Dennis the Menace is a sitcom television series. It is based on the comic strip Dennis the Menace by Hank Ketcham. The four-season series aired from 1959 to 1963 on CBS. The show stars Jay North as Dennis Mitchell, Herbert Anderson as his father Henry, Gloria Henry as his mother Alice, Billy Booth as his friend Tommy Anderson, and Jeannie Russell as his friend Margaret Wade. Dennis wore the same costume in every episode: a striped tee-shirt, a pair of bib overalls with a slingshot in the back pocket, a pair of sneakers, and an enormous blond cowlick. Viewers complained about the slingshot and it was eventually removed. The bizarre costume put Dennis outside the realistic mise en scene of the show, making it difficult to "relate" to him in spite of North's brilliant performance. Margaret had the same problem with her ringlets, eyeglasses, and ever-present patent leather shoes. These clothes were not the sort of things kids were wearing during the shows years on the air.

Margaret wanted to marry Dennis. This was a running gag in both the comic strip and the television show. She pushed a baby carriage through the neighborhood. "Playing house" was something she pressured Dennis to do. When Dennis needed a penny or two, she gave it to him but only after he promised to play house with her. If he turned her down, she would hit him with one of the rag dolls in the baby carriage and prance on her way.

Other players in the show are Joseph Kearns as Dennis's neighbor George Wilson, Sylvia Field as George's wife Martha, and Gale Gordon as Mr. Wilson's brother John. George Wilson was a retired fussy sort of man who gardened, collected coins, did household fixit jobs, and watched birds. Many episodes were about Dennis making a mess of Mr. Wilson's hobbies. Dennis's comic strip dog Ruff was cut from the TV story, but Mr. Wilson was given a little dog named Fremont. Maud Prickett, Irene Tedrow, Dub Taylor, Mary Wickes, and other familiar 1950s TV faces showed up often as minor characters. Ron Howard appeared in several episodes as Dennnis' friend Stewart while also playing Opie Taylor on The Andy Griffith Show.

Dennis the Menace is about a happy little (but trouble-prone) middle class boy named Dennis Mitchell. He would like to be helpful but his attempts always end in disasters. He bothers a lot of people, but mostly his neighbor George Wilson. Actor Joseph Kearns played George Wilson but died while the show was in production. Gale Gordon joined the show as John Wilson, George's brother. Viewers were told that George and his TV wife Martha were taking a long journey and that George's brother John would be living in and taking care of their house. The show ended in 1963 when North became too old (11 years) to play the part of Dennis.

American sitcoms
1950s television series
1959 television series debuts
1963 television series endings
Black and white television series
English-language television programs

Dennis the Menace (TV series)


Peter John Kreeft (; born March 16, 1937) is a professor of philosophy at Boston College and The King's College. A convert to Roman Catholicism, he is the author of over eighty books on Christian philosophy, theology and apologetics. He also formulated, together with Ronald K. Tacelli, Twenty Arguments for the Existence of God in their Handbook of Christian Apologetics.

Academic career
Kreeft was born March 16, 1937, in Paterson, New Jersey, the son of John and Lucy Kreeft. He took his AB at Calvin College (1959) and an MA at Fordham University (1961). He completed his doctoral studies in 1965, also at Fordham where he completed a dissertation under the direction of W. Norris Clarke. He subsequently completed his post-graduate studies at Yale University.

Kreeft joined the philosophy faculty of the Department of Philosophy of Boston College in 1965. He has debated several academics in issues related to God's existence. Shortly after he began teaching at Boston College he was challenged to a debate on the existence of God between himself and Paul Breines, an atheist and history professor, which was attended by a majority of undergraduate students. Kreeft later used many of the arguments in this debate to create the Handbook of Christian Apologetics with then undergraduate student Ronald K. Tacelli.

In 1971, Kreeft published an article titled "Zen In Heidegger's 'Gelassenheit'" in the peer-reviewed journal International Philosophical Quarterly, of Fordham University.  In 1994, he was an endorser of the document "Evangelicals and Catholics Together".  He also formulated, with R. Tacelli, "Twenty Arguments for the Existence of God".

Conversion story
Kreeft converted to Catholicism during his college years. A key turning point came when he was asked by a Calvinist professor to investigate the claims of the Catholic Church that it traced itself to the early Church. He said that, on his own, he "discovered in the early Church such Catholic elements as the centrality of the Eucharist, the Real Presence, prayers to saints, devotion to Mary, an insistence on visible unity, and apostolic succession."

The "central and deciding" factor for his conversion was "the Church's claim to be the one Church historically founded by Christ." He reportedly applied C. S. Lewis's trilemma (either Jesus is Lunatic, Liar, or Lord): "I thought, just as Jesus made a claim about His identity that forces us into one of only two camps ... so the Catholic Church's claim to be the one true Church, the Church Christ founded, forces us to say either that this is the most arrogant, blasphemous and wicked claim imaginable, if it is not true, or else that she is just what she claims to be."

According to Kreeft's personal account, his conversion to Catholic Christianity was influenced by, among other things, Gothic architecture and Thomistic philosophy, the writings of St. John of the Cross, the logic of asking saints to pray for us, and a visit to St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City when he was twelve years old, "feeling like I was in heaven ... and wondering why, if Catholics got everything else wrong, as I had been taught, they got beauty so right..."

Although a Catholic, he places central emphasis on the unity between Catholics and Protestants.

