Abraham Zaleznik (1924–2011) was a leading scholar and teacher in the field of organizational psychodynamics and the psychodynamics of leadership.

At the time of his death he was a Professor Emeritus at the Harvard Business School where he taught for four decades.

He was a practicing psychoanalyst and the author of 16 books.

Biography
Zaleznik taught at the Harvard Business School for four decades. He authored 16 books and over forty articles. Beginning in the 1960s he studied at the Boston Psychoanalytic Society and Institute. In 1971 he was certified as a clinical psychoanalyst, a rare achievement at a time when most psychoanalytic institutes trained physicians only. He saw patients in a psychoanalytic private practice for 20 years. In 1981 he met Konosuke Matsushita, the founder of the Matsushita Electric Industrial Company, on a trip to Japan. The latter established a chair in leadership at the Harvard Business School, which Zaleznik occupied until his retirement.  Zaleznik served on corporate boards, consulted to many businesses, and was an early contributor to the formation of  the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations. He died at the age of 87. At the time of his death he had two grown children and five grandchildren. His wife of 66 years, Elizabeth, died two years earlier in 2009.

He graduated from Alma College and Harvard Business School.

Work
Zaleznik was among the founders, along with Harry Levinson, of a school of thought that integrated leadership and organization studies with psychoanalysis.

He published an article, "Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?" which established a theme he continued to explore throughout his scholarly career.

He was a critic of what he called "the managerial orientation" which led managers and executives to focus on process, rather on the substance of their work. He followed up this article with an important book, published in 1989, The Managerial Mystique: Rediscovering Leadership in Business, which explored this theme in depth. He did not subscribe to the idea that there were leadership competencies. Rather, he believed that leaders were animated by distinctive talents, describing them as various forms of "imagination" for example, the financial imagination and the marketing imagination. Theodore Levitt, a major theorist of marketing, was influenced by Zaleznik's idea.

Zaleznik emphasized that character above all shaped how leaders took up their roles. He was among the few scholars who could link how leaders decided and what decisions they took to their character forming experiences. His case book Learning Leadership: Cases and Commentaries On Abuse of Power in Organizations, is based on many biographical essays of such historical figures as Andrew Carnegie, Henry Ford, Coco Chanel and Jimmy Hoffa. In his classic article "The Management of Disappointment" he argued that leaders are twice born, the second birth, the result of their navigating a major career disappointment.

Influences
Zaleznik was deeply influenced by what is called the "ego psychology" school of psychoanalysis. In this school of thought, character emerges from the compromises a person makes between the demands of reality and his or her drives and desires, what Freud called "the Id." This point of view led Zaleznik to discount any idealization of "leadership" and to see leaders as people who have, through psychological conflict and struggle, found a way to express their passions in the context of difficult choices where resources are limited. This meant of course that every leader had his or her significant limitations. This point of view led Zaleznik to be skeptical of the Organization development tradition that highlighted how leaders could facilitate the human potential of followers. He was similarly skeptical that "participatory leadership" could resolve the inherent dilemmas of command and control in organizations.

Selected publications
 Zaleznik, A., Hodgson, R., Levinson, D., The Executive Role Constellation; An Analysis of Personality and Role Relations in Management, Boston: Harvard University, 1964
 Zaleznik, A., "The Management of Disappointment," Harvard Business Review, Nov-Dec, 1967
 Zaleznik, A., "Power and Politics in Organizational Life", Harvard Business Review, May-June, 1970
 Zaleznik, A., Kets de Vries, M., Power and the Corporate Mind, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1975
 Abraham Zaleznik, A., "Managers and Leaders: Are They Different?" Harvard Business Review, May–June 1977.
 Zaleznik, A., The Managerial Mystique: Restoring Leadership in Business, New York: Harper & Row, 1989.
 Zaleznik, A., Learning Leadership: Cases and Commentaries on Abuses of Power in Organizations, Chicago, Ill. : Bonus Books, 1993
 Zaleznik, A., Hedgehogs and Foxes : Character, Leadership, and Command in Organizations New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
 Zaleznik, A., Executive's guide to understanding people: How Freudian Theory can turn Good Executives into Better Leaders, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.

References

1924 births
2011 deaths
American psychoanalysts
Jewish psychoanalysts
Harvard Business School faculty
Alma College alumni
Harvard Business School alumni

Abraham Zaleznik


Parlour (or parlor), comes from the French word parloir, from parler, which means "to speak". The parlour is a room in a house where people could meet. In Turkey it is called a kiosk. The Bible (Judges 3:20), talks about the "summer parlour", a small room built on the roof of the house, with open windows to catch the breeze. It has a door to the outside by which visitors can enter.

In parts of Great Britain and the United States, parlour is a common name for certain types of restaurants such as "ice cream parlour" and "pizza parlour". There are also "Beer parlors", wine parlors, or, in at least one case, a "spaghetti parlor." The word parlour has even been used to describe a coffee shop as the "coffee parlor." It can also mean a special service business, such as a tattoo parlour.

The "inner parlours" in 1 Chronicles 28:11 in the Bible were the small rooms or chambers which Solomon built all round two sides and one end of the Temple (1 Kings 6:5). Some people think the inner parlours may have been the porch and the holy place.

In medieval Christian usage, the parlour was one of two rooms in a monastery. The 'outer parlour' was the room where the monks or nuns could meet a visitor and do business with people from outside the monastery. It was generally in the west range of the buildings of the cloister, close to the main entrance. The 'inner parlour' was found off the cloister, next to the chapter house in the east range of the monastery. Most religious orders wanted silence in the cloister, which was the place where the monks studied. The inner parlour was a place where the monks could talk without disturbing the others in the cloister.

In modern use, the parlour is a formal sitting room in a large house or mansion. In the late 19th century, it was often a formal room used only on Sundays or special occasions, and closed during the week. The family kept their best furniture, works of art and other things on display in the parlour. The body of someone who died would be put on show in the parlour while funeral was being organized. During the 20th century, architects and decorators have changed the use of the room. In most homes the parlour has been replaced by the living room.

References

Other websites
 Victorian Parlour,  Oxford, Ohio
 Interior of Mt. Auburn, Cincinnati parlour in 1886

Rooms

Parlour


In mathematics, a surface integral is a definite integral taken over a surface (which may be a curve set in space). Just as a line integral allows one to integrate over an arbitrary curve (of one dimension), a surface integral can be thought of as a double integral integrating over a two-dimensional surface.  Given a surface, one may integrate over its scalar fields (that is, functions which return numbers as values), or its vector fields (that is, functions which return vectors as values).

Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the classical theory of electromagnetism.

Surface integrals of scalar fields
Consider a surface S on which a scalar field f is defined. If one thinks of S as made of some material, and for each x in S the number f(x) is the density of material at x, then the surface integral of f over S is the mass per unit thickness of S. (This is only true if the surface is an infinitesimally thin shell.)

One approach to calculating the surface integral is then to split the surface in many very small pieces, assume that the density is approximately constant on each piece, find the mass per unit thickness of each piece (by multiplying the density of the piece by its area), and then sum up the resulting numbers to find the total mass per unit thickness of S.

To find an explicit formula for the surface integral, mathematicians parametrize S by considering on S a system of curvilinear coordinates, like the latitude and longitude on a sphere. Let such a parametrization be x(s, t), where (s, t) varies in some region T in the plane. Then, the surface integral is given by

where the expression between bars on the right-hand side is the magnitude of the cross product of the partial derivatives of x(s, t).

For example, to find the surface area of some general functional shape, say , we have

where .  So that , and .  So,

which is the formula used for the surface area of a general functional shape.  One can recognize the vector in the second line above as the normal vector to the surface.

Note that because of the presence of the cross product, the above formulas only work for surfaces embedded in three dimensional space.

Surface integrals of vector fields

Consider a vector field v on S, that is, for each x in S, v(x) is a vector.

The surface integral can be defined component-wise according to the definition of the surface integral of a scalar field; the result is a vector. For example, this applies to the electric field at some fixed point due to an electrically charged surface, or the gravity at some fixed point due to a sheet of material. It can also calculate the magnetic flux through a surface.

Alternatively, mathematicians can integrate the normal component of the vector field; the result is a scalar. An example is a fluid flowing through S, such that v(x) determines the velocity of the fluid at x. The flux is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing through S in a unit amount of time.

This illustration implies that if the vector field is tangent to S at each  point, then the flux is zero, because the fluid just flows in parallel to S, and neither in nor out. This also implies that if v does not just flow along S, that is, if v has both a tangential and a normal component, then only the normal component contributes to the flux. Based on this reasoning, to find the flux, we need to take the dot product of v with the unit surface normal to S at each point, which will give us a scalar field, and integrate the obtained field as above. This gives the formula

The cross product on the right-hand side of this expression is a surface normal determined by the parametrization.

This formula defines the integral on the left (note the dot and the vector notation for the surface element).

Theorems involving surface integrals
Various useful results for surface integrals can be derived using differential geometry and vector calculus, such as the divergence theorem, and its generalization, Stokes' theorem.

Advanced issues

Changing parametrization
The discussion above defined the surface integral by using a parametrization of the surface S. A given surface might have several parametrizations. For example, when the locations of the North Pole and South Pole are moved on a sphere, the latitude and longitude change for all the points on the sphere. A natural question is then whether the definition of the surface integral depends on the chosen parametrization. For integrals of scalar fields, the answer to this question is simple: the value of the surface integral will be the same no matter what parametrization one uses.

Integrals of vector fields are more complicated, because the surface normal is involved. Mathematicians have proved that given two parametrizations of the same surface, whose surface normals point in the same direction, both parametrizations give the same value for the surface integral. If, however, the normals for these parametrizations point in opposite directions, the value of the surface integral obtained using one parametrization is the negative of the one obtained via the other parametrization. It follows that given a surface, we do not need to stick to any unique parametrization; but, when integrating vector fields, we do need to decide in advance which direction the normal will point to, and then choose any parametrization consistent with that direction.

