A multi-core processor is a microprocessor on a single integrated circuit with two or more separate processing units, called cores (for example, dual-core or quad-core), each of which reads and executes program instructions. The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions (such as add, move data, and branch) but the single processor can run instructions on separate cores at the same time, increasing overall speed for programs that support multithreading or other parallel computing techniques. Manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die (known as a chip multiprocessor or CMP) or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.  The microprocessors currently used in almost all personal computers are multi-core.

A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a single physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely. For example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared-memory inter-core communication methods. Common network topologies used to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, and crossbar. Homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores; heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical (e.g. big.LITTLE have heterogeneous cores that share the same instruction set, while AMD Accelerated Processing Units have cores that do not share the same instruction set). Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as VLIW, superscalar, vector, or multithreading.

Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains, including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing (DSP), and graphics (GPU). Core count goes up to even dozens, and for specialized chips over 10,000, and in supercomputers (i.e. clusters of chips) the count can go over 10 million (and in one case up to 20 million processing elements total in addition to host processors).

The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the software algorithms used and their implementation. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores; this effect is described by Amdahl's law. In the best case, so-called embarrassingly parallel problems may realize speedup factors near the number of cores, or even more if the problem is split up enough to fit within each core's cache(s), avoiding use of much slower main-system memory. Most applications, however, are not accelerated as much unless programmers invest effort in refactoring.

The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research. Cointegration of multiprocessor applications provides flexibility in network architecture design. Adaptability within parallel models is an additional feature of systems utilizing these protocols.

In the consumer market, dual-core processors (that is, microprocessors with two units) started becoming commonplace in the late 2000s. Quad-core processors were also being adopted for higher-end systems. In the late 2010s, hexa-core (six cores) started entering the mainstream.

Terminology
The terms multi-core and dual-core most commonly refer to some sort of central processing unit (CPU), but are sometimes also applied to digital signal processors (DSP) and system on a chip (SoC). The terms are generally used only to refer to multi-core microprocessors that are manufactured on the same integrated circuit die; separate microprocessor dies in the same package are generally referred to by another name, such as multi-chip module. This article uses the terms "multi-core" and "dual-core" for CPUs manufactured on the same integrated circuit, unless otherwise noted.

In contrast to multi-core systems, the term multi-CPU refers to multiple physically separate processing-units (which often contain special circuitry to facilitate communication between each other).

The terms many-core and massively multi-core are sometimes used to describe multi-core architectures with an especially high number of cores (tens to thousands).

Some systems use many soft microprocessor cores placed on a single FPGA. Each "core" can be considered a "semiconductor intellectual property core" as well as a CPU core.

Development
While manufacturing technology improves, reducing the size of individual gates, physical limits of semiconductor-based microelectronics have become a major design concern. These physical limitations can cause significant heat dissipation and data synchronization problems. Various other methods are used to improve CPU performance. Some instruction-level parallelism (ILP) methods such as superscalar pipelining are suitable for many applications, but are inefficient for others that contain difficult-to-predict code. Many applications are better suited to thread-level parallelism (TLP) methods, and multiple independent CPUs are commonly used to increase a system's overall TLP. A combination of increased available space (due to refined manufacturing processes) and the demand for increased TLP led to the development of multi-core CPUs.

Commercial incentives
Several business motives drive the development of multi-core architectures. For decades, it was possible to improve performance of a CPU by shrinking the area of the integrated circuit (IC), which reduced the cost per device on the IC. Alternatively, for the same circuit area, more transistors could be used in the design, which increased functionality, especially for complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures. Clock rates also increased by orders of magnitude in the decades of the late 20th century, from several megahertz in the 1980s to several gigahertz in the early 2000s.

As the rate of clock speed improvements slowed, increased use of parallel computing in the form of multi-core processors has been pursued to improve overall processing performance. Multiple cores were used on the same CPU chip, which could then lead to better sales of CPU chips with two or more cores. For example, Intel has produced a 48-core processor for research in cloud computing; each core has an x86 architecture.

Technical factors
Since computer manufacturers have long implemented symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) designs using discrete CPUs, the issues regarding implementing multi-core processor architecture and supporting it with software are well known.

Additionally:
 Using a proven processing-core design without architectural changes reduces design risk significantly.
 For general-purpose processors, much of the motivation for multi-core processors comes from greatly diminished gains in processor performance from increasing the operating frequency. This is due to three primary factors:
 The memory wall; the increasing gap between processor and memory speeds. This, in effect, pushes for cache sizes to be larger in order to mask the latency of memory. This helps only to the extent that memory bandwidth is not the bottleneck in performance.
 The ILP wall; the increasing difficulty of finding enough parallelism in a single instruction stream to keep a high-performance single-core processor busy.
 The power wall; the trend of consuming exponentially increasing power (and thus also generating exponentially increasing heat) with each factorial increase of operating frequency. This increase can be mitigated by "shrinking" the processor by using smaller traces for the same logic. The power wall poses manufacturing, system design and deployment problems that have not been justified in the face of the diminished gains in performance due to the memory wall and ILP wall.

In order to continue delivering regular performance improvements for general-purpose processors, manufacturers such as Intel and AMD have turned to multi-core designs, sacrificing lower manufacturing-costs for higher performance in some applications and systems. Multi-core architectures are being developed, but so are the alternatives. An especially strong contender for established markets is the further integration of peripheral functions into the chip.

Advantages
The proximity of multiple CPU cores on the same die allows the cache coherency circuitry to operate at a much higher clock rate than what is possible if the signals have to travel off-chip. Combining equivalent CPUs on a single die significantly improves the performance of cache snoop (alternative: Bus snooping) operations. Put simply, this means that signals between different CPUs travel shorter distances, and therefore those signals degrade less. These higher-quality signals allow more data to be sent in a given time period, since individual signals can be shorter and do not need to be repeated as often.

Assuming that the die can physically fit into the package, multi-core CPU designs require much less printed circuit board (PCB) space than do multi-chip SMP designs. Also, a dual-core processor uses slightly less power than two coupled single-core processors, principally because of the decreased power required to drive signals external to the chip. Furthermore, the cores share some circuitry, like the L2 cache and the interface to the front-side bus (FSB). In terms of competing technologies for the available silicon die area, multi-core design can make use of proven CPU core library designs and produce a product with lower risk of design error than devising a new wider-core design. Also, adding more cache suffers from diminishing returns.

Multi-core chips also allow higher performance at lower energy. This can be a big factor in mobile devices that operate on batteries. Since each core in a multi-core CPU is generally more energy-efficient, the chip becomes more efficient than having a single large monolithic core. This allows higher performance with less energy. A challenge in this, however, is the additional overhead of writing parallel code.

Disadvantages
Maximizing the usage of the computing resources provided by multi-core processors requires adjustments both to the operating system (OS) support and to existing application software. Also, the ability of multi-core processors to increase application performance depends on the use of multiple threads within applications.

Integration of a multi-core chip can lower the chip production yields. They are also more difficult to manage thermally than lower-density single-core designs. Intel has partially countered this first problem by creating its quad-core designs by combining two dual-core ones on a single die with a unified cache, hence any two working dual-core dies can be used, as opposed to producing four cores on a single die and requiring all four to work to produce a quad-core CPU. From an architectural point of view, ultimately, single CPU designs may make better use of the silicon surface area than multiprocessing cores, so a development commitment to this architecture may carry the risk of obsolescence. Finally, raw processing power is not the only constraint on system performance. Two processing cores sharing the same system bus and memory bandwidth limits the real-world performance advantage. In a 2009 report, Dr Jun Ni showed that if a single core is close to being memory-bandwidth limited, then going to dual-core might give 30% to 70% improvement; if memory bandwidth is not a problem, then a 90% improvement can be expected; however, Amdahl's law makes this claim dubious. It would be possible for an application that used two CPUs to end up running faster on a single-core one if communication between the CPUs was the limiting factor, which would count as more than 100% improvement.

Hardware

Trends
The trend in processor development has been towards an ever-increasing number of cores, as processors with hundreds or even thousands of cores become theoretically possible. In addition, multi-core chips mixed with simultaneous multithreading, memory-on-chip, and special-purpose "heterogeneous" (or asymmetric) cores promise further performance and efficiency gains, especially in processing multimedia, recognition and networking applications. For example, a big.LITTLE core includes a high-performance core (called 'big') and a low-power core (called 'LITTLE'). There is also a trend towards improving energy-efficiency by focusing on performance-per-watt with advanced fine-grain or ultra fine-grain power management and dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (i.e. laptop computers and portable media players).

Chips designed from the outset for a large number of cores (rather than having evolved from single core designs) are sometimes referred to as manycore designs, emphasising qualitative differences.

Architecture
The composition and balance of the cores in multi-core architecture show great variety. Some architectures use one core design repeated consistently ("homogeneous"), while others use a mixture of different cores, each optimized for a different, "heterogeneous" role.

How multiple cores are implemented and integrated significantly affects both the developer's programming skills and the consumer's expectations of apps and interactivity versus the device. A device advertised as being octa-core will only have independent cores if advertised as True Octa-core, or similar styling, as opposed to being merely two sets of quad-cores each with fixed clock speeds.

The article "CPU designers debate multi-core future" by Rick Merritt, EE Times 2008, includes these comments:

Software effects
An outdated version of an anti-virus application may create a new thread for a scan process, while its GUI thread waits for commands from the user (e.g. cancel the scan). In such cases, a multi-core architecture is of little benefit for the application itself due to the single thread doing all the heavy lifting and the inability to balance the work evenly across multiple cores. Programming truly multithreaded code often requires complex co-ordination of threads and can easily introduce subtle and difficult-to-find bugs due to the interweaving of processing on data shared between threads (see thread-safety). Consequently, such code is much more difficult to debug than single-threaded code when it breaks. There has been a perceived lack of motivation for writing consumer-level threaded applications because of the relative rarity of consumer-level demand for maximum use of computer hardware. Also, serial tasks like decoding the entropy encoding algorithms used in video codecs are impossible to parallelize because each result generated is used to help create the next result of the entropy decoding algorithm.

Given the increasing emphasis on multi-core chip design, stemming from the grave thermal and power consumption problems posed by any further significant increase in processor clock speeds, the extent to which software can be multithreaded to take advantage of these new chips is likely to be the single greatest constraint on computer performance in the future. If developers are unable to design software to fully exploit the resources provided by multiple cores, then they will ultimately reach an insurmountable performance ceiling.