Bibliography

Books

 Between Heaven and Hell (1982) — A Dialog with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, and Aldous Huxley
 The Unaborted Socrates (1983) — Socratic dialogue on abortion
 The Best Things in Life (1984) — Twelve Socratic dialogues on modern life
 Yes or No? (1984) — Straight Answers to Tough Questions about Christianity
 Making Sense Out of Suffering (1986)
 Fundamentals of the Faith, Essays in Christian Apologetics (1988)
 Heaven, the Heart's Deepest Longing (1989)
 Everything You Ever Wanted To Know About Heaven... But Never Dreamed of Asking (1990)
 Making Choices: Practical Wisdom for Everyday Moral Decisions (1990)
 Summa of the Summa (1990) — Summa Theologica edited and explained for beginners
 Three Philosophies of Life (1990) — Ecclesiastes (life as vanity), Job (life as suffering), Song of Songs (life as love)
 Prayer: The Great Conversation (1991) — Straight answers to tough questions
 Back to Virtue (1992) — Reprint of For Heaven's Sake: The Rewards of the Virtuous Life (1986)
 Shorter Summa (1993) — Shorter version of Kreeft's Summa of the Summa
 Christianity for Modern Pagans: Pascal's Pensees (1993)
 Your Questions, God's Answers (1994) — Solid responses for Catholic teens
 Handbook of Christian Apologetics (with Ronald K. Tacelli) (1994)
 C. S. Lewis for the Third Millennium (1994) — Six essays on Lewis' Abolition of Man
 Shadow-Lands of C.S. Lewis: The Man Behind the Movie (1994)
 Handbook of Christian Apologetics (Pocket Version) (1994)
 The Angel and the Ants: Bringing Heaven Closer to Your Daily Life (1994)
 Talking to Your Children About Being Catholic (1995) — A treasure trove of ideas
 Angels (and Demons): What Do We Really Know About Them? (1995)
 Ecumenical Jihad: Ecumenism and the Culture Wars (1996)
 The Journey A Spiritual Roadmap For Modern Pilgrims (1996)
 The Snakebite Letters Devious Secrets for Subverting Society (1998)
 Refutation of Moral Relativism — Dialogues between a relativist and absolutist (1999)
 Prayer for Beginners (2000)
 Catholic Christianity (2001)
 Socrates Meets Jesus (1987/2002) — Socratic dialogue with students of Harvard University's Divinity School
 How to Win the Culture War: A Christian Battle Plan for a Society in Crisis (2002)
 Celebrating Middle Earth: Lord of the Rings (2002) — On western civilization
 Three Approaches to Abortion (2002)
 Philosophy 101 by Socrates (2002) — An introduction to philosophy via Plato's Apology
 Socrates Meets Machiavelli (2003) — Socratic dialogue between Socrates and Machiavelli
 Socrates Meets Marx (2003) — Socratic dialogue between Socrates and Karl Marx
 The God Who Loves You (2004)
 Socratic Logic (2005) — A textbook on classical logic
 You Can Understand the Bible (2005) — a combination of his previous books You Can Understand the Old Testament: A Book-by-Book Guide for Catholics (1990) and Reading and Praying the New Testament: A Book-by-Book Guide for Catholics (1992)
 Socrates Meets Sartre: Father Of Philosophy Meets The Founder of Existentialism (2005) — Socrates and Jean-Paul Sartre
 The Philosophy of Tolkien: The Worldview Behind "The Lord of the Rings" (2005)
 The Sea Within (2006)
 Socrates Meets Descartes (2007) — The Father of Philosophy Analyzes the Father of Modern Philosophy's Discourse on Method
 The Philosophy of Jesus (2007) — On the wisdom of Jesus
 Pocket Guide to the Meaning of Life (2007)
 Before I Go (2007) — Letters to Children About What Really Matters
 I Surf Therefore I Am (2008) — An exploration of Surfing
 Because God Is Real: Sixteen Questions, One Answer (2008)
 Jesus-Shock (2008)
 Socrates Meets Kant (2009) — The Father of Philosophy Meets His Most Influential Modern Child
 If Einstein Had Been a Surfer (2009) — A Philosophy of Surfing
 Between Allah & Jesus: what Christians Can Learn from Muslims (2010)
 Socrates Meets Hume (2010) — The Father of Philosophy Meets the Father of Modern Skepticism
 An Ocean Full of Angels (2011)
 Summa Philosophica (2012) — 110 Key Questions in Philosophy
 Jacob's Ladder (2013) — Ten Steps to Truth
 Charisms: Visions, Tongues, Healing, etc. (feat. Dave Nevins) (2013) — catalysts to "two-way" interactive prayer
 Socrates Meets Kierkegaard (2014) — Questions the founder of Christian existentialism
52 Big Ideas (2020) — From 32 Great Minds
 Practical Theology (2014) — Spiritual Direction from Aquinas
 Letters to an Atheist (2014) — Wrestling with Faith
 The Philosopher's Bench (2015)(DVD) — Catholic philosophers Peter Kreeft and Thomas Howard bring philosophy to the 'man in the street'
 I Burned for Your Peace: Augustine's Confessions Unpacked (2016) — Snippets and commentary from one of the most beloved books in the world
 How to Be Holy (2016) — First Steps in Becoming a Saint
 Catholics and Protestants (2017) — What Can We Learn from Each Other?
 Between One Faith and Another (2017) — Engaging Conversations on the World's Great Religions
 Forty Reasons I am a Catholic (2018)
 Doors in the Walls of the World (2018) — Signs of Transcendence in the Human Story
 The Platonic Tradition (2018) 8 lectures "for beginners" on the essence of the Platonic tradition throughout philosophical history
 Socrates' Children, 4 vols. (2019) — The 100 Greatest Philosophers
 "How To Destroy Western Civilization And Other Ideas From The Cultural Abyss" (2021)

References

External links

Official website
A List of his Books
Writings at Catholic Educator's Resource

1937 births
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century American Roman Catholic theologians
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century American Roman Catholic theologians
Boston College faculty
Calvin University alumni
Catholic philosophers
Christian apologists
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Calvinism
Critics of atheism
Fordham University alumni
Living people
The King's College (New York City) faculty
Yale University alumni
American people of Dutch descent

Peter Kreeft


Judgment Day is a yearly professional wrestling pay-per-view event made World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).

Events

Results

1998

2000

Judgment Day (2000) took place on May 21 2000 at Freedom Hall in Louisville, Kentucky.

Too Cool (Scotty 2 Hotty, Grand Master Sexay and Rikishi) defeated Team ECK (Kurt Angle, Edge and Christian) (9:46)
Scotty pinned Edge after Sexay hit a Hip Hop Drop.
Eddie Guerrero(w/Chyna) defeated Perry Saturn and Dean Malenko in a Triple Threat match to retain the WWF European Championship (7:57)
Guerrero pinned Malenko after a Roll up after Chyna hit him with a vase.
Shane McMahon defeated The Big Show in a Falls Count Anywhere match (7:12)
Shane pinned Big Show after hitting him in the head with a cinder block.
Albert, the Big Bossman, Bull Buchanun and Test interfered in the match on Shane's behalf.
Chris Benoit defeated Chris Jericho in a Submission match to retain the WWF Intercontinental Championship (13:27)
Benoit forced Jericho to submit with the Crippler Crossface.
D-Generation X (Road Dogg and X-Pac) defeated The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von) in a Double Tables match (10:55)
Triple H defeated The Rock (w/Shawn Michaels as Special Guest Referee) in a 60 minute Iron Man match to win the WWF Championship (1:00:08)
Triple H won 6-5.
Rock pinned Triple H after a Rock Bottom (10:42)
Triple H pinned Rock after a Pedigree (25:27)
Triple H pinned Rock with an inside cradle (26:28)
Triple H pinned Rock after a Back to belly piledriver (32:24)
Rock pinned Triple H after a Flowing DDT (40:35)
Triple H was disqualified after a chair shot (43:44)
Triple H pinned Rock using the ropes for leverage (44:07)
Triple H rendered Rock temporarily unconscious with the Sleeper Hold (48:17)
Triple H was counted out after a Pedigree on the announcer's table (56:06)
Rock pinned Triple H after a Spinebuster and People's Elbow (58:02)
Rock was disqualified when Triple H was  attacked by The Undertaker. (1:00:08)

2001

Judgment Day (2001) took place on May 20 2001 at the Arco Arena in Sacramento, California.

