Downwinders were individuals and communities in the intermountain between the Cascade and Rocky Mountain ranges primarily in Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah but also in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho who were exposed to radioactive contamination or nuclear fallout from atmospheric or underground nuclear weapons testing, and nuclear accidents.

More generally, the term can also include those communities and individuals who are exposed to ionizing radiation and other emissions due to the regular production and maintenance of coal ash, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, nuclear waste and geothermal energy. In regions near U.S. nuclear sites, downwinders may be exposed to releases of radioactive materials into the environment that contaminate their groundwater systems, food chains, and the air they breathe.  Some downwinders may have suffered acute exposure due to their involvement in uranium mining and nuclear experimentation.

Several severe adverse health effects, such as an increased incidence of cancers, thyroid diseases, CNS neoplasms, and possibly female reproductive cancers that could lead to congenital malformations have been observed in Hanford "downwind" communities exposed to nuclear fallout and radioactive contamination. The impact of nuclear contamination on an individual is generally estimated as the result of the dose of radiation received and the duration of exposure, using the linear no-threshold model (LNT). Sex, age, race, culture, occupation, class, location, and simultaneous exposure to additional environmental toxins are also significant, but often overlooked, factors that contribute to the health effects on a particular "downwind" community.

Nuclear testing
Between 1945 and 1980, the United States, the U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom, France and China exploded 504 nuclear devices in atmospheric tests at thirteen primary sites yielding the explosive equivalent of 440 megatons of TNT. Of these atmospheric tests, 330 were conducted by the United States. Accounting for all types of nuclear tests, official counts show that the United States has conducted 1,054 nuclear weapons tests to date, involving at least 1,151 nuclear devices, most of which occurred at Nevada Test Site and the Pacific Proving Grounds in the Marshall Islands, with ten other tests taking place at various locations in the United States, including Alaska, Colorado, Mississippi, and New Mexico. There have been an estimated 2,000 nuclear tests conducted worldwide; the number of nuclear tests conducted by the United States alone is currently more than the sum of nuclear testing done by all other known nuclear states (the USSR, Great Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea) combined.

These nuclear tests infused vast quantities of radioactive material into the world's atmosphere, which was widely dispersed and then deposited as global fallout.

Exposure
Aboveground nuclear explosions produce a characteristic mushroom cloud, which moves downwind as it reaches its stabilization height.  Dispersion of the radioactive elements causes vertical and lateral cloud movement, spreading radioactive materials over adjacent regions. While the large particles settle nearby the site of the detonation, smaller particles and gases may be dispersed around the world.  Additionally, some explosions injected radioactive material into the stratosphere, more than 10 kilometers above ground level, meaning it may float there for years before being subsequently deposited uniformly around the earth.  Global fallout is the result, which exposes everything to an elevated level of man-made background radiation.  While "downwinders" refers to those who live and work closest to the explosion site and are thus most acutely affected, there is a global effect of increased health risks due to ionizing radiation in the atmosphere.

Health effects
The earliest concerns raised about the health effects of exposure to nuclear fallout had to do with fears of genetic alterations that may occur among the offspring of those most exposed.  However, the observed inheritable effects of radiation exposure by groups with histories of acute risk are considered minimal compared with the significant increase in thyroid cancer, leukemia and certain solid tumors that have developed within a decade or more after exposure. As studies of biological samples (including bone, thyroid glands and other tissues) have been undertaken, it has become increasingly clear that specific radionuclides in fallout are implicated in fallout-related cancers and other late effects.

Ionizing radiation contained in fallout from nuclear testing is especially damaging to dividing cells. For this reason, fetuses and infants are especially vulnerable to injury. Such cellular damage may later manifest as leukemia and other cancers in children. In 1958, the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation reported on fetal and infant deaths caused by radiation.

In 1980, American popular weekly magazine People reported that from about 220 cast and crew who filmed in a 1956 movie, The Conqueror, on location near St. George, Utah, ninety-one had come down with cancer, and 50 had died of cancer.  Of these, forty-six had died of cancer by 1980. Among the cancer deaths were John Wayne, Pedro Armendáriz  and Susan Hayward, the stars of the film. However, the lifetime odds of developing cancer for men in the U.S. population are 43 percent and the odds of dying of cancer are 23 percent (38 percent and 19 percent, respectively, for women). This places the cancer mortality rate for the 220 primary cast and crew quite near the expected average, but it needs to be noted that this statistic does not include the Native American Paiute extras in the film.

Current status
After adopting the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1996, the U.S. and several other nuclear states pledged to stop nuclear testing. The United States Senate has not yet ratified the treaty, although it stopped testing in 1992. The final US test series was Operation Julin, in September 1992. Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out six announced tests, one each in 2006, 2009, 2013, two in 2016 and one in 2017.

In 2011, the US Senate designated January 27th as a national day of remembrance for Americans who, during the Cold War, worked and lived downwind from nuclear testing sites.

For many years, Senator Ben Ray Luján and other members of Congress have attempted to get compensation for those affected by the Trinity test.  In 2023, after the film Oppenheimer brought renewed attention to the test, the United States Senate approved the New Mexico downwinders' inclusion in the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act amendment. To become law, the bill would also need to be passed by the United States House of Representatives.

Specific test sites

New Mexico
On July 16, 1945, the United States military conducted the word's first test of an atom bomb in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Code-named Trinity, this explosion also created the world's first victims of an atom bomb: residents of New Mexico.

Years before the test, scientists warned of the risks for civilians of atomic testing.  In their memorandum of March 1940, Manhattan Project physicists Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls warned: "Owing to the spread of radioactive substances with the wind, the bomb could probably not be used without killing large numbers of civilians, and this may make it unsuitable as a weapon for use by this country."  At the very least, they suggested that "[I]t would be very important to have an organization which determines the exact extent of the danger area, by means of ionization measurements, so that people can be warned from entering it." Federal officials for the most part ignored these warnings but a last minute small team to monitor some of the radiation was assembled. "New Mexico residents were neither warned before the 1945 Trinity blast, informed of health hazards afterward, nor evacuated before, during, or after the test."

Nevada

From 1951 – 1962, the Nevada Test Site (NTS) was a primary site used for both surface and above-ground nuclear testing, with 100 tests at or above ground level, all of which involved releases of significant amounts of radioactive material into the atmosphere. Atmospheric testing was halted in 1958 after a testing moratorium was agreed upon with the Soviet Union. The Soviets broke the agreement in 1961, and both sides resumed testing. Two American test series followed: Operation Nougat, and then Operation Storax. The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty went into effect in 1963, banning all above ground testing. Further tests were underground, which with the exception of a few test failures, did not release fallout.

In the 1950s, people who lived in the vicinity of the NTS were encouraged to sit outside and watch the mushroom clouds that were created by nuclear bomb explosions. Many were given radiation badges to wear on their clothes, which were later collected by the Atomic Energy Commission to gather data about radiation levels.

In a report by the National Cancer Institute, released in 1997, it was determined that the nearly ninety atmospheric tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) left high levels of radioactive iodine-131 (5.5 exabecquerels, Ebq) across a large area of the continental United States, especially in the years 1952, 1953, 1955, and 1957.
The National Cancer Institute report estimates that doses received in these years are estimated to be large enough to produce 10,000 to 75,000 additional cases of thyroid cancer in the U.S.
A 1999 review of the 1997 report considered that their estimates of collective doses were in "good agreement" and "should provide confidence that the NCI estimate is not grossly under or over the actual value."
A 2006 report, published by the Scientific Research Society, estimates that about 22,000 additional radiation-related cancers and 2,000 additional deaths from radiation-related leukemia are expected to occur in the United States because of external and internal radiation from both NTS and global fallout.
A 2010 report evaluating data on thyroid cancer incidence from 1973 to 2004 also supports a relationship between exposure from fallout and increased thyroid cancer incidence.

The threat of downwind exposure to radioactivity remaining at the Nevada Test Site from nuclear weapons tests was still an issue as late as 2007. The Pentagon planned to test a 700-ton ammonium nitrate-and-fuel oil "bunker buster" weapon. The planned "Divine Strake" test would have raised a large mushroom cloud of contaminated dust that could have blown toward population centers such as Las Vegas, Boise, Salt Lake City, and St. George, Utah. This project was cancelled in February 2007, in large part due to political pressure inspired by the threat of downwind exposure to radioactivity.

Hanford
While many downwinders were exposed to weapons testing, millions more have been affected by radioactive fallout due to U.S. sites engaged in the production of nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power.  For example, Hanford is a former nuclear weapons production site located in south central Washington state, where the Washington state Department of Health collaborated with the citizen-led Hanford Health Information Network (HHIN) to publicize significant data about the health effects of Hanford's operations. Established in 1943, Hanford released radioactive materials into the air, water and soil, releases which largely resulted from the site's routine operation, though some were also due to accidents and intentional releases.

By February 1986, mounting citizen pressure forced the U.S. Department of Energy to release to the public 19,000 pages of previously unavailable historical documents about Hanford's operations. These reports revealed there had been radioactive materials released into the air and Columbia River.  The reactors used large amounts of water from the river for cooling, which caused materials in the river water to become radioactive as they passed through the reactor.  The water and the radioactive materials it contained were released into the river after passing through the reactors, thus contaminating both groundwater systems and aquatic animals downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts.

The Hanford Thyroid Disease Study, an epidemiologic study of the relationship between estimated exposure doses to radioiodine and incidence of thyroid disease amongst Hanford's downwinders, led by the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, was inconclusive.  A consolidated lawsuit brought by two thousand Hanford downwinders for personal injury against the contractors that ran Hanford has been in the court system for many years. The defense in the litigation is fully funded by taxpayer dollars due to Price Anderson indemnification agreements.  The first six bellwether plaintiffs went to trial in 2005, to test the legal issues applying to the remaining plaintiffs in the suit.
In October 2015, the Department of Energy resolved the final cases.  The DOE paid more than $60 million in legal fees and $7 million in damages.

