Mercur (seembol: ) is the smawest  an closest tae the Sun o the aicht planets in the Solar Seestem, wi an  orbital period o aboot 88 Yird days. Seen frae the Yird, it appears tae muive aroond its orbit in aboot 116 days, which is much faster than ony ither planet. This rapid motion mey hae led tae it bein named efter the Roman deity Mercur, the fast-flyin messenger tae the gods. Acause it haes almaist na atmosphere tae retain heat, Mercur's surface experiences the greatest temperatur variation o aw the planets, rangin frae  at nicht tae  durin the day at some equatorial regions. The poles are constantly belaw . Mercur's axis haes the smawest tilt o ony o the Solar Seestem's planets (aboot  o a degree), but it haes the lairgest orbital eccentricity. At aphelion, Mercur is aboot 1.5 times as far frae the Sun as it is at perihelion. Mercur's surface is hivily cratered an seemilar in appearance tae the Muin, indicatin that it haes been geologically inactive for billions o years.

Mercur daes nae experience saisons in the same wey as maist ither planets, sic as the Yird. It is locked sae it rotates in a wey that is unique in the Solar Seestem. As seen relative tae the fixed starns, it rotates exactly three times for every twa revolutions it maks aroond its orbit. As seen frae the Sun, in a frame o reference that rotates wi the orbital motion, it appears tae rotate anly ance every twa Mercurian years. An observer on Mercur wad tharefore see anly ane day every twa year.

Acause Mercur's orbit lies within Yird's orbit (as daes Venus's), it can appear in Yird's sky in the mornin or the evenin, but nae in the middle o the nicht. An aa, lik Venus an the Muin, it displays a complete range o phases as it moves aroond its orbit relative tae the Yird. Awtho Mercur can appear as a very bricht object whan viewed frae Yird, its proximity tae the Sun maks it mair difficult tae see than Venus.

Notes

Freemit airtins
 Mariner 10 Atlas o Mercury – NASA
 Mercury nomenclature an cairt wi feature names frae the USGS planetary nomenclature page
 MESSENGER Mission wab steid
 Mercur QuickMap frae MESSENGER wab steid
 SolarViews.com – Mercury
 Astronomy Cast: Mercury
 Geody Mercur Warld's sairch ingine that supports NASA Warld Wind, Celestia, an ither applications.
 A Day On Mercury  flash animation
 Mercur airticles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries
 'BepiColombo', ESA's Mercury Mission 5 Juin 2013

 MESSENGER False Color Mercur Globe Spin - APOD

Terrestrial planets
Planets o the Solar Seestem

Mercur (planet)


A prisoner is a person who is forced to stay in a prison against their will. People who are suspected of a crime, for example, a murder, may be  arrested and held in jail so they won't escape before their trial. After conviction a prisoner may be punished. For example, they may be imprisoned for a fixed number of years, or receive a life sentence meaning they stay in jail until they die.

A prisoner of war is a person who was captured by the enemy in a war.

Prisoner


Gauss's law (or Gauss's flux theorem) is a law of physics. The law is about the relationship between  electric charge and the resulting electric field. In words, Gauss's law states that:

The net electric flux through any closed surface is equal to  times the net electric charge enclosed within that closed surface.

The law was created by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835. However, it was not published until 1867. It is one of the four Maxwell's equations on classical electrodynamics. The other three are Gauss's law for magnetism, Faraday's law of induction, and Ampère's circuital law.

References

Other websites
 MIT Video Lecture Series (30 x 50 minute lectures)- Electricity and Magnetism  Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.
section on Gauss's law in an online textbook
MISN-0-132 Gauss's Law for Spherical Symmetry  (PDF file) by Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET.
MISN-0-133 Gauss's Law Applied to Cylindrical and Planar Charge Distributions  (PDF file) by Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET.

Electromagnetism
Laws of physics

Gauss's law


In tort law, the standard of care is the only degree of prudence and caution required of an individual who is under a duty of care.

The requirements of the standard are closely dependent on circumstances. Whether the standard of care has been breached is determined by the trier of fact, and is usually phrased in terms of the reasonable person; this is sometimes labeled as the "reasonable physician standard." It was famously described in Vaughn v. Menlove (1837) as whether the individual "proceed[ed] with such reasonable caution as a prudent man would have exercised under such circumstances".

Professional standard of care
In certain industries and professions, the standard of care is determined by the standard that would be exercised by the reasonably prudent manufacturer of a product, or the reasonably prudent professional in that line of work. Such a test (known as the "Bolam Test") was used to determine whether a doctor was liable for medical malpractice before the 2015 UK Supreme Court decision of Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board which introduced further responsibilities on the doctor, echoed in similar judgements in other jurisdictions. The standard of care is important because it can determine the level of negligence required to state a valid cause of action. In the business world the standard of care taken can be described as Due Diligence or performing a Channel Check.

Medical standard of care

A standard of care is a medical or psychological treatment guideline, and can be general or specific. It specifies appropriate treatment based on scientific evidence and collaboration between medical and/or psychological professionals involved in the treatment of a given condition.

Some common examples:
 Treatment standards applied within public hospitals to ensure that all patients receive appropriate care regardless of financial means.
 Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People

1. Diagnostic and treatment process that a clinician should follow for a certain type of patient, illness, or clinical circumstance. Adjuvant chemotherapy for lung cancer is "a new standard of care, but not necessarily the only standard of care". (New England Journal of Medicine, 2004)

2. In legal terms, the level at which an ordinary, prudent professional with the same training and experience in good standing in a same or similar community would practice under the same or similar circumstances. An "average" standard would not apply because in that case at least half of any group of practitioners would not qualify. The medical malpractice plaintiff must establish the appropriate standard of care and demonstrate that the standard of care has been breached, with expert testimony.

3. A physician also has a "duty to inform" a patient of any material risks or fiduciary interests of the physician that might cause the patient to reconsider a procedure, and may be liable if injury occurs due to the undisclosed risk, and the patient can prove that if he had been informed he would not have gone through with the procedure, without benefit of hindsight. (Informed Consent Rule.) Full disclosure of all material risks incident to treatment must be fully disclosed, unless doing so would impair urgent treatment.  As it relates to mental health professionals standard of care, the California Supreme Court, held that these professionals have "duty to protect"
individuals who are specifically threatened by a patient. [Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California, 17 Cal. 3d 425, 551 P.2d 334, 131 Cal. Rptr. 14 (Cal. 1976)].

4. A recipient of pro bono (free) services (either legal or medical) is entitled to expect the same standard of care as a person who pays for the same services, to prevent an indigent person from being entitled to only substandard care.

Medical standards of care exist for many conditions, including diabetes, some cancers, and sexual abuse.

Failure to provide patients treatment that meets a standard of care can incur legal liability for any injury or death that results.  In large-scale disasters, public authorities may declare crisis standards of care apply. This allows overwhelmed medical personnel to triage patients, directing resources toward patients they think need it the most, by giving other patients less than the normal standard of care. For example, this occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic in Arizona.

Children
A special standard of care also applies to children, who, in a majority of jurisdictions, are held to the behavior that is reasonable for a child of similar age, experience, and intelligence under like circumstances. (Restatement (Second) of Torts §283A; Cleveland Rolling-Mill Co. v. Corrigan, 46 Ohio St. 283, 20 N.E. 466 (1889).)  In some cases it means that more may be required of a child of superior intelligence. (Compare Jones v. Fireman's Insurance Co. of Newark, New Jersey, 240 So.2d 780 [La.App. 1970] with Robinson v. Travis, 393 So.2d 304 (La.App. 1980). An exception is for children engaged in "adult activity." Dellwo v. Pearson, 107 N.W.2d 859 (Minn 1961) Nicholsen v. Brown, 232 Or. 426, 374 P.2d 896 (1962) (automobile); Daniels v. Evans, 102 N.H. 407, 224 A. 2d 63 (1966) (motor scooter); Neumann. v. Shlansky, 58 Misc. 2d 128, 294 N.Y.S.2d 628 (1968 (playing golf)) What constitutes an "adult standard" may depend on local statute, and some have arbitrary age distinctions. Another exception is if the child is engaged in an "inherently dangerous activity." It is up to the trier of fact to decide if the activity is inherently dangerous. If they find that it is, the child must be held to an adult standard of care. Robinson v. Lindsay, 92 Wash.2d 410, 598 P.2d 2392 (1979) (snowmobile);

Persons with disabilities
A person with a disability is held to the same standard of care that an ordinary reasonable person would observe if they had that same disability.  (Roberts v. State of Louisiana, 396 So.2d 566 (1981) (blind postal employee))  However, courts do not recognize a person with a mental disability to be subject to any such special standard, and are held to the "reasonable prudent person" standard, except when the onset of mental illness is unforeseeable and sudden (e.g., Breunig v. American Family Insurance Co., 45 Wis.2d 536, 173 N.W.2d 619 (1970) (sudden hallucinations while driving).)  In some situations, this could work an injustice. Physical disabilities and conditions, such as blindness, deafness, short stature, or a club foot, or the weaknesses of age or sex, are treated merely as part of the "circumstances" under which a reasonable man must act.

Duty to inform self of responsibilities
A person engaged in a special and potentially dangerous activity must know or inquire of possible hazards or of any special duties and responsibilities inherent in that activity that might affect their ability to exercise reasonable prudent caution (cf, Delair v. McAdoo, 324 Pa. 392, 188 A. 181 (1936) (driving on worn tires).) Custom and practice of usage may be useful evidence for determining the usual standard, but not determinative of what a reasonable prudent person ought to be required to do or know (cf., Trimarco v. Klein, 58 N.Y. 2d 98 (1982) (showerdoor glass).) As Justice Holmes classic statement expresses it, "What usually is done may be evidence of what ought to be done, but what ought to be done is fixed by a standard of reasonable prudence, whether it is complied with or not."

