Lionel (Harry) Butler (17 December 1923, Dudley – 26 November 1981, London) FRHistS MA DPhil was an academic and Principal of Royal Holloway College, University of London, (RHC) from 1973 until his death in 1981.

Education and war service
Butler was educated at Dudley Boys Grammar School. From 1941-43 he did war service with the Royal Air Force (RAF). He then attended Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was an exhibitioner obtaining First Class Honours in Modern History in 1945.

Career
He worked briefly as a lecturer at Magdalen and then as a research fellow  of All Souls College, Oxford. In 1955 he was appointed the first Professor of Medieval History and later Vice-Principal of the University of St Andrews. He became the first male principal of RHC in 1973. Butler came to the college expecting to continue the expansion begun by his predecessor, Dame Marjorie Williamson. However, in his annual report for 1973/4 he stated: "We realised that [it]... would be a year of stringency with money in short supply.... The Government cuts in spending in December 1973 includes suspension... of compensation... for inflation, while rising costs... reduced the value of our grants."

In 1970 London University had set up a "Committee of Enquiry into the Governance of the University of London" chaired by Lord Murray of Newhaven with appointments by the university and also the University Grants Committee (UK). The "Murray Report" as it was known, covered all 34 constituent schools of the university and proposed "some kind of amalgamation" of schools for the purpose of economy in administration. By 1975/6 the resulting cuts had begun to threaten the quality of teaching, research, and the infrastructure. The incoming Conservative Government of 1979 cut another 14-15% from universities' budgets. This forced a reduction in staff by about 15% in 1981. A group of senior academics also concluded that the college could not survive alone, nor cover the academic range with reduced staff, and needed to combine with another of the smaller colleges. Before anything was finalised, Butler died suddenly on 26 November 1981 in London. Dr Roy Miller assumed authority in his capacity as Vice-Principal of RHC and later became the next principal.

Personal life
He was the son of the late W. H. and M. G. Butler, of Dudley, Worcestershire. He married, on 16 October 1949, Gwendoline Williams, an author of novels and detective stories, the only daughter of Alice (Lee) and Alfred Edward Williams, of Blackheath, London. They had a daughter.

References

1923 births
1981 deaths
People associated with Royal Holloway, University of London
Academics of the University of St Andrews
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II

Lionel Harry Butler


Kurt Julian Weill (March 2, 1900 – April 3, 1950) was a German composer who later became an American. Although he was trained as a composer of classical music he wrote many songs in a popular, jazzy style. He is particularly remembered for the music he wrote for the plays of the German dramatist Bertolt Brecht, as well as for musicals he wrote when he lived in New York. He also wrote symphonies and chamber music, especially during his early career.

Early years
Kurt Weill grew up in a religious Jewish family. During his teens he started to get experience working in a theatre in Dessau, where he learned a lot from the theatre conductor Albert Bing. When he was 20 he went to study at the Berlin Musikhochschule where he studied with the composer Humperdinck. He did not like it there, and soon started a three-year period studying with the composer Busoni. Busoni was a good teacher for him and encouraged him to study counterpoint carefully in order to be a good composer. Then he introduced Weill to the music publishers Universal, who published all his music for the next ten years.

German career
In 1924, Busoni died. Weill started to work with the playwright Georg Kaiser who wrote plays in an Expressionistic style. Together they wrote an opera Der Protagonist (1926) which made Weill famous. The next year he worked with Bertolt Brecht. Together they wrote five songs which soon developed in a "Songspiel" under the title Mahagonny. Between 1927 and 1929, Brecht and Weill wrote a new piece, an opera called Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny), in which five songs from the "Songspiel" were used again.

In 1924, he met the singer and actress Lotte Lenya. He married her in 1926, divorced her in 1933 and married her again in 1937.

In 1928, he wrote the music for a play by Brecht which was to become world-famous. It was called Dreigroschenoper (The Threepenny Opera). It was based on an opera called The Beggar's Opera which had been written in 1728 by John Gay. The Threepenny Opera includes a song which became Weill's most famous song, "Mack the Knife". Weill stopped working with Brecht in 1930 because they had political disagreements. Brecht was becoming more and more interested in Communism, but Weill did not want to be a "Communist composer".

In Berlin, Weill taught composition to several young composers. He also gave many radio broadcasts. By 1929, he was well-known enough as a composer to make his living just from his compositions.

Exile
Weill had to flee from Nazi Germany in March 1933. As a famous and popular Jewish composer, he was a target of the Nazi authorities, who criticized and even interfered with performances of his later stage works, such as Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny, Die Bürgschaft (1932), and Der Silbersee (1933). He went first to Paris, where he started a work with Jean Cocteau but it was not finished. He wrote one more work with Brecht: the ballet The Seven Deadly Sins. In 1934, he completed his Symphony No.2, his last purely orchestral work, conducted in Amsterdam and New York by Bruno Walter.

American years
In 1935, Weill went to America with his wife Lotte Lenya. The rest of his life he spent writing for the American stage. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1943. He thought most of his compositions in Germany had been destroyed by the Nazis. He never spoke German again except when writing to his parents who had escaped to Israel.

Weill changed his musical style. He wrote in a popular way, working with writers such as Ira Gershwin. He wrote an opera Street Scene for which he won an award. He took part in political movements, encouraging America to join in the war.

Weill died of a heart illness in New York City in 1950.

1900 births
1950 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century German composers
Jewish American musicians
Jewish German musicians
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Saxony-Anhalt
Refugees from Nazism

Kurt Weill


USS Sea Gull was a schooner in the service of the United States Navy. The Sea Gull was one of six ships that sailed in the US Exploring Expedition (known as the US Ex. Ex.) in 1838 to survey the coast of the then-unknown continent of Antarctica and the Pacific Islands. The specimens collected on the voyage would later form the backbone of the Smithsonian Institution.

