Savion Glover (born November 19, 1973) is an American tap dancer, actor, and choreographer.

Early life
The youngest of three sons, Glover was born to a white father, who left the family before he was born, and a black mother. Glover's great grandfather on his mother's side, Dick Lundy, was a shortstop in the Negro leagues. He managed eleven Negro league baseball teams, including the Newark Eagles. His grandfather, Bill Lewis, was a big band pianist and vocalist. His grandmother, Anna Lundy Lewis, was the minister of music at New Hope Baptist Church in Newark, New Jersey. She played for Whitney Houston when she was singing in the gospel choir, and was the one who first noticed Savion's musical talent. She once held him and hummed some rhythms to him, and he smiled and joined along. Glover graduated from Newark Arts High School in 1991.

Career
Glover stated that his style is "young and funk." When asked to describe what funk is, he says it is the bass line. "Funk is anything that gets one's head on beat. It is riding with the rhythm. It is a pulse that keeps one rolling with the beat." Gregory Hines, a tap legend, was one of Glover's tap teachers. Hines stated that "Savion is possibly the best tap dancer that ever lived." Glover liked to start his pieces with some old school moves from famous tappers and then work his way into his own style. Hines said it is like paying homage to those he respects. When Honi Coles died, Savion performed at his memorial service. He finished his dance with a famous Coles move:  a backflip into a split from standing position, then getting up without using one's hands. Glover rarely does this move because it wasn't his style, but he did it because it was Coles' style that he wanted to keep alive. "I feel like it's one of my responsibilities to keep the style." Henry LeTang called Glover "the Sponge" because he learned very quickly with everything thrown at him. LeTang taught the Hines brothers back in the 1950s and taught Glover for a little while before having him work for "Black and Blue," a tap revue in Paris in 1987. Many legendary tappers taught Glover such as LeTang, the Hines brothers, Jimmy Slyde, Dianne Walker, Chuck Green, Lon Chaney (Isaiah Chaneyfield), Honi Coles, Sammy Davis Jr., Buster Brown, Howard Sims, and Arthur Duncan.

Teaching
He has been teaching tap since he was 14 years old. Glover created Real Tap Skills, and started HooFeRz Club School for Tap in Newark, New Jersey. Wanting to bring back the real essence of  At age seven, Glover drummed in a group called Three Plus One. In the group, he demanded that he dance while he played the drum. Glover has a heavy foot for tap. He dances hard and loud in every step, and teaches his students how to "hit," a term related to one's ability to express oneself, complete a tap sequence, or say something.

Choreography

Notable choreographed pieces

Bring in 'Da Noise, Bring in 'Da Funk
Savion Glover's Nu York, ABC special
ABC opening to Monday Night Football
The Rat Pack, HBO movie
Created a dance company called NYOTs (Not Your Ordinary Tappers)
PBS for President Clinton in Savion Glover's Stomp, Slide, and Swing: In Performances in the Whitehouse
Savion Glover/Downtown: Live Communication
Shuffle Along, or, the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed

When Glover choreographs a piece, he improvises as he generates a dance sequence. As he finds rhythms, he listens for new sounds at many points on the stage. "I'm feelin' the stage for sounds. You might find a spot on it that gives you that bass; you might find a spot on the floor that gives you that dead type tom-tom sound." "I think what makes Savion an incredible artist is his extraordinary joy in what he does. He is able to live in that state of joy and not compromise his emotional complexity like the earlier tap dancers had to," says George C. Wolfe.

One of the timesteps performed in Barbaba Streisand's Timeless in Glover's performance as "Brother Time" has been informally named the "Savion Glover Timestep" by many tap dancers.

Broadway

The Tap Dance Kid (1985)
This musical was based on the 1974 novel Nobody's Family is Going to Change by Louise Fitzhugh. Glover's Broadway debut, at the age of 11, was as a replacement with this show. The musical was choreographed by Danny Daniels, with direction by Vivian Matalon; the music was by Henry Krieger and lyrics by Robert Lorick. Reviews of this show were mediocre. The New York Times claimed it was a traditional story to give children a dream to look forward to, but was not anything exceptional. However, the musical went on to be nominated for seven Tony Awards, including Best Musical.

Black and Blue (1989)
Performed at the age of 15. For this performance, he became one of the youngest performers ever nominated for a Tony Award.

Jelly's Last Jam (1992)
In Jelly's Last Jam (1992), the tap dancing was choreographed by Ted Levy and Gregory Hines, who starred as Jelly Roll Morton. Glover played the role of "Young Jelly",
and was nominated for the Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical.

Bring in 'Da Noise, Bring in 'Da Funk (1996)
Glover performed in this musical and also choreographed it. He was nominated for the Tony Award, Actor in a Musical for his roles as Lil' Dahlin' and 'da Beat and for Choreography. "Mr. Glover meticulously and respectfully demonstrates the techniques made famous by each, then blends them all into an exultant stylistic brew that belongs to no one but him. As dance, as musical, as theater, as art, as history and entertainment, there's nothing Noise/Funk cannot and should not do." -The New York Times.

Shuffle Along, or, the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed (2016)
Glover choreographed the musical Shuffle Along, or, the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed, which opened in 2016 at the Music Box Theatre. He has been nominated for a Tony Award for Best Choreography and a Drama Desk Award for his work on the musical.

Filmography

Film
1988 - Driving Me Crazy, Audition artist, First Run
1989 - Tap, as Louis, TriStar
2000 - Bamboozled, as Manray/Mantan, New Line
2001 - The Making of Bamboozled
2000 - Barbra Streisand's "Timeless"
2006 - Happy Feet, choreography and motion capture for "Mumble"
2011 - Happy Feet 2, choreography for "Mumble"

Television
Shangri-La Plaza, 1990 CBS pilot
Sesame Street (1990–95) (also known as Les amis de Sesame, Canadian Sesame Street, The New Sesame Street, Open Sesame, and Sesame Park), as Savion, on PBS
Dance in America: Tap!
Black Film Makers Hall of Fame
The Kennedy Center Honors
Academy Awards Ceremony (1996) for Tom Hanks tribute
The Wall, as Bracey Mitchell, 1998 Showtime TV movie
The Rat Pack, as the choreographer, 1998 HBO TV movie
Bojangles, as Newcomer, 2001 Showtime TV movie
So You Think You Can Dance: The Next Generation (2016) - Choreographer
The Talk (2018) - Routine with co-host Sheryl Underwood as part of the show's New Year's Evolution

Episodic
1987 - Super Dave
1998 - Sin City Spectacular (also known as Penn & Teller's Sin City Spectacular), FX
1999 - The Jamie Foxx Show, "Taps for Royal," The WB
1999 - Saturday Night Live, (Uncredited), NBC
2000 - Odyssey, America!
2003 - Cedric the Entertainer Presents, Bartholomew, Fox

TV specials
1989 - Tap Dance in America (also known as Gregory Hines' Tap Dance in America), PBS
1991 - The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts, CBS
1992 - Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, NBC
1992 - Jammin': Jelly Roll Morton on Broadway (documentary), PBS
1993 - Sesame Street Stays Up Late! (also known as Sesame Street Stays Up Late! A Monster New Year's Eve Party), as Savion, PBS
1994 - Sesame Street's All-Star 25th Birthday: Stars and Street Forever!, ABC
1994 - In a New Light `94, ABC
1995 - The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts, CBS
1996 - Vanessa Williams & Friends: Christmas in New York, ABC
1997 - It Just Takes One, USA
1997 - 53rd Presidential Inaugural Gala, CBS
1998 - Slide and Swing with Savion Glover, Stomp, PBS
1998 - Savion Glover's Nu York, as the Host, ABC
1998 - Savion Glover's Nu York, Executive producer and choreographer, ABC
1998 - The First 50 Years, Quincy Jones, ABC
1998 - The New Jersey Performing Arts Center Opening Night Gala, PBS,
1999 - Disney's Young Musicians Symphony Orchestra in Concert, Disney Channel
1999- The Jamie Foxx Show
2000 - The Steadfast Tin Soldier: An Animated Special from the "Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child" Series (animated), the voice of toy dancer, HBO
2001 - Barbra Streisand-Timeless, Brother Time, Fox
2001 - Barbra Streisand-Timeless, as the choreographer, Fox
2002 - Olympic Winter Games, Closing ceremony, NBC
2002 - AFI Life Achievement Award: A Tribute to Tom Hanks, USA

Awards presentations
1989 - The 61st Annual Academy Awards Presentation, ABC
1989 - 16th Annual Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame, syndicated
1996 - The 68th Annual Academy Awards Presentation, ABC
1997 - Launching the Tonys, as the Presenter, Broadway `97, PBS
1997 - The 51st Annual Tony Awards, CBS
1997 - 39th Grammy Awards, CBS
1998 - The 13th Annual Stellar Gospel Music Awards, syndicated
1998 - 12th Annual Soul Train Music Awards, syndicated
1999 - 30th NAACP Image Awards, Fox
2001 - The 32nd NAACP Image Awards, Fox

Music videos
2001 - "Timeless: Live in Concert", Brother Time
Also appeared in the music video "Attack Me with Your Love" by Cameo  (1985)
Also appeared in the music video "Havana" by Kenny G
Also appeared in the music video "It's All About the Benjamins" by Puff Daddy and the Family