Person of below average intelligence
A person of substandard intelligence is held under common law to the same standard of a reasonable prudent person, to encourage them to exert a decreased effort of responsibility to their community, in light of their handicap, and as a result of the practical difficulty of proving what reduced standard should apply (Vaughn v. Menlove, 3 Bing. (N.C.) 468, 432 Eng.Rep.490 (1837).)  Restatement (Second) of Torts, § 289 cmt. n (noting that the "reasonable person" standard makes allowances for age and physical disability but not "attention, perception, memory, knowledge of other pertinent matters, intelligence, and judgment. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Common Law, 108 (Little, Brown, & Co. 1881): "The standards of the law are standards of general application. The law takes no account of the infinite varieties of temperament, intellect, and education which make the internal character of a given act so different in different men."

Attorney
An attorney is held to the standard that any reasonable attorney in possession of the same knowledge and skill that an ordinary member of his or her profession possesses, as long as he is acting with reasonable care and diligence, in good faith and honest belief that his advice and acts are well founded at the time.  Here, mere errors in judgment are excusable (Best Judgment Rule) and cannot be judged solely with the gift of hindsight without substantial injustice. He or she is required to exercise ordinary care and caution (diligence) in the use of that skill (Due Care Rule), and procedural and technical failures are held to be the most common breaches.  (cf, Hodges v. Carter, 239 N.C. 517, 80 S.E.2d 144 (1954). (failed service of process).)

Person subjected to unexpected danger
In Cordas v. Peerless Taxi Company, 27 N.Y.S.2d 198 (1941), Justice Carlin held that a taxicab driver hijacked at gunpoint by a fleeing mugger in New York City may be excused from negligence for jumping out of the moving taxicab to save his own life, leaving the cab on an unguided trajectory towards bystanders. While some persons might choose to be singularly heroic, that standard is not one that is required for an ordinary prudent person. Such a person is held excused from liability, even if such failure might endanger others. An ordinary prudent person is not under any obligation to undertake a heroic duty at the risk of his own life. "The first duty in an emergency is to one's own self, as long as that person did not contribute to or cause the emergency." (Emergency Doctrine.)

Negligence per se

When a statute, which is designed to protect the public, is violated while performing an allegedly negligent act, a court may adopt the statute as establishing the standard of care for tort liability.  This is negligence per se.  There is no negligence per se doctrine in federal law.

Four elements are deemed necessary for a statute to apply in a negligence case.  First the person harmed must be a member of the class of persons which the law was intended to protect. Second, the danger or harm must be one that the law was intended to prevent.  Thirdly, there must be some causal relationship established between the breach of the statute and the harm caused.  Fourthly, the criminal statute must be concrete, specific and measurable enough to clearly establish a standard of breach. Courts are reluctant to create new torts out of criminal statutes. (See Restatement (Second) of Torts, sections 297, 288.)

However, there are five valid excuses that are available for a defendant to defeat a standard of negligence per se. (Restatement (Second) of Torts section 288.1(2).) First, the defendant may not know of the breach due to incompetence.  Secondly, he might either lack knowledge or reason to know of the breach or duty.  Furthermore, for some explainable reason, he may be unable to comply, despite diligence.  The breach may be due to a sudden emergency not of one's own making. And lastly, in special situations it may be safer to not comply than to comply.  In cases where these defenses are applied, negligence per se doctrine creates no more than a rebuttable presumption of negligence that shifts the burden of proof from the plaintiff to the defendant.

Reasonable person/ordinary care

In balancing risks to establish a reasonable person's standard of ordinary care, the calculus of negligence establishes that the probability of the harm potentially caused (P) must be balanced along with the gravity of the harm which could result (G), against the burden of conforming to a new and less dangerous course of action (B) along with the utility of maintaining the same course of action as it was (U). This is sometimes noted in shorthand as P+G v. B+U, deriving from a formulation expressed by Judge Learned Hand. (United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 F.2d 169 (1947).)

Common Carrier or Innkeeper Standard of Care
In the Hospitality industries, the standard of care is higher, as the Innkeeper is expected to seek out potential danger and prevent it. " Innkeeper/Common Carrier - very high degree of care - liable for slight negligence"

See also
National Care Standards (Scotland)
Care Standards Act 2000
Standard of care in English law
General Social Care Council
Duty of care
Reasonable person

References

Tort law
Medical ethics
Legal doctrines and principles
Nursing ethics

Standard of care


Park Chan-Ho (, born June 29, 1973) is a South Korean professional sportsperson.  He is best known as a baseball player.

In 2012, Park plays for the Hanwha Eagles of Korea Baseball Organization.

He also played for the Los Angeles Dodgers, Texas Rangers, San Diego Padres, New York Mets, Philadelphia Phillies, New York Yankees, and Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball. He was the first Korean to play baseball in the MLB in the USA.

Early life
Park was born in Gongju, in the province of the Choong-cheong in 1973. He started playing baseball from the elementary school in the region he was born. At first, he wanted to be an athlete but he had a more talent in baseball. Then he was called by the baseball coach of his elementary school. From then, he played the baseball and he was famous for the speed ball in their ages. Park was a member of the 1992 and 1993 South Korea national baseball team. He was a sophomore at Hanyang University, Seoul in 1994 when he was signed by the Los Angeles Dodgers as an amateur free agent.

Career
As he was famous for in the MLB, he was taken out for the Korean National Baseball team for the main pitcher in 2006 in World Baseball Classics. The reason is that he was good at playing baseball in the all matches and he noticed that he functioned as a cheering up the other players. He once won 18 games in one year, was selected as an all-star player and made 100 wins in his own life three years ago.

In addition, he participated in the 18th Asian Games in Bang-Kok, getting the gold medal and the privilege so he did not have to serve in the military. All this privilege originated from getting an award from the vice-premier in 1998. However, as shown above, he did not get any award in the MLB except for being selected as one of the all-star players in 2001.

An absolute 5th starter Park Chan-Ho
He was selected in the 5th starter of LA Dodgers. At that time, there were so many famous pitchers in the team. There are Ramon E. Martinez, Nomo Hideo and Pedro Julio Astacio Pura etc. The players were players in that period in the MLB. The most surprising was the first pitcher who participated in the all games, and then the second pitcher who are selected in the 5th starter. However, in the practicing matches, he committed error by himself and then he was in the trouble situation, but after the game, he was also noticed that he had to go down for minor leagues. Nevertheless, he displayed his abilities and potentials to the all of coaches in the Dodgers. In a series of games, he was participated in the middle of the game, the results of the game was a record with no losing point during 2innings. As a result of this kind of good game, fortunately, he was left in the major leagues.

Starting with Asian famous pitcher in the MLB
He got first winning in April 7th in 1996 when the time is first year left in the major leagues. The match was against with Chicago Cubs, and he was participated in the middle of the game. Then, he recorded no losing point during 4innings, so that he got the first winning point and he started with the period of prosperity. Then, he was selected in the fixed starter of LA Dodgers and then his annual salary was sharply increased. From then on, he was really famous for the Korean super pitcher in the LA and all of United States. And he pitched whole game first in 1997 and then in 1998 he got fifteen winnings and nine loses and in 1998 thirteen winnings and eleven loses etc.

A severe trial Park Chan-Ho
During about ten seasons, he was really good at baseball game. However, all of sports players had more or less tough seasons for about one or two times. It means that the suffering was stimulus for the players so that they were trying to recover the trial, but Park Chan-Ho was not exception. He was traded into another team such as Texas Rangers, Sandiego Padres, New York Mets and Philadelphia Phillis. Then, he was always in the minor leagues and, of course, he was cut down for his annual salary. At last, he announced that he decided to resign the player and to be a good coach in this year.

The meaning of entry of him in the MLB
It means that the Asian players can be a MLB player and they can achieve their purpose. Thus, we will show our potential to citizens of U.S.A. In addition to this, the players who are in the Korean leagues and the amateur players have a dream that they will be in the leagues. Then, the players are motivated by the different chances and they also contribute to develop economy of our society. And then, if they stop the players, they will become coaches in Korea, and then our chronic problem about the culture of sports players will have some solutions.

References

Other websites
 박찬호 at Naver.com

1973 births
Living people
South Korean baseball players
Los Angeles Dodgers players
Texas Rangers players
San Diego Padres players
New York Mets players
Philadelphia Phillies players
New York Yankees players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
National League All-Stars

Chan Ho Park


The Isra and Mi'raj are two parts of a story that Muslims tell about Muhammad.  They say that in the year 621, while he was resting in the Kaaba in Mecca, an angel came to him, with an animal called a Buraq.  The Buraq carried Muhammad to a mosque that was far away, and then the Buraq took Muhammad up into heaven.  While in Heaven, Muhammad met Adam and Moses and Allah (God), and then came back down to Earth.

Every year, Muslims hold a festival for the Isra and Mi'raj.  They bring their children to the mosques, where the children can hear the story, and then pray with the grownups.  Afterwards there is a feast and everyone can eat.

History of Islam
Quran

Isra' and Mi'raj


The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the phonemic and phonetic representation of all spoken languages.

For a treatment of the English language using the IPA, see International Phonetic Alphabet for English; for a brief chart, see IPA chart for English.

ބައިނަލްއަޤްވާމީ އަޑުބިނާގެ އަލިފުބާ


Chlorine dioxide is a chemical compound (a thing made when two or more chemical elements attach to each other). Its chemical formula is ClO2. The Cl means 1 chlorine ion and the O2 means two oxide ions. The chlorine is in its +4 oxidation state. That means that when the chemical compound was made, four electrons were taken from the chlorine and given to the oxygens.

Description
It is a yellowish gas. It has a bad smell. It can explode easily. It reacts (has chemical reactions with) many other chemicals. It explodes when it is more than 15% concentration in air. When light is shined on it, it can explode. It dissolves easily in cold water.

How it is made
It is made by oxidation (the pulling of electrons away from) of sodium chlorite by chlorine gas.