Sunday Night HEAT Match: Raven defeated Val Venis (4:09)
Raven pinned Venis.
Sunday Night HEAT Match: Hardcore Holly and Crash Holly defeated Kaientai (TAKA Michinoku and Funaki) (3:46)
Hardcore pinned Michinoku.
William Regal defeated Rikishi (3:57)
Regal pinned Rikishi after a Regal Cutter.
Kurt Angle defeated Chris Benoit in a Two out of three falls match (23:54)
Benoit pinned Angle after a Angle Slam ("Pinfalls Only") (1:07)
Angle made Benoit submit with the Ankle Lock ("Submissions Only") (12:10)
Angle won the third fall with the help of Edge and Christian (Ladder match) (23:54)
Rhyno defeated Test and The Big Show in a Triple Threat match to retain the WWF Hardcore Championship (9:15)
Rhyno pinned Big Show after a Gore with a garbage can.
Chyna defeated Lita to retain the WWF Women's Championship (6:29)
Chyna pinned Lita after a Powerbomb. This was also Chyna's last appearance in the WWF.
Kane defeated Triple H (w/Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley) in a Chain match to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship (12:29)
Kane pinned Triple H after Steve Austin accidentally hit Triple H with a steel chair.
Chris Benoit and Chris Jericho won a Tag Team Turmoil match to become #1 contenders to the WWF Tag Team Championship (25:48)
The APA (Faarooq and Bradshaw) defeated Perry Saturn and Dean Malenko when Farooq pinned Saturn after a Spinebuster (1:32)
The APA defeated The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von) when Bradshaw pinned Bubba after a Clothesline from Hell (6:28)
X-Factor (X-Pac and Justin Credible) defeated The APA when X-Pac pinned Bradshaw while Albert was holding Bradshaw's foot (10:13)
X-Factor defeated The Hardy Boyz (Matt and Jeff) when X-Pac pinned Matt after a superkick from Credible (13:24)
Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit defeated X-Factor when Benoit forced Credible to submit to the Crippler Crossface and Jericho forced X-Pac to submit to the Walls of Jericho (18:40)
Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit defeated Edge and Christian when Benoit forced Christian to submit to the Crippler Crossface (25:48)
Steve Austin defeated The Undertaker in a No Holds Barred match to retain the WWF Championship (23:07)
Austin pinned The Undertaker after Triple H hit Undertaker with a sledge hammer.

2002

Judgment Day (2002) took place on May 19 2002 at the Gaylord Entertainment Center in Nashville, Tennessee. The tagline for the event was "Judge, Jury and Executioner". The official theme song was "Broken" by 12 Stones. This was the first pay-per-view to use the WWE name after the change from WWF.

Sunday Night HEAT Match: William Regal defeated D'Lo Brown to retain the WWE European Championship (6:22)
Regal pinned Brown.
Eddie Guerrero defeated Rob Van Dam to retain the WWE Intercontinental Championship (10:17)
Guerrero pinned RVD with a backslide using the ropes for leverage.
Trish Stratus (w/Bubba Ray Dudley) defeated Stacy Keibler (w/Reverend D-Von and Deacon Batista) to retain the WWE Women's Championship (2:54)
Trish pinned Stacy after a Bulldog.
Brock Lesnar and Paul Heyman defeated The Hardy Boyz (Matt and Jeff) (4:47)
Heyman pinned Jeff after Brock hit Jeff with an F-5.
Steve Austin defeated The Big Show and Ric Flair in a Handicap match (15:36)
Austin pinned Flair after a Stone Cold Stunner.
During the match, X-Pac interfered on Flair and Big Show's behalf.
Edge defeated Kurt Angle in a Hair vs. Hair match (15:30)
Edge pinned Angle with a small package.
Triple H defeated Chris Jericho in a Hell in a Cell match (24:31)
Triple H pinned Jericho after a Pedigree on top of the cell.
Rikishi and Rico defeated Billy and Chuck to win the WWE Tag Team Championship (3:50)
Rikishi pinned Chuck after Rico accidentally hit Chuck with a Roundhouse kick.
The Undertaker defeated Hollywood Hogan to win the WWE Undisputed Championship (11:17)
Undertaker pinned Hogan after a Chair Shot followed by a Chokeslam.

2003

Judgment Day (2003) took place on May 18 2003 at the Charlotte Coliseum in Charlotte, North Carolina. It was the last joint pay-per-view before WWE started having brand exclusive PPVs.

Sunday Night HEAT match: The Hurricane defeated Steven Richards (2:58)
Hurricane pinned Richards after a Shining Wizard.
John Cena and The F.B.I. (Chuck Palumbo and Johnny Stamboli) defeated Chris Benoit, Rhyno and Spanky (3:58)
Palumbo pinned Spanky after the Kiss of Death.
La Résistance (Sylvain Grenier and René Duprée) defeated Test and Scott Steiner (w/Stacy Keibler) (6:19)
Grenier pinned Steiner after a Bonsoir.
Eddie Guerrero and Tajiri defeated Team Angle (Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin) in a Ladder match to win the WWE Tag Team Championship (14:18)
Eddie grabbed the belts to win.
Christian won a Battle Royal also involving: Val Venis, Chris Jericho, Lance Storm, Test, Rob Van Dam, Kane, Goldust and Booker T to win the re-activated WWE Intercontinental Championship (11:38)
Christian last eliminated Booker T to win.
Christian had originally been eliminated by Booker, but re-entered that ring after the referees did not notice his elimination.
Torrie Wilson defeated Sable in a Bikini contest
Tazz was the host and declared Wilson the winner.
Mr. America (w/Zach Gowen) defeated Roddy Piper (w/Sean O'Haire)(4:58)
Mr. America pinned Piper after a leg drop.
Kevin Nash defeated World Heavyweight Champion Triple H by disqualification (7:25)
Triple H was disqualified after hitting referee Earl Hebner with a sledgehammer, Triple H retained the title.
After the match, Nash Jacknife Powerbombed Triple H through the announcer's table.
Jazz defeated Victoria, Jacqueline and Trish Stratus in a Fatal Four-Way Match to retain the WWE Women's Championship (4:48)
Jazz pinned Jacqueline after a DDT.
Brock Lesnar defeated The Big Show in a Stretcher match to retain the WWE Championship (15:27)
Lesnar put Big Show on the stretcher on a forklift and dragged him across the line to win.

