The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is a private humanitarian organisation based in Geneva, Switzerland.

The ICRC has a special job, based on the Geneva Conventions as well as other international humanitarian law, to protect the victims of international and internal armed conflicts. This includes people hurt in war, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-combatants. But the ICRC is a private organisation. It is not controlled by any government, group of governments or international organisation

It is the oldest organisation within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and one of the most widely recognized organisations in the world. It is also the most honoured. The ICRC has won three Nobel Peace Prizes; in 1917, 1944, and 1963.

History
Up until the middle of the 19th century, there was no organized army nursing for casualties and no safe place to house and treat the injured soldiers.

Swiss businessman Henry Dunant saw the Battle of Solferino, in the Austro-Sardinian War. The battle only lasted one day, but about 40,000 soldiers on both sides were killed or were left severely hurt on the battlefield.

Dunant was shocked by the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the lack of medical help. He cancelled his trip to see Emperor Napoleon III and spent several days helping to treat and care for the wounded.

He wrote a book about what he saw, called A Memory of Solferino. he published it with his own money in 1862, and sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout Europe. The book did not only describe what Dunant saw, but called for the setting up of national voluntary relief organisations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war. Dunant also called for international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection for the wounded and for medics and field hospitals.

The Geneva Society for Public Welfare set up a committee to try to organise an international conference about Dunant's idea. The "Committee of the Five" met on 9 February 1863, the members were:
 Henry Dunant;
 Gustave Moynier, who was a lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare;
 Louis Appia, a doctor who had worked as a military surgeon;
 Théodore Maunoir, from the Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission; and
 Guillaume Henri Dufour, a general of the Swiss Army.

The committee soon changed its name to the "International Committee for Relief to the Wounded".

In October 1863, the international conference it organised took place in Geneva to talk about improving medical services on the battle field.

31 people joined the committee at the conference: eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from other non-governmental organisations, and seven non-official foreign delegates. The official delegates came from:

The conference wanted:

 National relief societies for wounded soldiers;
 Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;
 Volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;
 More conferences to make these demands legally binding international treaties; and
 The introduction of a protection symbol for medical personnel in the field. They chose a white armband bearing a red cross.

Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, to attend an official diplomatic conference. Sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. On 22 August 1864, the conference adopted the first Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field". Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and Württemberg. The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict.

Also, the convention had two requirements before a national relief society would be recognised by the International Committee:

 The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and
 The national government of the respective country must have signed the Geneva Convention.

The first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, Oldenburg, Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg. Also in 1864, Louis Appia and Charles van de Velde, a captain of the Dutch Army, became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict. Three years later in 1867, the first International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded was convened.

Dunant left the committee in 1867 after arguing with other members. In 1876, the committee changed its name to the"International Committee of the Red Cross" (ICRC), which is still its official name today. Five years later, the American Red Cross was founded through the efforts of Clara Barton. More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts. The Red Cross quickly became an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work.

When the first Nobel Peace Prize was awarded in 1901, the Norwegian Nobel Committee opted to give it to Henry Dunant and Frédéric Passy, a leading campaigner against war. The International Committee of the Red Cross officially congratulated Dunant and was a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross. Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of Heiden. Only two months earlier his former friend and committee member Gustave Moynier had also died.

By the start of the First World War in 1914, there were 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had grown beyond Europe and North America to Central and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Mexico, Peru, El Salvador, Uruguay, Venezuela), Asia (the Republic of China, Japan, Korea, Siam), and Africa (Republic of South Africa). The Geneva Convention had been changed to include fighting at sea as well as on land.

World War One

In World War I Red Cross nurses came from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to help the medical services of the armed forces of the countries involved in the war in Europe.

On 15 October 1914, immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War (POW) Agency. By the end of the war, the Agency had sent about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million Swiss francs to POWs of all affected countries. The Agency also arranged for about 200,000 prisoners to be released and returned to their home country. The Agency collected about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923 about prisoners or missing people. The card index helped to identify about 2 million POWs and to contact their families. The complete index of 7 million cards is on loan from the ICRC to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. But only ICRC can search the index.

The ICRC got the only Nobel Peace Prize of the war years, in 1917, for its outstanding wartime work.

In 1923, the Committee changed its membership rules. Until then, only citizens of the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This was changed to include all citizens of Switzerland by birth. This is still the rule today, and is designed to show that the ICRC is neutral, and that committee members and workers have never been citizens of a country that might be involved in a war. Only in 1993 were non-Swiss-born people allowed to work for the committee.

World War Two

In 1934 the ICRC tried to get extra protection for civilians during war. Unfortunately most governments were not interested in adopting the extra rules before the start of World War II.

The Geneva Conventions, as amended in 1929, governed what the ICRC did. revision . The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I:
 visiting and monitoring POW camps,
 organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and
 administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons.

By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene) had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards (more than 6 times as many as world war 1), and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency.

The German Red Cross was controlled by the Nazis, and would not uphold the Geneva conventions which may have helped stop the deportation of Jews from Germany and the mass murders conducted in the concentration camps run by the German government.

Two other main countries in the war, the Soviet Union and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions. Thus, other countries were not bound to follow the Conventions regarding their prisoners in return.

The ICRC had to stop complaining about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps in case the ICRC was stopped from working for POWs.

After November 1943, the ICRC could send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations. Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, mostly to the camps Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen.

On 12 March 1945, ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt was told by SS General Ernst Kaltenbrunner that the ICRC's delegates could visit the concentration camps, but the delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them Louis Haefliger (Camp Mauthausen), Paul Dunant (Camp Theresienstadt) and Victor Maurer (Camp Dachau), visited the camps.

Louis Haefliger told American troops about the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen and saved the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president Cornelio Sommaruga.

Another example of great humanitarian spirit was Friedrich Born (1903-1963), an ICRC delegate in Budapest who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in Hungary. Marcel Junod (1904-1961), a doctor from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. He was one of the first foreigners to visit Hiroshima after the atomic bomb was dropped, and wrote his thoughts in his book Warrior without Weapons.

In 1944, the ICRC got its third Nobel Peace Prize.

After the Second World War

On 12 August 1949, the existing two Geneva Conventions were changed, and the Hague Convention about casualties at sea was brought into the Geneva Convention "family". It was renamed the Second Geneva Covention, and so the second convention of 1929 is now called the third convention. The Fourth Geneva Convention, about the "Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War," was established. On 8 June 1977 extra article "protocols" were added to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars.

In 1963, the ICRC shared its third Nobel Peace Prize with the League of Red Cross Societies.

Since 1993, non-Swiss citizens have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad, a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Now about one third of staff are not Swiss citizens.

On 16 October 1990, the UN General Assembly gave the ICRC observer status for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the Italian ambassador, Vieri Traxler, in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino.

An agreement with the Swiss government signed on 19 March 1993, affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.

The ICRC continued its activities throughout the 1990s. It broke its usual silence when it denounced the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, and again in 1995 about the crimes that happened in and around Srebrenica when it said, "We must acknowledge that despite our efforts to help thousands of civilians forcibly expelled from the town and despite the dedication of our colleagues on the spot, the ICRC's impact on the unfolding of the tragedy was extremely limited."  It went public once again in 2007 to decry "major human rights abuses" by Burma's military government including forced labor, starvation, and murder of men, women, and children.

Fatalities
At the end of the Cold War, the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the 1990s, more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were:

 Frédéric Maurice. He died on 19 May 1992 at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former Yugoslavian city of Sarajevo.
 Fernanda Calado (Spain), Ingeborg Foss (Norway), Nancy Malloy (Canada), Gunnhild Myklebust (Norway), Sheryl Thayer (New Zealand), and Hans Elkerbout (Netherlands). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of 17 December 1996 in the ICRC field hospital in the Chechen city of Nowije Atagi near Grozny. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings.
 Rita Fox (Switzerland), Véronique Saro (Democratic Republic of Congo, formerly Zaire), Julio Delgado (Colombia), Unen Ufoirworth (DR Congo), Aduwe Boboli (DR Congo), and Jean Molokabonge (DR Congo). On 26 April 2001, they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of Congo when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers.
 Ricardo Munguia (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men. He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39.
 Vatche Arslanian (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the cross fire of fighting in the city.
 Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on 22 July 2003 when his car was fired upon near the city of Hilla in the south of Baghdad.

Symbols
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was Inter Arma Caritas ("Amidst War, Charity"). It has preserved this motto while other Red Cross organizations have adopted others. Because Geneva is in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC is also known under its French name Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR). However, the ICRC has six official languages, including Arabic. The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background (the inverse of the Swiss flag)with the words "COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE" circling the cross.

The ICRC drew up seven fundamental principles in 1965 that were adopted by the entire Red Cross Movement. They are
 Humanity,
 Impartiality,
 Neutrality,
 Independence,
 Volunteerism,
 Unity, and
 Universality.

Funding and financial matters
The 2005 budget of the ICRC was about 970 million Swiss francs. All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual Headquarters Appeal to cover its internal costs and Emergency Appeals for its individual missions.

Most of the ICRC's funding comes from Switzerland and the United States, with the other European states and the E.U. close behind. Together with Australia, Canada, Japan, and New Zealand, they contribute about 80-85% of the ICRC's budget. About 3% comes from private gifts, and the rest comes from national Red Cross societies.

Responsibilities within the Movement
The ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society and thus accepting it into the Movement. The exact rules are in the statutes of the Movement. After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. The ICRC and the Federation cooperate with the individual national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the ICRC is the lead Red Cross agency in conflicts while other organizations within the Movement take the lead in non-war situations. National societies will be given the lead especially when a conflict is happening within their own country.