Marshall Islands
While the term "downwinders" generally connotes nuclear fallout victims based in the continental U.S. near sites such as Hanford and NTS, the population of the Marshall Islands bore a large brunt of nuclear testing under the United States' Pacific Proving Ground program.  Now known officially as the Republic of the Marshall Islands, it was a United Nations Trust Territory administered by the United States from 1944 to 1979, years during which the United States tested 66 nuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands.

One of these many tests, the March 1, 1954, explosion of Castle Bravo, a U.S. thermonuclear device, was responsible for most of the radiation the Marshall Islanders were exposed to. The fallout-related doses of this single test are believed to be the highest recorded in the history of worldwide nuclear testing.  Many of the Marshall Islands which were part of the Pacific Proving Grounds remain contaminated by nuclear fallout, and many of those downwinders who were living on the islands at the time of testing have suffered from a highly increased incidence of several types of cancers and birth defects.

Effects of radiation on female downwinders
The primary long-term health hazard associated with exposure to ionizing radiation as a result of nuclear fallout is an increased risk for cancers of the thyroid, other solid tumor cancers, and leukemia. The relationship between radiation exposure and subsequent cancer risk is considered "the best understood, and certainly the most highly quantified, dose-response relationship for any common environmental human carcinogen", according to report by the National Cancer Institute. Overall, men in the United States develop cancer at a rate 22% higher than that of women. However, women develop cancer from radiation at a rate from 37.5% to 52% higher than that of men.  In recent years, studies conducted by both the National Research Council and the EPA have confirmed that compared to men, women are at a significantly higher risk of radiation-induced cancers, such and that women's sensitivity to radiation-induced cancers is much higher than was previously estimated. The increased radiosensitivity of certain organs in women, such as the breast, ovaries, and thyroid is likely the cause of this difference.

In the EPA's 1999 Federal Guidance Report #13(FGR 13), Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, the authors conclude that women have a 48 percent higher radionuclide-related cancer mortality risk than men.  Further evidence of sex-based disparities in radiation-induced cancers was published in the 2006 report by the National Research Council's Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation (known as the BEIR VII report), which found that women's risk due to radiation exposure exceeded men's by 37.5 percent. When one considers rates of cancer incidence separately from rates of cancer fatality, the sex disparities are even greater.  The BEIR VII Committee concluded that, given the same level of radiation exposure, women are 52 percent more likely than men to develop cancer, while the EPA report puts the estimate of difference as high as 58 percent.

The differences in risk are even greater when considering organ-specific cancers, especially given that both reports identify breast, ovarian, lung, colon, and thyroid tissues as the most radiosensitive among women.  For example, the FGR 13 has estimated that the ratio of thyroid cancer incidence for women as compared to men is 2.14, while the findings of BEIR VII suggest that women are even more vulnerable to radiation-induced thyroid cancer at a ratio of 4.76.

As increasing concerns are raised regarding the environmental risks related to breast, the BEIR VII report cited evidence that suggests that "radiation may interact synergistically with other risk factors for breast cancer", raising the possibility that endocrine disrupting chemicals like PCBs and dioxins might combine to increase the risks associated with radiation beyond that which would be caused by either separately.  A related concern is that radionuclides that may be passed through the breast milk, causing some women who are downwinders to be reluctant to breastfeed their children. While reducing the radioactive intake of their infants is an important preventative measure, it denies women the opportunity to engage a preventative measure for their own health; i.e. breastfeeding has been widely documented as a practice that can reduce women's risk of developing breast cancer.  By refraining from breastfeeding, women downwinders' risks of breast cancer incidence becomes even more elevated.

Pregnancy and birth outcomes
Evidence about radiation-related pregnancy and birth outcomes comes from studies of nuclear bomb and test site survivors and studies of those exposed to diagnostic and therapeutic radiation. Mounting research indicates that above certain levels of radiation a miscarriage will result. It is also clear that fetal malformations are a greater risk if a woman is exposed to high doses of nuclear-related radiation in early pregnancy, when organs are being formed.

If acute radiation exposure occurs in the first ten days following conception, when few cells have formed, it is likely that the embryo will fail to develop and spontaneous abortion will occur.
Fetal malformations are most likely to occur if a pregnant woman receives a radiation dose >500 mSv between the 10th and 40th day of pregnancy, the period of organogenesis during which the organs are formed.
After the 40th day, the effects of radiation exposure are likely to include low birth weight, delayed growth, and possible mental deficits rather than fetal malformations.
Radiation doses above 4,000 mSv are likely to kill both the mother and the fetus.

It has been shown that radiation damage including genome instability and carcinogenesis may occur transgenerationally in both males and females.
The effects of radiation on fetal formation are also particularly relevant as a women's health issue to the extent that female fetuses' ova are formed while the fetus is still in utero.
Adverse effects on a mother carrying a female fetus may therefore be multigenerational and increase both the daughter's and grandchildren's risks for ovarian cancer, infertility, and other reproductive developmental problems.

Compensation
The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990 established a $100 million compensation package which would pay $50,000 per person to fallout victims, and up to $100,000 to uranium miners who were exposed to unsafe levels of radiation. Downwinders eligible for compensation include those living in specified counties of Nevada, Utah, and Arizona for at least two years between January 1951 and October 1958, or during July 1962-periods when the United States conducted above ground nuclear tests without warning, and who are able to show correlations between certain diseases and their personal exposure to nuclear radiation. Miners' compensation covers workers employed in uranium mines in five states-Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Wyoming, and Utah-between January 1947 and December 1971. Uranium miners are eligible for $100,000, and onsite participants are eligible for $75,000.

Navajo-related obstacles
There are particular obstacles to receiving needed health care and compensation faced by many widows and widowers of Navajo uranium miners, who were affected by disproportionately high incidences of fatal lung cancer caused by radon exposure. In fact, the health effects of radon were first widely acknowledged as Mormon and Native American miners who hardly smoke (the main reason for lung cancer) had high incidences of lung cancer. Modern mining practices greatly reduce the danger from radon - also present in many coal mines - by proper ventilation.  One problem for Navajo widows and widowers seeking the federal benefits for which they are qualified is the requirement that they document their marriages, although many were married in the 1930s and 1940s in undocumented tribal ceremonies.  Language and cultural barriers pose further obstacles to Navajo downwinders; since many elderly Navajos do not speak English, their children bear the responsibility to do the research and procure from a tribal law judge a validation certificate of their
tribal marriage. Similarly, it is difficult to access the outdated medical and occupational documentation that the government required even though the government's and uranium companies' own records for Navajo miners are sparse and difficult to access.

See also
 Chernobyl disaster
 Nevada-Semipalatinsk
 New Zealand's nuclear-free zone
 Project 4.1
 Windscale fire
 Atomic veteran
 The Plutonium Files

References

External links
 Nuclear Testing and the Downwinders  from the website of the Utah State Historical Society
 View documentary short "Downwinders: The People of Parowan"
 Article "A people's truth"
 Excerpt from Plutopia
 Academic Journal Article "Downwind of the Atomic State: U.S. Continental Atmospheric Testing, Radioactive Fallout, and Organizational Deviance, 1951–1962"

Anti–nuclear weapons movement
Environmental issues in the United States
Nuclear weapons testing
Radiation health effects
History of the Southwestern United States
History of Nevada
History of Utah
History of Washington (state)
History of the Marshall Islands
Environment of Nevada
Environment of Utah
Environment of Washington (state)
Environment of the Marshall Islands

Downwinders


The Rose is a persona used by four fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The original Rose first appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man #253 (June 1984), and was created by writer Tom DeFalco.

Publication history
Tom DeFalco recounted:

DeFalco was fired from The Amazing Spider-Man by editor Jim Owsley before he could reveal the Rose's identity. A subsequent issue of Web of Spider-Man, written by Owsley, revealed the Rose to be Richard Fisk.

Fictional character biography
The character of Rose is depicted as a well-dressed, calm, calculating and gentleman-like crime lord who favors roses and wears a leather, lilac-colored mask.

Richard Fisk

The first Rose was Richard Fisk, the son of Wilson Fisk, who sought to overthrow his father after learning he was the Kingpin of Crime. He later became a Punisher-like vigilante, calling himself Blood Rose. He was eventually shot dead by his own mother, Vanessa. But is later brought back by his father using the tablet of life.

Sergeant Blume
The second Rose was Sergeant Blume (first name unrevealed), a police officer seeking revenge on the Kingpin for the death of his brother, another policeman. While Blume allied himself with Richard in hopes of doing good by breaking the Kingpin's hold on the city, he ended up implicated in several crimes while in the Kingpin's service. He ultimately was shot and killed in a confrontation with Richard's men in the Catskills after he had kidnapped Peter Parker (Spider-Man)'s Aunt May and wife Mary Jane Watson, mistakenly thinking that Peter had discovered information that would blow the lid off of the Kingpin's organization, thus revealing Blume as a double agent.

Jacob Conover
The third Rose was Jacob Conover, a reporter at the Daily Bugle, who took up the identity as payment for saving the life of crime lord Don Fortunato many years earlier. This Rose was loyal solely to Fortunato, as at the time the Kingpin had not returned to power, and his principal enforcer was the cyborg powerhouse known as Delilah. Conover faced a repeated threat to his territory from the Argentinian crime lord known as the Black Tarantula, eventually being present without his Rose disguise when the Tarantula launched a direct assault on Fortunato's home. Preparing to gun down the Tarantula and a roomful of witnesses, Conover was stopped by Spider-Man and carted off to jail.

Phillip Hayes
The fourth Rose was Dr. Phillip Hayes. He took up the Rose persona after he lost his funding in gene-therapy research after an accident in the Phelcorps laboratory, a result of which was the new heroine Jackpot. He deals in "Ebony" shipments, a synthesized drug created from Corruptor's sweat glands. He managed to slip under the superhero radar for a while, but Jackpot was getting closer to discovering his involvement. After he discovered the secret identity of his opponent (through a coincidence resulting from being Sara Ehret's co-worker), he hires Boomerang to track Sara down at her house and murders her husband in front of her and her daughter. He is later arrested and unmasked, much to Sara's shock.