2004

Judgment Day (2004) took place on May 16 2004 at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. The tagline for the event was "Souls Will Cry."

Sunday Night HEAT match: Mark Jindrak (w/Theodore Long) defeated Funaki (3:47)
Jindrak pinned Funaki after a Mark of Excellence.
Rob Van Dam and Rey Mysterio defeated The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D-Von) (15:19)
RVD pinned D-Von after a Five-Star Frog Splash.
Torrie Wilson defeated Dawn Marie (6:14)
Wilson pinned Marie after a Backslide.
Mordecai defeated Scotty 2 Hotty (3:01)
Mordecai pinned Scotty after a Crucifixion.
Charlie Haas and Rico (w/Miss Jackie) defeated Hardcore Holly and Billy Gunn to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship (10:26)
Haas pinned Holly after a Sunset Flip roll up, aided by a Superkick by Rico.
Chavo Guerrero (w/Chavo Classic) defeated Jacqueline to win the WWE Cruiserweight Championship (4:47)
Guerrero pinned Jacqueline after a Gory Bomb behind the referee's back.
Per a pre-match stipulation, Guerrero had one arm tied behind his back. During the match, however, Chavo Classic untied Chavo Jr.'s hand.
John Cena defeated René Duprée to retain the WWE United States Championship (9:54)
Cena pinned Duprée after an FU.
The Undertaker (w/Paul Bearer) defeated Booker T (11:25)
Undertaker pinned Booker after a Tombstone Piledriver.
John "Bradshaw" Layfield defeated WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero by disqualification (23:22)
Guerrero was disqualified when he hit JBL with the WWE Title belt. As a result, Guerrero retained the championship.

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

References

Other websites
Official Website

WWE Judgment Day

WWE Judgment Day


The Bearcamp River is a  river at the southern edge of the White Mountains in New Hampshire, the United States.  It is the largest tributary of Ossipee Lake, part of the Saco River watershed leading to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Bearcamp River rises in Sandwich Notch, at the northeast end of the Squam Mountain Range and the western end of the Sandwich Range, in the town of Sandwich, New Hampshire.  It flows to the southeast, dropping over Beede Falls, and quickly reaches the lowlands at the base of the White Mountains.  The river flows east through Sandwich, entering Tamworth at the juncture of the Cold River.  Passing the villages of South Tamworth and Whittier, the river nears the base of the Ossipee Mountains to the south.  It passes the village of West Ossipee and enters Ossipee Lake after flowing through a small delta.

New Hampshire Route 25 follows the river through Tamworth to West Ossipee.

See also

List of rivers of New Hampshire

References

Rivers of New Hampshire
Rivers of Carroll County, New Hampshire

Bearcamp River


Robert Costanza (born 14 September, 1950) is an American ecological economist and the Gund Professor of Ecological economics and Director of the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics at the University of Vermont.

Biography
Robert Costanza was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He studied architecture and urban and regional planning from the University of Florida and got a Masters degree. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Florida in 1979 in systems ecology, with a minor in economics.

In 1982 he was selected as a Kellogg National Fellow, in 1992 he was awarded the Society for Conservation Biology Distinguished Achievement Award and in 1993 he was selected as a Pew Scholar in Conservation and the Environment. In 1998 he was awarded the Kenneth Boulding Memorial Award for Outstanding Contributions in Ecological Economics. In 2000 he received an honorary doctorate in natural sciences from Stockholm University.

Before he moved to Vermont in August 2002, he was director of the University of Maryland, College Park Institute for Ecological Economics, and a professor in the Center for Environmental Science, at Solomons, and in the Biology Department at College Park.

Costanza is co-founder and past-president of the International Society for Ecological Economics (ISEE) and was chief editor of the society's journal Ecological Economics from its inception until 9/02. He serves on the editorial board of eight other international academic journals. He is president of the International Society for Ecosystem Health.

Work
Dr. Costanza's research has focused on the interface between ecological and economic systems. This includes landscape level spatial simulation modeling; analysis of energy and material flows through economic and ecological systems; valuation of ecosystem services, biodiversity, and natural capital; and analysis of dysfunctional incentive systems and ways to correct them.

Literature
Costanza is the author or co-author 16 books. and over 300 scientific papers. Books, a selection:
 1991, Ecological economics: The science and management of sustainability.
 1992, with Bryan Norton and Ben Haskell,Ecosystem health: new goals for environmental management.
 1996, with Olman Segura and Juan Martinez-Alier, Getting down to earth: practical applications of ecological economics
 1997, with John Cumberland, Herman Daly, Robert Goodland and Richard Norgaard, An Introduction to Ecological Economics
 2000, with Tom Prugh and Herman Daly and The local politics of global sustainability.

Articles, a selection
 1998, Costanza et al. Principles for sustainable governance of the oceans. Science  281:198-199 (1998))
 2008, Costanza, R. Current History (January 2008) An excellent six-page (including a concise chart) exposition of ecological economics.

About Robert Costanza
His work has been cited in more than 1700 scientific articles since 1987 (according to the Science Citation Index) and more than 80 interviews and reports on his work have appeared in various media, including Newsweek, US News and World Report, the Economist, the New York Times, Science, Nature, National Geographic, and National Public Radio.

References

Other websites
 Homepage Robert Costanza at the University of Vermont:
 Curriculum vitae of Robert Costanza, May 2008

1950 births
American economists
Living people
Scientists from Vermont

Robert Costanza


El Puerto de Santa María (commonly called El Puerto) is a city on the banks of the Guadalete River in the province of Cádiz, Spain. As of the 2005 census, the city has 82,306 people. 50,000 of these people live in the urban center. The others live in the area around the urban center.

The city of El Puerto de Santa Maria is  northeast of Cadiz across the Bay of Cadiz. It is  best known for its ferry, El Vaporcito, which has been used for 76 years. It takes passengers to and from Cadiz to El Puerto.

History
In the Odyssey of Homer, legend says that, after the Trojan War, a Greek official named Menestheus escaped with his troops through the Straits of Gibraltar. They got to the Guadalete River and created a port. They called the port Menestheus's port.

In 711, Arab (Moors) from the North of Africa invaded southern Spain. They changed the name to Alcante or Alcanatif. The name means Port of Salt. They chose that name because of the old salt industry of Phoenicians and Romans.

In 1260, Alfonso X of Castile took the city from the Moors. He renamed it Santa María del Puerto.

Columbus began his second voyage to the New World from El Puerto. His pilot, Juan de la Cosa, created the first map of the world to include the coast of the New World in El Puerto in 1500. In the nineteenth century, the city became the General Headquarters for the French Army during the Spanish War of Independence under the reign of Joseph Bonaparte (1808–1813). The city is has much history, museums and monuments. It is also near the very historical cities of Seville and Cádiz.

