Etching is used in microfabrication to chemically remove layers from the surface of a wafer during manufacturing. Etching is a critically important process module in fabrication, and every wafer undergoes many etching steps before it is complete.

For many etch steps, part of the wafer is protected from the etchant by a "masking" material which resists etching.  In some cases, the masking material is a photoresist which has been patterned using photolithography. Other situations require a more durable mask, such as silicon nitride.

Etching media and technology
The two fundamental types of etchants are liquid-phase ("wet") and plasma-phase ("dry").  Each of these exists in several varieties.

Wet etching

The first etching processes used liquid-phase ("wet") etchants. This process is now largely outdated but was used up until the late 1980s when it was superseded by dry plasma etching. The wafer can be immersed in a bath of etchant, which must be agitated to achieve good process control. For instance, buffered hydrofluoric acid (BHF) is used commonly to etch silicon dioxide over a silicon substrate.

Different specialized etchants can be used to characterize the surface etched.

Wet etchants are usually isotropic, which leads to a large bias when etching thick films. They also require the disposal of large amounts of toxic waste. For these reasons, they are seldom used in state-of-the-art processes. However, the photographic developer used for photoresist resembles wet etching.

As an alternative to immersion, single wafer machines use the Bernoulli principle to employ a gas (usually, pure nitrogen) to cushion and protect one side of the wafer while etchant is applied to the other side. It can be done to either the front side or back side. The etch chemistry is dispensed on the top side when in the machine and the bottom side is not affected. This etching method is particularly effective just before "backend" processing (BEOL), where wafers are normally very much thinner after wafer backgrinding, and very sensitive to thermal or mechanical stress. Etching a thin layer of even a few micrometres will remove microcracks produced during backgrinding resulting in the wafer having dramatically increased strength and flexibility without breaking.

Anisotropic wet etching (Orientation dependent etching)

Some wet etchants etch crystalline materials at very different rates depending upon which crystal face is exposed.  In single-crystal materials (e.g. silicon wafers), this effect can allow very high anisotropy, as shown in the figure. The term "crystallographic etching" is synonymous with "anisotropic etching along crystal planes".

However, for some non-crystal materials like glass, there are unconventional ways to etch in an anisotropic manner. The authors employ multistream laminar flow that contains etching non-etching solutions to fabricate a glass groove. The etching solution at the center is flanked by non-etching solutions and the area contacting etching solutions is limited by the surrounding non-etching solutions. The etching direction is thereby mainly vertical to the glass surface. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images demonstrate the breaking of the conventional theoretical limit of aspect ratio (width/height=0.5) and contribute a two-fold improvement (width/height=1).

Several anisotropic wet etchants are available for silicon, all of them hot aqueous caustics.  For instance, potassium hydroxide (KOH) displays an etch rate selectivity 400 times higher in <100> crystal directions than in <111> directions.  EDP (an aqueous solution of ethylene diamine and pyrocatechol), displays a <100>/<111> selectivity of 17X, does not etch silicon dioxide as KOH does, and also displays high selectivity between lightly doped and heavily boron-doped (p-type) silicon. Use of these etchants on wafers that already contain CMOS integrated circuits requires protecting the circuitry. KOH may introduce mobile potassium ions into silicon dioxide, and EDP is highly corrosive and carcinogenic, so care is required in their use. Tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) presents a safer alternative than EDP, with a 37X selectivity between {100} and {111} planes in silicon.

Etching a (100) silicon surface through a rectangular hole in a masking material,  like a hole in a layer of silicon nitride, creates a pit with flat sloping  {111}-oriented sidewalls and a flat (100)-oriented bottom. The {111}-oriented sidewalls have an angle to the surface of the wafer of:

If the etching is continued "to completion", i.e. until the flat bottom disappears, the pit becomes a trench with a V-shaped cross-section. If the original rectangle was a perfect square, the pit when etched to completion displays a pyramidal shape.

The undercut, δ, under an edge of the masking material is given by:

,

where Rxxx is the etch rate in the <xxx> direction, T is the etch time, D is the etch depth and S is the anisotropy of the material and etchant.

Different etchants have different anisotropies. Below is a table of common anisotropic etchants for silicon:

Plasma etching

Modern very large scale integration (VLSI) processes avoid wet etching, and use plasma etching instead. Plasma etchers can operate in several modes by adjusting the parameters of the plasma. Ordinary plasma etching operates between 0.1 and 5 Torr. (This unit of pressure, commonly used in vacuum engineering, equals approximately 133.3 pascals.) The plasma produces energetic free radicals, neutrally charged, that react at the surface of the wafer. Since neutral particles attack the wafer from all angles, this process is isotropic.

Plasma etching can be isotropic, i.e., exhibiting a lateral undercut rate on a patterned surface approximately the same as its downward etch rate, or can be anisotropic, i.e., exhibiting a smaller lateral undercut rate than its downward etch rate. Such anisotropy is maximized in deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). The use of the term anisotropy for plasma etching should not be conflated with the use of the same term when referring to orientation-dependent etching.

The source gas for the plasma usually contains small molecules rich in chlorine or fluorine.  For instance, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) etches silicon and aluminium, and trifluoromethane etches silicon dioxide and silicon nitride.  A plasma containing oxygen is used to oxidize ("ash") photoresist and facilitate its removal.

Ion milling, or sputter etching, uses lower pressures, often as low as 10−4 Torr (10 mPa). It bombards the wafer with energetic ions of noble gases, often Ar+, which knock atoms from the substrate by transferring momentum.  Because the etching is performed by ions, which approach the wafer approximately from one direction, this process is highly anisotropic. On the other hand, it tends to display poor selectivity. Reactive-ion etching (RIE) operates under conditions intermediate between sputter and plasma etching (between 10−3 and 10−1 Torr). Deep reactive-ion etching (DRIE) modifies the RIE technique to produce deep, narrow features.

Orientation-Dependent Etching
 KOH pellets dissolved in water (self-heating)
 Etch Rate {110} > {100} >> {111}
 KOH has a slower etching orientation for the {111} planes
 You cannot use this KOH photoresist as an etching mask, because the oxide attacks too slowly, so this resist will not survive
 Photoresist can be used as an etching mask, and the best photoresist for etching is nitride
 For example, the etch rate of Si in KOH Depends on Crystallographic Plane
 At low temperatures there is high selectivity (etching rate is slower), at high temperatures the selectivity will drop (higher etching rate)

By increasing the temperature, the etch rate increases, but the selectivity decreases. There is a trade-off between etch rate and etch selectivity.

Figures of merit
If the etch is intended to make a cavity in a material, the depth of the cavity may be controlled approximately using the etching time and the known etch rate. More often, though, etching must entirely remove the top layer of a multilayer structure, without damaging the underlying or masking layers. The etching system's ability to do this depends on the ratio of etch rates in the two materials (selectivity).

Some etches undercut the masking layer and form cavities with sloping sidewalls. The distance of undercutting is called bias. Etchants with large bias are called isotropic, because they erode the substrate equally in all directions. Modern processes greatly prefer anisotropic etches, because they produce sharp, well-controlled features.

Common etch processes used in microfabrication

See also
Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
Ingot sawing
Metal assisted chemical etching
Lift-off (microtechnology)

References

 Ibid, "Processes for MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS)"

Inline references

External links

Semiconductor technology
Semiconductor device fabrication
Etching
Microtechnology

Etching (microfabrication)


The Kowloon Mosque and Islamic Centre () is a mosque and Islamic center in Hong Kong, People's Republic of China. It is the largest mosque and second mosque to be built in Hong Kong.

History
The original building of the mosque was built in 1896 at the site where the Tsim Sha Tsui police station now is located. The mosque served the Indian Muslim troops in British Hong Kong stationed at Whitfield Barracks. In the late 1970s, the mosque was relocated to its current site at Nathan Road by compensation given by MTR Corporation and donations from Muslims around Hong Kong.

Architecture
The mosque was designed by architect I. M. Kadri. The building was designed with traditional Muslim architecture. The unique feature of this mosque are the four 11-meters-high minarets. There are three prayer halls, community hall, clinic and library. Around 3,500 people can fit into this mosque for prayer.

Activities
The mosque primarily serves the Hong Kong Muslims with origin from South Asia. Therefore, the most becomes an important place for the non-Chinese Muslims in Hong Kong.

References

Mosques in Hong Kong
Religion in China

Kowloon Masjid and Islamic Centre


The Detroit Red Wings are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL).

History

Early history
The Red Wings were formed in 1926.  The Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) folded that year, and many of the players from the WCHL's Victoria Cougars went to play for Detroit.  As a result, the team was first called the Detroit Cougars, then later it changed to Detroit Falcons, before becoming known as the Red Wings.

Later history
In the late 1940s, the line of Sid Abel, Gordie Howe, and Ted Lindsey became very important to the team.  Abel won the Hart Trophy in 1949, and Lindsey won the Art Ross Trophy as scoring champion in 1950.  Howe then won six Hart and six Art Ross Trophies between 1951 and 1963.  Terry Sawchuck was a star goaltender, who ended up with more career shutouts than any other goalie (103).  Red Kelly won the first ever Norris Trophy as best defence.  As a result of having such great players, the Red Wings won four Stanley Cups in six years:  1950, 1952, 1954, and 1955.  Two of these were very close:  they were won in overtime of the 7th and deciding game in 1950 (against the New York Rangers) and 1954 (against the Montreal Canadiens).  These are the only two times the NHL championship has gone to overtime of game seven.

The Red Wings continued to be a strong team throughout the 1960.  They lost the NHL Finals five times between 1956 and 1966.  Norm Ullman was their star center in the 1960s.

Comeback
They were not a strong team again until the late 1980s.  Steve Yzerman became a star at this time.  Sergei Fedorov became the first Russian to win the Hart Trophy in 1994.  The Red Wings won the President's Cup as top team in the NHL regular season in 1995, 1996 (with a record number of wins), and 2002.  They won the Stanley Cup in 1997, 1998, and 2002.  Nicklas Lidstrom won the Norris Trophy as best defenceman three times beginning in 2001.  The team was one of the richest in the NHL, which helped them get many good players.

Winnings
The Red Wings have won eleven Stanley Cups, the third most of any team, and the most of the United States teams. They first won in 1936 and 1937, and again in 1943. Ebbie Goodfellow won the Hart Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player in 1940.  Sid Howe was also a star on the team at this time.