The telecommunications market had been one of the first that needed a new design of parallel datapath packet processing because there was a very quick adoption of these multiple-core processors for the datapath and the control plane. These MPUs are going to replace the traditional Network Processors that were based on proprietary microcode or picocode.

Parallel programming techniques can benefit from multiple cores directly. Some existing parallel programming models such as Cilk Plus, OpenMP, OpenHMPP, FastFlow, Skandium, MPI, and Erlang can be used on multi-core platforms. Intel introduced a new abstraction for C++ parallelism called TBB. Other research efforts include the Codeplay Sieve System, Cray's Chapel, Sun's Fortress, and IBM's X10.

Multi-core processing has also affected the ability of modern computational software development. Developers programming in newer languages might find that their modern languages do not support multi-core functionality. This then requires the use of numerical libraries to access code written in languages like C and Fortran, which perform math computations faster than newer languages like C#. Intel's MKL and AMD's ACML are written in these native languages and take advantage of multi-core processing. Balancing the application workload across processors can be problematic, especially if they have different performance characteristics. There are different conceptual models to deal with the problem, for example using a coordination language and program building blocks (programming libraries or higher-order functions). Each block can have a different native implementation for each processor type. Users simply program using these abstractions and an intelligent compiler chooses the best implementation based on the context.

Managing concurrency acquires a central role in developing parallel applications. The basic steps in designing parallel applications are:

 Partitioning  The partitioning stage of a design is intended to expose opportunities for parallel execution. Hence, the focus is on defining a large number of small tasks in order to yield what is termed a fine-grained decomposition of a problem.

 Communication  The tasks generated by a partition are intended to execute concurrently but cannot, in general, execute independently. The computation to be performed in one task will typically require data associated with another task. Data must then be transferred between tasks so as to allow computation to proceed. This information flow is specified in the communication phase of a design.

 Agglomeration  In the third stage, development moves from the abstract toward the concrete. Developers revisit decisions made in the partitioning and communication phases with a view to obtaining an algorithm that will execute efficiently on some class of parallel computer. In particular, developers consider whether it is useful to combine, or agglomerate, tasks identified by the partitioning phase, so as to provide a smaller number of tasks, each of greater size. They also determine whether it is worthwhile to replicate data and computation.

 Mapping  In the fourth and final stage of the design of parallel algorithms, the developers specify where each task is to execute. This mapping problem does not arise on uniprocessors or on shared-memory computers that provide automatic task scheduling.

On the other hand, on the server side, multi-core processors are ideal because they allow many users to connect to a site simultaneously and have independent threads of execution. This allows for Web servers and application servers that have much better throughput.

Licensing
Vendors may license some software "per processor". This can give rise to ambiguity, because a "processor" may consist either of a single core or of a combination of cores.
 Initially, for some of its enterprise software, Microsoft continued to use a per-socket licensing system. However, for some software such as BizTalk Server 2013, SQL Server 2014, and Windows Server 2016, Microsoft has shifted to per-core licensing.
 Oracle Corporation counts an AMD X2 or an Intel dual-core CPU as a single processor but uses other metrics for other types, especially for processors with more than two cores.

Embedded applications

Embedded computing operates in an area of processor technology distinct from that of "mainstream" PCs. The same technological drives towards multi-core apply here too. Indeed, in many cases the application is a "natural" fit for multi-core technologies, if the task can easily be partitioned between the different processors.

In addition, embedded software is typically developed for a specific hardware release, making issues of software portability, legacy code or supporting independent developers less critical than is the case for PC or enterprise computing. As a result, it is easier for developers to adopt new technologies and as a result there is a greater variety of multi-core processing architectures and suppliers.

Network processors
, multi-core network processors have become mainstream, with companies such as Freescale Semiconductor, Cavium Networks, Wintegra and Broadcom all manufacturing products with eight processors. For the system developer, a key challenge is how to exploit all the cores in these devices to achieve maximum networking performance at the system level, despite the performance limitations inherent in a symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) operating system. Companies such as 6WIND provide portable packet processing software designed so that the networking data plane runs in a fast path environment outside the operating system of the network device.

Digital signal processing
In digital signal processing the same trend applies: Texas Instruments has the three-core TMS320C6488 and four-core TMS320C5441, Freescale the four-core MSC8144 and six-core MSC8156 (and both have stated they are working on eight-core successors). Newer entries include the Storm-1 family from Stream Processors, Inc with 40 and 80 general purpose ALUs per chip, all programmable in C as a SIMD engine and Picochip with 300 processors on a single die, focused on communication applications.

Heterogeneous systems
In heterogeneous computing, where a system uses more than one kind of processor or cores, multi-core solutions are becoming more common: Xilinx Zynq UltraScale+ MPSoC has a quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 and dual-core ARM Cortex-R5. Software solutions such as OpenAMP are being used to help with inter-processor communication.

Mobile devices may use the ARM big.LITTLE architecture.

Hardware examples

Commercial

 Adapteva Epiphany, a many-core processor architecture which allows up to 4096 processors on-chip, although only a 16-core version has been commercially produced.
 Aeroflex Gaisler LEON3, a multi-core SPARC that also exists in a fault-tolerant version.
 Ageia PhysX, a multi-core physics processing unit.
 Ambric Am2045, a 336-core massively parallel processor array (MPPA)
 AMD
 A-Series, dual-, triple-, and quad-core of Accelerated Processor Units (APU).
 Athlon 64 FX and Athlon 64 X2 single- and dual-core desktop processors.
 Athlon II, dual-, triple-, and quad-core desktop processors.
 FX-Series, quad-, 6-, and 8-core desktop processors.
 Opteron, single-, dual-, quad-, 6-, 8-, 12-, and 16-core server/workstation processors.
 Phenom, dual-, triple-, and quad-core processors.
 Phenom II, dual-, triple-, quad-, and 6-core desktop processors.
 Sempron, single-, dual-, and quad-core entry level processors.
 Turion, single- and dual-core laptop processors.
 Ryzen, dual-, quad-, 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 24-, 32-, and 64-core desktop, mobile, and embedded platform processors.
 Epyc, quad-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 24-, 32-, and 64-core server and embedded processors.
 Radeon and FireStream GPU/GPGPU.
 Analog Devices Blackfin BF561, a symmetrical dual-core processor
 ARM MPCore is a fully synthesizable multi-core container for ARM11 MPCore and ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor cores, intended for high-performance embedded and entertainment applications.
 ASOCS ModemX, up to 128 cores, wireless applications.
 Azul Systems
 Vega 1, a 24-core processor, released in 2005.
 Vega 2, a 48-core processor, released in 2006.
 Vega 3, a 54-core processor, released in 2008.
 Broadcom
 SiByte SB1250, SB1255, SB1455
 BCM2836, BCM2837, BCM2710 and BCM2711 quad-core ARM SoC (designed for different Raspberry Pi models)
 Cadence Design Systems Tensilica Xtensa LX6, available in a dual-core configuration in Espressif Systems's ESP32
 ClearSpeed
 CSX700, 192-core processor, released in 2008 (32/64-bit floating point; Integer ALU).
 Cradle Technologies CT3400 and CT3600, both multi-core DSPs.
 Cavium Networks Octeon, a 32-core MIPS MPU.
 Coherent Logix hx3100 Processor, a 100-core DSP/GPP processor.
 Freescale Semiconductor QorIQ series processors, up to 8 cores, Power ISA MPU.
 Hewlett-Packard PA-8800 and PA-8900, dual core PA-RISC processors.
 IBM
 POWER4, a dual-core PowerPC processor, released in 2001.
 POWER5, a dual-core PowerPC processor, released in 2004.
 POWER6, a dual-core PowerPC processor, released in 2007.
 POWER7, a 4, 6 and 8-core PowerPC processor, released in 2010.
 POWER8, a 12-core PowerPC processor, released in 2013.
 POWER9, a 12 or 24-core PowerPC processor, released in 2017.
 Power10, a 15 or 30-core PowerPC processor, released in 2021.
 PowerPC 970MP, a dual-core PowerPC processor, used in the Apple Power Mac G5.
 Xenon, a triple-core, SMT-capable, PowerPC microprocessor used in the Microsoft Xbox 360 game console.
 z10, a quad-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2008.
 z196, a quad-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2010.
 zEC12, a six-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2012.
 z13, an eight-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2015.
 z14, a ten-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2017.
 z15, a twelve-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2019.
 Telum, an eight-core z/Architecture processor, released in 2021.
 Infineon
 AURIX
 Danube, a dual-core, MIPS-based, home gateway processor.
 Intel
 Atom, single, dual-core, quad-core, 8-, 12-, and 16-core processors for netbooks, nettops, embedded applications, and mobile internet devices (MIDs).
 Atom SoC (system on a chip), single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors for smartphones and tablets.
 Celeron, the first dual-core (and, later, quad-core) processor for the budget/entry-level market.
 Core Duo, a dual-core processor.
 Core 2 Duo, a dual-core processor.
 Core 2 Quad, 2 dual-core dies packaged in a multi-chip module.
 Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 and Core i9, a family of dual-, quad-, 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, 16-, and 18-core processors, and the successor of the Core 2 Duo and the Core 2 Quad.
 Itanium, single, dual-core, quad-core, and 8-core processors.
 Pentium, single, dual-core, and quad-core processors for the entry-level market.
 Teraflops Research Chip (Polaris), a 3.16 GHz, 80-core processor prototype, which the company originally stated would be released by 2011.
 Xeon dual-, quad-, 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 14-, 15-, 16-, 18-, 20-, 22-, 24-, 26-, 28-, 32-, 48-, and 56-core processors.
 Xeon Phi 57-, 60-, 61-, 64-, 68-, and 72-core processors.
 IntellaSys
 SEAforth 40C18, a 40-core processor.
 SEAforth24, a 24-core processor designed by Charles H. Moore.
 Kalray
 MPPA-256, 256-core processor, released 2012 (256 usable VLIW cores, Network-on-Chip (NoC), 32/64-bit IEEE 754 compliant FPU)
 NetLogic Microsystems
 XLP, a 32-core, quad-threaded MIPS64 processor.
 XLR, an eight-core, quad-threaded MIPS64 processor.
 XLS, an eight-core, quad-threaded MIPS64 processor.
 Nvidia
 RTX 3090 (10496 CUDA cores, GPGPU cores; plus other more specialized cores).
 Parallax Propeller P8X32, an eight-core microcontroller.
 picoChip PC200 series 200–300 cores per device for DSP & wireless.
 Plurality HAL series tightly coupled 16-256 cores, L1 shared memory, hardware synchronized processor.
 Rapport Kilocore KC256, a 257-core microcontroller with a PowerPC core and 256 8-bit "processing elements".
 Raspberry Pi Ltd. RP2040, a dual ARM Cortex-M0+ microcontroller
 SiCortex "SiCortex node" has six MIPS64 cores on a single chip.
 SiFive
 U74 includes 4 cores
 Sony/IBM/Toshiba's Cell processor, a nine-core processor with one general purpose PowerPC core and eight specialized SPUs (Synergistic Processing Unit) optimized for vector operations used in the Sony PlayStation 3.
 Sun Microsystems
 MAJC 5200, two-core VLIW processor.
 UltraSPARC IV and UltraSPARC IV+, dual-core processors.
 UltraSPARC T1, an eight-core, 32-thread processor.
 UltraSPARC T2, an eight-core, 64-concurrent-thread processor.
 UltraSPARC T3, a sixteen-core, 128-concurrent-thread processor.
 SPARC T4, an eight-core, 64-concurrent-thread processor.
 SPARC T5, a sixteen-core, 128-concurrent-thread processor.
 Sunway
 Sunway SW26010, a 260-core processor used in the Sunway TaihuLight.
 Texas Instruments
 TMS320C80 MVP, a five-core multimedia video processor.
 TMS320TMS320C66, 2-, 4-, 8-core DSP.
 Tilera
 TILE64, a 64-core 32-bit processor.
 TILE-Gx, a 72-core 64-bit processor.
 XMOS Software Defined Silicon quad-core XS1-G4.