Powers and abilities
The Roses have no superhuman powers. Richard Fisk is trained in the use of guns and has some martial-arts training; Sergeant Blume is a trained police officer; and Jacob Conover is trained in the use of firearms and has a number of criminal contacts.

The Roses always carries a handgun and often carries a variety of mini grenades.

Reception
 In 2022, Screen Rant included The Rose in their "10 Spider-Man Villains That Are Smarter Than They Seem" list.

Other versions
In Marvel Adventures continuity, the Rose is a criminal with enough financial resources to bid a fortune on highly sophisticated battlesuits.

In Ultimate Marvel a maskless Mr. Rose is Kingpin's associate. He was present in the Ultimate Knights storyline where he auditioned "Ronin" to be a part of Fisk's organization and was ordered by Kingpin to blow up Midtown High, but was arrested by the cops.

References

Articles about multiple fictional characters
Characters created by Tom DeFalco
Comics characters introduced in 1976
Comics characters introduced in 1984
Comics characters introduced in 1991
Comics characters introduced in 2010
Fictional crime bosses
Fictional henchmen
Fictional reporters
Fictional medical specialists
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics police officers

Rose (Marvel Comics)


The Soanian  is an archaeological site that is dated to (comes from) the early stone age.  The name comes from the Soan Valley in the Sivalik Hills in Pakistan.  The people who lived on this site were probably Homo erectus, the first people to control fire.

Hundreds of stone knives were found at the site, as well as hand axes and cleavers. No human skeletons of this age have been found. In the Soan River Gorge many rocks with fossils can be seen. The 14 million year old fossils of gazelles, rhinoceroses, crocodiles, giraffes and rodents have been found. Some of these fossils are on display at the Natural History Museum of Islamabad.

Archaeological sites in Pakistan

Soanian


Pediatrics is the specialty of medicine that cares for infants, children, and adolescents. The ages can vary from the early months until 18-21. A person who works in pediatrics is called a pediatrician.

Pediatricians can be primary care doctors or they can be specialists.

Pediatricians take care of diseases that children get. They also make sure that children develop normally and try to prevent illness. One of the most important ways that children's diseases can be prevented is by immunization. Immunization is also called vaccination.

In the nineteenth century, one in five children died before the age of five. Most of these deaths were from infectious diseases. Today some of these deaths are prevented by treating disease when it happens. Most of it is from preventing disease with immunizations.

Pediatricians also try to prevent other diseases and injury before they happen. They teach parents about safety and nutrition. They may teach older children or adolescents about avoiding injury or addiction to alcohol and tobacco. Because childhood is such a time of change, prevention is a major part of pediatrics.

Types
Many pediatricians work as primary care doctors. This type of pediatrician conducts regular health and wellness checkups. They also diagnose and treat a wide range of common health conditions, give vaccinations, and provide appropriate health advice to young people and their parents or caregivers.

 Adolescent medicine specialists focus on care during adolescence around age 11 to 21.
 Pediatric oncologist specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of different types of cancer in children.
 Pediatric cardiology refers to cardiac irregularities in a child who is 18 years old. It also covers all types of heart conditions and diseases that occur in childhood.
 Pediatricians treat children and adolescents who have musculoskeletal disorders, such as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and chronic pain.
 Neonatologists look after new born babies who need hospital care.

References

Medical specialties
Childhood

Pediatrics


Eastern Ghats is a separate category of mountains along the eastern coast of India. Eastern Ghats pass through parts of Karnataka and Wayanad district of Kerala, going south from Odisha to Tamil Nadu via Andhra Pradesh. They are being destroyed by four major rivers of peninsular India. Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.

Mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau is located in the west of the border between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. Coromandel is situated between coastal plains, eastern ghats and the Bay of Bengal along the coast area. Eastern Ghats is not as high as the Western Ghats.

Mountain ranges of India
Landforms of India

Eastern Ghats


Symbel (OE) and sumbl (ON) are Germanic terms for "feast, banquet".

Accounts of the symbel are preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf (lines 489-675 and 1491–1500), Dream of the Rood (line 141) and Judith (line 15), Old Saxon Heliand (line 3339), and the Old Norse Lokasenna (stanza 8) as well as other Eddic and Saga texts, such as in the Heimskringla account of the funeral ale held by King Sweyn, or in the Fagrskinna.

Paul C. Bauschatz in 1976 suggested that the term reflects a pagan ritual which had a "great religious significance in the culture of the early Germanic people".

Etymology
The prevalent view today is that Old English symbel, Old Saxon symbal, sumbal (Old High German *sumbal) and Old Norse sumbl, all of which translate roughly as "feast, banquet, (social) gathering", continue a Common Germanic *sumlan "banquet", which would correspond to a PIE  "joint meal" or "congregation" (literally, symposium or assembly).

A number of earlier scholars have argued for a borrowing from Latin symbola, Against this derivation (in the case of OE symbel), P.A. Erades argues that these cognates go back to Common Germanic *sumil or *sumal "gathering" (in the last case, with ablaut in the suffix). He explains the Germanic stem *sum- as ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European *- prefix, the zero-grade of ablaut of * "one, together". This is the same element which developed into copulative a in Ancient Greek.

Paul Bauschatz appears to accept sum, sam "together", but proposes that the word represents a compound with alu "ale" as its second element (rather than a suffix). This would render the meaning "gathering or coming together of ale".

The Old English noun is usually translated as "feast", and forms various compounds such as symbel-wyn "joy at feasting", symbel-dæg "feast day", symbel-niht "feast-night", symbel-hūs "feast-house, guest-room", symbel-tīd "feast time", symbel-werig "weary of feasting" etc.
There is also a derived verb, symblian or symblan, meaning "to feast, caraouse, enjoy one's self".
Not to be confused is the unrelated homophone symbel, symble meaning "always, ever".

Anglo-Saxon cultures

In Old English poetry, especially Beowulf, feasts could be instrumental occasions to bind the community, secure the loyalty of warriors and to bolster their determination to perform heroic deeds.
 In Beowulf, Unferth the thyle (cf.: ON þulr) appears to act as a royal officiant at the feast which King Hrothgar organised for the Geatish newcomers, Beowulf and his companions. He challenged and questioned Beowulf, not eschewing taunts and mockery (flyting). Since no one intervenes during the incident, such behaviour appears to have been expected of him.
 In Beowulf, a warrior's boast (gielp, gylp) or his oath (beot) is often spoken at a feast.
 Another role commonly attested for during a feast was that of the scop (cf.: ON skald), who recited genealogies, folklore and metrical poetry.
 The alcoholic drink was served by women or alekeepers (ealu bora "ale bearer"), the first round usually poured by the lady of the house.

Scandinavian cultures

Bragafull

The bragarfull "promise-cup" or bragafull "best cup" or "chieftain's cup" (compare Bragi) was in Norse culture a particular drinking from a cup or drinking horn on ceremonial occasions, often involving the swearing of oaths when the cup or horn was drunk by a chieftain or passed around and drunk by those assembled. The names are sometimes anglicized as bragarful and bragaful respectively.

That the name appears in two forms with two meanings makes it difficult to determine the literal meaning. The word bragr 'best, foremost' is a source for its first element. The form bragafull (but not bragarfull) can also be interpreted as 'Bragi's cup', referring to the Bragi, god of poetry, though no special connection to Bragi appears in any of the sources.

Snorri Sturluson in his Heimskringla, in the Saga of Hákon the Good, describes the custom of the bragarfull at feasts:
The fire was in the middle of the floor of the temple, and over it hung the kettles, and the full goblets were handed across the fire; and he who made the feast, and was a godi ['chief'], blessed the full goblets, and all the meat of the sacrifice. And first Odin's goblet was emptied for victory and power to his king; thereafter, Njörd's and Freyja's goblets for peace and a good season. Then it was the custom of many to empty the bragafull; and then the guests emptied a goblet to the memory of departed friends, called the minni ['remembrance'].
In Ynglinga saga section of the same work, Snorri relates:
It was the custom at that time that he who gave an heirship-feast after kings or jarls, and entered upon the heritage, should sit upon the footstool in front of the high
seat, until the full bowl, which was called the bragafull, was brought in. Then he should stand up, take the bragafull, make solemn vows to be afterwards fulfilled, and thereupon empty the beaker. Then he should ascend the high seat which his father had occupied; and thus he came to the full heritage after his father. Now it was done so on this occasion. When the full bragafull came in, King Ingjald stood up, grasped a large bull's horn, and made a solemn vow to enlarge his dominions by one half, towards all the four corners of the world, or die; and thereupon pointed with the horn to the four quarters.
The Fagrskinna (a 13th-century history of the Kings of Norway), has a similar account in respect to Svein Forkbeard, mentioning first ceremonial drinkings dedicated to the greatest of one's kindred, then to Thor or others of the gods. Then the bragarfull was poured out and when the giver of the feast had drunk this, he was to make a vow, to be also sworn by those present with him, and only then to sit himself on throne of the deceased.

A prose passage inserted in the Poetic Edda poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar relates:
Hedin was coming home alone from the forest one Yule-eve, and found a troll-woman; she rode on a wolf, and had snakes in place of a bridle. She asked Hedin for his company. "Nay," said he. She said, "Thou shalt pay for this at the bragarfull." That evening the great vows were taken; the sacred boar was brought in, the men laid their hands thereon, and took their vows at the bragarfull. Hedin vowed that he would have Sváva, Eylimi's daughter, the beloved of his brother Helgi; then such great grief seized him that he went forth on wild paths southward over the land, and found Helgi, his brother.

Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks relates that Hjörvard, the son of Arngrim, promised at his bragarfull to wed Ingeborg the princess of Sweden, and the legends of Ragnar Lodbrok relate that the Geatish jarl Herraud promised his daughter to anyone who could liberate her from a dragon or talk to her in its presence.