Related pages
List of Detroit Red Wings players

References

Other websites
Official website

1926 establishments in the United States

National Hockey League teams

Detroit Red Wings


Bark bread is a form of bread used during a famine. It made by adding ground phloem to the flour as an extender to make it last longer.

During the 18th and early 19th century Northern Europe had several very bad years of crop failure. This was  particularly during the Little Ice Age of the mid 18th century. The grain harvest was badly affected. Many ideas to make the flour last longer were introduced. In 1742, samples of "emergency bread" were sent from Kristiansand, Norway to the Royal Administration in Copenhagen. One of these was bark bread. This is bread made from grain husks and bread made from burned bones. During the Napoleonic Wars, moss too was used for food.

The last time bark bread was used as famine food in Norway was during the Napoleonic Wars. The introduction of the potato as a staple crop gave the farmers other crops when grain production failed. So that bark bread and moss cakes were no longer needed. In Northern Sweden, traces of Sami harvest of bark from Scots pine are known from the 1890s. In Finland pettuleipä (literally "pinewood-bark bread") was produced as a substitute for bread during the Finnish Civil War of 1918.

References

Breads

Bark bread


Jefferson Drum, also known as The Pen and the Quill, is an American Western television series starring Jeff Richards that aired on the NBC network from April 25 to December 11, 1958.

Overview
Jefferson Drum, portrayed by Jeff Richards, is a crusading newspaper editor in the Old West town of Jubilee. A widower, he rears his son, Joey, played by 10-year-old Eugene Mazzola, also known as Eugene Martin. Drum's printer is Lucius Coin, played by Cyril Delevanti. Big Ed, the town bartender, is portrayed by Robert J. Stevenson, later a member of the Los Angeles City Council. Hal J. Smith, later known for his role of the town drunk, Otis Campbell, on CBS's The Andy Griffith Show, was cast five times on Jefferson Drum as Hickey.

In the episode entitled "Pete Henke" (November 20, 1958), the character Henke, portrayed by Strother Martin, is a violent sharpshooter known for causing trouble. Editor Jefferson Drum challenges Henke to a fistfight in the saloon, but Henke prevails in the third round when he throws something into Drum's eyes and blinds him temporarily. The saloon hostess who gave Henke the blinding substance is later seen at Henke's "medicine show." In the end, the persistent Drum knocks over Henke with a punch. "Pete Henke" also starred Frank Wolff as Sam Creighton and Bert Remsen as Jim Ford.

The series first aired at 7:30 Eastern on Friday opposite repeats of I Love Lucy on CBS and Leave It to Beaver on ABC. For its second round of episodes, it moved to Thursdays in the same 7:30 p.m. time slot. Rebroadcasts were aired during the first half of 1959. Jefferson Drum was produced for Screen Gems by Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions (known more for their game show output), and ran for parts of two seasons before it was cancelled.

Cast
 Jeff Richards .... Jefferson Drum
 Eugene Mazzola (billed as Eugene Martin) .... Joey Drum
 Cyril Delevanti .... Lucius Coin
 Robert J. Stevenson .... Big Ed

Guest stars

R.G. Armstrong, as Kreiger in "Law and Order"; Jerry Hopper also appears in this episode.
John Ashley, as Tim Keough in "Arrival", the series premiere
Jim Bannon, Jean Byron, and Russell Johnson, as Tay Beloin, Angela, and The Sundown Kid, respectively, in "A Very Deadly Game"
Gregg Barton, Virginia Gregg, and Harry Lauter appeared as Yance Meeker, Louise Hammond, and Vince Meeker, respectively, in "The Hanging of Joe Lavett".
Dan Blocker, Lane Bradford, and Dan Sheridan appeared as Craig, Hank, and Leo in the segment entitled "Stagecoach Episode."
Robert Bray and Charles Tannen, as Jack Page and Dandy Case, respectively, in the episode "Obituary"
Andy Clyde played Hepburn in the episode "The Keeney Gang"; L.Q. Jones appeared in the same segment as Burdette.
Mike Connors, as the title guest star in "Simon Pitt", the series finale. Ted de Corsia and Patrice Wymore appear in this episode as Jim Kind and Goldie, respectively.
Abby Dalton, Ron Hagerthy, and Douglas Kennedy appeared as Eloise Barton, Will Barton, and Dallas, respectively, in the episode "Thicker than Water".
Francis De Sales and Kenneth Tobey appeared as Bass Williard and John Wallach, respectively, in "$50 for a Dead Man."
Andrew Duggan, Paul Sorensen, Rex Lease, and Philip Ahn appear as Charles McGowan, Benson, Tobin, and Charles Wong, respectively, in "The Cheater".
Douglas Fowley, as Wooley in "Wheel of Fortune", with Richard Webb as Duane, and Jeanne Cooper as Phoebe West
Bruce Gordon, as Juan Cavanaugh in "A Sad Day for a Tinhorn"
James Griffith, Robert Vaughn, and Anna Karen as Troy Bendick, Shelly Poe, and Bess, respectively" in the episode "Return."
Skip Homeier, as Kading in "The Post"
Douglas Kennedy appeared as Dallas in "Thicker Than Water".
John Larch, as John Larkin in "The Bounty Man"
Gardner McKay, Paul Richards, Dennis Cross, and Irene Tedrow appeared as Simon Easton, Les Groves, Gideon Easton, and Mary Easton, respectively, in "Showdown".
Anna Karen Morrow appeared as Bess in the episode "Return".
Gregg Palmer and Rand Brooks appeared as Grant and as Ray Comstock, respectively, in "Band of Iron".
Judson Pratt, Denver Pyle, and Charles Fredericks appeared as Father Andrew Damon, Bart Resdake, and Warden Johns, respectively, in "Prison Hill".
William Schallert, as Polk Beauregard in "A Matter of Murder"
Karen Steele, in the titular role of "Madame Faro", with Rick Vallin cast as Tanner
Barbara Stuart appeared twice as Ellie in 1958 episodes "The Bounty Man" and "The Outlaw".
Karl Swenson, as Kiley in "The Lawless"

Episodes

Season 1

Season 2

References

 McNeil, Alex. Total Television  (1996). New York: Penguin Books
 Brooks, Tim and Marsh, Earle, The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows (1999). New York: Ballantine Books

External links

1958 American television series debuts
1958 American television series endings
Black-and-white American television shows
NBC original programming
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television series by Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions
1950s Western (genre) television series
English-language television shows
Television series about widowhood

Jefferson Drum


Alan William Napier-Clavering (7 January 1903 – 8 August 1988), better known as Alan Napier, was an English actor. After a decade in West End theatre, he had a long film career in Britain and later on in Hollywood. Napier is best remembered for portraying Alfred Pennyworth, Bruce Wayne's butler in the 1960s live-action Batman television series.

Early life and career
Napier was a first cousin-once removed of Neville Chamberlain, Britain's prime minister from 1937 to 1940. He was educated at Packwood Haugh School and, after leaving Clifton College, he studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, graduating in 1925.

He was engaged by the Oxford Players, where he worked with the likes of John Gielgud and Robert Morley. As Napier recalled, his "ridiculously tall" 6" 6" height almost cost him his position immediately after he secured it. J. B. Fagan had dismissed Tyrone Guthrie because he was too tall for most parts. Napier was interviewed (and accepted) as Guthrie's replacement while sitting down. Fagan realized that Napier was even taller than Guthrie when he stood up, but honoured his commitment. Napier performed for ten years (1929–1939) on the West End stage. Napier described himself as having a particular affinity for the work of George Bernard Shaw, and in 1937 appeared in a London revival of Heartbreak House supervised by Shaw himself.

He made his American stage debut as the romantic lead opposite Gladys George in Lady in Waiting. Though his film career had begun in Britain in the 1930s, he had very little success before the cameras until he joined the British expatriate community in Hollywood in 1941. There he spent time with such people as James Whale, a fellow ex-Oxford Player. He appeared in such films as Random Harvest (1942), Cat People (1942), and The Uninvited (1944). In The Song of Bernadette (1943), he played the ethically questionable psychiatrist who is hired to declare Bernadette mentally ill.  He also played the vicious Earl of Warwick in Joan of Arc (1948).  He performed in two Shakespearean films: the Orson Welles Macbeth (1948), in which he played a priest that Welles added to the story, who spoke lines originally uttered by other characters, and MGM's Julius Caesar (1953), as Cicero. He appeared as Mr. Rutland in the Hitchcock movie Marnie (1964).

In 1949, he made an appearance on the short-lived television anthology series Your Show Time as Sherlock Holmes, in an adaptation of "The Adventure of the Speckled Band". In the 1950s, he appeared on TV in four episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents and guest starred on Dale Robertson's NBC western series Tales of Wells Fargo. He had a recurring role as General Steele on the 1962–1963 situation comedy Don't Call Me Charlie!

Batman
In 1965, he was the first to be cast in the Batman TV series, as Bruce Wayne's faithful butler Alfred, a role he played until the series' cancellation in 1968. I had never read comics before [I was hired for Batman]. My agent rang up and said, 'I think you are going to play on "Batman,"' I said 'What is "Batman"?' He said, 'Don't you read the comics?' I said, 'No, never.' He said, 'I think you are going to be Batman's butler.' I said, 'How do I know I want to be Batman's butler?' It was the most ridiculous thing I had ever heard of. He said, 'It may be worth over $100,000.' So I said I was Batman's butler.

Jack Nicholson's version of the Joker in the 1989 film Batman was named Jack Napier in his honor.

Later life and career
Napier's career extended into the 1980s with roles on television, including the miniseries QB VII, The Bastard and Centennial, and the drama The Paper Chase. He retired in 1981, aged 78.

In early 1988, Napier appeared on the late-night talk show The Late Show as part of a reunion of the surviving cast of Batman, despite being in a wheelchair. His co-star Yvonne Craig described the reunion show as overbooked, and when host Ross Shafer finally turned his attention to Napier, it was only to ask him a silly question, then cut him off abruptly as he was telling a story, much to Napier's annoyance. Napier did not participate in the subsequent cast reunion held before his death.

Family
Napier was twice married. His second wife, Aileen Dickens Hawksley, was a great-granddaughter of novelist Charles Dickens. Hawsley's daughter from a previous marriage, actress Jennifer Raine, was the mother of former child actor Brian Forster, best known as "Chris Partridge" on the 1970s television show The Partridge Family.

