance  (Miller, 2006). The study by Walster and Walster (1969) supported the matching hypothesis by showing that partners who were similar in terms of physical attractiveness expressed the most liking for each other. Murstein (1972) also found evidence that supported the matching hypothesis: photos of dating and engaged couples were rated in terms of attractiveness. A definite tendency was found for couples of similar attractiveness to date or engage.

 Attitudes
 According to the 'law of attraction' by Byrne (1971), attraction towards a person is positively related to the proportion of attitudes similarity associated with that person. Clore (1976) also raised that the one with similar attitudes as yours was more agreeable with your perception of things and more reinforcing s/he was, so the more you like him/her. Based on the cognitive consistency theories, difference in attitudes and interests can lead to dislike and avoidance (Singh & Ho, 2000; Tan & Singh, 1995) whereas similarity in attitudes promotes social attraction (Byrne, London & Reeves, 1968; Singh & Ho, 2000). Miller (1972) pointed out that attitude similarity activates the perceived attractiveness and favorability information from each other, whereas dissimilarity would reduce the impact of these cues.

 The studies by Jamieson, Lydon and Zanna (1987, 1988) showed that attitude similarity could predict how people evaluate their respect for each other, and social and intellectual first impressions which in terms of activity preference similarity and value-based attitude similarity respectively. In intergroup comparisons, high attitude similarity would lead to homogeneity among in-group members whereas low attitude similarity would lead to diversity among in-group members, promoting social attraction and achieving high group performance in different tasks (Hahn & Hwang, 1999).

 Although attitudinal similarity and attraction are linearly related, attraction may not contribute significantly to attitude change (Simons, Berkowitz & Moyer, 1970)
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 Social and cultural background सामाजिक आणि सांस्कृतिक पार्श्वभूमी
 Byrne, Clore and Worchel (1966) suggested people with similar economic status are likely to be attracted to each other. Buss & Barnes (1986) also found that people prefer their romantic partners to be similar in certain demographic characteristics, including religious background, political orientation and socio-economic status.

 Personality व्यक्तिमत्व
 Researchers have shown that interpersonal attraction was positively correlated to personality similarity (Goldman, Rosenzweig & Lutter, 1980). People inclined to desire romantic partners who are similar to themselves on agreeableness, conscientiousness, extroversion, emotional stability, openness to experience (Botwin, Buss, & Shackelford, 1997), and attachment style (Klohnen & Luo, 2003).

 Interests and activities आवडी आणि कार्य
 Activity similarity was especially predictive of liking judgments, which affects the judgments of attraction (Lydon, Jamieson & Zanna, 1988). Lydon and Zanna (1987, 1988) claimed that high self-monitoring people were influenced more by activity preference similarity than attitude similarity on initial attraction, while low self-monitoring people were influenced more on initial attraction by value-based attitude similarity than activity preference similarity.

 Social skills सामाजिक कौशल्ये
 According to the post-conversation measures of social attraction, tactical similarity was positively correlated with partner satisfaction and global competence ratings, but was uncorrelated with the opinion change and perceived persuasiveness measures (Waldron & Applegate, 1998).

जोडीदार-सारखेपणाची कारणे Reasons of spouse similarity (Watson et al., 2004)
Social homogamy refers to "passive, indirect effects on spousal similarity" (Watson et al., 2004, p. 1034). The result showed that age and education level are crucial in affecting the mate preference. Because people with similar age study and interact more in the same form of the school, propinquity effect (i.e., the tendency of people to meet and spend time with those who share the common characteristics) plays a significant impact in spousal similarity.

Convergence refers to an increasing similarity with time. Although the previous research showed that there is a greater effect on attitude and value than on personality traits, however, it is found that initial assortment (i.e., similarity within couples at the beginning of marriage), rather than convergence, plays a crucial role in explaining spousal similarity.

Active assortment refers to direct effects on choosing someone similar as self in mating preferences. The data showed that there is a greater effect on political and religious attitudes than on personality traits. A follow-up issue on the reason of the finding was raised. The concepts of idiosyncratic (i.e., different individuals has different mate preferences) and consensual (i.e., a consensus of preference on some prospective mates to others) in mate preference. The data showed that mate preference on political and religious tend to be idiosyncratic, for example, A Catholic prefers to choose the one who is a Catholic, rather than a Buddhist. Such idiosyncratic preference produces high level of active assortment which plays a vital role in affecting spousal similarity.

In summary, active assortment is the most powerful in explaining spousal similarity, whereas convergence has little evidence on showing such effect.

सारखेपणा किंवा पूरकतेचे आंतरव्यक्ति आकर्षणावरील परिणाम Effects of similarity on interpersonal attraction
Similarity has effects on starting a relationship by initial attraction to know each other. It is showed that high attitude similarity resulted in a significant increase in initial attraction to the target person and high attitude dissimilarity resulted in a decrease of initial attraction (Gutkin, Gridley & Wendt, 1976; Kaplan & Olczak, 1971). Besides, similarity also promotes relationship commitment. Study on heterosexual dating couples found that similarity in intrinsic values of the couple was linked to relationship commitment and stability (Kurdek & Schnopp-Wyatt, 1997).

पूरकता Complementarity
The model of complementarity explains whether "birds of a feather flock together" or "opposites attract".

Studies show that complementary interaction between two partners increases their attractiveness to each other (Nowicki and Manheim, 1991). Complementary partners preferred closer interpersonal relationship than non-complementary ones (Nowicki & Manheim,1991). Couples who reported the highest level of loving and harmonious relationship were more dissimilar in dominance than couples who scored lower in relationship quality. (Markey & Markey (2007)).

Mathes and Moore (1985) found that people were more attracted to peers approximating to their ideal self than to those who did not. Specifically, low self-esteem individuals appeared more likely to desire a complementary relationship than high self-esteem people. We are attracted to people who complement to us because this allows us to maintain our preferred style of behavior (Markey & Markey (2007), and through interaction with someone who complements our own behavior, we are likely to have a sense of self-validation and security (Carson, 1969).

सारखेपणा किंवा पूरकता Similarity or complementarity?

Principles of similarity and complementarity seem to be contradictory on the surface (Posavac, 1971; Klohnen & Mendelsohn, 1998). In fact, they agree on the dimension of warmth. Both principles state that friendly people would prefer friendly partners. (Dryer & Horowitz, 1997)

The importance of similarity and complementarity may depend on the stage of the relationship. Similarity seems to carry considerable weight in initial attraction, while complementarity assumes importance as the relationship develops over time (Vinacke, Shannon, Palazzo, Balsavage, et-al, 1988). Markey (2007) found that people would be more satisfied with their relationship if their partners differed from them, at least, in terms of dominance, as two dominant persons may experience conflicts while two submissive individuals may have frustration as neither member take the initiative.

Perception and actual behavior might not be congruent with each other. There were cases that dominant people perceived their partners to be similarly dominant, yet in the eyes of independent observers, the actual behavior of their partner was submissive, in other words, complementary to them (Dryer1997). Why do people perceive their romantic partners to be similar to them despite evidence to the contrary? The reason remains unclear, pending further research.

सामाजिक अभिसरण सिद्धांतSocial exchange theory
People's feelings toward a potential partner are dependent on their perception of rewards and costs, the kind of relationships they deserve, and their likelihood for having a healthier relationship with someone else.  Rewards are the part of a relationship that makes it worthwhile and enjoyable.  A cost is something that can cause irritation like a friend overstaying his welcome.  Comparison level is also taken into account during a relationship.  This suggests that people expect rewards or costs depending on the time invested in the relationship.  If the level of expected rewards are minimal and the level of costs is high, the relationship suffers and both parties may become dissatisfied and unhappy.  Lastly, the comparison of alternatives means that satisfaction is conditional on the chance that a person could replace the relationship with a more desirable one.

आकर्षण =मैत्री आणि स्नेह
Warren Kubitschek and Maureen Hallinan, University of Notre Dame, social psychologists who suggested that attraction is the result of the propinquity and similarity effects and the status of each party involved.  Their study was about the tracking program that organizes students according to their level of ability to learn. This is mostly implemented in middle and almost all of high school.  Their goal is to prove that students on the same track have a higher probability of becoming friends compared to those in different tracks. Other organizational based groupings should also follow these factors.  The propinquity effect creates an ideal environment where students are in close physical proximity with each other and have the chance to build familiarity that leads to friendship.  Similarity in tracking students is important because they found that track students tend to become friends with others who have the same academic achievement and expectations as themselves.  They also found that students on the same level of status concerning grades will likely name them than those who are on lower level than their own.  They conclude that although the factors mentioned do have great influence on friendship, they are not exclusive for organized program like tracking.

आकर्षण = romantic relationship
The triangular theory of love
by Robert Sternberg is based on intimacy, passion, and commitment. The strongest type of love, consummate love, consists of these three aspects. The idea of this theory is that love can consist of one component alone or any combination of the three parts: intimacy, passion, and commitment.

There are many factors taken into account when a relationship turns into love. One big factor is culture. This is a common issue among two people who come from very different cultural backgrounds. In a study done by Phillip Shavers and his colleagues, they interviewed participants from different parts of the world and found that love has "similar and different meanings cross-culturally. The Chinese participants had several different love concepts such as "sorrow-love","tenderness-pity", and "sorrow-pity". This ties into another study done by Rothbaym and his partner Tsang in 1998 in which they researched popular love songs from American and Chinese artists. The difference was that the Chinese love songs "had significantly more references to suffering and to negative outcomes than the American love songs". This may be due to beliefs that interpersonal relationships are predestined, and thus have no control over love lives.

उत्क्रांतीवाद सिद्धांत
The evolutionary theory of human interpersonal attraction states that opposite-sex attraction most often occurs when someone has physical features indicating that he or she is very fertile. Considering that the primary purpose of conjugal/romantic relationships is reproduction, it would follow that people invest in partners who appear very fertile, increasing the chance of their genes being passed down to the next generation. This theory has been criticized because it does not explain relationships between same-sex couples or couples who do not want children, although this may have something to do with the fact that whether one wants children or not one is still subject to the evolutionary forces which produce them.