Stage appearances
1984 - The Tap Dance Kid, (Broadway debut) Title character
1989–91- Black and Blue, Minskoff Theatre, Broadway
1992–93 - Jelly's Last Jam, as Young Jelly, Virginia Theatre, Broadway
1996–97 - Bring in da Noise, Bring in da Funk, Ambassador Theatre, Broadway
1998 - Savion Glover: Downtown, Variety Arts Theatre, New York City
1999 - Keep Bangin′, Players Theatre, New York City
2001 - Foot Notes, Wilshire Theatre, Los Angeles
2002 - Savion Glover with TiDii the Egg, Empire State Plaza, Albany, NY

Tours
 Foot Notes, The Concert, U. S. cities
2002 - Bring in da Noise, Bring in da Funk, U.S. cities/international cities
Also toured U.S. cities in Jelly's Last Jam
2013 - Stepz, U.S. cities/London

Albums
1989 - Black and Blue (original cast recording), DRG
1992 - Jelly's Last Jam (original cast recording), Mercury
1995 - Hot Jazz for a Cool Yule, Pacific Vista Productions
1996 - Bring in da Noise, Bring in da Funk (original cast recording), RCAVictor
1996 - "Prince: Joint 2 Joint" (tap dance breakdown), from the album Emancipation
2002 - "Talib Kweli-Stand 2 the side", from the album Quality

Publications

Books
1997 - Contemporary Black Biography, Volume 14, Gale
1997 - Newsmakers, Issue 4, Gale
2000 - Savion! My Life in Tap, with Bruce Weber, HarperCollins

Periodicals
November 1994 Dance Magazine
April 1996 Dance Magazine
May 23, 1998 TV Guide, p. 6

Awards
1996 - Tony Award for Best Choreography for Bring in 'Da Noise, Bring in 'Da Funk
1992 - Dance Magazine Award for choreography, making him the youngest recipient in N.E.A. history.

See also
 List of dancers

References

Sources
 Brantley, Ben, "THEATER REVIEW;Story of Tap as the Story of Blacks", Rev. of Broadway. The New York Times, November 16, 1995. Retrieved February 13, 2011.
 Filmbug. "Savion Glover". Filmbug Movie Stars. New Line Cinema, January 1, 2000. Retrieved February 13, 2011.
 Hill, Constance Valis, "Tap Dancing America". Oxford University Press. Retrieved February 10, 2011.
 Kisselgoff, Anna. "DANCE VIEW; Elegant Ghosts Haunt 'Black and Blue'", New York Times, May 21, 1989. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
 Lahr, John. Light Fantastic: Adventures in Theatre. New York: Dial, 1996. Print.
 "Savion Glover Biography (1973-)". Film Reference. NetIndustries, LLC. January 1, 2010. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
 Rich, Frank. "STAGE: A BOY AND HIS DREAMS IN 'TAP DANCE KID'", Rev. of Broadway. The New York Times, December 22, 1983. Retrieved February 12, 2011.

External links

 Archival footage of Savion Glover performing in 2002 at Jacob's Pillow
 Archival footage of Savion Glover performing in 2005 at Jacob's Pillow

1973 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
African-American choreographers
African-American male actors
African-American male child actors
African-American male dancers
American choreographers
American male child actors
American male dancers
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American tap dancers
Drama Desk Award winners
History of Newark, New Jersey
Male actors from New Jersey
Male actors from Newark, New Jersey
Musicians from Newark, New Jersey
Newark Arts High School alumni
Tony Award winners

Savion Glover


Matteo Pérez de Alesio (1547–1628) was an Italian painter of devotional, historical and maritime subjects during the Mannerist period. He was also known as Matteo da Lecce by virtue of his hometown of Lecce. He spent the majority of his entire artistic career in Peru, where he lived more than 40 years, between 1588 and 1628.

Biography

Matteo Pérez was the son of Antonio de Alessio and Madama Lucente. He was born in Lecce in the Apulia region.

Italy, Malta and Seville

He studied under Michelangelo, working on the Sistine Chapel, in the Vatican, painting the Fall of the Angels in the facade facing Michelangelo's Last Judgment. He was a member of the Accademia di San Luca in Rome. He also painted an altarpiece for Sant'Eligio degli Orefici.

He travelled to Naples where he met the artist Pablo Moron, who became his long standing assistant. Perez's works in Rome include the fresco The Dispute over the Body of Moses (circa 1574) in the Sistine Chapel; frescoes in the Villa d'Este in Tivoli and the Villa Mondragone in Frascati. He also worked in Malta (from 1576), Seville (in the 1580s) and Lima (from 1589), where he died.

The Hall of St Michael and St George, also known as the Throne Room, of the Grandmaster's Palace, Valletta, is decorated with 13 of his frescoes showing the events of the great siege of Malta by the Turks in 1565. He is credited with having introduced mannerism to Malta with his frescoes. These were painted from 1575 to 1581, at the same time as the oil paintings of the same scene, four of  which can be found in the Cube Room of the Queen's House, Greenwich, London. Among his other works in Malta there is the Baptism of Christ which was originally the titular painting of the St. John's Co-Cathedral.

He migrated to Spain in 1583.  He completed a monumental fresco, in 1584, in the cathedral of Seville, representing a giant St. Christopher carrying the Infant Saviour on his shoulder. He painted in 1587 the same subject for the church of San Miguel, and he also painted in other public edifices at Seville.

Peru

Pérez de Alesio came to Lima from Rome, accompanied by his disciple and helper Pedro Pablo Morón whom he had contracted as an apprentice in 1583. Morón was to serve him as a helper with a salary of 200 ducados for the 10 years that the contract would last. In 1593, Pérez de Alesio renewed the contract for another 2 and a half years, giving Morón three times the original agreed upon amount. He renewed the contract again for another two years in 1595.

Contracts dating from 1588 to 1628 place Pérez de Alesio in Lima. He brought with him a collection of prints by Dürer and opened a workshop that attracted a number of students and disciples, including Pedro Pablo Morón but also Francisco García (in 1595); the Augustinian friar Francisco Bejarano (in 1599); Domingo Gil from 1600 to 1603; Cosme Ferrero Figueroa and later his son Adriano; forming what Rubén Vargas Ugarte described as one of the first art academies in Lima. In 1590 he painted a portrait of the viceroy García Hurtado de Mendoza, the fourth Marques of Cañete, and as a result he signed a document as "Painter of his Lordship the Lord Viceroy." In 1592 he achieved the degree of Gentleman of the Company of Arcabuz Horsemen of the "Guard of this Kingdom of Peru"

According to a document dated 1591 from the Peruvian Nacional Archive, recorded by the scribe Córdova [f. 376] he contracted to make several paintings for the general Don Antonio Picado for 300 pesos, among these paintings an image of the Virgin Mary on a copper plate; and a full-length portrait of Picado's wife, Doña Mayor Bravo de Saravia. Antonio Picado was procurador for the city of  Arequipa, where Pérez de Alesio made the main altarpiece of the church of Saint Dominic. He carved an altarpiece for the Mercedarian church of Huánuco as well.

In 1595 Pérez de Alesio acquired from Francisco López, for 350 pesos, 50 portraits of figures that López had brought from Castille. Aside from his art, Pérez de Alesio also tried to make his fortune in the gold and silver mines of Vilcabamba (Cusco) and Huancavelica. Many documents of mercantile and business exchanges survive that attest to his activity in these areas; these documents rarely mention his artistic facet.

In 1600 he was charged with the adornment of the main chapel of the church of Saint Dominic of Lima, along with Morón, but some documents suggest that this work had already begun between 1593 and 1594 thanks to a donation from Don Alonso Picado in support of Pérez de Alesio's work.

In 1606, at the request of Juan de Vega, he painted seven paintings for one of the churches of Huánuco. The paintings were of relatively small size and included as themes "Christ with the Cross on his back and his Holy Mother" and another representing Jesus in on the cross.

Many biographies describe him as dying in 1616, but a contract of 1628 rejects this theory; in that year he sold an image of the Virgin Mary to the friar Francisco Puche of the order of Saint Benito for the church of Monserrate. In the same year he also decorated, with Morón, the funerary chapel of Captain Bernardo de Villegas and his wife Marcela de Montoya in the church of La Merced in Lima.

Works

In Europe

 Villa d'Este Tívoli: Private Chapel of Cardinal Hipólito (1572), with Federico Zuccari.
 Villa Mondragone
 Chapel of Gonfalone
 Church of Saint Catherine of the Rotta: The Virgin with Child between Saint Catherine and Saint Apollonia
 Church of San Eglio degli Orefici (1570 – 1571):
 Frescos:
 Virgin with Child surrounded by saints, the Holy Father, and the Crucifixion (dome)
 Prophets (side)
 Sistine Chapel:
 Defense of the Body of Moses 1574-75
 Portrait of Pope Marcelo I (according to Redig de Campos)
 Cathedral of Seville:
 Saint Christopher (fresco)
Church of Saint James of Seville:
 Saint James the Moor-killer at the Battle of Clavijo

In Peru

 Portrait of the Viceroy García Hurtado de Mendoza
 Church of Saint Dominic:
 Life of Saint Dominic (church and cloister of the monastery)
 Saint Jerome with Donor (crossing of the church)

Contested works

 Mercedarian Church of Lima:
 Fresco in the cupula and pendentives of the chapel of Captain Villegas (according to the Argentinian historian Prof. Schenone)
 Small altarpiece of Huánuco - Painting on wood of Saint Augustine (copper on wood) and Saint Nicholas Tolentine (proposed by the historian Luis Enrique Thorn)
 Basílica y Convento de San Francisco de Lima (Church and Monastery of Saint Francis of Lima):
 Murals of the life of Saint Francis
 Convent of Saint Rose:
 Virgin of the Milk

References

External links

Italian Renaissance painters
Mannerist painters
1547 births
1616 deaths
Catholic painters
People from Lecce
Italian Roman Catholics
16th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
17th-century Italian painters
Peruvian Mannerist painters

Matteo Pérez


An atom is the basic unit of matter. All normal matter – everything that has mass – is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest and simplest particle of matter. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts.

Atoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments.

Atoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. They are in the middle of the atom, the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together.

Atoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge.

Atoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction.

Atoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom.

History
The word "atom" comes from the Greek (ἀτόμος) "atomos", which means indivisible or uncuttable. One of the first people to use the word "atom" is the Greek philosopher Democritus, around 400 BC. He thought that everything was made of particles called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly philosophical subject, with not much scientific investigation or study, until the early 1800s.

In 1777 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier defined the term element as we now use it. He said that an element was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of chemistry. Any substance which could be broken down was a compound.

In 1803, English philosopher John Dalton suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same mass. He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers.

In 1827, British scientist Robert Brown looked at pollen grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called Brownian motion. In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question.

In 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. The periodic table groups elements by their atomic number (how many protons they have; this is usually the same as the number of electrons). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are gases that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as noble gases.

The physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with cathode rays in 1897. He learned they had a negative charge, and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the plum pudding model, which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge).

In 1909, Ernest Rutherford used the Geiger–Marsden experiment to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the atomic nucleus. Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot alpha particles (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered protons in the nucleus.

In 1913, Niels Bohr created the Bohr model. This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true.

In 1925, chemist Frederick Soddy discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called isotopes. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist Francis William Aston built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist James Chadwick shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the neutron.

The best model so far comes from the Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the electron cloud. In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schrödinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's orbital.

In 1937, German chemist Otto Hahn became the first person to make nuclear fission in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a uranium atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a barium atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had "broken" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power, where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction.

Later in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using particle accelerators, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks.

Structure and parts

Parts

An atom is made of three main particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about  grams). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about  grams).  Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, ions have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge.

Scientists believe that electrons are elementary particles: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of quarks of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark.

Nucleus

The nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10−15 m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high density.

Usually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the strong nuclear force. This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called mesons travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force.

The number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through radioactive decay. When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. Nuclear fission is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of energy. This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making bombs, and electricity in the form of nuclear power.
The other way nuclei can change is through nuclear fusion, when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in stars like our Sun, which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy.

The energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its nuclear binding energy. This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula E = mc2. Medium-sized nuclei, such as iron-56 and nickel-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion.

Electrons

Electrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's electron cloud. They are attracted to the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force. Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other.

The Bohr model shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called electron shells. Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a chemical reaction. If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete.

The Bohr model is important because it has the idea of energy levels. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a photon hits an electron, the electron can jump into a higher-energy shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum.  An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a lower energy shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the emission spectrum.

The complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the probability, or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an orbital, which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different spin.

For each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three quantum numbers. The principal quantum number is the electron shell number. The azimuthal quantum number is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a magnetic quantum number, but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a chlorine atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have:
2 electrons in the 1s orbital
2 electrons in the 2s orbital
6 electrons in the 2p orbitals
2 electrons in the 3s orbital
5 electrons in the 3p orbitals
In other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell.

Properties

Atomic number

The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the periodic table.

Atomic mass and weight
Because protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass, and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its mass number.  Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13.

Sometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its atomic mass. This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is  grams. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, oganesson, has a mass of about 294 amu, or  grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its atomic weight.

Size
The size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is caesium, which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is helium, which is about 0.062 nanometers wide.

How atoms interact
When atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or kinetic energy, of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a solid. If the attraction is weaker, they will form a liquid, and if it is even weaker, they will form a gas.

Chemical bonds are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds.
Atoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called noble gases, do not usually form bonds.

There are three main kinds of bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.

In an ionic bond, one atom gives electrons to another atom. Each atom becomes an ion: an atom or group of atoms with a positive or negative charge. The positive ion (which has lost electrons) is called a cation; it is usually a metal. The negative ion (which has gained electrons) is called an anion; it is usually a nonmetal. Ionic bonding usually results in a regular network, or crystal, of ions held together.

In a covalent bond, two atoms share electrons. This usually happens when both atoms are nonmetals. Covalent bonds often form molecules, ranging in size from two atoms to many more. They can also form large networks, such as glass or graphite. The number of bonds that an atom makes (its valency) is usually the number of electrons needed to fill its outer electron shell.

In a metallic bond, electrons travel freely between many metal atoms. Any number of atoms can bond this way. Metals conduct electric current because electric charge can easily flow through them. Atoms in metals can move past each other, so it is easy to bend, stretch, and change the shape of metals.

All atoms attract each other by Van der Waals forces. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract.

Although atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force.

Magnetism
To understand how magnets work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its magnetic moment. Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's spin and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a magnetic field.

Every electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same orbital, the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field.

However, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.

Radioactive decay

Some elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an unstable nucleus. This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through radiation. An atom that does this is called radioactive. Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive.

There are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma.
 Alpha decay is when the atom shoots out a particle having two protons and two neutrons. This is a helium-4 nucleus. The result is an element with an atomic number of two less than before. So, for example, if a uranium atom (atomic number 92) went through alpha decay, it would become thorium (atomic number 90). Alpha decay happens when an atom is too big and needs to lose some mass.
 Beta decay is when a neutron turns into a proton, or a proton turns into a neutron. In the first case, the atom shoots out an electron. In the second case, it shoots out a positron (like an electron but with a positive charge). The result is an element with one higher or one lower atomic number than before. Beta decay happens when an atom has either too many protons or too many neutrons.
 Gamma decay is when an atom shoots out a gamma ray, or wave. It happens when there is a change in the energy of the nucleus. This is usually after a nucleus has gone through alpha or beta decay. There is no change in the atom's mass, or atomic number, only in the stored energy inside the nucleus, in the form of particle spin.

Every radioactive element or isotope has a half-life. This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element.

Creation of atoms
Nearly all the hydrogen atoms in the Universe, most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the Big Bang. Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.

All other atoms come from nuclear fusion in stars, or sometimes from cosmic rays that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, red dwarfs, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28).  Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in supernovae. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun.

People make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in particle accelerators. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. Oganesson (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future.

Related pages
Atomic physics, for more detail about the physics of atoms
Atomic theory, for more detail about the history
Exotic atom, an atom with different parts instead of protons, neutrons, and electrons
Quantum mechanics, the study of small particles and how they interact with energy
States of matter, the different forms in which atoms or molecules can be found

Sources

References

Bibliography

Other websites

 Atom (science) -Citizendium
 General information on atomic structure

Chemistry
Nuclear physics

Atom


Richmond Pearson Hobson (August 17, 1870 – March 16, 1937) was a United States Navy rear admiral who served from 1907–1915 as a U.S. Representative from Alabama. A veteran of the Spanish–American War, he received the Medal of Honor years later for his part in that conflict. He later became a leading proponent of Prohibition in the United States.

Early life and career
He was born at Magnolia Grove in Greensboro in Hale County in the western Black Belt of Alabama. He was the son of Sarah Pearson and James M Hobson. He was the nephew of Richmond Pearson (1852–1923) and the grandson of Justice Richmond Mumford Pearson (1805–1878). He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1889. He was ostracized by his fellow midshipmen for his total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco. He maintained a superb academic record, graduating first in his class and became the highest ranking midshipman: cadet battalion commander (today's brigade commander). After duty in Chicago, he underwent additional training and was appointed assistant Naval Constructor in 1891. Hobson then served at various navy yards and facilities, including a tour of duty as instructor at the Naval Academy.

Spanish–American War
In the early days of the Spanish–American War, he was with Admiral William T. Sampson in New York, and arrived off Santiago on June 1, 1898. In order to bottle up the Spanish Navy squadron of Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, Hobson took temporary command of the collier Merrimac, which he would attempt to sink as an obstruction in the channel leading to Santiago Harbor, Cuba. The attempt was made early June 3, under heavy Spanish fire, which disabled the steering gear of the collier. Hobson did sink Merrimac, but was unable to place her in the shallowest part of the channel. With his crew of six, he was picked up by Admiral Cervera himself and treated quite chivalrously.

Hobson became a hero of the American press while he was a prisoner of war in Cuba. His portrait appeared in hundreds of newspapers with embellished stories of his bravery in volunteering for what was perceived as a suicide mission. A fund was raised to aid his parents in avoiding foreclosure of their mortgage. When Hobson was released during a prisoner exchange on July 6, 1898, hundreds of American troops snapped to attention, then burst into cheers as he passed. He was deluged with speaking invitations when he returned to the United States. After dining with President William McKinley, Hobson traveled west by train en route to San Francisco and the Philippines. Crowds greeted his train at many stations, and his enthusiasm for kissing admiring young women made him a sex symbol of the Victorian age. He became a sort of celebrity during the rise of popular journalism at the turn of the century and was referred to as "the most kissed man in America."