Parameterizations work on parts of the surface
Another issue is that sometimes surfaces do not have parametrizations which cover the whole surface; this is true for example for the surface of a cylinder (of finite height). The obvious solution is then to split that surface in several pieces, calculate the surface integral on each piece, and then add them all up. This is indeed how things work, but when integrating vector fields, one needs to again be careful in choosing the normal-pointing vector for each piece of the surface, so that when the pieces are put back together, the results are consistent. For the cylinder, this means that if we decide that for the side region the normal will point out of the body, then for the top and bottom circular parts, the normal must point out of the body too.

Inconsistent surface normals
Last, there are surfaces which do not have a surface normal at each point with consistent results (for example, the Möbius strip).  If such a surface is split into pieces, on each piece a parametrization and corresponding surface normal is chosen, and the pieces are put back together, the normal vectors coming from different pieces cannot be reconciled. This means that at some junction between two pieces will have normal vectors pointing in opposite directions. Such a surface is called non-orientable. Vector fields cannot be integrated on non-orientable surfaces.

Related pages
Divergence theorem
Stokes' theorem
Line integral
Volume integral
Cartesian coordinate system
Volume and surface area elements in a spherical coordinate system
Volume and surface area elements in a cylindrical coordinate system
Holstein–Herring method

References

Other websites
Surface Integral -- from MathWorld
Surface Integral -- Theory and exercises

Calculus

Surface integral


The Holy Loch () is a sea loch, a part of the Cowal peninsula coast of the Firth of Clyde, in Argyll and Bute, Scotland.

The "Holy Loch" name is believed to date from the 6th century, when Saint Munn landed there after leaving Ireland. Kilmun Parish Church and Argyll Mausoleum is said to stand where Saint Munn's church was once located.

Robertson's Yard at Sandbank, a village on the loch, was a major wooden boat building company in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

During World War II, the loch was used as a British Royal Navy submarine base. From 1961 to 1992, it was used as a United States Navy ballistic missile submarine base. In 1992, the Holy Loch base was deemed unnecessary following the demise of the Soviet Union and subsequently closed.

Geography
Open on the Firth of Clyde at its eastern end, the Sea Loch is approximately  wide and between  long, varying with the tide. The town of Dunoon on the Cowal peninsula lies on the shores of the Clyde just to the south of the loch, and houses continue round the villages of Kirn, Hunters Quay at the point with the landing slip for Western Ferries, Ardnadam and past Lazaretto Point, the village of Sandbank, with open countryside at the end of the Sea Loch, then on the northern shore Kilmun, and at Strone Point the village of Strone continues on the western shore of the Firth of Clyde, almost joining Blairmore on Loch Long.

All the villages used to have piers served by Clyde steamers, and now Western Ferries runs between Hunters Quay and McInroy's Point on the outskirts of Gourock, while the Argyll Ferries service runs from Dunoon to Gourock pierhead. At the end of the loch, the A815 (after being joined by the A880 at Ardbeg) leads north, to the east of the River Eachaig, to the Benmore Botanic Garden and Arboretum (also known as the Younger Botanic Gardens), Loch Eck and on towards Inveraray.

History

Medieval period
On the shore of the Holy Loch at Kilmun (Gaelic Cill Mhunnu, 'the church of St Munnu') stands a nineteenth-century church. It stands on the site of a sequence of earlier churches, and an early carved stone on the site suggests that there was a church here perhaps as early as the sixth or seventh century.  The dedication to St Munnu, otherwise known as Fintan, St Munn (Fintán of Taghmon), reflects devotion to an Irish saint who founded a church at Taghmon in Leinster. The remains of a 12th-century church are still visible at Kilmun. At the present site of Kilmun Church, a church building is recorded in the 13th century. By the 15th century, the significance of Kilmun as a local centre of Christianity was so great that the adjacent loch became known as the Holy Loch, and the powerful Clan Campbell adopted it as their spiritual home. From the 14th century, Dunoon Castle, a short distance away, was held by the Campbell family and in the 1440s Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochawe  (later 1st Lord Campbell), the then chief of the clan, lived near Kilmun in a private residence named Strathechaig.

Modern history

Robertson's Yard

Alexander Robertson started repairing boats in a small workshop at Sandbank in 1876, and Alexander Robertson & Sons went on to become one of the foremost wooden boat builders on the Clyde. Their 'golden years' were in the early 20th century when they started building classic 12 & 15 metre racing yachts. Robertsons was chosen to build the first 15-metre yacht designed by William Fife (Shimna, 1907). More than 55 boats were built by Robertsons in preparation for the First World War and the yard remained busy even during the Great Depression in the 1930s, as many wealthy businessmen developed a passion for yacht racing. During World War II the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, producing a wide range of large high speed Fairmile Marine Motor Boats (MTBs and MGBs).

After the war the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two 12-metre challengers for the America's Cup: Sceptre (1958) (17 tonnes) and Sovereign (1964). The Robertson family sold the yard in 1965, and it was turned over to GRP production work (mainly Pipers and Etchells). During its 104-year history, Robertson's Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing. The yard ceased trading in the early 1980s; at this point it was owned by Terry Hooper who ran the yard servicing mostly the US Navy. After the US navy packed up and left the area Hooper sold the yard in the 1990s. The site has since been converted to residential building and the new Holy Loch Marina development. The yard today is still widely known in the area as 'Hooper's Yard'.

World War II

During World War II the loch was used by the Royal Navy as a submarine base, served by the depot ship . The loch was used extensively for trials and exercises by Royal Navy submarines during the war, the submarines  and   were lost in the Clyde after being sunk by accidents during exercises. Untamed was later salvaged.

Near the Holy Loch an anti-submarine boom was constructed between Dunoon and the Cloch Point Lighthouse to defend waters from German U-boats.

US Navy at Holy Loch

Between 1961 and 1992, Holy Loch was the site of the United States Navy's Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) Refit Site One. It was the home base of Submarine Squadron (SUBRON) 14, part of Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. To make maximum usage of its submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) deterrent force, the American military had determined that it required an overseas base for refit and crew turnover.  Negotiations with the British Government began as early as March 1959 when President Dwight D. Eisenhower mentioned to the need to British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan at a meeting at Camp David.

Holy Loch was one of several locations on or near the Firth of Clyde considered for the refit site. Others were Faslane, the channel between Largs and Cumbrae, Rosneath Bay, and Rothesay Bay. Site selection criteria included the requirements for a sheltered anchorage, relative proximity to an international airport, and sufficient shore facilities to provide housing for military personnel and their families. Agreement for the use of Holy Loch was reached near the end of 1960 and the arrival of the first tender,  scheduled for December. Divisions within the British government and concerns about protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) caused her arrival to be rescheduled to 3 March 1961. Protests at the site followed.

Between 1961 and 1982, the Naval Support Activity ashore was administered by US Naval Activities London. In 1982, Naval Support Activity (NAVSUPPACT), Forward Base, Holy Loch, Scotland became its own command. NAVSUPPACT ultimately managed 42 facilities and leased 342 housing units for Navy personnel and their dependents.

Holy Loch's most prosperous period occurred with the naval base and its 3,000 Americans. A monument was built to the US Navy years in the Castle Gardens, Dunoon.

Over the years, five different submarine tenders and one floating dry dock served in the loch.

Two notable incidents occurred during the three-decade long deployment of SUBRON 14 at Holy Loch. On 29 November 1970, a fire erupted on USS Canopus, killing three of her complement. Almost four years later, on 3 November 1974, the nuclear ballistic missile submarine USS James Madison (SSBN-627) collided with a Soviet submarine, assumed to be a Victor-class nuclear-powered attack submarine, during a dive just after departing from Holy Loch. The American submarine was dented and suffered a nine-foot scratch on her hull. She spent a full week at the base for inspection and repairs.

Laurel Clark, known to her shipmates as "Doc Salton", was assigned as the Radiation Health Officer and Undersea Medical Officer at SUBRON 14. Clark was one of the astronauts who perished in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003.

New technologies and the end of the Cold War led to the base being deemed unnecessary. The last submarine tender to be based there, the , left Holy Loch in November 1991, ahead of the base closing the following June. The closing of the base caused significant economic decline.

See also

References

External links

 About Subs, Holy Loch - Webpage
 Benmore Botanic Garden
 USS Hunley (AS-31), Pictures while at the Holy Loch

Lochs of Argyll and Bute
United States Navy submarine bases
Sea lochs of Scotland
Military installations closed in 1992
Firth of Clyde
Royal Navy submarine bases
Cowal
Closed installations of the United States Navy

Holy Loch


Franz Roh (21 February 1890 – 30 December 1965), was a German historian, photographer, and art critic. Roh is perhaps best known for his 1925 book Nach-Expressionismus: Magischer Realismus: Probleme der neuesten europäischen Malerei ("Post-expressionism: Magical Realism: Problems of the newest European painting") he coined the term magic realism.

Roh was born in Apolda (in present-day Thuringia), Germany. He studied at universities in Leipzig, Berlin, and Basel. In 1920, he received his Ph.D. in Munich for a work on Dutch paintings of the 17th century. As a photographer and critic, he absolutely hated photographs that mimicked painting, charcoal, or drawings. During the Nazi regime, he was isolated and briefly put in jail for his book Foto-Auge (Photo-Eye); he used his jail time he used to write the book Der Verkannte Künstler: Geschichte und Theorie des kulturellen Mißverstehens ("The unrecognized artist: history and theory of cultural misunderstanding"). After the war, in 1946, he married art historian Juliane Bartsch. He died in Munich.