Minni
The term minni "remembrance, memory" was used for ritual drinking dedicated to the remembrance of the gods. Terms used in this context, both in the Eddaic poems and in the sagas, include minnis-öl "memory-ale", minnis-horn "memory-horn", minnis-full "memory-cup", minni-sveig "memory-draught".
The term minnisveig is used by the annotator of the Sigrdrífumál before the valkyrie's invocation of the gods. Olafssaga has minniǫl signuð ásom "memory-ale dedicated to the æsir". "Memory-cups" dedicated to individual gods are also named Oðins full, Niarðar full, Freys full etc.
The custom was continued uninterrupted by Christianization, and minni was now drunk to Christ, Mary and the saints (Krists minni, Michaêls minni, etc.)

But the minni given to gods or saints was only the most prominent instance of this custom, placed at the beginning of the ritual drinking. Later on, drinkers would also give minni to their departed friends.
The term minni is the exact cognate of the Middle High German minne. The German word had the same meaning of "remembrance of absent or departed loved ones", but acquired the meaning of "romantic longing for an unattainable woman of higher status" in courtly culture, giving rise to the genre of Minnesang, and the personification of "remembrance" as Frau Minne.

Bauschatz's theory
Paul C. Bauschatz in 1976 suggested that the term reflects a pagan ritual which had a "great religious significance in the culture of the early Germanic people".

The ritual according to Bauschatz was always conducted indoors, usually in a chieftain's mead hall. Symbel involved a formulaic ritual that was more solemn and serious than mere drinking or celebration. The primary elements of symbel are drinking ale or mead from a drinking horn, speech making (which often included formulaic boasting and oaths) and gift giving. Eating and feasting were specifically excluded from symbel, and no alcohol was set aside for the gods or other deities in the form of a sacrifice.

Modern paganism

Inspired by Bauschatz' theory from the 1970s, the sumbel has become a central ritual of Heathenry in the United States. In this version, sumbel is a drinking-ritual in which a drinking horn full of mead or ale is passed around and a series of toasts are made, usually to gods, ancestors, and/or heroes of the religion. The toasts vary by group, and some groups make a distinction between a "regular" sumbel and a "high" sumbel, which have different levels of formality, and different rules during toasting. Participants may also make boasts of their own deeds, or oaths or promises of future actions. Words spoken during the sumbel are considered carefully and any oaths made are considered sacrosanct, becoming part of the destiny of those assembled.

The name sumbel (or symbel) is mainly derived from Anglo-Saxon sources. For this reason, the ritual is not known by this name among Icelandic Nordic pagans, who nevertheless practice a similar ritual as part of their blot.

In Theodism or Anglo-Saxon neopaganism in particular, the symbel has a particularly high importance, considered "perhaps the highest rite" or "amongst the most holy rites" celebrated. Symbel consists of rounds of ritual drinking and toasting, and invariably takes place within an enclosed space of some kind. It is usually inaugurated by three formal rounds, as determined by the host; often led by toasts in honor of the Gods, then ancestors and/or heroes, and then a general or personal boast. Other boasts may take place as necessary. Symbel is always formally closed once the formal boasts are completed, in order that the symbel might maintain its dignity and not degenerate into "mere partying". The two types of boast are the ȝielp (pronounced 'yelp') and the beot (pronounced 'bayawt', but as one syllable). The former is a boast of one's own worthiness, such as one's accomplishments, ancestry, etc. The latter is a boast of an action one plans to undertake. In order to protect the luck of the hall, such boasts are subject to challenge by the thyle, whose job it is to make sure that unlucky boasts do not contaminate the luck of all present.

Notes

See also
Alu (runic)
Blót
Drinking horn
Kvasir
Mead of poetry
Tamada
Toast (honor)
Heitstrenging

References
Bauschatz, Paul C. The Well and the Tree: World and Time in Early Germanic Culture. Amhurst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1983. .
Bauschatz, Paul C. "The Germanic Ritual Feast." In Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Nordic and General Linguistics, ed. John Weinstock. The Nordic Languages and Modern Linguistics 3. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978. 289-95.
Bjork, Robert E. "Speech as Gift in Beowulf." Speculum (1994).
Conquergood, Dwight, "Boasting in Anglo-Saxon England, Performance and the Heroic Ethos." Literature and Performance I (April 1991).
Enright, M.J., Lady with a Mead Cup: Ritual, Prophecy, and Lordship in the European Warband. Dublin, 1976
Erades, P.A. "A Romance Congener of OE symbel." English Studies 48 (1967): 25-7.

Nelson, Marie. "Beowulf's Boast Words." Neophilologus 89.2 (April 2005): 299-310.

Orel, Vladimir E. A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Leiden, 2003.
Pollington, Steven. The Mead-Hall: The Feasting Tradition in Anglo-Saxon England. Anglo-Saxon Books. Norfolk, 2003. .

External links
 Anglo-Saxon Symbel
 The Sumbel Rite
 Symbel

Anglo-Saxon paganism
Germanic paganism
Germanic culture
Germanic neopaganism
Medieval literature
Sagas
European court festivities

Symbel


Athlétic Club Arlésien (; commonly referred to as Arlésien or simply Arles) is a French association football club originally based in Arles. The club was founded in 1912 as a result of a merger and was formerly known as Athlétic Club Arles, but in 2010, moved to the nearby commune of Avignon and adopted the name of AC Arles-Avignon. Athlétic Club Arlésien last played at a professional capacity in the Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football; it previously gained four promotions in five seasons to reach Ligue 1 in 2010. They were later relegated after one season.

When the club was named Arles-Avignon, they played their home matches at the Parc des Sports in nearby Avignon. The team was managed by former football player Franck Dumas and captained by defender Sébastien Cantini, who joined the club in 2012, after a five-year stint in Italy. In France, it was commonplace to describe Arles-Avignon as an overachieving club primarily due to succeeding despite limited resources. Arles-Avignon's highest honour was winning its group in the Championnat de France amateur, the fourth level of French football, in 2007. Regionally, the club has won the Division Honneur Sud-Est Ouest three times and its reserve team are the current defending champions of the Méditerranée Division Honneur Régionale.

Arles-Avignon was known locally as Les Lions (The Lions) and incorporated the nickname into a multitude of club's fixtures, most notably its crest. After merging with Avignon, the club unveiled its new crest on 4 June 2009. The crest combined both elements of each club's predecessors and inscribed on the crest is Pays d'Arles Grand Avignon, which pays tribute to the inhabitants of the city of Arles and Grand Avignon, the metropolitan area that encompasses the commune of Avignon. In 2010, the club changed its crest again to coincide with its promotion to Ligue 1.

History
Athlétic Club Arles-Avignon was founded on 19 December 1912 under the name Athletic Club Arlésien as a result of a merger between three local clubs: La Pédale Joyeuse, Arles Auto-Vélo, and Arles Sports. The spent its early years playing in the Ligue du Sud-Est. To remain financially sound due to the onset of World War II, Arles merged with two clubs; Club Ouvrier and Sports cheminots with the new club retaining Arles' previous name. After the war, in 1954, the club reached the Championnat de France amateur under the leadership of manager Louis Pons. In 1960, Arles went through another merger, this time with local club Jeunesse Sportive Arlés. The merger was influenced by Honoré Autier, a former football player for FC Sète. In the Arles' ensuing season, the club fell back to the Ligue du Sud-Est, and after four attempts, returned to the Championnat de France amateur in 1965.

In the 1970s, Arles reached the second division of French football and, in its inaugural appearance in the 1970–71 season, finished 13th in its group. The club spent another three seasons in the league before falling to Division 3 in 1974. Arles returned to Division 2 in 1977, but after two seasons, were back in Division 3. In the 1980s, the club fell to Division 4. In 1992, under the tutelage of manager Jean-Louis Sanz, Arles earned promotion to the Championnat National and were inaugural members of the new league. The club played in the league for four seasons before earning promotion to the Championnat de France amateur 2. In 1999, Arles finished first in its group and were, subsequently, promoted to the Championnat de France amateur. The appearance in the fourth division was brief and, in 2002, Arles were back in the fifth division.

In 2005, Arles embarked on a magical run, which concluded with the club earning promotion to Ligue 1. From 2005–2010, the club achieved promotions in four of the five football seasons. In 2005, the club finished third in its group in the CFA 2. However, because the club's that finished ahead of them were reserve teams of professional club, Arles were allowed ascension to the CFA. In the ensuing season, Arles won its group in the CFA and were promoted back to National. After finishing the 2007–08 season mid-table, Arles surprised many by finishing third in the league, thus going up to Ligue 2. Just after earning promotion to Ligue 2, Arles confirmed that the club was leaving the Stade Fernand Fournier to move into the Parc des Sports in nearby Avignon, a bigger and more modern venue. The club, subsequently, changed its name to its current form and adopted a new crest.

The club was initially not allowed to participate in Ligue 2 after the DNCG ruled the club ineligible due to irregularities in the club's financial accounts. However, following an appeal, the DNCG reversed its decision reinstating Arles' Ligue 2 status and also the club's professional status. In the club's return to the second division after over 35 years, Arles-Avignon against stunned French football enthusiasts by finishing third in the league. The club's final position was secured on the final day. Arles-Avignon was among four clubs battling for the final promotion spot and secured the position after a win over Clermont, who was one of the clubs fighting for the final spot.

In the Arles-Avignon's debut in Ligue 1, the club struggled losing its first eight matches. The club's first point in the league came in its ninth attempt in a 0–0 draw in Brest. The following week, Arles-Avignon recorded a surprising 0–0 draw with Lyon and, two weeks later, earned the club's first Ligue 1 win; a 3–2 victory over Caen. Arles-Avignon were relegated from Ligue 1 having won just three matches all season in their maiden campaign in the top flight.