Another evolutionary explanation suggests that fertility in a mate is of greater importance to men than to women.  According to this theory, a woman places significant emphasis on a man's ability to provide resources and protection.  The theory suggests that these resources and protection are important in ensuring the successful raising of the woman's offspring.  The ability to provide resources and protection might also be sought because the underlying traits are likely to be passed on to male offspring. Critics of this theory point out that most genes are autosomal and non-sex-linked (Gould, et al.)

Evolutionary theory also suggests that people whose physical features suggest they are healthy are seen as more attractive.  The theory suggests that a healthy mate is more likely to possess genetic traits related to health that would be passed on to offspring.  People's tendency to consider people with facial symmetry more attractive than those with less symmetrical faces is one example. However, a test was conducted that found that perfectly symmetrical faces were less attractive than normal faces.

It has also been suggested that people are attracted to faces similar to their own. Case studies have revealed that when a photograph of a woman was superimposed to include the features of a man's face, the man whose face was superimposed almost always rated that picture the most attractive. This theory is based upon the notion that we want to replicate our own features in the next generation, as we have survived thus far with such features and have instinctive survival wishes for our children. Another (non-evolutionary) explanation given for the results of that study was that the man whose face was superimposed may have consciously or subconsciously associated the photographically altered female face with the face of his mother or other family member.

Increased female attraction to men in relationships
A 2009 study by Melissa Burkley and Jessica Parker of Oklahoma State University found that 59% of women stated they were interested in pursuing a relationship when presented with a (unknown to the woman) hypothetical "ideal" single man. However, when instead told that the man was already in a romantic relationship, 90% of the women stated they were interested in pursuing a romantic relationship.

Breaking up तूटणे
Breaking up is the ending of a relationship whether it's a friendship or romantic relationship. There are several reasons that a relationship may come to an end. One reason derives from the equity theory (rewards and costs are equal to both parties). If a person in the relationship feels that the personal costs of being in the relationship outweigh the rewards there is a strong chance that he/she will end the relationship. This also may go for the rewards outweighing costs in some cases.

हेसुद्धा पहा
Bad boy (archetype)
Dating
Human bonding
Interpersonal compatibility
Limerence
Love (scientific views)
Platonic love
Puppy love
Seduction
Beer goggles

संदर्भ

Aronson, Elliot, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert.  Social Psychology Sixth Edition.  New Jersey: Upper Saddle River, 2007.
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Buss, D. M., & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50(3), 559-570.
Byrne, D., Clore, G. L. J. & Worchel, P. (1966). Effect of economic similarity-dissimilarity on interpersonal attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(2), 220-224.
Byrne, D., London, O., & Reeves, K. (1968). The effects of physical attractiveness, sex, and attitude similarity on interpersonal attraction. Journal of Personality, 36(2), 259-271.
Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
Carson, R. (1969). Interaction concepts of personality. Chicago: Aldine.
Drayer, D. C. & H, L. M. (1997). When do opposites attract? Interpersonal complementarity versus similarity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 592-603
Goldman, J. A., Rosenzweig, C. M. & Lutter, A. D. (1980). Effect of similarity of ego identity status on interpersonal attraction. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9(2), 153-162.
Gutkin, T. B., Gridley G. C., & Wendt, J. M. (1976). The effect of initial attraction and attitude similarity-dissimilarity on interpersonal attraction. Cornell Journal of Social Relations, 11(2), 153-160.
Hahn, D., & Hwang, S. (1999). Test of similarity-attraction hypothesis in group performance situation. Korean Journal of Social & Personality Psychology, 13(1), 255-275.
Horowitz, L. M., Dryer, D. C., & Krasnoperova, E. N. (1997). The circumplex structure of interpersonal problems. In R. Plutchik & H. R. Conte (Eds.), Circumplex models of personality and emotions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Markey, P.M.& Markey, C. N.(2007) Romantic ideals, romantic obtainment, and relationship experiences: The complementarity of interpersonal traits among romantic partners. Journal of social and Personal Relationships, 24(4), 517-533.
Mathes, E. W., & Moore, C. L. (1985). Reik's complementarily theory of romantic love. The Journal of Social Psychology, 125, 321-327.
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लेखात प्रयूक्त संज्ञा

शब्दाचा विशेष संदर्भ/अर्थ छटा

इंग्रजी मराठी  संज्ञा

प्रेम

आकर्षण (परस्परातील)


This is a list of notable personalities/celebrities from or who spent considerable time living in Vancouver, British Columbia.

A
 Bryan Adams, Singer
 Vikky Alexander, Artist
 Pamela Anderson, Actress

B
 Nat Bailey, Restaurateur and Baseball team owner
 Ashleigh Ball, voice actress known for her lead role on My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic and lead singer of Hey Ocean
 James Barber, cookbook author a.k.a. "The Urban Peasant"
 Barry Beck, Hockey Player
 Ray Bethell, Master Multiple Kite Flier
 Jean-Luc Bilodeau, Actor
 Yannick Bisson, Actor
  Beau Bokan, Musician
 Linwood Boomer, Actor/Television producer/Writer
 Sage Brocklebank, Actor
 Rod Bruno, Musician
 Cameron Bright, Actor
 Michael Bublé, Singer
 Raymond Burr, Actor
 Jazzy B, Actor, singer

C
 Dayana Cadeau, Haitian-born Canadian/American professional bodybuilder
 Kim Campbell, former Canadian Prime Minister
 Paul Campbell, actor
 Erin Cebula, TV personality
 Erica Cerra, actress
 Sarah Chalke, actress
 Angela Chang, Mandopop singer
 Peter Chao, Comedian
 Osric Chau, actor
 Edison Chen, Hong Kong entertainer
 Ying Chen, Francophone author
 Fred Cheng, Hong Kong actor/musician
 Joyce Cheng, actress
 Kayi Cheung, actress, Miss Hong Kong 2007
 Evelyn Chew, actress
 Charlene Choi, actress and singer
 Tommy Chong, actor, comedian, musician
 Hayden Christensen, actor
 Linda Chung, actress/musician
 Christy Clark, provincial politician and Premier of British Columbia
 Torrance Coombs, actor
 Douglas Coupland, author
 Amanda Crew, actress
 Roger Cross, actor
 Seán Cummings, actor and playwright

D
 Brian Day, doctor
 Yvonne DeCarlo, actress
 Ryan Dempster, MLB baseball player
 Ranj Dhaliwal, writer
 Lexa Doig, actress
 James Doohan, actor ("Lt. Cmmdr. Montgomery Scott Scotty" from television show Star Trek)
 Audrey Capel Doray, artist
 Stan Douglas, artist
 Mac DeMarco, artist
 Jay DeMerit, MLS, World Cup soccer player

E
 Aileen Eaton, Boxing Promoter
 Aryana Engineer, Actress
 Arthur Erickson, Architect, Urban planner
 Elise Estrada, Singer-Songwriter, Actress
 Eliza Sam, Hong Kong Actress

F
 Ed Fast, Canadian Politician and Federal Cabinet Minister
 Gordon Fee, New Testament scholar
 Fadi Awad, Artist, Musician, Producer, Art Projects Manager & Director
 John Ferguson, Sr., Professional Hockey Player
 Jodelle Ferland, Actress
 Freddy Fuller, Canadian Boxing Champion
 Nathan Fielder, Comedian
 Rod Filbrandt, Cartoonist
 Nigel Findley, Fantasy, science fiction, and RPG author
 Noel Fisher, Actor
 Brendan Fletcher, Actor
 William Wasbrough Foster, mountaineer, soldier, politician, business executive, and chief constable of Vancouver.
 Michael J. Fox, Actor
 Jeff Francis, Major League Baseball Player
 Rhys Fulber, Musician, producer
 Nolan Gerard Funk, Actor

G
 Emmanuelle Schick Garcia, film director/writer
 Austin Gary, author/songwriter
 C. E. Gatchalian, playwright
 William Gibson, author
 Rodney Graham, artist
 Matthew Good, singer/songwriter
 Jennifer Granholm, Ex-governor of US State of Michigan
 Trevor Guthrie, singer
 Grimes, singer, songwriter, director, musician, actress
 Nancy Greene Raine, Olympic Champion and Canadian Senator

H
 Rich Harden, Major League Baseball Player
 Jillian Harris, ABC's 5th Bachelorette
 Laura Harris, Actress
 Chris Haslam, Professional Skateboarder
 Meghan Heffern, Actress
 Ed Hill (comedian) Award Winning Stand up Comedian
 Bert Hoffmeister, commander of the 5th Canadian Division in the Second World War, then president of MacMillan Bloedel
 Brent Hodge, film director and CEO of Hodgee Films
 Clive Holden, Poet, film director and visual artist
 Bob Houbregs, NBA player for the Milwaukee Hawks, Baltimore Bullets, Boston Celtics, and the Fort Wayne Pistons, general manager of the Seattle SuperSonics, member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame
 Elva Hsiao, Mandopop singer
 Jacob Hoggard, Lead singer of the band Hedley
 Antony Holland, actor

 Harrison Houde, composer, actor

I
 John Ireland, actor
 Britt Irvin, actress, musician and voice-over artist
 Katharine Isabelle, actress

J
 Joshua Jackson, actor
 Liam James, actor
 Sarah Jeffery, actress, dancer, singer
 Avan Jogia, actor
 Christopher Judge, actor
 Carly Rae Jepsen, singer
 Alexz Johnson, actress, singer

K
 Evander Kane. National Hockey League player
 Paul Kariya, National Hockey League player
 Cevin Key, Musician
 Earl Keeley, football player
 Kristin Kreuk, actress
 Margot Kidder, actress

L
 Tyler Labine, Actor
 Evelyn Lau, Poet and Novelist
 Maggie Lawson, Actress
 Cory Lee, Singer
 Bill Leeb, Musician, singer
 Bob Lenarduzzi, Soccer Player
 Sherwood Lett, soldier, lawyer, chancellor of UBC.
 Trevor Linden, NHL hockey player
 Bernice Liu, Actress
 Mary Livingstone formerly Sadie Marks, Actress {Wife of Jack Benny}
 Rochelle Low, Field hockey player
 Crystal Lowe, Actress
 Jessica Lowndes, Actress
 Jessica Lucas, Actress
 Milan Lucic, NHL hockey player
 Alexander Ludwig, Actor