Free
 OpenSPARC

Academic
 Stanford, 4-core Hydra processor
 MIT, 16-core RAW processor
 University of California, Davis, Asynchronous array of simple processors (AsAP)
 36-core 610 MHz AsAP
 167-core 1.2 GHz AsAP2
 University of Washington, Wavescalar processor
 University of Texas, Austin, TRIPS processor
 Linköping University, Sweden, ePUMA processor
 UC Davis, Kilocore, a 1000 core 1.78 GHz processor on a 32 nm IBM process

Benchmarks
The research and development of multicore processors often compares many options, and benchmarks are developed to help such evaluations. Existing benchmarks include SPLASH-2, PARSEC, and COSMIC for heterogeneous systems.

See also

 CPU shielding
 CUDA
 GPGPU
 Hyper-threading
 Manycore
 Multicore Association
 Multitasking
 OpenCL (Open Computing Language) – a framework for heterogeneous execution
 Parallel random access machine
 Partitioned global address space (PGAS)
 Race condition
 Thread

Notes
  Digital signal processors (DSPs) have used multi-core architectures for much longer than high-end general-purpose processors. A typical example of a DSP-specific implementation would be a combination of a RISC CPU and a DSP MPU. This allows for the design of products that require a general-purpose processor for user interfaces and a DSP for real-time data processing; this type of design is common in mobile phones. In other applications, a growing number of companies have developed multi-core DSPs with very large numbers of processors.
  Two types of operating systems are able to use a dual-CPU multiprocessor: partitioned multiprocessing and symmetric multiprocessing (SMP). In a partitioned architecture, each CPU boots into separate segments of physical memory and operate independently; in an SMP OS, processors work in a shared space, executing threads within the OS independently.

References

Further reading

External links
 "What Is a Processor Core?"—MakeUseOf
 "Embedded moves to multicore"—Embedded Computing Design
 "Multicore Is Bad News for Supercomputers"—IEEE Spectrum
 Architecting solutions for the Manycore future, published on Feb 19, 2010 (more than one dead link in the slide)

Computer architecture
Digital signal processing
Flynn's taxonomy
Microprocessors
Parallel computing

Multi-core processor


A map projection is a way of showing the surface of a three-dimensional sphere on a flat surface. Such projections are necessary to create maps. The problem with projections is that they change the surface in some way; this is called distortion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions may be less bad. This is why cartographers use different mathematical projections for different maps.

Carl Friedrich Gauss showed that is not possible to project the surface of a sphere to a plane, without distorting it. This theorem is known as Theorema egregium today.

To understand the projections, it is easier to imagine a light source, a globe, and another geometric object. The light source shines "a shadow" of each point of the globe onto the geometric object. At the end the surface of the geometric object is unrolled, this yields the map. It is possible to tell the projections apart by the type of helper object used.
Using a plane gives azimuthal projections.
Using a cone gives conical projections.
Using a cylinder gives cylindrical ones.

Cylindrical projections "put the sphere into a cylinder, and then unroll its surface". Examples of these are Equirectangular projection, Mercator projection
Psedocylindrincal: Same as cylindrical, but only applies to the main meridian and parallels.

Map projection


Dorthea "Doris" Singleton (September 28, 1919 – June 26, 2012) was an American actress, perhaps best remembered as Lucy Ricardo's frenemy, Carolyn Appleby, in I Love Lucy.

Early life and career

Singleton, born in New York City, trained as a ballerina, dancing  for three seasons in the mid-1930s with the newly formed "Ballet Theatre", later to become the American Ballet Theatre. She began her career in show business as a vocalist in the late 1930s with Art Jarrett's orchestra.

Singleton worked in New York during World War II both as a guest star and in regular roles on numerous hit radio shows, including The Whistler and The Alan Young Show, on which she played Young's girlfriend, Betty Dittenfeffer. She played Ruth Henshaw on the radio version of December Bride.

During a guest appearance on the radio show My Favorite Husband in 1948 she met Lucille Ball and began their long professional relationship. She had a recurring role in I Love Lucy playing Carolyn Appleby in ten episodes between 1953 and 1957. (The character was named "Lillian Appleby" in her first appearance but "Carolyn Appleby" thereafter.) In 1953, she made her television debut as Gloria Harper in the episode "Jungle Devil" on the series, The Adventures of Superman. Coincidentally, Singleton's final appearance on I Love Lucy was in an episode with Superman George Reeves ("Lucy and Superman" episode #166).

Singleton played Lois in the syndicated television version of The Great Gildersleeve in 1954–1957. Singleton appeared on a 1955 episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents entitled "Our Cook's Treasure." In 1956 and 1957, she appeared twice in The People's Choice. In 1962–1963, she played Tubby's mother in the comedy series McKeever and the Colonel.

In 1966, Singleton was teamed again with Ball on The Lucy Show in the episode, "Lucy and Art Linkletter", in which she plays Ruth Cosgrove, an actress whom Linkletter hires to help Lucy with a stunt on his television series. In an interview in The Lucy Book by Geoffrey Mark Fidelman (Renaissance Books, p. 233), Singleton revealed that she had originally been hired to be a regular on Ball's third series, Here's Lucy, in 1968. Ball would have played a dumb secretary and Singleton the more intelligent one, but the premise was dropped when Ball decided to cast her own children in the show. She did, however, appear in the series premiere episode, "Mod, Mod Lucy".

In 1970, Singleton was featured on an episode of ABC sitcom, Make Room For Granddaddy (an updated version of The Danny Thomas Show) which had Lucille Ball as the guest star. In this installment, titled "Lucy Carter, Houseguest", Singleton played Grace Munson, another character from I Love Lucy. Her final appearance on Here's Lucy was on March 4, 1974, in episode 22 of season 6 as Lucille Ball's studio secretary in an episode titled "Lucy (Carter) Meets Lucille Ball". Singleton and Ball were reunited one last time, again as Ball's studio secretary, in the 1980 special Lucy Moves to NBC.

Singleton also appeared on numerous other television shows including Richard Diamond, Private Detective, The Dick Van Dyke Show, Pete and Gladys, Hazel, The Real McCoys, The Twilight Zone, The Munsters, The Fugitive, Dynasty, Phyllis, Family Affair, Hogan's Heroes, Gomer Pyle: USMC, State Trooper, Gunsmoke, and Frontier Doctor.

Singleton played the sympathetic neighbor, Susie, to Annie Fargé's scatterbrained character "Angel Smith" in the CBS sitcom, Angel from 1960 to 1961. Singleton also appeared in All in the Family as Edith's hotel roommate, Lydia Stonehurst, in the 1971 episode "Edith has Jury Duty". She also appeared in two Perry Mason episodes, titled "The Case of the Crooked Candle" and "The Case of the Purple Woman".

She guest-starred on My Three Sons, playing two different characters who had recurring roles throughout the long run of the show. She originally played the mother of Meredith MacRae whose character Sally Morrison married original oldest son Mike Douglas (Tim Considine) in the 1964–65 season. Later she played Margaret, mother of Polly Williams (Ronne Troup) in the 1970–71 season. At the time of her death in June 2012, Singleton was the last surviving major recurring adult cast member from  the "Lucy" shows. Her last major acting role  was in Deadly Messages (1985), though she appeared in advertising and voice overs for many subsequent years, most notably in recurring ads for Hills Brothers' Coffee.

Personal life
Singleton married comedy writer, director, and producer Charles Isaacs in 1941, and they remained married until he died on December 13, 2002.

Later life
Singleton resided in the Greater Los Angeles area. She died in Los Angeles in 2012, aged 92, from complications of cancer. She had no children and left no immediate survivors.

Selected filmography
 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955) (Season 1 Episode 8: "Our Cook's a Treasure") as Secretary
 Terror at Midnight (1956)
 Affair in Reno (1957)
 Amelia Earhart (1976)
 Deadly Messages (1985)

References

Further reading

 Sitcom Queens: Divas of the Small Screen by Michael Karol (2005)

External links
 Doris Singleton Interview at Archive of American Television

1919 births
2012 deaths
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American radio actresses
American television actresses
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Deaths from cancer in California
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
Singers from New York City
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American women

Doris Singleton


A polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate. Polysaccharides are polymers made up of many monosaccharides. They are very large, often branched, molecules. They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.

When all the constituent monosaccharides are of the same type they are termed homopolysaccharides; when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are termed heteropolysaccharides.

Examples of polysaccharides include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin.

Starches
Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet.

Cellulose
The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units.  Humans and many other animals do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. The classic example is the termite.

Other websites
Polysaccharide structure

Carbohydrates
Polymers

Polysaccharide


Stainforth is a village and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated north of Settle. Nearby there is a waterfall, Stainforth Force, where the river falls over limestone ledges into a deep, broad pool which can be accessed by walking a short way from the village. There was  a Youth Hostel at Taitlands between 1942 and 2007.