Death
Napier suffered a stroke in 1987, was hospitalized from June 1988, and was gravely ill for several days before his death of natural causes on 8 August 1988, in the Berkeley East Convalescent Hospital in Santa Monica, California. He was 85 years old.

Autobiography

In the early 1970s, Napier wrote a three-volume autobiography which was not published at the time because, as he joked, "I haven't committed a major crime and I'm not known to have slept with any famous actresses." In 2015, McFarland Press published the book under the title Not Just Batman's Butler, with Napier's original text annotated and updated by James Bigwood.

Partial filmography

 Caste (1930) as Capt. Hawtree
 Stamboul (1931) as Bouchier
 In a Monastery Garden (1932) as Count Romano
 Loyalties (1933) as Gen. Canynge
 Wings Over Africa (1936) as Redfern
 For Valour (1937) as General
 The Wife of General Ling (1937) as Governor
 The Four Just Men (1939) as Sir Hamar Ryman
 We Are Not Alone (1939) as Archdeacon
 The Invisible Man Returns  (1940) as Willie Spears
 The House of the Seven Gables (1940) as Fuller
 Confirm or Deny (1940) as Updyke (scenes deleted)
 Eagle Squadron (1942) as Black Watch officer
 A Yank at Eton (1942) as Restaurateur (uncredited)
 Cat People (1942) as Doc Carver (uncredited)
 Random Harvest (1942) as Julian
 Assignment in Brittany (1943) as Sam Wells
 Appointment in Berlin (1943) as Col. Patterson (uncredited)
 Lassie Come Home (1943) as Jock
 Madame Curie (1943) as Dr. Bladh (uncredited)
 The Song of Bernadette (1943) as Dr. Debeau (uncredited)
 Lost Angel (1943) as Dr. Woodring
 The Uninvited (1944) as Dr. Scott
 Action in Arabia (1944) as Eric Latimer
 The Hairy Ape (1944) as MacDougald, Chief Engineer
 Ministry of Fear (1944) as Dr. JM Forrester
 Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944) as Mr. Parker
 Dark Waters (1944) as The Doctor (uncredited)
 Mademoiselle Fifi (1944) as The Count de Breville
 Hangover Square (1945) as Sir Henry Chapman
 Isle of the Dead (1945) as St. Aubyn
 Three Strangers (1946) as David Shackleford
 House of Horrors (1946) as F. Holmes Harmon
 A Scandal in Paris (1946) as Houdon De Pierremont, Police Minister
 The Strange Woman (1946) as Judge Henry Saladine
 Sinbad the Sailor (1947) as Aga
 Fiesta (1947) as The Tourist
 High Conquest (1947) as Tommy Donlin
 Ivy (1947) as Sir Jonathan Wright
 Adventure Island (1947) as Attwater
 Lured (1947) as Detective Gordon
 Driftwood (1947) as Dr. Nicholas Adams
 Unconquered (1947) as Sir William Johnson
 Forever Amber (1947) as Landale
 The Lone Wolf in London (1947) as Monty Beresford
 Johnny Belinda (1948) as Defense Attorney
 Macbeth (1948) as A Holy Father
 Joan of Arc (1948) as Earl of Warwick
 Hills of Home (1948) as Sir George
 Criss Cross (1949) as Finchley
 My Own True Love (1949) as Kittredge
 Tarzan's Magic Fountain (1949) as Douglas Jessup
 A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (1949) as High Executioner
 Manhandled (1949) as Alton Bennet
 The Red Danube (1949) as The General
 Challenge to Lassie (1949) as Lord Provost
 Master Minds (1949) as Dr. Druzik
 Tripoli (1950) as Khalil
 Double Crossbones (1951) as Capt. Kidd
 Tarzan's Peril (1951) as Commissioner Peters
 The Great Caruso (1951) as Jean de Reszke
 The Highwayman (1951) as Barton
 Across the Wide Missouri (1951) as Capt. Humberstone Lyon
 The Blue Veil (1951) as Prof. George Carter
 The Strange Door (1951) as Count Grassin
 Big Jim McLain (1952) as Sturak
 Julius Caesar (1953) as Cicero
 Young Bess (1953) as Robert Tyrwhitt
 Désirée (1954) as Despreaux
 Moonfleet (1955) as Parson Glennie
 The Court Jester (1956) as Sir Brockhurst
 Miami Exposé (1956) as Raymond Sheridan
 The Mole People (1956) as Elinu, the High Priest
 Until They Sail (1957) as Prosecution Attorney
 Island of Lost Women (1959) as Dr. Paul Lujan
 Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959) as Dean
 Wild in the Country (1961) as Prof. Joe B. Larson (uncredited)
 Tender Is the Night (1962) as Señor Pardo
 The Premature Burial (1962) as Dr. Gideon Gault
 The Sword in the Stone (1963) as Sir Pellinore (voice)
 Marnie (1964) as Mr. Rutland
 Mary Poppins (1964) as Huntsman / Reporter #3 / Hound (voice, uncredited)
 My Fair Lady (1964) as Gentleman who escorts Eliza to the Queen of Transylvania (uncredited)
 Signpost to Murder (1964) as The Vicar
 36 Hours (1964) as Col. Peter MacLean
 The Loved One (1965) as English Club Official
 Batman (1966) as Alfred Pennyworth

Partial television credits
 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1955) Season 1 Episode 5: "Into Thin Air" aka "The Vanishing Lady" as Sir Everett
 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1956) Season 1 Episode 26: "Whodunit" as Wilfred - The Recording Angel
 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1957) Season 2 Episodes 25, 26, 27: "I Killed the Count" Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 as Lord Sorrington
 Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1959) Season 4 Episode 24: "The Avon Emeralds" as Sir Charles Harrington
 Don't Call Me Charlie! (1962–1963 TV series), recurring role as General Steele
 Twilight Zone (1963) episode "Passage on the Lady Anne" as Capt. Protheroe
 Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) (1965) S1/E26-27 "Cain's Birthday" (Parts 1 & 2) as Col. Sir Hubert Crater
 Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) (1965) S2/E13 "The Perilous Journey" as Lord Brisbane
 Batman (1966-1968) as Alfred Pennyworth
 The Beverly Hillbillies (1967) episode "The Clampetts In London" as Chemist
 Ironside (1970, 1973, 1974)
 QB VII (1974 miniseries) as Semple
 The Bastard (1978 miniseries) as Dr. Bleeker
 Centennial (1979 miniseries) as Lord Venneford

References

External links

Alumni of RADA
English male film actors
English male television actors
English expatriates in the United States
People educated at Clifton College
1903 births
1988 deaths
Burials at Chapel of the Pines Crematory
Male actors from Birmingham, West Midlands
20th-century English male actors
British expatriate male actors in the United States

Alan Napier


Albert Coates (born Saint Petersburg, 23 April 1882; died Cape Town, 11 December 1953) was an Anglo-Russian conductor and composer.

Life and work
Coates was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia, the youngest of seven sons of an English father and a Russian mother.

He studied at the conservatory in Leipzig, where his greatest teacher was Arthur Nikisch.  He worked at the opera house in Dresden, and became conductor at Saint Petersburg's Mariinsky Theatre. After the Russian Revolution and World War I he just managed to escape from Russia in April 1919.

He first appeared at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden in 1914 conducting Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde.  He was a man with a lot of energy, and he introduced the audiences to a lot of music they had not heard, especially by Russian composers such as Alexander Scriabin, but also English music by Ralph Vaughan Williams, Arnold Bax and Gustav Holst, whose suite The Planets he gave the first complete London public performance.

In the 1920s and early 1930s he often worked with the London Symphony Orchestra.  He made gramophone recordings in the very early days of the gramophone.  These include Scriabin's Poème de l'Extase and many bits from Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen and (in 1925) the complete Symphony No. 9 of Beethoven. He was the conductor for the first recording of Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3, with Vladimir Horowitz as soloist.

In 1925 he gave the first stage performance outside Russia of Rimsky-Korsakov's opera The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevroniya.

He composed several works including operas and a symphonic poem The Eagle, dedicated to the memory of his former teacher Artur Nikisch, which was performed in Leeds in 1925.  In 1946 he settled in Milnerton, Cape Town, South Africa, where he died in 1953.

Albert Coates was no relation to Eric Coates, the English composer of light music, nor to the tenor John Coates.

1882 births
1953 deaths
English composers

Albert Coates


The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory is a book published in 1984 by psychoanalyst and historian Jeffrey Masson. In the book, Masson criticizes Austrian neurologist (a person who treats the nervous system) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) for abandoning the seduction theory, which held that neurotic illness in adults and adolescents was a result of their being sexually abused before puberty. Freud said that his patients confabulated the molestations and then rejected this theory. Masson says that Freud's original view was the correct one.

1984 books
Non-fiction books
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis


Events
January 7 – The first American commercial bank opens (Bank of North America).
January 15 – Superintendent of Finance Robert Morris goes before the United States Congress to recommend establishment of a national mint and decimal coinage
February 5 – Spanish defeat British forces and capture Minorca.
March 8 – In Ohio the Gnadenhutten massacre of Native Americans takes place in which 29 men, 27 women, and 34 children were killed by white militiamen in retaliation for raids carried out by another Native American group.
April 6 – Rama I succeeded King Taksin of Thailand who was overthrown in an coup d'état.
April 12 – A British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney defeats a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse at the Battle of the Saintes in the West Indies.
June 18 – In Switzerland, Anna Goldi in sentenced to death for witchcraft – the last legal witchcraft sentence
August 7 – George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers wounded in battle.  It is later renamed to the more poetic "Purple Heart".
November 30 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris, representatives from the United States and the United Kingdom of Great Britain sign preliminary peace articles (later formalized in the Treaty of Paris).
London creates Foot Patrol for public security
Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries try to cross the English Channel with a hot-air balloon
The Parliament of Great Britain extends James Watt's copyright for the steam engine to the year 1800

Births

Deaths

1782


Dominion Stores is the primary brand name of the major-market supermarkets of Loblaw Companies Limited in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The Dominion brand name is used under licence from Metro Inc., which discontinued the Dominion banner in the rest of Canada in late 2008 and has no other affiliation with the Newfoundland stores.

History

The chain began as Ayre's Supermarkets, a division of local department store chain Ayre and Sons. It was acquired by Argus Corporation via Dominion Stores Ltd. in 1963, eventually adopting the Dominion brand. Following the sale of Dominion to A&P Canada, the Newfoundland operations were resold to local owners in 1987 and subsequently merged with two smaller local chains. The newly-amalgamated parent company was named Amalco Foods, but the combined chain's brand name remained "Dominion".