Hobson authored a book, published in 1899, about the events surrounding the sinking of Merrimac.

Postwar career
Hobson was advanced ten numbers in grade after the war and was promoted to naval constructor with the rank of lieutenant to date from June 23, 1898. Following the end of the war, he helped repair and refit captured Spanish cruisers at Cavite and at various Navy shore stations.  In 1899 he became a Veteran Companion of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of Foreign Wars.  He was also a Companion of the New York Commandery of the Naval and Military Order of the Spanish War.

As of January 1, 1902 Hobson had been promoted to captain with date of rank of June 23, 1898. After an unsuccessful attempt to retire, he resigned from the Navy in 1903. His resignation prompted  Secretary of the Navy William Henry Moody to reconsider and allow him to retire.

In 1933, he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his attempt to block the channel. He was the only Navy officer to receive the Medal of Honor for heroism during the Spanish–American War.

Political career

After resigning from active duty in 1903, Hobson remained a staunch supporter of the navy and during his subsequent career as a Democratic U.S. Representative from Alabama, 1907–1915, was a firm advocate of naval expansion. He was denied renomination in the 1914 Democratic primary and was notable for being the only congressman from the Deep South to vote for the (failed) women's suffrage bill in the 1915 lame duck session. In 1934, by special act of the United States Congress, he was advanced to naval constructor with a rank of rear admiral and placed on the retired list. He died on March 16, 1937, in New York City and is interred in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

Role in American drug policy

After leaving Congress, Hobson became very active in the cause of banning drugs and alcohol, earning the nickname "The Father of American Prohibition". Hobson first became involved in the issue during the Philippine–American War when he lobbied Congress to take a tougher stand against the illegal drug trade in the Philippines. Hobson eventually came to view alcohol to be as dangerous as narcotics. In 1913, he led a major Anti-Saloon League and Women's Christian Temperance Union demonstration in Washington D.C. for a federal prohibition of alcohol in the United States. Along with Morris Sheppard, he introduced a constitutional amendment to do so in 1914, which was ratified in 1919 as the 18th Amendment. Hobson was a prolific author on this subject, writing the books Narcotic Peril (1925), The Modern Pirates-Exterminate Them (1931) and Drug Addiction: A Malignant Racial Cancer (1933), speaking on radio programs and in front of civic groups, founding the International Narcotic Education Association and lobbying his former Congressional colleagues in favor of anti-drug laws. During the 1920s and '30s, Hobson was the Anti-Saloon League's highest-paid special speaker.

Personal life and legacy
In 1905, Hobson married Grizelda Houston Hull, cousin of U.S. Army General Joseph Wheeler, in Tuxedo Park, New York. The couple's son, Richmond P. "Rich" Hobson, Jr., became a rancher in Canada and wrote several popular memoirs of his time there. Hobson's nephew, James Hobson Morrison, Sr., was the Democratic congressman from the Baton Rouge-centered Sixth Congressional District of Louisiana from 1943 to 1967.

One of Hobson's close friends was the inventor Nikola Tesla. Tesla served as the best man in Hobson's wedding. In later years, Hobson was the only person who was able to persuade Tesla to interrupt his intellectual pursuits for a movie gathering.

The destroyer  was named in his honor. A small town in south Texas was renamed from Castine to Hobson after he spoke there on a railroad tour. A small town in north-central Alabama, Hobson City, Alabama, also took his name.

Medal of Honor citation

Rank and organization: Lieutenant, U.S. Navy. Born: 17 August 1870, Greensboro, Ala. Accredited to: New York. (Medal presented by President, 29 April 1933.)

Citation:

In connection with the sinking of the U.S.S. Merrimac at the entrance to the fortified harbor of Santiago de Cuba, 3 June 1898. Despite persistent fire from the enemy fleet and fortifications on shore, Lt. Hobson distinguished himself by extraordinary courage and carried out this operation at the risk of his own personal safety.

See also

 List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Spanish–American War

References

External links

1870 births
1937 deaths
People from Greensboro, Alabama
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
United States Navy rear admirals
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy personnel of the Spanish–American War
Spanish–American War prisoners of war held by Spain
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Spanish–American War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Alabama
American temperance activists
Activists from Alabama
American suffragists
United States Navy personnel of World War I

Richmond P. Hobson


Purana itihaas (Pre-history) uu jamana ke bola jaawe hae jab ki insaan likhe nai sakat rahaa.

Pre-history, you time suruu hoe jab ki univerce banaa rahaa lekin iske jaada kar ke uu time se suruu karaa jaawe hae jab ki dunia me koi jinda chij suruu bhaes. dinosaur ke prehistoric janwar bola jaawe hae kahe ki uu time ke log likhe nai sakat rahin. Pre-history ke baare me bahut chij nai jaana jaawe hae lekin tools, bones, aur cave drawings dekh ke ii jaana ke baare me samjha jawa jaae sake hae.

Pre-history ke time log jhunnd me raha trahin jiske tribes bola jawe hae aur ii logan gufaa aur tambuu me rahat rahin. Ii lgan simple tools jaise ki lakrri,haddi ke kaam me laae ke ghar ke chij aur janwar ke maare ke kaam me lawat rahin. Ii logan aagi banawat rahin flint aur steel se aur aagi ke kaam me laae ke khana banawat rahin aur apne ke garam rakkhat rahin. Ii logan janwar ke chamrraa se aapan kaprraa bnawat rahin.

Timeline of Earth

 4,500 million saal pahile – Chhota chhota patthar jon ki Suraj ke round kare hae, se dunia banaa.
 3,500 million saal pahile – pahila, bahut siple aur chhota jinda chij pahila dafe saundar me bhais
 600 million saal pahile - pahila janwar, samundar me
 500 million saal pahile - pahila janwar aur perr, jamiin me
 230 million saal pahile – pahila dinosour
 65 million saal pahile – dinosour mar gain aur janwar iske jagha aain
 30 million saal pahile - pahila bandar
 2.5 million saal pahile - pahila insaan

Timeline of people

 2.5 million years ago – Start of Lower Paleolithic age, during which a type of early human called Australopithicus lived. These people made tools out of bones and stones and made shelters out of branches.
 1 million years ago – A type of early human called Homo erectus lived. People made hand axes and wooden spears.
 250, 000 years ago – First Homo sapiens (modern people). People make fire. People use bolas. People hunt elephants.
 100, 000 years ago – Middle Paleolithic age. Neanderthal people lived. People live in caves and make cave drawings. People begin to bury dead people.
 40, 000 years ago – Upper Paleolithic age. Cro-Magnon people lived. People make spears from antlers. People make houses from hides (animal skins). People paint cave drawings and make things out of clay. People make needles out of antlers. People make jewellery.
 16, 000 years ago – Ice age ends in Britain. People make bows and arrows. People use dogs to hunt and to carry things.
 18, 000 BCE – 9, 500 BCE – Mesolithic age. People start to change from hunting and gathering food to growing crops.
 8, 000 BCE – People in the Near East grow crops. People use farm animals.
 7, 000 BCE – People use copper to make tools.
 6, 000 BCE – British Isles move away from Europe.
 4, 500 BCE – 2, 300 BCE – Neolithic age.
 2, 580 BCE – The Egyptians build the Great Pyramids in Giza. People in the Middle East use iron and make plows.
 2, 400 BCE – People make Stonehenge in England.
 3, 300 BCE – 1, 200 BCE – Bronze Age. People make tools out of bronze.
 1, 200 BCE – 400 CE – Iron Age. People make tools out of iron. Roman Empire rises and falls.

Purana itihaas


A gesture is a form of nonverbal communication. Unlike verbal communication, which uses words, gestures use movements of the body.

Gestures are deliberate acts with a purpose, not just any movements. They are handled in the human brain by the same centres which handle language. In the neocortex, Broca's and Wernicke's areas, are used by speech and sign language.

Other movements of the body have meaning, but are not gestures. They may be done by actors deliberately, but normally they are automatic, unconscious signals which express various feelings or states of mind. Many animals communicate extensively using such behaviours. The dog, a companion to humans for a long time, is good at reading both gestures and behaviours. Multi-touch computers have been made to read gestures.

Gestures have a cultural significance (meaning). The same gesture can mean different things in different cultures and different parts of the world.

Examples
 High five – a greeting or sign of happiness
 Facepalm – showing frustration
 Sign of the cross – religious gesture
 V sign – victory or peace sign

Anti-examples
These are not gestures, because they are not voluntary, deliberate actions. They are inherited automatic reactions or reflexes.
Screaming out in great pain or terror.
Baring our teeth in anger
Cowering, turning the face away and running in terror.
Many behaviours of babies, such as suckling on nipples.
Humans can modify these reactions to some extent with training and practice, but they are fundamentally caused by hormones and brain centres which are very ancient.

Related pages
Non-verbal communication
Unconscious mind
Acting
Paul Watzlawick

References

Non-verbal communication

Gesture


The Catholic Encyclopedia, or the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English language encyclopedia. It was published by The Encyclopedia Press. The first volume appeared in March 1907. It was completed in April 1914.