It can also be made by reduction (giving electrons to) of sodium chlorate in an acidic solution. There are some reducing agents (chemicals that reduce another chemical) that can be used. Methanol (an alcohol), sulfur dioxide (a gas made by burning sulfur), hydrochloric acid (a common acid), or hydrogen peroxide can be used.

There are even more ways to make chlorine dioxide. Sodium chlorite can react with a mixture of sodium hypochlorite and hydrochloric acid to make chlorine dioxide.

Sodium chlorite reacts with hydrochloric acid to make chlorine dioxide.

Electrolysis (the passing of an electric current through a liquid) of a chlorite solution like sodium chlorite makes chlorine dioxide.

Chlorine dioxide can explode easily.  That is why it is normally made when it is needed, and immediately dissolved in water to make it safer.  It is not normally packaged and sent to people that need it.

Uses
Chlorine dioxide is used to bleach wood pulp to make paper. It can also be used to disinfect water. There are some ways it is better than chlorine. It is less corrosive (breaking down other things) than chlorine and does not make as many bad things in water.

Related pages

Perchlorate
Hypochlorous acid
Bromine dioxide

Chlorine compounds
Oxides

Chlorine dioxide


American Gothic is a painting made by Grant Wood. It was painted in the early 20th century. The painting is a father and daughter (not his wife as many people think) standing beside each other with the father holding a pitchfork in his hand standing in front of a house. The painting was painted on a beaverboard with oil and is currently on display in the Art Institute of Chicago.

References

1930s paintings
American paintings

American Gothic


Satellite television is a way of sending television signals.  Television channels go to a ground station, which sends them by radio waves to a communications satellite in space.  The satellite then transmits that signal back to earth. People with a satellite dish can receive the signals.  Very often, satellite television is provided as a pay television service (especially to places where cable TV is not available).  Here are some examples:
 Sky (UK)
 Freesat (UK)
 Dish Network (US)
 Astro (satellite TV)

Television technology

Satellite television


Welwyn Studios was a British film studio located at Broadwater Road, Welwyn Garden City, in Hertfordshire. The facility operated between 1928 and 1950.

The studios were first constructed by British Instructional Films, and converted to make sound films shortly afterwards. The studios were later taken over by British International Pictures (from 1933, the Associated British Picture Corporation) who used them as the base for production of the company's supporting features as well as an overflow facility for the main complex at Elstree Studios. A number of films were also made there by independent companies.

Welwyn Garden City, anxious to develop the town with home industries, had initially approached A.E Bundy, who had bought British Instructional Films, from Sir Oswald Stoll. Bundy was offered the site on favourable terms and thousands of girders, left over after Stoll had enlarged his Surbiton Studios, further reduced the construction cost. H. Bruce Woolfe, producer of significant First World War documentaries, was the major figure at the studios. Welwyn was one of the pioneer studios in Britain - it produced one of the first British sound films, claimed to use the first back-projection shot - in Battles of the Coronel and Falkland Islands - , and was important in the production of British educational films. Woolfe made the popular Secrets of Nature series and war films, the afore-mentioned Battles of the Coronel and Falkland Islands and Tell England. Tell England, a story concerned with the Gallipoli landings, was directed by Anthony Asquith for British Instructional Films, and he was  an artist who had been given his first chance at Welwyn studios.

Later films made at Welwyn  included The Night Has Eyes (1942) with James Mason,  Queen of Spades (1949), Quiet Weekend (1946), Cairo Road (1950), with Eric Portman,  No Place For Jennifer (1950) with Leo Genn, and Last Holiday (1950 film). The studios were apparently not ideal for talkies and noises easily penetrated and made shooting difficult - the 5pm hooter from the nearby Nabisco Shredded wheat factory and the adjacent main-line railway were amongst the distractions. Of the 194 employees in 1950, 46 transferred to Associated British Picture Corporation's studios at Elstree.  The three-studio complex was sold in 1951 to a tobacco company.

References

British film studios

Buildings and structures in Hertfordshire
Film production companies of the United Kingdom
Associated British Picture Corporation

Welwyn Studios


The Roman Kingdom () was the monarchical government of the city of Rome and its territories. No written records from the time survive. The histories about it were written during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire and are largely based on legend. Therefore, not much is certain about the history of the Roman Kingdom.

However, the history of the Roman Kingdom began with the founding of Rome, which is traditionally dated to 753 BC, and ended with the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of the Roman Republic in about 509 BC.

Birth
What eventually became the Roman Empire began as settlements around the Palatine Hill along the River Tiber in central Italy. The river was navigable up to that place. The site had a ford at which the Tiber could be crossed. The Palatine Hill and the hills surrounding it presented easily-defended positions in the wide fertile plain surrounding them. All of those features contributed to the success of the city.

The traditional account of Roman history is that in the first centuries, Rome was ruled by a succession of seven kings. That traditional chronology is discounted by modern scholarship. The Gauls destroyed all of Rome's historical records when they sacked the city after the Battle of the Allia in 390 BC or 387/6 and so no contemporary records of the kingdom exist. All of the accounts of the kings must be questioned.

Kings
After Romulus, who created the Senate, there were, according to legend, six more kings: Numa Pompilius, Tullo Ostilio, Anco Marzio,  Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus. After Romulus died, the Roman Senate could elect a new king, and after much debate between Romans and Sabines, it agreed to allow the Curiate Assembly to vote for a new king of Rome. It chose Numa Pompilius, who unlike Romulus was against war and thought that the best course for Rome was peace. He is credited with bringing religion into the average Roman everyday life.

The power of the kings was almost absolute, but the Senate had some influence. One important difference from other kingdoms was that kingship was not hereditary.

Election
Whenever a king died, Rome entered a period of interregnum. The supreme power of the state would go to the Senate, which was responsible for finding a new king. The Senate would assemble and appoint one of its own members, the interrex, to serve for a period of five days with the sole purpose of nominating the next king of Rome.

After the five-day period, the interrex would appoint another senator with the Senate's consent for another five-day term. The process would continue until a new king was elected. When the interrex found a suitable nominee to be king, he would bring the nominee before the Senate, who would review him. If the Senate passed the nominee, the interrex would convene the Assembly and preside over it during the election of the king.

Once proposed to the Assembly, the people of Rome could either accept or reject him. If accepted, the king-elect did not immediately enter office. Two other acts still had to take place before he was invested with the full regal authority and power.

It was first necessary to obtain the divine will of the gods for his appointment by means of the auspices since the king would serve as high priest of Rome. The ceremony was performed by an augur, who conducted the king-elect to the citadel, where he was placed on a stone seat as the people waited below. If the king was found worthy of the kingship, the augur announced that the gods had given favourable tokens to confirm the king's priestly character.

The second act that had to be performed was the conferral of the imperium upon the king. The Assembly's previous vote determined only who was to be king, not whether he had the necessary power. Accordingly, the king himself proposed to the Assembly a law granting him imperium, and the Assembly granted it by voting for the law.

In theory, the people of Rome elected their leader, but the Senate had most of the control over the process.

Romulus
Romulus was Rome's first king and the city's founder, and the two names are clearly linked. In 753 BC, Romulus began building the city upon the Palatine Hill. The story goes that after founding and naming Rome, he permitted men of all classes to come to Rome as citizens, including slaves and freemen without distinction. To provide his citizens with wives, Romulus invited the neighbouring tribes to a festival in Rome, where he abducted the young women from amongst them (known as the Rape of the Sabine Women). After the ensuing war with the Sabines, Romulus shared the kingship with Sabine King Titus Tatius.

Romulus selected 100 of the best men to form the Senate as an advisory council to the king. He called them patres, and their descendants became the patricians. He also divided the general populace into thirty curiae, named after thirty of the Sabine women who had intervened to end the war between Romulus and Tatius. The curiae formed the voting units in the Roman assemblies: Comitia Curiata.

In addition to the war with the Sabines and other tribes after the Rape of the Sabine Women, Romulus waged war against the Fidenates and the Veientes. After his death at the age of 54, Romulus was deified as the war god Quirinus and served not only as one of the three major gods of Rome but also as the deified likeness of the city of Rome.

Tarquinius Superbus
The seventh and final king of Rome was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. He was of Etruscan birth, and during his reign, the Etruscans reached their apex of power. More than other kings before him, Tarquinius used violence, murder and terrorism to maintain control over Rome. He repealed many of the earlier constitutional reforms of his predecessors.

A sex scandal brought down the king. Allegedly, Tarquinius allowed his son, Sextus Tarquinius, to rape Lucretia, a patrician Roman. Sextus had threatened Lucretia that if she refused to have sex with him, he would kill a slave and her and have their bodies discovered together to create a gigantic scandal. Lucretia then told her relatives about the threat and then committed suicide to avoid any such scandal. Lucretia's kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus (an ancestor of Marcus Brutus), summoned the Senate and had Tarquinius and the monarchy expelled from Rome in 510 BC.

Etruscan rule in Rome thus came to a dramatic end in 510 BC, which also signalled the downfall of Etruscan power in Latium.

Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, a member of the Tarquin family and Lucretia's widower, went on to become the first consuls of Rome's new government, the Roman Republic. The new government would lead the Romans to conquer most of the Mediterranean world. It would survive for the next 500 years until the rise of Julius Caesar and Octavian.

Many years later, during the Roman Republic, the strong Roman opposition to kings was used by the Senate to support the murder of the agrarian reformer Tiberius Gracchus.

References

Ancient Rome

Roman Kingdom


The rue Sainte-Catherine, a 1.2 km long pedestrian street, is the main shopping street in Bordeaux, France.

Located on the former Roman cardo, this street is one of two main lines running through the historic part of the city. It cuts the center following a North-South axis linking the place de la Comédie where the Grand Theatre stands to the Place de la Victoire. The rue Sainte-Catherine and neighborhoods located to the West are very commercial areas. It became a pedestrian street for most of its length between 1976 and 1977 and then in full in 1984. It is often billed as the longest pedestrian street in Europe. It was completely refurbished between 2000 and 2003 in a project by Jean-Michel Wilmotte.

