The Litchfield Hills (also known as the Northwest Hills or Northwest Highlands) are a geographic part of the U.S. state of Connecticut. The hills are part of the Appalachian Mountains. It is in the northwestern corner of the state. It closely follows the boundaries of Litchfield County, for which it is named.

The Litchfield Hills are known for their rural scenery. This is different than central and southern Connecticut, which is largely urban or suburban.  This region has a large part of the state's small vineyard and wine industry.  Historically, the region was well known for the limestone, iron, and dairy industries.

Geography of Connecticut
Appalachian Mountains

Litchfield Hills


The Mannes School of Music (), originally called the David Mannes Music School and later the Mannes Music School, Mannes College of Music, the Chatham Square Music School, and Mannes College: The New School for Music, is a music conservatory in The New School, a private research university in New York City. In the fall of 2015, Mannes moved from its previous location on Manhattan's Upper West Side to join the rest of the New School campus in Arnhold Hall at 55 W. 13th Street.

History

Originally called The David Mannes Music School, it was founded in 1916 by David Mannes, concertmaster of the New York Symphony Orchestra, and his wife Clara Damrosch, sister of Walter Damrosch, then conductor of that orchestra, and Frank Damrosch. The Damrosch and Mannes families were perhaps the most important music families in America at that time, with David Mannes emerging as one of the first American born violin recitalists to achieve significant status. David Mannes was the director of the Third Street Music School Settlement as well as founder of Colored Music Settlement School, all prior to founding the Mannes School. The school was originally housed on East 70th Street (later occupied by the Dalcroze School).

A larger campus was created out of four converted brownstones beginning at 157 East 74th Street, in Manhattan's Upper East Side. After 1938, the school was known as the Mannes Music School in recognition of the broader course of study that expanded the school well beyond that of a community music school, including the three-year Artist Diploma. When Clara died in 1948, their son Leopold Mannes became president, endowing the school with his fortune from co-inventing Kodachrome film. In 1953 the school began offering a bachelor of science degree and changed its name to the Mannes College of Music. In 1960 it merged with the Chatham Square Music School. In 1984 the school moved to larger quarters on West 85th Street.  In 1989 Mannes joined The New School. In 2005, the New School administration changed the name to Mannes College: the New School for Music. In 2015, the university renamed it Mannes School of Music, and moved it to Arnhold Hall in the West Village. It is now part of the College of Performing Arts at The New School, which also includes the School of Drama and the School of Jazz and Contemporary Music. The College of Performing Arts, including Mannes Prep, has a total of 1,450 students. The students in any of the three schools of the College of Performing Arts can take courses in the three schools (Drama, Jazz, Mannes), no matter which school they are directly enrolled in, expanding the opportunities for self-directed study.

Academics
Two academic divisions constitute the conservatory:
 College: the academic spine of the school, conferring undergraduate and graduate degrees and diplomas
 Preparatory: pre-college training for children and adolescents

The Techniques of Music program is the foundation for academic musical study in the two divisions at Mannes, encompassing the range of elementary to advanced music theory and aural skills and analysis classes.

Music theory was taught at Mannes from its inception, with David Mannes hiring important figures such as Ernest Bloch and Rosario Scalero to teach theory and composition. in 1931 Hans Weisse was hired, one of the leading students of Heinrich Schenker. Over the following nine years, Weisse promoted not just the study of Schenkerian analysis but the incorporation of it into the musical life of the school, including performance and composition.  Because of his association with the school, Schenker's publication Five Graphic Music Analyses (Fünf Urlinie-Tafeln) was published jointly by his regular publisher, Universal Edition and the David Mannes School in 1932.

In 1940, Weisse died unexpectedly and was replaced by Felix Salzer.  Salzer, also a student of Schenker, built upon Weisse's foundation by reorganizing the theory program into the Techniques of Music department.  The philosophy behind this move was and is to integrate musicianship, theory, and performance, which was based on Schenker's concept of the role of theory in tonal music. Salzer's leading student, Carl Schachter, as well as his students, continued and strengthened the department.

Today the Mannes program is rapidly evolving and expanding in both the study of performance and theory. Mannes has revised its curriculum to include the incorporation of music technology classes, improvisation ensembles, teaching artistry, arts journalism, film music composition, creative entrepreneurship and more, all tied to a new commitment to contemporary music well beyond the tonal-based approach of Schenker. The Mannes of today includes an ever-increasing number of programs in partnership with its sister conservatory, School of Jazz.

Notable people

College faculty

Timo Andres – Composition
Michael Bacon – film composition
Ernest Bloch – composition
Howard Brockway – piano
William Burden – voice
Semyon Bychkov – conducting
Uri Caine – Piano Improvisation
Joseph Colaneri – Director of Opera Program
Valerie Coleman – flute, composition
Alfred Cortot – piano
Robert Cuckson – composition, theory, analysis
Mario Davidovsky – composition
Elaine Douvas – oboe
George Enescu – interpretation
Ruth Falcon – voice
Vladimir Feltsman – piano
Lillian Fuchs – violin, chamber music
Felix Galimir – violin, chamber music
Richard Goode – piano
David Hayes – conducting (present Director of Orchestral and Conducting Studies)
Matt Haimovitz – Cello
Robert Hurwitz – Music Business
Anna Jacobs – Art of Engagement
Leila Josefowicz – Violin
Charles Kaufman – history, theory, President
Jennifer Koh – Violin
Yakov Kreizberg – conducting
William Kroll – violin
Lowell Liebermann – Composition
Clara Mannes – chamber music
David Mannes – conducting, violin
Leopold Mannes – theory
Bohuslav Martinů – composition
Missy Mazzoli – composition
Frank Miller – cello
Mitch Miller – oboe, English horn
Jeremy McCoy – Double Bass
Jessie Montgomery – violinist and composer
David Nadien – violinist
Charles Neidich – clarinet
Paul Neubauer – viola
Arturo O'Farrill – Music Composition
Frank J. Oteri – musicology
Anna Jacobs – Art of Engagement
Cynthia Phelps – viola
Erik Ralske – horn
Nadia Reisenberg – piano
Lucie Robert – violin
Hal Robinson – Double Bass
Jerome Rose – piano
Richard Rychtarik – stagecraft
Felix Salzer – theory
Rosario Scalero – solfege, theory, composition
Carl Schachter – theory
George Szell – composition, instrumentation, theory
Terry Teachout – arts journalism
Ronald Thomas – cello, chamber music
Sally Thomas – violin
Roman Totenberg – violin
Rosalyn Tureck – piano
Ronald Turini – piano
William Vacchiano – trumpet
Vladimir Valjarevic – piano
David Van Tieghem – sound design, experimental music
Glen Velez – percussion
Isabelle Vengerova – piano
Stefan Wolpe – composition
John Zorn – Curator, The Stone and The Stone Workshops at The New School

Alumni

Nomi Abadi – composer
Edward Aldwell – pianist and theorist
Burt Bacharach – composer and pianist
Robert Bass – conductor
Jeremy Beck – composer
Johanna Beyer – composer
Semyon Bychkov – conductor
Michel Camilo – pianist and composer
Myung-whun Chung – conductor and pianist
Kvitka Cisyk – opera singer, coloratura soprano
Valerie Coleman – flutist and composer, Imani Winds
Larry Coryell – guitarist
Lee Curreri – film and television composer
Danielle de Niese – lyric soprano
Ezinma – violinist
Bill Evans – pianist and composer
JoAnn Falletta – conductor
Antonio Fernandez Roz – composer
Richard Goode – pianist
Mary Rodgers Guettel – composer and philanthropist
Rebekah Harkness – founder of the Harkness Ballet
Eugene Istomin – pianist
Marta Casals Istomin – arts administrator
Jeannette Knoll – opera singer
Yakov Kreizberg – conductor
Gail Kubik – composer
Yonghoon Lee – tenor
Ursula Mamlok – composer
Douglas McLennan – arts journalist, founder of Artsjournal.com
Peter Mendelsund – graphic designer
Charlie Morrow – composer and sound artist
David Nadien – violinist
Hafez Nazeri – composer
Patricia Neway – operatic soprano and musical theatre actress
Anthony Newman – keyboardist
Tim Page – music critic
Charlemagne Palestine – composer
Murray Perahia – pianist
Maurice Peress – conductor
Eve Queler – conductor
Shulamit Ran – composer
Kevin Riepl – composer
Michael Riesman – conductor, composer, keyboardist, Music Director of Philip Glass Ensemble
George Rochberg – composer
Adam Rogers – jazz guitarist
Jerome Rose – piano
Alexandros Kapelis – piano
Beatrice Schroeder Rose - harp
Donald Rosenberg – arts journalist
Julius Rudel – conductor
Carl Schachter – musicologist and theorist
Nadine Sierra – soprano
Lawrence Leighton Smith – conductor
Lara St. John – violinist
Jonathan Tetelman – tenor
Jory Vinikour – harpsichordist
Frederica von Stade – mezzo-soprano
Craig Walsh – composer
Ivan Yanakov – pianist
Jennifer Zetlan – soprano

References

External links

Universities and colleges established in 1916
Music schools in New York City
The New School
1916 establishments in New York City

Mannes School of Music


The  (; ; Wade–Giles: ku-ch'in; literally "ancient stringed-instrument") is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by educated people as an instrument of great beauty and refinement. It is uncommonly spelt as Gu Qin (and sometimes GuQin or Gu-qin) in English.

Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」, but by the 20th century the term had come to be used on many other musical instruments as well (for example, the yangqin 「揚琴」 hammered dulcimer, the huqin 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (; literally "steel stringed-instrument")), so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng, another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because Robert Hans van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the qin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. Other incorrect classifications (mainly from music CDs) include "harp" or "table-harp". Other Western nicknames for the guqin include "Chinese guitar" and "Chinaman's harp".

The qin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register (its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello).  Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are special for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando (sliding tones) gives it a sound similar to a pizzicato cello or fretless bass guitar. Extended sections in music scores consisting entirely of harmonics are common, this made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized from about two thousand years.

History

Legend has it that the qin, has a history of about 5,000 years; that the legendary people of China's pre-history; Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor), was involved in its creation. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven.

Based on the detailed description in the poetic essay "Qin Fu" 【琴賦】 by Xi Kang / Ji Kang (223–262), the form of the qin that is recognizable today was most likely set around the late Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). The earliest surviving qin in this modern form, preserved in both Japan and China, have been dated to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Many are still playable, the most famous perhaps being the one named "Jiuxiao Huanpei" 《九霄環佩》, said to have been made by the famous late Tang dynasty qin maker Lei Wei (雷威). It is kept in the Forbidden City Museum in Beijing.

According to Robert Temple, the qin played an important part in the gaining the first understanding of music timbre for the Chinese. He said that "the Chinese understanding of the nature of sound as vibration was much increased by studying the production of timbre on the strings of the ch'in." This understanding of timbre, overtones and higher harmonics eventually led the Chinese to discover equal temperament in music.

In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts.  It is the longest music track included on the disc.  In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.

Schools, societies and players

Historical schools and societies
Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as qin pai (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest.

The main schools are:
Guangling (廣陵); Yushan (虞山 also known as Qinchuan (琴川) or Shu (熟)) in Changshu 常熟
Shu (蜀 or Chuan (川)) in Sichuan 四川
Fanchuan (泛川)
Songjiang (松江)
Jinling (金陵)
Zhucheng (諸城)
Mei'an (梅庵 / 楳盦)
Min (閩) in Fujian 福建
Pucheng (浦城)
Jiuyi (九嶷)
Zhe (浙)
Shaoxing (紹興)
Wu (吳)
Shan'nan (山南)

Most qin schools and groups are based in China. During the 20th century some societies began in other countries. Qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times. Today countries like Japan also have their own qin small traditions. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded. Japan has published a qinpu (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as Toukou Kinpu or Donggao Qinpu 【東臯琴譜】.

Players

There have been many players throughout the ages. The instrument was a favourite of the scholars, so many artists played it. Some famous players are also associated with some melodies, like Confucius and Qu Yuan.

Historical:

Confucius 孔子: Philosopher, 551–479 BCE, associated with the piece Kongzi Duyi 《孔子讀易》, Weibian Sanjue 《韋編三絕》 and Youlan 《幽蘭》.
Bo Ya 伯牙: Qin player of the Spring and Autumn Period, associated with the piece Gao Shan 《高山》 and Liu Shui 《流水》.
Zhuangzi 莊子: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Zhuang Zhou Mengdie 《莊周蒙蝶》 and Shenhua Yin 《神化引》.
Qu Yuan 屈原: Poet of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Li Sao 《離騷》.
Cai Yong 蔡邕: Han Dynasty musician, author of Qin Cao 【琴操】.
Cai Wenji 蔡文姬: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece Hujia Shiba-pai 《胡笳十八拍》, etc.
Sima Xiangru 司馬相如: Han poet, 179-117 BCE.
Ji Kang 嵇康: Sage of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of Qin Fu 【琴賦】.
Li Bai 李白: Tang poet, 701-762.
Bai Juyi 白居易: Tang poet, 772-846.
Song Huizong 宋徽宗: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a Wanqin Tang 『萬琴堂』 ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace.
Guo Chuwang 郭楚望: Patriot at the end of the Song Dynasty, composer of the piece Xiaoxiang Shuiyun 《瀟湘水雲》.

Classical books such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu have biographies of hundreds of more players.

Playing technique
The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the variation a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations. The rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This meant simply pluck the required string to sound an open note. The second is fan yin 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, and the player simply lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the white hui dots, pluck and then lift, creating a crisp and clear sound ringing sound. The third is an yin 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the majority of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it touches with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the hand can slide up and down, thereby changing the pitch.

When plucking the strings, it is not required to attach fake-nails on one's fingers. One will often leave their fingernails long, and cut them into an rounded shape. The length is subjective and will depend on the player's preference, but it is usually around 3-4mm from the finger tip. If it is too short, then the finger tip will deaden the sound as it touches the string after the nail has plucked it. If it is too long then the fingers can make playing difficult. Generally, the nails of the right hand are kept long, whilst the nails of the left are cut short, so as to be able to press on the strings without difficulty.

There are eight basic right hand finger techniques: pi 〈劈〉 (thumb pluck outwards), tuo 〈托〉 (thumb pluck inwards), mo 〈抹〉 (index in), tiao 〈挑〉 (index out), gou 〈勾〉 (middle in), ti 〈剔〉 (middle out), da 〈打〉 (ring in), and zhai 〈摘〉 (ring out); the little finger is not used. Out of these basic eight, their combinations create many more. Cuo 〈撮〉 is to pluck two strings at the same time, lun 〈輪〉 is to pluck a string with the ring, middle and index finger out in quick succession, the suo 〈鎖〉 technique involves plucking a string several times in a fixed rhythm, bo 〈撥〉 cups the fingers and strums two strings at the same time, and gun fu 〈滾拂〉 is to create a sequence of sounds by running up and down the strings continuously with the index and middle fingers. These are just a few.

Left hand techniques start from the simple pressing down on the string (mostly with the thumb between the flesh and nail, and the ring finger), sliding up or down to the next note (shang 〈上〉 and xia 〈下〉), to vibrati by swaying the hand (yin 〈吟〉 and nao 〈猱〉, there are as many as 15 plus different forms of vibrato), plucking the string with the thumb whilst the ring finger stops the string at the lower position (qiaqi 〈掐起 / 搯起〉), hammering on a string using the thumb (yan 〈掩 / 罨〉), to more difficult techniques such as pressing on several strings at the same time.

Techniques executed by both hands together are more difficult to achieve, for example, qia cuo san sheng 〈掐撮三聲〉 (a combination of hammering on and off then plucking two strings, then repeating), to more exciting forms, like pressing of all seven strings with the left, then strumming all the strings with the right, then the left hand quickly moves up the qin, creating a rolling sound like a bucket of water being thrown in a deep pool of water (this technique is used in the Shu style of Liu Shui to copy the sound of water).

In order to master the qin, there are in excess of 50 different techniques that must be mastered. Even the most commonly used (such as tiao) are difficult to get right without proper instruction from a teacher.

Tablature and notation

Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played like many outer musical instruments; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and plucking technique, thus made up of a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the gongche notation system, or indicate rhythm using dots.

The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the 12th century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the 7th century CE, called Jieshi Diao: You Lan 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid, in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty, Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great step forward for recording qin scores. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) onwards, a lot of qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan (朱勸), the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. Many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years.

Existing qinpu generally come from private collections or in public libraries throughout China, etc. Those that are available for public purchase are photographic copies printed and bound in the traditional Chinese bookbinding process. More modern qinpu tend to be bound in the normal Western way on modern paper. The format uses qin notation with staff notation and/or jianpu notation.

Repertoire

Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player can generally play around ten pieces from memory which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it. Players mainly learn popular well studied versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to be successful at it.

Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the conversion of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be looked at if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them. If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to say that qin music has no rhythm or melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the shorthand notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced. There are two views of how to best use dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way the original music was played.

Construction

According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou 伯邑考. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang 周武王, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 feet, 6.5 inches, representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼』.

The sound chamber of the qin is constructed with two boards of wood, typically of differing wood types. The slightly rounded top board (soundboard) is usually made of tong wood 『桐』, the Chinese parasol tree, or Chinese paulownia. The bottom board is made of zi mu 『梓木』 catalpa (Catalpa ovata) or, more recently, nan mu 『楠木』 camphor wood (Machilus nanmu). The wood must be well aged, that is, the sap and moisture must be removed (of the top board wood). If sap remains then the sound will not be clear and, as the moisture evaporates, the wood will warp and crack. Some makers use old or ancient wood to construct qins because most of the sap and moisture has been removed naturally by time (old shan mu 『杉木』, Chinese Cunninghamia or Japanese Cryptomeria, is often used for creating modern qins). Some go to lengths to obtain extremely ancient wood, such as that from Han dynasty tomb structures or coffins. Although such wood is very dry, it is not necessarily the best since it may be infected with wood worm or be of a bad quality or type. Many modern qins made out of new tong wood (such as those made by Zeng Chengwei) can be better than the quality of antique qins.