Acquisition
Formerly the New York pilot boat New Jersey, the ship was purchased by the Navy in July 1838 and renamed USS Sea Gull. She was outfitted with a new mast and sails in three days' time, and under the command of Passed Midshipman James W. E. Reid, sailed for Hampton Roads to join the expedition as a tender.

The US Exploring Expedition
At Norfolk, Virginia the Sea Gull joined the other ships of the expedition: flagship , , , the schooner , and the supply ship .

The ships left Norfolk on August 18, 1838, for the tip of South America, where they would await the slower Relief and then continue to Antarctica and the Pacific Islands. After surveying and collecting specimens, the remaining ships would sail to Hawaii and then the Columbia River to survey that area then return to the United States via the Cape of Good Hope on June 9, 1842.

The Sea Gull, commanded by Lieutenant Robert Johnson and in the company of the Porpoise, headed south from Orange Bay on the tip of South America on February 25, 1839, to explore the area of the South Shetland Islands. Both ships encountered heavy seas which resulted in a broken gaff for the Sea Gull; the crew was constantly drenched by huge waves. Soon they encountered snow squalls and penguins. Huge icebergs were sighted, some said to be as large as the U.S. Capitol building. On March 1, some islands of the South Shetlands were sighted. Attempts were made to land on the islands and gather specimens but the seas proved too rough to make a landing. On March 5, the wind increased to a whole gale and the commander of the expedition — Lt. Charles Wilkes — ordered the ships about and headed north. Wilkes ordered Johnson to proceed back to Orange Bay after stopping at Deception Island to attempt to retrieve a self-reading thermometer left there by an earlier British expedition. After removing ice from the ship's rigging, the crew of the Sea Gull headed for Deception. The crew didn't find the thermometer but did experience the volcanism of the island finding it frightening and unnerving to know they were standing on an active volcano. Eventually the ship made its way to Orange Bay.  After reaching Orange Bay the Sea Gull participated in a search for a missing crew in a survey launch, finding the launch eventually safe and sound with all aboard.

Loss of the Sea Gull
On April 17, 1839, Wilkes left Orange Bay in Vincennes with Porpoise for Valparaíso, Chile and ordered the schooners Flying Fish and Sea Gull to wait ten days for the supply ship Relief. If the Relief didn't arrive they were to transport the scientists aboard to Valparaíso. On May 19, the Flying Fish arrived in Valparaíso and the Sea Gull was nowhere in sight. The Sea Gull, under the command of passed midshipman James Reid, was last seen waiting out a gale in the lee of Staten Island off Cape Horn. After a month or so, the officers of the Ex. Ex. assumed the Sea Gull was lost and took up a collection for a monument to their memory. That monument stands in the Mount Auburn Cemetery in  Cambridge, Massachusetts. It lists the names of the officers who were lost on the Sea Gull and the names of two officers who were killed during the survey of the Pacific Islands. No mention was made of the other 24 sailors and marines who died during the expedition.

References

 Philbrick, Nathaniel (2003). Sea of Glory: America's Voyage of Discovery, the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Viking Adult. .

Schooners of the United States Navy
Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in April 1839
Ships of the United States Exploring Expedition
Ships lost with all hands

USS Sea Gull (1838)


Class stratification is a form of social stratification in which a society is separated into parties whose members have different access to resources and power. An economic, natural, cultural, religious, interests and ideal rift usually exists between different classes.

Process of class stratification
In the early stages of class stratification, the majority of members in a given society have similar access to wealth and power, with only a few members displaying noticeably more or less wealth than the rest.

As time goes on, the largest share of wealth and status can begin to concentrate around a small number of the population. When wealth continues to concentrate, pockets of society with significantly less wealth may develop, until a sharp imbalance between rich and poor is created. As members of a society spread out from one another economically, classes are created.

When a physical gap is added, a cultural rift between the classes comes into existence, an example being the perception of the well-mannered, "cultured" behavior of the rich, versus the "uncivilized" behavior of  the poor. With the cultural divide, chances for classes to intermingle become less and less likely, and mythos becomes more and more common between them (i.e. "the wrong side of the railroad tracks"). The lower class loses more of its influence and wealth as the upper class gains more influence and wealth, further dividing the classes from one another.

Class schema

Social class is usually regarded as being conceived of as sets of positions rather than as individuals who happen to fill them at any particular time. Class structure is the "empty spaces" that persons occupy without altering the shape of the class structure.

Erik Olin Wright produced class schemata, in attempts to retain a Marxist approach to class analysis. In Wright's first schema he states that in capitalism simple production exists alongside the capitalist mode of production. In this schema the bourgeoisie, the self-employed working who engage in simple production are one class. In the model there are two distinctive classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie owns the means of production, and the proletariat are the exploited workers. Both of these classes can be broken down into six classes that make up Wright's first schema. The supervisors and managers are in a contradictory class because they dominate over the proletariat and yet they are still dominated by the bourgeoisie. The small employers are both petty bourgeois and bourgeois; and the semi-autonomous employees while they do not own the means of production, they benefit from having more autonomy over their work than the normal proletariat.  These classes are based upon exploitation and domination. Exploitation exists between those who own the means of production and those who do not. Domination is measured according to the amount of autonomy that can be exercised by the workers and to which extent they are supervised.

Wright's second schema involve a 12-class schema and is based upon exploitation. In the second schemata  exploitation has three dimensions: ownership of the means of production, ownership of organization assets that permit control and coordination of technical processes of production, and ownership of skills or credentials.