At the center of the rue Sainte-Catherine you find place Saint-Projet (Auvergnat bishop died in 674). The cross intersection was restored in 1977, it was at the centre of a cemetery since 1392. The church was located to the south and its bell tower still remains. The fountain was made around 1715.

At the top of the street is one of the entrances to the Galerie Bordelaise, a shopping mall which opened in 1834.

At the junction of the street and the cours Alsace-Lorraine, a bas-relief indicates the presence of two underground rivers that are flowing into the Garonne: the Peugue and Devèze.

Transport
The rue Sainte-Catherine is served by Line A of the Tramway de Bordeaux, station Sainte-Catherine, and Line B, stations Grand Théâtre and  Victoire.

External links
 Plan interactif UrbanDive (proposé par les Pages jaunes)

Streets in Bordeaux
Pedestrian streets in France
Tourist attractions in Bordeaux

Rue Sainte-Catherine (Bordeaux)


Mèng Kē (), who is usually known as Meng Zi (),which means "Master Meng," or Mencius (which is the Latin form of Meng Zi), was not in the generation of students who worked directly with Confucius, but in the second generation after it. He lived from about 371 B.C. to about 289 B.C. Mencius regarded Confucius as the greatest teacher,<ref>Mencius;;, 2A:22</ref> and he wrote a book in which he tried to explain the full picture behind what Confucius taught. The book is just called by his name, so in English it is called the Mencius.In his book, Mencius taught that humans are born with four gifts: The first is the natural ability to feel what other people feel and to want to help and protect them. The second is to recognize when you are not doing your share of the job of maintaining a good society. The third is to recognize conflict situations before they grow big and to defuse them. The fourth is to recognize when some other people are hurting other people and want to obtain justice for those being hurt.

Mencius believed that just as the people owed things to the ruler, the ruler also owed things to the people. So if a man held the position of ruler but did not do the things for the people that a ruler should do, then it was acceptable for the people to get rid of the ruler, and even to kill him.

Cultural background
Mencius lived during the Zhōu dynasty.

The culture that Mencius came from believed that after people died they would have some kind of existence after life. That belief goes back to distant prehistorical times. At some time, people began to say that the dead go to 天 Tiān. Tiān has several meanings including "sky," "day," "Heaven," and "God." The earliest versions of the character 天 is a picture of a man with a very large head, which suggests "head man" or "leader." Since Chinese people believed that when any person dies he or she goes to Tiān, and that dead ancestors are more powerful than they were while still alive, it is possible that Tiān originally was the name of the earliest ancestor of the Zhōu ruling house from long before the fall of the previous dynasty, the Shàng. If that idea is correct, then "Tiān" first was a name for an ancestor. Later people may have forgotten that this very powerful spirit was originally a living human being, so Tiān became regarded as a god. After that, "Tiān" could have been used to name the place where the god lived, and since that place was high above us, it came to mean not only "Heaven," but also "the heavens," "sky," "day," etc.

China has myths that go back long before the Shàng and Zhōu dynasties. There were several culture heroes who were regarded as ancient wise emperors. There were 黃帝 Huáng Dì, known in English as the Yellow Emperor, 堯 Yáo, 舜 Shùn, and 禹 Yǚ, who all came before what is called the first dynasty, the 夏 Xià.

The story of how Yǚ came to be made emperor is very important to the Confucians. The myth says that the world started to become flooded and the father of Yǚ (whose name was 鯀 Gǔn) tried to fix the problem by building dams. Gǔn was not successful because the water just kept coming and when it went over the top of the dams then all of the water that had built up came out very fast. So Yǚ took over the job of saving China and cleaned out all of the rivers so that the extra water could easily go to the sea.

Mencius does not tell the part of the story about Gǔn, but he does tell the part about how Yǚ made all the rivers deeper to drain the land. The lesson Mencius and the Chinese people learned from the story of Yǚ was that in all things it is better to give forces a way to get out that will not cause harm, and that damming forces up will always be bad in the long run.

The founders of the Zhōu dynasty believed in the idea that King Wen, the father of King Wu (who was the first to actually rule after the Shàng rulers were defeated), continued to be able to act in the world of human beings even after his death. He and his own father and grandfather were central figures in an important document called "The Brass-bound Coffer."   Another important document is called "The Announcement of Duke Shao."  Both of these documents introduce and support the idea that Tiān decides who will be the human to act as steward or helper to carry out the will of Tiān on earth, and the idea that Tiān will only let someone be king as long as he looks out for the welfare of all human beings.

Mencius told the story of Yü in his book at 3B:9:

當堯之時,水逆行,氾濫於中國。蛇龍居之,民無所定。下者為巢,上者為營窟。書曰:『洚水警余。』洚水者,洪水也。使禹治之。禹掘地而注之海,驅蛇龍 而放之菹﹔水由地中行,江、淮、河、漢是也。險社既遠,鳥獸之害人者消﹔然後人得平土而居之。

At the time of [the sage emperor] Yao, the rivers ceased their normal flow and flooded the Central Kingdom. Then snakes and dragons took up residence and humans had no fixed abodes. Those in lower places created nests in the trees for themselves, and those in higher places made underground redoubts.

書曰:『洚水警余。』洚水者,洪水也。使禹治之。禹掘地而注之海,驅蛇龍 而放之菹﹔水由地中行,江、淮、河、漢是也。險社既遠,鳥獸之害人者消﹔然後人得平土而居之。堯、舜既沒,聖人之道衰。

The Book of Records says: "The inundation alarms me."  "Inundation" means "flood waters." Yü was employed to manage  the flood. Yü dredged the earth and conveyed the water to the sea. He drove away the snakes and dragons and exiled them to the marshes. When water traveled through the land it formed the Yangze River, the Huai River, the Yellow River, and the Han River. Since the [marshes] were in remote and cut off places, the depredations visited upon humans by birds and beasts were eliminated, and after that humans got to live on the plains. [However,] after [people's memories of] both Yao and Shun fell into obscurity the way of the sages went into a steep decline.

At 4B:26, Mencius also said:
如智者若禹之行水也,則無惡於智也。禹之行水也,行其所無事,則 智亦大矣

If these wise ones could conduct themselves as did Yü in managing the flood waters, then what would there be to dislike about them? Yü managed the flood waters by doing his work in ways that involved no great fuss. If these wise ones could also conduct themselves without making any fuss, then their wisdom would be great.

For Mencius, Yü's way of doing things was the best. Yü was one of the great heroes of Mencius.

Was Mencius a religious leader, a philosopher, or what?

In the West there was a scientist named Konrad Lorenz (1903 - 1989) who studied animals. He was an ethologist, which means that he carefully studied the behavior of animals and tried to understand why they do the things that they ordinarily do. He saw, for instance, that if baby ducks see a human instead of a duck right after they hatch, they will ever after follow humans and take them to be their parents. He called this kind of learning "imprinting."

Mencius studied humans the way Lorenz studied other animals. Mencius was an ethologist too, but in the language of ancient China he was regarded as a "master," that is, a teacher. He was a Confucian, and Confucianism is sometimes called a religion. However, Mencius does not quote religious texts and try to get people to act the way those books say to act. He also does not name fundamental truths or axioms and try to figure out how people ought to act. So he is not like most people that we regard as either religious leaders or philosophers.

In modern times we separate philosophy from science, but in earlier times the kinds of studies we now call science were called "natural philosophy," and Mencius was basically a natural philosopher. His work led to the same general kind of knowledge that Lorenz learned about ducks and other animals. Mencius asked: what kinds of things do people do that keep families and communities working well, what kinds of things do they do that harm families and communities, and why do they do these thing?

The main observations made by Mencius

Mencius said that we do not need to teach people to love the taste of good food. The feeling we have for fine cooking is natural. Similarly, he said, we have other natural feelings that are good gifts that we are all born with.  We cannot really get rid of these gifts except by destroying ourselves, but we can allow them to be covered over so that they do not work right. It is a little like the way humans cannot just take off their noses and throw them away, but they can put plugs in their nostrils and spoil their ability to smell things. So it is important that humans not do anything that would prevent their four gifts from working well. It is too bad that people often let their four gifts get messed up. When humans are well nurtured and are protected from negative forces, then they will be good of their own free will.

The virtues or powers that humans have are things that they get directly from Heaven. These same things are in Heaven. When people do bad things, it is because their other parts have taken control away from their virtues/powers. Mencius gives a wonderful story that is called Ox Mountain as proof.

The Chinese word for what has been called "gifts" above is 德 dé. It is a cognate of a word that means "to get," so one way of explaining it is to say that a dé is something that we get from Heaven. It means "virtue," but only in the sense that it is the power to do something. ("Virtue" has this meaning in English, too.) Humans have four virtues or powers. Here are their Chinese names, a translation of each, and an explanation of each:

仁 rén means the ability to feel what other people are experiencing as if it were happening to you. So if you see a person putting his hand where it will surely get hurt, maybe someplace where a cobra is waiting coiled to strike, you will feel bad and want to prevent that person from doing it. In English there are many translations for this word, including "benevolence," "empathy," "human-heartedness," etc.

義 yì means the ability to feel bad about yourself when you know you are not doing your share of the work, you are not doing your duty, etc. If you went on a trip in the forest with a group of friends, and everybody agreed to take turns washing the dishes, but you never took your turn, you would feel shame for what you had failed to do. Some of the English translations for this word are "sense of duty," "sense of right and wrong," "sense of justice," etc. It is important to note, however, that Mencius is describing a feeling of a person about what that person himself or herself does, not a feeling about what other people do.