M
 Norma MacMillan, voice actress
 Karen Diane Magnussen, figure skater.
 Dan Mangan, musician
 Charles Marega, sculptor
 Terry McBride, CEO and founder, Nettwerk Music Group
 Shane McConkey, professional freestyle skier
 Rick McCrank, professional skateboarder
 Dean McFadden, Commander of the Royal Canadian Navy
 Ashleigh McIvor, Olympic Champion skier
 Jim Meier, entertainment and software industry executive
 John H. Meier, financier and former business adviser to Howard Hughes
 Charles Merritt, winner of the Victoria Cross
 Shay Mitchell, actress
 Colin Mochrie, comedian
 Cory Monteith, actor
 Greg Moore, racecar driver
 James Moore, Canadian politician and senior Federal cabinet minister
 Justin Morneau, Major League Baseball player
 Carrie-Anne Moss, actress
 Jane Munro, poet

N
 Ira B. Nadel, biographer and literary critic
 Nardwuar the Human Serviette, radio host and musician
 Steve Nash, NBA Basketball Player
Cam Neely, NHL Hockey Player
 Kliph Nesteroff, writer, broadcaster
 Mayko Nguyen, Actress
Ryan Nugent-Hopkins NHL Hockey Player

O
 Brenna O'Brien, Actress
 Victor Odlum, Canadian journalist, soldier, and diplomat
 Nivek Ogre, Singer, musician
 Sandra Oh, Actress
 Pat Onstad, Soccer Player

P
 J. I. Packer, Anglican theologian
 Grace Park, Actress
 Jim Pattison, Entrepreneur
 Kit Pearson, Children's writer
 Missy Peregrym, Actress
 Emily Perkins, Actress
James Picard, Artist
 Carly Pope, Actress
 Daniel Powter, Singer
 William Pratt, aka Boris Karloff, Actor
 Jason Priestley, Actor
 Kirsten Prout, Actress

Q
Wanting Qu, singer-songwriter

R
 Josh Ramsay, lead singer of band Marianas Trench
 Rascalz, hip hop group
 Ryan Reynolds, actor
 Charlie Richmond, inventor
 Ryan Robbins, actor
 Rachel Roberts, actress, Fashion Model
 Spider Robinson, author
 Wayne Robson, actor
 Coco Rocha, fashion model
 James Roday, actor
 Seth Rogen, actor, writer, and comedian
 Teryl Rothery, television anchor, actress

S
 Joe Sakic, NHL hockey player ("Burnaby Joe")
 Devon Sawa, actor
 Drew Scott, Property Brothers (HGTV)
 Jonathan Scott, Property Brothers (HGTV)
 Conrad Schmidt, activist
 Michael Shanks, actor
 Kathryn Shaw, artistic director
 Lydia Shum Din-ha, elder sister of Alfred Sung and Hong Kong actress
 Nelson Skalbania, entrepreneur
 Gregory Smith, actor
 Trevor Smith, NHL ice hockey player
 Cobie Smulders, actress
 Rita Steblin, musicologist
 Dorothy Stratten, actress/model
 Social Deviantz, rap group
 John G. Stackhouse, Jr., writer and professor of religion
 Jewel Staite, actress
 Arran Stephens, entrepreneur, writer
 Ryan Stiles, comedian, actor
 Russell Stuart, CEO & founder, SuperBox Inc.
 Sean Stubbs, musician
 Billy Suede, professional wrestler
 David Suzuki, environmentalist, scientist, broadcaster
 Swollen Members, rap group
Sophie Schmidt, member of Canadian Women's National soccer team
Christine Sinclair, member of Canadian Women's National soccer team
Sammy Strong, actor and voice artist

T
 Amanda Tapping, Actress
 Reece Thompson, Actor
 Brent Titcomb, Actor/Singer, member of the Canadian band 3's a Crowd
 Alex To, Mandopop Singer
 Eckhart Tolle, Spiritual teacher
 Ziya Tong, television personality
 Nicholas Tse, Cantopop Singer
 Devin Townsend, Singer, Musician
 Margaret Trudeau (now Margaret Trudeau Kemper), Former wife of Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau
 John Turner, Former Canadian Prime Minister

U

V
 Adrien Van Viersen, Storyboard artist
 Emmanuelle Vaugier, Actress
 The Veer Union, Band

W
 Larry Walker, Major-league Baseball player
 Jeff Wall, Artist
 Ian Wallace, Artist
 Nolan Watson, Entrepreneur and philanthropist
 Daniel Wesley, Musician
 Brian Wong, Technology entrepreneur
 Kris Wu, Chinese K-Pop Singer of EXO

Y
 Benny Yau, Television presenter, Singer
 Françoise Yip, Actress

Z
Alex Zahara, actor

Vancouver

List of people from Vancouver


A baton is a stick.  Different batons are used by different people, for different things.

Policemen often carry batons, which can be used as weapons. These batons are also sometimes called "nightsticks."

Runners pass batons to one another in relay races.

Musical conductors use batons to lead an orchestra.

Various people in a parade or marching band might twirl batons for people to see.

Tools

Baton


Comics about the September 11 attacks were published following the terrorist attacks in New York City, Arlington, and Pennsylvania on September 11, 2001, and cartoonists turned to art to express their grief and support for relief efforts.

Titles and synopses
 9-11: Artists Respond, Volume One and 9-11: The World's Finest Comic Book Writers & Artists Tell Stories to Remember, Volume Two, feature short stories and single-page work from a wide variety of artists.
 The Amazing Spider-Man volume 2 #36 explores how Spider-Man and other Marvel characters like Captain America, Daredevil, Doctor Doom, and Magneto react in the aftermath of the attacks. Also called the "Black Issue" for the solid black cover.
 The Big Lie, by Rick Veitch, involves a woman travelling back in time in an attempt to save the lives of those in the WTC at the time of the attack.
 The Boys, by Garth Ennis, shows three of the four hijacked planes being shot down by the Air Force, and the fourth being intercepted by superheroes; that plane subsequently crashed on the Brooklyn Bridge, destroying it and killing over a thousand people.
 The Call of Duty, a series about first responders: EMTs, firefighters, and police officers.
 Cartoonists Remember 9/11, a selection of comic strip titles from the five largest syndicates all ran comics commemorating the 10th anniversary of 9-11.
 Ex Machina by  Brian K. Vaughan and published by Wildstorm/DC, is set in a world in which a superhero called the Great Machine becomes mayor of New York after intervening in the September 11 attacks.
 Heroes, a book of sixty-four full-page illustrations paying tribute to those who attempted to save lives on 9-11.
 Human Target #2–3, "The Unshredded Man" (Parts 1 & 2) by Peter Milligan feature a man who had faked his own death in the WTC attacks to escape embezzlement charges, but who is now given the opportunity to come clean.
 A Moment of Silence features four wordless stories reflecting different perspectives on September 11, all inspired by true events. Includes an introduction by then-New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani.

Non-fiction comics about the September 11 attacks
 The 9/11 Report: A Graphic Adaptation (), by Sid Jacobson and Ernie Colón, and published by Hill & Wang, is an abridged graphic novel adaptation of the 9/11 Commission Report.
 In the Shadow of No Towers (2004) by Art Spiegelman. A graphic novel that mourns both 9/11 and the political uses to which it has been put.
 I Love New York by Joseph Michael Linsner presents his perceptions as a native New Yorker on that day.

Benefit books

Contributors

9-11: Artists Respond, Volume One
Cover by Eric Drooker
 Writer/Artists:
Brian Biggs, Mike Diana, Dylan Horrocks, Roger Langridge, Liniers, R. Sikoryak, Dean Motter, Jon J. Muth, Dave Cooper, Will Eisner, Batton Lash, Frank Miller, Al Davison, Bryan Talbot, David Alvarez, Layla Lawlor, Tony Millionaire, Mira Friedmann, Mark Crilley, Doug TenNapel, P. Craig Russell, Tommy Lee Edwards, Mitch O'Connell, David Chelsea, Sam Henderson, Ron Boyd, Phil Elliott, Stan Sakai, Jim Mahfood, Paul Chadwick, Darko Macan, Leland Myrick, John Paul Leon, William Stout, Marc Rosenthal, Enrico Casarosa, Mark Martin, Brian McDonald, Brian O'Connell, Terry Anderson, Becky Cloonan, Eric Drooker, Chris Eliopoulos, Davide Fabbri, Tatiana Gill, Steve Guaraccia, Jim Hill, Eric Kilkenny, Scott Morse, Peter Pachoumis, Nijo Philip, Lark Pien, Bill Pressing, Aaron Renier, Laurie Ross, Paul Sloboda, John K. Snyder III, Kellie Strom, and Jim Valentino.
 Writers:
Alan Moore, Joe Casey, Jeph Loeb, Robert Smigel, Roger Stern, John Ostrander, Trina Robbins, J. Torres, Fabian Nicieza, Mike Carey, Jason Hall, Steve Darnall, Stephen Banes, Art (Ferran) Brooks, Marie Croall, Tom DeFalco, Bob Harris, Antony Johnston, Dan Jolley, Robert Kirkman, Pablo Maiztegui, John McCrae, Steve Niles, Marti Noxon, Brian Pulido, Jamie S. Rich, Randy Stradley, Stephen Walsh, and Walt Whitman.
 Artists:
Renée French, Dave McKean, Dave Gibbons, Peter Kuper, Paul Lee, Sean Phillips, Mike Collins, Guy Davis, Michael Kupperman, Kevin Nowlan, Humberto Ramos, José Luis Ágreda, Alex Maleev, Ivan Reis, Hilary Barta, Guy Burwell, Chynna Clugston, Rick Ketcham, Cliff Richards, Joe Pimental, Daniel Acuña, Mike Huddleston, J. Scott Campbell, Anne Timmons, Carlos Meglia, Melinda Gebbie, Pat Moriarity, Alcatena, Istvan Banyai, Dawn Brown, Will Conrad, Bill Dodge, Mike Getsiv, Rich Hedden, Todd Herman, Francisco Solano Lopez, Mary Mitchell, Tony Moore, Mike Norton, Joe Orsak, Eric Powell, Steve Rolston, Gregory Ruth, Tsuneo Sanda, Robert Solanovic, Ben Stenback, Lee Townsend, Kelly Yates, and Leinil Francis Yu.