John Goldthorpe's class schema is to differentiate positions within labor markets and production units, or more specifically to differentiate such positions in terms of the employment relations that they entail. Goldthorpe schema distinguishes the employers, the self-employed, and employees. Within the group of employees eleven classes are defined on the basis of the employment relationship they enjoy. The aim of the schema is to group occupational title/employment relations, and the employment relationships joined by given combinations may differ cross-nationally.

As the theories relate to class stratification the common characteristic shared by the actors involve the position they occupy in relations defined by labor markets and productive processes. Class has often been defined as the significant determinant of life chances.  The deliberate acts of individual actors are undertaken from a position of social power which is determined by class membership. The resources an individual possesses and the constraints they face and the course of action they take leads to having a higher probability of being undertaken than others. These processes lead to class position becoming a powerful predictor of many kinds of behavior.

Class and race
It can be argued that segregation between black and white ethnic groups is so strong in some countries that they are different classes, and thus that segregation is a form of class stratification. Although there is a definite divide in some countries between races, those countries will also have poor people of the "upper class" ethnicity.

See also

Caste system
Class conflict
Class consciousness
Cultural elitism
Social mobility
Classism
Economic inequality
Elitism
Oppression
Wealth inequality in the United States
Social Class
Social stratification

References
 Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools / Jonathon Kozol - New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1991.
 Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a Post-Marital Age / Kay Hymowitz - New York : Ivan R. Dee, 2006.
''Breen, Richard, and David Rottman. Class Stratification: A Comparative Perspective. Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1995.

External links

Social classes
Socio-economic mobility
Social stratification

Class stratification


Tux Racer is a video game made by Sunspire Studios where the player moves Tux, the Linux Penguin . In the game, Tux goes down a hill on his belly and collects fish. There are many things that slow Tux down. There are also things that may be hard for Tux to get past.

Controls
 Turning: Left and Right buttons
 Paddling (makes Tux go faster): Up button
 Braking (makes Tux slow down): Down button
 Jumping: Hold down the "E" button, then let go
 Hard Turn (makes Tux turn when he is moving fast or when you want him to turn a lot): Down and Right or Left buttons at the same time
 Reset (makes Tux Get out when he is stuck): Backspace Button
 Quit (exits the game): "Q" Button

Updated version
The developers of Tux Racer have long abandoned making and programing the game. But some programmers took the source code and they call their new version Extreme Tux Racer, it is much newer and has many improvements over the old Tux Racer.

Other websites
 Official website

2000 video games

Tux Racer


The Bazaleel Taft Jr. House and Law Office are a historic house and law office building at 195 South Main Street in Uxbridge, Massachusetts.  On November 7, 1983, they were listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The House and Law office reflect the Georgian Architecture Style.

History

History and background
Elmshade, built in 1807 at 195 South Main Street, was built in the Georgian architecture style, and was a gift for Bezaleel Taft Jr from Bezaleel Taft Sr., on his graduation from Harvard Law School. Bezaleel Jr. was the grandson of Lydia Taft, America's first woman voter.  Bazaleel Jr. was practicing law next door in a brick building. Like his Father, Taft Jr. also became a State Senator and a representative to the General Court. He also served on the State Executive Council. He served as President of the Blackstone National Bank, of which he was a founder, for nearly 20 years.

Gathering place for the Taft family
Five generations of the Taft family descendants lived at Elmshade. A number of them had powerful political and legal careers, including George S. Taft, Bezaleel Jr's son. George was a lawyer, District Attorney and private secretary, chief of staff, to U.S. Senator George Hoar in the 1880s. His influence probably led to the Lincoln Square, Worcester Court House being erected., The "Life of Alphonso Taft by Lewis Alexander Leonard", on Google Books, is a particularly rich source of the history of the Taft family in Massachusetts. Elmshade was the site of Taft family reunions such as in 1874. Young William Howard Taft visited this home with his father Alphonso Taft, U.S. Secretary of War and founder of Skull and Bones at Yale. Alphonso Taft, who also served as United States Attorney General under President Ulysses S. Grant, delivered a powerful oratory on the Taft family and its roots in this area at this historic home during the reunion in 1874. Young William Howard Taft, and his brother Charles Phelps Taft, who founded the Chicago Cubs, both likely heard the speech. President William Howard Taft again visited this area, and this home, as a youth when he spent summers and even a term of school in Millbury. He would return here many years later as the American President to visit his kinfolk. The New York Times recorded President Taft's visits to his ancestral homes in Mendon and Uxbridge during his presidency.

Colonial style Georgian house and office
In the colonial period of America, the Georgian Architecture style was also built with wood and clapboard, though much of the construction was of brick. Wood clapboard is the style used for the Bezaleel Taft Jr house. The office was a brick style building. The link for Georgian architecture notes these distinctions.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Uxbridge, Massachusetts
Taft family, some of the family tree of the Taft family which originated here and includes Bezaleel Taft Jr.
The Tafts of Mendon and Uxbridge

References

Buildings and structures in Uxbridge, Massachusetts
Houses completed in 1807
Houses in Uxbridge, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Uxbridge, Massachusetts
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Worcester County, Massachusetts
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Worcester County, Massachusetts
Law offices
Legal history of Massachusetts
+

Bazaleel Taft Jr. House and Law Office


The languages of Africa include more than 3,000 languages. These languages include native languages (languages that come from Africa) and colonial languages, which were brought to Africa by colonists from Europe. The continent has the highest concentration of languages in the world.  At least 30% of the world's languages come from and are spoken in Africa.

Over the years, many African languages have died out and become extinct. This happens for several reasons, including wars and genocide by other African tribes. Other languages were abandoned, or its speakers disappeared.