Roh and magic realism
Roh is perhaps best remembered as the critic who coined the term magic realism. But, though the lineage is direct, his magic realism has a very different meaning from the one used to describe the work of writers such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabel Allende that dominates our current understanding of the term.

Roh, celebrating the post-expressionist return of the visual arts to figural representation, utilized the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger to emphasize that "the autonomy of the objective world around us was once more to be enjoyed; the wonder of matter that could crystallize into objects was to be seen anew."
Roh was, then, emphasizing the "magic" of the normal world as it presents itself to us (i.e., how, when we really look at everyday objects, they can appear strange and fantastic) and not the world of magic (in which objects are literally transformed into something fantastic) that the literary school emphasizes.

Roh himself, writing in the 1950s and perhaps already seeing the confusion his term had caused in this regard, emphasized that his use of the word magic was, "of course not in the religious-psychological sense of ethnology."

Roh's magic realism, though not often written about in recent years, is nonetheless an important contribution to a phenomenological or existential theory of aesthetics. This link is emphasized by the fact that it was the Spanish phenomenologist José Ortega y Gasset's disciple Fernando Vela who translated Roh's essay into Spanish, thereby setting the stage for its appropriation by the literary movement.

References

External links

What Really is Magic Realism?
Magical realism and its meanings: a not so necessary confusion
Franz Roh papers, Getty Research Institute

1890 births
1965 deaths
People from Apolda
People from Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
German art critics
Magic realism writers
Writers from Thuringia
Dachau concentration camp survivors
German male non-fiction writers

Franz Roh


Ena Lamont Stewart (10 February 1912, Glasgow – 9 February 2006, Dalmellington) was a Scottish playwright.

Life and career
Stewart was the daughter of a Church of Scotland minister whose family was originally from Canada and had settled in Glasgow. She worked as the librarian of Baillie's Reference Library.

She married the Scottish actor Jack Stewart and had a son, William. The couple both joined Glasgow's MSU Repertory Theatre in Rutherglen.

She was disturbed by the poverty in the Gorbals, and by the sight of "shawly women". She became a receptionist at the Sick Children's Hospital and witnessed malnutrition and other diseases.

Stewart was, with Joan Ure and Ada F Kay, a founder member of the Scottish Society of Playwrights, having called with Hector MacMillan and John Hall the meeting which decided to establish the Society in September 1973, and the Scottish League of Dramatists.

Plays
Stewart's first play was Distinguished Company. Her second play was Starched Aprons about the everyday trials of hospital life.

She wrote Men Should Weep in two days. Both plays were commercial successes. However, her subsequent plays were turned down for production.

Men Should Weep was a major theatrical landmark for the representation of Scottish, class and gender issues. Glasgow Unity Theatre first performed the play at the Athenaeum Theatre, Glasgow, on 30 January 1947. After the company closed in 1951, the play fell into obscurity. Stewart revised her play in the 1970s, and it was revived for the 1982 Clydebuilt Season. The play saw the light of day again in 2005 when it was rated one of the top 50 plays of the last century.

Other plays
The Heir to Ardmally, 1950's (Pitlochry festival theatre)

Walkies Time for a Black Poodle

Knocking on the Wall – Edinburgh festival

Acclaim
In autumn 1998, theatre professionals were asked to nominate ten English language 20th century plays. 100 plays were selected, among them Ena Lamont Stewart's, representing the year 1947.
National Theatre 2000: One Hundred Plays of the Century: Men Should Weep

See also

Bet Low, Scottish artist and set designer

Sources
The Guardian, 27 August 2005: Revolt of the Washerwomen
Cambridge Histories Online: Cast Study: Ena Lamont Stewart's Men Should Weep, 1947

1912 births
2006 deaths
Scottish dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Scottish dramatists and playwrights
Scottish women dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Glasgow
Scottish women poets
20th-century Scottish poets

20th-century Scottish women writers
People from Dalmellington

Ena Lamont Stewart


Duke Tumatoe, born William "Bill" Severen Fiorio in 1947, is an American blues guitarist, vocalist and songwriter. He has performed with Muddy Waters, Bo Diddley, B.B. King, Willie Dixon, Buddy Guy, John Fogerty and George Thorogood. He was an early member of REO Speedwagon, who later became an arena-rock success. He has released fifteen albums as the bandleader of Duke Tumatoe and The All-Star Frogs and Duke Tumatoe and The Power Trio. His 1988 live album I Like My Job was produced by John Fogerty. He followed a rigorous tour schedule for most of his career, typically playing more than 200 dates per year.

Early life
Duke Tumatoe was born in June 1947 in Chicago. His father was a first-generation Italian immigrant whose family hailed from San Bonifacio, Italy, a northern Italian town outside Verona.  He grew up in Beverly, a neighborhood in southwestern Chicago.

The  South Side is where Chicago blues originated, and it was an influence on Tumatoe. As a teen, he often visited the market at Maxwell Street to hear live blues. He said, "I first saw Muddy Waters when I was 13. We were hearing that stuff all the time and just assumed everybody was, too. I knew all the old guys, and I'd see them every day. I can't believe I took that for granted."

He learned to play drums at age 14 and guitar a year after that.

Career

Lothar and the Hand People
In 1965, Tumatoe enrolled in the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and founded the short-lived band Lothar and the Hand People, named by classmate Bill Geist.

REO Speedwagon
In 1967, while living in Champaign, Illinois, Tumatoe joined REO Speedwagon in their nascent stages, replacing Bob Crownover, alongside founding members Neal Doughty and Alan Gratzer. The band started as a soul band, inspired by Otis Redding, Sam and Dave and The Doors. In 1969, the band decided to take a more straightforward approach to rock and roll, so Tumatoe, who wanted to play blues music, left the group to pursue his own musical endeavors. Tumatoe said, "It became more and more obvious that we weren't meant to play together...they're really hard-working people. I have nothing but good things to say about them."

Duke Tumatoe and The All-Star Frogs
In 1969, Tumatoe founded Duke Tumatoe and The All-Star Frogs. The band featured guitar, bass, drums, harmonica and keyboards. They toured for thirteen years and released four albums (see discogs). The All-Star Frogs featured keyboardist James Mitchell Hill, whose playing has been compared to Booker T. Jones. Hill continues to play with Tumatoe through the present day.

Duke Tumatoe and The Power Trio
In 1983, Tumatoe disbanded The All-Star Frogs and formed The Power Trio. The new group consisted of guitar, bass, drums and keys, though certain lineup changes featured two guitarists and no keys. The Power Trio performed an average of 200 dates per year, and have released twelve albums to date.

John Fogerty and I Like My Job
In 1987, John Fogerty of Creedence Clearwater Revival undertook his own ethnomusicologist mission by traveling through the South and Midwestern United States to discover regional acts that could not be heard on radio. In Mishawaka, Indiana, Fogerty heard a radio advertisement for Duke Tumatoe. He attended the show that evening and was so impressed he returned on four consecutive evenings.  "The first time I heard Duke it gave me chills," said Fogerty:

I hadn't experienced energy like that in a long time. It was like walking in on Jimmy Swaggart in his heyday. Everybody in the audience was shouting and screaming and having a good time. I mean the crowd was just eating out of this guy's hand. Immediately the light went on in my head--somebody ought to record these guys.

Fogerty then began producing records. He played a cassette of a live recording of Duke to Warner Bros. Records president Lenny Waronker and was approved to begin recording what would become the 1988 live album, I Like My Job. Determined to capture the live energy of the band, Fogerty assembled over 24 hours of live recordings before beginning the mixing process. Fogerty and engineer Alan Johnson spent three months mixing the record.

Of the mixing process, Fogerty said:
I'd take a piece of a song from one night and add pieces from other nights...a bridge here, a chorus there. I was looking to get as close to that feeling I had when I first saw him. At the same time, it was important to me that I didn't mess with the material itself. Duke is a great songwriter, and great song interpreter. I really wasn't able to tell which tunes were originals and which were covers and that's the way I liked it. This is his music, played his way. I just sort of assembled the best moments.

Capturing Tumatoe's crowd interaction was a concern. "That interaction was vital. Which is why you get a lot of call and response on the record. Duke is a very quick guy. And very funny. He knows how to work a crowd and it was my hope that the energy would come across on record."

"Lord Help Our Colts"
Shortly after moving to Indianapolis in the 1980s, Tumatoe befriended Tom Griswold of "The Bob & Tom Show," a nationally syndicated radio program that fuses comedy and music. In 1985, Tumatoe was looking for a way to promote a local blues club called Uncle Slugs, and Griswold suggested he write a song about the city's new NFL team, the Indianapolis Colts, which had formerly been the Baltimore Colts. The result was the tongue-in-cheek "Lord Help Our Colts," a catchy twelve-bar blues jingle with a static chorus and verses that could easily be updated to recap each game. "I, of course, wrote the song in a form that I thought if necessary, I could easily update, which turned out to be a real good thing, a smart move," says Tumatoe. To date, he has sung more than 800 versions over the past thirty years.

Tumatoe performed the songs weekly on air, and though they were a hit with fans, some of the players and coaches took umbrage to his lyrics, especially when Tumatoe couldn't resist taking a dig. On a few different occasions, Tumatoe barely avoided physical altercations initiated by drunken quarterbacks or angry coaches. Says Tumatoe, "I think people miss a basic thing about the blues, and I don't understand why they don't get it. Blues is a light-hearted music. They're stories that make fun of what goes on in your life. Don't get me wrong, I'm a football fan. I enjoy these games. I watch them all. But the premise of all these guys getting millions and millions of dollars to play a kids' game is in and of itself not serious. It's a cause to celebrate when they're winning, but it really doesn't affect your life other than it's nice when your team is doing well. And these guys are getting millions of dollars, and these guys are bitching about it when you criticize their performance? I didn't really criticize their performance. I just made it rhyme."