On 10 July 2015, DNCG announced that Arles-Avignon was administratively relegated to Championnat de France Amateur from Ligue 2 for failing to guarantee sufficient capital. It was subsequently dissolved during the season. In recent years, Arles dropped Avignon from their name and left the Parc des Sports ground in the city, moving to the Stade Fernand-Fournier ground. AC Arlésien currently play in the Régional 1 Méditerranée league after gaining promotion from Régional 2 Méditerranée.

Players

Notable players
Below are the notable former and current players who have represented Arles-Avignon and its predecessors league and international competition since the club's foundation in 1912. To appear in the section below, a player must have either played in at least 80 official matches for the club or represented their country's national team either while playing for Arles-Avignon or after departing the club.

For a complete list of Arles-Avignon players, see: :Category:AC Arles-Avignon players.

 Michel Estevan
 René Exbrayat
 Jean-Charles Cirilli
 Emmanuel Corrèze
 Christian Payan
 Benjamin Psaume
 Vincent Dyduch
 Djibril Cissé
 Gaël Givet
 Angelos Charisteas
 Angelos Basinas
 Hamer Bouazza
 Ismaël Bennacer
 André Ayew
 Bobo Baldé
 Kaba Diawara
 Naby Yattara
 Deme N'Diaye
 Mamadou Niang
 Allan Nyom

Management and staff
President: Marcel Salerno
Manager: Victor Zvunka
Assistant manager: Bruno Irles

Honours
Championnat de France amateur
Winners (1): 2007 (Group B)
Championnat de France amateur 2
Winners (1); 1999 (Group D)
Division Honneur Sud-Est Ouest
Champions (3): 1957, 1964, 1965
Division Honneur Sud-Est Languedoc
Champions (3): 1954, 1958, 1959
Division Honneur Régionale (Méditerranée)
Champions (1): 2010
Coupe de Provence
Champions (2): 1943, 1985
Runners-up (2): 1977, 2010

References

External links

 Association site  (archived 23 December 2010)

Association football clubs established in 1913
AC Arles-Avignon
AC Arles-Avignon
Sport in Bouches-du-Rhône
Football clubs in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

AC Arlésien


Dattatreya is the God who is an incarnation of the Divine Trinity Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The word Datta means "Given", Datta is called so because the divine trinity have "given" themselves in the form of a son to the sage couple Guru Atri and Mata Anusuya. He is the son of Guru Atri, hence the name "Atreya."

In the Nath tradition, Dattatreya is seen as an Avatar or incarnation of the Lord Shiva and as the Adi-Guru (First Teacher) of the Adi-Nath sampradaya of the Nathas. Although Dattatreya was at first a "Lord of Yoga" with Tantric traits, he was adapted and assimilated into the more devotional cults; while still worshiped by millions of Hindus, he is approached more as a benevolent God than as a teacher of the highest essence of Indian thought.

Dattatreya as a historical figure
Though the Dattatreya of the Natha tradition coexisted and intermingled with the Puranic, Brahmanical tradition of the Datta sampradaya, here we shall focus almost exclusively on the earlier Tantric manifestation of Datta. Shri Gurudev Mahendranath had no doubt that Dattatreya was a historical figure. He stated that Datta was born on Wednesday, the fourteenth day of the full moon in the month of Margasirsa, though he does not mention the year.

Dattatreya left home at an early age to wander naked in search of the Absolute. He seems to have spent most of his life wandering in the area between and including North Mysore, through the Maharashtra, and into Gujarat as far as the Narmada River. He attained realization at a place not far from the town now known as Ganagapur. The original footprints of Datta are believed to be located on the lonely peak at Mount Girnar. The Tripura-rahasya refers to the disciple Parasurama finding Datta meditating on Gandhamadana mountain.

The Tripura-rahasya (The Secret of [the Goddess] Tripura) is believed to be an abbreviated version of the original Datta Samhita or Dakshinamurti Samhita traditionally ascribed to Dattatreya. This more lengthy work was summarized by Dattatreya's disciple Parasurama, whose disciple, Sumedha Haritayana, scribed the text. Thus, this text is sometimes referred to as the Haritayana Samhita.

The Tripura-rahasya is divided into three parts. The first part, the Mahatmya Khanda or section on the goddess is concerned with the origin, mantra and yantra of the Goddess Tripura, also known as Lalita or Lalita Tripurasundari. The Jnana Khanda or section on knowledge elaborates on the themes of consciousness, manifestation, and liberation. The last part, Charya Khanda or section on conduct, has been lost and some believe destroyed.

Another work, the Avadhuta Gita (Song of the Free) is a wonderful, compete compilation of the highest thought given to and recorded by two of Dattatreya's disciples, Swami and Kartika. Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) held it in high esteem. Originally a work of seven chapters, a spurious and misogynistic eighth chapter may be a later attempt to append sexual morality to the Natha tradition by a conservative ascetic. Some of the ideas in this Gita are however common to both Shaivite and Buddhist Tantras.

The Markandeya Purana reports that Dattatreya, to free himself of all attachments, dove into a lake where he stayed for many years. By doing so, he also hoped to evade an assembly of Munis who remained on the banks of the lake awaiting his return. Datta emerged from the water naked in the company of a beautiful woman. The text relates that he made love with her (maithuna), drank liquor, and enjoyed singing and music. In spite of this, the Munis did not abandon him, and Dattatraya, accompanied by his shakti, continued to engage in these practices and was meditated on by those longing for moksha.

In the Bhagavata Purana Dattatreya enumerates a list of his twenty-four gurus: earth, air, sky / ether, water, fire, sun, moon, python, pigeons, sea, moth, bee, bull elephant, bear, deer, fish, osprey, a child, a maiden, a courtesan, a blacksmith, serpent, spider, and wasp. The image of the Natha ranged from that of a siddha living in the woods with animals, to that of a frightening, even demonic, being.

In The Pathless Path to Immortality, Shri Gurudev Mahendranath writes:

"Shri Dattatreya was a dropout of an earlier age than the period when Veda and Tantra merged to become one simple cult. It was men like Dattatreya who helped to make this possible. Three of his close disciples were kings, one an Asura and the other two both belonging to the warrior caste. Dattatreya himself was regarded as an avatar of Maheshwara (Shiva) but later was claimed by Vaishnavites as the avatar of Vishnu. Not such a sectarian claim as it appears; Hindus regard Shiva and Vishnu as the same or as manifestations of the Absolute taking form."

Indeed, the Dattatreya Upanisad, which opens proclaiming Dattatreya's identity with Vishnu, ends with the mantra Om Namah Shivaya, identifying Datta with Shiva. In the last portion of the third chapter, Mahesvara (Shiva) alone is said to pervade reality and shine in every heart of man. He alone is in front, behind, to the left, to the right, below, above, everywhere the center. Finally, Mahesvara is identified with Dattatreya, depicting the latter as an Avatar of Shiva.

Dattatreya as a devotional deity
Dattatreya is usually depicted with three heads, symbolising Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva; past, present, and future; and the three states of consciousness: waking, dreaming, and dreamless sleep. He is portrayed sitting in meditation with his shakti beneath the audumbara (wish-fulfilling) tree. In front of him is a fire pit, and around him are four dogs. These are sometimes said to symbolise the four Vedas.

References
 Mahendranath, Shri Gurudev. Notes on Pagan India . Retrieved Oct. 14, 2004.
 Mahendranath, Shri Gurudev. The Pathless Path to Immortality . Retrieved Oct. 14, 2004.
 Rigopoulos, Antonio (1998). Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara. New York: State University of New York Press. .

Other websites
Information on Shri Dattatreya - Datta Guru

Hindu gods and goddesses

Dattatreya


Major Walter Clopton Wingfield  (16 October 1833 – 18 April 1912) was a Welsh inventor and a British Army officer who was one of the pioneers of lawn tennis. Inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1997 as the founder of modern lawn tennis, an example of the original equipment for the sport and a bust of Wingfield can be seen at the Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum.

Family and early life
Wingfield was born on 16 October 1833 in Ruabon, Denbighshire, Wales, the son of Clopton Lewis Wingfield, major in the 66th Foot Regiment, and Jane Eliza, daughter of Sir John Mitchell KCB. His mother died in 1836 after the birth of her second child and his father died in 1846 of a bowel obstruction. Walter was brought up by his uncle and great uncle. He was educated at Rossall School, and in 1851 entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, on the second attempt through the influence of his great uncle who was a colonel. He was commissioned a Cornet in the 1st Dragoon Guards and served in India. In 1858 Wingfield became a captain and in 1860 he took part in the campaign in China and was present at the capture of Peking. He returned to England in 1861 and retired from the Dragoon Guards a year later.

During the decade he was based at his family estate, Rhysnant, Four Crosses, in Montgomeryshire, Wales, before moving into London in 1867.  He was a Justice of the Peace (JP) for the county and served in the Montgomeryshire Yeomanry, joining as Lieutenant in 1864, appointed adjutant of the regiment in 1868, and promoted Major in 1874.

In 1870 he was appointed to the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, giving him some employment at the courts of Queen Victoria and her son Edward VII. He was invested by King Edward VII as a Member (fourth class) of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) on 11 August 1902. He retired from the Corps in 1909.

Lawn tennis

In the late 1860s Wingfield was one of the persons experimenting with a lawn version of tennis. Vulcanised bouncing rubber balls offered an opportunity to develop from the indoor game of real tennis and there were many who had the leisure time to pursue the sport and who owned croquet lawns that could be adapted for it. The precise date that Wingfield brought it to the public is uncertain. Lord Lansdowne claimed that in 1869 Major Wingfield gave a demonstration of the game to him in the garden of his Berkeley Square house, although in that year Wingfield was not a major. Another attribution was to a party held at Nantclwyd Hall in Denbighshire, Wales, although that party actually took place in December. Nor was Wingfield the only exponent. At the same time, Harry Gem and Augurio Perera were demonstrating their game of Pelota in Leamington Spa.