Organization
The ICRC headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. It has other offices, called Delegations, in about 80 countries. Each delegation is under the responsibility of a Head of delegation who is the official representative of the ICRC in the country. Of its 2,000 professional employees, roughly 800 work in its Geneva headquarters and 1,200 expatriates work in the field. About half of the field workers serve as delegates managing ICRC operations in the different countries while the other half are specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters. The international staff are assisted by some 13,000 national employees, so about 15,000 people work for the ICRC.

Directorate
The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee.It carries out the policies set by the assembly.

The Directorate consists of a Director-General and five directors in the areas of "Operations", "Human Resources", "Resources and Operational Support", "Communication", and "International Law and Cooperation within the Movement". The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years. The Director-General has assumed more personal responsibility in recent years, much like a CEO, where he was formerly more of a first among equals at the Directorate.

Assembly
The Assembly (also called the Committee) convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The Assembly has a membership of a maximum of 25 Swiss citizens. Members must speak the house language of French, but many also speak English and German as well. These Assembly members are co-opted for a period of four years, and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can serve. A three-quarters majority vote from all members is required for re-election after the third term, which acts as a motivation for members to remain active and productive.

In the early years, every Committee member was Genevan, Protestant, white, and male. The first woman, Renée-Marguerite Cramer, was co-opted in 1918. Since then, several women have attained the Vice Presidency, and the female proportion after the Cold War has been about 15%. The first non-Genevans were admitted in 1923, and one Jew has served in the Assembly.

While the rest of the Red Cross Movement many be multi-national, the Committee believes that its mono-national nature is an asset because the nationality in question is Swiss. Thanks to permanent Swiss neutrality, conflicting parties can be sure that no one from "the enemy" will be setting policy in Geneva. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 showed that even National Red Cross Societies can be biased and not maintain neutral humanitarianism.

Assembly Council
Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five-member Assembly Council that constitutes an especially active core of the Assembly. The Council meets at least ten times per year and has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for helping communication between the Assembly and the Directorate. The Assembly Council normally includes the president, two vice presidents and two elected members. While one of the vice presidents is elected for a four-year term, the other is appointed permanently with his tenure ending by retirement from the vice presidency or from the Committee. Currently Jacques Forster and Olivier Vodoz are vice presidents. In April 2007, Christine Beerli was appointed to succeed Jacques Forster from the beginning of 2008.

The President
The Assembly also selects, for a term of four years, one individual to act as President of the ICRC. The president is both a member of the Assembly and leader of the ICRC, and he has always been included on the Council since its formation. The President automatically becomes a member of the assembly and the ICRC once he is appointed, but he does not necessarily come from within the ICRC organization. There is a strong faction within the Assembly that wants to reach outside the organization to select a president from the Swiss government or professional circles like the banking or medical fields. In fact, the last three presidents were previously officials in the Swiss government. The president's influence and role is not well-defined, and changes depending upon the times and each president's personal style. Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been Jakob Kellenberger. Kellenberger does not make many public appearances or statements but is good at personal negotiation promoting the ICRC privately. In February 2007, he was appointed by the Assembly to another four-year term which will run until the end of 2011.

The presidents of the ICRC have been:

 1863 - 1864: Henri Dufour
 1864 - 1910: Gustave Moynier
 1910 - 1928: Gustave Ador
 1928 - 1944: Max Huber
 1944 - 1948: Carl Jacob Burckhardt
 1948 - 1955: Paul Ruegger
 1955 - 1964: Leopold Boissier

 1964 - 1969: Samuel Gonard
 1969 - 1973: Marcel Naville
 1973 - 1976: Eric Martin
 1976 - 1987: Alexandre Hay
 1987 - 1999: Cornelio Sommaruga
 2000 - 2011: Jakob Kellenberger (unless term extended again)

The ICRC tends to work quietly and not attract publicity, unlike some other aid agencies.  This way it was been able to get access to, for example, Nelson Mandela, when he was still a prisoner of the apartheid government of South Africa.

References

Bibliography

Books
 David P. Forsythe: Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978,
 Henry Dunant: A Memory of Solferino. ICRC, Geneva 1986,
 Hans Haug: Humanity for all: the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern 1993,
 Georges Willemin, Roger Heacock: International Organization and the Evolution of World Society. Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston 1984,
 Pierre Boissier: History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1985,
 André Durand: History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima. Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1984,
 International Committee of the Red Cross: Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. 13th edition, ICRC, Geneva 1994,
 John F. Hutchinson: Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross. Westview Press, Boulder 1997,
 Caroline Moorehead: Dunant's dream: War, Switzerland and the history of the Red Cross. HarperCollins, London 1998,  (Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999,  (Paperback edition)
 François Bugnion: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims. ICRC & Macmillan (ref. 0503), Geneva 2003,
 Angela Bennett: The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross. Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire 2005,
 David P. Forsythe: The Humanitarians. The International Committee of the Red Cross. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005,

Articles
 François Bugnion: The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history. ICRC (ref. 0316), Geneva 1977
 Jean-Philippe Lavoyer, Louis Maresca: The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law. In: International Negotiation. 4(3)/1999. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 503-527, ISSN 1382-340X
 Neville Wylie: The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present. In: Diplomacy and Statecraft. 13(4)/2002. Routledge/ Taylor & Francis, p. 186-204, ISSN 0959-2296
 David P. Forsythe: "The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law." In: Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Informationsschriften. The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict. 2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64-77, ISSN 0937-5414
 François Bugnion: Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem. Revised third edition. ICRC (ref. 0778), Geneva 2005

Other websites
 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
 Legacy  Dr. Cornelio Sommaruga, President of the ICRC from 1987-1999, donated four hours of high-definition audiovisual life story interviews to Legacy. The ICRC audiovisual library houses copies of these interviews.

Red Cross
1863 establishments


The national flag of Oman () has three stripes (white, green and red) with a red bar on the left that contains the national emblem of Oman.  The white stands for peace and prosperity, the green for fertility and the Green Mountains, and the red for battles against foreign invaders.  The red is also the colour of the former flag of the nation when it was known simply as the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman.
Until 1970, Oman used the plain red banner of the indigenous people, the Kharijite Muslims. In 1970, the Sultan introduced a complete new set of national flags. Bands of green and white were added to the fly, and the national emblem, the badge of the Albusaidi Dynasty, was placed in the canton. This shows crossed swords over a Gambia, a traditional curved dagger. White has been associated historically with the Imam, the religious leader of Oman and at times the political rival to the ruling Sultan. It also symbolizes peace. Green is traditionally associated with the Jebel al Akhdar, or "Green Mountains," which lie toward the north of the country. Red is a common color in Gulf state flags. The national emblem is said to date back to the 18th century. A curved dagger is fastened over a pair of crossed swords. An ornate horsebit links the weapons.

Oman
National symbols of Oman

Flag of Oman


Garfield is a famous comic strip created by Jim Davis.

The comic has a cat called Garfield, a dog called Odie, and their owner, Jon Arbuckle. The cat is named after Davis's grandfather, James Garfield Davis (who was probably named after former U.S. President James Garfield). It debuted on June 19, 1978, in 41 US newspapers. Garfield at Large was Garfield'''s first book, published in 1980. It was listed in the New York Times bestseller list at #1. By 1983, Garfield was featured in 1400 newspapers, and was translated into seven different languages.Garfield got a website in 1996. In 2002, Garfield was declared "Most widely syndicated comic strip in the world" by the Guinness Book of World Records. Garfield's 1st cookbook was featured in 2003. In 2004, Garfield: The Movie was the first full-length feature movie based on Garfield''. Garfield is a fun-loving cat who loves lasagna but hates Mondays and is enjoyed by many people around the world.

, five Garfield movies have been made.

Main characters
Garfield - orange, fuzzy tabby cat
Jon Arbuckle - Garfield's dad
Odie -  yellow, long-eared beagle
Dr. Liz Wilson - Garfield's veterinarian and a long-time girlfriend of Jon Arbuckle

Dates
June 19, 1978 (USA/UK)
August 12, 1978 (Australia)
July 14, 1979 (Worldwide)
December 21, 1980 (Brazil)
July 31, 1981 (Japan)

References

Other websites
 Garfield and Friends official site

Comic strips

Garfield


Illyriad is a free to play massively multiplayer online persistent  browser-based strategy game developed by the UK software company Illyriad Games Ltd, the company's first full online strategy game, first released in beta in 2010, and launched in 2011.

Unlike many browser games, there is no set goal. The game is played on an infinite-round basis—there are no resets planned.

Illyriad was showcased in the Mozilla Labs 2010 Game On Gallery and an IGF 2012 Main Competition Entrant.

Gameplay

Illyriad is set in a persistent fantasy world – when a player logs out, the game continues. Players start with a single town in which they construct and upgrade buildings and conduct research to unlock new technologies. Player civilizations can be expanded by conquering cities, sending settlers to colonize new lands or claiming sovereignty to expand player influence.  It has a gameworld of over 4 million squares - the majority of which can be settled with a city.

The game has four playable races, each with their own advantages and disadvantages: Humans, Elves, Dwarves, Orcs.

There are five basic resources: Wood, Clay, Iron, Stone and Food. They are generated by the Lumberjack, Clay Pit, Iron Mine, Quarry and Farmyard respectively. Mana and research are produced by the mage tower and library, and used for magic and research. Gold is the currency in the game, which is used to pay wage for troops, caravans and diplomats as well as in player to player trade in the marketplace.  Advanced resources are built from basic resources: horses, livestock, beer, books, spears, swords, bows, saddles, leather armour, chainmail, plate armour and siege blocks.  These are used in the construction of military and diplomatic units.

It also has magic with several spell schools; a commodities trading marketplace and quests which are different based on player race.

Illyriad's military unit categories are: Infantry, Spearmen, Cavalry, Archers and Siege engines; with multiple strategies including attack, raid, feint, occupy, reinforce, blockade and siege. Combat is both PvP and PvE. Army commanders gain experience from combat which the player can use to train the commander's skills.

The "diplomatic" research options include: Spying, counter-intelligence, theft, sabotage and assassination.