禮 lǐ means the ability to see your own position in society and the positions of other people in society, and to do things that let people get along well. For instance, it may be o.k. for you to go in the back door of your own family's house, or even to go in the back door of your grandmother and grandfather, without knocking. But if you go into the house of somebody else, they may become afraid or angry because you do not belong there. Sometimes we need to go into the house of someone else, and there is a lǐ for that situation. The guest may knock on the door and wait, scratch on the door of the tent and wait, or do something else to let the people inside know that there is somebody outside who has peaceful intentions and would like to come in. Different cultures may have different inventions to handle this kind of situation. The important thing is that all cultures will have found their own solutions, and whatever people decide to do is a lǐ. It does not really matter whether people drive on the left side or the right side of the road. What is important is that everybody should agree to the same plan. Perhaps the best English translation for this word is "a sense of propriety," which just means that people have a way of figuring out what is proper. fitting, or appropriate to do in social situations to prevent unneeded fights. "It is not proper to just open a door to somebody else's house and walk in." "It fits the situation to knock on the door and ask permission to come in."

智 zhì means the ability to look at something happening between or among other people and see what is right and what is wrong. If one person sees a powerful adult walk up and take food away from a starving child, the reaction against the behavior of the adult will be immediate. Perhaps the best translation for this term is "wisdom," if we keep in mind that the wisdom of Solomon included the ability accurately assess the true facts of the cases brought before him. Zhì is that kind of wisdom, rather than being some kind of extreme intelligence. Someone who has zhì can tell what is fair and what is unfair.

Human beings might be able to live perfect lives if they had only these four kinds of motivations or emotional reactions to the world, but they have many other motivations. They include fear, anger, greed for wealth and power, sex, etc. Humans very easily learn that they can satisfy these drives more easily if they ignore the inputs from their virtues. For instance, a child who is large for his age may easily learn that he can take by force whatever he wants from other children his age.

Human beings are born with the four powers that would keep them from doing bad things, and they are also born with the many drives or motivations that can lead them to do bad things to satisfy these needs. So what determines who will be good and who will be bad?

Mencius observed that humans depend on one more important mental function. He called it the 志 Zhì, which can sometimes be translated as "aspirations," but which in the case of Mencius is what we would call the will. Something has to decide what to do when the ethical impulses, the moral feelings, of what Mencius called the "four virtues," conflict with the ordinary impulses that are involved with hunger, sex, aggression, fear, etc. The part of humans that balances things and makes decisions is the zhì.

For Mencius, if an individual is functioning well, then his or her will can strike a healthy balance among all the impulses and can keep the virtues from being swamped by the ordinary desires. If a person's will is not in control, then that person may do damage to himself or herself, or to other people. So it is important while growing up to learn how to keep the zhì from getting taken over by other forces—or by other people.

The individual has a free-will choice about whether to integrate (put together so they will not fight each other) all his impulses and also his intellect, or to give up and just act on whatever impulse is being felt at the moment. So for Mencius the best path for a human being is to plan and to act to make himself or herself well balanced, integrated (not in a fight with himself or herself and wanting to do both one thing and its opposite), and so a useful person to society.

Voluntarism and the ethical life

Somebody who operates at the very high end of the moral scale by "having his act together" is called a 君子 jūn zǐ, or "morally noble man." 孟子曰:「人之所以異於禽獸者幾希!庶民去之,君子存之。舜明於庶物,
察於人倫,由仁義行,非行仁義也。」

Mencius said: "That by which humans differ from the birds and the beasts is extremely small. Ordinary people get rid of it, but the morally noble man keeps it safe. [The sage emperor] Shun clearly saw the many creatures, and he made a close examination of human social relationships. His actions came out of his benevolence and his sense of duty. He did not act out [a phony] benevolence and sense of duty."
So a jūn zǐ is somebody who has managed to hold onto the gifts that Heaven has given him, the gifts that can make humans act with benevolence, be led by a sense of duty, want to act in ways that will keep good relations with others, and try to aid and protect people who are being treated unfairly. To be a real jūn zǐ, the person has to have these true feelings and to act on them. It is not enough just to act as though one has these feelings.

According to Mencius, anyone can choose become a morally noble man. All it would take would be to really make that decision and then do it. Mencius talked about Yan Yuan, who was the favorite disciple of Confucius:

顏淵曰:『舜何人也;予何人也。有為者亦若是!』

Yan Yuan said: "What kind of a man was Shun? What kind of a man am I? All it takes to be like him is to do it."

Of course Mencius realized that "just doing it" is much harder than talking about it. One has to keep watching oneself all the time.

One goal that Mencius had was to grow what he called an "unmovable mind." By those words he meant a mind that could not be knocked around by being hit from the outside. An "unmovable mind" is guarded against doing the wrong thing because one is angry, afraid, etc. Anything that can pull or push from the outside and make us go out of control could cause harm, but Mencius says that if the will and the four virtues/powers are well integrated, if the person is "really together," then these outside forces cannot take over control.

Nurturing the virtues and powers of human beings

Every culture and every society has developed ways to prevent children from getting into too much trouble. Even in a single community people may used several different strategies for getting and keeping control over their children. One way of controlling children is to beat them when they do things that the parents do not want them to do. Another way of controlling children is to make them feel guilty and expect to be severely punished because they are bad humans. A third way is to make children feel shame and expect people to laugh at them and then turn away from them. Method number four is to explain to children the likely results of their actions. "If you pull the dog's ears he will bite you." Many parents the world over use more than one of these methods, and they may use all of them from time to time.

The Chinese culture has another method that may not be well known and may be rarely practiced in other places—calling forth the use of the child's own virtue/power. When a child does something hurtful to someone else, instead of telling the child how bad he or she is the parents may say something like: "Just now we saw you take the eggs out of the sparrow's nest. We know that you are a good person at heart. So we wonder whether you thought about how the mother sparrow will feel when she comes back and finds her children gone. Would you like to put the eggs back now while they are still warm? The mother sparrow will be coming back soon."

The object of getting the child to look at the feelings that come up in his heart/mind when he or she really thinks about what he or she did is not to make the child feel like a horrible person, and not to make the child fear punishment. Once the child really listens to the quiet voice of what we in the West would call "the conscience," then the child will naturally feel what the mother sparrow would feel if she came home to an empty nest. The child will then do something so that the mother sparrow will not need to have that bad feeling. The next time the child may think about how the mother sparrow will feel before he or she steals any eggs.

It takes a long time to get really good at listing to these four gifts from Heaven, and it takes practice to understand the possible consequences of some things that one might do. So becoming a really good person is a lifetime job that is never really finished. In the traditional Chinese society, young people were encouraged to read both the stories of the past that showed good acts and also to read the books by people like Confucius and Mencius to get help in learning to see all the results and learning how to keep anger, fear, and all the other ordinary emotions from overpowering the four moral virtues/powers.

References

Other books to readThree Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', by Arthur Waley

Chinese philosophers
Humanism
370s BC births
280s BC deaths

Mencius


Tirunelveli is a city in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, India. It is also called Nellai. Thamirabarani River flows through Tirunelveli.

Tirunelveli is famous for a sweet that is generally referred to as 'Alwa' in Tamil. There are tiny villages in and around Tirunelveli like Alwarkurichi, Kalidaikurichi, Rangasamudram, Cheran Mahadevi.
Tirunelveli is a city in Tamil Nadu state of southern India. It is the headquarters of Tirunelveli District. Tirunelveli is about 2000 years old and is a town of old tradition. Tirunelveli was the capital of the Pandya Kingdom for some time, next to Madurai.

Tirunelveli is on the banks of the river Thamiraparani; it is on the way to Kanniyakumari from Madurai. It is a twin town - Thirunelveli and Palayamkottai. The town is about 650kilometers away from Chennai.

The temple of Nellaiappar and Kanthimathi is in the centre of Tirunelveli. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and worshipped as Nellaiappar. Thiru-Nel-Veli (Thiru - Shri, Nel = Paddy, Veli = Fence). It is believed that food grains collected for worship at the temple were protected from the floods by the fence, hence the name Nel Veli came.

The famous Courtallam Waterfalls are in Tirunelveli District. Tirunelveli is famous for Tirunelveli halwa.

Gallery

References

Tirunelveli district
Cities in Tamil Nadu

Tirunelveli


The Upper Midwest Emmy Awards are a division of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. The Minnesota division was founded in 1973. In addition to granting the Upper Midwest Emmy Awards, this division awards scholarships, honors industry veterans at the Silver Circle Celebration, conducts National Student Television Awards of Excellence, has a free research and a nationwide job bank. The chapter also participates in judging Emmy entries at the regional and national levels.

Boundaries

The academy is divided into the following boundaries and encompasses the states of Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, parts of Nebraska and Wisconsin. These boundaries are responsible for the submission of television broadcast materials presented for awards considerations.

Board of directors

The Board of Governors is a working board which work together collaboratively to ensure the best interests of the membership.

Carol Rueppel, President
KMSP/WFTC, Eden Prairie

Jason DeRusha, Vice President
WCCO, Minneapolis

Shari Lamke, Treasurer
tpt/KTCA, St. Paul

Ken Stone, Secretary
University of Minnesota, Woodbury

Bridget Breen, Regional Vice President
KTIV, Sioux City

Charley Johnson, Regional Vice President
KVLY/KXJB, Fargo

Dave Busiek, Regional Vice President
KCCI, Des Moines

Beth Jensen, Regional Vice President
KELO, Sioux Falls

Noel Sederstrom, Regional Vice President
KTTC, Rochester

Julie Anderson
KARE, Minneapolis

Claire Auckinthaler
Minneapolis

Karen Boros
University of St. Thomas, Minneapolis

Shawn Braith
KSTP/KSTC, Minneapolis

Harold Crump
HBI, St. Paul

Dennis Grant
KMSP, Eden Prairie

Joe Johnston
KSTC, Minneapolis

Jennifer Kasel
WCCO, Minneapolis

Susan Loyd
WCCO, Minneapolis

Joseph Maar
FSN, Minneapolis

Whitney Mares
Padilla Speer Beardsley, Minneapolis

Trish Mielke
KMSP/WFTC, Eden Prairie

JJ Murray
Eden Prairie

Justin Piehowski
IB Systems, St. Paul

Barbara Reyelts
KBJR, Duluth

Kiki Rosatti
WCCO, Minneapolis

Jim Schiffman
Lakeville Government Television, Lakeville Government-access television (GATV)

Tim Scully
University of St. Thomas, St. Paul

Jean Zimmerman
Wayzata High School, Plymouth

Emmy award winners

Emmy award winners are individuals who show excellence in the field of television. The Emmys are held to the same esteem as the Oscar Awards are to motion pictures or the Grammy Awards are to the music industry.