Wingfield patented a New and Improved Court for Playing the Ancient Game of Tennis and began marketing his game in the spring of 1874 selling boxed sets that included rubber balls imported from Germany as well as a net, poles, court markers, rackets and an instruction manual. The sets were available from Wingfield's agent, French and Co. in Pimlico in London, and cost between five and ten guineas. In his version the game was played on an hour-glass shaped court and the net was higher (4 feet 8 inches). The service had to be made from a diamond-shaped box at one end only and the service had to bounce beyond the service line instead of in front of it. He adopted the Rackets-based system of scoring where games consisted of 15 points (called "aces"). In order to differentiate his game, he named it Sphairistikè (which was poor Greek using a feminine adjective meaning "pertaining to a ball game" without an appropriate noun.) Between July 1874 and June
1875 1,050 tennis sets were sold, mainly to the aristocracy.

Tennis was becoming an important adjunct to cricket at the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC); Real tennis was (and still is) played at Lord's Cricket Ground; lawn tennis was also briefly established at Lord's in the mid-1870s. In 1875 John Moyer Heathcote instigated a meeting at the MCC to establish a universal set of rules and Wingfield was invited to participate. Wingfield's hourglass court and scoring method were adopted and Wingfield considered his sport was now entrusted to the MCC. During this time he suffered personal tragedies including the developing mental illness of his wife and the death of his three young sons and he lost all interest in the game. In 1877 the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club (AELTC) launched the Wimbledon Championship and prior to this, in cooperation with the MCC representatives, developed a new set of rules that excluded some of Wingfield's introductions. Wingfield authored two tennis works: The Book of the Game (1873) and The Major's Game of Lawn Tennis (1874).

Later life

Wingfield became vice-president of "The Universal Cookery and Food Association". In around 1890 he founded a culinary society called "Le Cordon Rouge" which was intended to further the development of the science of cookery. At the same time, he was active again as an inventor and experimented with bicycles. He created a new type of bicycle which he called "The Butterfly" and developed a form of bicycling riding in unison by several riders to the tunes of martial music.

On 22 November 1902 Edward VII made Wingfield a member (fourth class) of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) for "extraordinary, important and personal services to the Sovereign and the Royal family." and for 32 years of faithful service.

Wingfield lived at 112 Belgrave Road, Pimlico, London for a time and died at 33 St Georges Square, London (a Blue plaque commemorates this) at the age of 78 and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery. He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1997 for his contribution to tennis. The Wingfield Restaurant at the All England Club is named in his honour.

Wingfield married Alice Lydia Cleveland, daughter of a general. She survived him by many years and died in an asylum in November 1934.

References

Further reading

External links

 Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum
 USTA – Wingfield the Mysterious

1833 births
1912 deaths
1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards officers
British inventors
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
People educated at Rossall School
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
Welsh male tennis players
History of tennis
People from Ruabon
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Montgomeryshire Yeomanry officers
British male tennis players
Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms

Walter Clopton Wingfield


Silla was one of the kingdoms of ancient Korea. It existed from 57 BC to 935 and is famous as the longest sustained country in Korean history.

Silla was founded by King Park Hyeokgeose in 57 BC, around Gyeongju in the southeast part of the Korean peninsula. Although Silla was founded earlier than Goguryeo and Baekje which coexisted with Silla during that time, it took more time for Silla to build firm government structure than those kingdoms. However, around the 6th century, by accepting Buddhism, Silla made its royal power stronger. Around the 7th century, Silla acquired the Han river area, which was the most important area in Korean history. Finally, Silla conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, with the Tang Dynasty of China as an ally.

In the last stage of Silla, the king and noblemen indulged in extravagance, and it provoked the people to rebellion. The later three kingdom period began as Gyeon Hwon founded a new country, later Baekje, succeeding the ancient Baekje, and Gung Ye built Taebong succeeding ancient Goguryeo. Silla could not withstand their growing force, and finally surrendered to Goryeo in 935 and collapsed.

References

History of Korea
50s BC establishments
930s disestablishments in Asia
935 disestablishments
Former monarchies of Asia

Silla


Major General Charles Frederick Cox,  (2 May 1863 – 20 November 1944) was an Australian Army officer and politician. He retired in 1923 as an honorary major general.

Early life
Charles Frederick Cox was born on 2 May 1863 at Pennant Hills, New South Wales. He was a grandson of William Cox. He was educated in Parramatta and became a clerk with the New South Wales Railways traffic audit branch in 1881.

Cox enlisted in the New South Wales Lancers in 1891 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1894. In 1897 he was chosen to head a detachment of the regiment in the ceremonies for Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. He married Minnie Elizabeth Gibbons on 7 March 1894. Promoted to captain in 1897, he travelled to England again in 1899 in command of a squadron of the lancers for training with the British cavalry.

Boer War
The squadron was training alongside the 6th Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers) at Aldershot, England, when the Boer War broke out. Cox volunteered himself and his squadron for service in South Africa. Some 70 of his men went to South Africa; another 31, for various reasons, did not, and returned to Australia. Cox and his volunteers arrived in Cape Town in December 1899 and were the first colonial volunteers to arrive in Cape Town.

The squadron saw only limited action throughout their first tour, but did take part in the last major battle of the war, the Battle of Paardeberg, on 18 February 1900. In May 1900, Cox was attached to the Inniskilling Dragoons, under the command of Major Edmund Allenby.

The lancers returned to Australia in December 1900. Cox was promoted to major and given command of the newly formed 3rd New South Wales Mounted Rifles, with which he returned to South Africa in April 1901. In June he was made an honorary lieutenant colonel. In the latter half of 1901, Cox's regiment joined part of a force led by Colonel Michael Rimington. They covered 1,814 miles in 153 days. There was little action apart from the occasional skirmish, but these cost the regiment 5 killed and 19 wounded.

While the British regulars had doubts about Cox's competence in 1899, by the end of the war in 1902 Cox had earned considerable accolades from Colonel Rimington. From his men he had earned the nickname "Fighting Charlie".

For his service during the war, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in the South Africa honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the decoration from the Prince of Wales during a large coronation parade of colonial troops in London on 1 July 1902.

Cox remained with the lancers, which became the 1st Light Horse in 1903. He became the commander in 1906 and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 2 April 1908. In 1911 Cox was transferred to the unattached officer list.

First World War
In September 1914, Cox was appointed to command the AIF's 6th Light Horse Regiment. The regiment trained in Sydney and Egypt before arriving at Gallipoli for dismounted service on 19 May 1915. Two days later, Cox was wounded by shrapnel while in his dugout. He was evacuated and did not rejoin his regiment until 1 July. When Brigadier General Chauvel took over the New Zealand and Australian Division on 19 September, Cox became acting commander of the 1st Light Horse Brigade. On 6 December 1915 the appointment became permanent and Cox was promoted to colonel and temporary brigadier general. He held this post for the duration of the war.

The 1st Light Horse Brigade arrived back in Egypt on 28 December 1915. The brigade was sent to Wadi Natrun, south west of Cairo, to protect the Kataba Canal against the Senussi. On 11 February 1916, the brigade, less the 3rd Light Horse Regiment, entrained for Minia. They remained there until May, patrolling the area for signs of the Senussi.

In May Cox went to England on sick leave. He rejoined his brigade on 26 August 1916 on the Suez Canal front, where they now formed part of Chauvel's ANZAC Mounted Division. Cox and his brigade took part in multiple actions during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, including the Battle of Magdhaba, Battle of Beersheba and captured the town of Jericho.

Post-war
Cox returned to Australia on 13 March 1919. In 1920 he was elected to the Senate as a Nationalist representing New South Wales, a seat he held until 1938. He travelled widely through New South Wales and became well known and popular. As a senator, he took an interest in defence policy, the development of the railway system, and the construction of the new national capital in Canberra.

Cox was appointed to command the 4th Light Horse Brigade in 1920, and then the 1st Cavalry Division in 1921. In 1923 he was transferred to the retired list with the rank of honorary major general.

He died at Croydon on 20 November 1944 and was buried in the Carlingford Cemetery with full military honours.

References

External links
 Gallipoli evacuation order issued by Cox

1863 births
1944 deaths
Military personnel from Sydney
Australian generals
Australian military personnel of the Second Boer War
Australian military personnel of World War I
Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath
Members of the Australian Senate for New South Wales
Nationalist Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
United Australia Party members of the Parliament of Australia
20th-century Australian politicians
Burials in South East England

Charles Frederick Cox


Scrubber systems are used to make coal a "cleaner" fuel.  Scrubbers remove sulfur from a power plant's exhaust.  Scrubbers are of two types, wet scrubbers and dry scrubbers. Wet scrubbers use liquid chemicals to remove pollutants. Dry scrubbers typically use fabric filters. In many cases both are used together. As polluted air passes through a wet scrubber, chemicals in the scrubber react with the air pollution causing it to precipitate out.  Modern scrubbers can remove up to 98% of the sulfur and 99% of the precipitate matter from within the smokestacks. The sulfur and metals that are removed from the scrubbers can be sold as a marketable products.  Sludge from lime scrubbers can be sold to wallboard manufacturers, and fly ash from chimney flues can be sold to make lightweight concrete that can substitute for wood. The use of coal in the United States about doubled during the last quarter (25 years) of the 20th century. However, sulfur in the air was reduced by 30% during that same period. This shows that scrubbers work.

References

Air pollution

Scrubber


Le Châtelier's principle is a principle used in Chemistry and Physics to describe how a system at equilibrium reacts to external changes.

Overview
It is used to show how the point of equilibrium of a system will move to oppose a change in the conditions of the system, following Newton's third law. This is most commonly seen in reversible reactions in chemistry, where a chemical reaction has reached a point where the formation of products happens at the same rate the products decay back into reactants. This principle can then be used to increase the amount of desired products made by moving equilibrium towards that side in chemical industries.

Concentration
If the concentration of reactants in a reaction increases, the point of equilibrium moves towards the products as this gets rid of the excess reactants and cancels the change. Similarly, if the concentration of products increases, the equilibrium moves towards the reactants.