Tourism

El Puerto has a famous bull ring. It dates back to 1880. The bull ring has space for 15,000 to watch. Bull fighting is still enjoyed during the Feria season, which is during the month of August, and during the Feria de la Primavera, which is in early May. This Feria is dedicated to sherry. 180,0000 half bottles of sherry get drunk in 4 days. There are several bodegas in the town centre. All of these can be visited by the public. The most famous bodega is the Osborne and Terry Bodegas. They export sherry and brandy worldwide . In the cellars in El Puerto, sherry is made using the traditional method called "solera". This method makes the pale dry sherries to the sweet Muscatel sherry, Amontillados and the older Olorosos.

Local food
El Puerto is a very good place to taste local tapas and seafood, for which it is famous. Food is an important reason why many tourists go to El Puerto de Santa Maria. The Bay of Cadiz is famous for its fresh fish. The fish and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables lead to very good restaurant menus. There are many different types of places to eat all in walking distance in the town centre.

Other websites

Cultural Information of the Monuments and Museums of El Puerto de Santa María
360º Panoramic walk of El Puerto de Santa Maria

Province of Cádiz
Municipalities in Andalusia

El Puerto de Santa María


Joseph Anthony McWalter, generally known as Tony McWalter, (born 20 March 1945 in Worksop) is a politician in the United Kingdom. He was Labour Party and Co-operative Member of Parliament for Hemel Hempstead between 1997 and 2005.

Early life

Education
He went to the independent catholic St Benedict's School in Ealing. At the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, he gained a BSc in Pure Maths in 1967, and a BSc in Philosophy in 1968. At McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, he gained an MA in Philosophy in 1968. At University College, Oxford, he gained a BPhil in Philosophy in 1971 and he was offered the degree of MLitt in 1983.

Career
From 1963 to 1964, he was a teacher at the catholic Cardinal Wiseman secondary school in Greenford, west London. From 1964 to 1967, he was periodically a lorry driver for EH Paterson Ltd. From 1968 to 1969, he was a teaching fellow at McMaster University.

He is a former philosophy lecturer at the University of Hertfordshire in Hatfield, beginning when it was known as Hatfield Polytechnic in 1974. He also lectured at Thames Polytechnic (now called the University of Greenwich) from 1972 to 1974. In the late 1980s he was Director of Computing at the university's education campus at Wall Hall.

McWalter's principal academic interest is in the philosophy of Kant, and with George MacDonald Ross he co-edited Kant and His Influence.

Following his electoral defeat in 2005, McWalter established an educational consultancy business offering one to one tuition in mathematics and the sciences. In this role he taught again at the University of Hertfordshire, teaching mathematics on a contract basis until 2007. In 2007 he was appointed as an associate lecturer at the Open University mathematics department (London region): and in 2010 he gained qualified teacher status from the Institute of Education (London University). He is a key stage five specialist teacher at The Thomas Alleyne Academy in Stevenage, teaching mathematics and physics.

Political career
McWalter served as a Labour councillor on North Hertfordshire District Council from the 1979 election until 1983, representing the Letchworth East ward.

He contested St Albans in 1987 and Luton North in 1992. He also contested two European Parliament seats, Hertfordshire (1984) and Bedfordshire South (1989).

McWalter won the Hemel Hempstead seat from Robert Jones (Conservative) in 1997 and held it in 2001, and was narrowly defeated by 499 votes by Mike Penning (Conservative) in 2005.

Early in his Westminster career, McWalter was one of a number of Labour MPs who petitioned for a planned cut in single-parents benefits, scheduled by the previous Conservative administration, to be cancelled before it came into effect. The cancellation of the cut was announced but then later revoked. McWalter abstained on the first vote in the Commons on implementing the cut. On later votes on the Welfare Reform bill McWalter voted with the government, but he did so having secured amendments on mobility allowance for disabled children aged between three and five, and on the bereavement allowance (which had been scheduled to be cut to six months so that widowers and widows could be given equal treatment). McWalter often cites this as evidence that it is possible for backbenchers to get laws beneficially amended.

McWalter served on the Northern Ireland select committee during the extraordinary period before and after the Good Friday Agreement. McWalter also served on the Procedure Committee, where his principal concern was the treatment of bill committees in the House. Specifically, the whips would only appoint "nodding dogs", and many clauses would be left both unamended and even undebated.

On 27 February 2002, McWalter asked the prime minister the following question: "My right hon. Friend is sometimes subject to rather unflattering or even malevolent descriptions of his motivation. Will he provide the House with a brief characterisation of the political philosophy that he espouses and which underlies his policies?" The prime minister was famously confused. McWalter later claimed that he was annoyed by the constant theme in government that seemed to suggest that the main justification for a policy was that it was "modern". McWalter also claimed that the prime minister had had four days' notice of the question, and that his only motive was to get a carefully thought-out and principled response.

McWalter hosted three adjournment debates which have been read widely. One was on the teaching of philosophy on 1 July 1999, and it was circulated in academic circles as a concise justification for why the subject is important. It attracted independent laudatory notes from Bernard Williams and Simon Blackburn (professors of philosophy at Oxford and Cambridge respectively). A second debate by him on mathematics ("quadratic equations") was reprinted by the British Association for the History of Mathematics and by the American equivalent body, and is cited by Puzzi in a recent text "The Equation They Couldn't Solve".

The third debate for which McWalter is known was on scientific research. From 2001 he served on the Science and Technology select committee. At his initiative the committee reported in 2004 on the inadequacy of the current research council arrangements for funding research which would be of most immediate use for African countries: The report was strongly commended by the then secretary of state for international development (Hilary Benn) but despite that the report's fundamental recommendation (to inaugurate a research council especially for subjects germane to the interests of developing nations) was not acted on. Following the report McWalter hosted a "Science for Africa" debate, but he could not extract from the Minister an agreement to work to change research council structures.

McWalter was one of the one hundred and thirty nine Labour MPs who voted against the principal resolution on the Iraq war on 20 March 2003.

Personal life
He married Karen Omer on 30 March 1991. He has one stepson and two daughters.

References

External links
 BBC News Profile of Tony McWalter
 Guardian page on Tony McWalter

1945 births
Labour Co-operative MPs for English constituencies
20th-century British philosophers
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
Academics of the University of Hertfordshire
Living people
People educated at St Benedict's School, Ealing
Alumni of Aberystwyth University
McMaster University alumni
Alumni of University College, Oxford
People from Ealing
Politics of Dacorum

Tony McWalter


Eliza McCardle Johnson (October 4, 1810 – January 15, 1876) was the first lady of the United States and the wife of Andrew Johnson, the 17th president of the United States from 1865 to 1869. She previously served as Second Lady from March to April 1865.