There are two sound holes in the bottom board, as the playing techniques of the qin employ the entire surface of the top board which is curved / humped. The inside of the top board is hollowed out to a degree. Inside the qin, there are 'nayin' 『納音』 sound absorbers, and a 'tian chu' 『天柱』 and 'di chu' 『地柱』 soundposts that connect the bottom board to the top. The boards are joined using bamboo nails. Lacquer 『漆』 from the Chinese lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera) is then applied to the surfaces of the qin, mixed with various types of powder, the most common being "lujiao shuang" 『鹿角霜』, the remains of deer antler after the glue has been eremoved. Often, ceramic powder is used instead of deer antler powder, but the quality is not as good. After the lacquer has dried (a qin will need several layers), the surface will be polished using oil stones. At the head end of the instrument is the "yue shan" 『岳山』 or bridge, and at the other end is the "long yin" 『龍齦』 (dragon's gums) or nut. There are 13 circular mother-of-pearl inlays which mark the harmonic positions, as well as a reference point to note position, called hui 『徽』 ("insignia").

Strings

Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.

Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings are taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother.

Recently in China, production of very good quality silk strings has resumed and more players are beginning to use them. Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone.  Furthermore, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.

Tuning
To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (shengtou jie 『蠅頭結』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou 『絨剅』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen 『軫』). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around two legs (fengzu 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or yanzu 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 1245612 in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu 〔簡譜〕. Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5612356 when the third string is played as do. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao 〈慢角調〉 (slackened third string) gives 1235612  and ruibin diao 〈蕤賔調〉 (raised fifth string) gives 1245712, which is transposed to 2356123.

Playing context
The guqin is nearly always used a solo single instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot be heard over the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin.

In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the strange style some players may sing their songs to.

Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yaji (『雅集』 literally "elegant gatherings"), at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin.

References

Chinese books on qin:

Zhou, Ningyun (1915). Qinshu Cunmu.
Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. .
Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. .
Li, Xiangting (1992). Tangdai Guqin Yanzou Meixue ji Yinyue Sixiang Yanjiu. Taipei.
Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzhoufa; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Publishers.
Li, Mingzhong (2000). Zhongguo Qinxue. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association.
Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi. Yunnan: People's Publishers of Yunnan. /I‧866
Li, Xiangting (2004). Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishers.
Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi (2005). Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi. Beijing: Shu zhi Zhai Wenhua Co. Ltd. .
Wu, Zhao (2005). Jueshi Qingyin; inc. 1 CD. Suzhou: Ancient Inn of Wu Publishings. /G‧259

English books on qin:

Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica.
Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica.
Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Other websites

Historical
A Complete Study of the Chinese Zither is an old book from 1670

Qin society sites
North American Guqin Association Wang Fei's US based qin society, with a link to a store that sells good quality qins, CDs and books as well as other Chinese instruments, updates often and a library of qin music samples and other useful material
London Youlan Qin Society Cheng Yu's UK based qin society with information about each yaji and regular updates on upcoming events
New York Qin Society New York based qin society, with information of their previous yaji, now updated with new material.

General Qin sites
John Thompson's Silk-stringed Qin A host of information on the qin and silk strings for qins in English, including extensive study of Shenqi Mipu and analysis of playing style, plus useful section on qin sources
Yugu Zhai Qinpu Jim Binkley's translation of the qin construction manual with links to other sources. Includes a qin FAQ section and pictures of his 'blue qin' made by himself
Friends of Guqin : Amics del Guqin 古琴之友 A site by Qin players in Spain (English)/(Spanish)/(Catalan)

Other specialist Qin sites
Wang Fei's Webpage A site about Wang Fei and her projects, with links to other interconnected sites
Qiulai 秋籟  Cheng Gongliang's site. In Chinese only

Sites with music samples
Listen to Qin Music page from John Thompson site
WOMAD 2005  for the Guqin and Pipa concert of Zeng Chengwei and Cheng Yu

Plucked string instruments
Chinese music
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity

Guqin


Transautomatism is a modern style of painting, founded by Friedensreich Hundertwasser. It is a kind of surrealism, focusing on the viewer's fantasy rather than an objective interpretation. Different people see different things in the same picture. The artist's intention is less pertinent to the end experience, therefore, than how the viewer chooses to interpret it. Transautomatism is based on the different styles which Hundertwasser developed, e.g. spirals and 'drops'.

Transautomatism is about Hundertwasser's theory that straight lines are 'godless and immoral'. That as humans we have lost our connection to the organic geometry of nature by forcing ourselves to exist in boxes as homes. He believed in the fluidity of line and shape hence his architectural and painting style. Being educated in a Montessori school his self-directed learning came from nature and therefore his drive to return to colour and organic states.

Surrealism

Transautomatism


The Floridan Palace Hotel, formerly known as the Hotel Floridan or Floridan Hotel, is a historic hotel in Tampa, Florida, United States. It is located at 905 North Florida Avenue in the north end of the downtown core.  It was designed by prominent Tampa architects G.A. Miller and Francis J. Kennard and built in 1926, opening in early 1927. On March 12, 1996, the Floridan was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

History
Construction on the hotel began in 1926 by Francis J. Kennard & Son, Architects and the Floridan Hotel officially opened in 1927 with 19 floors and 316 rooms, at a cost of $1.9 million to build.  At the time the Floridan was the tallest building in Tampa and would remain the tallest building in until 1966 when the Franklin Exchange Building was completed.

The hotel's bar, the Sapphire Room, was a popular nightspot during World War II for servicemen who were training at nearby Drew Field to fly B-17s over Europe.  Many of the service men at that time were housed in makeshift barracks located underneath the bleachers at the old Florida State Fairgrounds racetrack a few blocks away.  The bar's wild reputation at the time earned it the nickname "The Surefire Room".

The hotel began to decline in patronage in the early 1960s as more modern "motels" were built along the highways that skirted the city.  In 1966, the hotel closed to commercial and tourist guests and remained open to long term renters only.  By the 1980s, the once grand and luxurious hotel had become a residence for transients renting rooms by the week or month. The Floridan Hotel finally closed its doors in 1989 after the new ownership failed to bring the building up to new firecodes. After seven years of restoration, the hotel opened again to the public on July 30, 2012, as the Floridan Palace Hotel.

Restoration

The hotel had bounced through several ownership groups from 1987 until 2005.  Most prominent among these was Akio Ogawa and Sity International Inc. who purchased the Hotel at foreclosure in 1989.  This purchase is noteworthy because it was the work of Ogawa that had the building added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 12, 1996.  He would sell the hotel in 1997 to Capital LLC.

The Hotel was purchased in April 2005 by hotelier and real-estate investor Tony Markopoulos for $6 million.  An extensive cleaning and restoration of the building's interior and exterior began in August 2005 and ended July 2012. A grand opening ceremony was held on July 28 of that year and opened to the public on July 30.

The Floridan's original sign, which was found in a rooftop storage room during the cleaning of the building in 2005, and had adorned the buildings roof for decades, was restored and placed on the hotel's rooftop once more in late summer 2008.

Features

The current hotel maintains many original features of the hotel. The hotel had 400 small rooms during the 1940s. The rooms were expanded during the renovations into 213 larger rooms including 15 suites and 3 penthouse suites.

The famous Crystal Dining Room has been restored and expanded across the west side of the lobby, connecting into the lobby bar, which was originally a ladies' lounge. The Dining Room, in addition to featuring traditional continental cuisine, also includes a wide selection of Mediterranean dishes, in homage to the hotel's Greek owner.

The Sapphire Lounge on the first floor has likewise been restored, and a ballroom, housed in the former post office immediately adjacent to the Floridan, has been added, with plans to add a pool and spa in the future.

See also

References

External links

 Official Floridan Palace website
 Hillsborough County listings at National Register of Historic Places
 Florida's Office of Cultural and Historical Programs
 Hillsborough County listings
 Floridan Hotel
 Brad Massey, "The Rise, Fall and Rebirth of a Modern Florida Landmark: A History of Tampa's Floridan Hotel," Tampa Bay History, Volume 23, 2009: pgs. 1-29

Skyscraper hotels in Tampa, Florida
National Register of Historic Places in Tampa, Florida
Hotel buildings completed in 1927
1927 establishments in Florida
Skyscraper hotels in Florida

Floridan Palace Hotel


Niihau (or Niʻihau) is the smallest of the inhabited islands of Hawaii, in the United States. It has a land area of 70 sq. miles (184 km2). It is the oldest of the eight main islands.

Ownership
The whole island is owned by the Robinson family. They bought it from the Kingdom of Hawaii for $10,000. It was said that the buyer, Elizabeth Sinclair (later Sinclair-Robinson), liked the island better than other places such as Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, and the island of Lanai. There is a small US Navy base where a few Navy people work.

Inhabitants
The island has a few hundred permanent inhabitants. Almost all of them are native Hawaiians. They support themselves largely with small family farms. Many work for the ranch owned by the Robinsons. The native Hawaiians lead a rural, low-tech life. They speak the Hawaiian language and keep traditions alive. This is because Ms. Sinclair promised to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition when she bought the island. Niihau is the only one of the Hawaiian islands where the Hawaiian language is the main language.