Loblaw acquired the Dominion chain in Newfoundland in 1995, and soon after began implementing its own private-label products and store designs at these locations. Ultimately Dominion's traditional "Big D" logo was replaced with a derivative of the Loblaws logo, rotated to look like a D instead of an L. Renovated Dominion stores have changed the orientation of the logo to match the Loblaws logo, but Loblaws stated that it would continue to use the Dominion brand in the region.

Today

In all respects other than name, the majority of Dominion stores in Newfoundland operate with the same appearance and format as the company's flagship Loblaws and Atlantic Superstore supermarkets, and its newest St. John's area locations are similar in format to the Loblaw-owned Real Canadian Superstore. Since 2002, these locations have in fact been operated as part of the Atlantic Superstore unit, with nearly identical advertising campaigns, including the "Prices you can trust" slogan used by both Atlantic Superstore and Real Canadian Superstore. Nonetheless, Loblaw has not indicated any plans to discontinue its use of the Dominion banner.

The chain has relocated or consolidated a number of locations into the "market" or superstore formats. Whereas there were roughly six locations in the early 2000s in St. John's proper (and many more in years past), there are now only three Dominion stores in the city, none built before 2000. This transition culminated with the opening of a Dominion on the site of the former Memorial Stadium in St. John's in 2007. Coincident with that opening, two medium-size locations in the east end of St. John's (older General Supermarket locations acquired in the early 1990s) were closed, while a third (Churchill Square) was converted to a SaveEasy. As a result, it is believed that all Dominion stores in the province have now been transitioned to the newer formats. Since then, SaveEasy in Churchill Square has now closed and the building is vacant. Most of the previous Newfoundland Drive / Torbay Road location is now occupied by a Colemans store, with a Bank of Montreal branch occupying the remaining space.

In 2018, ten Dominion stores across the province were selected by the Newfoundland and Labrador Liquor Corporation to operate licensed cannabis retail outlets.

See also
List of supermarkets
Loblaws

References

External links
Official website

Loblaw Companies
Retail companies established in 1963
Supermarkets of Canada
Food and drink in Newfoundland and Labrador
Companies based in Newfoundland and Labrador

Dominion Stores


George Odger (1813–4 March 1877) was a pioneer British trade unionist and radical politician. He is best remembered as the head of the London Trades Council during the period of formation of the Trades Union Congress and as the first President of the First International.

Biography

Early years

George Odger was born in 1813 in Roborough, Devon, England. Odger's father was a miner from Cornwall and the family was an impoverished one, forcing George to be apprenticed as a shoemaker at about 10 years of age. Odger's formal education was limited and primitive, but he was able to expand his intellectual horizons through self-education and reading.

Odger travelled the country in search of work as a shoemaker, eventually landing in London around the age of 20. There he became active in the nascent trade union movement, joining the Ladies Shoemakers' Society, which later became part of the Amalgamated Society of Cordwainers.

Trade union leader

Odger first came to public attention in 1859 when he served on a general committee to coordinate aid for striking workers in the London builders' strike of that year. This led to active participation in the London Trades Council when it was founded the following year, followed by election to the position of Secretary of that organisation in 1862.

Also in 1862, Odger became the Chairman of the Manhood Suffrage and Vote by Ballot Association.  A vigorous supporter of the anti-slavery Republicans in the American Civil War, Odger is credited with helping shift the editorial line of the labour newspaper The Bee-Hive from supporting the Confederate States of America in the conflict.

Odger was associated with the Workman's Advocate, which became the press organ of the International and the Reform League, and from 1866 to 1867 he was editor of the renamed Commonwealth.  Also in 1866, he represented the London Trades Council at the first conferences the United Kingdom Alliance of Organised Trades, while in 1867, he joined the Conference of Amalgamated Trades.

Shortly after the Reform League's Hyde Park demonstration in 1867, Odger attended a private meeting of a dozen senior members of the league in which the French revolutionary Gustave Paul Cluseret proposed they start a civil war in England. According to John Bedford Leno, George Odger spoke out in support of Cluseret's proposal but this was misreported in the next days issue of The Times. George Odger was in the minority of the league, which rejected the proposal overwhelmingly.

President of the First International

On 28 September 1864 a meeting was held at the St. Martin's Hotel in London to launch an international association bringing together trade union leaders from Great Britain and the European continent, with a view to forestall the ability of employers to use unwitting foreign workers as a means of enforcing lockouts or breaking strikes. As a leading member of the British trade union movement, George Odger not only attending this foundational gathering but was a prominent speaker at the event. The organisation resulting from the gathering would be known as the International Workingmen's Association, remembered today as the so-called First International. George Odger would be named to the governing General Council of this organisation, remaining in that position until his resignation in 1872.

During this interval Odger also remained active in the Trades Union Congress (TUC), he was the Secretary of its Parliamentary Committee, the post later to become the General Secretary, from 1872 to 1873.

Electoral politician

Odger put himself forward electorally for the first time in the new constituency of Chelsea in the 1868 General election – the first held since passage of the Reform Act 1867 that granted the right to vote to part of the male urban working class for the first time. Although his participation had been sought by a great number of local voters, controversy erupted that Odger's participation would split the Liberal vote and he subsequently withdrew from the race.

In June 1869 Odger was one of four Liberal candidates to compete for two seats in the borough of Stafford. Odger would finish in third place in the primary election, with the two Liberal victors defeated in the general election by Thomas Salt and Reginald Arthur James Talbot.

Odger also stood as a Lib–Lab candidate in Southwark in the February 1870 by-election there, losing by about 300 votes out of more than 9,000 cast in a three-way race.

Death and legacy

Odger died on 4 March 1877. He was remembered at the time of his death as a "good, clear writer and a fluent speaker. He was not what is called 'eloquent,' but he was better; he spoke with force, with effect, with a knowledge of his subject."

Henry James wrote of the funeral: "The element of the grotesque was very noticeable to me in the most marked collection of the shabbier English types that I had seen since I came to London. The occasion of my seeing them was the funeral of Mr. George Odger, which befell some four or five weeks before the Easter period. Mr. George Odger, it will perhaps be remembered, was an English Radical agitator of humble origin, who had distinguished himself by a perverse desire to get into Parliament. He exercised, I believe, the useful profession of a shoemaker, and he knocked in vain at the door that opens but to the refined. But he was a useful and honourable man, and his own people gave him an honourable burial."

George Odger is buried in Brompton Cemetery.

Odger is listed on the Reformers' Memorial in Kensal Green Cemetery in London. Odger Street on the John Burns' Latchmere Estate in Battersea is named after him.

A London County Council commemorative Blue Plaque was erected at Odger's former residence, 18 St Giles High Street, in the 1950s. After this house was demolished in the 1970s the plaque was rescued and can now be seen in the lobby of St Giles in the Fields having been placed there in 1974.

Footnotes

Further reading

 Keith Gildart and David Howell (eds.), Dictionary of Labour Biography: Vol. XIII.Basingstoke 2010; pp. 292–300.
 "George Odger," Obituary in The Spectator, 10 March 1877; pg. 12.

General Secretaries of the Trades Union Congress
People from South Hams (district)
1813 births
1877 deaths
English socialists
English trade unionists
English people of Cornish descent
Liberal-Labour (UK) politicians
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
Members of the International Workingmen's Association
Members of the Parliamentary Committee of the Trades Union Congress

George Odger


Sugar and starch are important carbohydrates in our diet.==Sugar occurs naturally in fruits such as mangoes & pineapples. Sugar from sugar cane is extracted as sucrose (table sugar) & used in prepared foods such as biscuits & sweet drinks.===Although all foods provide us with energy; carbohydrates are the cheapest & most readily available source of energy. They contain the elements carbon;hydrogen & oxygen.When carbohydrates are oxidized to provide energy by respiration; they are broken down to carbon dioxide & water. One gram of carbohydrate can provide;on average; 16 KJ energy.==lf we eat more carbohydrates than we need for energy; the excess is converted to either glycogen or fat. The glycogen is stored in the liver & muscles; the fat; in fat depots around the kidneys & other internal organs & under the skin.

Carbohydrates


Indium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol In. It has the atomic number 49. It is a rare metal which is soft, malleable, and poor (post-transition). Indium looks like zinc. Pieces of indium can easily be joined by pushing one piece into another. The chemistry of indium is quite like aluminium or gallium. Zinc ores are the main source of indium.

The main use of indium is in the chemical compound indium tin oxide in liquid crystal displays. It is also used in very thin layers as a lubricant. In World War II it was used to coat bearings in aircraft.

Post-transition metals

Indium


Cooch Behar (1586—1949; also spelled Koch Bihar) was a small kingdom located south of the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan, west of the upper Brahmaputra valley Ahom Kingdom, and north-east of the Ganges plain and Bengal.

Until 1949, Cooch Behar was a princely state subject to British rule. In 1949, it was merged with India; now free from the British. It later became a part of West Bengal.  However, if Cooch Behar had become part of East Pakistan, then India would not have had as much land access towards the north-east.  Also the former East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) would have land borders with Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim.

Indian princely states
West Bengal
1580s establishments
1949 disestablishments in Asia
1940s disestablishments in India

Cooch Behar (princely state)


Princess Alexandra Amalie of Bavaria (26 August 1826 – 21 September 1875) was a German princess and writer.

Life
Alexandra was born in Schloss Johannisburg in Aschaffenburg, the eighth child and fifth daughter of King Ludwig I of Bavaria and of his wife, Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen.  As a girl, her portrait was painted by Joseph Karl Stieler for the Gallery of Beauties which her father commissioned at Schloss Nymphenburg.

Alexandra never married, and instead was appointed abbess of the Royal Chapter for Ladies of Saint Anne in Munich and Würzburg; this was a religious community specifically for noble ladies.  In the 1850s, Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte asked King Ludwig for Alexandra's hand in marriage, but he was divorced from his wife, and Ludwig refused, using as an excuse Alexandra's delicate health.

Writer
In 1852, Alexandra began a literary career.  Her first book of stories was entitled Weihnachtsrosen (Christmas roses).  The next year she published Souvenirs, pensées et essais (Memories, thoughts and essays). In 1856 appeared Feldblumen (Field flowers), the proceeds of which she donated to the Maximilian Orphanage.  In 1858 appeared Phantasie- und Lebensbilder (Daydreams and biographical sketches), a collection of loose translations into German from English and French.  In 1862, she produced a loose translation into German of some of the romances of Eugenie Foa. The following year appeared Thautropfen (Dewdrops), a collection of stories translated into German from French as well as others of her own.