Early life
She was born in Telford, Tennessee. She was the only child of John McCardle, a shoemaker, and Sarah Phillips-McCardle. Eliza lost her father when she was still a small child.  She was raised by her widowed mother in Greeneville, Tennessee. One day in September 1826, Eliza was chatting with classmates from Rhea Academy when she spotted Andrew Johnson and his family pull into town with all their belongings.

Marriage
Andrew Johnson, aged 18, married Eliza McCardle, aged 16, on May 17, 1827, at the home of the bride's mother in Greeneville. Mordecai Lincoln, a distant relative of Abraham Lincoln, presided over the nuptials.

Children
The Johnsons had three sons and two daughters, all born in Greeneville:
Martha Johnson (1828–1901)
Charles Johnson (1830–1863)
Mary Johnson (1832–1883)
Robert Johnson (1834–1869)
Andrew Johnson, Jr. (1852–1879)

First Lady
She supported her husband in his political career, but had tried to avoid public appearances. During the American Civil War, Confederate authorities ordered her to evacuate her home in Greeneville; she took refuge in Nashville, Tennessee.

A few months later after her husband became president, she joined him in the White House, but she was not able to serve as First Lady due to her poor health. She remained confined to a room on the second floor, leaving the social chores to her daughter (Martha Johnson Patterson).  Mrs. Johnson appeared publicly as First Lady on only two occasions - at a reception for Queen Emma of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1866 and at the president's birthday party in 1867.

Death
After episodes of "consumption" (tuberculosis), Eliza died on January 15, 1876, at the of age 65 in Greeneville, Tennessee. She survived her husband by five and a half months.

Other websites
Eliza Johnson on Find-A-Grave
The White House Web Site
National First Ladies' Library

1810 births
1876 deaths
Andrew Johnson
Deaths from tuberculosis
First Ladies of the United States
Infectious disease deaths in Tennessee
Second Ladies of the United States
Tri-Cities, Tennessee

Eliza McCardle Johnson


Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress.  The Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate

Section 1: Legislative power vested in Congress

Section 1 gives federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former gives executive power to the President. The latter grants judicial power to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. The separation of powers was intended to limit Congress to making law, the President to enforcing the law and the courts as interpreting the law in different cases.

There is no provision in the Constitution that gives Congress the power to investigate. However, before the adoption of the Constitution, assemblies| in the American colonies exercised that power. Before them, the British Parliament had investigative powers. Congress has always considered it an implicit power in the Constitution. In McGrain v. Daugherty (1927), the Supreme Court held that Congress did have the power to investigate.

Section 2: House of Representatives

Clause 1: Composition and election of Members

Section Two provides for the election every two years of members of the House of Representatives by the people of the respective states. The "electors" (voters) in the state are those who the state decides are eligible to vote for "the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature" are eligible to vote for members of the House of Representatives from that state.

Clause 2: Qualifications of Members

The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives. A Representative must be at least 25 years old. He or she must live in the state in which he or she is elected. A Representative must also have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years.

Clause 3: Apportionment of Representatives and taxes

After much debate, the framers of the Constitution compromised and made population the basis of determining the number of seats (called apportionment) in the House of Representatives. It also used apportionment to determine the tax liability among the states. To accomplish this, the Constitution requires that a census be conducted every ten years. This is to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole. It also establishes a rule for who should and who should not be included  in the count. Because the Constitution would go into effect before the completion of a national census, it provides for a temporary apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives.

Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was determined by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three-fifths the number of all other persons (slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule was  known as the three-fifths compromise. It was used to determine the number of Representatives in the House. Larger states contributed more money and would have more seats in the House of Representatives.

The Fourteenth Amendment removed the three-fifths rule and ordered the census to count everyone regardless of skin color. It stipulated that males over the age of twenty-one could vote. The Sixteenth Amendment removed the connection between apportionment and direct taxes. The 19th Amendment removed the restriction by sex allowing women to vote. The 26th Amendment reduced the voting age requirement to those 18 years of age and older. But none of these amendments changed congressional apportionment.

Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, Congress set the number of House seats at 435, except in 1959 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states. Then the number became 437 temporarily.

Clause 4: Vacancies

Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement. It is the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. In addition, the Constitution does not authorize a State Governor to appoint a temporary replacement. He is to arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid.

Clause 5: Speaker and other officers; Impeachment

Section Two also provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. The Constitution does not require it but every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions. Instead he chooses to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task.

Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment.  Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the "sole" power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense.

This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely.  The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and nineteen federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: three Presidents (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges.

The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process. It does this only after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers," whom the House subsequently approves by resolution.  These Representatives then become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below).

Section 3: Senate

Clause 1: Composition; Election of Senators

The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators. It states they would be elected by its state legislature and serve six-year terms. Each Senator has one vote. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. However, this clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913. Due to problems in the Senate, it was changed to Senators would now be elected by the people instead of the state legislatures.

Clause 2: Classification of Senators; Vacancies

Approximately one-third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years. But the entire body is never up for re-election in the same year. The Seventeenth Amendment changed how vacancies would be filled. Under the Seventeenth Amendment, if a Senator dies or has to leave office, his state governor may appoint a temporary Senator until a special election can be held.

Clause 3: Qualifications of Senators

A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State he or she will represent at the time of the election. As with Representatives in the House, the Constitution sets the qualifications to be a Senator.

Clause 4: Vice President as President of Senate

Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast a vote to break a tie.  Early in the nation's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate.  In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated.  A tie-breaking vote has been cast 243 times by 35 different Vice Presidents.

Clause 5: President pro tempore and other officers

Clause five provides for a President pro tempore of the Senate (meaning temporary), a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President.

The Senate's current practice is to elect a full-time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President's absence.  Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position.  As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by tradition, a senator is always chosen.

Clause 6: Trial of Impeachment

The House of Representatives votes to impeach a president, vice president or other civil officer, but the Senate serves as judge and jury. The defendant in the trial can be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Only three times has the Senate brought impeachment charges against a president still in office. This was in 1868 against Andrew Johnson, in 1998 against Bill Clinton, and in 2020 against Donald Trump. In each case, the president was not convicted and allowed to serve out his term of office.

Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction

If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office. He or she may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be used. Any person removed from office may still be criminally prosecuted. They may also be subject to lawsuits.

Section 4: Congressional elections

Clause 1: Time, place, and manner of holding

State legislatures have the task of deciding how congressional elections are held. They may decide the scheduling of an election, where voters may cast ballots and how voters are to register. Congress has the right to change these rules.

Clause 2: Sessions of Congress

Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution gives Congress the power to meet, whether or not the President called it into session.

Section 5: Procedure

Clause 1: Qualifications of Members

Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.

Clause 2: Rules

Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two-thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.