With the right technologies researched, using an army a player can claim sovereignty on occupied territory for various advantages.

Technologies

Illyriad's technology tree has 400+ research options. They are categorized into 8 research areas: City, Diplomacy, Quest, Magic, Military, Trade, Crafting and Sovereignty. There are also discoveries which are found via quests.

To research a new technology, it is first necessary to research the prerequisite technology - also some technologies have a prerequisite building level that must be built (for example, Smelting can only be researched after Craftsmanship has been researched and the town has a level 7 Quarry).

Researched technology is on a per city basis, so when a player settles a new town, they must research the technology for that town separately. The game's technology tree displays all the non-discovery techs in the game and their relation with one another, and allows the player to queue up to 2 technologies per town for research. Discoveries when found are at that point revealed to the player and do not require to be researched.

Completed researches count towards the players overall research score.

Terrain
The outcome of battles is not determined only by the size of armies, but is also influenced by the terrain of the battle ground and types of units engaged. Units' offensive and defensive abilities vary with the terrain they occupy. For example: "mountains favour ranged units and nimble spearmen, and penalise cavalry heavily. Attacking swordsmen are also hampered by the passes, gulleys and canyons that make frontal assaults more difficult."

While there are many more terrain sub-types (e.g. Light Tropical Cover, Rockhewn Monastery, Dense Jungle, Dense Rainforest), the main overall terrains for combat purposes are:

Evolving World
The world of Illyriad is supposed to change and is supposed to evolve over time. Mysteries and special locations have been added to the world such as The Temple of Reason, The Heroic Statues and the Steamtastic brewery. In actuality, there are only a very limited number of "mysteries" and special locations and the map hasn't been evolving for years. All mysteries, except one that is unsolvable, have been solved and aren't really mysterious.

In June 2011 the geography of one part of the world became infected and changes on a daily basis.

Alliances
Players can form alliances, and are provided with alliance forums, chat and a central treasury. Alliances interrelationships begin neutral, but they can choose to enter different states with each other such as: Confederation, NAP or War.

As well as the "hard power" of alliances in war, diplomacy, protection and politics; alliances in Illyriad allow players to cooperate to achieve things that would be beyond them as individuals. This includes investigating and solving mysteries spread across the world and competing in server wide tournaments.

Political Intrigue
Alliance and players are also continuously drawing and changing territorial lines and having secret meetings that decide the fate of entire sections of the world. However, with a very large world and realistic travel times for trade, diplomats and military it becomes hard for even large alliances to exert direct force at large distances from their core power blocks.

Tournaments
Illyriad also features server-wide tournaments in which players compete and players are rewarded individually and at the Alliance level. These tournaments have been also used to introduce new gameplay dynamics like creature drops.

The tournaments have been month-long events and have been as follows:
 January 2011: The first tournament was an Alliance versus Alliance "Hold the Fort" event. Eight equidistant locations in the world acted as "forts", which had to be held by player's armies. At the end of the month the Alliance who had held a location for the longest was the winner of that "fort". Also a prize was given to the Alliance which had held the most locations for the longest time overall.
 April 2011: The second tournament was a Player versus Environment event which required players to combat NPC animal spawns and retrieve "anatomical specimens". Players were individually rewarded for being the greatest hunter of each creature type; having the largest collection and having the largest number of unique parts. Alliances received rewards for having the largest collection and having the largest number of unique parts between all the Alliances.
 June 2011: The third tournament was a Player versus All "Hold the Fort" event. The eight locations from the first tournament acted as  spawn points for elementals, which would bind to the player holding the square and become a unit in their town. On these squares all Alliance affiliations were suspended so all players were hostile to each other on these squares. In addition to the elementals, at the end of the tournament players were also rewarded for each of the elementals they had bound and the top players from each square received a Tournament Winner's Statue placed at the winners' choice on any unoccupied map square within 10 squares of their Capital City.  This Monument bears their name and is a permanent marker on the World Map.
 December 2011: The fourth tournament, "The Undead Horde", began with a live event when a rift opened in the map and skeleton armies came from it, attacking players. This tournament was centered around the individual commanders in players' towns, rather than at an alliance or a player level like previous tournaments. Players had to withstand attacks from the undead, preventing them from accessing activated standing stones. Prizes were given to the commanders who gained the most experience.
 February 2012: The fifth tournament was an Alliance Ground Control event across 37 squares, one per region on the map. The winners were based on the summed time of all the squares held over a month.

Compatibility
Illyriad can be played in any web browser which supports the HTML standards; including mobile devices (e.g. iPad, iPhone, Android, BlackBerry). The game has a special Facebook-mode, using Facebook-specific features such as Facebook connect, game announcements and other community features. Illyriad is also featured in the Facebook application directory.

Business model
The game does not use ads, and is fully funded by the optional purchase of "prestige" offering an advantage using microtransactions. This virtual currency can be purchased via PayPal, mobile payment using Fortumo, Google Checkout  and Facebook Credits for Facebook players.

Research, troop builds and advanced resource production cannot be sped up through the use of in game currency.

Development

Initial release
Illyriad began development in 2009, and was the first game developed by Illyriad Games Ltd. It began with 3 developers and 3 artists, however only 2 were full-time - with the others working at other jobs. The core Illyriad development team's background was from web and enterprise software, not games - and the initial content was provided by volunteers.

James Niesewand, Illyriad Games founder, described the process: "From start to finish it took us about a year to get something playable ... for us that was just the point at which we had something fun that people could enjoy. At that stage we put the game live, invited people to play, and worked on improving the game in line with the players' feedback."

Critical development software included Microsoft ASP.NET MVC and jQuery. Illyriad uses Microsoft SQL Server for persistent game data.

Continued development
After initial launch, the development of Illyriad continued. The world was changed from being randomly generated into one which was fractally generated including topographical features:  mountain ranges, lakes, forests, hills, oceans, islands, rivers etc. This was then followed by the introduction of biomes including desert, jungle, marshes and the polar north; as well as regions and NPC Factions.

Illyriad Games continued development with a team composed of remote workers in different countries and outsourced suppliers. They bought on board Quantic Labs for the graphics which were used to relaunch the user interface. Their "artists and writers [were given] a lot of creative freedom" when producing new graphics and content.

HTML5 Canvas
On 09 Aug 2011 the World Map changed from HTML DOM to HTML5 Canvas.
This brought a number of changes:
 An increase of the map zoom by ten levels, allowing 25 levels of zoom and increasing the grid to 51 x 51 tiles.
 Drag and drop, and mouse wheel zoom of the world map in the style of Google Maps.
 Movement and continual updating of moving units
 'Fog of War' visibility for diplomats

OpenId Support
On 19 Aug 2011 OpenID authentication was introduced for new and existing players to sign up or link their account using their Google, Yahoo, AOL, myOpenID, OpenId, Wordpress, LiveJournal, Blogger, Verisign, ClaimId, ClickPass or Google Profile accounts.

Avatar Graphics Update
Illyriad hired artists to improve their character portraits, which were released in August 2011.

WebGL + HTML5 Audio
Illyriad Games have also released an early detailed working example of first person town experience with WebGL and HTML5 audio which demonstrates that large 3d scenes, texture decompression and
deferred shading can be done in the browser with no plugins.

Further gameplay development

"Organic" Animal System
In April 2012 NPC groups changed from random spawns to growing, splitting and migrating populations, which players interactions directly affect.

Medals and UI relaunch
In June 2012 the Illyriad user interface was refreshed and friends lists and Alliance medals were introduced. The medal designer allows players to create personalized awards and titles for others.

Crafting 2.0
In July 2012 minerals and herb patches appeared on the world map, with varying levels of scarcity - which players could control, harvest or destroy. Mineral mines were fixed points, and herb patches would disappear when depleted, but would grow while not over-harvested. These fixed geographical locations became desirable resource locations for players to gain control over from other players. NPC Animals also drop body parts and hides after combat.

These components could then be used to craft more advanced equipment to use in game. The list of tradable items increased from 17 to 300; and trade became conducted at geographically different trade hubs.

Reception
Of the three games chosen to go with Massively on a trip to the desert island Illyriad was one of them: "...I would have to go with Illyriad, the fantastic browser-based city-builder.... Illyriad is a delight to play." and added: "Given Illyriad's realistic trade, amazing community, and variable-speed gameplay, I would be insane to leave this one off the list."

It was also selected for the top eleven (in no particular order) of Massively's Fifty games for the mobile lifestyle: "This little surprise [Illyriad] has taken hold of me. Imagine an epic RTS but with killer lore and an awesome community."

It was voted in the top 100 indie games and one of the top 2 MMOs of 2011 in IndieDB's Indie of the Year Awards  and included in GameSpy's 101 Free PC Games of 2012.

References

External links
 Official website of Illyriad
 Illyriad Developer Blog

4X video games
Indie games
2011 video games
Strategy video games
Active massively multiplayer online games
Browser games
Browser-based multiplayer online games
Fantasy video games
Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom

Illyriad


Captain Abu Raed () is a 2007 Jordanian film directed and written by Amin Matalqa. It is the first feature film produced in Jordan in more than 50 years. The Royal Film Commission of Jordan endorsed Captain Abu Raed to be submitted to the 81st Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, the first ever submitted by Jordan. The film won awards at numerous film festivals including the Sundance Film Festival, Heartland Film Festival, and the Dubai International Film Festival. It was screened at the Jerusalem International Film Festival in 2008.

Plot
Abu Raed is an airport janitor at the Queen Alia International Airport in Amman. After finding a Royal Jordanian captain's hat in the trash, the neighborhood children mistake him for an airline pilot and beg him to tell them stories of his adventures. At first refusing, he later concedes and tells them about his fictional travels to England, France, and New York, earning the name "Captain Abu Raed"

An older child, Murad, knows who Abu Raed really is and sets out to prove the other children wrong, repeating the phrase "People like us don't grow up to be pilots." With some dinars he found, Murad takes the other children on a taxi ride to the airport to show them the truth about Abu Raed. The children are heartbroken at seeing their idol on his hands and knees, scrubbing the floor.