Tourism
Niihau is also known as the "Forbidden Island". This is due to the fact that until recently, the island was off-limits to all but family members, US Navy personnel, government officials and expressly invited guests. Now, tourists can go on one of a limited number of supervised tours or hunting safaris.

Beaches
On the beaches of the island are found shells which are the only shells to be classified as gems. Niihau shells and the jewelry made from them are very popular. Many, especially those with darker and richer color, are collectors items. The sale of shells and shell jewelry brings extra money for the local people.

Islands of Hawaii

Niihau


John Forbes (5 September 1707 – 11 March 1759) was a Scottish professional soldier who served in the British Army from 1729 until his death in 1759.

During the 1754 to 1763 French and Indian War, he commanded the 1758 Forbes Expedition that occupied the French outpost of Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This required the construction of a military trail known as the Forbes Road, which became an important route for settlement of the Western United States.

Forbes died in Philadelphia and was buried in the chancel of Christ Church.

Life

John Forbes was born in Dunfermline on 5 September 1707, youngest child of Colonel John Forbes, 1658–1707, who died several months before his birth, and Elizabeth Graham, daughter of an Edinburgh merchant. His uncle, Duncan Forbes (1644-1704), was a prominent supporter of William of Orange and obtained his brother John an army commission.

In 1701, Colonel Forbes purchased Pittencrieff Park, near Dunfermline, and it was here John grew up. He had five elder sisters, of whom little is known, and two older brothers; Arthur (1703-1757), who inherited the estate, and Hugh (1704-1760), who became a lawyer. All three of the Forbes brothers had problems with money; John borrowed large sums to pursue his military career, while Arthur ruined himself expanding Pittencrief, which was sold after his death.

Forbes married Anna Donald and had a daughter Anna.

Career

The Forbes family were prominent civic leaders in Inverness, who supported the succession of George I in 1714 and were political allies of the Campbell Dukes of Argyll. John's cousin Duncan Forbes of Culloden, (1685-1747), became senior Scottish legal officer in 1737 and played a key role in suppressing the 1745 Jacobite Rising. These personal connections were essential; like many contemporaries, John was also a Freemason, another of the informal networks needed for a successful public career in this period.

Educated locally in Dunfermline, Forbes is thought to have studied medicine at Edinburgh University. In September 1729, he was appointed surgeon in the Royal Scots Greys,  then based in Scotland. He remained with the regiment for the next 28 years but gave up his medical post in 1735, when he was commissioned as a cornet.

The long period of peace from 1713 to 1739 meant limited opportunities for promotion, while the commission purchase system worked against those like Forbes with little money. It was not until April 1742 he was promoted lieutenant, shortly before the regiment was posted to the Austrian Netherlands to fight in the War of the Austrian Succession. Forbes became aide-de-camp to James Campbell of Lawers, (1690-1745), colonel of the Scots Greys and commander of the Allied cavalry. He fought at Dettingen in June 1743 and in September 1744, purchased a commission as captain.

At Fontenoy in May 1745, Campbell sent Forbes with instructions to Brigadier General Ingoldsby on the Allied right, ordering him to attack a French redoubt whose fire was impeding their advance. One shot badly wounded Sir James, who was carried from the field; Forbes stayed with him after the Allies retreated and was taken prisoner. He was soon exchanged but Campbell died a few days later and Forbes' letters display genuine grief at his death.

Many viewed Fontenoy as a 'defeat snatched from the jaws of victory', and in the recriminations that followed, Ingoldsby was court-martialled. The grounds were his failure to comply with three separate orders to attack the French position, given by Campbell, Cumberland, the Allied commander, and Ligonier. Ingoldsby claimed he received conflicting instructions and attempted to blame Forbes, who testified at his trial. While he had some justification, any confusion was caused by Cumberland, not Forbes; in any case, this was not considered an adequate excuse and Ingoldsby was forced to resign.

For reasons that are unclear, unlike many who fought at Fontenoy Forbes did not benefit from Cumberland's patronage, although he was appointed aide to the elderly Earl of Stair, (1673-1747), Campbell's successor as colonel of the Scots Greys. Some units were sent to Britain in October to put down the 1745 Rising, but not the cavalry, since transporting horses by sea was considered impractical during the winter months. Stair was military commander of Southern Britain and Forbes may have served there for a short period but contrary to legend, he was not present at Culloden. Instead, he returned to Flanders in December 1745 as Deputy Quartermaster-General and was a major when the war ended in 1748.

Forbes spent the next few years on garrison duty in different parts of Britain and in November 1750, purchased a commission as Lieutenant-Colonel of the Scots Greys. To do so, he borrowed £5,000 but with limited opportunities for further advancement, his debts became an increasingly large problem.

The Forbes Expedition

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle set up a commission to resolve territorial disputes between British and French colonies in North America, including the Ohio Country, French Acadia and Nova Scotia. Neither side was willing to make concessions, which led to the 1754-1763 French and Indian War; in 1755, an expedition under General Braddock to capture Fort Duquesne ended in a disastrous defeat.

When the global conflict known as the Seven Years' War began in 1756, James Campbell's nephew, the Earl of Loudoun, was appointed Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor General of Virginia. In early 1757, Forbes was in Southern England, training a 'light company' of the Scots Greys for attacks on the French coast. In March, he was promoted colonel of the 17th Foot, part of a force of 5,400 sent to Novia Scotia for an attempt on Louisbourg.

Following the failure of the 1757 Louisbourg Expedition, Forbes was promoted Brigadier general in December 1757 and given command of another attack on Fort Duquesne. His force contained 1,400 regulars, 400 from the Royal American Regiment, commanded by the experienced Swiss mercenary, Lt-Colonel Henry Bouquet, along with 1,000 Scots who made up Montgomerie's Highlanders. There were also 5,000 provincial militia from Virginia and Pennsylvania, commanded by George Washington, who had carried messages to Fort Le Boeuf in 1753, and accompanied Braddock in 1755.

Forbes decided to build a new road from the Pennsylvania frontier, since it required fewer river crossings than that used by Braddock, which followed a trail cut in 1752 by the Virginia-based Ohio Company. The decision led to protests from his Virginian officers, many of whom were investors in the company, including two of Washington's brothers.

As a compromise, Forbes agreed to improve Braddock's original road, but use the route through Pennsylvania. A base was established at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and a trail cut through the Allegheny Mountains, which became the Forbes Road. Already severely ill, Forbes had to be carried in a litter and relied heavily on Bouquet, who commanded the advance guard. Construction of the road and bases such as Fort Ligonier was supervised by Lt-Colonel John St Clair, who proved to be incompetent and required Forbes to do much of the work, despite his poor health.

A less appreciated aspect of Forbes' leadership was in building relationships with local Native Americans, who previously refused to co-operate with the British. These efforts were bolstered by the capture of Fort Frontenac in August, increasing British prestige, while the loss of French traders severely impacted the local economy. This methodical approach was jeopardised by the Battle of Fort Duquesne, on 15 September 1758, when a column under Major James Grant advanced too far ahead of the main body and suffered over 300 casualties. Forbes decided to suspend operations but on 26 October, 13 Ohio Valley tribes signed the Treaty of Easton with Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

After the loss of their local allies, the French abandoned Fort Duquesne and the British took possession on 25 November. Forbes ordered the construction of Fort Pitt, named after British Secretary of State Pitt the Elder. He also established a settlement between the rivers, the site of modern Pittsburgh. His health rapidly declined during the campaign; described as a 'wasting disease', this is thought to have been stomach cancer, combined with severe dysentery.

On 3 December 1758, he left Colonel Hugh Mercer in command and returned to Philadelphia, where he died on 11 March 1759 and was buried with full military honours. His final correspondence with Lord Amherst, the new commander in North America, included the recommendation he make his relationship with Native Americans a priority and 'not to think lightly of them or their friendship.'

Legacy
Forbes Field, now demolished but which formerly served as the home field for the Pittsburgh Pirates, Pittsburgh Steelers and the Pitt Panthers football team, was named after John Forbes.  Forbes Field was America's first all-steel and concrete baseball stadium. Forbes Avenue, one of the city of Pittsburgh's principal boulevards, runs from the Monongahela river in Downtown Pittsburgh to Frick Park and the start of the eastern suburbs.  It is named in his honor and roughly follows his colonial road. John Forbes Lane in Kanpur running from British India Corporation to Huddard High School is named in his memory.

Footnotes

References

Sources

 Charles M. Stotz, Outposts of the War for Empire: The French and English in Western Pennsylvania: Their Armies, Their Forts, Their People, 1749-1764 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985).
 </ref>

 Louis M. Waddell and Bruce D. Bomberger, The French and Indian War in Pennsylvania:Fortification and Struggle During the War for Empire (Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1996).

External links

Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1707 births
1759 deaths
British Army brigadiers
British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession
British Army personnel of the French and Indian War
People from Dunfermline
Royal Scots Greys officers
Royal Leicestershire Regiment officers
Scottish Freemasons
Scottish generals
Scottish soldiers
British Army regimental surgeons
Burials at Christ Church, Philadelphia
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

John Forbes (British Army officer)


In logic and mathematics, necessity and sufficiency are terms used to describe a conditional or implicational relationship between two statements. For example, in the conditional statement: "If  then ",  is necessary for , because the truth of  is guaranteed by the truth of . (Equivalently, it is impossible to have  without , or the falsity of  ensures the falsity of .) Similarly,  is sufficient for , because  being true always implies that  is true, but  not being true does not always imply that  is not true.