History

Its name derives from the 'stony ford' which linked two settlements half a mile apart on opposite banks of the River Ribble north of Settle. Stainforth, on the eastern side, was formerly owned by Sawley Abbey, whose monks developed the estate which prospered, while Little Stainforth, under private ownership, declined. In 1595 Edward Darcy received from four trustees acting for the previous owner the manor of Stainforth Underbargh and 20 dwelling houses with lands there. He was Groom of the Chamber to Elizabeth I and was knighted eight years later.
In the 1670s, Samuel Watson replaced the ford by a packhorse bridge whose arch spans a wooded stretch of the river, and a grassy patch leads downstream to Stainforth Force. In Little Stainforth the three-storey Stainforth Hall was built at the same time and is now occupied as a farmhouse.

See also
St Peter's Church, Stainforth

References

External links

 Stainforth Website

Villages in North Yorkshire
Civil parishes in North Yorkshire
Ribblesdale

Stainforth, North Yorkshire


Soundbug is a small speaker that can turn a resonant flat surface into a flat panel speaker. The Soundbug is attached to a smooth resonant surface, this surface then acts as speaker. The tone differs depending on the surface (wood, metal, glass etc.). The Soundbug was developed by FeONIC Technology (formerly Newlands Scientific), a commercial research and development company specialising in magnetostrictive audio products as a spin-off from Hull University. FeONIC used the same technology for Whispering Windows, which is able to resonate shop windows.

Soundbug transmits the audio signal to the flat surface by way of a small piece of Terfenol-D, which is a magnetostrictive alloy of rare earth metals and iron. This material, when stimulated with an electrical input, causes the Terfenol to expand slightly, resulting in sound output with a very small amplitude. Once attached to a flat surface, Soundbug will translate electric signals into mechanical energy, causing the flat surface to vibrate and broadcast the sound.

External links
Soundbug Whispering Windows and Invisible Speakers from FeONIC
Whispering Windows website
YouTube video showing Whispering Windows and SoundBug in action
Bug sets windows shaking, BBC, 18 March 2002

Sound technology

SoundBug


A reaction mechanism is writing step by step how a chemical reaction works. Usually, only the overall change can be seen in a reaction. The things made in between react too quickly to be seen. These are called intermediates, and in going from one intermediate to another a transition state is crossed. However, it is important to understand all the steps that make the total change. This is because then one can understand more difficult reactions or try to make a reaction work in a certain way.

There are many type of reaction mechanisms. In organic chemistry, the more common ones are nucleophilic substitution, elimination and addition. People sometimes use arrow pushing to draw how electrons move around during a reaction. This makes it easy to see which bonds are formed and which are broken during the process.

Chemical reactions

Reaction mechanism


Pesäpallo, the Finnish variant of baseball, was played as a demonstration sport at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland.

The ceremonial first feed, or pitch, was thrown at 18:00 on 31 July by Lauri Pihkala, who had created the sport.  The teams playing were the Finnish Baseball Federation and the Finnish Workers' Sports Federation.  In a match with a shortened schedule, the Finnish Baseball Federation won 8–4.

Finnish Baseball League (Pesäpalloliitto) roster
 Eino Kaakkolahti, pitcher
 Leo Hannula, 1st baseman
 Viljo Niemi, left fielder
 Olli Hanski, 2nd baseman
 Antti Elomaa, catcher
 Pertti Ahonen, 3rd baseman
 Eero Vuorio, right shortstop
 Toivo Ilola, left shortstop
 Taisto Lehto, right fielder
 Viljo Kokkonen, substitute
 Pertti Jaakkola, substitute
 Eero Vilevaara, substitute

Worker's Athletic Federation (Työväen Urheiluliitto) roster
 Aimo Paavola, pitcher
 Osmo Juntto, 1st baseman
 Onni Sallinen, left fielder
 Jorma Harlin, 2nd baseman
 Reino Hakkarainen, catcher
 Veikko Auersalmi, 3rd baseman
 Pauli Kilpiä, right shortstop
 Paavo Reiju, left shortstop
 Lasse Heikkilä, right fielder
 Pauli Lahtinen, substitute
 Pauli Vainio, substitute
 Oiva Huuskonen, substitute
1952 Summer Olympics

Pesäpallo at the 1952 Summer Olympics


Muju Coonty (Muju-gun), is a coonty in the province o Jeollabuk-do, Republic o Korea. Muju is kent
for its Muju Firefly Festival an is considered the maist popular tourism aurie.

History
Muju-gun belanged tae twa different kintras afore bein incorporatit intae ane admeenistrative destrict. Prior tae the Era o Samhan (afore 4t century BC), it wis dividit bi the Sobaek Muntains, an its east side belanged tae Byeonjin an its wast side Mahan.

Durin the era o the Three Kinricks o Korea, Mupung (the present name) in Byeonjin belanged tae Silla an wis cried Musanhyeon, an Jugye aurie (current Muju-eup) in Mahan belanged tae Baekje an wis cried Jeokcheonhyeon. It is kent that Musan wis renamed as Mupung an Jeokcheon as Dancheon efter the Era o Unifee'd Silla (668~917).

Efter Goryeo (918∼1392) wis foondit, Mupung did no chynge its name whauras Dancheon wis renamed as Jugye, an as Joseon rearranged admeenistrative destricts in 1414 (the 14t year o Taejong), Mupung an Jugye wur incorporatit intae ane destrict.

It wis named as Muju throu the combination o the first letters o the twa auries, Mupung an Jugye, efter thay wur incorporatit intae ane admeenistrative deestrict.

Geography
Muju-gun is situatit near fower provinces, includin Chungbuk, Chungnam, Gyeongbuk an Gyeongnam. Historically an geographically, the aurie haes served as a transitional grund atween the east an wast pairt o the soothren peninsula an is a steid for cultural exchynge. The geographical coordinates o Muju-gun is 127º 55' ~ 127º 31' o east langitude an 36º 4' ~ 36º 47' o north latitude. It is locatit in the central pairt o the kintra.

Climate
It haes a muntainous climate in which temperatur is drastically different in the day an at nicht. Annual average temperatur is 10.8℃, an the heichest temperatur o the year is 35℃ an the lawest 17℃. Annual average precipitation is 1,251mm, an Namdae Stream, a branch stream o Geum River, is flowin throu Muju-eup.

Coontyscape
In the spring, Gucheon-dong Cherry Blossom Road stairtin at Rajetongmun locatit in Seolcheon-myeon is notable for its scenery alang wi the ryal azaleas that line a 28-km-lang road in Deokyu Muntain.

Clean fresh watter in Gucheon-dong is popular in the simmer. Raftin is available in the Geum River, an thare are sandy beaches an Naedori (in Muju-eup), an inland islet blessed wi fantastic rocks an stanes.

Maple leaves at Deokyu Muntain (Naitional Pairk) an Jeoksang Muntain can be seen durin hairst. In pairticular, Jeoksang Muntain that is citit as ane o the 100 maist bonnie views in Korea is blessed wi Gibong Summit, Hyangrobong Summit, Cheonil Faw, Jangdo Rock, Janggun Rock an Anryeomdae. In addition, Yangsu Pouer Generator at the summit, a muntaintop lake an sic historic steids as Jeoksang Sanseong an Anguksa Temple mak the aurie mair valuable.

Muju is compared tae a bonnie pentin in the winter. Syne Muju Resort whaur a siller snawfield unfaulds in the winter is equipped wi lairge ski facilities, hotels, performin stages, saunas, soummin puils an amusement pairks, it is loved bi mony wantin tae enjoy a romantic winter.

Economy
Service an ither industries tak up aboot 50 percent o the industrial structur o Jeollabuk-do, while the remainder is taken up bi the order o minin, manufactur, agricultur, forestry, fishery, construction, electric an gas industries. For the industrial structur o Muju-gun, primary industry accoonts for 52%, seicontary industries 2%, an tertiary industries 46%. Upon the construction o the Taekwondo Pairk, tourism, leisur an enterprise ceety, an Danone Co Ltd's Muju plant, the industrial structur o Muju unnergo a dramatic transformation.

Transportation

Heich-gates an Naitional roads
Heich-gate #35, which connects Daejeon Metropolitan Ceety an Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, goes throu Muju-gun, as well as Naitional Road #19, #30 an #37.
Locatit at the centre o Korea, Muju-gun haes an excellent transportation seestem. Frae dountoun Muju, it takes aboot twa an a hauf oors tae Seoul, an oor tae Daejeon Metropolitan Ceety, an oor an fifty minutes tae Daegu Metropolitan Ceety, an oor tae Jeonju, twa oors an ten minutes tae Gwangju Metropolitan Ceety an three oors tae Pusan. (Destination based on the ceety haws o each ceety).

Railroad
Currently, thare is nae railwey directly passin throu Muju-gun. Housomeivver, the govrenment plans tae big a railwey connectin Saemangeum (wast coast o Jeollabuk-do) an Gimcheon throu Muju-gun. In addition, as ither railweys pass throu the backgrund aurie o Muju-gun, includin Daejeon Metropolitan Ceety an the Yeongdong region o Chungbuk, Muju-gun is readily accessible via thir railweys. Frae Deokyusan I.C., it takes aboot fifty minutes (66 km) throu Heich-gate #35 tae reach Daejeon Station, whaur the heich-speed KTX, general train service an freight train service are available. It takes aboot fifty minutes (50 km) via Heich-gate #35 an Naitional Road #19 tae reach Yeongdong Station in Chungbuk, whaur baith general an freight train service are available.

Air
Frae dountoun Muju, it takes aboot three oors (283 km) tae reach Incheon Internaitional Airport, twa oors (156 km) tae Daegu Internaitional Airport an twa oors (165 km) tae Gwangju Internaitional Airport.

Sea
Frae dountoun Muju, it takes aboot twa oors tae Gunsan Port in Gunsan Ceety, Jeollabuk-do, an twa oors an fowerty minutes tae Pusan Port.

Tourism
Syne December 2006, Muju-gun, an ecological ceety blessed wi bonnie natur, life, advanced cultur an tradeetion, haes been visitit bi as mony as 4.2 million indwallers, an the nummer o visitors is increasin ivery year.

Firefly Festival
Muju Firefly Festival is a Korea's representative environmental festival held on the theme o Firefly, Natural Treasure No. 322, ivery Juin. Firefly is an environment indicator insect that lives anerlie in the clean environment, an Muju-gun is raisin awareness aboot the seriousness o environmental contamination that is gettin worse bi linkin firefly tae a festival. Syne 1997 when the festival wis initiatit, it wis selectit as Korea's excellent festival for 11 years in a row.