9-11: The World's Finest Comic Book Writers & Artists Tell Stories to Remember, Volume Two
Cover by Alex Ross
 Writers: Pat McGreal, Neil Gaiman, Steven T. Seagle, Peter Gross, Ed Brubaker, Brian Azzarello, Jamie Delano, Brian K. Vaughan, Stan Lee, Will Eisner, Jeph Loeb, Kurt Busiek, Jo Duffy, J. M. DeMatteis, Joe Kelly, Geoff Johns, Ben Raab, Rick Veitch, Dan Jurgens, Paul Levitz, Keith Giffen, Marv Wolfman, Denny O'Neil, Michael Moorcock, David S. Goyer, Mike Carey, Hilary Bader, Eddie Berganza, James Denning, Andy Helfer, Chuck Kim, Josh Krach, Dwayne McDuffie, Don McGregor, Jennifer Moore, Ashley-Jayne Nicolaus, Chris Sequeira, Alex Simmons, and Beau Smith.
 Artists: Anijel Zezelj, Stephen John Phillips, Dave McKean, Chris Bachalo, Kyle Baker, John Bolton, Glenn Fabry, Dave Gibbons, Alex Ross, Jill Thompson, John Van Fleet, Michael Zulli, Steve Leialoha, Paul Pope, Darick Robertson, Eduardo Risso, Goran Sudzuka, Angelo Torres, Bob Wiacek, Sandra Hope, Jim Lee, Brian Stelfreeze, Neal Adams, Barry Kitson, Tom Palmer, Dan Panosian, Phil Jimenez, Mike Collins, David Lloyd, Todd Nauck, Tom Grummett, Scott Kolins, Keith Champagne, Rich Faber, Guy Davis, Phil Noto, Ande Parks, Mark Farmer, Sergio Aragonés, Humberto Ramos, Brent Anderson, Carlos Pacheco, Jésus Merino, Richard Corben, Walter Simonson, Tim Sale, Scott McDaniel, Phil Hester, Aaron Sowd, Rick Burchett, Sergio Cariello, Joe Staton, Bob Smith, Kieron Dwyer, Marie Severin, Val Semeiks, James Pascoe, Denys Cowan, Alan Davis, José Luis García-López, Steven Parke, Yanick Paquette, Steve Scott, Prentis Rollins, Alex Horley, Ariel Olivetti, Christopher Moeller, Romeo Tanghal, Jim Royal, Pete Woods, Lee Bermejo, Enrique Breccia, John Cebellero, Cliff Wu Chiang, Marcelo Frusin, Greg Hildebrandt, Tim Hildebrandt, Daniel Janke, Jamie Mendoza, Robin Riggs, Roger Robinson, Duncan Rouleau, Eman Torre, and William Wray.

9-11: Emergency Relief
Cover by Frank Cho
 Nick Abadzis, Jessica Abel, Jason Alexander, David Alvarez, Graham Annable, Donna Barr, Tom Beland, Gregory Benton, Nick Bertozzi, Joyce Brabner, Frank Cho, Hearn Jay Cho, Mavis Chu, Brian Clopper, Nikki Coffman, Daniel Cooney, Guy Davis, Tom Derenick, Danny Donovan, Will Eisner, Steve Ellis, Fly, Evan Forsch, Renée French, Jenny Gonzalez, Derek Gray, Eric Wolfe Hanson, Tomer Hanuka, Jim Harrison, Tom Hart, Dean Haspiel, Jon Bean Hastings, Marc Hempel, Phillip Hester, Sam Hester, K. Thor Jensen, Neil Kleid, Keith Knight, Chris Knowle, James Kochalka, James Kuhoric, Peter Kuper, Michael Kupperman, Greg LaRocque, David Lasky, Layla Lawlor, Carol Lay, A. David Lewis, Ellen Lindner, Mike Manley, Jason Martin, Laurenn McCubbin, Darren Merinuk, metaphrog, Tony Millionaire, Gray Morrow, Scott Morse, Jason Narvaez, Josh Neufeld, Phil Noto, Michael Avon Oeming, Peter Palmiotti, Ande Parks, Harvey Pekar, Chris Pitzer, Evan Quiring, Ted Rall, Andrew Ristaino, Alex Robinson, Harry Roland, David Roman, Gail Simone, Jeff Smith, Tommy Sommerville, Jen Sorensen, John Staton, Mark Stegbauer, Steve Stegelin, Eric Theriault, Robert Ullman, Neil Vokes, Lauren Weinstein, Mark Wheatley, Shannon Wheeler, Ashley Wood, and Meredith Yayanos.

A Moment of Silence
Cover by Joe Quesada and Alex Ross
 Brian Michael Bendis, Scott Morse, Kevin Smith, John Romita Jr., Bill Jemas, Mark Bagley, Joe Quesada, and Igor Kordey.

See also
 Heroes for Hope
 Heroes Against Hunger

References

DC Comics titles
Image Comics titles
Dark Horse Comics titles
Chaos! Comics titles
Marvel Comics titles
Alternative Comics titles
Comics by Brian Azzarello
Comics by Brian K. Vaughan
Comics by Dan Jurgens
Comics by Dave Gibbons
Comics by Dennis O'Neil
Comics by Don McGregor
Comics by Ed Brubaker
Comics by Geoff Johns
Comics by Jeph Loeb
Comics by Jim Lee
Comics by J. M. DeMatteis
Comics by Joe Kelly (comics writer)
Comics by Keith Giffen
Comics by Kurt Busiek
Comics by Marv Wolfman
Comics by Neal Adams
Comics by Neil Gaiman
Comics by Paul Levitz
Comics by Roger Stern
Comics by Stan Lee
Comics by Walt Simonson
Comics by Will Eisner
Non-fiction graphic novels
Comics

List of comics about the September 11 attacks


The Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) is a standardized testing initiative in United States higher educational evaluation and assessment. It uses a "value-added" outcome model to examine a college or university's contribution to student learning which relies on the institution, rather than the individual student, as the primary unit of analysis.  The CLA measures are designed to test for critical thinking, analytic reasoning, problem solving, and written communication skills.  The assessment consists of open-ended questions, is administered to students online, and controls for incoming academic ability. An institution's average score on the CLA measures correlates highly with the institution's average SAT score (r = 0.90). Institutional results are not published.

History and Test Format
The CLA was first launched in 2000 by the Council for Aid to Education (CAE), a national nonprofit organization based in New York City. Rather than testing for specific content knowledge gained in particular courses or majors, the intent was to assess "the collective and cumulative result of what takes place or does not take place over the four to six years of undergraduate education in and out of the classroom. Of the entire test, the most well-developed and sophisticated part is its performance task component, in which students are given ninety minutes to respond to a writing prompt that is associated with a set of background documents. The testing materials, including the documents, are accessed through a computer. CAE has published several examples of representative performance tasks, one of which is described below (from Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses):

The "DynaTech" performance task asks students to generate a memo advising an employer about the desirability of purchasing a type of airplane that has recently crashed. Students are informed: "You are the assistant to Pat Williams, the president of DynaTech, a company that makes precision electronic instruments and navigational equipment. Sally Evans, a member of DynaTech's sales force, recommended that DynaTech buy a small private plane (a SwiftAir 235) that she and other members of the sales force could use to visit customers. Pat was about to approve the purchase when there was an accident involving a SwiftAir 235." Students are provided with the following set of documents for this activity: newspaper articles about the accident, a federal accident report on in-flight breakups in single engine planes, Pat Williams's e-mail to her assistant and Sally Evans's e-mail to Pat Williams, charts on SwiftAir's performance characteristics, an article from Amateur Pilot magazine comparing SwiftAir 235 to similar planes, and pictures and descriptions of SwiftAir models 180 and 235. Students are then instructed to "prepare a memo that addresses several questions, including what data support or refute the claim that the type of wing on the SwiftAir 235 leads to more in-flight breakups, what other factors might have contributed to the accident and should be taken into account, and your overall recommendation about whether or not DynaTech should purchase the plane."

CAE also publishes its scoring rubric. The design of both the prompts and the criteria for evaluation demonstrates the CLA's focus on complex, holistic, real-world problem-solving as a measurement of high level learning. As a result, the argument goes, institutions that attempt to "teach to the test" will be schools that teach students "to think critically, reason analytically, solve problems, and communicate clearly."

Criticisms
Again according to Academically Adrift, there are four primary criticisms of the CLA. Two criticisms relate to the validity of the instrument:

By focusing on general skills rather than domain knowledge and specialization, the instrument may lack the construct validity to measure the specialized knowledge that students go to college to obtain.
The CLA lacks instrumental validity to measure individual performance. This concern, however, may have been partially addressed by a 2009 test validity study organized by the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE). The results showed that while these tests should not be used as a basis to make institutional decisions about students as individuals (e.g., promotion or course placement), when aggregated in larger samples they can provide reliable estimates of institutional or group-level differences in performance on these tasks.

Two other criticisms relate to the normative implications of the CLA:

An aversion to standardized testing in general and a belief that there is accountability in higher education due to market forces. That is, if students were not gaining something through education then they would not be paying for it. On this view, the CLA is a waste of time and money.
The use of the test implies that the value-added from higher education can be measured. Individuals who oppose the idea that learning consists of acquiring specific knowledge or mental constructs, or is intended to improve performance on some measure (such as income or lifespan), may therefore oppose the measurement of learning.

See also
Voluntary System of Accountability—an initiative developed by American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) and the National Association of State Universities and Land-Grant Colleges (NASULGC) for 4-year public colleges and universities. The VSA endorses the use of the CLA for reporting out student learning outcomes through the College Portrait.