In general, a necessary condition is one (possibly one of multiple conditions) that must be present in order for another condition to occur, while a sufficient condition is one that produces the said condition. The assertion that a statement is a "necessary and sufficient" condition of another means that the former statement is true if and only if the latter is true. That is, the two statements must be either simultaneously true, or simultaneously false.

In ordinary English (also natural language) "necessary" and "sufficient" indicate relations between conditions or states of affairs, not statements. For example, being a male is a necessary condition for being a brother, but it is not sufficient—while being a male sibling is a necessary and sufficient condition for being a brother.
Any conditional statement consists of at least one sufficient condition and at least one necessary condition.

In data analytics, necessity and sufficiency can refer to different causal logics, where Necessary Condition Analysis and Qualitative Comparative Analysis can be used as analytical techniques for examining necessity and sufficiency of conditions for a particular outcome of interest.

Definitions

In the conditional statement, "if S, then N", the expression represented by S is called the antecedent, and the expression represented by N is called the consequent. This conditional statement may be written in several equivalent ways, such as "N if S", "S only if N", "S implies N", "N is implied by S",  ,  and "N whenever S".

In the above situation of "N whenever S," N is said to be a necessary condition for S. In common language, this is equivalent to saying that if the conditional statement is a true statement, then the consequent N must be true—if S is to be true (see third column of "truth table" immediately below). In other words, the antecedent S cannot be true without N being true. In the reverse situation of "If N, then S," for example, in order for someone to be called Socrates, it is necessary for that someone to be Named. Similarly, in order for human beings to live, it is necessary that they have air.

One can also say S is a sufficient condition for N (refer again to the third column of the truth table immediately below). If the conditional statement is true, then if S is true, N must be true; whereas if the conditional statement is true and N is true, then S may be true or be false. In common terms, "the truth of S guarantees the truth of N". For example, carrying on from the previous example, one can say that knowing that someone is called Socrates is sufficient to know that someone has a Name.

A necessary and sufficient condition requires that both of the implications  and  (the latter of which can also be written as ) hold. The first implication suggests that S is a sufficient condition for N, while the second implication suggests that S is a necessary condition for N. This is expressed as "S is necessary and sufficient for N ", "S if and only if N ", or .

Necessity

The assertion that Q is necessary for P is colloquially equivalent to "P cannot be true unless Q is true" or "if Q is false, then P is false". By contraposition, this is the same thing as "whenever P is true, so is Q".

The logical relation between P and Q is expressed as "if P, then Q" and denoted "P ⇒ Q" (P implies Q). It may also be expressed as any of "P only if Q", "Q, if P", "Q whenever P", and "Q when P". One often finds, in mathematical prose for instance, several necessary conditions that, taken together, constitute a sufficient condition (i.e., individually necessary and jointly sufficient), as shown in Example 5.

Example 1 For it to be true that "John is a bachelor", it is necessary that it be also true that he is
 unmarried,
 male,
 adult,
since to state "John is a bachelor" implies John has each of those three additional predicates.

Example 2 For the whole numbers greater than two, being odd is necessary to being prime, since two is the only whole number that is both even and prime.

Example 3Consider thunder, the sound caused by lightning. One says that thunder is necessary for lightning, since lightning never occurs without thunder. Whenever there is lightning, there is thunder. The thunder does not cause the lightning (since lightning causes thunder), but because lightning always comes with thunder, we say that thunder is necessary for lightning. (That is, in its formal sense, necessity doesn't imply causality.)

Example 4Being at least 30 years old is necessary for serving in the U.S. Senate. If you are under 30 years old, then it is impossible for you to be a senator.  That is, if you are a senator, it follows that you must be at least 30 years old.

Example 5In algebra, for some set S together with an operation  to form a group, it is necessary that  be associative. It is also necessary that S include a special element e such that for every x in S, it is the case that e  x and x  e both equal x.  It is also necessary that for every x in S there exist a corresponding element x″, such that both x  x″ and x″  x equal the special element e.  None of these three necessary conditions by itself is sufficient, but the conjunction of the three is.

Sufficiency

If P is sufficient for Q, then knowing P to be true is adequate grounds to conclude that Q is true; however, knowing P to be false does not meet a minimal need to conclude that Q is false.

The logical relation is, as before, expressed as "if P, then Q" or "P ⇒ Q". This can also be expressed as "P only if Q", "P implies Q" or several other variants. It may be the case that several sufficient conditions, when taken together, constitute a single necessary condition (i.e., individually sufficient and jointly necessary), as illustrated in example 5.

Example 1"John is a king" implies that John is male. So knowing that John is a king is sufficient to knowing that he is a male.

Example 2A number's being divisible by 4 is sufficient (but not necessary) for it to be even, but being divisible by 2 is both sufficient and necessary for it to be even.

Example 3 An occurrence of thunder is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justifies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.

Example 4If the U.S. Congress passes a bill, the president's signing of the bill is sufficient to make it law. Note that the case whereby the president did not sign the bill, e.g. through exercising a presidential veto, does not mean that the bill has not become a law (for example, it could still have become a law through a congressional override).

Example 5That the center of a playing card should be marked with a single large spade (♠) is sufficient for the card to be an ace. Three other sufficient conditions are that the center of the card be marked with a single diamond (♦), heart (♥), or club (♣). None of these conditions is necessary to the card's being an ace, but their disjunction is, since no card can be an ace without fulfilling at least (in fact, exactly) one of these conditions.

Relationship between necessity and sufficiency

A condition can be either necessary or sufficient without being the other.  For instance, being a mammal (N) is necessary but not sufficient to being human (S), and that a number  is rational (S) is sufficient but not necessary to  being a real number (N) (since there are real numbers that are not rational).

A condition can be both necessary and sufficient. For example, at present, "today is the Fourth of July" is a necessary and sufficient condition for "today is Independence Day in the United States".  Similarly, a necessary and sufficient condition for invertibility of a matrix M is that M has a nonzero determinant.

Mathematically speaking, necessity and sufficiency are dual to one another.  For any statements S and N, the assertion that "N is necessary for S" is equivalent to the assertion that "S is sufficient for N". Another facet of this duality is that, as illustrated above, conjunctions (using "and") of necessary conditions may achieve sufficiency, while disjunctions (using "or") of sufficient conditions may achieve necessity.  For a third facet, identify every mathematical predicate N with the set T(N) of objects, events, or statements for which N holds true; then asserting the necessity of N for S is equivalent to claiming that T(N) is a superset of T(S), while asserting the sufficiency of S for N is equivalent to claiming that T(S) is a subset of T(N).

Psychologically speaking, necessity and sufficiency are both key aspects of the classical view of concepts. Under the classical theory of concepts, how human minds represent a category X, gives rise to a set of individually necessary conditions that define X. Together, these individually necessary conditions are sufficient to be X.This contrasts with the probabilistic theory of concepts which states that no defining feature is necessary or sufficient, rather that categories resemble a family tree structure.

Simultaneous necessity and sufficiency

To say that P is necessary and sufficient for Q is to say two things:
 that P is necessary for Q,  , and that P is sufficient for Q, .
 equivalently, it may be understood to say that P and Q is necessary for the other, , which can also be stated as each is sufficient for or implies the other.

One may summarize any, and thus all, of these cases by the statement "P if and only if Q", which is denoted by , whereas cases tell us that  is identical to .

For example, in graph theory a graph G is called bipartite if it is possible to assign to each of its vertices the color black or white in such a way that every edge of G has one endpoint of each color.  And for any graph to be bipartite, it is a necessary and sufficient condition that it contain no odd-length cycles.  Thus, discovering whether a graph has any odd cycles tells one whether it is bipartite and conversely.  A philosopher might characterize this state of affairs thus: "Although the concepts of bipartiteness and absence of odd cycles differ in intension, they have identical extension.

In mathematics, theorems are often stated in the form "P is true if and only if Q is true".

Because, as explained in previous section, necessity of one for the other is equivalent to sufficiency of the other for the first one, e.g.  is equivalent to , if P is necessary and sufficient for Q, then Q is necessary and sufficient for P. We can write  and say that the statements "P is true if and only if Q, is true" and "Q is true if and only if P is true" are equivalent.

See also

References

External links

Critical thinking web tutorial: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Simon Fraser University: Concepts with examples

Concepts in logic
Metaphysical properties
Mathematical terminology

Necessity and sufficiency


Paraguayan polka, also known as danza paraguaya (Paraguayan dance), is a style of music created in Paraguay in the 19th century.
The Paraguayan polka is very different from the traditional polka, mainly because the Paraguayan version combines ternary and binary rhythms, whereas the European only uses binary. The juxtaposition of the mentioned rhythms gives the peculiar sound that characterizes this style. There are several variants of the Paraguayan polka such as polca syryry, polca kyre'y, polca correntina, polca popo, polca saraki, polca galopa, polca jekutu. All of them are slightly different because of the different influences and styles adopted by the composers in the early years of the Paraguayan polka.