Taekwondo Park
The construction o Taekwondo Pairk that is expectit tae grow intae the sacred grund for 70 million Taekwondo lovers in 188 kintras will be initiatit on Taekwondo Day, September 4, 2009, an completit in 2013. The pairk established in aurie coverin 2,314,049㎡ will include Taekwondo Stadium, Exhibition Hall, Experience Hall an Accommodations. Currently, an observatory is established in the steid o Taekwondo Pairk in Seolcheon-myeon, Muju-gun drawin Taekwondo lovers an tourists aw athort the warld.
Warld taekwondo expo teuk place in Muju an Jeonju aurie in Julie, 2008.

Bandi Land Insect Museum
Bandi Land established in a habitat o firefly in Seolcheon-myeon, Muju-gun includes Insect Museum, Schuil o the Natur, Youth Camp an Natural Resort Forests providin mony tourists wi an opportunity tae experience the mystery o the natur.
At the entrance o Insect Museum, representative fossils rangin frae the paleozoic era tae the Cenozoic era wur restored tae help appreciate the auncient mystery o the natur, an specimens o 13,500 rare insects o 2,000 species includin fireflies are exhibitit in the Insect Hall an 150 tropical plants are on display in Botanical Hall.
It an aa includes the Korea's lairgest insect specimens an a 3-D movie theater equipped wi Dome Screen in addition tae an ecological restoration steid, insect trees an a naitural history steid helpin families appreciate an experience the preciousness o the natur.

Bandi Observatory
Bandi Observatory, a 3-story biggin established in aurie coverin 752.47㎡, is locatit in Bandi Land an equipped wi Exhibition Room, Video Room an Observation Room. It is an aa equipped wi 13 sma telescopes includin a 305mm RC Telescope enablin visitors tae experience telescopes, an the Korea's first 800mm satellite trackin an monitorin telescope enables visitors tae observe planets includin the Sun, nebula an a cluster o starns.

Mt.Deokyu Naitional Pairk
Deokyu Muntain is ane o the 12 maist bonnie muntains in Korea an centres aroond Hyangjeok Summit that staunds 1,614m abuin the sea level. Deokyu Summits that stairts at Sambong Muntain in Mupung an reaches Sooth Deokyu creates a 40 km-lang rig dividin Youngnam Aurie an Honam Aurie.
Crystal watter flows frae the Hyangjeok Summit tae creaut the 33 maist bonnie sceneries in Gucheon-dong in addition tae Muju Resort in Buksa-myeon an Chilyeon Valley in the soothwast attractin a lot o visitors. The valleys o the muntain are filled wi reid ryal azaleas in the ware, an green forests draw visitors in the simmer. Red hairst leaves tint the muntain in the hairst, an it creates mysterious scenery filled wi white snaw in the winter.

Mt.Jeoksang
Jeoksang Muntain surroondit wi rocky cliffs is famous for bonnie hairst leaves. Jeoksang which means a reid skirt stemmed frae its bonnie hairst leaves. It staunds 1,034m abuin the sea level an creates a graceful scenery on the back o a summit lake for Yangsu Power Generator an sic historic steids as Jeoksangsanseong (Jeollabuk-do Regional Monument No. 88) an Anguksa Temple.

Muju Deogyusan Resort
Less nor a 3-oor drive frae Incheon Internaitional airport, Muju Deogyusan Resort is a muntain resort in Korea that is 688 hectares (1,700 acres) in aurie an locatit in Mt.Deokyu Naitional Pairk. Muju Deogyusan Resort claims tae be a fower-saison resort, an it is kent in Korea chiefly for its ski aurie.

Sports Events

Muju 1997 Winter Universiade

References

Freemit airtins
Coonty govrenment hame page

Ski auries an resorts in the Republic o Korea

Coonties o Jeollabuk-do

Muju


The Krebs cycle (named after Hans Krebs) is a part of cellular respiration. Its other names are the citric acid cycle, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle).

The "Krebs cycle" is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms in their energy conversion processes. It is important to many biochemical pathways.  This suggests that it was one of the earliest  parts of cellular metabolism to evolve.

The Krebs cycle comes after the link reaction and provides the hydrogen and electrons needed for the electron transport chain. It takes place inside mitochondria.

Summary
The diagram below shows how this part of respiration is an ever-repeating cycle which produces ATP and gives off CO2. The ATP is a molecule which carries energy in chemical form to be used in other cell processes. To summarize:
 Two molecules of carbon dioxide are given off
 One molecule of GTP is formed
 Three molecules of NAD+ are combined with hydrogen (NAD+ → NADH)
 One molecule of FAD combines with hydrogen (FAD → FADH2)

Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of two cycles, the products are: two ATP, six NADH, two FADH2 two QH2 (ubiquinol) and four CO2.

Related pages
 Cellular respiration
 Glycolysis
 Link reaction
 Electron transport chain

Other websites
 Lecture
 Krebs cycle animation

References

Metabolism
Cellular respiration

Krebs cycle


Paris-Plages ("Paris Beaches"; until 2006 Paris-Plage in the singular) is a plan run by the office of the mayor of Paris that creates temporary artificial beaches each summer along the river Seine in the centre of Paris, and, since 2007, along the Bassin de la Villette in the northeast of Paris.  Every July and August, roadways on the banks of the Seine are closed off and host various activities, including sandy beaches and palm trees.

History
French city-dwellers traditionally escape to the seaside or the countryside during the summer, especially in August. Paris is avoided, as the weather is unpleasantly hot and humid, and the centre has many tourists. Nevertheless, each summer many residents are obliged to remain in the city, however reluctantly.  The Paris-Plages scheme was instigated in 2002 by Bertrand Delanoë, the newly elected Socialist Party mayor, as a haven for relieving the misery of those cooped up in the sweltering city.

Initially there was a single beach on the Rive Droite. In 2006 a second beach was added on the Rive Gauche, and the scheme's name changed from singular to plural. Unlike many beaches in France, topless sunbathing is not permitted. Swimming in the Seine is also not permitted, for safety reasons.

The scheme has proven a major success; the number of visitors has grown each year and topped four million in 2007.  Every season, new features are added. These include a shuttle ferry linking the two riverbanks, a floating swimming pool, and another beach area at La Villette, in the northeast corner of the city.

The beaches were built free of charge by LafargeHolcim from 2002 to 2017, when the city of Paris discontinued their contract in retaliation for LafargeHolcim's proposal to build the wall  on the Mexico–United States border promised by U.S. President Donald Trump.

Le Touquet naming dispute
The name "Paris-Plage" was trademarked in 2002. In August 2006, the mayor's office sued the commune of Le Touquet-Paris-Plage for impinging on the trademark by using the phrase "Paris-Plage" in its tourism marketing.  This was greeted with scepticism, since the commune's name dated from 1912, based on earlier popular usage. The case was dropped in 2008.

References

External links

Beaches of Metropolitan France
Urban beaches
Annual events in Paris
Tourist attractions in Paris
2002 establishments in France

Paris-Plages


Psychiatry is a part of medicine that studies, diagnoses and treats mental illnesses and abnormal behaviours and conditions that cause problems and make life difficult for people. The people who practice psychiatry and treat others who have psychiatric problems are called psychiatrists.

Prescribing psychiatric medication
Psychiatrists are medically qualified doctors. They can legally prescribe medications to their patients to help emotional and behavioral problems. This does not apply to psychologists, who are not qualified to prescribe medicines.

Psychiatrists learn about how the body and the brain work. Psychiatrists must learn about all kinds of illnesses. Sometimes a disease in the body causes the brain to work poorly. Cancer in the pancreas causes depression. Blood sugar problems in diabetes mellitus can cause a bad temper. These are only two examples.

As doctors, psychiatrists learn about how medications can help the brain work better. They also learn how medications sometimes cause problems to the brain. Sometimes psychologists send their patients to a psychiatrist if the patient seems to have a problem that medicine might help. The patient should continue to see the psychologist.

In the 1950s, the first medicine to help patients with bipolar disorder (formally known as manic-depressive illness) was discovered. This was lithium, a type of metal in a powder form. A bit later, the first medicine for psychosis was discovered. Later, medicines to calm people (tranquilizers), to end depression (anti-depressants), to help feelings remain the same each day (mood stabilizers) were discovered.

Medicine for mental illness does not cure. Some of the medicines try to get brain chemicals to be the amounts they are in normal people. Other medicines "slow down how fast the brain works" so people with rapid thoughts can be in control of what they think and how they behave. When the medicines are stopped, symptoms often come back.

Sigmund Freud
The best known psychiatrist is Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor who was trained in neurology. He became certain that hidden thoughts in the brain (which he called the unconscious) could cause physical symptoms and strange behavior in some people. He believed that human behavior was not all caused by the brain, but by things that happened to people when they were babies and young children. His research of this theory – the idea he had – led him to create "talking therapy" – psychoanalysis – where he tried to figure out what could cause the mind to do things like this.

He thought that his figuring things out and telling the patients what had caused the behavior would cure the patient. Unfortunately, it usually made no lasting changes. This is why psychiatrists (and psychologists) have gradually figured out many other ways of helping their patients.

Neuropsychiatry
Since the medications for mental illness were first discovered, there have been tools to understand why the mentally ill behave and think in ways that make it not easy for them to live. Doctors do this by studying the brain as directly as they can.

This field of medicine is called neuropsychiatry. The medical doctors who work in the field are called neuropsychiatrists. They hope someday to really permanently cure or fix mental illness by finding ways to change the brain forever. In the meantime, they try to find ways to help by finding better medications.

The science of psychology is studies the way people behave and change. Psychologists apply this what is found to make new ways of helping people change how they behave. Talking therapy and applied psychology were the first important ways of helping people with some problems of regular life. Some kinds of mental illness can be helped some this way, but some kinds cannot be helped. They need medicines instead, then sometimes a psychologist can help the patient a great deal.

Criticism
Controversy has often surrounded psychiatry, and the term anti-psychiatry was coined by psychiatrist David Cooper in 1967. The anti-psychiatry message is that psychiatric treatments may be more damaging than helpful to patients. Psychiatry's history involves what may now be seen as dangerous treatments (e.g., electroconvulsive therapy, lobotomy). Two charismatic psychiatrists who came to personify the movement against psychiatry were R.D. Laing and Thomas Szasz. Some ex-patient groups have become very anti-psychiatric, often referring to themselves as "survivors".