Musical style
Tumatoe is a self-taught guitarist who learned to play by watching Chicago's blues legends. His guitar playing has been described as "B.B. King played through Jimi Hendrix (with a touch of Andy Gill)."

Tumatoe's songs are noted for their humor, something he explains as, "There are two elements of the blues. There's the general intensity of the music…and an element of humor, some twist in the lyrics. It's like a comedian turning something sad into something funny."

Gear
Tumatoe's primary guitar is a 1957 Gibson Les Paul Jr. named "Albert," an homage to Albert King, a blues legend with whom Tumatoe has performed.

Personal life
Tumatoe has been married for 33 years and has 6 grown children. Says Tumatoe, "I've had a great life. If you get a chance the next time around, pick Duke Tumatoe. It's a lot of fun."

Discography
Red Pepper Hot (Duke Tumatoe and the All-Star Frogs, 1976)
Naughty Child (Duke Tumatoe and the All-Star Frogs, 1980)
Back to Chicago (Duke Tumatoe and the All-Star Frogs, 1982)
Dukes Up (1986)
I Like My Job (live album produced by John Fogerty, 1988)
Dr. Duke (1992)
Wild Animals (1994)
Greatest Hits Plus (1996)
Picks & Sticks (instrumental, 1997)
A Ejukatid Man (1999)
Pompous and Overrated (2001)
It's Christmas (Let's Have Sex) (2001)
Big Bang (2002)
You've Got The Problem (2006)
I Just Want to be Rich (2010)
How Much Crazy Can You Take (2017)

References

External links
Official website
All-Star Frogs Fanpage
Duke Tumatoe, George Thorogood and John Fogerty perform "Roll Over Beethoven"
Duke Tumatoe performs "Tie You Up" live in 1988
Duke Tumatoe performs "Tie You Up" with the late comedian Sam Kinison, live on The Bob & Tom Show

1947 births
Living people
American blues singers
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
REO Speedwagon members
Contemporary blues musicians
Singers from Chicago
People from Carmel, Indiana
Guitarists from Chicago
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
Blind Pig Records artists

Duke Tumatoe


A mucous membrane (or mucosae; singular mucosa) is a skin-like lining. A mucus membrane is covered in epithelium. They secrete mucus, and in the alimentary canal they absorb nutrients. They line cavities that are exposed to the external environment and internal organs.

At several places they connect up (are contiguous) with the skin. For example, at the nostrils, the mouth, the lips, the eyelids, the ears, the genital area, and the anus. Unlike skin, which has hair growing out of it, mucous membranes are hairless.

The sticky, thick fluid secreted by the mucous membranes and glands is called "mucous". The term mucous membrane refers to where they are found in the body. However, not every mucous membrane secretes mucous.

Anatomy

Mucous membrane


The Custom House Tower is a skyscraper in McKinley Square, in the Financial District neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. The original building was constructed in 1837–47 and was designed by Ammi Burnham Young in the Greek Revival style.  The tower was designed by Peabody and Stearns and was added in 1913–15. The building is part of the Custom House District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.

Standing at  tall, the building is currently tied with The Hub on Causeway Residential Tower as Boston's 23rd-tallest buildings.  It is part of the Custom House District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.

Since 1997, it has housed a Marriott timeshare hotel.

Original building

The site was purchased on September 13, 1837. Construction of a custom house was authorized by U.S. President Andrew Jackson. When it was completed in 1849, it cost about $1.076 million, in contemporary U.S. currency, including the site, foundations, etc.

Ammi Burnham Young entered an 1837 competition to design the Boston Custom House, and won with his neoclassical design. This building was a cruciform (cross-shaped) Greek Revival structure, combining a Greek Doric portico with a Roman dome, resembled a four-faced Greek temple topped with a dome. It had 36 fluted Doric columns, each carved from a single piece of granite from Quincy, Massachusetts; each weighed 42 tons (37 metric tons) and cost about $5,200. Only half these actually support the structure; the others are free-standing. They are  and  in diameter and  high. Inside, the rotunda was capped with a skylight dome.

The entire structure sits on filled land and is supported by 3,000 wooden piles driven through fill to bedrock. Before land reclamation was done in the middle of the 19th century, Boston's waterfront extended right to this building. Ships moored at Long Wharf almost touched the eastern face of the building. The Custom House was built at the end of the City docks, to facilitate inspection and registration of cargo. The federal government used the building to collect maritime duties in the age of Boston sailing ships.

This description of the original Custom House appears in the 1850 Boston Almanac:

Situated at the head of the dock between Long and Central Wharves, fronts east on the dock, west on India Street, and is in the form of a Greek Cross, [with] the opposite sides and ends being alike. It is  long north and south,  wide at the ends, and  through the centre. It is built on about 3,000 piles, fully secured against decay; the construction throughout is fireproof and of the very best kind.

The exterior of the building is purely Grecian Doric, not a copy, but adapted to the exigencies and peculiarities of the structure, and consists of a portico [overhang] of 6 columns on each side, on a high flight of steps, and an order of engaged columns around the walls, 20 in number, on a high stylobate or basement; the order of engaged columns terminating with 4 andae [pilasters] at their intersection with the porticos. The columns are  in diameter and  high, the shaft being in one piece, each weighing 42 short tons/37 metric tons.

The cellar, which is  high to the crown of the arches, is principally used for the storage of goods, which are conveyed to it through the basement story. The steam apparatus for warming the whole building (which it does effectively) is situated in the cellar, having easy access to the coal vaults under the sidewalk outside of the building.

The principal entrances to the basement story are at each end. They are for the receipt of goods for storage. Near the northwest corner, on the west side, is the entrance to the Night Inspectors' apartments, also to the private staircase leading to the Collector's room and the attic. South of the west portico is the entrance to the heating apparatus room, and on the south end is the entrance to the Custom House Truckmen's room. This story consists of rooms for the Night Inspectors, Custom House Truckmen, and Engineer of the Heating Apparatus, also three sets of Water Closets: the remainder is used for storage of goods, weigher's tabs, etc.

The principal ingress to the entrance story is through the porticos, but it can be entered from the Collector's private staircase, and from two other private staircases in the basement. This story contains apartments and offices for the Assistant Treasurer, the Weighers and Gaugers, the Measurers, Inspectors, Markers, Superintendent of Building, etc. In the centre is a large vestibule, from which two broad flights of steps lead to the principal story, landing in two smaller vestibules therein, lighted by skylights in the roof, and these vestibules communicate with all the apartments in this story. The several rooms are for the Collector, Assistant Collector, Naval Officer, Surveyor, Public Store Keeper, their Deputies and Clerks; and for the facilities of doing business this arrangement is not surpassed. The grand-cross shaped Rotunda, for the general business of the Collector's department, in the centre of this story, is finished in the Grecian Corinthian order; it is  in its greatest length, 59 feet wide, and  in the skylight.

In one of the panels of the Rotunda is inserted a tablet of marble (Dedication Tablet 1847), containing the following inscription: Boston Custom House Building. Authorized by the 23d Congress, A.D. 1835. Andrew Jackson, President U.S.A.; Levi Woodbury, Sec'y of the Treasury.—Opened August 1st, A.D. 1847, James K. Polk, President U.S.A.; Robert J. Walker Sec'y of the Treasury; Marcus Morton, Collector of the Port; Samuel S. Lewis, Robert G. Shaw, Commissioners; Ammi Burnham Young, Architect.

Tower

By 1905, increased shipping required the building's expansion. In 1913–1915, the architecture firm Peabody and Stearns added the tower to the base. Although Boston at that time had a  height restriction, the Custom House was federally owned and exempt from it. The new tower's  made it the city's tallest. In 1947, the Old John Hancock Building, just one foot shorter, joined it in the skies over Boston. In 1964, it was exceeded by the Prudential Tower.

The tower was completed in January 1915 after four and a half years of work. It cost about $1.8 million to build. The tower contains a rotunda made of Vermont white marble covered by a dome. Outside of the top floor is a balcony, which, at the time of the tower's opening, was said to have views of Mount Wachusett, the Peterboro Hills, and the shores of Cape Ann. The dedication ceremony was attended by Assistant Secretary of the Treasury Andrew James Peters, Collector Edmund Billings, Governor David I. Walsh, Mayor James Michael Curley, Cardinal William Henry O'Connell, Bishop William Lawrence, and the building's architect, Robert Swain Peabody. The tower was opened on January 23, 1915. The clock on the upper tower of the building is  in diameter. It was started at noon on April 6, 1916. The clock cost $2,500. Its hands are made of gold leaf painted California redwood and weigh 101 and 141 pounds respectively. Because of an undersized motor, the clock failed to work properly through much of the 20th century. In 1960, the Great Seal of the United States was painted in the lobby's dome.

Current use

When custom officials moved into the Thomas P. O'Neill building in 1986, the Custom House was declared "surplus property". On April 16, 1987, the city of Boston purchased the building from the General Services Administration, and the building remained unoccupied and inaccessible for 14 years.

The Boston Redevelopment Authority, the Landmarks Commission, the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Beal Companies, and Jung Brannen Associates, Inc. all proposed concepts for the use of the building that ranged from museums to offices to residential developments. In 1995, the Beal Companies and Marriott Ownership Resorts International announced plans to develop the building into a timeshare resort, and retained Jung Brannen Associates as architects.  In 1997, work began to convert the building into an 87-room Marriott Vacation Club.

One of the obstacles in converting the structure was the small amount of usable space on each floor of the tower, a problem that several earlier redevelopment plans faced and failed to overcome. The Jung Brannen team created ways to construct four to five suites per floor, using custom-designed built-in cabinetry and furnishings, to maximize the size and number of suites that could fit in the building.  The end result was 87 one-bedroom suites with 22 different floor plans. Amenities included a private lounge, exercise area and game room and a refurbished observation deck on the tower's 26th floor.  A rotunda-level maritime museum and exhibit room are among the public spaces that occupy the newly refurbished ground floor. Marriott's Custom House opened in August 1997 as a timeshare hotel property. More recently, is was renamed Marriott Vacation Club Pulse at Custom House, Boston.