It is later shown that Murad had stolen the money from his father Abu Murad, who, drunk after a hard day selling women's clothing on the street, often abused Murad's mother, Um Murad. Abu Murad was exceptionally mad about the loss of money and took it out on his wife.

Meanwhile, at the airport and on the bus home, Abu Raed gets to know Nour, a female pilot whose wealthy father poorly attempted to find her a husband. During a friendly visit to his home, he tells her about his past, including a deceased wife and son, Raed.

Abu Raed also had to deal with Tareq, one of the children whom he told stories to, whose father had him selling wafers on the street rather than going to school. Abu Raed knew he was a smart boy so he bought all of his wafers so Tareq could attend school. However, this was a mixed blessing as Abu Tareq would then give Tareq more wafers to sell, seeing as he was a good salesman.

Abu Raed, after being exposed as a phony, forgave Murad and gave him the pilot hat as a token of forgiveness. Later, Murad steals a model airplane and gets his hand burned by his father for it. Abu Raed is there to comfort him, creating a bond between the two. This event convinces Abu Raed to find a way to bring Murad, his younger brother, and his mother to safety.

After Abu Raed treats Murad's burns one night, Murad leaves, and so does Abu Raed. On his way home, he finds an intoxicated Abu Murad lying in the street, who tells Abu Raed to 'shut up'. Abu Raed lifts a heavy stone, considering ending the misery Abu Murad caused himself and his family. However, he is overcome by his feelings and leaves him unharmed.

One night, before Abu Murad gets home, Abu Raed develops a plan to protect Murad and his family. Nour volunteers to take them in, because her wealthy family owns a large house. She brings her car to the living area where Abu Raed and the Murads live, and they hurriedly pack the belongings of the Murad family. As they are about to leave, Murad runs back to retrieve the pilot's cap, a symbol of his dreams and aspirations. Nour then sets off for her house, as Tareq appears and asks what is going on, to which Abu Raed replies, "Nothing." Tareq becomes the last person, other than a drunk Abu Murad, to see Abu Raed alive.

Despite repeated warnings from Um Murad that "He's going to kill you", Abu Raed sits in the Murad apartment and awaits Abu Murad's return. Upon finding his house empty, Abu Murad threatens Abu Raed's life. Abu Raed is implied to have been killed in that apartment. Years later, a grown-up Murad is seen watching the airfield as a Royal Jordanian pilot.

Setting
Many of the movie's open scenes are set on the well-known Roman ruins high above Amman, on Jabal al-Qal'a. The "Making of Captain Abu Raed" on the Western release of the DVD points out that although the movie takes place entirely in Amman and the airport, the neighborhood surrounding Abu Raed's home was shot in the neighboring old city of Salt.

Although the date of the movie is never specified by any notes or characters, the usage of the Eastern Arabic numerals on vehicles' license plates implies that the movie takes place in the past, as a recollection from youth by the adult Captain Murad. Jordan switched from the Eastern Arabic numeral system to standard Arabic numerals in the 1990s.

Cast
Nadim Sawalha – Abu Raed
Rami Samara - https://www.imdb.com/name/nm2698943/
Rana Sultan – Nour
Hussein Al-Sous – Murad
Udey Al-Qiddissi – Tareq
Ghandi Saber – Abu Murad
Dina Ra'ad-Yaghnam – Um Murad

Awards
Won
2007 Dubai International Film Festival
 Muhr Award – Best Actor: Nadim Sawalha
2008 Durban International Film Festival
Best First Feature Film
2008 Heartland Film Festival
Crystal Heart Award – Feature Film
Grand Prize for Dramatic Feature
2008 Newport Beach Film Festival
Jury Award – Best Actor – Nadim Sawalha
Jury Award – Best Actress – Rana Sultan
2008 Seattle International Film Festival
Best Director Golden Space Needle Award – Amin Matalqa
2008 Sundance Film Festival
Audience Award – World Cinema – Dramatic
9th AARP Movies for Grownups Awards
Best Foreign Film
Nominated
2008 Sundance Film Festival
Grand Jury Prize – World Cinema – Dramatic

See also
Cinema of Jordan
List of Jordanian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film

References

External links

 Producer Nadine Toukan's journey
 Captain Abu Raed in Best of Jordan

2007 films
2007 drama films
Aviation films
Films shot in Jordan
Jordanian drama films
2000s Arabic-language films

Captain Abu Raed


Osmund David Colhoun (born 6 June 1938) is a former Irish cricketer. A right-handed batsman and wicket-keeper, he made his debut for Ireland against Lancashire in July 1959 and went on to play for them on 87 occasions, his last match coming in July 1979 against FW Millet's XI.

Of Colhoun's matches for Ireland, 28 of them had first-class status. His cousin Aubrey Finlay also represented Ireland at cricket.

References

1938 births
Living people
People from Sion Mills
Irish cricketers
Cricketers from Northern Ireland
Wicket-keepers

Ossie Colhoun


The state of México is one of the administrative divisions of the country of Mexico. It is one of 32 administrative divisions. It is in the centre of the country. It borders Hidalgo, Querétaro, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Michoacán, Morelos and Guerrero as well as Mexico City. The capital of the state is Toluca. Its biggest city is Ecatepec de Morelos, which borders Mexico Federal district. Teotihuacan is also in this state. It is about 21.355 km²  in surface. About 14 million people live there as of 2005.

Mexico (state)


Lüchow-Dannenberg is a district in Lower Saxony, Germany, which is usually referred to as Hanoverian Wendland (Hannoversches Wendland) or Wendland. It is bounded by (from the west and clockwise) the districts of Uelzen and Lüneburg and the states of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (district of Ludwigslust-Parchim), Brandenburg (district of Prignitz) and Saxony-Anhalt (districts of Stendal and Altmarkkreis Salzwedel).

History
In medieval times the counties of Lüchow and Dannenberg occupied the area (from the early 12th century on). These counties were originally Slavic states that lost their independence to the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the beginning of the 14th century.

Since that time it was always an eastern extension of different entities, usually states like West Germany.

The area was ruled by Lüneburg until 1705 and then became a part of the Electorate of Hanover. When the Kingdom of Hanover was annexed by Prussia (1866), the districts of Lüchow and Dannenberg were established within the new Province of Hanover.

A Slavic language persisted here until the 18th century.

In 1932 the two districts of Lüchow and Dannenberg were merged into the current district with Dannenberg as capital. In 1951 the seat of the administration was moved to Lüchow.

Current issues
Since the end of the 1990s the financial problems of the municipalities in the district grew more and more severe. To save money spent for administration a major municipal reform is currently discussed. The two most likely outcomes of the reform will be either a conversion of the district to an urban district, in which the 27 municipalities will then become boroughs of one town. The other discussed solution is the merger into two Samtgemeinden. The dissolution of the district and inclusion of the two remaining Samtgemeinden into the districts of Lüneburg and Uelzen are also discussed.

Geography
The district is named for the two main towns. It is better known as the Wendland, a designation referring to the Slavic people of the Wends from Obotrite tribe Drevani, who lived there till the 18th century — the last known user of the local dialect of Polabian language died in 1752. The landscape is characterised by riverside woodlands along the Elbe river and a hilly countryside.

In addition, the Wendland is known for the small village of Gorleben (part of the Samtgemeinde Gartow), where the establishment of a final disposal place for radioactive waste is planned. The salt dome Gorleben, a deep geological repository is proposed. Moreover, an interim storage for spent nuclear fuel is located in Gorleben. The area has been a site of clashes between the police and anti-nuclear protesters since the 1980s.

Lüchow-Dannenberg has a sister-city relationship with Steglitz-Zehlendorf, a borough of Berlin since 1979.

Lüchow-Dannenberg is the least populous of Germany's 402 districts, and has the lowest population density of any district in West Germany.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
 a fir, which was the heraldic symbol of the counts of Dannenberg
 three yellow rhombs from the arms of the counts of Lüchow

Towns and municipalities

People
See People from Lüchow-Dannenberg.

References

External links

 Official website (German)

Districts of Lower Saxony
Obotrites
Wendland

Lüchow-Dannenberg


Zion & Lennox are a Puerto Rican reggaeton music duo from Carolina, Puerto Rico. In 2004, Zion & Lennox released their first studio album titled Motivando a la Yal under White Lion Records. After their first album, Zion & Lennox decided to start their own label, Baby Records Inc. The duo is made up of Félix Ortiz (Zion) and Gabriel Pizarro (Lennox). Zion & Lennox are considered to be the pioneers of romantic reggaeton.

Personal lives
Félix Ortiz Torres and Gabriel Pizarro were born in Carolina, Puerto Rico. They met in 1992, while living in the same neighborhood and having common interests in reggaeton. Their common taste for music quickly became a serious passion and a reason to work together and thoroughly in the reggaeton genre, once Lennox's brother, whose nickname was Mackie, invited them to officially sing a theme in 2001, though they had already been a duo since 2000.

While Zion & Lennox developed a deep interest in the new genre during that time, their focus was distinct from the most typical themes within the underground scene. They gave reggaeton what they currently refer to as "the commercial touch", that is, less explicit and graphic lyrics.

Since then they had been very popular within the underground scene, until they came to have their first great opportunity in the 2003 compilation album Desafío by the producers Luny Tunes together with Noriega.

Both have relatives who are prominent singers in the reggaeton genre. Zion is the second cousin of chorus singer Jory Boy, who was part of the Nova & Jory duo, while Lennox is the brother of Luis Pizarro, better known as Mackie Ranks, of the former reggaeton duo Yaga y Mackie.