References

External links
 Council for Aid to Education: Collegiate Learning Assessment

University and college rankings in the United States
2000 introductions
Higher education in the United States

Collegiate Learning Assessment


The Punjab Hill States Agency was an administrative unit of British India. The agency was created in 1936, and was made up a number of princely states in the present-day Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

In 1901 the Punjab States Agency was created, in 1936 the hilly parts of this became the Punjab Hill States Agency. The states came under British rule after the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814-16, and were known as the Simla Hill States. They later became part of the British province of Punjab, apart from Tehri-Garhwal, which was part of the United Provinces.

After Indian Independence in 1947, the states acceded to the Government of India, most of the states became the new state of Himachal Pradesh, with Tehri-Garhwal becoming part of Uttar Pradesh. In 2000, the northern portion of Uttar Pradesh, including the former state of Tehri-Garhwal, became the new Indian state of Uttarakhand.

1936 establishments in Asia
British India
Indian princely states
1930s establishments in India

Punjab Hill States agency


John Smeaton is a baggage haundler at Glesgae Internaitional Airport. He became inrowed in coonterin a failt terrorist bellum on the airport.  Altho regairdit as a Glaswegian, Smeaton actually bides in Erskine, a wee toun ootwi the ceety nae faur frae the airport.  He wis eddicate at Park Mains Heich Schuil.

Whan he first leuked til the bellum, Smeaton wis ootside the airport smeekin a cigarette in his break.  Efterhaund, he myndit his foremaist thochts at seein the ootgang o the twa suspects frae the bleizin caur an thair attack on the aesome polisman that's ettle wis tae daunten thaim:  "Whit's the score?  A'v got tae git this sortit."

The statement that seems tae hae been maist taen tent o, tho, wis John's message til terrorists (whan speirt bi ITV News):  "Glasgow doesna accept this.  This is Glasgow;  we'll set aboot ye."

The brawest thing aboot John's ongaun, housomeiver, whit seems tae hoise him the heichmaist, is the fact that he seems tae be laith tae be ruised for his actions in the hail event.  His honesty, his bein taen, an his bein blate aw sers thegither tae mak him a hero, naithers (or mair likely, acause o) his hummleness.

Smeatomania:  Tribute Wabsteids tae the Internet Phenomenon

 "John Smeaton - Hero For Our Time"  Ane Campie Glaswegian Sets Abute Al-Qaida.
 "John Smeaton Appreciation Group" Facebook.
 "Smeato" Bebo group.

Fremmit Airtins
 "Baggage handler becomes web hero" BBC News, 2 Julie 2007.
 "Airport Worker 'a hero for our time'"  The Telegraph, 4 Julie 2007.
 "This is Glasgow.  We'll just set aboot ye."  The Guardian, 5 Julie 2007.
 "Passengers Turned Heroes To Stop Attack"  Glasgow Evening Times, 2 Julie 2007.
 "Smeaton's Not Beaten .. He's Just Having A Wee Lie Down" The Daily Record, 5 Julie 2007.
 "Modest John:  I'm No Hero" The Sun, 5 Julie 2007.
 "Smeaton Among Airport Heroes to be Honoured by First Minister" Scotland on Sunday, 8 Julie 2007.
 "Not fashed --- And Proud of It" Scotland on Sunday, 8 Julie 2007.
 "Shopkeeper inspired by Smeaton challenges thief" BBC News, 17 Julie 2007.
 "Smeaton gets it sorted for charity"  The Scotsman, 19 Julie 2007.
 "Warning to all would-be terrorists: John Smeaton is back on duty today"  The Scotsman, 30 Julie 2007.
 "Hero's welcome back for 'Smeato' at the scene of his greatest triumph"  The Scotsman, 31 Julie 2007.

Scots fowk

John Smeaton


The sombrero calañés or sombrero de Calañas is a traditional hat made in the municipality of  Calañas, province of Huelva, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. It is also sometimes called the sombrero castoreño because it is traditionally made from the felt of a beaver (castor) or similar animal.

The sombrero calañés has a low conical crown and a brim upturned to the point of rolling over, with a knobby ornamentation at the top of the crown and on one side of the brim. The low crown can be adjusted by a cord. The hat is worn cocked somewhat asymmetrically, and is more decorative than practical.

The term can apply to a somewhat different style of hat, more like a sombrero de catite without quite such a high conical crown, and with a sort of a small pompom dangling from a cord at the top, which falls to one side of the hat.

Either type is often worn over a kerchief tied at the nape of the neck.

Notes

External links
Photographs of the two main types of sombrero calañés: 1 and 2
Photograph showing a  sombrero calañés worn over a kerchief

Hats
Andalusian culture
Spanish clothing
Province of Huelva

Sombrero calañés


The waistline is the part of a piece of clothing that sits on the wearer's waist. The actual position of the waitline can be different depending on the fashion or how the person chooses to wear the garment, but it is normally just above the hips.

Waistlines can be secured with a variety of methods, such as buttons, knots and zippers. A waistband is a strip of elastic rubber that adjusts to keep the item tight against the body.

Clothing

Waistline (clothing)


The Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester (Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra) is a youth orchestra based in Vienna, Austria.  It was started in 1986 by the conductor Claudio Abbado.

Auditions are held in many European capital cities.  From the start it included people from Eastern Europe.  This was before the collapse of the Iron Curtain.  It is a very big orchestra.  The musicians play music that needs a large orchestra, usually music from the late Romantic period or the 20th century.

The orchestra has been conducted by very famous conductors including Claudio Abbado, Mariss Jansons, Pierre Boulez and Bernard Haitink.

The orchestra played at the 2008 BBC Proms in the Royal Albert Hall in London with Sir Colin Davis conducting. They will be playing again at the Proms in September 2009 when they will perform Richard Strauss's huge work Also sprach Zarathustra.

Other websites
Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester official website

Youth orchestras

Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra


David Alfred Thomas, 1st Viscount Rhondda, PC (26 March 1856 – 3 July 1918), was a Welsh industrialist and Liberal politician. He was UK Member of Parliament (MP) for Merthyr Tydfil from 1888 until the January 1910 general election, then MP for Cardiff until the December 1910 general election, when he left politics to concentrate on his business interests. He was made a member of the Privy Council in 1916. He later held office, notably as "Food Controller" in Lloyd George's wartime coalition government.

Early life

The son of coal owner Samuel Thomas of Ysguborwen, David Thomas was a second-generation industrialist. His energy and flair for innovation swiftly led him to build a commercial empire larger than his father's. Samuel, a man not noted for a cheerful temperament, is said to have remarked on the day of his son's birth (during a thunderstorm), "Well, I see nothing for him but the workhouse."

Although tradition cited D. A. Thomas' birthplace as being an old white-walled cottage in Aberdare, this is unlikely, given that the family home, Ysguborwen (also in Aberdare), was completed in 1855. This house was built as a suitable residence for a rising industrial entrepreneur, and sets Samuel Thomas' gloomy remark in context. Samuel Thomas was one of the pioneers of the Welsh coal business.

Samuel Thomas was a hard man, perhaps the secret of his business success, and his tastes were simple. He could never forget the hardships through which he had had to pass, and as the above quotation indicates, he was unable to shake off the fear of failure. A Welsh Baptist, he managed his household according to the "Protestant work ethic". This seems to have been its own reward, for Samuel attained civic office as High Constable of Merthyr, then the roughest town in Wales.

D. A. Thomas' mother, Rachel, is described as a contrast to the sometimes miserly, always prudent Samuel. She gave young David the love that he needed, nurturing the more sensitive side that D. A. Thomas' daughter, Margaret, was to cherish.

The family home, Ysguborwen, seems to have been a fairly typical Welsh home. At first, only the Welsh language was spoken there. After all, it was the language of both of David's parents. However, Mrs. Thomas, like many Welsh parents before and since, realising that the language of the business world was English, engaged an English nurse to get her children used to speaking English. In 1859, the family moved from Calfaria Welsh Baptist Chapel to Carmel, the English Baptist Chapel opposite. English was becoming the language of the valleys, and the language of respectability. Accordingly, the upwardly mobile Thomases were going to be Anglo-Welsh.

D. A. Thomas' upbringing was stern and Victorian, teaching him discipline, mediated through love. That discipline remained with Thomas, in business and in politics. Towards the end of Thomas' life, William Brace, the Trade Union leader commented that "Rhondda has the income of a Duke and the tastes of a Peasant."

Thomas was educated at Manila Hall, Clifton, Bristol, before going up to Cambridge University Initially, Thomas was to have gone to Jesus College on a scholarship originally intended for the sons of Anglican Ministers. Since Samuel Thomas was neither an Anglican nor a minister, it would be interesting to know exactly how D. A. Thomas obtained such a scholarship. An attack of Typhoid fever, contracted in Clermont-Ferrand meant that Thomas was unable to take up the scholarship. As it was, Thomas obtained a scholarship to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he studied mathematics, and would have finished top of his year, if it had not been for his indifferent health. Even so, Thomas was in the University Rowing and Boxing teams. Thomas left Cambridge in 1880, on the death of his father.

Personal life

In an age of religion, D. A. Thomas was that rarity, a man honestly uninterested in religion. That said, Thomas does not appear to have been an atheist, but to have found the religious sectarianism that marked the life of Wales at that time distasteful. Although brought up a Baptist (and later Congregationalist), he was received into the Anglican Church upon his marriage to Sybil Margaret Haig in 1882 and was baptised at St. Andrew's Church, near Barry. The wedding took place in a billiard-room at her parents' house. A daughter, Margaret, was born in 1883, the only issue to the couple.

Perhaps Thomas' estrangement from organised religion is due to the religious controversies of the day, or the way in which his father managed to alienate himself altogether from organised religion. After moving to Carmel English Baptist Church, Samuel Thomas appears to have become embroiled in an argument with Rev. Thomas Price, the second minister. This appears to have been over no more than personalities, for Samuel had supported the man's predecessor, and the move to Tabernacle English Congregational church ended similarly, when the minister was replaced. Samuel Thomas took it upon himself to un-church his family and conduct worship at home. Such rancour cannot have endeared organised religion to the young David.