The encyclopedia was designed for the Roman Catholic Church. It does not include information which has nothing to do with the Church. It explains matters from the point of view of the official Catholic doctrine, as it was during the time of Pope Pius X. It tells the accomplishments of Catholics and some others in nearly all intellectual and professional pursuits. These include artists, educators, poets and scientists.

Encyclopedias
Roman Catholicism

Catholic Encyclopedia


Battle of the year (acronym BOTY) is a worldwide breakdancing tournament held every year. In 1990, Thomas Hergenröther founded BOTY in Hannover, Germany. There were 9 crews and 400 visitors at that time. As break-dancing became more popular, BOTY grew in size and found a new location in Braunschweig, Germany.

Regional BOTY (BOTY France, BOTY Korea and so on) first takes place to choose a single crew that will represent each nation in the upcoming BOTY international. Representing crews compete against each other first in a showcase in which every crew presents their own choreographed performances within 6 minutes or so. According to the rankings of the showcase, 2 semi finals in total between 1st and 4th crew and 2nd and 3rd crew takes place. The final battle follows between the winners of the semi finals to judge the champion crew of the year.

Judging Criteria for a showcase include; synchronicity, stage-presence, theme & music and choreography.
Criteria for individual B-Boys include; top rock, footwork, freeze and power move.
Criteria for a battle include; response, routines, strategy and attitude.

References

http://www.battleoftheyear.de

Dance

Battle of the year


Philosophical Library is a United States publisher specializing in psychology, philosophy, religion, and history. It was founded in 1941 by Dagobert D. Runes to publish the works of European intellectuals after the 1930s diaspora in the face of racial and religious discrimination.  It has published works for 22 Nobel Prize winners and other key figures including Albert Einstein, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Arnold Schoenberg, Paramahansa Yogananda and Albert Schweitzer.

Philosophical Library's top sellers include Einstein's Out of My Later Years, Khalil Gibran's Tears and Laughter, Max Planck's Classical Mathematics, and Sartre's Being and Nothingness.

The company is based in New York City.

Since 2007, the company has reissued out-of-print titles as print-on-demand through Amazon.com.

References

Book publishing companies based in New York (state)
Publishing companies established in 1941

Philosophical Library


A shire is an administrative area of Great Britain (also county) and Australia. It is a kind of local government.

History
The first shires were created by the Anglo-Saxons in central and southern England.  Shires were controlled by a royal official known as a "shire reeve" or sheriff. In modern English usage shires are sub-divided into districts.

Individually, or as a suffix in Scotland, the word is pronounced  (to rhyme with "fire"). As a suffix in an English or Welsh place name it is pronounced  (rhymes with "fir").

Shires in Great Britain
In England and Wales, the term "shire county" is used to refer to counties which are not metropolitan counties.

It can also be used in a narrower sense, referring only to traditional counties ending in "shire".  These counties are typically (though not always) named after their county town.

Shires in England
Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Herefordshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Wiltshire, Worcestershire, Yorkshire.

Of these, all but Huntingdonshire and Yorkshire are also administrative counties (but with different boundaries).  Huntingdonshire is now administered as a district of Cambridgeshire, and Yorkshire is split between East, North, South and West Yorkshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Cumbria and County Durham.

Shires in Wales
Brecknockshire, Caernafonshire, Cardiganshire, Carmarthenshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Montgomeryshire, Pembrokeshire, Radnorshire

In Wales, the counties of Merioneth and Glamorgan are occasionally referred to with the "shire" suffix. The only traditional Welsh county that never takes "shire" is Anglesey.

Shires in Scotland
Aberdeenshire, Ayrshire, Banffshire, Berwickshire, Clackmannanshire, Cromartyshire, Dumfriesshire, Dunbartonshire, Fifeshire, Inverness-shire, Kincardineshire, Kinross-shire, Kirkcudbrightshire, Lanarkshire, Morayshire, Nairnshire, Peeblesshire, Perthshire, Renfrewshire, Ross-shire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire, Stirlingshire, Wigtownshire

Shires in Australia
Shire is the most common word in Australia for the smallest local government areas by population. The states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia use shire for this unit. South Australia and Tasmania use district. A shire has the same powers as the next largest units, the town and city.  In NSW, the expression 'The Shire' commonly refers to the Sutherland shire.

Related pages
Counties of England

Counties of the United Kingdom

Shire


The Hanged Man (XII) is the twelfth Major Arcana card in most traditional tarot decks. It is used in game playing as well as in divination.

It depicts a pittura infamante (), an image of a man being hanged upside-down by one ankle (the only exception being the Tarocco Siciliano, which depicts the man hanged by the neck instead). This method of hanging was a common punishment at the time for traitors in Italy. However, the solemn expression on his face traditionally suggests that he is there by his own accord, and the card is meant to represent self-sacrifice more so than it does corporal punishment or criminality.

In other interpretations, The Hanged Man is a depiction of the Norse god Odin, who suspended himself from a tree in order to gain knowledge. There is also a Christian interpretation that portrays Judas Iscariot, and include the bags of silver in his hands. In the Lo Scarabeo African American tarot deck the 12th card of the major arcana is the Observer, depicting the Nigerian god "Ifa" of fate and destiny blindfolded and surrounded by eyes.

Description
A 1393 decree for Milan and Lombardy of the punishment for traitors: "Let him be drug [dragged] on a [wooden] plank at a horse's tail to the place of execution, and there be suspended by one foot to the gallows, and be left there until he is dead. As long as he lives let him be given food and drink."

Modern versions of the tarot deck depict a man hanging upside-down by one foot. The figure is most often suspended from a wooden beam (as in a cross or gallows) or a tree. Ambiguity results from the fact that the card itself may be viewed inverted.

In his 1910 book The Pictorial Key to the Tarot, A. E. Waite, the designer of the Rider–Waite tarot deck, wrote of the symbol:

The gallows from which he is suspended forms a Tau cross, while the figure—from the position of the legs—forms a fylfot cross. There is a nimbus about the head of the seeming martyr. It should be noted (1) that the tree of sacrifice is living wood, with leaves thereon; (2) that the face expresses deep entrancement, not suffering; (3) that the figure, as a whole, suggests life in suspension, but life and not death. [...] It has been called falsely a card of martyrdom, a card of prudence, a card of the Great Work, a card of duty [...] I will say very simply on my own part that it expresses the relation, in one of its aspects, between the Divine and the Universe.

Waite writes that the card carries several divinatory associations:

12. THE HANGED MAN.—Wisdom, circumspection, discernment, trials, sacrifice, intuition, divination, prophecy. Reversed: Selfishness, the crowd, body politic.

There is a halo burning brightly around the hanged man's head, signifying a higher learning or an enlightenment.

In astrology, the Hanged Man card is associated with the planet Neptune and the Pisces zodiac sign.

It can symbolize altruism, self-denial, a certain disinterest in worldly things. It is the passivity and the time to leave things still, in a parenthesis.

In media
In the manga and anime series JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Stardust Crusaders, tarot cards are used to name the characters' abilities, called 'Stands'. J. Geil has a Stand named The Hanged Man.

In The House of the Dead, each of its bosses in the mainline series are named after the Major Arcana Tarot Cards (excluding The Devil.) The second boss of the first installment (Type 041) is named after the Hanged Man card (Spelt as Hangedman). It also appears in the first level, kidnapping the main character's fiance, Sophie.

In the online interactive music series Milgram, Kayano Mikoto, Prisoner 009, has multiple references to The Hanged Man in his music videos. In his first trial music video, "MeMe", Mikoto's shirt has a design that resembles the upside-down Hanged Man card, along with many other Tarot Card references present in the video. In his second trial music video, "Double", Mikoto's phone wallpaper resembles the same Hanged Man design.

References

Further reading
 A. E. Waite's 1910 Pictorial Key to the Tarot
 Hajo Banzhaf (2000), Tarot and the Journey of the Hero
 Wood, Juliette (1998). "The Celtic Tarot and the Secret Tradition: A Study in Modern Legend Making". Folklore 109: 15–24
 Francesca Lia Block (1999), The Hanged Man

External links

Major Arcana

The Hanged Man (tarot card)


The term Frontbann refers to a reorganized front organization of the Sturmabteilung or SA which was formed in April 1924. It was created to replace the SA which had been banned in the aftermath of the failed Munich Putsch. It was disbanded in February 1925 after the ban on the SA was lifted.

History
The Frontbann was a reorganized and renamed version of the SA. It was created in April 1924 as a substitute for the then banned SA in the aftermath of the failed "Beer Hall Putsch" of November 1923. The Nazi Party (NSDAP) including the SA was outlawed by the Weimar Republic government following the putsch. The Nazi Party was briefly renamed the National Socialist Freedom Party to maintain its legality and the SA was similarly renamed. Like the party it served, the Frontbann included the same members and performed the same functions as its predecessor. It contained many of the original members of the SA and was still led by Ernst Röhm. Frontbann units were formed throughout Germany. Kurt Daluege was the leader of the Frontbann unit in Berlin and Martin Bormann was a member of the unit in Thüringen. It had about 30,000 members across Germany.  The Frontbann was disbanded on February 27, 1925 when the ban was lifted on the Nazi Party and was reformed back into the SA.