Organization

There are more than 3,000 languages spoken in Africa. These languages are grouped into several major language families. Linguists do not agree about which groupings are "correct" and valid.

Most linguists organize the African languages into four major language families. These are:
 Afroasiatic languages, spoken by 350 million people in the Middle East, North Africa, Horn of Africa, and Sahei.
 Niger-Congo languages, possibly the world's largest language family, spoken in sub-Saharan Africa.
 Nilo-Saharan languages, spoken by 50 million people in the upper parts of the Chari River and Nile River.
 Khoisan languages, spoken by about 120,000 people,  which include all "click" languages.
This classification of languages is based on the research of the linguist Joseph Greenberg, who published The Languages of Africa in 1963.

The African languages were traditionally (historically) organized into six language families. Today, some linguists doubt that some of these groupings are valid. The six traditional families are:
 Afroasiatic languages, spoken from North Africa to the Horn of Africa and Southwest Asia
 Niger-Congo languages, spoken in West, Central, and Southeast Africa
 Nilo-Saharan languages, spoken in Sudan and Chad
 Khoe languages, spoken in the deserts of Namibia and Botswana
 Austronesian languages, spoken in Madagascar
 Indo-European languages, spoken in Southern Africa

Still other linguists believe that the Nilo-Saharan languages and the Niger-Congo languages are part of the same family. These linguists organize the African languages into only three language families: Niger-Congo languages, Afroasiatic languages, and Khoisan languages.

No matter how the major language families are organized, there are many smaller families and language isolates. In addition, there are some obscure (rare, uncommon) languages that are not yet classified into any family. Africa also has some sign languages, which are mostly language isolates.

References

Bibliography

Languages of Africa


The Siamese cat (; แมวสยาม, Maeo Sayam) is one of the first distinctly recognised breeds of Asian cat. Derived from the Wichianmat landrace, one of several varieties of cats native to Thailand (formerly known as Siam), the original Siamese became one of the most popular breeds in Europe and North America in the 19th century. The carefully refined, more extreme-featured, modern-style Siamese is characterised by blue almond-shaped eyes; a triangular head shape; large ears; an elongated, slender, and muscular body; and various forms of point colouration. Other than colouration, the modern-style Siamese bears little resemblance to the original stock, and the more moderate, traditional, or "old-style" Siamese, with a much rounder head and body, has been re-established by multiple registries as the Thai cat. The International Cat Association describes the modern Siamese as affectionate, social, intelligent, and playful into adulthood, often enjoying a game of fetch. Siamese tend to seek human interaction and also like companionship from other cats.

The Siamese (sometimes in the traditional form) is among the foundation stock of several other breeds developed by crossbreeding with other cats; some examples are the Oriental Shorthair and Colorpoint Shorthair, developed to expand the range of coat patterns; the long-haired variant most often dubbed the Himalayan; and hair-mutation breeds, including the Cornish Rex, Sphynx, Peterbald, and blue-point Siamese cat. The Siamese cat comes in two distinct variations: traditional, with a rounded head (though not as rounded as the later American Apple-head mix) and a slightly chubby body; or the modern Siamese, which is very skinny and has a wedge-shaped head. The long-haired Siamese is recognised internationally as a Balinese cat. Siamese cats are one of the more common breeds to have non-white irises.

History

Origins

Thailand
A description and depiction of the Wichienmaat (Siamese cat) first appears in a collection of ancient manuscripts called the Tamra Maew (The Cat-Book Poems), thought to originate from the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351 to 1767 AD). Over a dozen are now kept in the National Library of Thailand, while others have resurfaced outside of Thailand and are now in the British Library and National Library of Australia. In addition to the old Siamese cat, the Tamra Maew also describes other heritage cats of Thailand including the Korat cat (Malet), which is still bred for preservation in Thailand today and has become popular in other countries, and the Konja cat (Black cat), Suphalak (a controversy in Burmese cat).

When the capital city Ayutthaya was sacked on 7 April 1767 at the end of the Burmese–Siamese war, the Burmese army burned everything in sight. It returned to Burma, taking Siamese noblemen and royal family members with them as captives. Buddha images were hacked apart for their gold, and all the royal treasures were stolen. A Thai legend has it that the King of Burma Hsinbyushin found and read the poem for the Thai cats in the Tamra Maew. The poem describes Thai cats as being as rare as gold, and anyone who owns this cat will become wealthy. He told his army to round up all the Suphalak cats and bring them back to Burma along with the other treasures. Today in Thailand, this legend is told as a humorous explanation of the rarity of Thai cats.

Siamese
The pointed cat known in the West as "Siamese", recognized for its distinctive markings, is one of several breeds of cats from Siam described and illustrated in manuscripts called "Tamra Maew" (Cat Poems), estimated to have been written from the 14th to the 18th century. In 1878, U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes received the first documented Siamese to reach the United States, a cat named "Siam" sent by the American Consul in Bangkok. In 1884, the British Consul-General in Bangkok, Edward Blencowe Gould (1847–1916), brought a breeding pair of the cats, Pho and Mia, back to Britain as a gift for his sister, Lilian Jane Gould (who, married in 1895 as Lilian Jane Veley, went on to co-found the Siamese Cat Club in 1901).  In 1885, Gould's UK cats Pho and Mia produced three Siamese kittens—Duen Ngai, Kalohom, and Khromata—who were shown with their parents that same year at London's Crystal Palace Show. Their unique appearance and distinct behaviour attracted attention, but all three of the kittens died soon after the show, their cause of death not documented.