Career
They have been in the music business for a long time. They had minor hits such as "Baila Conmigo" for the 2003 compilation album "Desafío" and "Me Pones Tensión" for the album The Noise: La Biografía. These hits, along with others in the near future and increased radio play gave them more recognition. This gave them the chance to appear in major reggaeton albums such as Luny Tunes' Mas Flow (2003) and Mas Flow 2 (2005), Blin Blin vol.1 (2003-4), Contra la Corriente (2004), and Cazadores, Primera Búsqueda (2005).

In May 2004, they released their first solo album, Motivando a la Yal. With the reggaeton genre becoming a worldwide phenomenon, Zion and Lennox's popularity increased. Motivando a la Yal: Special Edition was released a year later. The special edition had new songs along with remixed songs of the previous edition, such as "Don't Stop", "Bachatéalo", a remix to the song "Bandida", and a hip-hop remix of "Yo Voy" with Miri Ben-Ari, Fatman Scoop, and Pitbull entitled "Jump & Spread Out (DJ Precise and Cheeky Starr Version)".

Both Zion and Lennox are very active with solo songs. Zion has been more notable with songs like "Yo Voy a Llegar" for reggaeton producer DJ Nelson's compilation album Flow la Discoteka, "Alócate" released on Luny Tunes's album Mas Flow 2.5, and "Con Ella Me Quedaré" released in the fifth installment of the Álex Gárgolas series, entitled Gargolas: The Next Generation. He also has turned up a new hit, "Que Pasara",  for DJ Nelson's Flow la Discoteka 2. Zion has released a solo album entitled The Perfect Melody on June 5, 2007, with appearances by artists such as Akon and Play-N-Skillz. "The Way She Moves" is the lead single from the album and features Akon. Lennox has been working on songs on his own album, but has also been very active in bringing new artist to his label "Toma Enterprise". The label is set to release an album named Los Mero Meros.

After three years of building their fan base and positive reputation with guest spots and compilation records, Zion & Lennox released their first full-length record, Motivando a la Yal. The record featured the work of renowned producers Luny Tunes, Noriega, Nely el Arma Secreta, and Eliel, some of the most visible the style had to offer. Thanks to the record's success as it hit the charts with force, Zion & Lennox toured all over the Americas, performing before large and appreciative audiences. Soon industry demand and personal pressure caused Zion & Lennox to go in different directions. Boldly boasting to be one of the greatest singers ever to hail not only from Puerto Rico but all of Latin America, Ortiz started his own record label, Baby Records, for whom he is the flagship act and CEO. Lennox continues to make guest appearances and collaborate with important genre artists. Starting February 2008, Zion y Lennox engaged on a "reunited" tour promising a follow-up album In early 2010, they joined and signed a contract with Pina Records appearing on the compilation album Golpe de Estado (2010). In 2014, Zion and Lennox left Pina Records due to tensions financial allegations with Raphy Pina. In 2016, they started working on their 4th album, Motivan2, under their new record label, Warner Music Latina, to which they signed an exclusive deal in December 2015. Their 4th album, Motivan2, was released in September 16, 2016 which featured collaborations with Nicky Jam, J Balvin, Farruko, Daddy Yankee, Maluma & Don Omar. The music video for "Otra Vez", a song on that album featuring J Balvin, has received over 1.0 billion views on YouTube .

Discography

 2004: Motivando a la Yal
 2010: Los Verdaderos
 2016: Motivan2
 2021: El Sistema
 TBA:  Legends Never Die
 TBA:  La Z y la L

Singles
 "Estoy Esperando"  (The Noise: The Beginning) (2001)
 "Quieren Acción"  (The Godfather) (2002)
 "Hay Algo En Ti"  (Mas Flow) (2003)
 "Me Pones En Tensión"  (The Noise: La Biografía) (2003)
 "No Pierdas Tiempo"  (Chosen Few El Documental) (2004)
 "No Me Compares" (Flow la Discoteka) (2004)
 "No Dejes Que Se Muera"  (La Mision 4: The Take Over) (2004)
 "Cuanto Tengo Que Esperar"  (MVP 2: The Grand Slam) (2005)
 "Don't Stop" (Motivando a la Yal: Special Edition) (2005)
 "Me Arrepiento"  (Los Bandoleros) (2005)
 "Es Mejor Olvidarlo" (Feat. Baby Ranks)  (Mas Flow 2) (2005)
 "Dejame Hacerte Mia" (Kilates 2: Segundo Impacto) (2005)
 "Aquí Estoy Yo" (El Bando Korrupto 2) (2004)
 "Quiero Tocarte" (The Score) (2003)
 "No Tengas Miedo" (Feat. Noriega) (Contra la Corriente) (2004)
 "Ella Me Mintio" (Feat. Ro-K & Gammy) (Malas Mañas) (2004)
 "Yo Voy" (feat. Daddy Yankee) (2004)
 "Te Hago El Amor" (Gargolas 4: The Return) (2003)
 "Ibas Caminando" (Los Cazadores: La Primera Busqueda) (2005)
 "Aguántate" (Feat. Johnny Prez) / (The Prezident) (2005)
 "Baila Conmigo" (Desafío) (2003)
 "Baila Pa' Mí" (MVP) (2003)
 "Tu Movimiento Me Excita" (Los Mozalbetes) (2003)
 "Esa Nena" (Ground Zero) (2003)
 "Me Dirijo A Ella" (Buddha's Family 2) (2005)
 "Tu Cuerpo Deseo" (El Desorden) (2003)
 "La Noche Es Larga" (Abusando del Genero) (2006)
 "Una Cita" (Echo Presenta: Invasión) (2007)
 "Latinas" (Feat. Elephant Man) (Caribbean Connection) (2008)
 "Seré Yo" (Remix) (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "Boom Boom" (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "Invisible" (Feat. Erre XI) (Luny Tunes Presents: Erre XI) (2008)
 "Ten Paciencia" (Remix) (Feat. Thalía) (2008)
 "Siempre Esta Dios" (Feat. Yari)  (2008)
 "Sentir" (Feat. Guelo Star) (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "Tu Me Confundes" (Feat. Charlie Cruz) (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "Boom Boom" (Remix) (Feat. Alexis & Fido) (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "De Inmediato" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Vamos En Serio" (Feat. Yaga & Mackie) (Pasado, Presente & Futuro (Past, Present and Future) (2008))
 "Tiemblo (Remix)" (Feat. Baby Rasta & Gringo) (Unreleased) (2009)
 "Ahora Es Que Es" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Dime Baby" (Feat. Fusion Mobb) (The Gold Pen) (2009)
 "Con Una Sonrisa" (Feat. O.G Black & Guayo "El Bandido") (La Hora Cero) (2009)
 "Ella Me Motiva"  (Feat. Arcángel) (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Mi Cama Huele A Ti" (Feat. Tito "El Bambino") (El Patrón) (2009)
 "Mi Cama Huele A Ti" (Salsa version) (Feat. Charlie Cruz)
 "Amor Genuino" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Colora'" (Feat. J-King & Maximan) (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Angeles & Demonios" (Feat. Syko "El Terror") (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Fuiste Tu" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape)  (2009)
 "Me Atrae" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Se Le Voy A Dar" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Hagamos El Amor Part. 2" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Daña Party" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Mujeriego" (Pa' La Calle Mixtape) (2009)
 "Tengo Que Decir" (Golpe de Estado) (2009)
 "Amor Genuino" (Feat. De La Ghetto) (2009)
 "Si Te Gusta" (Feat. Onyx "Creacion Divina") (2010)
 "La Española" (The Diamond) (2010)
 "Como Curar" (Los Verdaderos) (2010)
 "Momentos" (Los Verdaderos) (2010)
 "Hoy Lo Siento" (Feat. Tony Dize) (Los Verdaderos) (2011)
 "Tu Ta' Buena" (Feat. Vakero) (2011)
 "Cantazo" (Feat. Yomo) (2012)
 "Kamasutra" (Feat. El Poeta Callejero) (2013)
 "La Botella" (2013)
 "Pierdo La Cabeza" (2014)
 "Que Vas Hacer" (Blin Blin Vol. 1) (2003)
 "Embriágame" (Motivan2) (2016)
 "Otra Vez" (Feat. J Balvin) (2016)
 "Súbeme la Radio" (with Enrique Iglesias and Descemer Bueno) (2017)
 "Otra Vez"  (Feat. Ludmilla)
 "A Forgotten Spot (Olvidado)" (with Ivy Queen, De La Ghetto, PJ Sin Suela and Lucecita Benitez)
 "La player (Bandolera)" (2018)
 "No Es Justo" (with J Balvin) (2018)
 "Sistema" (2019)
 "Dulcecitos" (with Piso 21) (2020)
 "Bésame", (with Daddy Yankee, Play-N-Skillz) (2020).
 "All Night" (2020)
 "Guayo", (With Anuel AA, Haze) (2020)
 "Te Mueves", (With Natti Natasha). (2020)

Zion discography
 The Perfect Melody (2007)
 Flow Factory (2007)
 Live El Choliseo (Welcome To My World) (2007)