In 1870, Alexandra produced Das Kindertheater (The children's theatre), a German translation of some French children's plays from Arnaud Berquin's L'ami des enfants.  That same year appeared Der erste des Monats (The first of the month), a German translation of Jean-Nicolas Bouilly's French book.  In 1873, she produced Maiglöckchen (Lilies of the valley), a collection of stories.  Alexandra also had a number of contributions published in Isabella Braun's periodical Jugendblätter.

Alexandra died on 21 September 1875 (the same day as her brother Prince Adalbert) at the age of 49 at Schloss Nymphenburg.  She is buried in the Wittelsbach crypt in the Theatinerkirche in Munich.

Psychological issues
Notwithstanding her literary accomplishments, Alexandra suffered from a number of psychological eccentricities, including a fixation with cleanliness as well as wearing only white clothes. In her early twenties, she notably developed a delusion that as a child she had swallowed a grand piano made of glass, which remained inside her. This delusion was the subject of a 2010 BBC Radio 3 programme called "The Glass Piano", written and narrated by poet Deborah Levy, with musical sound effects interspersed between commentary by psychoanalyst Susie Orbach and others. She is the subject of a play at the Coronet Cinema in 2019.

See also
King Ludwig II of Bavaria, Alexandra's nephew, also known for notable eccentricity
 Glass delusion

Ancestry

Notes

Sources
Rall, Hans. Wittelsbacher Lebensbilder von Kaiser Ludwig bis zur Gegenwart: Führer durch die Münchener Fürstengrüfte mit Verzeichnis aller Wittelsbacher Grablegen und Grabstätten. München: Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfonds.

External links

1826 births
1875 deaths
House of Wittelsbach
Bavarian princesses
People from Aschaffenburg
Burials at the Theatine Church, Munich
19th-century German writers
Daughters of kings
Gallery of Beauties

Princess Alexandra of Bavaria


The God Who Wasn't There is a 2005 independent documentary written and directed by Brian Flemming. The documentary questions the existence of Jesus, examining evidence that supports the Christ myth theory against the existence of a historical Jesus, as well as other aspects of Christianity.

Overview

Christ myth theory
Most of the film is a presentation of the argument for the Christ myth theory. Flemming and those he interviews in the film make these claims:
 The history of Christianity, especially the doctrine of the earliest Christians, is consistent with Jesus having been a mythical character, with historical details only added on later.
 The Pauline epistles, which were written before the Gospels, show no awareness on the part of the author that Jesus had recently lived. Paul mentions only the crucifixion, the resurrection, and the ascension, presenting them occurring in a mythic realm rather than an earthly one.
 The death-resurrection-ascension sequence was common in earlier mythologies and religions, suggesting that the Jesus character was inspired by similar forebears, divorced from any tangible experience on Earth.
 Other details of the Jesus biography offered in the Gospels have precedent in earlier writings of Judaism: for example, the Massacre of the Innocents appears directly inspired by a nearly identical story in the Book of Exodus.

Other criticisms of Christianity
Besides defending the Jesus myth hypothesis, the film criticizes some other aspects of Christianity:
 Flemming argues that moderate Christianity makes even less sense than a fundamentalist interpretation of Christian doctrine, asserting that the Bible contains many messages incompatible with toleration of non-Christians who reject Jesus as the Savior of Christian doctrine and must therefore be regarded by Christians as damned.
 Flemming sees God's demand that people believe in him or be damned as essentially mind control. He interprets  and similar passages as damning anyone who doubts the existence of the Holy Spirit. He is appalled by the notion that Jesus will forgive murder, theft, and any other sin but not this type of disbelief.
 Because Jesus knows people's innermost thoughts, and that therefore one must police one's thoughts to avoid any doubt, Flemming summarizes this idea with the statement that the greatest sin in fundamentalist Christianity is "to think."
 Flemming asserts that Christians have historically been obsessed with blood sacrifice, and illustrates this viewpoint by pointing out that Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ, which contains very few scenes that do not feature graphic violence or suffering, was more financially successful than any previous film about Jesus.
 The film references poll results indicating that 44% of Americans believe, to some degree, that Jesus will come back to Earth in their lifetime, and that this sort of thinking is not conducive to long-term governmental policies.

Interviews and commentary
Several notable personalities make appearances in the documentary:
 Scott Butcher is the creator of the Rapture Letters.com website.
 Richard Carrier is an atheist activist and scholarly writer on the Christ Myth Theory, who holds a PhD in ancient history from Columbia University.
 Alan Dundes was an anthropologist and folklorist. Until his death shortly after being interviewed for the documentary, he was Professor of Folklore and Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley.
 Sam Harris neuroscientist, philosopher, and author of The End of Faith, Letter to a Christian Nation, and The Moral Landscape.
 Barbara Mikkelson and David P. Mikkelson are the founders of Snopes.com.
 Robert M. Price is Professor of Biblical Criticism at the Council for Secular Humanism's Center for Inquiry Institute.
 Ronald Sipus, principal of Village Christian School, which Brian Flemming attended as a youth.  Sipus walked out of the interview, accusing Flemming of misrepresenting himself and his reasons for the interview.

The following only appear on the DVD's commentary track:
 Richard Dawkins is an evolutionary biologist and science writer who has argued for atheism, such as in his book The God Delusion.
 Earl Doherty is a contemporary advocate of the Jesus Myth theory and author of The Jesus Puzzle.
 The Raving Theist is a lawyer and former atheist blogger, who has since converted to Christianity.

Among the Christians shown in the film were attendees at a Billy Graham Crusade event at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California on November 18, 2004.

Reception

Critical reviews

A reviewer for Impose Magazine wrote that the film "poses some serious questions" and said, "if nothing else, this film should be recognized as an important addition to the study of Gibson's masterwork. Film scholars should take note. This is an idiosyncratic film that weaves the arc of Flemming's transition from a religious life to a non-religious life into the larger questions surrounding the dilemma of a 'belief in God.' It's a bold undertaking and he pulls it off."

Rovi reviewer Jason Buchanan, in a New York Times review summary, thought that the documentary "attempts to do for religion what Morgan Spurlock's Super Size Me did for the fast-food industry" with a "bold quest to seek answers to the difficult questions that few are willing to pose... From the ignorance of many contemporary Christians as to the origin of their religion to the striking similarities between Jesus Christ and the deities worshipped by ancient pagan cults and the Christian obsession with blood and violence, this faith-shaking documentary explores the many mysteries of the Christian faith as never before."

Responses and controversy
In Christian Communications Worldwide Susan Verstraete offers four criticisms of Brian Flemming's arguments.

First, the comparison of Galileo's difficulties with the Catholic Church with arguments about the existence of Jesus are a non sequitur. "[I]t's like saying that because your dentist isn't an expert on small engine repair, your family doctor probably can't diagnose chickenpox."

Second, to assert that "Christianity" is responsible for things like the "Spanish Inquisition, Charles Manson, David Koresh and other unbalanced, psychotic people who claimed to be doing God's will" is a hasty generalization— "an inference about all Christians on the basis of a poorly selected sample."

Third, Flemming exaggerates the gap between the traditional date of Jesus' death and the composition of the Gospels, and picks and chooses elements from various mythologies to "prove that Jesus was a compilation of 'dying and rising god' myths."

Fourth, she says that Flemming argues "Paul never believed that Jesus was a physical human being" because he "never quotes Jesus or talks about Jesus' early life."  In reply she says "Paul's letters are not meant to introduce Christ to a new audience, and so understandably don't reiterate the stories of the Gospels," and in addition she cites verses from the Epistles that do reference the humanity of Jesus.

Blasphemy Challenge
In December 2006, the atheist organization Rational Response Squad announced it would give free DVDs of the film to the first 1,001 people who participated in the Blasphemy Challenge, an Internet-based project encouraging atheists to declare themselves publicly.

See also
 Jesus Camp
 Jesus Christ in comparative mythology
 Marjoe
 Religulous

References

External links

Debunking Jesus? interview with Brian Flemming by Christianity Today
Review by Apologetics Coordinator at the North American Mission Board Michael R. Licona
Licona reply to Doherty's rebuttal

2005 films
2005 documentary films
2005 independent films
Works about the Christ myth theory
Documentary films about Jesus
Documentary films critical of Christianity
Films critical of religion
2000s English-language films

The God Who Wasn't There


The Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges (COPLAC) is a consortium of 30 public colleges and universities in 27 states and one Canadian province. Established in 1987, COPLAC advances the aims of its member institutions and drives awareness of the value of public liberal arts education in a student-centered, residential environment.

COPLAC campuses are small-to-medium sized (800-7000 students) and the focus is primarily on undergraduate education. As public institutions, COPLAC colleges and universities combine an egalitarian concern for access with academic rigor. Member institutions work to provide a transformative liberal arts education commensurate with that offered by North America's finest private colleges. Essential features this goal are extensive, integrated arts and sciences core curricula.

The majority of campuses are located in small towns and cities, while others are located in rural areas. Some COPLAC campuses have received official designation from their state legislatures or public university systems as the state's public liberal arts college or the public honors college for the liberal arts.

Mission

COPLAC serves both external and internal constituencies. It communicates to state and federal policy makers the importance and benefits of providing students with comprehensive public higher education in the liberal arts and sciences. It collaborates with major national higher education organizations like the Association of American Colleges and Universities to advance the aims of liberal learning in a global society. Through its public liberal arts newsletter, the PLAN, campus leaders offer insight into major issues facing public higher education in the new global century.

COPLAC organizes and administers a number of member collaborations, including faculty and student exchanges, professional development opportunities for staff, faculty summer institutes, shared study-abroad programs, and enhanced information sharing. COPLAC also hosts regional undergraduate research conferences, where students present the results of senior-year scholarly and creative projects. A web-based undergraduate research journal, Metamorphosis, showcases exceptional student work at all 30 member institutions.

Governance

The Governing Board of COPLAC consists of the 30 presidents/chancellors or their designees. The Board elects a president of the organization for a two-year term and the full board meets on a semi-annual basis. The Board also elects a five-person executive committee whose members oversee the administrative work of the Executive Director of COPLAC. The COPLAC central office and staff are located on the campus of the University of North Carolina, Asheville.