External links
Upper Midwest Regional Emmy Awards Archives — list of award nominees and recipients since 2000
National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences Upper Midwest Chapter: An Inventory of Its Regional Emmy Award Winners at the Minnesota Historical Society — archives of award nominees and recipients since 2000, when the chapter started to present awards

References

Regional Emmy Awards
Awards established in 1973
1973 establishments in Minnesota
Television in Minnesota

Upper Midwest Emmy Awards


The murder of Leigh Leigh, born Leigh Rennea Mears, occurred on 3 November 1989 while she was attending a 16-year-old boy's birthday party at Stockton Beach, New South Wales, on the east coast of Australia. The 14-year-old girl from Fern Bay was assaulted by a group of boys after she returned distressed from a sexual encounter on the beach that a reviewing judge later called non-consensual. After being kicked and spat on by the group, Leigh left the party. Her naked body was found in the sand dunes nearby the following morning, with severe genital damage and a crushed skull.

Matthew Grant Webster, an 18-year-old who acted as a bouncer at the event, pleaded guilty to her murder and was sentenced to 20 years in prison with a 14-year non-parole period. He was released on parole in June 2004, after serving 14½ years. Guy Charles Wilson, the other bouncer and only other person aged over 18 at the party, pleaded guilty to assault; a third male (aged 15) pleaded guilty to having sex with a minor. The investigation of Leigh's murder proved controversial, however, as several people who admitted to various crimes, including assaulting Leigh, were never charged; nor was anyone ever charged with her sexual assault. Webster's confession did not match the forensic evidence. The murder investigation was reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission in 1996, and by the Police Integrity Commission in 1998, with the latter recommending the dismissal of the detective in charge of the investigation.

Leigh's murder received considerable attention in the media. Initially focusing on her sexual assault and murder, media attention later concentrated more on the lack of parental supervision and the drugs and alcohol at the party, and on Leigh's sexuality. The media coverage of the murder has been cited as an example of blaming the victim. Leigh's murder inspired a theatrical play entitled A Property of the Clan, which was later revised and renamed Blackrock, as well as a feature film of the same name.

Background
Leigh Leigh, born Leigh Rennea Mears on 24 July 1975, was the daughter of Robyn Lynne Maunsell and Robert William Mears. Leigh's grandmother said that Leigh lived with her between the ages of about four and seven, though she did not disclose reasons for this living arrangement. Leigh's parents divorced when she was about seven years old. She moved back to live with her mother after her sister Jessie was born in 1983; her surname was subsequently changed to Leigh as this was the surname of her sister's father. At the time of her death she lived with her sister, mother and stepfather Brad Shearman on Fullerton Road, Fern Bay, having moved there nine months earlier from a housing commission flat near the Stockton ferry terminal. Leigh was a Year Eight student at Newcastle High School who enjoyed school, according to her grandmother. She had attended three primary schools successively: St Patrick's in Swansea, Hamilton North Public School, and St Peter's in Stockton. Leigh spent most of her weekends and school holidays with her grandmother at her house in Kilaben Bay. Her cousin and best friend Tracey stated she and Leigh enjoyed going to the cinema together, as well as roller-skating and "just hanging about". According to her aunt, Leigh had wanted to be a veterinarian. Both Leigh's mother and her grandmother described her as a "typical teenager".

Night of the murder

Newcastle High School student Jason Robertson's 16th birthday party was held on 3 November 1989 at the North Stockton Surf Club, a formerly abandoned building which the Stockton Lions Club had taken over four years prior, leasing it for various functions. Police estimated that about 60 people had attended the party, though figures as high as 100 were reported in the media. Most of the attendees were Year Ten students from Newcastle High School, though two 10-year-olds were seen at the party at one point. Many were drinking alcohol and smoking marijuana, and some were having sex.

Fourteen-year-old Leigh had a written invitation to attend the party and permission from her mother to stay there until 11 pm; Leigh's mother had been assured that responsible adults would be present at the party. Matthew Webster and Guy Wilson, who acted as bouncers, were the only people aged over 18 at the party. Leigh was said to be very excited, as it was the first teenage party she had attended. According to police witness reports, Leigh was one of several under-age girls who were invited to the party for the purpose of getting them intoxicated and having sex with them. According to a police report, Webster approached another person at the party and said, "Hey dude, we're going to get Leigh pissed and all go through her." Leigh was also one of several under-age people for whom an adult purchased alcohol before the party; she and her friend were given a bottle of Jim Beam whiskey, which they then mixed with Coca-Cola. She was reported to have gotten heavily intoxicated very quickly. A 15-year-old boy, who for legal reasons could not be named and was referred to in official documentation as 'NC1', is quoted to have said, "I'm going to go and fuck [Leigh]." Shortly afterwards Leigh went to the beach with NC1; witnesses stated Leigh was so intoxicated that he "had to almost carry her".

When Leigh returned from the beach, she was bleeding between her legs, distressed, crying and seeking assistance. Some people at the party reported trying to console Leigh and find out what had happened to her; Leigh "asserted she had been raped", replying "[NC1] fucked me" and "I hate him". After witnessing Leigh's complaints, Webster is quoted as saying to a group of boys "she's a bit of a slut and why don't all of us have a go". Nineteen-year-old Guy Wilson then approached Leigh, placed his arm around her and asked her for sex. Wilson pushed Leigh to the ground when she refused, and was joined by Webster and around ten other boys who surrounded Leigh. They yelled abuse, kicked her, poured beer on her and spat both beer and saliva on her. Several people witnessed the assault, yet nobody came to help her or attempted to contact the police, her parents or other adults. The assaults continued for approximately five minutes; Leigh stood up when they stopped and staggered away before picking up an empty beer bottle and throwing it at the group of boys, missing them. Guy Wilson threw a beer bottle back at her as she left, which either hit her in the leg or missed, according to different witness accounts. The group of boys followed her inside the crowded clubhouse where she sought refuge, and similar assaults continued. Leigh was seen leaving the club and walking towards the beach at about 10:30pm. Leigh's stepfather arrived at the party to pick her up at 10:50pm. He and several of the party-goers searched for Leigh, but she could not be found. After repeated search attempts, Leigh's mother and stepfather decided to wait for her to return home, assuming she had gone to a friend's house for the night. Leigh's stepfather recommenced the search for Leigh the following morning, aided by several youths from the party. Her body was found in the sand dunes about  north of the surf club. Leigh's invitation to attend the party was still in her pocket.

Leigh was found naked except for her socks and shoes, with her knickers and shorts around her right ankle. She was on her back with her legs apart. Her bra, which had its securing hook bent, was found nearby, as was her shirt and jumper, which were intertwined, inside out and stained with liquor. Saltbushes nearby had been flattened. According to the police forensics report, a blood-stained rock weighing  was found next to her, and blood stains were found up to  from her body.

Postmortem

The postmortem report stated Leigh's cause of death to be a fractured skull and injury to the brain. Leigh had been struck with great force several times, including at least three times in the head. The postmortem also found that Leigh had asphyxial haemorrhages, and multiple injuries to the jaw, ribs, liver and right kidney. Leigh had neck fingertip pressure injuries, indicating she had been choked before she died, though this was not the cause of death. Leigh's blood alcohol reading was 0.128, a level which, according to the University of Notre Dame, would have caused "significant impairment of motor coordination and loss of good judgment". There was no doubt that Leigh was violently sexually assaulted before she was murdered, and the evidence indicated that prior to the night of her murder she had not had sexual intercourse. Leigh had deep bruising to the left wall of her vagina, extensive bruising to her hymen and two tears, one  long, to her vulva. An analysis of the postmortem by Dr Johan Duflou, deputy director of the New South Wales Institute of Forensic Medicine, stated that an inflexible object, possibly a beer bottle, was likely to have caused most of her genital injuries. No semen was found in her body.

Investigation
Twenty detectives, led by Detective Sergeant Lance Chaffey, were assigned to the case though the squad was reduced to fewer than ten members several weeks later. Crime reporter Mark Riley wrote that police were going through the "exhaustive process" of cross-checking the stories of several dozen teenagers; by 5 November police had interviewed around 40 teenagers, stating they expected to interview around 20 more. The three suspects who emerged early in the investigation were Matthew Webster, Guy Wilson and NC1. In interviews on 5 November, NC1 admitted to having sex with Leigh, but said it was consensual. Wilson initially denied any wrongdoing, though in a later interview he admitted to pushing Leigh, pouring beer over her, spitting on her and throwing an empty beer bottle at her. Webster admitted to pouring beer on Leigh, but denied sexually assaulting or killing her. He originally told police he went to a pub after the party, but in an interview eight days later changed his story to state that he had gone for a walk.  Webster also stated that two 14-year-old girls had approached him and NC1 at the party, asking for some "hash", and that the two of them had obtained a small bag of  resin and exchanged it with the girls for $20. Blood samples were taken from two suspects; The Newcastle Herald reported this as probably the first use of DNA tests in a Hunter Valley murder investigation. Clothing samples were also taken from several suspects.