Pressure
If the pressure of a system increases, the point of equilibrium will shift to the side with less moles, as that side will occupy less volume and therefore will reduce the pressure.

Temperature
If the temperature of a system is increased, the point of equilibrium moves towards whichever side is more endothermic as this will take in the excess energy as part of the products and so cancels the change of increased temperature.

Electromagnetism
This principle is also shown by Lenz's law, which states that a changing magnetic flux will produce an opposing magnetic flux (and therefore a magnetic and electric field) in any nearby metals. This will then produce a second current in the nearby metal in the opposite direction to the original current.

Other websites
 Le Chatelier's principle
 Lenz's law
Chemistry
Physics

Le Chatelier's principle


Berserkers (or berserks) were a special kind of Norse warrior who were widely feared.  Old Norse literature said they fought in a wild, trance-like fury. This later gave us the English word berserk.

Many Old Norse sources say that berserkers were real. Most historians believe that berserkers worked themselves into a rage before battle. Others think they might have eaten drugged foods. The Ynglinga saga said they charged their enemy without any armour. Also that they were as mad as wolves. They could kill the enemy with a single blow of their sword while neither fire nor iron could hurt them.

References

Norse mythology

Berserker


Eddie Asner (born November 15, 1929; deed August 29, 2021) wis an American film, telly, an stage actor, vyce actor, an an umwhile preses o the Screen Actors Guild, primarily kent for his role as Lou Grant during the 1970s an early 1980s, on baith The Mary Tyler Moore Show an its spin-off series Lou Grant, makin him ane o the few telly actors tae portray the same leadin character in baith a comedy an a drama. He is an aa kent for portrayin Santa Claus in the 2003 comedy Elf. In 2009, he starned as the vyce o Carl Fredricksen in Pixar's animatit film Up.

References

1929 births
2021 daiths
20t-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male stage actors
Broadway theatre fowk
American male televeesion actors
American male vyce actors
American militar personnel
Audio beuk narrators
Jewish American male actors
Male actors frae Chicago
Male actors frae Kansas
Male actors frae Los Angeles
Male actors frae New York Ceety
Best Drama Actor Gowden Globe (televeesion) winners
Best Supportin Actor Gowden Globe (televeesion) winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Supportin Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Preses o the Screen Actors Guild
Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Awaird
Varsity o Chicago alumni
Unitit States Airmy sodgers
9/11 conspiracy theorists
American activists
American labor leaders
American fowk o Roushie-Jewish strynd
American socialists
Autism activists
Members o the Democratic Socialists o Americae
Male actors frae Kansas Ceety, Kansas
Male actors frae Kansas Ceety, Missouri
Male actors frae Santa Monica, Californie
Televeesion Haw o Fame inductees
American poleetical activists

Ed Asner


Osteology is the scientific study of bones, practiced by osteologists. It is a part of anatomy and is used by workers in palaeontology, anthropology, and archeology.

Osteology studies the skeleton, and other bony structures. It includes the study of the structure of bones, teeth, their function and growth. It is often used by scientists for the identification of vertebrate remains, including the age, death, sex, and development.

Skeletal system
Anatomy

Osteology


Count Ivan Vasilyevich Gudovich (, tr. ; 1741–1820) was a Russian noble and military leader of Ukrainian descent. His exploits included the capture of Khadjibey (1789) and the conquest of maritime Dagestan (1807).

Ivan's father was an influential member of the Ukrainian Cossack starshina. He sent his sons to be educated abroad, at the Königsberg Albertina University and the University of Leipzig. Upon coming to St Petersburg in 1759, Gudovich joined the Russian Army, hoping to benefit from the favors enjoyed by his elder brother, Andrey, an aide-de-camp to Peter III.

Upon the latter's dethronement in 1762, the Gudovich brothers were apprehended and briefly imprisoned. It was during the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) that Ivan Gudovich rose to prominence and greatly distinguished himself at Khotyn, Larga, and Kagul. The next ten years were spent in half-military, half-administrative work in Ryazan, Tambov, and Podolia.

Gudovich won a European reputation for a series of brilliantly conducted sieges during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92). In 1789 he succeeded in taking the citadel of Khadjibey, which would be renamed Odessa by the imperial administration. He proceeded to capture Kilia, a strong fortress commanding the Danube Delta. When he prepared to lay siege to Izmail, Prince Potemkin had him replaced with Suvorov. Thereupon Gudovich moved to the Caucasian front, where he stormed the most important Ottoman stronghold, Anapa, and took prisoner its garrison of 13,000 soldiers.

In the wake of such a glorious success, Gudovich's capacity for supreme command could hardly be doubted. He aspired to lead the projected Russian invasion of Persia to redeem himself due to his lack of decisive decision making during the political fallout with khan Agha Mohammad Khan with Georgia in 1795. but the supreme command was given to a young and inexperienced courtier, Valerian Zubov. Embittered, Gudovich entertained plans of retiring from active service. While he was on his furlough, the Empress died and her successor Paul, recalling Ivan's allegiance to his father, had Zubov replaced with Gudovich, who was also made count.

By that time, the Persian expedition was over and Gudovich prepared to lead the Russian armies to combat Revolutionary France on the Rhine. The project was abandoned within months, and Gudovich had to languish in retirement until the outbreak of the new war with Persia.

Named commander-in-chief in the Caucasus in 1806, Gudovich led the Russian armies to the Caspian Sea during the Russo-Persian War (1804–13), overrunning the khanates of Derbent, Sheka, and Baku on his way. After the 24,000-strong army of Yusuf Pasha was routed in the Battle of Arpachai, Gudovich was promoted Field Marshal. However, the battle cost him an eye and left him incapacitated for effective command. In 1808, the ailing general failed to take Erivan and retreated with his soldiers to Georgia.

Frustrated with the latest failure, Gudovich laid down all his offices and retired from the army to Moscow, which he governed for three more years, until advanced age forced him to retire to his enormous estates in Podolia, mostly inherited from a father-in-law, Count Kirill Razumovsky. Gudovich died aged 80 and was buried, according to his own wishes, at the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev.

Notes

References
 GRAF IVAN VASIL'EVICH GUDOVICH
 Gudovich, Ivan Vasilyevich

Further reading
 The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition. S.v. "Ivan Vasilevich Gudovich."

Politicians from the Russian Empire
Field marshals of Russia
1741 births
1820 deaths
Governors-General of Kiev
Members of the State Council (Russian Empire)
Governors-General of Moscow
Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree
People of the Russo-Persian Wars
Nobility from the Russian Empire
People from the Russian Empire of Ukrainian descent
18th-century military personnel from the Russian Empire

Ivan Gudovich


Casino is a 1995 American movie starring Robert De Niro, Sharon Stone, Frank Vincent and Joe Pesci. It was directed by Martin Scorsese. It is set in the 1970s and 1980s and is based around criminals and gambling. This movie was released in autumn 1995 in the United States, and like many movies set in the 1970s, has some anachronisms.

Other websites

1995 crime drama movies
American crime drama movies
American gangster movies
Antisocial personality disorder in fiction
1990s English-language movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies based on books
Movies based on real life events
Movies directed by Martin Scorsese
Movies set in California
Movies set in Las Vegas
Movies set in the 1970s
Movies set in the 1980s
Universal Pictures movies
Adultery in movies

Casino (movie)


Harvey Phillip Spector (December 26, 1939 – January 16, 2021) was an American record producer. He was co-owner of Philles Records (with then-business partner Lester Sill), and later owner of Phil Spector Records.  In 2009 he was found guilty of second-degree murder. He was in prison from 2009 until his death in 2021.

Early work: The "Wall of Sound"
Spector's signature style was called the Wall of Sound. He used large amounts of echo, doubling and multiplying of musical instruments and the parts to be played, and  of recorded parts. The built-up effect gave his records an operatic, theatrical quality. The music sounded "bigger than life". The effect carried over especially well on AM radio, which was how most music was broadcast in the 1950s and 1960s. Spector said the Wall of Sound made "...little symphonies for the kids...".

The recording artists who worked with Spector over the years included The Crystals ("Then He Kissed Me"), The Ronettes ("Be My Baby"), The Righteous Brothers ("You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'"), Gene Pitney ("Every Breath I Take"), Darlene Love ("(Today I Met) The Boy I'm Gonna Marry"), and Tina Turner ("River Deep, Mountain High"). Sonny Bono and Cher were among his backup singers. He married Veronica (Ronnie) Bennett of the Ronettes, who took the name Ronnie Spector.

Spector's strongest work was in creating hit singles. He knew many fans never listened to the B-sides of singles, and radio seldom played them, so often his B-sides would feature an instrumental jam session, without the singers credited on the record, and with titles like "Flip and Nitty". Spector also disliked albums. He called them "two hit (song)s, and ten pieces of junk". When stereo became more popular than mono in recording, Spector did not follow the trend. In later years he wore a red badge in public, with the words BACK TO MONO.

Many other producers and musicians imitated the Wall of Sound style, or included elements of it in their own work, including Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys. Wilson thought of Spector as his biggest rival, although the two did work together on one song, that was used in a .

Hits, and misses
Not all of Spector's productions became hits. One record, "He Hit Me (And It Felt Like A Kiss)" was pulled from release after complaints were made by listeners, about the song's theme. (The song was later performed by singer Courtney Love.) Another record, "This Could Be The Night" (working with both Harry Nilsson and Chip Douglas), went unreleased, although radio  Rodney Bingenheimer used it later as his show's . "(Let's Dance) The Screw" was a private  to Lester Sill, when his partnership with Spector ended badly, and only a few copies were pressed. "River Deep, Mountain High", which Spector thought of as his all-time best work, drew little attention in the United States, but it was a hit in other countries.

A Christmas Gift to You
One of the few full albums Spector produced, A Christmas Gift to You, was released in 1963. The album featured nearly all of the artists Spector worked with regularly. The album did not become a hit at first, but it went on to become a Christmas perennial. Many music listeners consider the album a .