Clause 3: Record of proceedings

Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House—not the words spoken during debates—are recorded in the Journal; if one-fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.

Clause 4: Adjournment

Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold pro forma sessions every three days. Such sessions are held just to fulfill the constitutional requirement. They are not for the purpose of conducting business. Neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House.

Section 6: Compensation, privileges, and restrictions on holding civil office

Clause 1: Compensation and legal protection

Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty-seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election.

Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander that may happen during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution.

Clause 2: Independence from the executive

Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.

Section 7: Bills

Clause 1: Bills of revenue

This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives.

This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse  is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills.

Clause 2: From bills to law

This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two-thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten-day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto", which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment."

What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the Pocket Veto Case (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an 'adjournment' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed." Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In Wright v. United States (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.

Clause 3: Presidential veto

In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two-thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case Clinton v. City of New York, the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve [the bill] he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it." Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.

Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two-thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V.

Section 8: Powers of Congress

Enumerated powers

Congress's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight:

Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.

Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving the political question to Congress. In United States v. Butler (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.

Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding Knox v. Lee, the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.

Commerce Clause

The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the commerce clause for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was Gibbons v. Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution".

The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a laissez-faire attitude dominated the Court. In United States v. E. C. Knight Company (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it."

The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.

In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez-faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices" such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court, signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.

This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In Wickard v. Filburn, the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home-grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court's total deference to Congress' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.

United States v. Lopez (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce" as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, United States v. Morrison (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect.

In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by Wickard v. Filburn. In Gonzales v. Raich it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home-grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home-grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce.

Other powers of Congress

Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.

Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever-increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine.

Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever" for the nation's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.

Necessary and Proper clause

Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect" on interstate commerce in Wickard v. Filburn ; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.

The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct" relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies". Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase". Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing all of Congress's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind". Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients" of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced" that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines" of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress cannot enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.

Section 9: Limits on Congress
The ninth section of Article One places limits on Congress' powers:

Slave trade

The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808.  Congress could however, levy a Per capita duty of up to ten dollars for each slave imported into the country.  This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808.  On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States.

Civil and legal protections
A writ of habeas corpus is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it". In Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of habeas corpus in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating.

A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An ex post facto law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The ex post facto clause does not apply to civil matters.

Apportionment of direct taxes
Section Nine reiterates the provision from Section Two that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations.  This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V.  In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted income taxes from this clause. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published.

Titles of nobility
The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service.

Section 10: Limits on the States

Clause 1: Contracts Clause

States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender" (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "... it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded." Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact ex post facto laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility.

The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when Fletcher v. Peck was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract?" His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties." Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract". He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract.

The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board's membership to twenty-one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights" on the trustees.

The Marshall Court determined another dispute in Sturges v. Crowninshield. The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In Ogden v. Saunders (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws could apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898.

Clause 2: Import-Export Clause

Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.

Clause 3: Compact Clause

Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by , fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under .

The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever". The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance" in which a state was one of the parties.

There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact.  In Virginia v. Tennessee, , the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States".  The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.

Notes

References

United States Constitution


"Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk" is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons third season. The name is in a grammatically incorrect form; it should be called "Burns verkauft das Kraftwerk". The episode first started on December 5, 1991. In this episode, Mr. Burns, who is sad because he wishes to pursue many interests, decides to sell the power plant to two German investors for "100 million dollars." Homer's incompetence quickly gets him fired by the Germans. Meanwhile, Mr. Burns has lost all his respectability because he can no longer control anyone. As a result, he decides to buy back the plant. Because the power plant has been so costly to maintain, the Germans decide to sell the power plant back to Burns for 50 million dollars. Determined to keep his enemies close at hand, Burns rehires Homer, and all is back to normal.

Other websites

1991 television episodes
The Simpsons (season 3) episodes

Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk


Human trafficking in Central Europe has become a significant legal and political issue, as it is thought that many victims of human trafficking come from Central Europe.

Easier immigration after the fall of Communism
The fall of the Iron Curtain has permitted an easier movement of people in Europe. However, this movement has been accompanied by an increase in human trafficking by the organized crime. The victims of human traffickers are not free to pursue their business, but are usually compelled to work for the traffickers, typically in prostitution.

Areas in central and Eastern Europe are now exploited as recruiting and transit locations to the west as well as final destinations for human trafficking.  "According to Lidove noviny, 16 cases of human trafficking were uncovered in the Czech Republic in 2005, while it was three cases fewer in 2004.

Growth of modern-day slavery
Ten cases were registered by the police in 2003." Despite the efforts of the international community, the modern day slavery is growing tremendously and is well covered up. Presently, women and children are the main victims of human trafficking. "Lydie Err, in her report to the Parliamentary Assembly, said that 78% of women victims of trafficking were from central or eastern Europe".

Such figures arise due to the great unemployment especially among women, increased cross border movement, and corruption of local law enforcement organizations.

Promises of marriage, jobs or education
Cases where criminals promise great education for children from poor families and then force them into labor have also been detected. "According to the French human rights organisation, Albania is the county most involved in the sex trade, with women and children being lured to go to the West with false promises of marriage, jobs or education".

References

Human trafficking in Europe
Central Europe

Human trafficking in Central Europe


Jet lag is a physiological condition, often occurring when humans travel from one time zone to another. It happens because of the time difference between two places. Some people suffer from jet lag more than other people do.

If the departure time (the original body clock) is not the same as the destination time, jet lag can occur. Traveling east is more likely to cause jet lag than traveling west. That is because a cycle of the human's biological time is usually more than 24 hours, and going east makes the day shorter, which is a more difficult adjustment.

Jet lag can have several symptoms. It usually takes the form of fatigue and insomnia. Also, headache, depression, even nausea may strike people. Sufferers can use caffeine or sleeping pills as a way of treatment. Using caffeine (such as in tea or coffee) is helpful, either in the morning when going westward or in the afternoon when going eastward. The hormone melatonin is said to help people sleep. Also, doing things like changing sleeping patterns several days before departure may help people adjust to the new time zone.

Health problems

Jet lag


Bowling is a sport where people roll a heavy ball. It was invented centuries ago when grenades were heavy iron balls. Two main kinds of bowling arose. In one kind the bowler rolls a ball near a target and knocks away the ball of another bowler. This kind includes lawn bowling.

In the more common kind nowadays, the bowler rolls the ball down a wooden bowling lane trying to knock down bowling pins. This kind includes ten-pin bowling, which is so commonplace that it is often simply called "bowling". Some people bowl at smaller pins, called "duck pins" or "candle pins" with slightly different rules.