The oldest polkas in Paraguay are from the early 19th century, such as Campamento Cerro León, Alfonso Loma, Mamá Cumanda, Che Lucero Aguai'y, Ndarekoi La Culpa, London Karape and Carreta Guy.

Celebrated polka composers
 Emigdio Ayala Báez.
 Agustín Barboza.
 Emilio Biggi.
 Emilio Bobadilla Cáceres.
 Oscar Cardozo Ocampo.
 Mauricio Cardozo Ocampo.
 Hilarión Correa.
 Félix Fernández.
 Emiliano R. Fernández.
 Maneco Galeano.
 Florentín Giménez.
 Herminio Giménez.
 Juan Carlos Moreno González.
 Carlos Noguera.
 Agustín Pío Barrios.
 Eladio Martínez.
 Luis Alberto del Paraná

See also

 Music of Paraguay
 Chamamé

References

Polca Paraguaya

Polka
Polka genres

Paraguayan polka


Hercules and the Amazon Women is a 1994 television movie starring Kevin Sorbo and Michael Hurst. This movie is loosely based on the labor of Hercules to get the Golden Girdle. Here instead of getting the Golden Girdle, he faces the Amazon women who are plaguing the men in their area. Hippolyte like in the Marvel comics and mythology falls in love with Hercules. But unlike in the myth, Hippolyte befriends Hercules.

Plot Summary

Three men are walking through the woods, they hear strange noises and catch glimpses of something moving in the undergrowth. Suddenly they are attacked by unseen creatures. Two men are killed, but one escapes and flees the woods.

Hercules strolls into a village after returning from one of his adventures, and is greeted by Iolaus. It is established that Iolaus is getting married and that Hercules is the best man. The two men set off for Alcmene's house. While walking through the woods, they reminisce that it has been a long time since they last saw each other. Iolaus tells Hercules about his bride-to-be, Ania. They stumble upon a little girl crying alone near an altar. She tells them that a monster killed her father while they were placing an offering to the goddess. Hercules tries to comfort the girl and asks if he can help, but the girl transforms into a monster. Hercules chops off its head, thinking it is now dead, Hercules and Iolaus begin walking away. They hear a noise and turn around to see that the monster is not dead, but has now grown two new heads in the place where the previous one was. The monster is a Hydra. Hercules tells Iolaus to grab the torch from the altar, Hercules cuts off the heads and burns the Hydra, preventing it from growing new heads, thus killing it. After the Hydra is destroyed a peacock feather remains in its place, Hercules tells Iolaus that Hera is responsible for the Hydra.

Hercules and Iolaus finally reach his mother's house, after a short chat with Alcmene, Iolaus invites them both for dinner, then leaves. Later on that evening while the four are enjoying dinner, Ania glimpses a man outside the window and Hercules goes to investigate. It is Pithus, the man who escaped the creatures at the beginning of the film. He explains to Hercules about his village being attacked by the creatures and Hercules agrees to help. Iolaus persuades Hercules to let him go along for one last adventure before he is married, Hercules reluctantly relents and says that he can come along. The three men set off for the village. When they arrive Hercules asks where all the women are, Pithus tells him that they were stolen by the creatures in the forest. Hercules and Iolaus head off to find the beast and rescue the village's women. In the forest they are ambushed by the beasts, they manage to stave off the attack for a time, but Iolaus discovers that the beasts are really women. After he chases after one he is fatally injured in the fight and Hercules is captured and taken to the City of Amazons.

Hercules is then seen being taken captive by the women. He has been stripped of his shirt and chained to a wooden sled assembled by the women that is attached to a horses saddle and being pulled along. The women have also cleave gagged his mouth with a black leather strap. He is surrounded by women on each side of him and led into a village full of women. He is starred at by many of the women. A few laugh and taunt him. You can hear one of the women saying "keep him bound" and another saying "Men should be seen and not heard" in reference to him being gagged. In vein Hercules muffles angry speech through the gag. Women continue to laugh at him. In the village, some women are being trained in combat and others are doing chores. When he arrives at the end of the village, the leader of the Amazon army (Lysia) helps to release him from the sled. She tells Hercules "If you're looking for men, you won't find any. Not in the city of amazons. You're the only one and I don't think you'll last very long."

Hercules is taken by the women to the Queen, Hippolyta. She removes the gag from his mouth. She tells him that she knows he is here to defeat them and that Hercules has been beaten by women. Hercules tells her she is wrong. Using a magic candle, the Hippolyta turns Hercules into a baby telling him she will show him what he is really like. As Hercules reverts to infant form we are shown flashbacks to Hercules's youth and times when he has been told by people how to behave toward women. Later he returns to adult state, realising that Hippolyta is right and that his attitude toward women is wrong, he tells her that he can change. She says that he cannot change and that all men are the same. Hippolyta goes to consult with Hera, she tells Hippolyta to lead an attack on the village

Hercules escapes from the Amazons and warns the men of the village of the forthcoming attack. He prepares them for when the women arrive. The women ride into the village and order the men to remove their clothes, telling them they are here for only one thing. The men tell the women to sit and talk with them for a while. Pithus's wife enters her home, and her son Franco asks if she really is his mother. He tells her he often dreams about her but she has no face, she removes her mask and shows her face to Franco. Hercules stands up to Hippolyta, who says she's not afraid of Hercules. He kisses her, she tells him she's not afraid and kisses him back. The two make love. The following day the women are still with the men. The Amazons return to their city and both men and women reminisce about the night before. Hera tells Hippolyta that Hercules has tricked her and to attack the village again, this time killing all the men and boys. Hippolyta refuses but Hera possesses her. Hera, now in control of Hippolyta's action orders the women to attack the village.

Hercules stops Hippolyta and realises that she is possessed by Hera. She rides off and Hercules goes after her. As they fight Hercules tries to get through to Hippolyta, telling her that she is stronger than Hera. Hercules best her and is about to deal the fatal blow, but cannot because it is Hippolyta's body and not really Hera. Hercules leaves and Hera follows him, goading him. He tells Hera that if he or Hippolyta have to die then he will give up his life for her, saying he could not live his life without her. Upon hearing this Hera runs Hippolyta's body over the edge of a waterfall, killing her.

Hercules returns to the City of Amazons, and retrieves the candle Hippolyta used to send him back to his childhood. Zeus appears and tells him the candle does not work in the way Hercules wants it to. Hercules replies that Zeus could make it work that way. Zeus tells Hercules that if he did that he would be in big trouble with Hera, but Hercules persuades him anyway. Zeus blows out the candle and Hercules is taken back to the night of the dinner. Ania see Pithus outside the window and Hercules goes to tell him that the village does not need the help of Hercules. He explains that all the men need to do is treat the women with respect and things will sort themselves out. Pithus returns to the village and when the women come the men sort out the problems that have been occurring. Alcmene asks Hercules if there is a woman out there who will make him happy like Ania did for Iolaus, Hercules replies that he is sure there is.

Cultural references

The scene involving the fight with the Hydra is loosely based on the second labor of Hercules.
The rapproachment of the women and the men is apparently based on Herodotus' account of the formation of the Sauromatae people by the union of an Amazon offshoot with a group of Scythian men.

Main cast
Kevin Sorbo as Hercules
Michael Hurst as Iolaus
Anthony Quinn as Zeus
Roma Downey as Hippolyta

Continuity and notes
 Rose McIver who plays the human form of the Hydra in this film, went on to play Ilea, the daughter of Hercules in the later TV Movies and a few episodes of the series.
This episode marks the first time Iolaus is killed. Although the time reversal undoes his death, he mentions it in the last TV Movie as though he remembers it happening. Also Iolaus' wife is never mentioned again.

Other websites

Hercules and the Amazon Women at Whoosh.org

1994 movies
Television movies
1994 adventure movies
Xenaverse
Hercules movies

Hercules and the Amazon Women


Palestinian National Initiative ( al-Mubādara al-Waṭaniyya al-Filasṭīniyya) is a Palestinian political party led by Mustafa Barghouti.

Its formation was formally announced on 17 June 2002 in Ramallah on the West Bank, part of the Palestinian Territories, by Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Dr Mustafa Barghouthi and Ibrahim Dakkak. The PNI views itself as a "democratic third force" in Palestinian politics and opposes the dichotomy between Fatah (which it views as corrupt and undemocratic) and Hamas (which it views as extremist and fundamentalist).

Ideology
The platform of the PNI states:

"Only through the establishment of a sovereign, independent, viable and democratic Palestinian state on all of the territories occupied by Israel in 1967, with East Jerusalem as its capital, can a just peace be achieved.

The Initiative calls for the implementation of relevant United Nations resolutions requiring the withdrawal of the Israeli army from the West Bank and Gaza and safeguarding the internationally recognized right of Palestinian refugees to return to their homeland."

The PNI defines this as collective Palestinian goals but sees as its own role to democratize and unite the Palestinian movement, with the focus on the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). It has campaigned extensively for democratic reform within the PNA and advocates a national emergency government encompassing all factions (including the islamist Hamas) as a means of stopping autocracy and lawlessness in Palestinian politics. This is in part motivated by the desire for democracy and in part by the inefficiency and self-destructive tendencies of the Palestinian factional system.