Bessel van der Kolk is also a noted psychiatrist, author, researcher and educator based in Boston, USA.  He states that there is a much higher incidence of psychiatrists administering prescribed medications among patients who have government insurance. Since most mental illnesses are trauma-induced, medication has little to no effect. Psychiatrists are supposed to rule out trauma before diagnosing but its more rare than not. Therefore, its often easier to be screened by a psychologist or therapist first. Van Der Kolk often suggests EMDR, meditation, neurofeedback, yoga, mindfulness, sensory integration, and the arts for treatment of trauma or PTSD. Symptoms of trauma are often manifested by anxiety, hypervigilance, depression and behavioral problems that medication really doesn't help on a long-term basis.

Fields of psychiatry
 Forensic psychiatry – the study of criminals and criminal behavior.
 Addiction psychiatry – study and treatment of chemical addictions.
 Child and adolescent psychiatry – study and treatment of children and teens
 Geriatric psychiatry – study and treatment of the aged
 Psychopharmacology

Common psychiatric conditions
 Anxiety
 Attention-deficit disorder
 Autism disorders
 Bipolar disorder
 Depression
 Personality disorders
 Psychopathy
 Psychotherapy
 Schizophrenia

References

Psychiatry


Nanuya Lailai  is an island of the Yasawa Group in Fiji. It is located north of Nanuya Levu, which served as a location for the film The Blue Lagoon, separated by a narrow channel.

A beach on the west of the island is leased by Blue Lagoon Cruises, nearby is the island's one luxury resort. The small settlement of Enendala is at the base of a hill on the island's eastern beach. Seven families, all related and with family connections to Naisisili Village on Nacula Island, live there. They operate a small number of backpacker hostels.

References

 Cross theory - Fiji Times Online
 Fiji: a slice of paradise that doesn't break the bank
 Los Angeles Times: Archives - Grass Skirts A-Go-Go in Fetching Fiji

Ba Province
Islands of Fiji
Yasawa Islands

Nanuya Lailai


The Life Science Library is a series of hardbound books published by Time Life between 1963 and 1967. Each of the 26 volumes explores a major topic of the natural sciences. They are intended for, and written at a level appropriate to, an educated lay readership. In each volume, the text of each of eight chapters is followed by a "Picture Essay" lavishly illustrating the subject of the preceding chapter. They were available in a monthly subscription from Life magazine. Each volume takes complex scientific concepts and provides explanations that can be easily understood. For example, Albert Einstein's theory of relativity is explained in a cartoon about a spy drama involving a train traveling very close to the speed of light; probability is explained with poker hands; and the periodic table of the elements is conveyed with common household items. Although progress has overtaken much of the material in the more than 50 years since their publication, the series' explanations of basic science and the history of discovery remain valid. The consulting editors of the series are microbiologist René Dubos, physicist Henry Margenau, and physicist and novelist C. P. Snow.

Each volume was written by a primary author or authors, "and the Editors of LIFE". The volumes are:

Matter (1963), by Ralph E. Lapp
Energy (1963), by Mitchell Wilson
Mathematics (1963), by David Bergamini
The Body (1964), by Alan E. Nourse
The Cell (1964), by John E. Pfeiffer
The Scientist (1964), by Henry Margenau and David Bergamini
Machines (1964), by Robert O'Brien
Man and Space (1964), by Arthur C. Clarke
The Mind (1964), by John Rowan Wilson
Sound and Hearing (1965), by S. S. Stevens and Fred Warshofsky
Ships (1965), by Edward V. Lewis and Robert O'Brien
Flight (1965), by H. Guyford Stever and James J. Haggerty
Growth (1965), by James M. Tanner and Gordon Rattray Taylor
Health and Disease (1965), by René Dubos and Maya Pines
Weather (1965), by Philip D. Thompson and Robert O'Brien
Planets (1966), by Carl Sagan and Jonathan Norton Leonard
The Engineer (1966), by C.C. Furnas and Joe McCarthy
Time (1966), by Samuel A. Goudsmit and Robert Claiborne
Water (1966), by Luna B. Leopold and Kenneth S. Davis
Giant Molecules (1966), by Herman F. Mark
Light and Vision (1966), by Conrad G. Mueller and Mae Rudolph
Food and Nutrition (1967), by William H. Sebrell, Jr and James J. Haggerty
The Physician (1967), by Russel V. Lee and Sarel Eimerl
Drugs (1967), by Walter Modell and Alfred Lansing
Wheels (1967), by Ezra Bowen
A Guide to Science and Index to the LIFE Science Library (1967)

See also
Life Nature Library

Science books
Time Life book series

Life Science Library


Amish friendship bread is a type of bread or cake made from a sourdough starter that is often shared in a manner similar to a chain letter.  The starter is a replacement for baking yeast. It can be used to make many kinds of yeast-based breads, shared with friends, or frozen for future use.  The sweet, cake-like Amish cinnamon bread is a common bread that is made from this starter. It is a simple, stirred quickbread. It includes a large amount of sugar and vegetable oil, with a mild cinnamon flavor.  It has characteristics of both pound cake and coffee cake. The flavor of the finished product can be changed by not using cinnamon.

A common recipe using this starter uses one cup (240 ml) of it to make bread. A second cup is saved to start a new cycle. The remaining two cups are given to friends.  The process of sharing the starter makes it somewhat like a chain letter.  One cup of starter makes one standard loaf of bread.

It can also be called German friendship cake, or "Herman" the German friendship cake.

The starter mix can be made from a recipe of flour, water and yeast. One cup of the mixture is then passed to other people who get instructions on how to keep it alive, usually just saying to give it more ingredients as time passes.

References

Sweet breads

Amish friendship bread


Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of Metroxylon sagu. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is called saksak, rabia and sagu. The largest supply of sago comes from Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia and Malaysia. Large quantities of sago are sent to Europe and North America for cooking purposes. It is traditionally cooked and eaten in various forms, such as rolled into balls, mixed with boiling water to form a glue-like paste (papeda), or as a pancake.

Sago is often produced commercially in the form of "pearls" (small rounded starch aggregates, partly gelatinized by heating). Sago pearls can be boiled with water or milk and sugar to make a sweet sago pudding. Sago pearls are similar in appearance to the pearled starches of other origin, e.g. cassava starch (tapioca) and potato starch.  They may be used interchangeably in some dishes, and tapioca pearls are often marketed as "sago", since they are much cheaper to produce.  Compared to tapioca pearls, real sago pearls are off-white, uneven in size, brittle and cook very quickly.

The name sago is also sometimes used for starch extracted from other sources, especially the sago cycad, Cycas revoluta. The sago cycad is also commonly known as the sago palm, although this is a misnomer as cycads are not palms. Extracting edible starch from the sago cycad requires special care due to the poisonous nature of cycads. Cycad sago is used for many of the same purposes as palm sago.

The fruit of palm trees from which the sago is produced is not allowed to ripen fully, as full ripening completes the life cycle of the tree and exhausts the starch reserves in the trunk to produce the seeds to the point of death, leaving a hollow shell. The palms are cut down when they are about 15 years old, just before or shortly after the inflorescence appears. The stems, which grow  high, are split out. The starch-containing pith is taken from the stems and ground to powder. The powder is kneaded in water over a cloth or sieve to release the starch. The water with the starch passes into a trough where the starch settles. After a few washings, the starch is ready to be used in cooking. A single palm yields about  of dry starch.

Historical records
Sago was noted by the Chinese historian Zhao Rukuo (1170–1231) during the Song Dynasty. In his Zhu Fan Zhi (1225), a collection of descriptions of foreign countries, he writes that the kingdom of Boni "produces no wheat, but hemp and rice, and they use sha-hu (sago) for grain".

Sources, extraction and preparation

Palm sago

The sago palm, Metroxylon sagu, is found in tropical lowland forest and freshwater swamps across Southeast Asia and New Guinea and is the primary source of sago. It tolerates a wide variety of soils and may reach 30 meters in height (including the leaves). Several other species of the genus Metroxylon, particularly Metroxylon salomonense and Metroxylon amicarum, are also used as sources of sago throughout Melanesia and Micronesia.

Sago palms grow very quickly, in clumps of different ages similar to bananas, one sucker matures, then flowers and dies. It is replaced by another sucker, with up to 1.5 m of vertical stem growth per year. The stems are thick and are either self-supporting or have a moderate climbing habit; the leaves are pinnate. Each palm trunk produces a single inflorescence at its tip at the end of its life. Sago palms are harvested at the age of 7–15 years, just before or shortly after the inflorescence appears and when the stems are full of starch stored for use in reproduction. One palm can yield 150–300 kg of starch.

Sago is extracted from Metroxylon palms by splitting the stem lengthwise and removing the pith which is then crushed and kneaded to release the starch before being washed and strained to extract the starch from the fibrous residue. The raw starch suspension in water is then collected in a settling container.

Cycad sago
The sago cycad, Cycas revoluta, is a slow-growing wild or ornamental plant. Its common names "sago palm" and "king sago palm" are misnomers as cycads are not palms. Processed starch known as sago is made from this and other cycads. It is a less-common food source for some peoples of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Unlike metroxylon palms (discussed above), cycads are highly poisonous: most parts of the plant contain the neurotoxins cycasin and BMAA. Consumption of cycad seeds has been implicated in the outbreak of Parkinson's disease-like neurological disorder in Guam and other locations in the Pacific. Thus, before any part of the plant may safely be eaten the toxins must be removed through extended processing.

Sago is extracted from the sago cycad by cutting the pith from the stem, root and seeds of the cycads, grinding the pith to a coarse flour, before being dried, pounded, and soaked. The starch is then washed carefully and repeatedly to leach out the natural toxins. The starchy residue is then dried and cooked, producing a starch similar to palm sago/sabudana.

The cycad seed should not be eaten as it remains highly toxic after washing.

Cassava sago

In many countries including Australia, Brazil, and India, tapioca pearls made from cassava root are also referred to as sago, sagu, sabudana, etc.

Uses

Nutrition
Sago from Metroxylon palms is nearly pure carbohydrate and has very little protein, vitamins, or minerals.  of dry sago typically comprises 94 grams of carbohydrate, 0.2 grams of protein, 0.5 grams of dietary fiber, 10 mg of calcium, 1.2 mg of iron and negligible amounts of fat, carotene, thiamine and ascorbic acid and yields approximately  of food energy. Sago palms are typically found in areas unsuited for other forms of agriculture, so sago cultivation is often the most ecologically appropriate form of land-use and the nutritional deficiencies of the food can often be compensated for with other readily available foods.