The uniform
The Frontbann uniform was similar to the Nazi Party SA uniform. Instead of a brown shirt and brown cap, they wore a field grey shirt with a grey cap; otherwise, it was the same. The arm band was essentially the same as the one of the Nazi Party. The only change was the placement of a steel helmet at the centre of the red brassard, instead of the black swastika.

Frontbann badge

The Frontbann Badge (Frontbannabzeichen), was established in 1932 by the SA-Gruppe-Berlin-Brandenburg.  It was a badge to commemorate the Frontbann.  To be able to obtain and wear the badge, one had to have joined the Frontbann prior to December 31, 1927 and had membership in the Nazi Party or another right-wing paramilitary organisation prior to that date.  The badge was silver in color, had a pin back and measured 20 mm.  It consisted of a swastika with a German helmet in the middle; written on the arms of the swastika were the words, WIR-WOLLEN-FREI-WERDEN ("We want to be free").  It was listed as an official decoration of the Nazi Party in 1933. By the end of 1934 the authorization was removed.  It was no longer a badge that could be worn by NSDAP members.

Notes

References
 Ailsby, Christopher. The Third Reich: Day by Day.

Sturmabteilung
Orders, decorations, and medals of Nazi Germany

Frontbann


Netscape Communicator (or Netscape 4) is a discontinued Internet suite produced by Netscape Communications Corporation, and was the fourth major release in the Netscape line of browsers. It was first in beta in 1996 and was released in June 1997. Netscape Communicator addressed the problem of Netscape Navigator 3.x being used as both the name of the suite and the browser contained within it by renaming the suite to Netscape Communicator. It included more groupware features intended to appeal to enterprises.

In February 1998, Netscape announced that Mozilla.org would co-ordinate the development of Netscape Communicator 5 as "a dedicated team within Netscape with an associated Web site that will promote, foster and guide open dialog and development of Netscape's client source code." However, the aging Communicator code proved to be difficult to work with, so it was abandoned. The whole source code of Communicator was re-written by Mozilla, who were then testing it as Mozilla Application Suite. Netscape, now owned by AOL, finally released Communicator's successor Netscape 6 in November 2000, based on Mozilla Application Suite with changes and additions. Minor updates to Communicator continued to be issued, culminating in the release of Netscape Communicator 4.8 in August 2002.

Editions
Netscape Communicator was available in various editions, such as "Professional" and "Complete". The following components were included in Netscape Communicator (different editions had different components and some components were dropped in later editions):

Features
Netscape Navigator — Web browser
Netscape Messenger — e-mail client and (in version 4.5 and above) news client
Netscape Collabra — news client (merged into Messenger in version 4.5)
Netscape Address Book — address book
Netscape Composer — HTML editor
Netscape Netcaster — push technology client (dropped in version 4.5)
Netscape Conference — multi-user communication client (dropped in version 4.5)
Netscape Calendar — enterprise calendar client (dropped in version 4.72 because Netscape's license to use the underlying technology expired)

Updates
In October 1998, a major update to the program was released as Netscape 4.5. This included many improvements, mostly to the Messenger e-mail client, which now also took on the features of Collabra. However, some of the less popular components, such as Netcaster, were dropped. A feature called "Roaming Profiles" was added in version 4.5 that synchronized a user's bookmarks, address book and preferences with a remote server, so that a user's home and work browsers could have the same bookmarks. By the time version 4.5 was released, Netscape had started the Mozilla open source project and had ceased charging for Communicator.

The term "Navigator" referred to the browser component alone, while "Communicator" referred to the suite as a whole, as established in version 4.0. However, due to user confusion, the names were often used interchangeably. Also, because none of the applications besides Navigator were popular on their own, and because Netscape never produced any other desktop software that approached the popularity of Navigator, people would often refer to both the Communicator suite and the Navigator browser as simply "Netscape".

The Mozilla Foundation continued to develop the Netscape code base, providing the Mozilla Application Suite as a continuation of Netscape Communicator. The Mozilla Foundation decided in 2006 to discontinue development of the Application Suite. A community-maintained version called SeaMonkey has come to replace the Application Suite.

See also
List of web browsers
List of Usenet newsreaders
List of HTML editors
Comparison of web browsers
Comparison of Usenet newsreaders
Comparison of e-mail clients
Comparison of HTML editors
SeaMonkey application suite

References

External links

Netscape Browser Archive - Communicator , SillyDog701

1997 software
Cross-platform software
Discontinued software
Discontinued internet suites
Formerly proprietary software
Gopher clients
History of web browsers
Netscape
OS/2 web browsers

Netscape Communicator


In order to be able to work together, people and companies need to agree on a common set of rules, and units. These agreements are called standards. The process of agreeing is called standardization or standardisation.

Companies that have products which follow these rules can make their products work together.  One example of a standard is the two pin plug. It provides electricity. It is commonly found in household appliances. Many countries have adopted it. However, this is not the case for three-pin plugs: they are different in each country.

Agreements do not need to be technical. Lawyers can agree on a standard way to solve a problem, linguists can agree on what the "standard language" is, and bookkeepers can agree on rules how to evaluate a company.

Technology
Standards

Standardization


Sebastian Franck (20 January 1499 Donauwörth, Swabia – c. 1543 Basel, Switzerland) was a 16th-century German freethinker, humanist, and radical reformer.

Biography
Franck was born in 1499 in Donauwörth, Swabia. Because of this he styled himself Franck von Wörd. He entered the University of Ingolstadt on 26 March 1515, and afterwards went to Bethlehem College, incorporated with the university, as an institution of the Dominicans at Heidelberg. Here he met Martin Bucer and Martin Frecht, with whom he might have attended Luther's Heidelberg disputation in October 1518.

Originally ordained as a priest, in 1525 Franck went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became preacher at Gustenfelden. His first work was a German translation (with additions) of the first part of the Diallage (or Conciliatio locorum Scripturae), directed against Sacramentarians and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer, then deacon of St. Sebald at Nuremberg. On 17 March 1528 he married Ottilie Beham, supposedly the sister of the "godless" painters, Bartholomew and Sebald Beham, pupils of Albrecht Dürer and followers of Hans Denck. In the same year he wrote a treatise against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version of the Supplycacyon of the Beggers, written by the English Protestant Simon Fish. Franck, in his preface, says the original was in English; elsewhere he says it was in Latin; the theory that his German was really the original is not warranted.

Advance in his religious ideas led him to seek the freer atmosphere of Strasbourg in the autumn of 1529. To his translation (1530) of a Latin Chronicle and Description of Turkey (Turkenchronik), by a Transylvanian captive, which had been prefaced by Luther, he added an appendix holding up the Turk as in many respects an example to Christians. He also substituted, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, Zwinglian and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual church, universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At Strassburg began his friendship with Kaspar Schwenkfeld. Here he also published, in 1531, his most important work, the Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel, largely a compilation on the basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), and in its treatment of social and religious questions connected with the Reformation. In it he exhibited a strong sympathy with "heretics" and fairness to all kinds of freedom in opinion. As a German historian, he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold. Driven from Strassburg by the authorities, after a short imprisonment in December 1531, he tried to make a living in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen, removing in 1533 for a better market to Ulm, where on 28 October 1534 he was admitted as a burgess.

His Weltbuch, a supplement to his Chronica, was printed at Tübingen in 1534. His publication, in the same year, of the Paradoxa brought him into trouble with the authorities. An order for his banishment was withdrawn on his promise to submit future works for censure. Not interpreting this as applying to works printed outside Ulm, he published in 1538 at Augsburg his Guldin Arch and at Frankfort his Germaniae chronicon, with the result that he had to leave Ulm in January 1539. He seems to have had no settled abode from that time. At Basel he found work as a printer, and it was probably there that he died in the winter of 1542–1543. He had published in 1539 his Kriegbuchlein des Friedens, his Schrifftliche und ganz grundliche Auslegung des 64 Psalms, and his Das verbutschierte mit sieben Siegein verschlossene Buch (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of Scripture). In 1541 he published his Spruchwörter (a collection of proverbs). In 1542 he issued a new edition of his Paradoxa and some smaller works.

Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the mystic's devotion to the religion of the spirit. Luther contemptuously dismissed him as a mouthpiece of the devil. Martin Frecht of Nuremberg pursued him with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his last year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend Johann Campanus to maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge of heresy.

Franck came to believe that God communicates with individuals through a portion of the divine remaining in each human being. He came to dismiss the human institution of the church, and believed that theology could not properly claim to give expression to this inner word of God in the heart of the believer. For example, Franck wrote, "To substitute Scripture for the self-revealing Spirit is to put the dead letter in the place of the living Word..."