Grigg describes Thomas' upbringing as 'Strict Congregationalist, yet D. A. Thomas was not baptised as an infant, suggesting that Samuel Thomas never abandoned his Baptist views. As a schoolboy at Bristol D. A. Thomas attended Highbury Congregational Chapel, Clifton, where his uncle, David Thomas, was minister.

Although D. A. Thomas was heavily involved in the Disestablishment controversy and was an advocate of Disestablishment, this appears to have sprung from the belief that the endowments of the church should be used for the general good He advocated the allocation of church endowments on a population basis, which alienated many of the North Wales MPs. The Rev. J. Vyrnwy Morgan, Thomas' earliest biographer writes that: '...religion was a subject concerning which he spoke less than he thought.'

Despite attacks of rheumatic fever, which plagued him for much of his life, D. A. Thomas was no shrinking violet. At college, he rowed and boxed enthusiastically, and his obituary in the South Wales Daily News spoke of him being seldom happier than 'when romping with children.' In 1881, D. A. Thomas rescued a boy who fell through the ice on Hirwaun Pond, Aberdare, an act for which he received an award from the Humane Society. In this, and in his later survival of the wreck of the Lusitania, D. A. Thomas' prowess in swimming, another college sport in which he excelled, holding a medal in the long-dive, stood him in good stead.

Early career
Thomas joined Osborn Henry Riches in the sales department of the Cambrian Collieries, later moving to Clydach Vale to learn the management of the mines themselves. In the course of this work, which went on for more than a year, he descended the pit with the workers and remained underground until four in the afternoon.

David Alfred Thomas moved to London in 1882, where he worked in a Stockbroker's Office in Cornhill. There he had an attack of rheumatic fever, a complaint which had plagued him since his youth. After the death of Mr. Riches, he returned to Cardiff to manage the Cambrian Collieries.

Business interests
Not long after inheriting his father's business, Thomas assessed the state of the company. To expand the business, D. A. Thomas converted the company from private ownership into a limited liability company, securing the capital to expand operations. The sale of shares was not a means for the heir to become an idler, for D. A. Thomas continued to take an active part in the management for the company. In the great coal strike of 1898, D. A. Thomas refused to take the side of the coal-owners' organisation. The Cambrian Collieries continued to work through the strike, an action that made a great deal for the collieries' shareholders. In 1910, D. A. Thomas was involved in a coal strike begun at the Ely Pit in Penygraig, an action that infuriated him. He saw the strike as a betrayal, and his actions at attempting to break the strike turned into one of the most important and violent events in Rhondda history, the Tonypandy riots. From 1901 to 1906, ill-health forced Thomas to take a break from his business activities. He became director of the company that acquired The Cambrian News newspaper in 1915.

Llanwern
In 1887, a year before his election to Parliament, Thomas took the lease of Llanwern House, at Llanwern, just outside Newport, Monmouthshire, where he lived the life of a somewhat unconventional country squire, riding to hounds and breeding prize Hereford cattle. He bought the house in 1900 and acquired the neighbouring Pencoed estate shortly before his death, with the intention of presenting Pencoed Castle to his daughter, Margaret. Despite his fearsome reputation as an industrialist, Thomas appears to have been a genuinely well-loved landowner, the tenants of Pencoed actively lobbying him to buy the estate. This purchase left Thomas the largest landowner in Monmouthshire after Lord Tredegar.

Despite his fortune, Thomas was quite content to retain the mansion at Llanwern, a large square house on a hilltop overlooking the village of Llanwern. The house, dating to 1760, was old-fashioned in its appearance with an interior decorated in a Chinese-influenced style.

Political career

D. A. Thomas was elected MP for Merthyr Tydfil at a by-election in 1888, and represented the seat until he stepped down to fight the marginal seat of Cardiff in January 1910. Thomas consistently topped the poll, not even Keir Hardie was able to topple him from his perch. Although an employer, he was felt to be a fair man, and was genuinely respected by the voters of Merthyr.

He was an early supporter of the Cymru Fydd movement, but opposed its integration with the South Wales Liberal Federation, thus making an enemy of David Lloyd George, being largely responsible for that movement's demise. As President of the South Wales Liberal Federation from 1894 to 1897, Thomas believed that the southern counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, which together contained over half the Welsh population, would suffer under the proposed scheme for a single national federation. He held similar views on the disestablishment of the Church in Wales, believing that the revenues wrested from the church should be distributed to the counties on the basis of population. With David Lloyd George, Francis Edwards and Herbert Lewis, Thomas revolted against the Rosebery Government's perceived downgrading of Disestablishment in 1894.

D. A. Thomas was much disappointed when he was not offered Government office after the Liberal election victory of 1906. Unlike Herbert Lewis and Lloyd George, more had been expected from Thomas in 1894, and his actions in joining the revolt had not endeared him to the Liberal leadership. Thomas became increasingly disillusioned with politics, and left parliament at the December 1910 General Election, apparently a political failure. Certainly, his early promise had not been vindicated. In many ways Thomas was not suited to party politics and he was described by Stuart Rendel as 'a Tory in disguise. His greatest political success came later, during the wartime coalition (see below).

"Coal King"

After D. A. Thomas' expectations of high office were disappointed following the 1906 General Election he concentrated once more on business. In 1908 the Cambrian Combine was formed, with the merger of the Glamorgan, the Naval and the Britannic Merthyr collieries with the Cambrian Collieries. This great industrial combine would later take in further collieries. As Thomas came to realise that the golden age of the Welsh coal trade would not continue. Thomas sought to organise the Welsh coal trade to prevent destructive competition.

In the pre-war years Thomas acquired tracts of coal-bearing land in North America which was not fully developed.

He was awarded the Guy Medal in 1904 from the Royal Statistical Society for The Growth and Direction of our Foreign Trade in Coal (1850-1900) written in 1903.

First World War
Having made a fortune as owner of the Cambrian Collieries, he would return to politics as David Lloyd George's emissary to the United States, for which purpose he was created Baron Rhondda in 1916 and later Viscount Rhondda in 1918.

In May 1915 he was on the RMS Lusitania when she was torpedoed. He and his daughter, Margaret, were among the survivors. A humorous story, remembered by his daughter, was that the local (Cardiff) Evening Express newspaper displayed a poster about the sinking that read "Great National Disaster. D. A. Saved". The somewhat equivocal compliment amused D. A. Thomas immensely.

Clement Edwards, MP, related the story of an aged collier who, on being informed that Thomas had been in the ship when it had gone down, declared, "I will wait till tomorrow. He always comes out on top, and I promise you this: he will come to the top of the water again with a big fish in each of his hands."

In 1916, he became President of the Local Government Board. As Minister of Food Control during the latter part of the First World War, he was very successful, introducing an efficient system of rationing.

Last years

The work took a terrible toll on his constitution, however, and he died at Llanwern on the morning of Wednesday, 3 July 1918, aged 62. He was cremated at Golders Green, but his ashes were returned to Llanwern, where they lie alongside the bodies of previous squires of Llanwern (although D. A. Thomas' monument is by far the largest – "on a recent visit to Llanwern, it took me two circuits of the churchyard to find the tomb, since I had initially mistaken it for the War memorial", in the words of one D. A. Thomas Scholar), his wife and daughter. His epitaph reads, 'He counted his life not dear to himself.'

While the Rhondda Barony died with him, the title of Viscount Rhondda passed to his daughter Margaret by special remainder, something Thomas had insisted on when he was offered the honour. Following his death, and with the recent passage of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919, she attempted to take his seat in the House of Lords. After initially being accepted, the relevant committee's membership was altered and her request was rejected.

Thomas's widow, Sybil, Viscountess Rhondda (1857–1941) was created a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1920.

Legacy

Thomas had extensive investments in the coalfields on the Peace River, in remote northern Alberta, Canada.  He commissioned what was to be the largest riverboat on the Peace River, which was named D.A. Thomas in his honour.

Sources
 J. Vyrnwy Morgan: Life of Viscount Rhondda (London, 1919)
 Margaret Rhondda (ed.): D. A. Thomas: Viscount Rhondda (London, 1921)
 Margaret Rhondda: This Was My World (London, 1933)
 'A Gentleman with a Duster': The Mirrors of Downing Street (London, 1922)
 John Grigg: Lloyd George: War Leader (London,2002)
 Tony Judge, J. R. Clynes: A Political Life (London, 2016)
 Kenneth O. Morgan, 'D. A. Thomas: The Industrialist as Politician' in Modern Wales: Politics Places and People (Cardiff 1995)
 Thomas Lloyd: Lost Houses of Wales (London, 1987)
 Gerard Charmley: 'D. A. Thomas Versus Lloyd George' (unpublished Cardiff University M.A. Thesis)
 D. A. Thomas Memorial, churchyard of St. Mary's Church, Llanwern
 National Library of Wales, D. A. Thomas Papers
 National Library of Wales, Herbert Lewis Papers
 National Library of Wales, William George Papers
 National Library of Wales, Lloyd George Papers
South Wales Daily News
Western Mail

References

Bibliography

External links

1856 births
1918 deaths
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People from Aberdare
20th-century Welsh businesspeople
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs who were granted peerages
19th-century Welsh businesspeople
British businesspeople in the coal industry
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Cardiff constituencies
Rhondda
Barons created by George V
Viscounts created by George V

D. A. Thomas


Screw can also be a slang word for sexual intercourse.

A screw is a sharp piece of threaded metal similar to a nail. Unlike a nail, a screw has spiral grooves down its spike. A screw is pressed down against wood and turned with a screwdriver. Turning the screw to the right makes it go into the wood. The grooves cut into the wood. This prevents the screw from falling out, as a nail might. Turning the screw to the left pulls it out of the wood.

Screws can be made of steel, iron, brass, bronze, plastic, etc.

There are also machine screws and self-tapping screws. Machine screws are bolts which have screw threads. The threads matched with nuts with female threads.

Screw threads are measured either in millimeters or in numbers. They are used in furniture, doors, appliances, etc.