Ten-pin

The usual kind of bowling ball has three holes, where the player puts two fingers and the thumb. The person on the lane swings the ball and lets it go to roll along the lane, attempting to knock down ten wooden pins. If the bowler does not do it right, the ball might not knock all the pins down or might roll into the gutter and hit none. Players take turns rolling their ball down the lane to see who gets the highest score.

Ten-pin bowling scores can be as low as 0 or as high as 300. Players get 10 chances to knock down all of the pins; each chance is called a frame. In each frame, players can try to knock down all of the pins up to two times. Players who do not knock down all of the pins after two tries get up to 9 points for the frame. One point is given for every pin knocked down, if any are knocked down at all. If players are able to knock down all of the pins on the first or second try, they are given 10 points for the frame plus bonus points. Frames in which a player knocks down all of the pins on the first try are scored as a strike. A strike is worth 10 points plus the number of pins knocked down by the player during their next two tries. If players do not score a strike but knock down all remaining on their second try, the frame is scored as a spare. A spare is worth 10 points plus the number of pins knocked down on the next try.

Players who score a strike or spare on their 10th frame are allowed to roll the ball up to two additional times to score their bonus points. This is the only frame where it is possible to get a strike and a spare. It is also possible to roll 3 strikes in this frame.

Sports
Hobbies

Bowling


Bear worship (also known as the Bear Cult or Arctolatry) is the religious practice of the worshiping of bears. Many North American and North Eurasian ethnic arctic religions include the worship of bears in their beliefs. These include the Sámi, Nivkhs, Ainu, and pre-Christian Finns.

There are also a number of deities from Celtic Gaul and Britain similar to the bear. The bear is also featured on many totems throughout northern cultures that carve them. Bear worship may have been practiced as far back as the Middle Palaeolithic time period amongst Neanderthal societies.(Wunn, 2000, p. 434-435)

References
Blesoe, Brandon (retrieved Nov. 2007) "The Significance of the Bear Ritual Among the Sami and Other Northern Cultures"
Chaussonnet, Valerie (1995) Native Cultures of Alaska and Siberia. Artic Studies Center. Washington, D.C. 112p.
Gall, Timothy L. (1998) Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life:Nivkhs. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Inc. 2100p.
Shternberg, Lev Iakovlevich and Bruce Grant. (1999) The Social Organization of the Gilyak. New York: American Museum of Natural History. Seattle: University of Washington Press 280p.
Wunn, Ina (2000). "Beginning of Religion", Numen, 47(4).

Notes

Religions

Bear worship


Conciliabulum (English synonyms conciliable, conciliabule) is a Latin word meaning a place of assembly. Its implication transferred to a gathering, such as a conventicle or conference.

In the history of the Catholic Church, it is frequently applied as a diminutive to gatherings of bishops or cardinals which do not have recognition as full or even regional Church Councils or synods. An example is the 1511 council convened at Pisa by Louis XII of France and commonly called the Conciliabulum of Pisa, in opposition to Pope Julius II, which brought together four cardinals.

References
Oxford English Dictionary

Latin words and phrases
Catholic Church councils

Conciliabulum


Sound can also mean a body of water, like a bay or channel.

Sound is caused by sound waves. It can be heard when it goes through a medium to the ear. All sounds are made by vibrations of molecules. For example, when a person hits a drum or a cymbal the object vibrates. These vibrations make air molecules move. Sound waves move away from where they came from. When the vibrating air molecules reach our ears, the eardrum vibrates, too. The bones of the ear vibrate in  way the object that started the sound wave vibrated.

There are three different mediums. They are solids, liquids and gas. Sound travels the fastest through solids because the particles in a solid are closer together than they are in gas and liquid.

These vibrations let you hear different things. Even music is vibrations. Irregular vibrations are noise. People can make very complex sounds. We use them for speech.

Sound waves are longitudinal waves with two parts: compression and rarefaction. Compression is the part of the sound waves where the molecules of air are pushed (compressed) together. Rarefaction is the part of the waves where the molecules are far away from each other. Sound waves are a sequence of compression and rarefaction.

Vacuum
Since sound is a vibration of a medium, it cannot go through a vacuum. A vacuum is a place where there is no medium, for example in outer space. The word comes from the Latin adjective vacuus for "vacant" or "void".

Speed of sound

Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. The thicker the medium, the faster it goes, but they cannot travel through a vacuum (a place with nothing in it). This is why astronauts cannot talk to each other in space: they need a radio to hear each other. Sound can travel through water faster than through air; and even faster in solids like stone, iron, and steel. At room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure, sound travels at 344 m/s (1134 ft/s), 761 miles per hour). Because the temperature and pressure change with altitude in the atmosphere, speed will vary as well.

Pitch and Intensity

Pitch is the highness or lowness of sound. Pitch is how humans hear different frequencies. Frequency is determined by the number of vibrations per second. The highest key on a piano, for instance, vibrates 4,000 times per second. It has a frequency of 4000 hertz (Hz), or 4 kilohertz (kHz). Lower keys have lower frequencies. A note an octave higher than another note has twice the frequency of that note.

The intensity of a sound is how much sound energy goes through a square meter in one second. Sound waves with higher amplitude (bigger vibration) have higher intensity. The intensity of a sound is higher closer to the sound source. Farther away, it's less intense. The inverse-square law shows how sound intensity becomes smaller, farther from the source. "Inverse square" says that when distance gets multiplied by a number, sound intensity gets divided by that number squared (the number times itself). Thus, twice the distance means a quarter the intensity.

Sound intensities can be very different. They can range from 0.000000000001, which are barely heard, to 1 W/m2  (painfully loud). The decibel scale makes sound intensity numbers easier to work with. A 0.000000000001 W/m2 intensity is 0 dB (decibels). It is an exponential scale, so when the decibel number increases by 10, the intensity is ten times as much. So, a 1 W/m2 intensity is 120 dB.

Loudness is how people sense the intensity of sound. Loudness depends on sound intensity, sound frequency, and the person's hearing.

Heard and not seen

Audible sound has frequencies between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Human beings can hear audible sound. Sound waves with frequency above 20 kHz are called ultrasound waves. Sound waves with frequency below 20 Hz are called infrasound waves. Human beings cannot hear ultrasound waves and infrasound waves, but some animals, like bats and dolphins, use them. Older people have an even smaller hearing range. People are best at hearing sounds between 1000 Hz and 6000 Hz.

The Doppler Effect
When a sound source is moving towards someone, the frequency seems to increase. The same thing happens when someone moves toward the sound source. Frequency seems to decrease when someone moves away from a sound source. It also seems to decrease when the sound source moves away from someone. This is called the Doppler effect.

References
Halpern, Alvin, Erich Erlbach (1998). Beginning Physics II: Waves, Electromagnetism, Optics, and Modern Physics, pg. 50-56

Other websites
Conversion of sound units and levels
Sound calculations

Basic English 850 words

Sound