Landscape designers Pressley Associates, Inc. redesigned the front plaza in 1999, and remarked:

It provides a new urban linkage space that provides a sense of cohesion between Custom House Tower and Faneuil Hall and Marketplace Center. As part of the current rehabilitation of the Tower to hotel use, the mandate of the landscape architectural design was to unify and revitalize the urban environment while respecting the buildings' historical importance. A  plaza has been designed to encourage pedestrian access and use, and to relate contextually to the adjacent Faneuil Hall Markets and Marketplace Center through the extensive use of large caliper shade trees, brick and granite pavements, and high quality site furnishings. The scope of work provided includes site design, construction documents, approvals process, presentations, resident engineering and construction support services.

The top of the tower is now accessible to the public during limited hours for a small fee. A fenced-in area surrounds the top floor and allows visitors to view the city on all sides of the tower.

See also
 Boston Custom House
 Custom House District
 List of tallest buildings in Boston

References

External links

Marriott Vacation Club Pulse at Custom House, Boston - official site
Short tour of the tower with some photos and views from the top
Emporis.com

Government buildings completed in 1849
Government buildings completed in 1915
Towers completed in 1915
Landmarks in Financial District, Boston
Peabody and Stearns buildings
Jung Brannen buildings
Rotundas (architecture)
Clock towers in Massachusetts
Custom houses in the United States
Government buildings in Boston
1849 establishments in Massachusetts
Custom houses on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Boston
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Skyscraper hotels in Boston

Custom House Tower


Sigma Phi Epsilon (), commonly known as SigEp, is a social college fraternity for male college students in the United States. It was founded on November 1, 1901, at Richmond College, which is now the University of Richmond, and its national headquarters remains in Richmond, Virginia. It was founded on three principles: Virtue, Diligence, and Brotherly Love (often abbreviated as "VDBL"). Sigma Phi Epsilon is one of the largest social fraternities in the United States in terms of current undergraduate membership.

History

Founding
In the fall of 1900 18-year-old divinity student Carter Ashton Jenkens, the son of a Baptist minister, transferred from Rutgers College in New Brunswick, New Jersey to Richmond College, a Baptist institution in Richmond, Virginia. At Rutgers Jenkens had been initiated into the Chi Phi fraternity. At Richmond, which did not have a chapter of Chi Phi, Jenkens was part of group of friends who were meeting regularly under the unofficial name the "Saturday Night Club". By early October, 1901, Jenkens had persuaded the group, which had grown to twelve men, to try to establish a chapter of Chi Phi at Richmond. These men were reportedly spurned by the existing fraternities on campus for their sense of morality (seven of the twelve were studying for the ordained ministry) and for their rural, middle-class backgrounds. Jenkens had convinced the others that their chapter could be different from the other fraternities on campus and assured them that Chi Phi's principles were in line with their own. The group's request for a charter, however, was met with refusal as the national fraternity felt that Richmond College was too small to host a Chi Phi chapter. Jenkens and his friends therefore founded their own fraternity.

After several secret meetings throughout October 1901, the new fraternity took shape and on November 1, 1901, the fraternity's first membership roster was publicly posted at the school. It listed the twelve founding members in this order: Carter Ashton Jenkens, Benjamin Donald Gaw, William Hugh Carter, William Andrew Wallace, Thomas Temple Wright, William Lazelle Phillips, Lucian Baum Cox, Richard Spurgeon Owens, Edgar Lee Allen, Robert Alfred McFarland, Franklin Webb Kerfoot and Thomas Vaden McCaul. After much discussion, the group settled on a secret motto and called their fraternity Sigma Phi.

Jenkens, Gaw and Phillips then met with a faculty committee to seek official recognition for their new fraternity. The faculty members were reluctant to recognize a sixth fraternity in a school with only 300 students, especially as more than half the members would be soon-to graduate seniors. Additionally, another national fraternity already existed using the name Sigma Phi. The founders responded that their new fraternity would be different from the others at Richmond, as was being founded upon biblical, egalitarian principles, and new members would quickly be taken in from the undergraduate classes to increase the new fraternity's size, and the fraternity's name was still open to debate. With these assurances from the founders, the faculty committee approved the new fraternity's request for official recognition. Shortly afterwards, the founders met and decided to rename the fraternity Sigma Phi Epsilon.

Badge and colors
The colors dark red and royal purple were chosen to represent fraternity, while the golden heart was chosen as the fraternity's symbol. The principles of Virtue, Diligence and Brotherly Love, were chosen as "The Three Cardinal Principles". Jenkens also designed the fraternity's badge as a golden heart surmounted by a black enameled heart-shaped shield. Upon the shield are inscribed, in gold, the Greek-letters of the fraternity, ΣΦΕ, and below these letters, a skull and crossbones. The meaning of these symbols is divulged during the initiation ritual and known to members only. The founders' badges were designed and ordered before the addition of "Epsilon" to the fraternity's name. Thus they had only a "Sigma" and a "Phi" inscribed on the lobes of the heart, with the skull and crossbones below. A last-minute telegraph sent to the jeweler requested that an "Epsilon" be added "somewhere" on the already-complete badges, so the jeweler replaced the bottom-most gemstones with a black enameled "Epsilon." The badges of founders Carter and McCaul are on display at the Sigma Phi Epsilon headquarters at the fraternity's headquarters.

Chapter house doors are traditionally painted red. The tradition of the red door on Sigma Phi Epsilon Chapter houses began at Syracuse University (New York Alpha) in the 1920s. Brothers there painted the front door of their house red as a token of fraternalism, because it is a fraternity color. Today, all 260 SigEp chapters have red doors.

Acceptance of transgender members
In December 2014, Sigma Phi Epsilon became the first fraternity in the North American Interfraternity Conference to accept transgender men as members. The National Board of Directors passed the policy by an 8-0 majority vote with three abstentions.

Local chapter misconduct
In October 2022, the chapter at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida was shut down after a video surfaced of chapter members chanting about having sex with a dead woman.

In January 2020, the chapter at Lamar University in Beaumont, Texas was shut down by the fraternity's national board of directors after hazing of pledges was reported to the university's leadership.

In September 2019, the chapter at the University of Nebraska Omaha was shut down by the fraternity's national board of directors due to multiple fraternal code violations.

In 2018, the chapter at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire was shut down by the fraternity's national board of directors due to multiple fraternal code violations.

In 2017, the chapter at Auburn University was shut down after several serious allegations were made public about the behaviors of the chapter. As a result, the national office initiated a thorough investigation into the chapter which determined it was guilty of hazing, illicit drug use, and alcohol violations.

In October 2016, the chapter at the University of Wisconsin–Madison was shut down after repeated alcohol and safety violations. The fraternity was consistently cited for providing alcohol to underage students when hosting parties at their fraternity house.

In August 2016, member Daniel Drill-Mellum was sentenced to 74 months in prison after pleading guilty to two counts of rape.

In March 2016, the chapter at Purdue University was placed on suspension until 2020 for brutal hazing, alcohol violations, and non-compliance with university rules.

In September 2015, a Sigma Phi Epsilon member at the West Virginia University (WVU) was arrested for allegedly raping a WVU female student at the fraternity's chapterhouse. He faces up to 25 years of prison for the felony charge.

In October 2015, Sigma Phi Epsilon revoked the charter of the Jacksonville State University chapter due to hazing and other alleged actions including racism and sexual misconduct. The chapter was ordered to cease operations for three years and remove itself off-campus if the chapter was to be re-activated.

In September 2014, Tucker Hipps, of Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina was found dead in Lake Hartwell after his pledge brothers reported him missing after a run that morning. Both the university and the national fraternity found that the chapter had violated its code of conduct. The investigation is ongoing. In February 2015, the Clemson chapter was given a five-year suspension for alleged violations of the student organization conduct code after the death of Hipps.

In February 2014, two sexual assaults were reported at the Yale University chapter house in New Haven, Connecticut one block from campus. The fraternity released a statement stating they had allowed their facility to be used by another student group for a private event. According to the fraternity, the allegations were not made against members of the chapter.

In January 2014, 178 grams of marijuana and .21 grams of cocaine were seized from the fraternity house at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. One fraternity member was arrested and charged for drug possession and intent to sell.

In 2014, the Sigma Phi Epsilon chapter of the University of Mississippi was closed after three of its members were found guilty of draping a noose around the statue of James Meredith, the first black student to attend the university. A thorough investigation of the chapter also uncovered the fraternity was guilty of brutally hazing pledges and providing alcohol to underage students.

In 2013, the fraternity was suspended for two years at Southern Methodist University in Dallas after torturing a Hispanic fraternity member of Lambda Chi Alpha for four hours. Four Sigma Phi Epsilon members were arrested and charged with assault for kicking, punching, spraying Formula 409 on wounds and cuts, making racist comments, and holding the Lambda Chi Alpha member captive against his will.

In December 2011, the chapter at the University of Vermont in Burlington, Vermont was suspended and heavily criticized for circulating a survey that asked fraternity members "If I could rape someone, who would it be?" Feminist groups on campus fought to have the fraternity permanently removed from campus for preying on women and encouraging sexual assault.

In August 2011, the National Board of Directors of Sigma Phi Epsilon voted to support criminal prosecution of anyone hazing members.

In 2011, three Sigma Phi Epsilon members from East Carolina University were arrested and charged with several offenses for possession of 49 grams of marijuana, three Adderall pills, and a dozen stolen street signs at their fraternity house.