Franck's comment "God is an unutterable sigh, lying in the depths of the heart," quoted by Julius Wilhelm Zincgref was described by Ludwig Feuerbach as "the most remarkable, the profoundest, truest expression of Christian Mysticism"

Writings

 Autobiographical Letter to Johann Campanus (1531)
 Weltbuch (1534)
 Chronicle of Germany (1538)
 Golden Arch (1538)
 A Universal Chronicle of the World's History from the Earliest Times to the Present
 Book of the Ages
 Chronicle and Description of Turkey
 Paradoxa (1534)
 Preface and Translation into German of Althamer's Diallage
 Seven Sealed Book (1539)
 Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil
 Translation with Additions of Erasmus' Praise of Folly
 The Vanity of Arts and Sciences

Notes

References
 280 Paradoxes or Wondrous Sayings, by Sebastian Franck
 Sebastian Franck (1499–1542),

Attribution
  This work in turn cites:
 Hauck's Realencyklopädie (1899)
 C. A. Hase, Sebastian Franck von Wörd (1869)
 J. F. Smith, in Theological Review (April 1874)
 E. Tausch, Sebastian Franck von Donauwörth und seine Lehrer (1893)

External links
 Chronika (digital facsimile)
 Sebastian Franck in Strasbourg — by Geoffrey Dipple

1499 births
1540s deaths
16th-century Christian mystics
People from Donauwörth
German Renaissance humanists
Literature of the German Renaissance
Christian Hebraists
Heidelberg University alumni
University of Ingolstadt alumni
Protestant mystics
Christian radicals

Sebastian Franck


Deportation, means the removal of someone from a country. People may be deported from a country for many reasons. For example, one may be deported from a country if he has got into the country illegally, or without a visa (permission).

Deportation can also happen inside a country. A person or a group of people may be forced to move to a different part of the country, as a punishment.

Related pages
Ethnic cleansing
Forced migration
Political asylum

Migration laws

Deportation


The Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure, or Budapest Treaty, is an international treaty signed in Budapest, Hungary, on April 28, 1977. It entered into force on August 19, 1980, and was later amended on September 26, 1980. The treaty is administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

Membership
As of April 2022, 86 countries are party to the Budapest Treaty. The accession to the Treaty is open to States party to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883. The African Regional Industrial Property Organization (ARIPO), the Eurasian Patent Organization (EAPO) and the European Patent Organisation (EPO) have filed a declaration of acceptance under Article 9(1)(a) of the Treaty.

Content
The treaty allows "deposits of microorganisms at an international depositary authority to be recognized for the purposes of patent procedure". Usually, in order to meet the legal requirement of sufficiency of disclosure, patent applications and patents must disclose in their description the subject-matter of the invention in a manner sufficiently clear and complete to be carried out by the person skilled in the art (see also: reduction to practice). When an invention involves a microorganism, completely describing said invention in the description to enable third parties to carry it out is usually impossible. This is why, in the particular case of inventions involving microorganisms, a deposit of biological material must be made in a recognised institution.  The Budapest Treaty ensures that an applicant, i.e. a person who applies for a patent, needs not to deposit the biological material in all countries where he/she wants to obtain a patent. The applicant needs only to deposit the biological material at one recognised institution, and this deposit will be recognised in all countries party to the Budapest Treaty.

International depositary authority
The deposits are made at an international depositary authority (IDA) in accordance with the rules of the Treaty on or before the filing date of the complete patent application.  Article 7 of the Budapest treaty outlines the requirements for a facility to become an International Depositary Authority. As of July 23, 2018, there were 47 IDAs in approximately 25 countries worldwide.

Depositable subject matter
IDA's have accepted deposits for biological materials which do not fall within a literal interpretation of "microorganism".  The Treaty does not define what is meant by "microorganism."

The range of materials able to be deposited under the Budapest Treaty includes:
cells, for example, bacteria, fungi, eukaryotic cell lines, plant spores;
genetic vectors (such as plasmids or bacteriophage vectors or viruses) containing a gene or DNA fragments;
organisms used for expression of a gene (making the protein from the DNA).

There are many types of expression systems: bacterial; yeast; viral; plant or animal cell
cultures;
yeast, algae, protozoa, eukaryotic cells, cell lines, hybridomas, viruses, plant tissue cells, spores, and hosts containing materials such as vectors, cell organelles, plasmids, DNA, RNA, genes and chromosomes;
purified nucleic acids; or
deposits of materials not readily classifiable as microorganisms, such as "naked" DNA, RNA, or plasmids

See also
 List of parties to the Budapest Treaty
 American Type Culture Collection (ATCC)
 Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS)
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community (DSMZ)
 European Collection of Authenticated Cell Cultures (ECACC)
 National Collection of Yeast Cultures (NCYC)
 World Federation for Culture Collections (WFCC)
 National Collection of Type Cultures (NCTC)
 National Collection of Industrial Food and Marine Bacteria (NCIMB)

References

External links
 Budapest Treaty  in the WIPO Lex database — official website of WIPO.
 The full text of the Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Micro-organisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure (as amended on September 26, 1980)
 Contracting States
 The Budapest Treaty and Australian Patents (IP Australia)
 A Short Guide to International IPR Treaties (US government)

History of Budapest
Patent law treaties
Science treaties
World Intellectual Property Organization treaties
Treaties concluded in 1977
Treaties entered into force in 1980
Treaties entered into by the European Patent Organisation
Treaties of Albania
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Azerbaijan
Treaties of Bahrain
Treaties of Belarus
Treaties of Belgium
Treaties of Brunei
Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of the People's Republic of China
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Czechoslovakia
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of France
Treaties of West Germany
Treaties of Greece
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic
Treaties of Iceland
Treaties of India
Treaties of Ireland
Treaties of Israel
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Japan
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of North Korea
Treaties of South Korea
Treaties of Kyrgyzstan
Treaties of Latvia
Treaties of Liechtenstein
Treaties of Lithuania
Treaties of Luxembourg
Treaties of North Macedonia
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of Moldova
Treaties of Monaco
Treaties of Montenegro
Treaties of Morocco
Treaties of the Netherlands
Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Norway
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of the Philippines
Treaties of Poland
Treaties of Portugal
Treaties of Qatar
Treaties of Romania
Treaties of the Soviet Union
Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro
Treaties of Singapore
Treaties of Slovakia
Treaties of Slovenia
Treaties of South Africa
Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of Tajikistan
Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago
Treaties of Tunisia
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of Ukraine
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of Uzbekistan
1977 in Hungary
Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles
Treaties extended to Aruba
Treaties extended to Greenland
Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands
Treaties extended to Guernsey
Treaties extended to Gibraltar
Treaties extended to the Isle of Man

Budapest Treaty


Fiori musicali () is a collection of liturgical organ music by Girolamo Frescobaldi, first published in 1635. It contains three organ masses and two secular capriccios. Generally acknowledged as one of Frescobaldi's greatest works, Fiori musicali influenced composers during at least two centuries. Johann Sebastian Bach was among its admirers, and parts of it were included in the celebrated Gradus ad parnassum, a highly influential 1725 treatise by Johann Joseph Fux which was in use even in the 19th century.

History

Fiori musicali was first published in Venice in 1635, when Frescobaldi was working as organist of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, under the patronage of Pope Urban VIII and his nephew Cardinal Francesco Barberini. It may have been conceived as music for St Mark's Basilica or a similarly important church. The collection was printed by Giacomo Vincenti (a celebrated publisher who had previously published reprints of Frescobaldi's capriccios), and dedicated to Cardinal Antonio Barberini, Francesco's younger brother. The full title of Frescobaldi's work is Fiori musicali di diverse compositioni, toccate, kyrie, canzoni, capricci, e recercari, in partitura. The fiori musicali appellation was not uncommon in the early 17th century, used by composers such as Felice Anerio, Antonio Brunelli, Ercole Porta, Orazio Tarditi, and others.

Before Fiori musicali, Frescobaldi seldom published liturgical music. It appeared only once, in Secondo libro di toccate of 1627; all other keyboard collections by the master concentrated instead on various secular genres (canzonas, capriccios, toccatas, and variations). The organ mass was still in its infancy, and composers seldom published such music. Although 16th-century composers did work on liturgical music, the forms they used were a far cry from 17th-century works. Early 17th-century examples from Italy include Adriano Banchieri's 1622 edition of L'organo suonarino (1 mass) and Bernardino Bottazzi's Choro et organo of 1614 (3 masses and miscellaneous versets). in France, Jean Titelouze published collections of liturgical music in 1624 and 1626 (but the characteristic French Organ Mass did not appear until much later).  After Frescobaldi, however, several collections appeared: Giovanni Salvatore's Ricercari [...] e versi per rispondere nelle messe (1641), Antonio Croci's Frutti musicali (1642), and Giovanni Battista Fasolo's Annuale (1645)—all these contain three masses each, similar to Frescobaldi's.

Structure
The collection consists of three masses: Missa della Domenica (Sunday Mass), Missa degli Apostoli ("Mass of the Apostles", for double feasts), Missa della Madonna ("Mass of the Virgin", for feasts of the Virgin). Each mass includes a number of pieces to be played at key moments before and during the service, and several settings of the first section of the Mass ordinary, Kyrie. Frescobaldi offers canzonas (Canzon dopo l'epistola) for the Gradual section of the mass, and ricercars (Recercar dopo il Credo) for the Offertory. The overall structure of Fiori musicali is as follows:

The masses are followed by two capriccios on secular tunes - the Bergamasca and the Girolmeta (Capriccio sopra la Girolmeta). Neither theme is known to have any connection to the liturgy, and so the role of these pieces in Fiori musicali is unclear.