Members
Canada
University of Alberta Augustana Campus – Alberta

Northeast
Eastern Connecticut State University – Connecticut
Northern Vermont University - Johnson – Vermont
Keene State College – New Hampshire
Commonwealth University of Pennsylvania – Pennsylvania
Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts – Massachusetts
Ramapo College – New Jersey
St. Mary's College of Maryland – Maryland
State University of New York at Geneseo – New York
University of Maine at Farmington – Maine

South
Georgia College & State University – Georgia
Mississippi University for Women - Mississippi
New College of Florida – Florida
Shepherd University – West Virginia
University of Mary Washington – Virginia
University of Montevallo – Alabama
University of North Carolina at Asheville – North Carolina
University of South Carolina Aiken – South Carolina
University of Virginia's College at Wise – Virginia

Midwest
Northern State University - South Dakota
Truman State University – Missouri
University of Illinois at Springfield – Illinois
University of Minnesota Morris – Minnesota
University of Wisconsin–Superior – Wisconsin

Southwest
Fort Lewis College – Colorado
Midwestern State University – Texas
Southern Utah University – Utah
University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma – Oklahoma

West Coast
The Evergreen State College – Washington
Sonoma State University – California

References

External links

College and university associations and consortia in North America
Public liberal arts colleges
Organizations established in 1987

Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges


The Christadelphians are a Christian denomination that developed in the United Kingdom and the United States in the 19th century. Other names for them include Brothers of Christ and Christ's Brethren. They were in effect founded by John Thomas, but do not consider him greater than any other teacher. Today, there are about 55,000-60,000 Christadelphians. Many of them live in Britain, Australia, Africa and the United States.

Ideas
Their ideas are close to other Restorationist movements such as the Anabaptist movement. They say that when Christianity came in contact with the Hellenic world, it was spoiled. Therefore, they only accept teachings that can be found in the Bible. They think that the Bible was inspired by God and they accept no other texts.
 God - They reject the idea of the Trinity.
 Jesus - They also believe that Jesus did not exist before his birth, and that he is literally "Son of Man" by Mary and the "Son of God" by the holy spirit by the virgin birth. They believe that Jesus was literally dead for three days between his death on the cross and the day when God raised Jesus from the dead. They believe that Jesus is now with his Father, and that he will come again to be king on earth.
 They believe that men and women know nothing when they are dead. They do not believe that dead people go to heaven or hell. They say that the two words for "hell" mean (1) the grave, and (2) a valley near Jerusalem.
 They also believe that the devil in the Bible is a synonym for sin, which are present in the people on earth. Sin is what keeps people from being reunited with God. Christadelphians practise baptism as adults, by total immersion in water.

Different Groups
Today almost all Christadelphians belong to the main "Central" fellowship. But, following some disagreements, there have been different groups of Christadelphians:

 1873-1901. The Nazarene fellowship was formed because of the idea that Jesus did not have to die on the cross. The group returned to the main group.
 1885-1957. The Suffolk Street Fellowship was formed because of the question in what way the Bible was inspired by God. Robert Ashcroft wrote an article which challenged commonly held views about inspiration. Even though Ashcroft left the movement, his letter led to a division in the main body. A new group was formed and met in Suffolk Street, Birmingham. Other groups throughout the world which supported them became known as the "Suffolk Street fellowship", so they could be distinguished from the group they had separated from. That group became known as the "Temperance Hall fellowship". In 1957 the two groups united.
 In 1898 in North America the Unamended Christadelphians split over the question of would be raised at the last Judgment. Many of them allow the teaching that only the baptised will be raised. The main group do not allow this teaching. This group has 1,800 members in North America.
 In 1923, the Berean Fellowship separated from the main group, because they thought the main group were not strict enough against part-time work in the police. In 1942 the Bereans divided again over the questions of marriage and divorce. The stricter party formed the Dawn Fellowship. The majority of the North American Bereans re-joined the main body of Christadelphians in 1952. There is a small community of Bereans that continues to the present day.

Community
They do not have priests or pastors, instead each local church has a group of elders who are chosen by the members each year. Most male members take turns to speak each week.

Other websites
 Glad Tidings  a free monthly magazine in simple English

Unitarianism
Christianity in the United States
Religion in the United Kingdom

Christadelphians


Super Typhoon Nancy had extremely intense winds near 215 miles an hour, giving her the strongest recorded winds of any tropical cyclone. It happened September 1961. The comparable cyclones of Typhoon Tip, Typhoon Keith, Hurricane Camille and Hurricane Allen all had winds at 190 miles an hour. The Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale did not exist during 1961, although Nancy would have been classified as Category Five for five and a half days, which would be a record in the Northern Hemisphere. Nancy was also destructive: she created over $500 million (1961 USD) in damage and killed around 174 people in Japan. Nancy hit Guam before that.

1961
Pacific typhoons
Tropical cyclones in Asia
Tropical cyclones in Oceania
1960s in weather

Typhoon Nancy


Villa Torlonia  is a villa and surrounding gardens in Rome, Italy, formerly belonging to the Torlonia family.  It is entered from the via Nomentana.

Design
It was designed by the Neoclassical architect Giuseppe Valadier.  Construction began in 1806 for the banker Giovanni Torlonia (1756–1829) and was finished by his son Alessandro (1800–1880).

History

Mussolini rented it from the Torlonia for one lira a year to use as his state residence from the 1920s onwards. He and his family lived there for the next 18 years. It was abandoned after 1945, and allowed to decay in the following decades, but recent restoration work has allowed it to be opened to the public as a museum owned and operated by Rome's municipality.

Buildings and grounds

Between 1802 and 1806 Valadier turned the main building into a palace, and transformed other buildings. He also laid out the park with symmetrical avenues around the palace. Numerous works of classical art, many of which were sculptures, were purchased to furnish the palace. Following the death of Giovanni, Alessandro commissioned the painter and architect Giovan Battisti Caretti in 1832 to further develop the property. In addition to expanding the buildings, Caretti constructed several buildings in the park. These included the False Ruins, the Temple of Saturn, and the Tribuna con Fontana.

To plan and carry out other works, Alessandro employed Quintiliano Raimondi for the theatre and orangerie (today known as the "Lemon-house"), and Giuseppe Jappelli, who was in charge of the entire south section of the grounds, which he transformed with avenues, small lakes, exotic plants and unusual buildings. These included the Swiss Hut (later rebuilt as the Casina delle Civette), the Conservatory, the Tower and Moorish Grotto, and the Tournament Field. The project culminated in 1842 with the erection of two pink granite obelisks that commemorated Alessandro's parents.

In 1919 a large underground 3rd- and 4th-century Jewish catacomb was discovered in the north-west area of the grounds. There are about 3,800 graves in the cemetery. It is still not open to the public because the excavation of the catacomb has been questioned by many due to a Jewish religious law that states that all human bodies must remain buried at all times. In 1925 the Villa was given to Mussolini as a residence, where he remained until 1943, with few changes to the aboveground structures.

Underground, an air-raid shelter was first constructed in the garden of the villa, and then, in a second stage of building, a much larger and more complex airtight bunker was constructed under the villa itself, with the intention of resisting both aerial bombardment and chemical warfare.

In June 1944 the property was all occupied by the Allied High Command, which remained there until 1947. The Villa was bought by the Municipality of Rome in 1977 and a year later it was opened to the public, but with many of the buildings in a run-down state. Restoration was initiated in the 1990s, and has been largely completed with the exception of the Moorish Conservatory (Serra Moresca), although there is an ongoing restoration of the villa. The landscaped grounds are in the English 'picturesque' style.

The museum

The museum in the villa contains a small collection of pieces of statuary from the Torlonia collection found in the villa and several pieces found in the gardens. Giovanni and Alessandro were for almost a century leading figures in the field of art collecting. The works exhibited were in part produced by Bartolomeo Cavaceppi (1716–1799), an eighteenth-century sculptor, restorer and antiques dealer, following Giovanni's purchase in 1800 of all the works in Cavaceppi's studio.

Other exhibits come from other Torlonia properties and include pieces of the villa's furniture that managed to survive the years of neglect. Other exhibits include three plaster reliefs by Antonio Canova, a woman's head in the style of Michelangelo, several pieces of furniture, and a marble pediment taken from a tomb on the Appian Way. All of these were discovered in the basement of the theatre in the gardens. A final section of the museum is the reconstructed Bedchamber of Giovanni Torlonia (1872–1938), with the pieces of furniture that were used by Benito Mussolini during the period he resided in the villa.

Casina delle Civette
The Casina delle Civette (House of the Little Owls) results from a series of additions to the nineteenth-century "Swiss Cabin", which was originally intended as a refuge from the formality of the main residence. It was designed in 1840 by Jappelli. The outside of the house was faced with blocks of tufa, while the inside was painted in tempera. The complex now consists of two buildings, the main house and the annexe, connected by a small wooden gallery and an underground passage. These buildings bear little resemblance to the original. In 1908, architect Enrico Gennari began to convert the small building into a residence with huge windows, loggias, porticos and turrets, decorated with majolica and stained glass.

From 1916 the building began to be known as the "House of the  Little Owls", probably because the motif of the little owl is used widely in the decorations and furnishings. The Casina delle Civette can be visited as part of the museum. The twenty rooms include 54 pieces of stained glass replaced, after restoration, in their original positions, 18 pieces of stained glass acquired and displayed on separate frames, and 105 sketches and preparatory cartoons for stained glass.

The theatre

Alessandro Torlonia commissioned Teatro Villa Torlonia in 1841, and it was completed in 1873. The building was constructed under the guidance of architect Quintiliano Raimondi. The interior of the building was decorated by Constantino Brumidi. It sustained damage after the war during the allied occupation, and remained derelict until it was restored and reopened in 2013. Before the Covid-19 pandemic beginning in early 2020, the theatre hosted occasional public performances.

See also
List of parks and gardens in Rome
Villa Albani-Torlonia

References

External links
 http://www.museivillatorlonia.it/

Torlonia
Gardens in Rome
Rome Q. V Nomentano
Benito Mussolini
Theatres in Rome
Museums in Rome

Villa Torlonia (Rome)


Théodore Chassériau (September 20, 1819 – October 8, 1856) was a French romantic painter noted for his portraits, historical and religious paintings, and images inspired by his travels to Algeria.