In her book Who Killed Leigh Leigh?, Kerry Carrington, a criminologist and prominent researcher of the murder, described the investigation as being "fuelled by mutual suspicion and by rumour and counter-rumour". People who attended the party complained of living in fear of being the next rumoured killer; Matthew Webster, Jason Robertson and two other boys appeared on the front page of The Newcastle Herald on 8 November with such complaints. For a time the most popular rumour was that Leigh had been murdered by her stepfather, and that he had been having sex with her for months. In November 1990 Detective Chaffey told journalist Mark Riley that police had heard this rumour so many times that they considered Shearman to be a suspect. Riley's article stated that the community of Stockton harboured suspicions about Shearman right until Webster was charged with murder. On 16 November Webster pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh and to supplying cannabis resin to a minor. He was released on bail, with his sentencing scheduled for 21 February 1990. On 19 January Wilson pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh; he was released on bail pending sentencing. On 28 January, upon being taunted by four boys regarding the murder, Webster assaulted one of them. On 31 January, Brad Shearman approached Guy Wilson in public, and punched him in the head three times after Wilson allegedly told him he would get Leigh's younger sister next. Shearman was charged and pleaded guilty to assault.

While he was still on bail on 16 February 1990, during his third interview with police, Webster admitted to killing Leigh. In the interview transcript, Webster initially denied killing Leigh, then "without being asked a further question" he stated, "Well, I did it. But I just can't believe ... it happened. It's just unbelievable." Webster went on to state that he saw Leigh while he was looking for his stash of beers. According to Webster, they walked to the saltbushes together, where he pulled off her clothes and stuck a finger in her vagina. Webster stated he lost his temper when Leigh rebuffed him, choking her for a while before killing her with a rock, specifically saying he killed Leigh because he "thought she would squeal on [him] for trying to rape her". After spending the weekend in a police cell, Webster appeared in court on 19 February where he was refused bail. On 21 March, while in custody, Webster was convicted and fined $250 for offensive behaviour in the 28 January assault. On 17 July Shearman was given a 12-month good behaviour bond for the 31 January assault; the judge did not record a conviction, taking into consideration that he had been provoked into attacking Wilson.

Convictions
NC1 was the first to be sentenced, on 28 February 1990, after pleading guilty to having sex with someone under the age of consent. He was given six months' custody in a detention centre, the maximum possible sentence for a youth charged with that offence. Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson, writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal, said it was likely that prosecutors did not charge NC1 with rape, as a conviction on such a charge would have been unlikely due to a lack of evidence; Leigh's complaints about the incident as reported by witnesses were hearsay and therefore inadmissible in court. On 11 May the sentence was reduced on appeal to 100 hours' community service. In reducing his sentence the judge stated the evidence obliged him to find that the sex was consensual, and that it was better for NC1 to do something positive for the community rather than possibly being led further astray in custody. A number of sources state the judge reached the conclusion that the sex had been consensual because of the inadequate way the evidence was presented to the court. On 19 March 1990 Wilson was sentenced to six months' imprisonment for assaulting Leigh.

Charges were initially laid against Webster for sexual assault, though by the time the case went to trial they had been dropped without public explanation. Hillary Byrne-Armstrong, writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal, stated it was likely that Webster was offered a plea bargain that would drop the lesser charges in exchange for his guilty plea for murder. Webster pleaded guilty to Leigh's murder on 24 October 1990. The guilty plea meant that no witnesses were called for the trial; Detective Chaffey instead read a list of facts to the court. Justice James Roland Wood sentenced Webster to a minimum of 14 years in prison, with an additional six years during which he would be eligible for parole, saying that a life sentence was inappropriate in view of Webster's potential to be rehabilitated. Wood found that Webster's motivation for killing Leigh was his fear she would report his sexual assault. Five Stockton citizens volunteered to give character evidence at his trial, describing the  teenager as a quiet "gentle giant" from a good family. Others expressed amazement at this description of Webster, who was also known as "fat Matt, the thug of Stockton". Webster served his sentence at Parklea Correctional Centre.

While acknowledging that plea bargains such as the one Webster was probably offered are common and help avoid expensive and time-consuming trials, Byrne-Armstrong stated that accepting Webster's confession helped create a legal fiction that he unquestionably acted alone in both sexually assaulting and murdering Leigh. The actual level of sexual violence that Leigh sustained was accordingly, she said, "all but erased" from the sentencing, and it appeared Justice Wood had only been given the limited information from the post-mortem report that would have corroborated Webster's confession.

Webster was the first person in New South Wales to be sentenced under the "truth in sentencing" legislation, which meant he could not be released under any circumstances before the end of his 14-year non-parole period; under the previous legislation a person of Webster's age would probably have been released after only nine years. Webster appealed the length of his prison term to the New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal, where Justices Gleeson, Lee and Allen dismissed his appeal in July 1992. In their view the crime was "so gross that nothing less of a very severe sentence would accord with the general moral sense of the community".

Webster's first application for parole in February 2004 was denied as he had not yet undertaken work release. After completing a few months of this program, Webster was released on parole on 10 June 2004 after serving 14½ years. The conditions of his parole specified that he would only be allowed to visit Newcastle or Stockton with permission from his probation and parole officer. Webster's parole was discussed in the Parliament of New South Wales, with Minister John Hatzistergos responding to queries and concluding that the option to supervise Webster's re-integration into society was better than the alternative of releasing him without supervision at the end of his sentence. Following his release, Leigh's family stated they harboured "no ill thoughts" towards Webster and wished him well in the "re-establishment of his life". Webster's parole was revoked in November 2004 after he was arrested for assault; he pleaded not guilty, citing self-defence. He was released from prison in May 2005 after the charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence.

Media coverage
Leigh's death received widespread and ongoing coverage in both the Sydney and Newcastle media, possibly due to a fascination with her reduplicated name. Between 1989 and 1994, The Newcastle Herald ran at least 39 stories on Leigh, 23 of them featured on the front page. At least ten articles on the case were published in The Sydney Morning Herald during the same period. Both the extended media coverage and the theatrical plays and film the murder inspired have led to it being termed a "celebrity crime", and to Leigh being referred to as a "celebrity victim". In 1996 Psychologist Roger Peters attributed the media fascination to the sense of community in Stockton, and due to the crimes being committed by people not considered to be typical criminals,  stating "I think one of the main things is that people can identify with people involved. Had it of been a criminal from outside who stalked her and killed I think it would be long forgotten."

Various sources considered the media coverage prior to Webster's arrest to be focused on finding something to blame other than her murderer. After Webster's arrest the media continued to search for any outside agency that might have been responsible for the event. From the beginning, media reports highlighted the lack of parental supervision at the party, and in sentencing Webster, Justice Wood made comments criticising the lack of parental supervision. Researchers Jonathan Morrow and Mehera San Roque in the Sydney Law Review wrote that Wood's comments "might as well have been quoted from the very newspapers that were covering the crime"; his comments, in turn, were heavily reported in the media. Webster's sentencing also received considerable media coverage, possibly due to his youth and the length of his sentence, as well as curiosity about the newly established "truth-in-sentencing" principles. His appeal regarding the length of his sentence received similar coverage.

According to observations by Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson, media references to Leigh being sexually assaulted "almost completely disappeared" in less than a year, as did the references to her being assaulted by the group of boys. They stated that the fact that NC1 was not charged with raping Leigh had created the legal fiction that his sex with her was consensual. The "unsustainable assumption" that Leigh consented to sex was the turning point in her being blamed for her own assault and murder on the grounds that, because she was supposedly sexually promiscuous, Leigh had somehow "asked for [the attack]". In addition to sexual promiscuity and the lack of parental supervision, Carrington states that media attention also shifted to the presence of drugs and alcohol at the party; Morrow and San Roque credit media attention to these factors as taking attention away from the abuse that Leigh suffered before she died. The epithet slut in a pretrial psychological report also became a topic of focus for the media:

Carrington accused the media of completely missing the point that the report was not stating the views of the psychiatrist, rather it was the psychiatrist's interpretation of Webster's feelings. She also considered Mark Riley's extended coverage of the case, which she described at one point as "journalistic voyeurism", to be the most profound case of shifting the blame from the assailants to Leigh herself. One of Riley's articles in particular was considered by her to have suggested that Leigh's discussions with her mother about sex and Leigh's looks and physical development had contributed to her murder. Morrow and San Roque also criticised Riley's article, stating it "disturbingly ... married parental blame with the well-documented notion that the rape victim herself is presumably to blame for her attack". Several writers, including Eva Cox and Adele Horin, rejected the concept that Leigh was in any way responsible for her sexual assault and murder. The media coverage of the murder has been considered by multiple sources to be part of a wider culture of victim blaming.

Criticism of police
Police were criticised over their handling of the investigation,  including their failure to identify perpetrators in a timely manner. It took police over three months to press charges against Webster even though they had established within ten days that he had lied about his whereabouts, had publicly stated his intention to rape Leigh, and had the opportunity to commit the crime.

Criticism was also raised regarding the relatively few convictions. Despite several people's admissions to police that they physically attacked Leigh at the party, only Wilson was charged with assault, and the adult who admitted to supplying her with alcohol prior to the party was never charged. NC1 admitted to having sex with another under-age girl at the party, though he was not charged with that offence. With the exception of the charges against Webster that were dropped without explanation, nobody was ever charged with raping or sexually assaulting Leigh in spite of the presence of graphic forensic evidence of genital injuries. During a report on Radio National, Leigh's mother said that when she asked Detective Chaffey why others were not being charged, he asked her if she knew "how much it costs to run an investigation".

Forensic testing
Police took blood and clothing samples from suspects, including the shirt Wilson was wearing on the night of the murder, which he admitted had a bloodstain on it, but it is not known whether any DNA tests were carried out. Kerry Carrington speculated that the reports of evidence being sent for testing may have been a fabrication to obtain a confession.  Leigh's grandmother told Carrington that she called Scotland Yard to enquire about the results, as a detective on the case had informed Leigh's family that this was where the suspects' clothing had been sent. Scotland Yard informed her that they had not received anything from Australia for forensic testing in the relevant timespan.