Singles
 "Yo Voy A Llegar" (Flow la Discoteka) (2004)
 "Sólo Una Noche" (El Que Habla Con Las Manos) (2005)
 "Con Ella Me Quedaré"  (Gargolas: The Next Generation) (2006)
 "Sigue Ahí" (Ft. Memphis Bleek & De La Ghetto) (Los Rompe Discotekas) (2006)
 "No Falla" (Ft. Cuban Link)
 "Hello" (Mas Flow: Los Benjamins) (2006)
 "Alócate" (Mas Flow 2.5) (2006)
 "Dos Jueyes" (ft. Domingo Quiñones) (Los Cocorocos) (2006)
 "Que Pasará"  (Flow la Discoteka 2) (2007)
 "Veo" (Don Omar Presenta: El Pentágono) (2007)
 "Fantasma" (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Zun Da Da" (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "The Way She Moves" (Ft. Akon) (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Amor de Pobre" (Ft. Eddie Dee) (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Money" (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Periódico de Ayer" (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Ábre La Puerta" (The Perfect Melody) (2007)
 "Vamonos Al Club" (Ft. Tego Calderón) (2007)
 "Independiente" (Los Bravos) (2007)
 "Pa'l Piso" (Ft. Element Black) (2008)
 "Sabanas Mojadas" (2008)
 "Fantasía" (2008)
 "Entre Cuatro Paredes" (Los Sikarios) (2008)
 "Showtime" (Ft. Angel & Khriz) (2008)
 "Fuera del Planeta" (Remix) (Ft. Eloy, Jowell & Randy) (2008)
 "Seré Yo" (2008)
 "Sabanas Mojadas" (Remix) (Ft. Jowell)  (2008)
 "Tenerla Es Sonar" (2008)
 "Se Fue" (Ft. MJ) (Mi Sentimiento) (2008)
 "Tease Me" (Flow Factory) (2009)
 "La Velita" (Golpe de Estado) (2009) (with Ivy Queen, Arcángel and Jadiel)
 "Muñequita de la Mafia" (Ft. Wambo & Farruko) (2015)
 "Súbeme la Radio (Enrique Iglesias featuring Descemer Bueno, Zion & Lennox)

Lennox discography
 Los Mero Meros (2007) (compilation album)

Singles
 "La Botella" Producido por MadMusick (2013)
 "Somos Los Mero Meros" (Ft. Guelo Star) (Los Mero Meros) (2007)
 "Sola y Triste"(Ft. Jonny) (Unreleased) (2007)
 "Hace Tiempo" (Motivando a la Yal) (2004)
 "Un Amor Así" (Ft. Newton) (Da' Music: Reloaded) (2005)
 "Tanto Dolor" (Ft. Noriega) (Sin Control) (2006)
 "Te Recordaré" (Ft. Norrys) (Los Bandoleros Reloaded) (2006)
 "Hablando Claro" (Ft. Arcángel) (2007)
 "Ahy Na Mas" (Los Mero Meros) (2007)
 "Lo Importante Es" (K-Libre) (2007)
 "Esto No Para" (Línea de Fuego) (2008)
 "Bailaremos" (La Evolucion) (2008)
 "Solos Tu y Yo" (Ft. Ricky Quiñones) (Unreleased) (2008)
 "Diferente" (Ft. Los Insuperables) (2009)
 "Eres Mia Hoy (Ft. Kartier)

Accolades

References

External links

Puerto Rican reggaeton musicians
21st-century Puerto Rican male singers
Puerto Rican musical duos
People from Carolina, Puerto Rico
Reggaeton duos
Musical groups established in 2003
Sony BMG Norte artists
Sony Music Latin artists
Warner Music Latina artists
2003 establishments in Puerto Rico

Zion & Lennox


The Mainstream Top 40 is an airplay chart from Billboard magazine. It is also known as Pop Songs on billboard.com. People often mistook it for the now discontinued Pop 100 Airplay chart. The chart is solely based on radio airplay, ranking the week's hottest pop songs based on monitored radio detections from a panel of 200 Top 40/CHR radio stations in the United States as measured by Nielsen BDS Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems. Arbitron sometimes refers to the format as contemporary hit radio.

The chart was launched the week of October 10, 1992, along with the Rhythmic Songs Chart as a way to distinguish stations that played a broad based mix of current hits from those who focused on offering a direction centering on R&B/Hip and Dance material.

Pop music
Billboard charts

Mainstream Top 40


Mulatto is a word referring to a person who is born to one black parent and one white parent. The term may be considered offensive or rude to some, because of its origin. The term is also used to refer to a light brown color, because of a mulatto's skin color.  Many people prefer terms such as "biracial" and "of mixed race" over "mulatto".

In some cultures, such as in Cuba, there are a number of terms describing skin colour, and none of them is taken as evaluative. There are simply descriptive terms. And in the Spanish language the term mulata would be used for females of mixed race.

There are other descriptive terms which are used in the Caribbean and Latin America, without their being regarded as racial in the pejorative sense.

References

Ethnic groups
Spanish language

Mulatto


Sidney Bradshaw Fay (April 13, 1876, in Washington, D.C. – August 29, 1967, in Lexington, Massachusetts) was an American historian whose examination of the causes of World War I, The Origins of the World War  (1928; revised edition 1930), remains a classic study. In this book, which won him the 1928 George Louis Beer Prize of the American Historical Association, Fay argued that Germany was too readily blamed for the war and that a great deal of the responsibility instead rested with the Allies, especially Russia and Serbia. His stance is supported by several modern scholars, such as Christopher Clark, but it remains controversial.

Fay left Harvard University (Ph.D. 1900) to study at the Sorbonne and the University of Berlin. He taught at Dartmouth College (1902–14) and Smith College (1914–29) and, after the publication of his major book, at both Harvard and Yale University.

Fay's conclusion was that all the European powers shared in the blame, but he blamed mostly the system of secret alliances that divided Europe after the Franco-Prussian War into two mutually suspicious camps of group solidarity: Triple Alliance against Triple Entente (Fay's student Allan B. Calhamer, would later develop and publish the game Diplomacy, based on this thesis). He considered Austro-Hungary, Serbia and Russia to be primarily responsible for the immediate cause of war's outbreak. Other forces besides militarism and nationalism were at work, as the economics of imperialism and the newspaper press played roles.

Fay was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1931 and the American Philosophical Society in 1947.

Fay also wrote The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia to 1786 (1937).

He married (August 17, 1904) Sarah Eliza Proctor.

Works
 Germany: Revised and Edited from the Work of Bayard Taylor, H. W. Snow, c. 1910 [P. F. Collier & Son Corporation, c. 1939, "Memorial edition"].
 The Hohenzollern Household and Administration in the Sixteenth Century, with John Spencer Bassett, Dept. of History of Smith College, 1916.
 The Origins of the World War, 2 Vols., The Macmillan Company, 1928 [2d ed., 1930]. online
 The Rise of Brandenburg-Prussia to 1786,, H. Holt and Company, c. 1937 [Reprint, Malabar, Fla.: R.E. Krieger Pub. Co., 1981].
 A Guide to Historical Literature,, edited by George Matthew Dutcher, Henry Robinson Shipman, Sidney Bradshaw Fay, Augustus Hunt Shearer, William Henry Allison, The Macmillan Company, 1937.

Other
 Eduard Fueter (1876–1928), World History, 1815–1920, Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921, Zurich [translated by Sidney Fay, 1922].
 Friedrich Meinecke, The German Catastrophe, Harvard University Press, 1950 [translated by Sidney Fay].

Articles
 "The Roman Law and the German Peasant," The American Historical Review, Vol. 16, No. 2, Jan. 1911.
 "New Light on the Origins of the World War, I. Berlin and Vienna, to July 29," The American Historical Review, Vol. 25, No. 4, Jul. 1920.
 "Serajevo Fifteen Years After," The Living Age, July 1929.
 "June 28, 1914," in Eugene Lohrke, Armageddon, 1930.
 "Peace-Making: 1919, 1945," The Forum, November 1945.
 "Our Responsibility for German Universities," The Forum, January 1946.
 "The First U.N.O. Assembly," The Forum, April 1946.
 "The Power of the Soviet Press," The Forum, August 1947.
 "The Marshall Plan: Second Phase," The Forum, February 1948.
 "Germany's Social Structure," The Forum, October 1948.

See also
Causes of World War I

References

Further reading
 Bender, Wilbur J. "Sidney Bradshaw Fay," Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol. 79, 1967. in JSTOR
 Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "Sidney Bradshaw Fay, 1876–1967," Central European History, Vol. 1, No. 2, Jun. 1968.

External links
Bibliography of Sidney Bradshaw Fay

American historians
Harvard University alumni
University of Paris alumni
Dartmouth College faculty
Smith College faculty
Harvard University faculty
Yale University faculty
Presidents of the American Historical Association
1876 births
1967 deaths
American expatriates in France
American expatriates in Germany
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Sidney Bradshaw Fay


Oszkár Jászi (born Oszkár Jakobuvits; 2 March 1875 – 13 February 1957), also known in English as Oscar Jászi, was a Hungarian social scientist, historian, and politician.

Early life
Oszkár Jászi was born in Nagykároly on March 2, 1875. His hometown was, as he put it in his unfinished memoirs, "the county seat of Szatmár, the center of a rich agricultural area, it was a major factor in Hungary's economic, municipal and political life." His father, Ferenc Jászi (1838–1910), was a family physician and (in his son's words) "an honorable, humane freethinker" who had had his family name changed from Jakobuvits to Jászi in 1881, a "typical symptom of the very strong and seemingly unqualified drive for assimilation that he and many Jewish contemporaries displayed around that time... This was the family climate that gave rise in the then six-year-old Oszkár to a self-image whereby for a long time thereafter he was simply unwilling to acknowledge his Jewish origins." The family also converted to Calvinism in the same year 1881.

Oszkár's mother, Roza Liebermann (1853–1931), was the widowed doctor's second wife. Oszkár attended "the local Piarist grammar school—the same establishment attended by Endre Ady, two years younger and later to become the supreme poet of their generation (though the two became friends, this dated from their adult years)." Having done very well academically, he graduated a year early at seventeen, in 1892, and studied political science at the University of Budapest under Ágost Pulszky; he was also strongly influenced by Gyula Pikler, though he would later reject the latter's "doctrinaire, anti-historical positivism." At this point he admired figures like József Eötvös and Pál Gyulai, thus aligning himself with "the principled European strand of Hungarian liberalism that stood against clericalism and the blustering nationalism of those who sought independence from Austria." He was awarded his diploma as Doctor of Political Science on July 2, 1896.