Life and work

Chassériau was born in El Limón, Samaná, in Saint Domingue (now the Dominican Republic). Her mother, Maria Magdalena Couret de la Blagniére, was born in Haiti but she moved with her parents to Santo Domingo when the Haitian revolution. At that time, the eastern part of Hispaniola was a French colony. There she met Bénoit Chassériau and soon they got married and moved to Samaná.

When the eastern part of the Hispaniola became again a colony of Spain, the family moved to Venezuela and Jamaica. Then, in 1821, the family went to live in Paris, France. Théodore was three years old at that time.

In 1830, at the age of eleven, he started to study with Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, and soon he became the favorite pupil of the great classicist.

After Ingres left Paris in 1834 to become director of the French Academy in Rome, Chassériau fell under the influence of Eugène Delacroix, a well-known romantic painter. From that moment on, Chassériau tried to combine the two styles.

His works could be grouped in two periods:
The classical period, with works like
Portrait of Adéle Chassériau (1836)
Christ on the Mount of Olives (1839)
The Two Sisters (1843)
The romantic period, with works like
Arab Chiefs Visiting Their Vassals (1849)
Jewish Women on a Balcony (1849)
The Tepidarium (1853)

Chassériau died when he was 37 years old in Paris, on October 8, 1856.

Other websites
Théodore Chassériau exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art  Retrieved on 2007-10-03.

References

1819 births
1856 deaths
French painters
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris

Théodore Chassériau


Southampton Corporation Tramways No. 45, or Southampton 45, is an open-top tramcar. It was built in 1903 by Hurst Nelson. At first it had a three window saloon, before being rebuilt by Southampton Corporation Tramways with a four window one. The tram looks out of proportion as it had to pass through the very low Bathgate Arch in the centre of Southampton. A normal sized tram would not have been able to have passed underneath the arch.

The tramcar operated from 1903 until the Southampton system closed in 1949. At an enthusiasts' tour of the system, the Museum Committee of the Light Railway Transport League bought the tram for £10. This price included a refurbished truck and a full repaint. This act began the entire preservation movement of British tramways.

After it had been purchased the tram travelled the country as there was not yet a museum set up that could store the tram. By 1955 the tram was being stored at Marton depot in Blackpool. It was soon given to the Tramway Museum Society (TMS) and moved to the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu, Hampshire. It was placed next to Newcastle 102, another preserved tramcar. Both of the trams were in an open-air display.

The tram moved to Crich Tramway Village in October 1960, and has been there ever since. It is in regular use during the summer months and is the museum's only operational open-top tramcar.

References

Tram transport in the United Kingdom

Southampton Corporation Tramways 45


In computing, rlogin is a Unix program that allows users to log in on another host using a network. rlogin uses TCP port 513. It was first distributed as part of the 4.2BSD release.  rlogin is also the name of the application layer protocol used by the software, also the protocol is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

The rlogin homepage is located at http://rlogin.sourceforge.net.

rlogin has several serious security problems, the most important are:
 All information, including passwords, is transmitted unencrypted (making it open to interception). There is a modern version, called Rlogin Kerberos, that uses the MIT Kerberos authentication technique.
 The protocol partially depends on the remote rlogin client to provide information honestly (including source port and source host name).  A corrupt client is thus able to rebuild this and gain access.
 The protocol lacks any means of authenticating other machines' identities, ensuring that the rlogin client is running on a trusted machine, or if it is the real rlogin client.

Due to its serious problems, rlogin was rarely used across untrusted networks (like the public internet), and rlogin distributions are no longer included by default with many Unix and Linux distributions. Many networks which were depending on rlogin and telnet have replaced it with SSH and the rlogin secured equivalent slogin.

Related pages
 Internet protocol suite
 Communications protocol

Other websites
 http://rlogin.sourceforge.net

Internet
Computer protocols

Rlogin


The Archdiocese of Cardiff (; ) is a Latin archdiocese of the Catholic Church which covers the south-east portion of Wales and the county of Herefordshire in England. The Metropolitan Province of Cardiff therefore covers all of Wales and part of England. Cardiff's suffragan dioceses are the Diocese of Menevia and the Diocese of Wrexham.

History

The origin of the modern diocese can be traced to 1840 when the Apostolic Vicariate of the Welsh District was created out the Western District of England and Wales. The Welsh District consisted the whole of Wales and the county of Herefordshire. When Pope Pius IX judged that the time was right to re-establish the Catholic hierarchy in Wales and England in 1850, the southern half of the Welsh District became the Diocese of Newport and Menevia and was a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Birmingham. It had its pro-cathedral at Belmont Abbey. In 1895, boundaries were redrawn, and the territory covering Glamorgan, Monmouthshire and Herefordshire was named the Diocese of Newport. Finally, in 1916, without further adjustment of boundaries, the territory was raised to the status of an archdiocese, and given the title Archdiocese of Cardiff. The Episcopal Seat is now located in Cardiff, at St David's Cathedral.

Timeline
As all of the Roman Catholic dioceses in Wales are part of the ecclesiastical province of Cardiff the history of the archdiocese and its suffragan dioceses are intertwined:
 29 September 1850: Universalis Ecclesiae: The Roman Catholic Church in Wales is split between the Diocese of Shrewsbury in the north and the Diocese of Newport and Menevia in the south.
 1852: Francis Richard Wegg-Prosser, a landowner in Hereford, converts to Catholicism.
 15 February 1854: Wegg-Prosser sets about building a church and the foundation stone is laid on his Belmont estate.
 1857: Construction of the Belmont monastic buildings starts.
 21 November 1859: Most of it is built and it becomes a Benedictine priory. The abbey continues to be enlarged (chancel extended in 1865).
 4 September 1860: The cathedral priory is consecrated.
 4 July 1895: The Diocese of Newport and Menevia splits. Glamorgan, Monmouth and Herefordshire become the Diocese of Newport. The rest of Wales, including North Wales from the Diocese of Shrewsbury, becomes the Apostolic Vicariate of Wales.
 12 May 1898: The Apostolic Vicariate of Wales become the Diocese of Menevia with its pro-cathedral in Wrexham.
 7 February 1916: The Diocese of Newport becomes the Archdiocese of Cardiff and it is decided that St David's Church in Cardiff would become the cathedral.
 12 March 1920: St David's Cathedral, Cardiff is officially made the metropolitan cathedral.
 12 February 1987: The Diocese of Menevia is split. The north becomes the Diocese of Wrexham with its cathedral remaining in Wrexham. The south remains the Diocese of Menevia and sets up Swansea Cathedral.

Overview
The current ecclesiastical territory of the diocese comprises the local government areas of Cardiff, Bridgend, Vale of Glamorgan, Newport, Torfaen, Blaenau Gwent, Monmouthshire, Merthyr Tydfil, Rhondda Cynon Taff and Herefordshire. Altogether there are 61 parishes. On 19 April 2011, George Stack was appointed to succeed Peter Smith, who was translated to Southwark in 2010. He was installed as Archbishop on 20 June 2011.

Bishops

Ordinaries

Vicars Apostolic of the Welsh District
 Thomas Joseph Brown, O.S.B. (Appointed on 5 June 1840 – Became Bishop of Newport and Menevia on 29 September 1850)

Bishops of Newport and Menevia
 Thomas Joseph Brown, O.S.B. (Appointed on 29 September 1850 – Died on 12 April 1880)
 John Cuthbert Hedley, O.S.B. (Appointed on 18 February 1881 - from 1895, Bishop of Newport only – Died on 11 November 1915)

Archbishops of Cardiff
 James Romanus Bilsborrow, O.S.B. (Appointed on 7 February 1916 – Resigned on 16 December 1920)
 Francis Edward Joseph Mostyn (Appointed on 7 March 1921 – Died on 25 October 1939)
 Michael Joseph McGrath (Appointed on 20 June 1940 – Died on 28 February 1961)
 John Aloysius Murphy (Appointed on 22 August 1961 – Retired on 25 March 1983)
 John Aloysius Ward, O.F.M. Cap. (Appointed on 25 March 1983 – Resigned on 26 October 2001)
 Peter David Smith (Appointed on 26 October 2001 – Translated to Southwark on 30 April 2010)
 George Stack (Appointed on 19 April 2011 – 20 June 2022)
 Mark O'Toole (Appointed 27 April 2022. Installed on 20 June 2022)

Auxiliary Bishops
John Edward Cuthbert Hedley, O.S.B. (1873-1881), appointed Bishop here
Daniel Joseph Mullins (1970-1987), appointed Bishop of Menevia, Wales

Other priests of this diocese who became bishops
Daniel Joseph Hannon, appointed Bishop of Menevia, Wales in 1941
David James Mathew, appointed auxiliary bishop of Westminster, England in 1938
Edwin Regan, appointed Bishop of Wrexham, Wales in 1994
Francis John Vaughan, appointed Bishop of Menevia, Wales in 1926

Deaneries
There are a total of six deaneries in the Archdiocese of Cardiff, each of which cover several churches in that area, overseen by a dean.

The deaneries include:
 Bridgend Deanery
 Cardiff Deanery
 Hereford Deanery
 Newport Deanery
 North Gwent Deanery
 Pontypridd Deanery

References

External links
Archdiocese of Cardiff website
Cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral
Wales and the Marches Catholic History Society
Cardiff Catholic Archives
GCatholic.org
Catholic Hierarchy

Cardiff
Pope Pius IX
Cardiff
1840 establishments in the United Kingdom
Roman Catholic Ecclesiastical Province of Cardiff

Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cardiff


Breakdance (also called breaking, b-boying or b-girling) is a type of dance that is done by people who are part of the hip hop culture. B-boy means boy who dances on breaks (breakbeats). Breakdancing was invented in the early 1970s by African American and Latino American inner-city youth in the South Bronx in New York City.The dance style evolved during the 70s and 80s in big cities of the United States.

Breakdancing uses different body movements, spins, arm movements, leg movements, all of which are done to the rhythm of hip hop music. Breakdancing was most popular in the 1980s but continues to be common today.

There are four categories in breakdance. They are power moves (windmill, tomas, airtrax and so on), style moves, toprock, downrock (footwork), and freezes (chair, airchair and so on). Many of moves come from gymnastics and kung-fu.