In 2010, the fraternity at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton was suspended after sending a pledge to the hospital.  Pledges were "kidnapped" during a prank and their hands and feet were bound with duct tape. They were forced to chug beer and liquor out of a bowl and was sprayed with a squirt gun and colored on with markers.  No pledge decided to press charges against members of the fraternity for hazing violations.

In 2007, four members of the fraternity were arrested from Florida State University for hazing after police found 31 pledges shivering in 30 degree weather and covered in raw eggs, catfish-stink bait, flour and vinegar, and their bodies were red with welts.

In 2002, the chapter at Wake Forest University was suspended for several years after a "drunk, dehydrated and severely sunburned pig" was found at a park after the fraternity held an event there.

In 1997, the chapter at San Diego State University was shut down for several years after a pledge nearly died due to a hazing ritual.

Notable members

Chapters

References

External links

 Official website

1901 establishments in Virginia
Active former members of the North American Interfraternity Conference
Student organizations established in 1901
Student societies in the United States

Sigma Phi Epsilon


A writer can mean anyone who makes a written work or who writes, but the word more usually means people who write creatively or as a job, or those who have written in many different forms. Skilled writers demonstrate skills in using language to portray certain ideas and images, whether in fiction or non-fiction.

A "person who writes books or articles to be published"; That is one of the ways that media explains what a writer does.

Types of writing

Poetry
Prose
Novels
Music
Lyrical (lyrics to music)
Plays
Myths and legends
Newspapers
Magazines
Screenplays
Monologues
Nonfiction and creative nonfiction
Greeting card writer

This list is only a few examples of the many types of writing there are.

Types of writers
Writers often specialize in one of the following categories:
Novelist
Poet
Newspaper reporter
Columnist
Head writer
Ghostwriter
Blog writer
Business writing is writing proposals and plans for a corporation, and journalism reporting on markets, financing, and other economic matters.  It has a specific purpose delivering important information to the reader in a simple, brief, and effective manner.

Related pages
 Author
 Journalist

References

Writing
Writers
Writing occupations

Writer


A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress. The purpose is to conquer by starvation, lack of water, or by a well-prepared assault.

Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict. The defender inside has a strong, static, defensive position. Negotiation between combatants is common.

A siege happens when the attacker gets to a city or fortress which cannot be taken by storm, and which refuses to surrender. Sieges block the  supplies and reinforcements or escape of men. Siege engines, artillery bombardment, and undermining are frequent. Deception and treachery are common.

Sieges can be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease. This form of siege can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds.

Well known sieges were:

 Siege of Petersburg
 Siege of Yorktown
 Siege of Odessa
 Siege of Orleans
 Siege of Fort Zeelandia
Siege of Leningrad
 Siege of Tobruk
 Siege of Vicksburg

Siege


Psychobilly is a style of rock music that mixes elements of punk rock, rockabilly, and other genres. Some psychobilly songs include thrash metal or country music styles. Psychobilly is commonly played with a simple guitar/bass/drum/vocal arrangement, with many bands consisting of only three members. Often the guitarist or bassist will be the lead vocalist.

The first psychobilly band was the Meteors, a band from London, UK.

Psychobilly band members and fans often shave part of their heads.

Rock music

Psychobilly


In some countries, like the United States of America, Saturday is the seventh and final day of the week. In other parts of the world, like the United Kingdom, Saturday is said to be the sixth day of the week. It is also the day of rest and worship for Jewish people. Along with Sunday, it makes up the weekend. Its name comes from the Roman god Saturn.

06

Saturday


The Norwegian Elkhound is a type of dog that was bred in Norway, where most of them are found. They are fluffy and are working dogs.

They have been living and working with humans since the stone age and served as a hunter, herder, guard and companion.

A spitz, type with curled tale and pricked ears, the are friendly,playful and also great with kids.They are a great family dog, but needs a large garden and daily walks. They enjoy an active family that will play with them but are more than happy to live a less strenuous life but,they must not be allowed to get lazy because as with all hounds, will put on weight in excess.

Dog breeds
FCI breeds

Norwegian Elkhound


Track and field is part of the sport of athletics. Athletics is a collection of sport events that includes running, jumping and throwing. Track and field events take place in a sports stadium, either on the running track, or on the field inside the running track. These tracks are generally made up of synthetic rubber – rubber particles bound with latex or polyurethane. Other athletics events that are not track and field, include cross country running, road running, marathon running, and race-walking - these events take place outside a sports stadium.

Athletics is a very common sporting event over the world. Athletics is a combination of different sports, generally running, jumping and throwing events. Running events include marathons, hurdle races, long distance and short-distance events. Some jumping events are high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault. Throwing events involve javelin throw, discus throw, hammer throw and shot put.

There are also events that combine parts of running, jumping, and throwing. One of these is the decathlon, which includes two short-distance races, a mile run, a hurdles race, javelin, discus, shot-put, high jump and pole vault.

All participants are timed or have a distance measured and this is their result. Participants train hard for an event and always aim to better their results.

Athletics is a sport that people take part in all over the world. It is a sport that is most common between young children up to younger adults. Athletics can be played for enjoyment, but it can also be a competitive sport. Athletics is also an event in the Olympic games.

Notes

Other websites

International Association of Athletics Federations website
USA Track & Field website
Results & Statistics for Collegiate, High School, Middle School, and Club teams

Track and field athletics


Open content is content that is openly accessible, usable, editable, and distributable by anyone for any purpose, even commercially. Open content is licensed with an open license that authorizes use of the content as described above.

When someone creates something (like a picture or book), they can open it for the use of others. This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be.

The Simple English Wikipedia is open content. So are other Wikipedias. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it.

License

The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a license. A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult language (legal jargon), but many licenses have summaries that are much easier to understand.

The makers of open content get to choose what license to use for their work, and everyone else has to follow it. Only the maker, who owns the copyright, can change it to another license.  Most open content licenses say that when others change the work, they must also declare it to be open and under the same license.  This is called share-alike and means that anything based on work will always be open content.

All the content in Wikipedia is open under the rules of the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License, a very well-known open content license. Another well-known open content license is the GNU Free Documentation License.

Related pages
 Open educational content
 Open data
 Openness

References

Other websites

 Openverse, search engine for finding open content

Art

Open content


Azrael is the archangel of death. It is an English form of the Arabic name Azra'il or Azra'eil (), the name traditionally attributed to the angel of death in Islam and some Hebrew lore. The Qur'an never uses this name, referring instead to Malaikat al-Maut (which translates directly as angels of death; not one angel). Since it is not mentioned either in the Qur'an nor Hadith, it is not part of the religion. It is thought by some to be legendary or adapted from other religions. It is also spelled Izrail, Izrael, Azrail, Ezraeil, Azraille, or Ozryel. Chambers English dictionary uses the spelling Azrael. The name means Whom God Helps.

Islam

Azrael


A riparian buffer or stream buffer is a vegetated area (a "buffer strip") near a stream, usually forested, which helps shade and partially protect the stream from the impact of adjacent land uses. It plays a key role in increasing water quality in associated streams, rivers, and lakes, thus providing environmental benefits.  With the decline of many aquatic ecosystems due to agriculture, riparian buffers have become a very common conservation practice aimed at increasing water quality and reducing pollution.

Benefits
Riparian buffers act to intercept sediment, nutrients, pesticides, and other materials in surface runoff and reduce nutrients and other pollutants in shallow subsurface water flow. They also serve to provide habitat and wildlife corridors in primarily agricultural areas. They can also be key in reducing erosion by providing stream bank stabilization. Large scale results have demonstrated that the expansion of riparian buffers through the deployment of plantations systems can effectively reduce nitrogen emissions to water and soil loss by wind erosion, while simultaneously providing substantial environmental co-benefits, having limited negative effects on current agricultural production.

Water quality benefits
Riparian buffers intercept sediment and nutrients. They counteract eutrophication in downstream lakes and ponds which can be detrimental to aquatic habitats because of large fish kills that occur upon large-scale eutrophication. Riparian buffers keep chemicals, like pesticides, that can be harmful to aquatic life out of the water.  Some pesticides can be especially harmful if they bioaccumulate in the organism, with the chemicals reaching harmful levels once they are ready for human consumption. Riparian buffers also stabilise the bank surrounding the water body which is important since erosion can be a major problem in agricultural regions when cut (eroded) banks can take land out of production.  Erosion can also lead to sedimentation and siltation of downstream lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. Siltation can greatly reduce the life span of reservoirs and the dams that create the reservoirs.

Habitat benefits
Riparian buffers can act as crucial habitat for a large number of species, especially those who have lost habitat due to agricultural land being put into production. The habitat provided by the buffers also double as corridors for species that have had their habitat fragmented by various land uses. By adding this vegetated area of land near a water source, it increases biodiversity by allowing species an area to re-establish after being displaced due to non-conservation land use.  With this re-establishment, the number of native species and biodiversity in general can be increased. The large trees in the first zone of the riparian buffer provide shade and therefore cooling for the water, increasing productivity and increasing habitat quality for aquatic species. When branches and stumps (large woody debris) fall into the stream from the riparian zone, more stream habitat features are created. Carbon is added as an energy source for biota in the stream.

Economic benefits
Buffers increase land value and allow for the production of profitable alternative crops. Vegetation such as black walnut and hazelnut, which can be profitably harvested, can be incorporated into the riparian buffer. Lease fees for hunting can also be increased as the larger habitat means that the land will be more sought-after for hunting purposes. Designing buffer zones based on their hydrological function instead of a traditionally used fixed width method, can be economically beneficial in forestry practices.

Design

A riparian buffer is usually split into three different zones, each having its own specific purpose for filtering runoff and interacting with the adjacent aquatic system. Buffer design is a key element in the effectiveness of the buffer. It is generally recommended that native species be chosen to plant in these three zones, with the general width of the buffer being  on each side of the stream.