The PNI demands the proclamation of a single political direction, to be determined democratically, and a single policy for achieving these goals. The PNI itself believes that the methods used should be based on a reversion of what it refers to as the "militarization" of the intifada and a continued struggle by peaceful means. It has no armed wing and does not use nor advocate violence, although it states that it supports in principle a right of resistance to occupation.

Supporter base and leaders
The PNI is dominated by secular intellectuals, some of them former members of the left-wing Palestinian People's Party. It is strongly based in civil society organizations and NGOs operating in the Palestinian Territories and has extensive connections with foreign aid and support groups. Its lack of a role within the PLO and in the PNA has greatly reduced its visibility to ordinary Palestinians.

The PNI has gained some support among Palestinian exiles, most notably the late Edward Said, but is extremely weak or non-existent in the main refugee communities in Jordan, Lebanon and Syria.

The Initiative is led by a General Secretary, with Mustafa Barghouti occupying that post since its founding.

Election results

2005 presidential election
At the 2005 Palestinian presidential election held on 9 January 2005, Mustafa Barghouti campaigned on a platform of democratization as the PNI's candidate, and in the absence of a Hamas candidate (due to the Hamas' policy of boycotting all PNA institutions) quickly became the leading opponent to PLO chairman Mahmoud Abbas. Barghouti was also endorsed by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, after that group failed in its attempts to organize a single candidacy for all secular Palestinian factions outside Fatah.

During the campaign, Barghouti's fame snowballed after the international press picked up his name as the main opposition candidate. He was twice arrested by the Israel Defense Forces, suffering a broken knee in custody, and complained of discrimination by both the Abbas-run PNA and Israel, which he accused of covertly backing Abbas's candidacy. In the final results, he polled 19.48%, with Abbas gaining 62.52% and the remaining five candidates all coming in below 3.5%.

2006 legislative election
At the 2006 Palestinian legislative election for the Palestinian Legislative Council, the PNI ran as part of the Independent Palestine list. The list netted about 2.7% of the votes, winning two seats on the PLC, filled by Mustafa Barghouti and Rawya Rashad Sa-eed al-Shawa.

2005 local elections
The PNI made minor gains in the first round of the 2005 Palestinian local elections, held in January 2005, after the presidential elections.

In the second round, conducted in May 2005, the PNI by itself or in coalitions won a majority in at least six localities, with a total 10% of the vote for candidates outside Fatah and Hamas.

In the third round, held on the West Bank on 29 September, the PNI ran by itself or in coalitions in 18 out of 104 municipalities and won control of 16 councils.

The fourth and last round was postponed until December.

2016 local elections
For the 2016 Palestinian local government elections that were initially scheduled for October 2016, the PNI was one of the five left-wing Palestinian factions that formed a joint list called the Democratic Alliance List. At the elections, which took place on 13 May 2017, the Alliance won 5 of the 3,253 contested seats, gaining 0.32% of the votes.

2021 legislative election
In the abortive 2021 Palestinian legislative election, the PNI submitted a list under the name "List of the National Initiative for Change and to End the Division". The elections were ultimately postponed indefinitely and did not take place.

Initially, the PNI was in talks with other leftist parties, including the PFLP, the DFLP, the PPP and FIDA, to run on a united left list. However, talks broke down and the proposed list failed to materialize.

See also
 List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority

References

2002 establishments in the Palestinian territories
Consultative member parties of the Socialist International
Palestinian nationalist parties
Political parties established in 2002
Progressive Alliance
Secularism in the State of Palestine
Socialist parties in the Palestinian territories

Palestinian National Initiative


Stanton Macdonald-Wright (July 8, 1890 – August 22, 1973), was a modern American artist.  He was a co-founder of Synchromism, an early abstract, color-based mode of painting, which was the first American avant-garde art movement to receive international attention.

Early life
Stanton Macdonald-Wright was born in Charlottesville, Virginia in 1890. His first name, Stanton, was chosen to honor the women's rights activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton; he later hyphenated his last name after repeatedly being asked if he were related to the famed architect Frank Lloyd Wright.  He spent his adolescence in Santa Monica, California, where his father ran a seaside hotel. An amateur artist as well as a businessman, Macdonald-Wright's father encouraged his artistic development from a young age and secured him private painting lessons. Stanton's older brother, Willard Huntington Wright, was a writer and critic who gained international fame in the 1920s by writing the Philo Vance detective novels under the pseudonym S.S. Van Dine.

Synchromism: Europe and New York

Married at the age of seventeen, Macdonald-Wright moved to Paris with his wife to immerse himself in European art and to study at the Sorbonne, the Académie Julian, the École des Beaux-Arts and the Académie Colarossi.  He and fellow student Morgan Russell studied with Canadian painter Percyval Tudor-Hart between 1911 and 1913.  They were deeply influenced by their teacher's color theory, which connected the qualities of color to those of music, as well as by the works of Delacroix, the Impressionists, Cézanne, and Matisse that placed a great emphasis on juxtapositions and reverberations of color.  During these years Macdonald-Wright and Russell developed Synchromism (meaning "with color"), seeking to free their art form from a literal description of the world and believing that painting was a practice akin to music that should be divorced from representational associations. Macdonald-Wright collaborated with Russell in painting abstract "synchromies" and staged Synchromist exhibitions in Munich in June 1913, in Paris in October 1913, and in New York in March 1914. These established Synchromism as an influence in modern art well into the 1920s, though followers of other abstract artists (principally, the Orphists Robert and Sonia Delaunay) were later to claim that the Synchromists had merely borrowed the principles of color abstraction from Orphism, a point vehemently disputed by Macdonald-Wright and Russell. While in Europe, Macdonald-Wright met Matisse, Rodin, and Gertrude and Leo Stein, and Thomas Hart Benton, who called Stanton "the most gifted all-around fellow I ever knew". He and Russell returned to the United States hopeful of acclaim and financial success and were eager to promote their cause.

In 1915, Stanton's brother, by that time a respected editor and critic in the New York literary world, published one of the first and most comprehensive surveys of advanced art to appear in the United States.  Secretly co-authored by Stanton, Modern Painting: Its Tendency and Meaning reviews the major art movements of the previous century from Manet to Cubism, praises the work of Cézanne (still largely unknown in the United States), and predicts a time, soon to come, when an abstract art of pure color will supplant realism.  Synchromism itself, the subject of a lengthy, adulatory chapter, is presented as that desired end-point, the culmination of the modernist struggle, surpassing the work of "lesser Moderns" like Kandinsky and the Futurists; at no time does the author acknowledge his own brother as one of the two originators of that school of art.

About his work in this period, Macdonald-Wright commented, "I strive to divest my art of all anecdote and illustration and to purify it to the point where the emotions of the spectator will be wholly aesthetic, as when listening to good music....I cast aside as nugatory all natural representation in my art.  However, I still adhered to the fundamental laws of compsiition (placements and displacements of mass, as in the human body in movement) and created my pictures by means of color-form, which, by its organization in three dimensions, resulted in rhythm."

Not long after returning to New York, Macdonald-Wright separated from Russell but both continued to work in the Synchromist style, or with Synchromist color effects, though Macdonald-Wright's painting came to include more vestiges of representational imagery.  They held another Synchromist exhibition in New York in 1916 and received significant promotion and critical support from Willard. In 1916, Willard and Stanton were key organizers of the prestigious "Forum Exhibition of Modern American Painters" in New York. Macdonald-Wright exhibited his work at Alfred Stieglitz's famed 291 gallery in New York in 1917. Yet the sales and the renown that he had hoped for did not materialize, and his financial situation grew desperate.

California and later life
Acknowledging that he would never be able to secure a living in New York, Macdonald-Wright moved to Los Angeles in 1918. In 1920, with Stieglitz's support, he organized the first exhibition of modern art in Los Angeles, "The Exhibition of American Modernists" at the Los Angeles County Museum of History, Science, and Art, showing his own large-scale abstract synchromies as well as works by John Marin, Arthur Dove, and Marsden Hartley. In 1922, he became the head of the Los Angeles Art Students League. He also became involved in local theater, serving as the director of the Santa Monica Theater Guild as well as writing and directing plays, designing sets, and acting himself.

Macdonald-Wright was a significant presence and a charismatic personality in the Los Angeles art scene for the next several decades. He was the director of the Southern California division of the Works Project Administration Federal Art Project from 1935 to 1943, and personally completed several major civic art projects, including the murals in Santa Monica City Hall.  After World War II, Macdonald-Wright became interested in Japanese art and culture, which led to the renewal of synchromist elements in his work. He taught art for many years at UCLA and also kept studios in Kyoto and  Florence.

By the early 1950s, Macdonald-Wright's work had fallen into relative obscurity.  A renewed interest in American modernism led to his gradual rediscovery and new scholarly attention, and he was given retrospectives at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1956, at the Smithsonian National Collection of Fine Arts in Washington, D.C. in 1967, and at the Art Galleries of UCLA in 1970. "Synchromism and American Color Abstraction: 1910–1925," a 1978–1979 six-museum traveling exhibition originating at the Whitney Museum of American Art, was a watershed event in a revival of interest in Synchromism.  In 2001–2002, a major Stanton Macdonald-Wright retrospective was shown at the North Carolina Museum of Art, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the Houston Museum of Fine Arts, curated by the Synchromist scholar and Macdonald-Wright biographer Will South.