By 1886, another pair (with kittens) was imported to the UK by Eva Forestier Walker (surnamed Vyvyan after 1887 marriage) and her sister, Ada. Compared to the British Shorthair and Persian cats that were familiar to most Britons, these Siamese imports were longer and less "cobby" in body types, had heads that were less rounded with wedge-shaped muzzles and had larger ears. These differences and the pointed coat pattern, which had not been seen before in cats by Westerners, produced a strong impression—one early viewer described them as "an unnatural nightmare of a cat." Over the next several years, fanciers imported a small number of cats, forming the base breeding pool for the entire breed in Britain. It is believed that most Siamese in Britain today are descended from about eleven of these original imports. In their early days in Britain, they were called the "Royal Cat of Siam", reflecting reports that they had previously been kept only by Siamese royalty. Later research has not shown evidence of any organised royal breeding programme in Siam. The original Siamese imports were medium-sized, rather long-bodied, muscular, graceful cats with moderately wedge-shaped heads and ears that were comparatively large but in proportion to the size of the head. The cats ranged from substantial to slender but were not extreme either.

Traditional Siamese versus modern development

In the 1950s–1960s, as the Siamese was increasing in popularity, many breeders and cat show judges began to favour the more slender look. As a result of generations of selective breeding, they created increasingly long, fine-boned, narrow-headed cats. Eventually, the modern show Siamese was bred to be extremely elongated, with a lean, tubular body, long, slender legs, a very long, very thin tail that tapers gradually into a point, and a long, wedge-shaped head topped by extremely large, wide-set ears.

By the mid-1980s, cats of the original style had largely disappeared from cat shows. Still, a few breeders, particularly in the UK, continued to breed and register them, resulting in today's two types of Siamese: the modern, "show-style", standardized Siamese, and the "Traditional Siamese", both descended from the same distant ancestors, but with few or no recent ancestors in common, and effectively forming distinct sub-breeds, with some pressure to separate them.

In addition to the modern Siamese breed category, The International Cat Association (TICA) and the World Cat Federation (WCF) now accept Siamese cats of the less extreme type, and any wichianmat cat imported directly from Thailand, under the new breed name Thai. Other, mostly unofficial, names for the traditional variety are "Old-style Siamese" and "Classic Siamese", with an American variation nicknamed "Applehead" (originally a derogatory nickname due to its extremely rounded features compared to what had become show breed standard Siamese).

Appearance

The breed standard of the modern Siamese calls for an elongated, tubular, and muscular body and a triangular head, forming a perfect triangle from the tip of the nose to each tip of the ear. The eyes are almond-shaped and light blue, while the ears are large, wide-based, and positioned more towards the side of the head. The breed has a long neck, a slender tail, and fur that is short, glossy, fine and adheres to the body with no undercoat. Its pointed colour scheme and blue eyes distinguish it from the closely related Oriental Shorthair. The modern Siamese shares the pointed colour pattern with the Thai, or traditional Siamese, but they differ in head and body type.

The pointed pattern is a form of partial albinism, resulting from a mutation in tyrosinase, an enzyme involved in melanin production. The mutated tyrosinase enzyme is heat-sensitive; it fails to work at normal body temperatures but becomes active in cooler (< 33 °C) areas of the skin. This results in dark colouration in the coolest parts of the cat's body, including the extremities and the face, which is cooled by the passage of air through the sinuses. All Siamese kittens, although pure cream or white at birth, develop visible points in the first few months of life in colder parts of their body. By the time a kitten is four weeks old, the points should be sufficiently distinguishable to recognise which colour they are.

Siamese cats tend to darken with age, and generally, adult Siamese living in warm climates have lighter coats than those in cool climates. Originally the vast majority of Siamese had seal (extremely dark brown, almost black) points, but occasionally Siamese was born with "blue" (a cool grey) points, genetically a dilution of seal point; chocolate (lighter brown) points, a genetic variation of seal point; or lilac (pale warm grey) points, genetically a diluted chocolate. These colours were considered "inferior" seal points and were not qualified for showing or breeding. These shades were eventually accepted by the breed associations and became more common through breeding programmes specifically aimed at producing these colours. Later, outcrosses with other breeds developed Siamese-mix cats with points in other cat colours and patterns, including red and cream points, lynx (tabby) points, and tortoise-shell ("tortie") points.

In the United Kingdom, all pointed Siamese-style cats are considered part of the Siamese breed. In the United States, a major cat registry, the Cat Fanciers' Association, considers only the four original fur colours as Siamese:
 seal point,
 blue point,
 chocolate point, and
 lilac point.

Oriental Shorthair cats with colour points in colours or patterns aside from these four are considered Colourpoint Shorthair in that registry. The World Cat Federation has also adopted this classification, treating the Colourpoint Shorthair as a distinct breed.

Many Siamese cats from Thailand had a kink in their tails, but over the years, this trait has been considered a flaw. Breeders have largely eradicated it, but the kinked tail persists among street cats in Thailand.

Temperament

Siamese are usually very affectionate and intelligent cats, renowned for their social nature. Many enjoy being with people and are sometimes described as "extroverts". Often they bond strongly with a single person. They have a distinctive meow that has been compared to the cries of a human baby and are persistent in demanding attention. These cats are typically active and playful, even as adults, and are often described as more dog-like in behaviour than other cats. Some Siamese are extremely vocal, with a loud, low-pitched voice—known as a "Meezer" - from which they get one of their nicknames.

Siamese cats, due to their desire to be near people or other cats, occasionally suffer from depression or separation anxiety if left alone for long periods, and it is for this reason that Siamese cats are often bought in pairs so that they can keep each other company.