Screwing and screws
Screwing is the neatest way of holding together two materials. If no glue is involved, then the screwing can be dismantled.

These are three different types of screw.
Countersunk: First you drill a pilot hole into the wood. Then you can widen out the top by using a countersink drill bit. The head is flat on the top.
Raised head: Has a slightly domed head, raised above the surface.
Round head: Domed head above surface, broader than underneath.

Do not place screws in line as this weakens the wood.
Use the right size screwdriver for the screw head. A screwdriver that is too slim can damage the slot, too wide can tear the materials. Screw threads in both wood and metal can become stripped, resulting in loss of holding power, and can also be difficult to remove.

A screw is a type of simple machine.

Related pages
Bolt (fastener)
Nut (hardware)

Sources

Basic English 850 words
Hardware (mechanical)

Screw


Neurology is a medical specialty that deals with the disorders of the nervous system. Neurology is about the medical diagnosis and treatment of conditions and illnesses of the nervous system. This can include both the physical condition of the brain, nerves, and brain messages between the body and the nervous system. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neurobiology, which is the scientific study of the nervous system.

World Federation of Neurology coordinates neurology researches.

Neurology also references to animals, not only to humans.

Some Common Neurological Illnesses and Conditions
 Alzheimer's Disease
 Epilepsy
 Shingles
 Dementia
 Autism

Other websites
 BrainTalk Support Groups for all Neurological conditions and diseases
 European Federation of Neurological Societies

Neurology


William Oliver Studeman (born January 16, 1940) is a retired admiral of the United States Navy and former deputy director of the Central Intelligence Agency, with two extended periods as acting Director of Central Intelligence. As deputy director of Central Intelligence, he served in the administrations of George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton under three directors of Central Intelligence, Robert Gates, R. James Woolsey Jr., and John M. Deutch. Studeman retired from the navy in 1995 after almost 35 years of service. Between 1988 and 1992 he was director of the National Security Agency; he was the Director of Naval Intelligence, from September 1985 to July 1988.

On 6 February 2004, Studeman was appointed to the Iraq Intelligence Commission, an independent panel tasked with investigating U.S. intelligence surrounding the United States' 2003 invasion of Iraq and Iraq's weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

Studeman retired in 2005 from Northrop Grumman Corporation as vice president and deputy general manager of mission systems. In this position, he focused on strategies, programs, business development, and marketing related to intelligence and information warfare, as well as corporate cross-sector integration, and on managing technology partnerships and concepts related to NetCentricity ISR, IO/IW and advanced command environments. He served in this position for approximately 9 years.

Studeman has served on corporate boards, and government, university and corporate advisory boards. He was recently a commissioner on the Presidential Commission on WMD, and is currently serving on National Advisory Board on Bio-Security and the Public Interest Declassification Board. He is also a member of the Defense Science Board as well as the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency Advisory Board, Defense Intelligence Agency Joint Military Intelligence College, National Reconnaissance Office, national labs and other advisory boards. He is chairman of the board of the Naval Intelligence Foundations, and is a member of the board of the National Cryptologic Museum Foundation.

In June 1962, he received a B.A. degree in history from the University of the South in Sewanee, Tennessee. Studeman later earned an M.A. degree in public and international affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs in June 1973. While in the navy, he also was a distinguished graduate of the Naval War College and National War College, as well as the recipient of an honorary doctorate in strategic intelligence from the Defense Intelligence College. He will receive a second honorary doctorate degree this fall from the University of the South.

Studeman is the recipient of numerous service commendations and citations, including the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Legion of Merit with two Gold Stars. In 2007 Studeman was awarded the William Oliver Baker Award by the Intelligence and National Security Alliance. He also has received service medals from the Governments of France, Brazil, and South Korea.

His son, Michael, is a career Navy two-star admiral.

References

External links

Studeman's nomination as NSA director.

1940 births
Living people
Directors of the National Security Agency
Deputy Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency
United States Navy admirals
Elliott School of International Affairs alumni
Sewanee: The University of the South alumni
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency people
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Distinguished Intelligence Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Directors of the Office of Naval Intelligence

William O. Studeman


The Rhythm Devils is a band led by former Grateful Dead drummers Bill Kreutzmann and Mickey Hart.

Grateful Dead
The Rhythm Devils had their origins as an informal but frequent fixture in the Grateful Dead concert repertoire starting in the mid-to-late 1970s, and continuing until the Grateful Dead's last concert in 1995. Most Grateful Dead concerts featured an extended segment during the 2nd set of improvisational drumming and percussion by Hart and Kreutzmann who took over the stage as a duo (with occasional guests).  This segment was variously known to fans as "Rhythm Devils", "Drums", or conversationally as "the drums", and was usually followed in post-1979 concerts by another extended improvisation by the rest of the band, usually without the drummers, which was known as "Space".  The "Rhythm Devils" segment of a Grateful Dead concert almost always segued out of a full-band song, and the "Space" segment almost invariably would segue into the beginnings of another full-band song as the drummers resumed their seats with the rest of the band.  The Grateful Dead album Dead Set has a characteristic example of a 1980 "Rhythm Devils" segment which is titled as such, and which is followed by a "Space" segment.

1979-1981: Apocalypse Now sessions and early live performances
The Rhythm Devils duo were formally recruited by director Francis Ford Coppola to record the soundtrack to the film Apocalypse Now. During 1979 and 1980, Hart and Kreutzmann, along with other musicians (mostly percussionists), Airto Moreira, Mike Hinton, Jim Loveless, Greg Errico, Jordan Amarantha, Phil Lesh and Flora Purim, recorded sessions at the Grateful Dead's Marin County studios and "The Barn", Hart's studio in Novato. The process included improvising jungle sounds as they watched the film. The sounds were later edited into the movie. An LP record titled The Apocalypse Now Sessions: The Rhythm Devils Play River Music was issued from those sessions, (Passport Records PB 9844).  In October 1990, Rykodisc re-released the original 1980 LP.

In addition to the Apocalypse Now sessions, Kreutzmann and Hart performed two live concerts as the Rhythm Devils on February 13 and 14, 1981. The live band consisted mostly of the same musicians that contributed to the sessions including: Mike Hinton (marimbas, percussion), Airto Moreira (percussion), Flora Purim (vocals, percussion), Phil Lesh (electric bass, fretless bass, percussion) and other various guests.

2006 Tour
The 2006 lineup of the Rhythm Devils featured drummers Kreutzmann, Hart, Phish bassist Mike Gordon, and guitarist Steve Kimock, with percussionist Sikiru Adepoju and vocalist Jen Durkin (formerly of Deep Banana Blackout).  The band formed in the summer of 2006 and toured throughout the US shortly thereafter. Former Dead lyricist Robert Hunter provides lyrics for a number of original songs.

2010 - present
It was announced on the Gathering of the Vibes website that the Rhythm Devils would perform there in 2010 with a lineup of Bill Kreutzmann, Mickey Hart, Sikiru Adepoju, guitarists Keller Williams and Davy Knowles (Back Door Slam) and bassist Andy Hess (The Black Crowes; Gov't Mule). This was followed by the announcement of several more dates a month later. They toured into early 2011 with Tim Bluhm (The Mother Hips) replacing Keller for all dates after July 2010. A new lineup was announced for 2011 featuring Kreutzmann, Hart, Keller Williams, Steve Kimock and Reed Mathis. This combo has played one show - July 24, 2011 at the Gathering Of The Vibes Festival in Bridgeport CT. While the Rhythm Devils have not performed as a band since 2011, Mickey Hart acknowledged the possibility of more Rhythm Devils dates. Bill Kreutzmann and Mickey Hart have performed together since 2011 with the Disco Biscuits, 7 Walkers, Billy & the Kids, Dead & Company and at Fare Thee Well: Celebrating 50 Years of the Grateful Dead.

Discography
The Apocalypse Now Sessions: The Rhythm Devils Play River Music (1980)
The Rhythm Devils Concert Experience (DVD – 2008)

Lineups

References

External links
Rhythm Devils Official site
Rhythm Devils collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive

2006 establishments in the United States
2011 disestablishments in the United States
American rock music groups
Grateful Dead
American world music groups
Musical groups established in 2006
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Mickey Hart

Rhythm Devils


Ace Motor Corporation was a motorcycle manufacturer in continuous operation in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania between 1919 and 1924, and intermittently afterward until 1927.
Essentially only one model of the large luxury four-cylinder motorcycle, with slight variations, was made from first to last.

History

Origin
Having sold Henderson Motorcycle to Ignaz Schwinn's Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply Company, founder William G. Henderson continued to work there until 1919, when differences of opinion regarding the design direction of Henderson motorcycles led to his resignation from Excelsior.

In the fall of 1919, with the support of Max M. Sladkin of Haverford Cycle Co., Henderson started the Ace Motor Corporation in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  The Ace motorcycle resembled the Henderson in general form, being a longitudinal four-cylinder motorcycle with chain drive, but Henderson had to be careful not to infringe any trademarks or patents that would have been owned by Excelsior at the time.  Production began in 1920.

Death of William Henderson

On December 11, 1922, shortly after 11 a.m., William Henderson was hit by a motor vehicle while testing the new Ace Sporting Solo in Philadelphia.  He died at the age of 39 in Frankford Hospital without regaining consciousness.

Arthur O. Lemon, former Henderson salesman and head of Excelsior and Henderson engineering at Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply, left Excelsior in 1923 to replace Henderson as Chief Engineer at Ace.

Ownership
Ace Motor Corporation ceased operation in 1924. In the next two years, ownership of Ace's name, rights, and production facilities would change hands at least twice. At least one of these owners, Michigan Motors Corporation, would revive production for a short time.

Indian Ace

The property of Ace Motor changed hands for the last time in 1927, when it was purchased by the Indian  Company.  Production was moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, and the motorcycle was marketed as the Indian Ace for one year.  Once the designs began to be modified within Indian, the Ace name was discontinued.

Production of four-cylinder Indian motorcycles would continue until 1942.