Frescobaldi's Kyrie and Christe versets are settings of Gregorian melodies: the three masses use melodies of Mass XI (Kyrie Orbis factor), Mass IV (Cunctipotens genitor), and Mass IX (Cum iubilo), respectively. The chant flows in long note values either in the same voice throughout, accompanied by various counterpoints, or is distributed among voices. The toccatas of Fiori musicali are markedly different from Frescobaldi's usual toccata style of numerous contrasting sections: avanti la Messa and avanti il Recercar works are introductory miniatures, and the Elevation toccatas are long pieces noted in Grove Music Online for their "sustained moods of passionate mysticism."

The ricercars include some of the most complex pieces in the collection. The Altro recercar of the second mass has three subjects, presented in separate sections and combined in the final part of the piece. The last ricercar of the collection, Recercar con obligo di cantare of the third mass, is similar, only built on two subjects. The piece is famous for Frescobaldi's instruction to the performer: the composer provides a brief melody to be sung as the fifth voice at certain key points during the ricercar, and these points must be found by the performer. Frescbobaldi remarks in the score: "Intendami chi puo che m'intend' io", "He who can understand me, will understand me; I understand myself." Three other ricercares—the one in the first mass, Recercar Cromaticho of the second mass and the first ricercar of the third mass—are variation ricercars, i.e. a single theme is accompanied with different counterpoints in several sections. Finally, Recercar con obligo del Basso come apare is built on a single subject, but is particularly important for its extended tonal range, quite rare for the period. The subject always appears transposed: first travelling from C to E, following the circle of fifths, then back to C (omitting A), then descending, again by the circle of fifths, to E-flat, and finally, returning to C (omitting B-flat).

The canzonas of Fiori musicali are somewhat similar to earlier examples by Frescobaldi, although the free, toccata element is less pronounced here. They are all variation canzonas, i.e. sectional pieces in which a single theme is treated with different counterpoints; the last canzona actually starts with two voices. Frescobaldi's Bergamasca is one of the highlights of the collection: there are seven sections elaborating on four themes, all derived from the theme and the bass of the original folk tune. In the score, the composer remarks "Chi questa Bergamasca sonerà non pocho imparerà", "Whoever plays this Bergamasca shall not learn a little". The Capriccio sopra la Girolmeta is also sectional; Frescobaldi here derives two subjects from the folk tune.

Influence

Fiori musicali is one of the most influential collections of music in European history. Its contents inspired collections of sacred organ music by Italian composers (Salvatore, Croci and Fasolo), and both the contents and the layout were an influence on Sebastian Anton Scherer's Op.2, Operum musicorum secundum, published in 1664. Also in 1664, Bernardo Storace used a theme from Frescobaldi's Ricercare con l'obbligo di cantare la quinta parte senza tocarla for his triple fugue. Frescobaldi's move from secular to sacred composition was echoed in Johann Caspar Kerll's similar move in his Modulatio organica (1683). Most importantly, Frescobaldi's collection was studied by Henry Purcell and Johann Sebastian Bach (the latter copied the entire work for his own use).

Bach's followers and admirers such as Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Johann Kirnberger, and Johann Nikolaus Forkel all knew the collection and regarded it highly. Jan Dismas Zelenka arranged parts of Fiori musicali for orchestra. Anton Reicha included a fugue on a theme from Fiori musicali in his experimental 36 Fugues of 1803.

Perhaps most importantly, pieces from Fiori musicali were used as models of the strict style in the highly influential 18th-century counterpoint treatise, Gradus ad Parnassum by Johann Joseph Fux. Although Fux evidently held Palestrina in the highest regard, his own sacred a cappella works are more influenced by Frescobaldi's instrumental pieces.

References

Citations

Sources
  Originally published as Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik bis 1700 by Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel.

Compositions by Girolamo Frescobaldi
Compositions for organ
1635 works

Fiori musicali


Radomysl Castle () is a historical and cultural complex created in 2007–2011 by Olha Bohomolets, a Ukrainian doctor and public activist. The castle's center is an old flour mill built in the town of Radomyshl (Zhytomyr Oblast, Ukraine) in the late 19th century by Polish engineer Piekarski. The mill was constructed upon the ruins of a paper mill built in 1612 by the order of the archimandrite (abbot) of Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra Yelysei Pletenetskyi (1550–1624). During research conducted during the reconstruction of this building, it was discovered that it had been planned to be used as a fortress. Since 2011, Radomysl Castle has been part of the Council of Europe's cultural project, Via Regia. Its purpose is to promote cultural exchanges by means of tourism between European countries.

Interior
The main attraction of Radomysl Castle is the Museum of Ukrainian home icons. The Museum's collection is based upon Olha Bohomolets' private collection of icons, which she has been collecting since 1996. This is perhaps the first and only museum of its kind in Ukraine and in the entire world (despite museum on Supraśl and Sanok, Poland). The collection comprises more than 5000 icons and sculptures (Orthodox, Catholic and Greek-Catholic), created between the 16th and 20th centuries in different parts of Ukraine. One of the museum's highlights is an icon of St. Nicholas carved in stone. This is probably the oldest icon in the collection of Radomysl Castle, dated from the 12th century. Some icons retain traces of the Soviet aggressive atheism. Among the exhibits is a box made of headless icons. Some of the icons were rescued from burning, but they are impossible to restore.

The Castle's interior combines the features of the Late Medieval and Early Modern periods. One of the halls in the museum exhibition is the Ceremonial Hall. It is a place for special events, especially weddings. There is also a concert hall which seats 150 for classical music, chamber music, folk and jazz. Nina Matviyenko, a popular Ukrainian folk singer, performed there. The Castle Radomysl's concert hall has another unique feature, it is probably the only concert hall in Europe with its own natural water spring.

The Castle's refectory is also a small museum. On its walls hang fine copies of old maps from the 15th–19th centuries. Its big oven can be used both to cook food, and as a fireplace.

Landscape park

Radomysl Castle's landscape park was created in accordance with modern environmental requirements. Human interference in the environment was minimal. There are some natural fresh water springs in the park, which provide a very refreshing drink. The vast majority of trees and flowers growing in the park are rare species. Among them are iris, pink and white lilies, English garden roses, magnolias, and Trapa rossica, a water caltrop, which is listed in Ukraine's Red Book of endangered species.

The park is inhabited by animals like beavers, otters, minks, and water voles.

The Castle and its park are decorated with sculptures of St. Michael, dated to the 17th–19th centuries.

On 29 October 2009, near the place where the paper mill stood, a monument to Yelisey Pleteniecki was unveiled. This is perhaps the only monument in Ukraine on the surface of moving water.

External links
http://www.radozamok.com.ua/en/ Official web page of Radomysl Castle

Sources
 Budka W. Papiernictwo w Nowym Stawie і Radomyślu // Pzegląd Biblioteczny. – Rocz. 3. – Kraków, 1929.
 Енциклопедія українознавства. У 10-х т. / Гол. ред. Володимир Кубійович. – Париж; Нью-Йорк: Молоде Життя, 1954–1989.
 Гладиш Л.А. Радомишль: ключі від міста. Нариси про історію міста. – Житомир, «Полісся», 2007
 Запаско Я., Мацюк О. Стасенко В. Початки українського друкарства – Львів, 2000.
 Мацюк О. Історія українського паперу. – Київ, 1994.
 Тимошенко Л. «Радомисль в історії Української церкви»// Людина і світ. – 1997. – No.2. – С. 6–11.
 "Замок Радомисль" відзначає п'ятиріччя з дня початку реконструкції.
 Реконструйований "Замок Радомисль" на Житомирщині може стати візиткою регіону

Museums in Zhytomyr Oblast
Parks in Ukraine
Castles in Ukraine
History museums in Ukraine

Radomysl Castle


The Blossom Festival is a summer music festival of orchestral music located at the Blossom Music Center in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio. The festival was originally created to provide a summer concert vehicle for the Cleveland Orchestra and the Blossom Music Center was specifically built to host the festival. The festival's first season was in 1968 and it consisted of six weeks of concerts given by the Cleveland Orchestra intermingled with eight individual jazz/folk music concerts. George Szell conducted the first concert on July 19, 1968.  Since then the festival has been expanded to include ten weeks of orchestral music, most of which is still performed by the Cleveland Orchestra but also includes concerts by the festival's own Blossom Festival Orchestra. The Blossom Festival Orchestra is made up of free-lance musicians from the Cleveland area, mostly pulling from musicians of the Cleveland Pops Orchestra, Opera Cleveland Orchestra, or Apollo's Fire. The orchestra performs annually for the Blossom Festival, often appearing when the Cleveland Orchestra has other summer performance engagements outside of the Cleveland area.

On July 28, 2007 the Blossom Festival made history; premiering the first live concert performance of Hoctor's Ballet which is one of the last orchestral works by Gershwin.

Until 2005, the Blossom Festival had its own music director. The last person to serve in that capacity was Jahja Ling. After he stepped down from that position, the orchestra eliminated the post, and now the orchestra's full-time music director Franz Welser-Möst is in charge of the classical music concerts both during the regular concert season in Cleveland and the summer concerts at the Blossom Festival. Leonard Slatkin was the Festival Director from 1992 through 1999.

2020 saw no festival happening.

References

Classical music festivals in the United States
Music festivals in Ohio
Music of Cleveland
Festivals in Cleveland
Music festivals established in 1968

Blossom Festival