Health

Based on Swedish insurance data, which tracked cats only up to 12.5 years, Siamese and Siamese-derived breeds have a higher mortality rate than other breeds. The median lifespan of the Siamese group was somewhere between 10 and 12.5 years; 68% lived to 10 years or more and 42% to 12.5 years or more. Siamese Scooter holds the record as the world's oldest male cat, dying at the age of 30. The majority of deaths were caused by neoplasms, mainly mammary tumours. The Siamese also has a higher rate of morbidity. They are at higher risk of neoplastic and gastrointestinal problems but have a lower risk of feline lower urinary tract disease. Vet clinic data from England shows a higher median lifespan of 14.2 years.

The most common variety of progressive retinal atrophy (PRA) in cats (among them the Abyssinian, the Somali, and the big group of Siamese-related breeds) is related to a mutation on the rdAc-gene, for which a DNA test is available.

The same albino allele that produces coloured points means that Siamese cats' blue eyes lack a tapetum lucidum, a structure which amplifies dim light in the eyes of other cats. The mutation in the tyrosinase also results in abnormal neurological connections between the eye and the brain. The optic chiasm has abnormal uncrossed wiring; many early Siamese were cross-eyed to compensate, but like the kinked tails, the crossed eyes have been seen as a fault, and due to selective breeding the trait is far less common today. Still, this lack of a tapetum lucidum even in uncross-eyed cats, causes reduced vision for the cat at night. This trait has led to their dependence on and interest in humans, which affects their hunting ability, a desirable trait for many owners. However, it makes them vulnerable to urban dangers such as night-time vehicular traffic. Unlike many other blue-eyed white cats, Siamese cats do not have reduced hearing ability.

Furthermore, the Siamese cat is more prone than other breeds to lung infections, especially in kittenhood, such as feline osteochondrodysplasia, vestibular disease and feline hyperesthesia syndrome.

Breeds derived from the Siamese

 Balinese – Natural mutation of the Siamese cat; a longhaired Siamese. In the largest US registry, the Cat Fanciers Association (CFA) is limited to the four traditional Siamese coat colours of seal point, blue point (a dilute of seal point), chocolate point, and lilac point (a dilute of the chocolate point). Other registries in the US and worldwide recognise a greater diversity of colours.
 Birman – After almost all the individuals of the breed died out during the years of World War II, French breeders reconstructed the breed through interbreeding with various other breeds, including the Siamese. Modern Birman cats have inherited their pointed coat patterns from the Siamese.
 Burmese – is a breed of domesticated cats descended from a specific cat, Wong Mau, who was found in Burma in 1930 by Joseph Cheesman Thompson. She was brought to San Francisco, where she was bred with Siamese.
 Havana Brown – resulted from crossing a chocolate-point Siamese with a black cat.
 Colorpoint Shorthair – a Siamese-type cat registered in CFA with pointed coat colours aside from the traditional CFA Siamese coat colours; originally developed by crosses with other shorthair cats. Considered part of the Siamese breed in most cat associations but considered a separate breed in CFA and WCF. Variations can include lynx points and tortie points.
 Himalayan – Longhaired breed originally derived from crosses of Persians to Siamese and pointed domestic longhair cats to introduce the point markings and the colours chocolate and lilac. After these initial crosses were used to introduce the colours, further breed development was performed by crossing these cats only to the Persian breed. In Europe, they are referred to as colourpoint Persians. In CFA, they are a colour division of the Persian breed.
 Javanese – in CFA, a longhaired version of the Colorpoint Shorthair (i.e. a "Colorpoint Longhair"). In WCF, however, "Javanese" is an alias of the Oriental Longhair.
 Neva Masquerade – derived in Russia by naturally or selectively crossing Siberian cats with Siamese cats or related colourpoint cats. It bears the Siamese colourpoint gene, but the original foundation stock is unclear.
 Ocicat – a spotted cat originally produced by a cross between Siamese and Abyssinian.
 Oriental Shorthair – a Siamese-style cat in non-pointed coat patterns and colours, including solid, tabby, silver/smoke, and tortoise-shell.
 Oriental Longhair – a longhaired version of the Oriental Shorthair.
 Ragdoll – selectively bred from "alley cats" foundation stock in the USA. It bears the Siamese colourpoint mutation gene.
 Savannah – The Savannah is a domestic hybrid cat breed. It is a hybridisation between a serval and a domestic cat. (The first was bred with a Siamese)
 Snowshoe – a cream and white breed with blue eyes and some points that were produced through the cross-breeding of the Siamese and bi-coloured American Shorthair in the 1960s.
 Thai Cat – also called the Wichian Mat or Old Style Siamese, the original type of Siamese imported from Thailand in the 19th century and still bred in Thailand today; and throughout the first half of the 20th century, the only type of Siamese.
 Tonkinese – originally a cross between a Siamese cat and a Burmese. Tonkinese × Tonkinese matings can produce kittens with a Burmese sepia pattern, a Siamese pointed pattern, or a Tonkinese mink pattern (which is something in between the first two, with less pattern contrast than the Siamese but greater than the Burmese); often with aqua eyes.
 Toybob – cat breed of Russian origin. It bears the Siamese colourpoint mutation gene.
 Mekong Bobtail (Thai Bobtail)

In media

In literature and film
Siamese cats have been antagonists in literature and film for adults and children since the 1930s. Clare Turlay Newberry's Babette features a Siamese kitten escaping from a New York apartment in 1937. British publisher Michael Joseph recorded his relationship with his Siamese cat in Charles: The Story of a Friendship (1943). The "Siamese Cat Song" sequence ("We are Siamese if you please") in Disney's Lady and the Tramp (1955), features the cats "Si" and "Am", both titled after the former name of Thailand, where the breed originated. The 1958 film adaptation of Bell, Book and Candle features Kim Novak's Siamese cat "Pyewacket", a witch's familiar. The Incredible Journey (1961) by Sheila Burnford tells the story of three pets, including the Siamese cat "Tao", as they travel  through the Canadian wilderness searching for their beloved masters. The book was a modest success when first published but became widely known after 1963 when it was loosely adapted into a film of the same name by Walt Disney. Disney also employed the same Siamese in the role of "DC" for its 1965 crime caper That Darn Cat!, with The New York Times commenting "The feline that plays the informant, as the F.B.I. puts it, is superb. [...] This elegant, blue-eyed creature is a paragon of suavity and grace". However, in the TV Series Puppy in my Pocket: Adventures in Pocketville, one of the main characters is a Siamese cat named Ava, and one of the villains is her twin sister Eva.