Sago starch can be baked (resulting in a product analogous to bread, pancake, or biscuit) or mixed with boiling water to form a paste. It is a main staple of many traditional communities in New Guinea and Maluku in the form of papeda, Borneo,  South Sulawesi (most known in Luwu Regency) and Sumatra. In Palembang, sago is one of the ingredients to make pempek. In Brunei, it is used for making the popular local dish called the ambuyat. It is also used commercially in making noodles and white bread. Sago starch can also be used as a thickener for other dishes. It can be made into steamed puddings such as sago plum pudding.

In Malaysia, the traditional food "keropok lekor" (fish cracker) uses sago as one of its main ingredients. In the making of the popular keropok lekor of Losong in Kuala Terengganu, each kilogram of fish meat is mixed with half a kilogram of fine sago, with a little salt added for flavour. Tons of raw sago are imported each year into Malaysia to support the keropok lekor industry.

In 1805, two captured crew members of the shipwrecked schooner Betsey were kept alive until their escape from an undetermined island on a diet of sago.

Any starch can be pearled by heating and stirring small aggregates of moist starch, producing partly gelatinized dry kernels which swell but remain intact on boiling. Pearl sago closely resembles pearl tapioca. Both are typically small (about 2 mm diameter) dry, opaque balls. Both may be white (if very pure) or colored naturally gray, brown or black, or artificially pink, yellow, green, etc. When soaked and cooked, both become much larger, translucent, soft and spongy. Both are widely used in Indian, Bangladeshi and Sri Lankan cuisine in a variety of dishes and around the world, usually in puddings. In India, it is used in a variety of dishes such as desserts boiled with sweetened milk on occasion of religious fasts.

Textile production
Sago starch is also used to treat fiber in a process is called sizing, which makes fibers easier to machine. The process helps to bind the fiber, give it a predictable slip for running on metal, standardize the level of hydration of the fiber and give the textile more body. Most cloth and clothing has been sized; this leaves a residue which is removed in the first wash.

Other uses
Because many traditional people rely on sago-palm as their main food staple and because supplies are finite, in some areas commercial or industrial harvesting of wild stands of sago-palm can conflict with the food needs of local communities.

There is also a research conducted to potentially make use of the waste from sago palm industry as an adsorbent for cleaning up oil spills.

See also
Arenga pinnata
Landang
Sandige

References

Citations

General and cited references
 Flach, M. and F. Rumawas, eds. (1996). Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) No. 9: Plants Yielding Non-Seed Carbohydrates. Leiden: Blackhuys.
 Lie, Goan-Hong. (1980). "The Comparative Nutritional Roles of Sago and Cassava in Indonesia." In: Stanton, W.R. and M. Flach, eds., Sago: The Equatorial Swamp as a Natural Resource. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff.
 McClatchey, W., H.I. Manner, and C.R. Elevitch. (2005). [http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Metroxylon-sagopalm.pdf "Metroxylon amicarum, M. paulcoxii, M. sagu, M. salomonense, M. vitiense, and M. warburgii (sago palm), ver. 1.1". In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.) Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawaii.
 Pickell, D. (2002). Between the Tides: A Fascinating Journey Among the Kamoro of New Guinea. Singapore: Periplus Press.

 Stanton, W.R. and M. Flach, eds., Sago: The Equatorial Swamp as a Natural Resource. The Hague, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff.

Further reading

External links
 Species profile for Metroxylon sagu
 http://www.fao.org/ag/agA/AGAP/FRG/AFRIS/Data/416.HTM
 Sago Uses

Edible thickening agents
Food ingredients
Indian cuisine
Indonesian cuisine
Malagasy cuisine
Melanesian cuisine
Oceanian cuisine
Papua New Guinean cuisine
Staple foods
Tropical agriculture

Sago


William Joel Stone (May 7, 1848April 14, 1918) was a Democratic politician from Missouri who represented his state in the United States House of Representatives from 1885 to 1891, and in the U.S. Senate from 1903 until his death; he also served as the 28th Governor of Missouri from 1893 to 1897.

Biography
Stone was born near Richmond in Madison County, Kentucky, on May 7, 1848, and attended Richmond's public schools as a child; he graduated from the University of Missouri in Columbia in 1867, whereupon he began the study of law.  Admitted to the bar in 1869, he began practice that year in Bedford, Indiana.  Soon he moved back to Columbia, where he was the city attorney for a time in 1870.  Later that year he moved to Nevada, Missouri, and continued his practice, becoming the Vernon County prosecuting attorney from 1873 to 1874 and was a presidential elector for the Democratic ticket in 1876.

In 1884 Stone was elected to the House of Representatives, where he served until 1891; he did not seek renomination in 1890.  In his time there he served as the chairman of the Committee on War Claims.  From 1893 to 1897 he served as Missouri's governor, moving to Jefferson City in 1893.  Beginning in 1896 he served as a member of the Democratic National Committee, serving in this capacity until 1904; he was the committee's vice-chairman from 1900 until his departure.  In 1897 Stone moved to St. Louis, where he continued his practice; he returned to Jefferson City in 1903.  In 1902 he was elected to the Senate, being reelected in 1908 and serving until his death.

Stone served as a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and chaired that important committee from 1913 until his death.  In this capacity, he was involved in disagreements with the Wilson administration concerning European policy before the U.S. entry into World War I.  He was one of the six U.S. Senators who voted against the United States declaration of war against Germany on April 4, 1917 (the other five were Asle J. Gronna, Republican from North Dakota, Robert M. La Follette, Republican from Wisconsin, Harry Lane, Democrat from Oregon, George W. Norris, Republican from Nebraska, and James K. Vardaman, Democrat from Mississippi). He  supported acquisition of the U.S. Virgin Islands.  Stone also served at various times as chairman of the Committee on Additional Accommodations for the Library, the Committee on Revolutionary Claims, the Committee on Corporations Organized in the District of Columbia, and the Committee on Indian Affairs.

Stone died in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1918; he is buried in Nevada, Missouri.  His seat was filled until the 1918 election by Xenophon P. Wilfley.  Some of Stone's personal and official papers are archived at the State Historical Society of Missouri, where they are open to researchers.

His son, Kimbrough Stone (1875 – 1958), served as a circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

See also
 List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)

References

Further reading
 - Congressional biography with picture

External links

 William J. Stone, late a senator from Missouri, Memorial addresses delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1917

1848 births
1918 deaths
People from Madison County, Kentucky
Democratic Party governors of Missouri
University of Missouri alumni
Politicians from Columbia, Missouri
People from Nevada, Missouri
Democratic Party United States senators from Missouri
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Missouri
19th-century American politicians
Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations

William J. Stone


Flight Lieutenant Sydney Hastings Dowse MC (21 November 1918 – 10 April 2008) was a Royal Air Force pilot who became a prisoner of war and survived The Great Escape during the Second World War.

Early life and RAFVR
Born in Hammersmith, Sydney was educated at Hurstpierpoint College. In July 1937, he joined the recently formed Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve and learnt to fly at weekends.
At the outbreak of war in September 1939, he was called up for regular service and completed his pilot training. He was commissioned as a pilot officer on 21 October 1940, with seniority from 9 August 1940.

He joined No 608 Squadron attached to Coastal Command flying Avro Ansons on anti-submarine and convoy escort operations. At the end of 1940, he volunteered to join No 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU) flying Spitfires.

He was mentioned in despatches on 11 June 1942 and promoted to flight lieutenant on 21 October 1942, with seniority from 9 August 1942.

Dowse was shot down on 15 August 1941 while on a reconnaissance mission to photograph the German battleships  and  at Brest. He was wounded in the leg and quickly captured by the Germans, becoming a prisoner of war.

Prisoner of war

Early escape attempts

His first escape attempt came on 1 December 1941, when he was recovering from the leg wound sustained when he was shot down. He escaped from a hospital at Stadtroda in Thuringia. However, Dowse was recaptured three days later attempting to cross the Dutch-German border.

His next attempt was from Stalag IX-C at Bad Sulza on 21 January 1942. He exchanged identities with a Canadian POW and joined a work party. He managed to slip away unnoticed when outside the camp. After travelling some distance by train to Werwitz, he continued on foot, through deep snow, towards the German-Belgian frontier where he was re-captured five days later, suffering from extreme exhaustion and exposure.

Following a brief period in hospital, he was transferred to Oflag VI-B at Warburg.

At Warburg, he participated in the excavation of an escape tunnel, which was completed on 18 April 1942. He, and 34 others (including the legless air ace, Douglas Bader, and Dowse's later escaping partner, Stanislaw Krol), prepared to escape. However, as the tunnel broke surface, it became clear that it was slightly too short, and the exit hole had emerged directly in the patrol path of a German sentry. Six RAF officers managed to escape, but, due to the proximity of the sentry, no one else, including Dowse, was able to do so.

Stalag Luft III
In May 1942, Dowse was transferred to Stalag Luft III at Sagan with a batch of other RAF officers.

Dowse's next escape attempt happened on 30 November 1942, when he and Flt Lt Stanisław 'Danny' Krol cut through the wire into the camp's central compound and crawled across that compound using blankets as camouflage. They were in the process of cutting the perimeter wire to get out when they were arrested and sentenced to 14 days' solitary confinement.

Dowse, who spoke some German, befriended a German corporal who worked alongside Dowse in the camp's censor office. From this contact, Dowse was able to gain useful information and documents which aided the camp escape organisation. He was able to 'borrow' a genuine gate pass, which was copied by the camp's forgery department, and a copy was used on the delousing break mass escape in June 1943.

Through this same contact, Dowse was able to gain information about the German secret rocket establishment at Peenemünde. This information was passed on to British intelligence via secret codes written into POWs' letters home.

Dowse also learnt that the Gestapo had liquidation plans for Roger Bushell if he were caught escaping again. Dowse warned Bushell, who chose to ignore the warning.

The Great Escape
During his time in the North Compound at Stalag Luft III, Dowse became involved with the construction of the three tunnels intended for a mass escape, masterminded by Roger Bushell, Harry Day and Canadian Wally Floody, who was instrumental in the tunnel's design and construction. One tunnel, codenamed 'Harry' which Dowse had helped build, was completed in early 1944.

On 24 March 1944, he took part in The Great Escape through tunnel 'Harry', escaping with Flt Lt Stanisław Krol. Dowse had drawn escape number 21, and was disguised as a Danish foreign worker, equipped with the appropriate (forged) documents and clothing provided by his 'contact'.