The Beatles
The Beatles handed over the rough tapes of their unfinished Get Back album for Spector to post-produce, after John Lennon and George Harrison both worked successfully with him on "Instant Karma!'", which became a hit single for Lennon. Let it Be was the title for the finished album (and movie, filmed during the recording sessions). Beatles fans bought and enjoyed the album and its singles, but some fans and experts disliked portions of Spector's work. Paul McCartney hated the changes Spector made to "The Long and Winding Road", which he meant to have a simple accompaniment, but was released with a choir and orchestra added. McCartney never recorded with Spector, but the other three Beatles worked with him several times, on solo recordings.

On camera
Spector appeared as an actor a few times. One appearance was in an episode of I Dream of Jeannie, as a music producer. Another was in the movie Easy Rider, as a rich man who buys cocaine from the two main characters. A character in a 1970 movie, Beyond the Valley of the Dolls, was based on the way many people saw Spector. He appeared as himself in scenes from Imagine, a 1973 movie about the recording of John Lennon's 1971 album of the same name.

Later work
Spector worked less often in the 1970s and 1980s, and his most notable work from those years was with The Ramones and Yoko Ono, the widow of John Lennon. Spector and Ronnie were divorced, and she sued him years later for unpaid royalties from her years as a singer. She collected over a million dollars, after many years of going to court. Spector spent much of his time as a "retired celebrity", staying home at his Alhambra, California  or dining out. He sometimes invited women guests home, after a night out drinking alcohol. Some of the women reported later having a pleasant time with Spector. Others told stories of being abused, detained, or threatened with a gun.

Arrest and trial
In February 2003, police were called to Spector's home to investigate a shooting. Actress Lana Clarkson was found dead on the grounds. Spector was charged with second-degree murder. He admitted possible guilt or involvement in Clarkson's death privately, but decided to plead not guilty in court. Attorney Robert Shapiro was hired to defend him, but Bruce Cutler, and later Linda Kenney-Baden, took over the job. Spector's case went to trial in the spring of 2007, and ended in a mistrial that Autumn. Spector was tried again in 2009 and found guilty of second degree murder.

Death
Spector died, still under arrest, on January 16, 2021 at a hospital in French Camp, California from problems caused by COVID-19 at the age of 81.

References

1939 births
2021 deaths
American murderers
American pianists
American pop musicians
American prisoners
American record producers
American rock guitarists
American songwriters
Criminals from New York City
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in California
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from the Bronx
People who died in prison custody in the United States

Phil Spector


The roadrunner (Geococcyx) is a fast-running bird. The roadrunner is also called the "chaparral bird" and the "chaparral cock".

Species
The roadrunners are a genus of ground cuckoos. The two species of roadrunners are the greater roadrunner and the lesser roadrunner. The greater roadrunner, (Geococcyx californianus) lives in Mexico and the southwestern U.S.A. The lesser roadrunner, (Geococcyx velox) lives in Mexico and Central America.

Description
The roadrunner is a large, slender, black-brown and white streaked ground bird which has an average weight of 8 to 15 ounces, and is about 18 inches (46 cm) to 22 inches (56 cm) from tail to beak. It has long legs, strong feet, and a big dark beak. The roadrunner is terrestrial (lives on land). Even though it can fly, it spends most of its time on the ground. When they fly their wings are short and rounded and have a white crescent on the feathers. Roadrunners and other members of the cuckoo family have zygodactyl feet (two toes on the front and two toes on the back). Roadrunners can run up to the speed of 20 miles per hour (32 km per hour). They fly to escape predators.Some Roadrunner run til 26 miles per hour.

Habitat
Roadrunners live in deserts of the southwestern U.S.A, Mexico and Central America.They also live in the sonoran desert

Diet
Roadrunners are omnivores, meaning they eat both meat and plants. They eat insects like grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and caterpillars, small reptiles like lizards and snakes, rodents and other small mammals. They also eat tarantulas and other spiders, scorpions, centipedes, snails, small birds and eggs. The plants they eat are fruits and seeds like prickly pear cactus and sumac. Roadrunners search on the ground to find food. They usually run after their prey but also sometimes may leap to catch insects. Because of its fast speed, the roadrunner is one of the few animals that preys upon the rattlesnake.
The roadrunner is the only real predator of the tarantula hawk .

Nest and eggs
The nest of roadrunner is made up of mainly sticks and sometimes leaves, and snake skin. A nest usually contains 2-6 eggs which are white colored. Roadrunners have bi-parental care. Both parents take care of the nest and feed the hatchlings, but males take care of the nest at night and females at day. For the first 1 to 2 weeks after the young hatch, one parent always remains at the nest. After the hatchlings are 2 to 3 weeks old they leave and never return to the nest.

References

Cuculiformes

Roadrunner


The Scout movement and Guiding in the Republic of China (Taiwan) is served by:
 Girl Scouts of Taiwan, member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts
 Scouts of China, member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement

International Scouting units in the Republic of China
The Republic of China also has active expatriate Scout groups, including two organizations focused on serving children of American military families living in Taiwan Area and elsewhere in eastern Asia and the western Pacific: USA Girl Scouts Overseas, and Boy Scouts of America, serviced by the Taiwan District of the Far East Council. These councils serve BSA and GSUSA units composed of children of diplomatic, business and military personnel, and international units run under their auspices.

First World Jamboree for Ethnic Chinese Scouts
The First World Jamboree for Ethnic Chinese Scouts (第1次全球華人大露營), to promote cooperation and friendship among ethnic Chinese Scouts and strengthening of the World Scout Movement, was held 3 – 9 July 2009 at Wusanto Reservoir, Tainan, southern Taiwan.

See also

 Scouting and Guiding in Mainland China
 Scouting and Guiding in Hong Kong
 Scouting and Guiding in Macau
 Boy Scouts of Manchukuo

References

Scouting in the Republic of China


Pectus excavatum is a congenital medical condition where the ribs and sternum grow abnormally, producing a sunken appearance to the chest. This makes the chest look  like it has caved in on itself.  It is also commonly referred to as "funnel chest" or "chest bowl". It is the most common form of pectus deformity, occurring in approximately 1 in 300-400 births, with a 3:1 male predominance ratio. While Pectus Excavatum occurs at birth, it often does not develop properly until early adolescence when growth is more rapid.

Causes
Doctors do not know why some people have the dent.  They think it might be caused by a bad gene from the parent.  It is also linked to syndromes (illnesses) that affect other parts of the body.

Numbers
Pectus excavatum happens in about 1 in every 300-400 children, with the 75% majority of cases being male.

Non-invasive treatment

Suction Cup

A vacuum bell, also called a suction cup, can be used to fix pectus excavatum.  The cup is placed on the chest and all the air is removed: this pulls up the chest. This non-invasive procedure shows promise to be a permanent cure for pectus excavatum. Treatment must continue for two years after the appearance of correction is made.

Surgery
The dent can be fixed by a doctor.  The following are alternate surgical ways of fixing the chest:

Nuss Procedure

The Nuss Prodcedure was created by Doctor Nuss from Norfolk in Virginia.  A metal bar is put into the chest; the bar holds the chest up.

Ravitch
The Ravitch technique is from the 1950s.  It involves cutting out part of the chest, placing a bar in the chest, and having the bone grow back.  Most doctors do not use the Ravitch because it causes much blood loss.

References

Diseases and disorders of bones

Pectus excavatum


Robert Combas (born 25 May 1957, Lyon) is a French painter and sculptor. He lives and works in Paris.

He is widely recognized as a progenitor of the figuration libre movement that began in Paris around 1980 as a reaction to the art establishment in general and minimalism and conceptual art in particular.

Figuration libre is often regarded as having roots in Fauvism and Expressionism and is linked to contemporary movements such as Bad Painting and Neo-expressionism. It draws on pop cultural influences such as graffiti, cartoons and rock music in an attempt to produce a more varied, direct and honest reflection of contemporary society, often satirizing or critiquing its excesses.

Combas' own work has always been strongly rooted in depictions of the human figure. The figures are often in wild, violent or orgiastic settings. Usually on large, often unstretched canvases, Combas crowds his flat pictorial space with a teeming proliferation of bodies, street poetry and designs reminiscent of the compulsive patterning in much folk and outsider art. He creates hectic narratives of war, crime, sex, celebration and transgression—in short, every phase that makes up the constant flux of modern life. In recent years a strong autobiographical strain has been evident in his work, which was present only on a subliminal level, if at all, in the earlier work.

Combas often seems to be offering the work as critique—of both the art establishment and society at large. The recent painting "I am greedy man" features a densely layered jostle of bodies, with the foreground dominated by transparent line figures, the background occupied by monochromatic figures and the middle ground reserved for two more fully realized figures, one in a business suit and the other muscular and shirtless. They dance in a swirl of text which seems to have no discernible beginning or end but which may be read as: "I am greedy man/ Please shout me babe/ Soul serenade is a lot of pussy/ Pussy gone on the Eiffel Tower/ My Eiffel Tower is long and large." The lampoon of a society where all are anonymous except in the individual recognition of need and gratification is typical of Combas' work throughout his career.

While Combas' works often seem to carry an element of shock or confrontation, he insists the images are meant to engage the viewer, and their execution in vibrant color and bold, unfettered line communicate a spirit of proletarian camaraderie that offsets the tendency to overwhelm, in the larger works especially.

In a biographical note on Robert Combas' official website the artist asserts his aim is to
"provoke, that is, to trigger a reaction in the spectator only to 'invite' him, beckoning him in and whispering in his ear 'come over and talk to me, I want to tell you about the stupidity, violence, beauty, love, hatred, seriousness and fun, the logic and senselessness that pervade our day-to-day lives' ".

References

External links
 Robert Combas, Official Website
 Robert Combas

1957 births
Living people
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
French male painters
21st-century French painters
21st-century French male artists
Artists from Lyon
20th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Neo-expressionist artists

Robert Combas