See also
 Thai cat, a.k.a. Old-style Siamese or Traditional Siamese
 Colorpoint Shorthair
 List of cat breeds

References

External links

 Siamese Yearbook Articles Old articles on the Siamese
 Siamese and Oriental Database pedigree data base with each cat's health information
 Siamese and Oriental PRA health program

Cat breeds originating in Thailand
Cat breeds
Linebred animals

Siamese cat


Igwe Iwuchukwu (Ezeifekaibeya, 1855-1904)  was the 17th Obi of Otolo and Igwe of Nnewi kingdom in the present day Anambra state of Nigeria. He is the traditional supreme ruler and spiritual leader in Nnewi, an Igbo city in Nigeria. He is a member of the Nnofo Royal lineage and the successor to his father Igwe Okafo. Unlike most Igbo monarchies, there were kings of Nnewi before the arrival of Europeans.

He sat on the throne of his ancestors until his death in 1904, the same year that the British colonists arrived at Nnewi.
The kingdom was mourning the passing of the King and one of the most influential Chiefs and brother of the late king, Nwosu Odumegwu (Eze Odumegwu), was asked to be the Warrant chief of Nnewi by the British Colonial Administration led by Major Moorehouse; he refused.

Reign

His reign saw the expansion of Nnewi kingdom through wars and slave trade with the Aros. It was during his reign that that fought the Ubaru War. Led by Nsoedo who bore before him the charmed gourd, the Enems marched to the obi of Eze Ifekaibeya . There, they were joined by the Nnofo troops and, led still by the same Nsoedo carrying the same gourd, they all marched towards úbárú. On their arrival, they discovered that the enemy's defenses were solid and difficult to penetrate . This was the time when Nsoedo invoked, it is said, through the charmed gourd the gods of Umu Enem and, through their aid, presumably, the Otolo troops broke through. The Ubarus were annihilated though among the losses suffered by the Otolos was the death of Obi Mmaduabum, a relative of Dala Oliaku.

The Ubaru War had some remarkable results. At its conclusion, every Otolo man who took part in it took a hero's name . Some of these were Eze Obiukwu of Udude who became known as Ogbujulukpa; Nsoedo, the okúkú carrier and native of Egbu Umu Enem became Ochibilogbuo; Unaegbu of the same Egbu became Ogbuotaba and Eze Udenyi, relative of Eze Odumegwu who became also Kwambákwáisi. Eze Onyejemeni's success in Ubaru War and his successes in
others were to him a justification for the assumption of Onuo ora title. To
mark the glorious end of this war, a big rattle was prepared and left at the Eze Ifekaibeya's obi then opened.

Upon his death, his young son Eze ugbonyamba alias (Igwe Orizu I) became the 18th Igwe of Nnewi in 1904. Nigerian politician and educationist Nwafor Orizu is his grandson and the current Igwe of Nnewi, Kenneth Onyeneke Orizu III is his great-grandson.

Family

The following were the wives of Eze Ifekaibeya - (i) Mgbafo Eze Kwenna (ii) Uduagu (iii) Nwakaku Onwusilikam (iv) Afiazu (v) Nonu (vi) Mmegha (vii) Ukonnwa.  Among his issues were Eze Ugbonyamba his first son, Eze Nnaweigbo the son of Mmegha, Eze Enefeanya alias Oji, and Ofodile who was of the same mother with Eze Ugbonyamba.

See also
Hugh Trenchard in Nigeria

References

Igbo monarchs
Nnewi monarchs
Nigerian traditional rulers
People from Nnewi
1904 deaths
1855 births

Igwe Iwuchukwu Ezeifekaibeya


Vandalism is a crime that is done by destroying or damaging the property of someone else. This can include graffiti and website damage.

A person that does this is called a vandal. The name comes from the Vandals, a tribe that attacked and damaged the city of Rome in 455 CE.

Examples

Examples of physical vandalism include salting lawns, cutting trees without permission, egg throwing, breaking windows, arson, spraying paint on others' properties, and tagging.

On the internet
Many websites, such as wikis (like Wikipedia), forums, and blogs, can be changed by anyone. Because of this, they can be "vandalized" by adding comments or replacing everything on the page with spam, nonsense or other silly content. It is a kind of trolling, and these websites have special users, called administrators, whose job is to remove the vandalism and to block users who do not stop vandalizing.

Property crimes

Vandalism


Berna Eli "Barney" Oldfield (January 29, 1878 – October 4, 1946) was an American pioneer automobile racer; his "name was synonymous with speed in the first two decades of the 20th century". He was the winner of the inaugural AAA National Championship in 1905.

After success in bicycle racing, he began auto racing in 1902 and continued until his retirement in 1918. He was the first man to drive a car at 60 miles per hour (96 km/h) on a circular track.