Married three times, Macdonald-Wright died in Pacific Palisades, California in 1973, at the age of eighty-three.  His paintings are in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Brooklyn Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and the National Portrait Gallery, among other museums.

References

Principal Sources
Hoopes, Donelson F.  Stanton Macdonald-Wright: Paintings, 1903–1973.  Los Angeles: Arco Center for Visual Art, 1979.
Kushner, Marilyn.  Morgan Russell.  New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1990.
Levin, Gail.  Synchromism and American Color Abstraction, 1910–1925.  New York: George Braziller, 1978.
Loughery, John.  Alias S.S. Van Dine. New York: Scribners, 1992.
South, Will.  Color, Myth, and Music: Stanton Macdonald-Wright and Synchromism.  Raleigh: North Carolina Museum of Art, 2001.  .
Synchromism: Morgan Russell and Stanton Macdonald-Wright.  New York: Hollis Taggart Galleries, 1999.
Wright, Willard Huntington Wright.  Modern Painting: Its Tendency and Meaning. New York: John Lane, 1915.

External links

 Stanton Macdonald-Wright at CGFA

20th-century American painters
American male painters
Abstract painters
Modern painters
Federal Art Project artists
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Académie Julian alumni
University of Paris alumni
Académie Colarossi alumni
1890 births
1973 deaths
Painters from California
People from Charlottesville, Virginia
Works Progress Administration in California
Federal Art Project administrators
Public Works of Art Project artists
20th-century American male artists

Stanton Macdonald-Wright


In any two-party system of politics, a third party is a party other than the two main ones. While the term should be used only when discussing the third largest party, it is often used to describe any smaller party. For example, in the United Kingdom a third party is a national political party other than the Conservative Party and Labour Party that has a presence in the House of Commons. In the United States, a third party is a political party other than the Democratic Party or Republican Party that has national influence.

The term "third parties" is used in countries with first past the post electoral systems as these systems tend to create a two-party system because successful smaller parties are rare.

Countries using proportional representation have less of a tendency to create a two-party system because successful smaller parties are common. In fact, coalitions between the smaller parties are normal in such a country. A party generally needs to have a certain level of success to be called a third party.  Smaller parties that only win a small percentage of the vote and no seats in the legislature are often called minor parties or fringe parties.

Third parties are not usually likely to win the presidency. Despite this, there are many reasons for third parties to run. In an election, the two main parties listen to the opinions of third parties. The larger parties must respond to these opinions, and sometimes the larger parties copy ideas from third parties.  Some third parties also hope that the party can slowly build its support and eventually become one of the dominant parties, as the Labour Party did in Britain.

Notable examples

United Kingdom

 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland
 Democratic Unionist Party
 Green Party of England and Wales
 Liberal Democrats
 Plaid Cymru
 Scottish National Party
 Sinn Féin
 Social Democratic and Labour Party

United States

 Alliance Party
 American Independent Party
 Communist Party USA
 Green Party of the United States
 Libertarian Party
 Party for Socialism and Liberation
 People's Party

Related pages
Independent politician

References
 McGaughey, William (2003). The Independence Party and the Future of Third-Party Politics. Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. .  Personal odyssey of unsuccessful candidate for U.S. Senate in Minnesota's 2000 Independence Party primary.

Political parties

Third party (politics)


Justin Frankel (born 1978) is an American computer programmer best known for his work on the Winamp media player application and for inventing the Gnutella peer-to-peer network. Frankel is also the founder of Cockos Incorporated, which creates music production and development software such as the REAPER digital audio workstation, the NINJAM collaborative music tool and the Jesusonic expandable effects processor. In 2002, he was named in the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35.

Early life
Justin Frankel was born in 1978 and grew up in Sedona, Arizona. Frankel had an aptitude for computers at an early age. His skill eventually led him to running the student computer network of Verde Valley School, which he attended, as well as writing an email application for the students.

Winamp
After graduating high school with a 2.9 GPA, he attended the University of Utah in 1996, where he majored in computer science, but dropped out after two quarters. A few months later, he released the first version of WinAMP under his newly formed company's name Nullsoft.  By 1998, more than fifteen million people had downloaded the program.  Since many people had sent in the $10 donation suggested in return for using the program, Frankel earned tens of thousands of dollars a month.

Frankel, along with Tom Pepper (who played a big part of the Winamp development and distribution), later completed SHOUTcast, which allowed ordinary users with an Internet connection to broadcast, or "stream", audio over the Internet. He also created the Advanced Visualization Studio, a plugin for Winamp which enabled users to create their own music visualizations in real-time, without any programming knowledge required.

Sale of Nullsoft to AOL
In June 1999 AOL simultaneously acquired Nullsoft and Spinner.com in a combined purchase worth approximately $400 million. In a July 21, 1999 SEC filing by AOL, the transaction was recorded as a payment of 2,863,053 shares of AOL common stock to the 54 stockholders in the two companies being acquired. On July 20, 1999, the last reported  sale price for AOL common stock was $113.1875 per share. Frankel's stake of 522,661 shares in the acquisition was worth approximately $59 million.

AOL
On March 14, 2000, Frankel and Nullsoft colleague Tom Pepper released gnutella, a public peer-to-peer file-sharing application, using Nullsoft's corporate web servers, without AOL's knowledge. Gnutella was a new peer-to-peer file-sharing system like the original Napster system, which was used by users to share their MP3 collections with everyone who ran a Napster client. Unlike Napster, however, gnutella allowed users to share any type of file, not just MP3s. It also did not have the single point of failure that Napster had: centralized servers that indexed where all the shared content was stored.  Whereas Napster could be (and was) shut off just by turning off the centralized index servers owned by Napster, gnutella did not rely on any centralized servers to find out what users had what content, so once a gnutella network was created, it could not be shut off.

Since AOL was at the time merging with Time Warner, gnutella seemed like a conflict of interest to Nullsoft's parent company, which knew that Time Warner was one of the parties taking legal action against Napster at the time.  AOL ordered gnutella to be taken off the Nullsoft corporate servers.  However, thousands of people had already downloaded the software before it was removed from Nullsoft's web site.  The source code was released later, supposedly under the GPL. Gnutella continued to be developed without Frankel's assistance, and became one of the most popular peer-to-peer file sharing networks of its time; compatible clients that were developed included BearShare, Morpheus, Gnucleus and LimeWire.

AOL watched Frankel very closely after that, taking down other projects that he tried to release to the public, such as an MP3 search engine and a patch for AOL Instant Messenger to block advertisements in the application. Frankel threatened to resign on June 2, 2003, after AOL removed his program WASTE, a private peer-to-peer file-sharing program, from the Nullsoft website. He stayed with AOL after that in order to complete Winamp version 5.0, a hybrid of the Winamp v2.x series and Winamp v3.

On December 9, 2003 AOL shut down Nullsoft's San Francisco offices and laid off 450 employees.

Frankel announced his resignation from AOL on January 22, 2004 on his blog,  stating "Won't repeat it here (in two words: I've resigned). So begins chapter 3... or something cliché/poetic there. Or wait, does I've count as a single word? ha ha."

Post-AOL
Some of Frankel's current projects in development (according to his blog) are a programmable effects processor called Jesusonic and a new piece of software named NINJAM which allows several musicians to make music together via the Internet.

Under his new company, Cockos, he has been developing REAPER, a Digital audio workstation for Windows, MacOS, and Linux.

Quotes

 "For me, coding is a form of self-expression. The company controls the most effective means of self-expression I have. This is unacceptable to me as an individual, therefore I must leave." - from a blog posting announcing his resignation from AOL

References

External links
 (c[a,o]s[a,o][s] de justin), Justin Frankel's blog
 The World's Most Dangerous Geek; Interviewed by David Kushner; RollingStone.com; January 13, 2004.
 Justin Frankel Reveals Life After Winamp; Interviewed by Nate Mook, BetaNews, January 3, 2005.
 Turn Off The Internet; A site made by Steve Gedikian and Justin, as a joke.
 Interview with Justin Frankel on Winamp and the Reaper; In depth interview on the design and the history of Winamp. Digital Tools, April 2008.
 The Men Who Stole the World; By Lev Grossman, Time, November 24, 2010
 Jesusonic / EEL programming reference

1978 births
American male bloggers
American bloggers
Computer programmers
American computer businesspeople
American Jews
Living people
People from Sedona, Arizona
University of Utah alumni
AOL people
American technology company founders

Justin Frankel


Castellamonte is a comune (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Turin in the Italian region Piedmont, located about  north of Turin.

It is located in the Canavese, at the feet of a hill surmounted by a 14th-century castle, hence the name (meaning "Castle at the Mount"). Only traces remain of the latter's original structure, what is visible now dating to an 18th-century renovation. The town is also home to an unfinished rotunda designed by Alessandro Antonelli, the Baroque church of San Rocco; the Sacro Monte di Belmonte is not far, though in the communal territory of Valperga.

Architects Carlo and Amedeo di Castellamonte were born in the town.

References

Canavese

Castellamonte