Dowse and Krol travelled mainly by foot towards the Polish border, but were recaptured just inside Germany on 6 April 1944. They were amongst the last escapers to be re-captured. Taken to the local Gestapo headquarters, they were interrogated, before being separated.

Dowse was sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Stanisław 'Danny' Krol was among the 50 recaptured officers to be executed.

Sachsenhausen concentration camp
At Sachsenhausen, Dowse found himself with three fellow survivors of the 'Great Escape': (Harry Day, Johnnie Dodge and Bertram James). They were placed in Sonderlager A (Special Camp A) within the main camp. Here were housed a handful of other 'political' prisoners, including SOE agent Peter Churchill, two Russian generals, various other Russians, Poles, Italians and four British soldiers of Irish origin. Later, they were joined by British Commando Jack Churchill.

Dowse and James almost immediately began another tunnel, which was kept secret from all non-British personnel. This was completed and used on the night of 23 September 1944, when Dowse, James, Day, Dodge and Jack Churchill escaped.

Dowse paired up with Day and they travelled by train into Berlin. However, they were recaptured the next day when hiding in a bombed out house in the Berlin suburb of Mahlsdorf.

Placed in the death cells back at Sachsenhausen, all the escapers who had been re-captured were spared execution mainly thanks to Day's efforts under interrogation.

In April 1945, after spending several months in solitary confinement Dowse, together with other prominent prisoners (Prominenten), was transferred to the Tyrol via concentration camps at Flossenburg and Dachau.

He was awarded the Military Cross for his services as a POW. This award was published in the London Gazette on 16 August 1946.

Later life
Dowse served as an equerry at Buckingham Palace. For a number of years in the 1950s, at the time of the communist insurgency, he worked in Malaya as a rubber plantation manager in the Penang Settlement. After the war, he also worked, possibly unwittingly, for a short time as a representative for Bernie Cornfeld's insurance fraud, "The Dover Plan", as well as other unsuccessful and/or dubious ventures. He lived mainly on his heroic stories from the war, which were a laissez passer in post-war society.

He married three times

He returned to Stalag Luft III in March 1994 and March 2004 to mark the anniversaries of the Great Escape, and to commemorate his friends who did not survive.

References

External links
 Imperial War Museum Interview

1918 births
2008 deaths
People educated at Hurstpierpoint College
British escapees
Participants in the Great Escape from Stalag Luft III
British World War II prisoners of war
Recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Air Force officers
English aviators
Royal Air Force pilots of World War II
British World War II bomber pilots
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
Shot-down aviators
Sachsenhausen concentration camp survivors
Military personnel from Hammersmith
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II

Sydney Dowse


1385 was a common year starting on Sunday (link wil1l display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.

Events
 August 14 – Battle of Aljubarrota – John of Aviz defeats John I of Castile in the decisive battle of the 1383-1385 Crisis. John of Aviz is crowned King John I of Portugal, ending Queen Beatrice's rule, and Portugal's independence from Castile is secured.
 August 14 – The Union of Krewo establishes the Jagiellonian dynasty in Poland and Lithuania through the proposed marriage of Queen Jadwiga of Poland and Grand Duke Jagiello of Lithuania and saw the acceptance of Roman Catholicism by the Lithuanian elite.
 October 15 – Battle of Valverde between the armies of Portugal and Castile
 The marriage of Charles VI of France and Isabella of Bavaria-Straubing is celebrated with France's first court ball.
 With help from the Ottoman Empire, the Albanians expel their conquerors from Zeta (now Montenegro). Balša II of Zeta is killed in the battle and is succeeded by his cousin, Đurađ II. Albania is then conquered by the Ottomans after the Battle of Savra and the Albanians begin an eighty-year resistance to Turkish rule.
 A group of Hungarian nobels help Charles III of Naples to overthrow Queen Mary as ruler of Hungary and Croatia.
 Scotland resists a small invasion force from England.
 Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde conquers parts the Jalayirid Empire in western Persia, causing a rift between himself and Timur of the Timurid Empire, who had also wanted to conquer Persia.
 Olav IV of Norway is elected as King of Sweden, in opposition to the unpopular King Albert.
 Estense Castle is built in Ferrara in present-day Italy.
 Bodiam Castle is built in East Sussex, England.

Births
 Thomas Ebendorfer, Austrian historian, (died 1464)
 John FitzAlan, 13th Earl of Arundel (died 1421)
 Jan van Eyck, Flemish painter (approximate date; died 1441)
 Margaret Holland, English noblewoman (died 1429)

Deaths
 Andronikos IV Palaiologos, co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire
 Joan of Kent, wife of Edward, the Black Prince (born 1328)

1385


Assisi is a town and a comune in Italy, in the region of Umbria. Assisi on the western side of the mountain called Mount Subasio. It is an important place because of its art, its architecture and its history. It is especially important to the Catholic religion. It was the birthplace of Saint Francis of Assisi, who was a Catholic saint. Saint Francis is most famous because he founded the Franciscan religious order in the year 1208. Saint Clare, a follower of Saint Francis, was also born in Assisi. She founded an order of religious women called the Poor Clares.

After Saint Francis and Saint Clare died, churches were built in their honor. The Church of Saint Francis, called the Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, is famous as his burial place. It is also famous for the fresco paintings on the walls and ceilings. Many visitors go to Assisi on pilgrimage. Many people also go there to see the town's art. Assisi was made into a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the year 2000.

History

Around 1000 BC, large groups of people settled in this area. These were the Umbrians. They lived in small fortified villages on high ground. From 450 BC the Umbrians villages were taken over by the Etruscans. Then the Romans took control of central Italy by the Battle of Sentinum in 295 BC. They levelled out some land in terraces (wide steps) and built a large town called Asisium on the side of Mount Subasio. This town became Assisi. Some buildings still can be seen from Roman times in Assisi. They include the walls, the main piazza, and the Temple of the Goddess Minerva, which is now a church called Santa Maria sopra Minerva.

In 238 AD all the people of Assisi became Christian, because of the teaching of Bishop Rufino. He was martyred. It is believe that his body is buried under the Cathedral Church of San Rufino in Assisi.

The Ostrogoths of king Totila destroyed most of the town in 545. Then Assisi was the ruled by the Lombards, who came from the north of Italy, and then by the Frankish rulers.

In the 11th century (1000s), Assisi became a free town. But there was constant fighting between two groups called the Ghibellines and the Guelphs. Assisi mainly supported the Ghibellines, but the nearest big town, Perugia, supported the Guelphs. During the battle of Ponte San Giovanni (St. John's Bridge), the Guelphs from Perugia managed to capture a young man from Assisi. His name was Francesco di Bernardone. It was partly because of his experiences when he was captured that young Francesco decided that he would change from being a soldier. When he returned to his father's house, he put away all his riches and became a poor, wandering preacher, telling people to turn to God and live in peace with each other. He worked with the poor and the outcast people. They had no church except a ruin. St. Francis and his friends rebuilt the tiny ruined church for the shepherds and other poor people to worship in. It is called the "Porziuncola". Francesco (Francis) founded the Order of Franciscans. He was "canonized" (made a saint) in 1228 and is known as St. Francis. He is one of the most popular saints.

A large basilica church was built on the side of the mountain, in honour of St Francis, and was beautifully decorated with scenes of his life. One of the most famous scenes shows the story of St. Francis preaching to the birds. In 1997 Assisi was hit by the two earthquakes. Part of the roof of the basilica fell in, killing four people who were standing below, and damaging the painted ceiling. Many people "made donations" (gave money) to repair the building which was reopened less than two years later.

Main sights

Churches
 The Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi. The Franciscan monastery, and the basilica of St Francis were begun immediately after his canonization (being made a saint) in 1228, and completed 1253. The church is on three levels, called the Upper Church, the Lower Church and the crypt. St Francis is buried in the crypt.
In the Upper Church are frescos of scenes in the life of St. Francis. All the papers that belonged to the monastery were destroyed so no-one knows who the monks got to paint the frescoes. For many years, when the names of most other painters of that time were forgotten, people thought they must have been done by the famous artists Giotto. Very few art historians think this nowadays. Most art historians think they were done by a group of painters from Rome. Other people think that maybe Giotto planned the paintings and did perhaps one or two of them. Giotto's famous teacher, Cimabue did two enormous frescoes in the upper church, of the "Crucifixion" and "Deposition" (Jesus' body being taken down from the cross). These have been completely ruin by a fire.

The Lower Church has frescos by many late-medieval artists. One is a special and "unique" painting by Cimabue. It shows the Madonna and Child with angels and St Francis. Because Cimabue was quite old when he did this picture, people believe that he had seen St Francis and was able to paint a "real likeness" of him, not just an imaginary portrait, like many pictures of medieval saints.
In the lower church are pictures by Giotto, Simone Martini, and Taddeo di Bartolo. One picture that is just as famous as the Cimabue Madonna is the "Madonna of the Sunset". This beautiful fresco by Pietro Lorenzetti has a gold background. When the sun is setting, at certain times of the year, it shines through a door onto the painting and makes it blaze with light.

 Santa Maria Maggiore (St. Mary the Greater), is the oldest church in Assisi.
 The Cathedral of San Rufino (St. Rufinus), with a Romanesque façade with three rose windows and a 16th‑century interior. It is partly built over a Roman well.
 The Basilica of Santa Chiara (St Clare) is a Gothis church begun in 1257. It contains the tomb of the saint and 13th‑century frescoes and paintings.
 Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli (St. Mary of the Angels). It is a large church 4 miles from Assisi. Inside is the "Porziuncola".

Other landmarks
The town has by two ancient castles. The oldest one was built by the Romans and is partly in ruins.
The larger castle is called Rocca Maggiore. It was built by Cardinal Albornoz in 1367 and was added to by Popes Pius II and Paul III.
UNESCO has made all the main monuments, the churches and the town of Assisi as a World Heritage Site.

Culture

Festival Calendimaggio is held from May 1st-5th. There are processions, theatre, flag-weavers and dance.

Assisi Embroidery is a type of counted-thread embroidery which has been practised in Assisi since the 13th century.

Today the town has many groups coming to enjoy the simple peace of St. Francis. One such group has restored an 11th-century room and added altars to the world's religions. Pilgrims come from many countries to the Assisi East West Retreat Center in Piazza San Rufino in the spirit of St. Francis to sit and be in peace.

Documentaries
 The Holy Cities: Assisi produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications (2006).

Photo gallery

References

Other websites
 360 Assisi - Map, Guide & 360° Pictures
 Assisi OnLine

Towns in Perugia
World Heritage Sites in Italy

Assisi