Zone 1
This zone should function mainly to shade the water source and act as a bank stabilizer.  The zone should include large native tree species that grow fast and can quickly act to perform these tasks.  Although this is usually the smallest of the three zones and absorbs the fewest contaminants, most of the contaminants have been eliminated by Zone 2 and Zone 3.

Zone 2
Usually made up of native shrubs, this zone provides a habitat for wildlife, including nesting areas for bird species.  This zone also acts to slow and absorb contaminants that Zone 3 has missed.  The zone is an important transition between grassland and forest.

Zone 3
This zone is important as the first line of defense against contaminants.  It consists mostly of native grasses and serves primarily to slow water runoff and begin to absorb contaminants before they reach the other zones.  Although these grass strips should be one of the widest zones, they are also the easiest to install.

Streambed Zone
The streambed zone of the riparian area is linked closely to Zone 1.  Zone 1 provides fallen limbs, trees, and tree roots that in turn slow water flow, reducing erosional processes associated with increased water flow and flooding. This woody debris also increases habitat and cover for various aquatic species.

The US National Agroforestry Center has developed a filter strip design tool called AgBufferBuilder, which is a GIS-based computer program for designing vegetative filter strips around agricultural fields that utilizes terrain analysis to account for spatially non-uniform runoff.

Forest management
Logging is sometimes recommended as a management practice in riparian buffers, usually to provide economic incentive. However, some studies have shown that logging can harm wildlife populations, especially birds.  A study by the University of Minnesota found that there was a correlation between the harvesting of timber in riparian buffers and a decline in bird populations. Therefore, logging is generally discouraged as an environmental practice, and left to be done in designated logging areas.

Conservation incentives
The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), a farming assistance program in the United States, provides many incentives to landowners to encourage them to install riparian buffers around water systems that have a high chance of non-point water pollution and are highly erodible. For example, the Nebraska system of Riparian Buffer Payments offers payments for the cost of setup, a sign up bonus, and annual rental payments.

These incentives are offered to agriculturists to compensate them for their economic loss of taking this land out of production.  If the land is highly erodible and produces little economic gain, it can sometimes be more economic to take advantage of these CRP programs.

Effectiveness
Riparian buffers have undergone much scrutiny about their effectiveness, resulting in thorough testing and monitoring.  A study done by the University of Georgia, conducted over a nine-year period, monitored the amounts of fertilizers that reached the watershed from the source of the application.  It found that these buffers removed at least 60% of the nitrogen in the runoff, and at least 65% of the phosphorus from the fertilizer application.   The same study showed that the effectiveness of the Zone 3 was much greater than that of both Zone 1 and 2 at removing contaminants. But another study in 2017 did not find efficiency (or a very limiting capacity) for reducing glyphosate and AMPA leaching to streams; spontaneous herbaceous vegetation RBS is as efficient as Salix plantations and measures of glyphosate in runoff after a year, suggest an unexpected persistence and even a capacity of RBS to potentially favor glyphosate infiltration up to 70 cm depth in the soil.

Long-term sustainability
After the initial installation of the riparian buffer, relatively little maintenance needs to be performed to keep the buffer in good condition.  Once the trees and grasses reach maturity, they regenerate naturally and make a more effective buffer.  The sustainability of the riparian buffer makes it extremely attractive to landowners, since they do relatively little work and still receive payments. Riparian buffers have the potential to be the most effective ways to protect aquatic biodiversity, water quality and manage water resources in developing countries that lack the funds to install water treatment and supply systems in midsize and small towns.

Species selection
Species selection based on an area in Nebraska, as an example:

In Zone 1
 Cottonwood, Bur Oak, Hackberry, Swamp White Oak, Siberian Elm, Honeylocust, Silver Maple, Black Walnut, and Northern Red Oak.

In Zone 2
 Manchurian apricot, Silver Buffaloberry, Caragana, Black Cherry, Chokecherry, Sandcherry, Peking Cotoneaster, Midwest Crabapple, Golden Currant, Elderberry, Washington Hawthorn, American Hazel, Amur Honeysuckle, Common Lilac, Amur Maple, American Plum, and Skunkbush Sumac.

In Zone 3
 Western Wheatgrass, Big Bluestem, Sand Bluestem, Sideoats Grama, Blue Grama, Hairy Grama, Buffalo Grass, Sand Lovegrass, Switchgrass, Little Bluestem, Indiangrass, Prairie Cordgrass, Prairie Dropseed, Tall Dropseed, Needleandthread, Green Needlegrass.

See also

Agricultural wastewater treatment
Agroforestry
Ecoscaping
Erosion control
Nonpoint source pollution

References

External links

National Agroforestry Center (USDA)
Filter Strip Design Tool (AgBufferBuilder; USDA)
Extensive Riparian Buffer bibliography

Agricultural soil science
Agroforestry
Environmental conservation
Environmental soil science
Environmental terminology
Forest management
Habitat
Habitats
Hydrology
Riparian zone
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable design
Water and the environment
Water pollution
Articles containing video clips

Riparian buffer


Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990); 130,361 (2000).

History
The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.

References

Cities in Turkey

Kars


Electricity generation is the making of electricity for use by people. Most comes from rotary electrical generators turned by various engines.

History
Making electricity in one central place became useful when electric power distribution was possible. This required power transformers which could change voltage. Electricity could be sent as alternating current along electric power lines for great distances cheaply.

People have been using electric light bulbs, electric motors, and other things that use electricity since the late 19th century. Different sources of energy have been used to run generators, including coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum power and a small amount from solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources.

Electricity demand

The demand for electricity can be met in two different ways. The main method is to build large centralized projects to generate and transmit the electricity required. Many of these projects have caused unpleasant environmental effects such as air or radiation pollution and the flooding of large areas of land.

Distributed generation creates power on a smaller scale at locations on the electricity network. These sites often generate electricity as a byproduct of other industry such as using gas from landfills to power turbines.

Methods of generating electricity

Turbines
Rotating turbines attached to electrical generators produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines are driven by a fluid which acts as an intermediate energy carrier. The fluids typically used are:
 steam - Water is boiled by nuclear fission or the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). Some newer plants use the sun as the heat source: solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam.
 water - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces,
 wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight.
 hot gases - Turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil.

Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%.

Reciprocating engines
Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel fuel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel generators are often used for backup power, usually at low voltages. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.

Photovoltaic panels
Unlike the solar heat concentrators, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free, solar panels cost a lot of money to make and have only a 10-20% conversion efficiency. Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as an extra electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed solar capacity is growing by 30% per year in several regions including Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey.

Other websites
 Power Technologies Energy Data Book
 Energy Market, Rules and Regulators

Electricity

Electricity generation


Wolfgang Wagner (born 30 August 1919 - 21 March 2010) was a German opera director.  He was the grandson of the opera composer Richard Wagner and great-grandson of the composer Franz Liszt.  For 42 years he was director of the Bayreuth Festival, which was created by Richard Wagner for the performances of his operas.  At first he was director together with his brother Wieland.  After Wieland died he continued to be director until he retired in 2008.  He tried to get rid of the festival's Nazi past, and put on productions which were very symbolic: using lighting effects instead of complicated scenery and heavy costumes.

Life
Wagner was born in Bayreuth. His mother, Winifred Wagner (born Williams-Klindworth), was English.  She married Richard Wagner's son Siegfried, who was much older than she was.  Although Siegfried was gay they had two sons (Wieland and Wolfgang) and two daughters.

When Siegfried died in 1930 Winifred took over the running of the festival.  She was friends with Adolf Hitler who often came to the performances.  Hitler became a family friend.  The children called him "Uncle Adolf" or "Uncle Wolf" (his nickname).  When World War II started, Wieland did not have to fight in the army because Hitler said he was too important for German culture.  However, Wolfgang had to fight, and he was wounded in Poland, but got better.  He started to produce operas in Berlin.  Hitler liked him, but he never joined the Nazi party.

During the war a lot of Bayreuth buildings were damaged, but not the theatre.  The Americans used it for religious services. After the war Winifred was not allowed to run the opera house because of her Nazi past, but Wieland became director and Wolfgang looked after the money.  The two brothers started the festival again in 1951.  They formed the orchestra again, and invited Hans Knappertsbusch and Herbert von Karajan to conduct.  They deliberately avoided using lots of scenery and made use of symbolic ideas, especially lighting.

When Wieland died in 1966 Wolfgang was the only director.  He continued the modern ideas of his brother, using very simple staging techniques.  The production of Wagner's Ring Cycle in 1976 by the opera director Patrice Chéreau was particularly important.  Many people loved it, others disagreed with it.  The production of the Ring Cycle in 1983 by Peter Hall, conducted by Georg Solti celebrated the 100th birthday of Richard Wagner.  People argued about this production, too.  Since then, many famous people have visited the festival, including the German Chancellor Angela Merkel and the German President Horst Köhler.  In 1982 Grace Bumbry was the first black person to sing at the festival (she sang the part of Venus in Tannhäuser.  Some of the audience thought this was shocking, but she sang so beautifully that everyone applauded for 30 minutes.  She had to take 42 curtain calls.

Wolfgang married twice.  His first wife was Ellen Drexel.  He had two children by this marriage.  He argued with them.  His son did not like the family's past Nazi connections, and the daughter Eva argued about the control of the festival.  Wolfgang later married Gudrun Mack, with whom he had a daughter Katharina.  Eva and Katharina now run the festival.

Wolfgang died aged 90 in Bayreuth in 2010.

Other websites
 Wolfgang Wagner - The Independent obituary

References

1919 births
2010 deaths
German musical entertainers
Opera

Wolfgang Wagner


Schlager music is a kind of pop music, where the text often talks about sentiments. Schlager started with operetta music, at the end of the 19th century. In the 1920s, Jazz music influenced it. Musically, Schlager music often has simple structures. Very often, Schlager songs are commercially successful.