Breakdancers dance with breakbeats. The difficulty of their skills decides the better b-boy. One of the biggest breakdance contests in the world is Battle of the Year (BOTY). It has several different types of contests. There are one-on-one battles, team battle, contest of showcase and so on. B-boy battle means dancing on random music. In 2013, the team coming from South Korea, Fusion MC, won the championship. Floorriorz coming from Japan got the award of best show.Good behavior with the sub

History
Breakdance occurred around a time where there was a lot of violence, on the streets of New York

Important Movements
A freeze is a technique where the dancer suddenly stops, often in an interesting or balance-intensive position. Freezes often incorporate various twists of the body into stylish and often difficult positions.
The two-step move sets up the direction of movement and builds up momentum when dancing. This move allows the dancer to stay low and in contact with the ground, which places him in a good position for performing other dance moves.  As such, the two-step is often one of the first moves a break-dancer learns and it leads onto the 6-step.
A kick in breakdance is a one-handed handstand, with often an impressive leg position and the free arm in some stylish position. They are often executed quickly to impress. Watch Grease this will help, or you can watch So You Think You Can Dance. This movie and show will help understand your understanding of breakdance.

Literature
-Guillaume Éradel, C'est quoi le breakdance? Saint-Denis, Edilivre, 2015 ()

References

Dance types
Hip hop

Breakdance


Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver (to make silver-gilt), by chemical or electrochemical plating. This article covers plating methods used in the modern electronics industry; for more traditional methods, often used for much larger objects, see gilding.

Types
There are several types of gold plating used in the electronics industry:
 Soft, pure gold plating is used in the semiconductor industry. The gold layer is easily soldered and wire bonded. Its Knoop hardness ranges between 60 and 85. The plating baths have to be kept free of contamination.
 Soft, pure gold is deposited from special electrolytes. Entire printed circuit boards can be plated. This technology can be used for depositing layers suitable for wire bonding.
 Bright hard gold on contacts, with Knoop hardness between 120–300 and purity of 99.7–99.9% gold. Often contains a small amount of nickel and/or cobalt; these elements interfere with die bonding, therefore the plating baths cannot be used for semiconductors.
 Bright hard gold on printed circuit board tabs is deposited using lower concentration of gold in the baths. Usually contains nickel and/or cobalt as well. Edge connectors are often made by controlled-depth immersion of only the edge of the boards.

Gold plating chemistry
There are five recognized classes of gold plating chemistry:

 Alkaline gold cyanide, for gold and gold alloy plating
 Neutral gold cyanide, for high-purity plating
 Acid gold plating for bright hard gold and gold alloy plating
 Non-cyanide, generally sulphite or chloride-based for gold and gold alloy plating
 Miscellaneous

Jewelry
Gold plating of silver is used in the manufacture of jewelry. The thickness of gold plating on jewellery is noted in microns (or micro-meters).  The microns of thickness determines how long the gold plating lasts with usage. The jewellery industry denotes different qualities of gold plating in the following terminology

 Gold flashed / Gold washed - gold layer thickness less than 0.5 micron
 Gold plated - gold layer thickness greater than or equal to 0.5 micron
 Heavy gold plated / Vermeil - gold layer thickness greater than or equal to 2.5 micron

Gold plated silver jewellery can still tarnish as the silver atoms diffuse into the gold layer, causing slow gradual fading of its color and eventually causing tarnishing of the surface. This process may take months and even years, depending on the thickness of the gold layer. A barrier metal layer is used to counter this effect - these can be nickel or rhodium. Copper, which also migrates into gold, does so more slowly than silver. The copper is usually further plated with nickel. A gold-plated silver article is usually a silver substrate with layers of copper, nickel, and gold deposited on top of it.

Infrared reflectivity
Gold, applied by evaporated methods or electroplating, has been specified by NASA to thermally control spacecraft instruments, due to its 99% reflectivity in infrared wavelengths.

Electronics

Gold plating is often used in electronics, to provide a corrosion-resistant electrically conductive layer on copper, typically in electrical connectors and printed circuit boards.

With direct gold-on-copper plating, the copper atoms tend to diffuse through the gold layer, causing tarnishing of its surface and formation of an oxide and/or sulphide layer.

A layer of a suitable barrier metal, usually nickel, is often deposited on the copper substrate before the gold plating. The layer of nickel provides mechanical backing for the gold layer, improving its wear resistance. It also reduces the impact of pores present in the gold layer.

Both the nickel and gold layers can be plated by electrolytic or electroless processes. There are many factors to consider in selection of either electrolytic or electroless plating methods. These include what the deposit will be used for, configuration of the part, materials compatibility and cost of processing. In different applications, electrolytic or electroless plating can have cost advantages.

At higher frequencies, the skin effect may cause higher losses due to higher electrical resistance of nickel; a nickel-plated trace can have its useful length shortened three times in the 1 GHz band in comparison with the non-plated one. Selective plating is used, depositing the nickel and gold layers only on areas where it is required and does not cause the detrimental side effects.

Gold plating may lead to formation of gold whiskers.

Wire bonding between gold plated contacts and aluminium wires or between aluminium contacts and gold wires under certain conditions develops a brittle layer of gold-aluminium intermetallics, known as purple plague.

Soldering issues

Soldering gold-plated parts can be problematic as gold is soluble in solder. Solder which contains more than 4–5% gold can become brittle. The joint surface is dull-looking.

Gold reacts with both tin and lead in their liquid state, forming brittle intermetallics. When eutectic 63% tin – 37% lead solder is used, no lead-gold compounds are formed, because gold preferentially reacts with tin, forming the  compound. Particles of  disperse in the solder matrix, forming preferential cleavage planes, significantly lowering the mechanical strength and therefore reliability of the resulting solder joints.

If the gold layer does not completely dissolve into the solder, then slow intermetallic reactions can proceed in the solid state as the tin and gold atoms cross-migrate. Intermetallics have poor electrical conductivity and low strength. The ongoing intermetallic reactions also cause Kirkendall effect, leading to mechanical failure of the joint, similar to the degradation of gold-aluminium bonds known as purple plague.

A 2–3 µm layer of gold dissolves completely within one second during typical wave soldering conditions. Layers of gold thinner than 0.5 µm (0.02 thou) also dissolve completely into the solder, exposing the underlying metal (usually nickel) to the solder. Impurities in the nickel layer can prevent the solder from bonding to it. Electroless nickel plating contains phosphorus. Nickel with more than 8% phosphorus is not solderable. Electrodeposited nickel may contain nickel hydroxide. An acid bath is required to remove the passivation layer before applying the gold layer; improper cleaning leads to a nickel surface difficult to solder. A stronger flux can help, as it aids dissolving the oxide deposits. Carbon is another nickel contaminant that hinders solderability.

See also
 Daniel Davis Jr. - inventor who was first to do gold plating as a business
 Gold filled jewelry

References

External links

Electronics manufacturing
Coatings
Jewellery
Metal plating

de:Vergolden#Galvanische Verfahren

Gold plating


Maria Anna of Austria (Maria Anna Josepha; 7 September 1683 – 14 August 1754) was an Archduchess of Austria as she was a daughter of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. She would become Queen consort and regent of Portugal by her marriage to John V of Portugal. She was the Regent of Portugal from 1742 until 1750 during the illness of her spouse.  In Portugal she was commonly known as Mariana.

Life

The fifth of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperors children by Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, she was baptised Maria Anna Josepha. She was born in Linz as the Austrian royal family had to flee Vienna from the Turkish army which destroyed the capital. Maria Anna was a sister of two future Holy Roman Emperors Joseph I and Charles VI. Through Charles VI, she was an aunt of Empress Maria Theresa. Her first cousins included Elisabetta Farnese as well as Charles II of Spain.

Marriage

On 27 October 1708 she married her first cousin John V of Portugal. Both of their mothers were sisters. Maria Anna thus became Queen of Portugal as the wife of the ruling king. She was the mother of six children:

Regency

In 1742 Maria Anna took over power as regent after her husband suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralyzed. When John V died on 31 July 1750 she gave up power to their eldest son Joseph I of Portugal. She died at he Palace of Belém in 1754. Her body was buried in Lisbon, her heart was brought to Vienna and buried there in the imperial crypt.

Children

 Maria Barbara of Portugal (4 December 1711 – August 27, 1758) married Ferdinand VI of Spain.
 Pedro of Portugal (19 October 1712 – 24 October 1714) Prince of Brazil.
 Joseph I of Portugal (6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777) married Mariana Victoria of Spain.
 Carlos of Portugal (2 May 1716 – 30 March 1730) died unmarried.
 Peter III of Portugal (5 July 1717 – 25 May 1786) married Maria I of Portugal had issue.
 Alexander of Portugal (24 September 1723 – 2 August 1728) died in infancy.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

7 September 1683 – 27 October 1708 Her Royal Highness Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria
27 October 1708 – 31 July 1750 Her Most Faithful Majesty The Queen of Portugal
31 July 1750 – 14 August 1754 Her Most Faithful Majesty The Dowager Queen of Portugal

Related pages

Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria
Habsburg Dynasty
1683 births
1754 deaths
House of Braganza
Regents
Kings and Queens consort of Portugal

Maria Anna of Austria


In physics, pouer (seembol: P) is the rate that wirk is duin or energy is transmitted, or the amoont o energy needit or uised for a gien unit o time. As a rate o chynge o wirk duin or the energy o a subseestem, pouer is:

whaur P is pouer, W is wirk an t is time.

The average pouer (aften juist cried "pouer" whan the context maks it clear) is the average amoont o wirk duin or energy transferred per unit time. The instantaneous pouer is than the limitin vailyie o the average pouer as the time interval Δt approaches zero.

Whan the rate o energy transfer or wirk is constant, aw o this can be simplifee'd tae
,

whaur W an E are, respectively, the work duin or energy transferred in time t (for ordinar measured in seicont).

Physics

Pouer (pheesics)


Stephen Joseph Cannell (February 5, 1941 – September 30, 2010) was an American television producer, writer, author, and occasional actor, and the founder of Stephen J. Cannell Productions. Cannell is known for creating the popular show The A-Team.

Cannell was born in Los Angeles, California. He was educated at the University of Oregon and at Sigma Chi. Cannell was married to Marcia Cannell from 1964 until his death in 2010, they had 4 children (one of whom died). Cannell died on September 30, 2010 from skin cancer in his Pasadena, California home, he was 69 years old.

References

Other websites

Stephen J. Cannell At Find A Grave

1941 births
2010 deaths
Actors from Los Angeles
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
American television producers
American television writers
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles County, California
Deaths from skin cancer
Emmy Award winners
Movie producers from California
People with dyslexia

Stephen J. Cannell