Jászi then entered the Department of Economics in the Ministry of Agriculture as a drafting clerk, remaining there for a decade; he received little pay at first but had a great deal of free time. He studied Hungary's agricultural policies and realized the "rigid and ruthless class character" of the country's administration. As a civil servant, he was not permitted to write on political subjects, so his articles began appearing under the name "Oszkár Elemér." In the summer of 1899, he and a number of his friends began planning a new periodical which would present social issues in a more down-to-earth way than in scholarly journals; it was named Huszadik Század (Twentieth Century), and began publication in January 1900. Jászi was the intellectual driving force; "it was he who, with the occasional tough, combative article, declared war on scientific narrow-mindedness and political 'reactionism.'" A year later, in January 1901, Jászi and his friends founded the Sociological Society, which immediately became a venue for sharp debates.

Political career
At the beginning of 1904 his book Art and Morality appeared, and Jászi hoped to begin qualifying as a Privatdozent with the aim of embarking on a university career. But soon politics took over, and he focused on trying to establish a socialist party that would at the same time appeal to Hungarian nationalism. He left for Paris in January 1905 and became acquainted with French academic and political life; he later wrote that the six months he spent there "shook me to the very core of my being and became the big thrill of my life." While there, he wrote an article called "The Sociological Method—Two Opinions" in which he supported the approach of Émile Durkheim. He wrote another article attacking Marx as "the great fetish of socialism," which alienated some of his more radical friends. He came to believe that the Hungarians were "just tardy, pale echoes of the great Western efforts, with no intellectual trend emerging from Hungarian soil to have a substantial impact on world civilization."

He returned to Hungary in the midst of a constitutional crisis. The Liberal Party of István Tisza, which had been the governing party for three decades, had lost the February elections, and the emperor-king Franz Josef refused to invite the opposition groups to form a government; instead, he appointed Field Marshal Baron Géza Fejérváry as prime minister, and the opposition called for national resistance. In August, Jászi and some of his friends founded a League for Universal Suffrage by Secret Ballot; this marked the beginning of his political career. The following January, he wrote that "the constitution of today no longer corresponds to Hungary that half a century of its economic and cultural labors have created ... the key to the situation is in the hands of Hungarian organized labor"; in June 1906, he resigned from his position at the Ministry.

In 1908 Jászi and his friends "became associated with Freemasonry, with Jaszi the head of a separate lodge; and this connection was the prime reason why in Hungary Freemasonry was linked with progressive change. In 1910 he was appointed Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Kolozsvár, where he continued to refine and propagate his political opinions; in the words of Hugh Seton-Watson, "Jászi hoped that, if only the degenerate political class could be removed from power, land be distributed to the peasants, and the vote be given to all citizens, a new Hungary could arise in which one Magyar culture could coexist with many languages."

On June 6, 1914, Jászi united a number of progressive groups into the Országos Polgári Radikális Párt (National Civic Radical Party), which called for a universal suffrage, radical land reform, an autonomous customs area, and state control of education. Within six weeks World War I broke out; "the new party supported the pacifist movement and called for the founding of a federation of states for the whole of Europe, a kind of forerunner of the League of Nations."

Aster Revolution
In the October Revolution of 1918, Jászi entered the Károlyi government as Minister of Nationalities; he "planned to induce the leaders of the various peoples, mainly the Romanians, Slovaks, and Ruthenians, to keep their people within the borders of Hungary by offering them maximum autonomy," but the attempt failed.

Jászi resigned from the Károlyi government in December 1918, believing that no serious progress in the nationalities question would be possible owing to the arbitrary partitioning of Hungary by the victorious Entente powers. "I hoped that release from the burdens of office and from the obligations of cabinet solidarity would enable me to put forward my views more energetically," Jászi later recalled in his memoirs. Jászi hoped for the establishment of a Danube Confederation of nationalities patterned on the Swiss model. When Jászi became the new Minister for National Minorities of Hungary, immediately offered democratic referendums about the disputed borders for minorities; however, the political leaders of those minorities refused the very idea of democratic referendums regarding disputed territories at the Paris peace conference. After the Hungarian unilateral self-disarmament, Czech, Serbian, and Romanian political leaders chose to attack Hungary instead of holding democratic plebiscites concerning the disputed areas.

On March 21, 1919, the liberal-democratic Károlyi government was replaced by a new Soviet-influenced regime headed by Béla Kun and the second phase of the Hungarian revolution began.

Jászi later recalled that he advised the members of the Radical Party, dissolved in the aftermath of the Communist revolution, that "they should accept neither political or moral responsibility for the Communist regime, but should on no account attempt to copy the sabotage of the Russian intelligentsia; leaving politics aside, they should bend their minds to assisting the new system in the administrative and economic fields."

Jászi emigrated from Hungary on May 1, 1919. In his published memoir of the 1918-19 revolution, Jászi cited his inability to tolerate "the complete denial of freedom of thought and conscience" which characterized the Red regime as well as his expectation of the regime's imminent collapse and its succession by a violent counter-revolutionary regime as reasons for his departure.

Later life
He went to the United States in 1925 and joined the faculty of Oberlin College, where he settled down to a career as a history professor and wrote a series of books, the best known of which is The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy, first published by the University of Chicago Press in 1929.

Jászi died in Oberlin, Ohio on February 13, 1957.

Bibliography

Books
 Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Hungary. London: P.S. King & Son, 1924.
 The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929.
 Proposed Roads to Peace. New York: The Abingdon Press, 1932.
 Against the Tyrant: The Tradition and Theory of Tyrannicide. With John D. Lewis. Chicago: Free Press, 1957.
 Homage to Danubia. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1995.

Articles
 "Dismembered Hungary and Peace in Central Europe," Foreign Affairs, vol. 2, no. 2 (Dec. 15, 1923), pp. 270–281.
 "How a New Lourdes Arises," The Slavonic Review, vol. 4, no. 11 (December 1925), pp. 334–346.
 "Kossuth and the Treaty of Trianon," Foreign Affairs, vol. 12, no. 1 (October 1933), pp. 86–97.
 "Neglected Aspects of the Danubian Drama," The Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 14, no. 40 (July 1935), pp. 53–67.
 "Feudal Agrarianism in Hungary," Foreign Affairs, vol. 16, no. 4 (July 1938), pp. 714–718.
 "Political Refugees," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 203 (May 1939), pp. 83–93.
 "The Stream of Political Murder," American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 3, no. 3 (April 1944), pp. 335–355.
 "The Choices in Hungary," Foreign Affairs, vol. 24, no. 3 (April 1946), pp. 453–465.
 "Danubia: Old and New," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 93, no. 1 (Apr. 18, 1949), pp. 1–31.

References

Sources
Nina Bakisian, "Oscar Jászi in Exile: Danubian Europe Reconsidered," Hungarian Studies, vol. 9, no. 1/2 (1994), pp. 151–159.
  György Litván, A Twentieth-Century Prophet: Oscar Jászi 1875-1957 (Central European University Press, 2006)

External links

 Finding aid to Oszkár Jászi papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

1875 births
1957 deaths
People from Carei
People from the Kingdom of Hungary
Hungarian Jews
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Converts to Calvinism from Judaism
Hungarian Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Hungarian socialists
Hungarian politicians
Hungarian social scientists
Hungarian emigrants to the United States

Oszkár Jászi


Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám de Dancka (10 July 1875 – 25 July 1973) was a conservative Hungarian politician who served as Prime Minister and temporary Minister of Finance of the second counter-revolutionary government in Szeged for one month in 1919. His government commissioned Miklós Horthy to Supreme Commander of the National Army.

Biography
He was born to an ancient noble family. The Pattantyús family used the "Ábrahám" name from the 17th century. Michael I Apafi, Prince of Transylvania donated to them the "danckai" title of nobility. His parents were László Ábrahám and Erzsébet Király. His younger brother was the writer Ernő Pattantyús-Ábrahám.

He was a member of the Diet of Hungary between 1906 and 1918 as representative of Karcag. He was appointed state secretary of the Ministry of Justice in the cabinet of Mihály Károlyi. He negotiated about the national minorities' emancipation with the Romanian national leaders in Arad as a member of the committee which was led by Oszkár Jászi.

During the Hungarian Soviet Republic he moved to Szeged. He was the Prime Minister of the third counter-revolutionary government. His government commissioned Miklós Horthy to Supreme Commander of the National Army. During the Károly Huszár cabinet he served as state secretary of the Ministry of the Interior. After that he temporarily retired from politics. Pattantyús-Ábrahám worked as a lawyer between 1920 and 1944. He entered the elections repeatedly unsuccessfully in these times. On November 1944 the Arrow Cross Party members interned to Sopronkőhida then Germany. He returned home in 1945.

After his returning he founded the Hungarian Freedom Party. He became a member of the National Assembly again in 1947, after an almost thirty-year gap. According to sources he was branded as a right-wing extremist and was excluded from the party in 1949. He resigned from his parliamentary seat. He retired from politics in this same year. He was interned to Tarcal in 1951. He was overheared and warned in 1957, because he took part in the re-foundation of the Freedom Party during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He worked as a lawyer until 1958. He had connections with American and English diplomats, as a result the police authorities warned him again in 1967. Two years before his death the Hungarian intelligence agencies stopped his observation. Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám died in Budapest at the age of 98.

References

External links
 Biography of Dezső Ábrahám
Biography

1875 births
1973 deaths
Politicians from Uzhhorod
People from the Kingdom of Hungary
Independent Hungarian Democratic Party politicians
Prime Ministers of Hungary
Members of the Diet of Hungary
Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1947–1949)
Hungarian anti-communists

Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám


Millburn is a former unincorporated community in Lake Villa Township and Newport Township, Lake County, Illinois, United States. Millburn is located at the junction of U.S. Route 45 and County Routes A10 and A14; it lies within the village of Old Mill Creek and borders Lindenhurst to the west. It is  south of the Illinois-Wisconsin state border and  west of Waukegan.