Music genres

Schlager music


Everything as a service(EaaS, XaaS,  *aaS) is a concept of being able to call up re-usable, fine-grained software components across a network. It is a subset of cloud computing. The most common and successful example is software as a service (SaaS), but the term as a service has been associated and used with many core components of cloud computing including communication, infrastructure, data and platforms.

A number of vendors including Google, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard and Amido have been associated with the "everything as a service" trend.

Key characteristics
Offerings tagged with the as a service suffix have a number of common attributes, including:
 Low barriers to entry is a common method of offerings, with services typically being available to or targeting consumers and small businesses.
 Little or no capital expenditure as infrastructure is owned by the provider.
 Massive scalability is also common, though this is not an absolute requirement and many of the offerings have yet to achieve large scale.
 Multitenancy enables resources (and costs) to be shared among many users.
 Device independence enables users to access systems regardless of what device they are using (e.g. PC, mobile,...etc.).
 Location independence allows users remote access to systems.

Sub-categories
This kind of services can be divided into more specific types:

 Software as a Service (SaaS)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Related pages
 Cloud computing

References

Computer science
Internet
Computer networking

Everything as a service


The List of science books is mainly got from:
 Printing and the Mind of Man: a descriptive catalogue illustrating the impact of print on the evolution of western civilisation during five centuries. Compiled by John Carter and Percy H. Muir. Karl Pressler, München (Munich) 1983. The list here does not notice mathematics or technology, although these subjects are related to science.

The list

1st century AD / 15th century
 Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder, 23–79 AD) Historia naturalis. Venice, 1469. Pliny's Natural History is an encyclopedia of the scientific and technical knowledge of the ancient world.

16th century
 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Nuremberg, 1543. The first step to modern science.
 Conrad Gessner (1516–1565) Historiae animalium. 5 vols, Zurich 1551–57. An encyclopedia of animals, illustrated by woodcuts.

17th century
 Wiliam Gilbert (1544–1603) De magnete. London 1600. First to propose that the Earth was one large magnet.
 Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) Astronomia nova. Heidelberg 1609. The laws of planetary motion.
 Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
 Siderius nuncius. Venice 1610. Discovery of 'new worlds' with the telescope.
 Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo, Tolemaico et Copernicano. Florence, 1632. The famous 'dialogue between two world systems, Ptolemaic and Copernican'.
 Discorsi et demonstrazioni mathematiche. Leiden 1638. Includes mathematics of motion in support of his previous work.
 William Harvey (1578–1657) Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus. Frankfurt 1628. Proof of the circulation of blood; fundamental to physiology and medicine.
 Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
 The sceptical chymist. London 1661. The foundation of chemistry.
 New experimental physico-mechanical touching the air. 2nd ed, Oxford 1662. Boyle's law.
 Robert Hooke (1635–1703) Micrographia. London 1665. The microscope and what he saw in it, illustrated.
 Nicolaus Steno (1638–1686) De solido. Florence 1669. Clear recognition of the organic origin of fossils, and first attempt to show sections of geological strata.
 Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Philosophae naturalis principia mathematica. London, 1687. Mathematical physics, gravity, laws of motion.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) Arcana naturae detecta. Delft, 1696. Made many lenses and microscopes, with which he made many discoveries. Discovered microorganisms, and was the first to name some bacteria.
 Edward Tyson (1650–1708) Orang-Outang; or the anatomy of a pygmie compared to that of a monkey, an ape, and a man. London 1699. The earliest important work in comparative anatomy. He showed that between monkey and man stood the anthropoid apes. The 'pygmie' was a chimpanzee, evidently a juvenile.

18th century
 Edmund Halley (1656–1742) A synopsis of the anatomy of comets. London, 1705. A famous study of comets.
 Stephen Hales (1677–1761) Statical essays containing vegetable staticks &c. 2 vols, London, 1731–33. Ground-breaking work on the movement of water and sap in plants.
 Carl Linnaeus, or Linné (1707–78) Systema naturae. Leiden, 1735. Originator of the binomial system of classification of living things. All species he knew about were given both a general (genus) and a specific name, such as Homo sapiens. The names were given in Latin, and so avoided a problem with local names.
 Georges Louis le Clerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–88) Histoire naturelle, general et particuliere. 44 vols, Paris 1749–1804.
 Frederick William Herschel (1738–1822) Herschel discovered the planet Uranus, and several planetary satellites. He worked out what the Milky Way was, and discovered binary stars. His catalogue of binary stars was expanded further by his son, John Herschel.
 On the proper motion of the Sun and Solar system. London, 1783.
 Catalogue of 500 new nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars; with remarks on the construction of the heavens. London, 1802. Announces discovery of double stars.
 Account of the changes that have happened, during the last twenty-five years, in the relative situation of double-stars; with an investigation of the cause to which they are owing. London, 1903. Confirms the discovery of double stars.
 Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) Traité élémentaire de chimie. 2 vols, Paris, 1789. First modern textbook of chemistry. Lavoisier understood the difference between elements and compounds, and put an end to alchemy.
 James Hutton (1726–97) Theory of the Earth, with proofs and illustrations. 2 vols, Edinburgh 1795; vol 3 London 1899. Uniformitarianism applied to geology: processes seen today have acted in the past. Small changes over long periods of time lead to great transformations. A foundation-stone of geology.
 Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) Traité de méchanique céleste. 5 vols, Paris 1799–1825. Fundamental work on applied mathematics and astronomy. Includes celestial mechanics applied to the solar system. Laplace was the originator of a number of mathematical techniques, and the author of the nebular hypothesis of how the solar system arose. He showed the solar system would be long-lasting because of its dynamic stability.

19th century
 John Dalton (1766–1844) A new system of chemical philosophy. London: part I 1808, part II 1810; volume 2, part I 1827. Dalton's atomic theory.
 Lamarck (1744–1829) Philosophie Zoologique. 2 vols, Paris 1809. First coherent statement of evolution (though not quite as now), and a theory (incorrect) as to how it happened. One of Darwin's most important precursors.
 William Smith (1769–1839) A geological map of England and Wales, with part of Scotland. London 1815. Founder of stratigraphy and geological mapping.
 Michael Faraday (1791–1867) Experimental researches in electricity. 3 vols, London 1839, 1844, 1855. Faraday, a blacksmith's son, became the greatest experimental physicist of the nineteenth cencury.
 Justus Liebig (1803–1873) Dawn of organic chemistry. Liebig 'invented' the chemical laboratory.
 Die Organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Brunswick 1840. (Organic chemistry in its application to agriculture and physiology); and
 Die Organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie. Brunswick 1842. (Organic chemistry in its application to physiology and pathology).
 Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
 Voyages aux Régions Equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent fait en 1799–1804. Describes the geography and natural history of South America.
 Kosmos: Entwurf einer Physischen Weltbeschreibung 4 vols, Stuttgart & Tübingen 1845–62. A fifth volume was published from his notes. The work is a summary of all that was known of the natural sciences of his day and, by 1852, 80,000 copies had been sold.
 Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and the theory of evolution:
 with Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913): On the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural selection. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, London 1858.
 Charles Darwin On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London 1859.
 Charles Darwin The Descent of Man, and selection in relation to sex. London, 1871.

20th century
 Albert Einstein (1879–1955) Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie. Leipzig 1916. (Foundations of the general theory of relativity) and its popular version Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie, gemeinverständlich (On the special and general theory of relativity: a popular account) Braunschweig 1917. The greatest work in physics since Newton. Journal publication of the ideas came first.
 Ronald Fisher (1890–1962) The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 1930; 1950. A building-block of the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Books

Books

List of science books


The plum pudding model is an early 20th century model of an atom. It was later found to be wrong. It was proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904, after the electron had been discovered, but before the atomic nuclei was discovered. During that time, scientists knew that there was a positive charge in the atom that balanced out the negative charges of the electrons, making the atom neutral, but they didn't know where the positive charge was coming from. Thomson's model showed an atom that had a positively charged medium, or space, with negatively charged electrons inside the medium. Soon after its proposal, the model was called a "plum pudding" model because the positive medium was like a pudding, with electrons, or plums, inside.

Development into modern atomic model

Rutherford's model
In 1909, not long after Thomson's model was proposed, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden made an experiment with thin sheets of gold, to test Thomson's model. Their professor, Ernest Rutherford, expected the results to prove Thomson correct, but their results were extremely different to what they were expecting. In 1911, Rutherford discovered that the positive charges come from tiny particles called protons, and that the protons were in a tiny center called the nucleus, and that the electrons were orbiting around the nucleus.

Niels Bohr's Model

Rutherford's model was quite simple, but it was later disproved because electrons have charge, and they should be attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In 1913, Niels Bohr added 'energy levels' to the atomic model. Electrons don't fall into the nucleus because they are contained in energy levels, and to change to higher energy levels extra energy is needed, and to change to lower energy levels a release of energy is needed. It is not possible to change energy states without changing the energy of the electron. If an electron gets hit by a photon (a particle that carries electromagnetic radiation) it will gain extra energy and go into a higher energy level (it changes states), then it will jump back down to a lower energy level, releasing its contained energy. This new model was called the Bohr model or the Rutherford-Bohr model. This added a whole new branch of science:  Quantum physics.

Quantum model

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger used the idea that electrons acted as a wave, as well as a particle, this is known as a wave-particle duality. This added a whole new layer to the atomic model and quantum physics. With a particle, you can know where it is in space if you observe (look) at it. But with a wave, it is all over the place, so you can't define where exactly it is. This is known as quantum uncertainty. With an electron, you can only know the probability of it being in a place, because it is a wave as well as a particle. (See diagram above)

Related pages
 Atomic theory
 Quantum mechanics
 J. J. Thomson
 Ernest Rutherford
 Niels Bohr
 Erwin Schrödinger

References

Nuclear physics

Plum pudding model