Ace Speed Trophy

In 1923, Red Wolverton rode a specially prepared Ace XP-4 at a record speed of .  The management of Ace Motor Corporation offered the Ace Speed Trophy and a cash prize to anyone who could break the XP-4's record.  Neither the trophy nor the prize was ever claimed.

See also
List of motorcycles of the 1920s

Notes

References

Defunct motorcycle manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Philadelphia
Motorcycles introduced in the 1910s
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Pennsylvania
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1919
1919 establishments in Pennsylvania
ACE motorcycles
American companies established in 1919

Ace Motor Corporation


A camera is a device that takes pictures (photographs). It uses film or electronics to make a picture of something. It is a tool of photography. A lens makes the image that the film or electronics "sees".

A camera that takes one picture at a time is sometimes called a still camera.  A camera that can take pictures that seem to move is called a movie camera.  If it can take videos it is called a video camera or a camcorder. The majority of cameras are on a phone. This is called a "Camera phone".

All cameras are basically a box that light can not get into until a photo is taken. There is a hole on one side of the camera where the light can get in through the lens, and this is called the aperture. On the other side is a special material that can record the image that comes through the aperture. This material is the film in a film camera or electronic sensor in a digital camera. Finally, there is also the shutter, which stops light from getting in until a photo is taken.

When a photo is taken, the shutter moves out of the way. This lets light come in through the aperture and make a picture on the film or electronic sensor. In many cameras, the size of the aperture can be changed to let in more light or less light. The amount of time that the shutter lets light through can be changed as well. This also lets in more light or less light. Most of the time, electronics inside the camera control these, but in some cameras the person taking the picture can change them as well.

Moving pictures
A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on image sensor or strips of photographic film. Unlike a still camera the ciné camera takes a series of images, each one is called a "frame". The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, human visual system merges the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888. By 1890 several types were being made. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as 35mm film. This remained in use until transition to digital cinematography.

A professional video camera (often called a television camera) is a high-end device for creating electronic moving images.  Their use includes music videos, movies, corporate and educational videos.

Related pages
 Digital camera
 Pinhole camera

Gallery

References

Camera


Pelham Humfrey (also: Humphrey) (born London 1647;  died Windsor 14 July 1674) was an English composer in the Baroque period.  Although he died at the age of 26 he had an important influence on English composers such as William Turner and Henry Purcell.  He lived at the time of the Restoration, when England was ruled by a king once more after two decades of republican rule, during which music had not been allowed in churches.

Life

We do not know much detail about his early life.  He seems to have been a choirboy in the Chapel Royal by 1660.  During this time he was obviously becoming a very gifted composer.  Other boys in the choir included John Blow and William Turner.  As a young man he travelled to France where he heard music by French composers such as Lully and Italians such as Carissimi.  This helped him to form his own style.  He became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal.  He wrote some fine anthems, although the diarist Samuel Pepys thought that he was showing off.  This may be because Pepys did not like the new kind of music.  He married the daughter of his old choir master Henry Cooke.  He became Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal.  This meant that he was in charge of the children in the king's chapel choir.  He was also a court composer.

He became ill and died at the age of 26.  He was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.

His music
Humfrey composed a lot of music during his very short life.  It helped to form the English Baroque style.  He mostly wrote church music, but he also wrote some music for the theatre.

Humfrey liked to compose music which excited people's emotions.  Some of his melodies jump around in unexpected ways.  There is a lot of chromaticism.  Some of his best anthems include: O Lord my God, By the waters of Babylon and Like as the hart.  He wrote 27 songs.  Five of them are religious songs, and they are some of the best songs of that time.

References

The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; ISBN 1561-59174-2

English composers
Baroque composers
1647 births
1674 deaths

Pelham Humfrey


Atropine is a tropane alkaloid, that can be extracted from the deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) and certain other plants. It is mainly used as a drug.  Atropine can be deadly.  The substance derives its name from Atropos, one of the three Fates. In Greek mythology, the Fates chose how a person was to die. Atropine is a core medicine in the World Health Organization's "Essential Drugs List", which is a list of minimum medical needs for a basic health care system.

The second part of the Latin name (belladonna, pretty woman) comes from the fact that it can be used to temporarily disable the eye's adaptation to light. This will lead to "big" pupils, which were considered pretty in a woman of the Renaissance. Atropine can also be used to resuscitate patients that have gone into cardiac arrest. It can also be used as an antidote to certain poison gases and insecticides.

References

Drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Esters

Atropine


Paul Rohrbach (29 June 1869 – 19 July 1956) was a German writer.  He mostly wrote about "world politics."  He was born at Irgen, Courland, Latvia. Between 1887 and 1896 he attended the universities of Dorpat, Berlin, and Strasbourg.

He traveled very much in Asia (especially China) and Africa.  From 1903-06 he was Royal Commissioner to southwest Africa.  His writings include many books on political conditions in the countries he visited.

Related pages
 German–Armenian Society

References
This article has text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Thurston, H. T.; Moore, F., eds. (1905). New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.

1869 births
1956 deaths
German writers

Paul Rohrbach


An incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity and other conditions such as the CO2 and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside. Incubators are essential for much experimental work in cell biology, microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial and eukaryotic cells.

An incubator is made up of a chamber with a regulated temperature. Some incubators also regulate humidity, gas composition, or ventilation within that chamber.

The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater, typically going up to 60 to 65 °C (140 to 150 °F), though some can go slightly higher (generally to no more than 100 °C). The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 °C (99 °F), as these organisms grow well under such conditions. For other organisms used in biological experiments, such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a growth temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) is optimal.

More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature (via refrigeration), or the ability to control humidity or CO2 levels. This is important in the cultivation of mammalian cells, where the relative humidity is typically >80% to prevent evaporation and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO2 level of 5%.

History of the laboratory incubator

From aiding in hatching chicken eggs to enabling scientists to understand and develop vaccines for deadly viruses, the laboratory incubator has seen numerous applications over the years it has been in use. The incubator has also provided a foundation for medical advances and experimental work in cellular and molecular biology.

While many technological advances have occurred since the primitive incubators first used in ancient Egypt and China, the main purpose of the incubator has remained unchanged: to create a stable, controlled environment conducive to research, study, and cultivation.

The earliest incubators
The earliest incubators were invented thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt and China, where they were used to keep chicken eggs warm. Use of incubators revolutionized food production, as it allowed chicks to hatch from eggs without requiring that a hen sit on them, thus freeing the hens to lay more eggs in a shorter period of time. Both early Egyptian and Chinese incubators were essentially large rooms that were heated by fires, where attendants turned the eggs at regular intervals to ensure even heat distribution.

In the 16th and 17th century

The incubator received an update in the 16th century when Jean Baptiste Porta drew on ancient Egyptian design to create a more modern egg incubator. While he eventually had to discontinue his work due to the Spanish Inquisition, Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur took up the challenge in the middle of the 17th century. Reaumur warmed his incubator with a wood stove and monitored its temperature using the Reaumur thermometer, another of his inventions.

In the 19th century
In the 19th century, researchers finally began to recognize that the use of incubators could contribute to medical advancements. They began to experiment to find the ideal environment for maintaining cell culture stocks. These early incubators were simply made up of bell jars that contained a single lit candle. Cultures were placed near the flame on the underside of the jar's lid, and the entire jar was placed in a dry, heated oven.

In the late 19th century, doctors realized another practical use for incubators: keeping premature or weak infants alive. The first infant incubator, used at a women's hospital in Paris, was heated by kerosene lamps. Fifty years later, Julius H. Hess, an American physician often considered to be the father of neonatology, designed an electric infant incubator that closely resembles the infant incubators in use today.

In the 20th century

The next innovation in incubator technology came in the 1960s, when the CO2 incubator was introduced to the market. Demand came when doctors realized that they could use CO2 incubators to identify and study pathogens found in patients' bodily fluids. To do this, a sample was harvested and placed onto a sterile dish and into the incubator. The air in the incubator was kept at 37 degrees Celsius, the same temperature as the human body, and the incubator maintained the atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels necessary to promote cell growth.

At this time, incubators also began to be used in genetic engineering. Scientists could create biologically essential proteins, such as insulin, with the use of incubators. Genetic modification could now take place on a molecular level, helping to improve the nutritional content and resistance to pestilence and disease of fruits and vegetables.

Today

Incubators serve a variety of functions in a scientific lab. Incubators generally maintain a constant temperature, however additional features are often built in. Many incubators also control humidity. Shaking incubators incorporate movement to mix cultures. Gas incubators regulate the internal gas composition. Some incubators have a means of circulating the air inside of them to ensure even distribution of temperatures. Many incubators built for laboratory use have a redundant power source, to ensure that power outages do not disrupt experiments. Incubators are made in a variety of sizes, from tabletop models, to warm rooms, which serve as incubators for large numbers of samples.

See also

 Egyptian egg oven

References

External links

Cell biology
Laboratory equipment
Microbiology equipment
Medical equipment

Incubator (culture)


Neverland is a fictional island that is the setting for the novel Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie. Peter Pan, his gang of "Lost Boys" and Tinkerbell, the fairy, live on Neverland. A gang of pirates led by Captain Hook and a band of Native Americans ("redskins" in the story) also live on the island.

Neverland is a land of fantasy where no one gets older and Peter Pan remains a child forever. To reach Neverland, Peter Pan states one must fly "second to the right, and straight on till morning".

Related pages
Peter Pan

Fictional locations

Neverland


Bregenz (Vorarlbergian: Breagaz)  is the capital of Vorarlberg, the westernmost federal state of Austria. About 27.000 people live in the city proper, its agglomeration has about 60.000 people. Together with Lindau, the settled area (which reaches into the south of Germany, and into Switzerland) has about 120.000 people. The city has a port on Lake Constance and is a railway hub.

Humans have lived in the area since about 1500 BC. During Roman times, there was an Oppidum. Parts of the city are fortified. Bregenz has the right to hold a market once a week since 1330.

The borders of Switzerland and Germany are less than 10 km away.

The main ethnic groups are Austrians, Turkish, Italians, Serbians, and Germans.

Settlements in Vorarlberg
Austrian state capitals
Cities in Austria

Bregenz