History

Millburn was founded in 1837, when brothers George, Robert, and Peter Strang came from Ontario, Canada to settle in Illinois. They sought work on the Illinois and Michigan Canal, under construction at the time. After working for a year, the family issued claims on territory in Lake County, then returned to Canada. In 1839, they returned to their claim with their parents, a fourth brother (Jake), and their parents. The family was of Scottish descent, which lured other settlers of Scottish origin to what was then called Strang's Corners. By 1840, the First Congregational Church was founded.

Jake, Peter, and George Strang participated in the California Gold Rush. Jake appears to have accumulated significant wealth from it, judging by his ability to design a high-style house shortly afterward. Robert Strang remained in Millburn and opened a store in 1856. He is generally credited as the father of the settlement because he was the only one of his brothers who remained in Millburn without interruption and his store was the first in the vicinity. Robert's son John M. succeeded him in running the store. Cobbler Richard Pantall was another early settler. He opened a general merchandise store in Millburn in 1862. Pantall was named postmaster and used his store as the town post office starting in 1864, a role it maintained until 1904. James Jamieson came from Scotland in 1859 and later served as Lake County Treasurer.

The small settlement is unusual as an example of a mid-19th century rural community near Chicago. Although one of the roads through the village became U.S. Route 45, the village maintained its heritage. The oldest remaining buildings date back to 1856. The entire village was listed by the National Park Service on the National Register of Historic Places on September 18, 1979.

Buildings

Almost all of the buildings in Millburn are part of the historic district. The only exception is a house on the southeast corner of Millburn Road and Route 45.
Jake Strang House, 1856
Robert Strang Store, 1856
John M. Strang House, 1880
Robert Strang House, 1867, designed by William Mavor
Pantall–Martin Store, 1862, built for Richard Pantall
James Jamieson House, c. 1868
18980 Millburn Road, c. 1865
Dr. David B. Taylor House, built after 1865
Samuel Smith House, possibly 1905. The south half may date before 1858.
George L. Stewart House, 1870
William Stewart House, date unknown
Millburn Congregational Church, moved from Oak Park in 1937. A school addition was constructed in 1968.
George Jamieson House, 1892
2nd building north of Millburn Road on Route 45, date unknown. Some sections may date before 1860.
Arthur Johannsson Filling Station, c. 1930
Richard Pantall House, 1868
Edward Martin House, 1908

References

Unincorporated communities in Lake County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Lake County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
1837 establishments in Illinois
Unincorporated communities in Illinois

Millburn, Illinois


Juno (), in Roman mythology, is the wife of Jupiter and the queen of the gods. Her father was Saturn.  She was later identified with the goddess Hera, the wife of Zeus in Greek mythology. She was the goddess of marriage and childbirth. She was called Juno Regina ("Queen"). She was the patron goddess of Rome and a protector of the state. With Jupiter and Minerva, she was part of the Capitoline triad of gods.

Juno, Roman goddess and Hera, Greek goddess, are the same person just believed to be different.

References

Roman gods and goddesses

Juno (mythology)


Henry Leander Marsh III (born December 10, 1933) is an American civil rights lawyer and politician. A Democrat, Marsh was elected by the city council as the first African-American mayor of Richmond, Virginia in 1977. He was elected to the Senate of Virginia in 1991, and resigned from his seat in 2014. Marsh represented the 16th district, consisting of the city of Petersburg, Dinwiddie County, and parts of the city of Richmond, and Chesterfield and Prince George counties. Marsh is now a commissioner on the Virginia Department of the Alcoholic Beverage Control Board, a position to which he received appointment from Governor Terry McAuliffe promptly after his departure from the Senate in 2014.

Early life and education
Born in 1933, Henry L. Marsh III was named for his father and grandfather. His mother died when he was only five, and his father had to split up the young family of four children for several years. Marsh was sent to an aunt and uncle who lived in a rural area. While there, he attended Moonfield School, a racially segregated "one-room school with seven grades and one teacher and 78 pupils." His father was able to gather his children together again when Marsh was eleven. He started school in Richmond in fifth grade, attending George Mason Elementary School. Through this period, his father was working and also studying, having gone back to college to earn his degree and showing his children how important education was. In 1952, Henry Marsh graduated from Maggie L. Walker High School, where he was senior class vice president, president of the student NAACP chapter, and editor of the school newspaper. His brother Harold M. Marsh Sr. (d. 1997) also became a prominent civil rights attorney, and later managing partner of Hill, Tucker and Marsh in Richmond, as well as a local judge.

In 1956, Marsh obtained an A.B. degree in sociology from Virginia Union University. He attended the Howard University School of Law with an award of a scholarship, earning his LL.B in 1959. Marsh then served in the United States Army.

Career

Legal career
During his senior year at Virginia Union, Marsh testified on behalf of the student government at a joint session of the Virginia General Assembly. Despite the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, the Virginia legislature, consisting of all white members, was considering laws to enact the Byrd Organization's program of "massive resistance" to desegregation. While there, Marsh met civil rights attorney Oliver Hill, who had also testified against the plan. Hill urged him to go to law school.

After law school, Marsh joined with Samuel W. Tucker to form the law firm of Tucker & Marsh in 1961. They were joined by Hill in 1965 to form Hill, Tucker & Marsh. Marsh concentrated on civil rights law, participating in such cases as Quarles v. Philip Morris, the first U.S. legal case involving racial discrimination in employment, which set the precedent for prohibiting department seniority systems and requiring equal pay for equal work. After that, he successfully litigated more than 20 "employment discrimination cases, most of which were class-action cases, representing thousands of African American and female litigants."

Marsh also worked on school desegregation, beginning with Brewer v. School Board of City of Norfolk, the first of more than 50 school desegregation cases he handled. This case established a precedent requiring jurisdictions to create a desegregation plan, with the locality providing transportation to students.

In Gravely v. Robb (1981), Marsh successfully forced the Virginia General Assembly to adopt single-member districts. This made representation more specific to a district, and enabled the election of more minority candidates.

Politics
Marsh won election to the Richmond City Council in 1966. The council chose him as vice-mayor in 1970. (At that time, the nine at-large city council members elected the mayor and vice-mayor from among them.)

In the 1970s, activist Curtis Holt St. challenged Richmond's plan to annex more territory from Chesterfield County, as designed to dilute the voting power of African American citizens. A federal district court then ordered the nine council seats assigned to single member wards. After this redistricting in 1977, blacks won five of the nine council seats.

The council then elected Marsh mayor. He became Richmond's first African-American mayor. He continued as mayor until 1982, on the City Council until 1991, when elected to the state senate, as discussed below. During these years (until a citywide referendum in passed in 2003 required the mayor to been elected at large), Richmond had a strong council/weak mayor balance of power, and also used a city manager (William Leidinger) to handle day-to-day operations. Marsh led a coalition of black council members, who made substantive changes in the city, starting with Leidinger's replacement by a manager more willing to address minority issues. The new coalition also adopted a human rights ordinance, worked on downtown Richmond's revitalization, and ensured appointment of African Americans to boards and commissions to reflect their contributions to the city.

In 1981, Mayor Marsh hosted the "National Conference on the Black Agenda in the 80s", a conference of African-American federal, state and local officials. The conference drew more than 1,500 attendees to Richmond.

In 1991, Marsh was elected to the State Senate from the newly redistricted 16th Senate district. He had first won a fiercely competitive five-way contest for the Democratic primary nomination. He won re-election ten times, rising to become chair of the committee for Courts of Justice, and also served on the committees for Local Government, Finance, Rules, and Transportation. He worked to control easy firearm sales, as well as opposed the growing number of charter schools as undercutting public education. On July 1, 2014, Marsh announced his retirement from the senate (a part-time position).

Soon 2014, Marsh accepted a gubernatorial appointment to become commissioner of the Virginia Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control.

Political positions

Gun control
Marsh has voted multiple times against Castle Doctrine bills
In January 2011, Marsh voted against Senate Bill 876 (Castle Doctrine) which would have allowed "a lawful occupant use of physical force, including deadly force, against an intruder in his dwelling who has committed an overt act against him, without civil liability."
In February 2011, Marsh was one of eight senators on the Senate Courts of Justice Committee who "passed by indefinitely" House Bill 1573, defeating the bill by an 8 to 4 margin.

Other accomplishments
Marsh co-founded the Richmond Renaissance and the Metropolitan Economic Development Council. He served as president of the National Black Caucus of Elected Officials and a member of the board of directors of the National League of Cities.

Marsh continued his dedication to education, forming the Support Committee for Excellence in the Public Schools. In addition, he established the New Millennium Leadership Institute, founded the Unity Day Celebration Committee, and hosts Richmond's Annual Juneteenth Celebration. He also serves as chairman of the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Commission for Virginia.

In 2015, the local courthouse in Richmond's Manchester district was named after Marsh and his brother Harold, who had served as a local judge until being shot to death by a disgruntled tenant of a former client. A new elementary school in Richmond's Church Hill area is named for Marsh.

Personal life
Marsh married Diane Harris, and they had three children together.

Notes

References

External links

Project Vote Smart - Senator Henry L. Marsh III (VA) profile
Follow the Money - Henry L Marsh III
2005 2003 2001 1999 campaign contributions
Washington Post - Senate District 16 Race
Henry Marsh 2003 oral history video from the Voices of Freedom Collection of the VCU Libraries

1933 births
Living people
African-American mayors in Virginia
African-American state legislators in Virginia
American civil rights lawyers
Howard University School of Law alumni
Mayors of Richmond, Virginia
Democratic Party Virginia state senators
Virginia city council members
Virginia lawyers
Virginia Union University alumni
21st-century American politicians
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies alumni
20th-century African-American politicians
21st-century African-American politicians
20th-century African-American lawyers

Henry L. Marsh