The only record of forensic testing that has been uncovered is an acknowledgement by a forensic biologist of four items being received for testing on 6 November 1989: three items of Leigh's clothing, and the blood-stained rock found near her body. The acknowledgement, however, indicates that other items were not sent for testing. Results from the supposed tests were never made available, nor was information on why the other items were not sent. According to Carrington, four years after the investigation a detective involved in the case told her that none of the samples taken from suspects were tested. Samples taken from Webster were not used in his prosecution. Professor Harry Boettcher, a forensic scientist, said that if police did not actually test the samples it would be "professional negligence – indefensible". In 2009 a solicitor who acted on behalf of Leigh's family stated that given the advances in DNA testing technology, it was time to re-examine the evidence.

Possibility of accomplices
Several factors have led to speculation that Webster was not alone when he killed Leigh. According to the transcript of Webster's confession, he was never asked if he acted alone. Carrington accused police of accepting Webster's confession at face value, ignoring both forensic and witness evidence. Her investigations highlighted several discrepancies in Webster's confession, and in the forensic evidence. For example, Webster stated in his confession that he had choked Leigh with his left hand as he knelt beside her although, according to the autopsy report, the bruises on Leigh's neck were consistent with being choked with a right hand. Carrington also questioned Webster's statement that he walked along lit streets to the other side of the Stockton peninsula to wash his bloodstained hands, when he could have washed his hands in total darkness at the beach less than  away. She also queried his claim that he had blood on his hands but none on his clothes, despite Leigh having been struck so hard blood was splattered 2.8 metres one way from her body and 1.3 metres the other way. Webster stated that he walked to the beach with Leigh, though according to police reports four witnesses said she walked to the beach alone; two witnesses stated they saw Webster and Wilson leave the surf club together. Neither NC1 nor Wilson had a reliable alibi for their whereabouts at the time of the murder; Wilson told police he was alone on the beach when Leigh walked past him as she left the club, minutes before she was murdered. Webster's statement that he only penetrated Leigh with his finger has been considered by various sources to be inconsistent with the autopsy findings of genital trauma, and the trauma is also inconsistent with NC1's account that his sex with her was consensual. In reviewing the autopsy, Boettcher said that the numerous blows which killed Leigh came from multiple directions, and were probably inflicted with different items, indicating the possibility of more than one perpetrator.

Carrington and Johnson speculated that Leigh was assaulted by the group of boys after returning from the beach, as punishment for complaining about being raped, and was murdered by Webster and two others because they were afraid she would tell other people. They refused to specifically name the two other suspects for fear of legal repercussions, though clarified that one had sexually assaulted Leigh earlier in the night, and the other likely sexually assaulted her with a beer bottle before she died, as punishment for publicly refusing to have sex with him. Webster talked to the media about the murder for the first time in 1997, and insisted that he acted alone in killing Leigh.

Aftermath
After being told that nobody was going to be charged with Leigh's sexual assault, in 1990 Leigh's mother began a campaign for the case to be officially re-investigated. In August 1994, Kerry Carrington sent a 17,000-word document and 300 pages of evidence to the Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service, asking for the case to be investigated. The commission was headed by Judge James Roland Wood, though a representative for the commission stated that Wood's involvement in Webster's trial would not affect the outcome of any investigation. In December 1994, a representative for the commission said that after thorough consideration, they would not be investigating the matter.

In May 1993 a victim's compensation case had awarded Leigh's mother and sister a combined total of $29,214. An appeal, aided by Carrington's research, was lodged against the original victim's compensation payout. In May 1995, in a landmark legal decision, Judge Joseph Moore approved the appeal, awarding Leigh's mother and sister an additional $134,048. Moore said the evidence indicated that Leigh rejected NC1's sexual advances, and that "his intercourse with her was without her consent." He also acknowledged that whoever sexually assaulted Leigh had never been brought to justice, and the lack of convictions for assault, specifically naming Jason Robertson and three other boys as those who assaulted her in addition to Webster and Wilson. Leigh's mother abandoned her efforts to have the case re-opened in 1997, citing "exhaustion and survival".

NSW Crime Commission
In October 1996, Police Minister Paul Whelan made an announcement in the Parliament of New South Wales, stating that the murder would be reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission. Acknowledging that nobody had ever been charged with Leigh's sexual assault, Whelan stated the upcoming review was "our one opportunity to right the terrible wrongs that occurred on the night that Leigh died".

In March 1998 the Crime Commission released its findings, stating that the crimes that resulted in convictions occurred substantially in the way described to the courts, that no further charges would be laid as Webster had acted alone in both the murder and the assault that immediately preceded it, and that police had not acted inappropriately in their decision not to charge other persons. It did, however, criticise some police procedures and practices. The review did not comment on the discrepancies between Webster's confession and the forensic evidence, and it did not clarify whether forensic evidence was ever sent for testing. A representative for the Commission refused to comment on whether Wilson's blood-stained shirt was ever tested. One expert opinion obtained by the Commission wrote that it was "likely [Webster] engaged in sexual behaviour which demeaned Leigh and to which he will never admit because he is ashamed and embarrassed", and Dr Johan Duflou said that a finger or penis was unlikely to have caused Leigh's severe genital damage. Hillary Byrne-Armstrong stated that these expert opinions, which contradict Webster's confession, raised questions on how the Commission concluded that Leigh's sexual assault occurred in the manner to which he had confessed, also raising doubts about several of the commission's other findings. The Crime Commission released one of their two reports on the matter; their second unpublished report was handed over to the Police Integrity Commission (PIC) for investigation.

Police Integrity Commission
Twenty-six people, mainly police officers, were interviewed in 1998 as part of the subsequent PIC inquiry. Several witnesses from the party, as well as Webster, Wilson and NC1 were also questioned. The inquiry heard allegations that police assaulted four people during interviews: Webster, Wilson, NC1 and another unnamed suspect referred to as NC5, a relative of Webster who was 17 at the time of the murder. Admitting to the inquiry that he killed Leigh and insisting that he was alone in doing so, Webster stated that police repeatedly punched and kicked him when he refused to confess to her murder. According to Scott Tucker writing in The Newcastle Herald, police were also accused of threatening violence, falsifying reports and withholding evidence; one of the officers being investigated had his police locker raided by internal affairs, who discovered several records on the murder that had previously been listed as missing. Carrington was also summoned to give evidence, though she was not informed why; her book, Who Killed Leigh Leigh, which criticised police over their handling of the investigation, had been released earlier that year. Carrington was cross-examined for three days, longer than any of the police officers who were questioned, in what was described by Hillary Byrne-Armstrong as "an inquisition on just about every word she had spoken [or] written" in relation to Leigh's murder". Byrne-Armstrong accused the PIC of summoning Carrington for the sole purpose of attacking her credibility on issues they had no intention of investigating, and to discredit someone who had attracted considerable media attention for criticising police.

The PIC released their review in October 2000. The review recommended the dismissal of Detective Sergeant Chaffey for "gross dereliction" of duty, also recommending criminal charges against five other investigative officers. The review stated that Webster was falsely arrested, as police arrested him for the purpose of questioning, something for which they did not have the power, and that he was probably assaulted by police while he was in custody. Police received further criticism after it was uncovered that they had interviewed NC1 without contacting his parents, and did not question him about Leigh's murder, only about his intercourse with her. Following the review, Chaffey retired "a little earlier than [he] intended", but dismissed the review's findings, stating he was proud of his team's performance. In October 2001, the Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press criminal charges against any of the officers, on the grounds they had suffered emotional hardship and their careers had already been destroyed. The case, which was described on PM as "one of the longest ever investigations into police conduct in New South Wales", prompted changes in the New South Wales Police Force, including the reform of record-keeping procedures.

Theatrical and film adaptations

Newcastle's Freewheels Theatre commissioned Nick Enright to produce a play that explored themes around the rape and murder. Titled A Property of the Clan, it premiered at the Freewheels Theatre in Newcastle in 1992, and was performed at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1993. The title was taken from the controversial quote in the psychological report on Webster made in preparation for his trial. Enright omitted the criminal acts and the murder from the play, instead focusing on the drama, its participants and the aftermath of the murder. The play was shown at various high schools in the Newcastle area, and following its positive reception was shown at high schools nationally, winning several awards. However, Newcastle High School, where both Leigh and Webster had been students, declined to show it. The play is set in the fictional town of Blackrock, and the rape and murder victim is named Tracy. Leigh's family requested that the name be changed, as 'Tracey' was the name of Leigh's cousin and best friend. The name remained, despite other revisions to the script; the play was retitled Blackrock. It was performed by the Sydney Theatre Company in 1995 and 1996.

Blackrock was developed into a film of the same name, which was partially filmed in Stockton and released in 1997. The community of Stockton opposed filming in the area, stating the memories of the events were still fresh and the details of the script were "too close for comfort". When filmmakers arrived in Stockton the local media treated them with hostility, and locations that had previously been reserved were no longer available. The situation was exacerbated by the filmmakers' denial that the film was specifically about Leigh, despite the choice of Stockton for filming. Leigh's family were opposed to the film, saying the filmmakers were "feasting on an unfortunate situation" and portraying Leigh negatively. Associate professor Donna Lee Brien of Central Queensland University stated that some fictional aspects in the film portrayed Leigh in a negative manner, though the book Reel Tracks by Rebecca Doyle credited the film with correcting misinformation reported in the media regarding the murder, as well as with providing a forum for reflection on the events. The film received a mixed-to-positive reception in Australia, but performed poorly when shown elsewhere; Brien stated that because the film lacked the "poignant and powerful narrative support of Leigh's tragedy", it was deemed by critics to be "shallow and clichéd".

References

History of Newcastle, New South Wales
Deaths by person in Australia
Female murder victims
Child murder in Australia
People murdered in New South Wales
Rape in Australia
1980s in New South Wales
1989 murders in Australia
Violence against women in Australia

Murder of Leigh Leigh