Biography

Early life

Berna Eli Oldfield was born in York Township, Fulton County, Ohio, near Wauseon and Toledo, on January 29, 1878, to Henry Clay Oldfield, a laborer, and his wife Sarah. He was named after his father's bunkmate in the 68th Ohio Volunteer Infantry during the American Civil War. He had a sister Bertha.

As of the 1880 United States Census, the Oldfields lived in Wauseon. In 1889 they moved to Toledo, where the father Henry got a job at the state mental asylum. In the summer of 1891, Berna worked as a waterboy in order to purchase his first bicycle. According to legend, he spent most of his Sunday afternoons at the local Toledo fire station, hoping for the next call. As the company's "mascot", he was allowed to ride the big red hose wagon, pulled by a pair of horses that raced through the streets. The following year, Berna worked after school selling the Toledo Blade and Toledo Bee newspapers.

Oldfield dropped out of school after the eighth grade in 1892. He started working with his father as a kitchen helper at the mental asylum during the day and a bellhop at the downtown hotel at night. He eventually worked at the hotel full-time, as he preferred it to working around mental patients. Purportedly the bell captain said that "Berna" was a sissy name, so he changed it to "Barney". Oldfield was described as having a "magnetic personality", and received many tips at the hotel. He used them to buy his first bike, an "Advance Traveller" with pneumatic tires.

Bicycle racer

Clarence Brigham, who sold the "Cleveland" brand bike, and Edward G. Eager (of Eager & Green Mercantile) who sold the "Columbia" models in his store, organized the Wauseon Cycle Club in their town. They wanted both to increase bicycle sales and draw more people to the town via the Michigan Lake Shore Railroad. Other cycling groups in Swanton, Clyde, Monroe, Adrian, Blissfield, and Toledo were part of the same cycle racing circuit.

Bicyclists raced in half-mile and mile classes on public racetracks usually reserved for horse racing. Other members of the Club included Fred Ballmeyer, Ora Brailey, Curt and Buff Harrison, Doc Myers, Emil Winzeler, Doc Miley, Frank Harper, Dan Raymond (who fixed everyone's bikes), Sid Black (a trick cyclist from Cleveland who later became president of the Packard Motor Company), and Barney Oldfield. In October 1892, the second "Silver Tournament" was held in Wauseon.

In 1893, Oldfield began working as an elevator operator at a different hotel. Every night he stored one hotel tenant's lightweight "Cleveland" cycle in the basement; he sometimes "borrowed it", riding it at night.

At age 16, Oldfield began serious bicycle racing in 1894 after officials from the "Dauntless" bicycle factory asked him to ride for the Ohio state championship. Although he came in second, the race was a turning point. Oldfield was hired as a parts sales representative for the Stearns bicycle factory. There he met Beatrice Lovetta Oatis, his future wife; they married in 1896.

By 1896, Oldfield was paid by Stearns, based in Syracuse, New York, to race on its amateur team.

Auto racer

Oldfield was loaned a gasoline-powered bicycle to race at Salt Lake City. Through fellow racer Tom Cooper, he met entrepreneur Henry Ford, who was at the beginning of his career as an auto manufacturer in Michigan. Ford had prepared two automobiles for racing, and he asked Oldfield if he would like to test one in Michigan. Oldfield agreed and traveled to Michigan for the trial, but neither car started. Although Oldfield had never driven an automobile, he and Cooper bought both test vehicles when Ford offered to sell them for $800. One was "No. 999", which was debuted in October 1902 at the Manufacturer's Challenge Cup. Today it is displayed at the Henry Ford Museum in Greenfield Village, Michigan.

Oldfield agreed to drive against the current champion, Alexander Winton. Oldfield was rumored to have learned how to operate the controls of the "999" only the morning of the event. Oldfield won by a half mile in the five-mile (8 km) race. He slid through the corners like a motorcycle racer rather than braking. It was a great victory for Ford and resulted in both Oldfield and Ford becoming nationally known.

John Wilkinson, who designed an air-cooled engine for Franklin Automobile Company and was their chief engineer, raced against Oldfield in 1902. He won the state  championship in the record time of 6:54:06.

On June 20, 1903, at the Indiana State Fairgrounds, Oldfield became the first driver to run a mile track in one minute flat, or . Two months later, he drove one mile in 55.8 seconds at the Empire City Race Track in Yonkers, New York.

Alexander Winton hired Oldfield as a professional driver and agreed to supply him with free cars for racing. Oldfield, his manager Ernest Moross, and his agent Will Pickens traveled throughout the United States in a series of timed runs and match races, and he earned a reputation as a showman, racing while holding a cigar in his mouth to cushion the spot where he had broken some molar teeth in a crash. Oldfield was "the first American to become a celebrity solely for his ability to drive a car with great skill, speed, and daring." He liked to increase the drama in best of three matches: he would win the first part by a nose, lose the second, and win the third. Oldfield won first place at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on August 21, 1909 in a Mercedes Benz.

He bought a Benz, and raised his speed in 1910 to  while driving his "Blitzen Benz". Later in 1910 Oldfield reached the speed of . At Daytona Beach, Florida, on March 16, 1910, in his Blitzen Benz, he set the world speed record, driving 131.724 mph, for which he earned the nickname "speed king".

Suspension and later career

Oldfield was suspended by the American Automobile Association (AAA) for his "outlaw" racing, and was unable to race at sanctioned events for much of his career. He made his career by being paid to set speed records, and conducting match races and exhibitions.

In 1914, his agent Will Pickens staged a "Championship of the Universe", pitting Oldfield against another of his clients, aviator Lincoln Beachey. Oldfield raced his Fiat car against Beachey's biplanes in at least 35 matches, barnstorming the country. In the more remote areas, they raced at county fair horse tracks. The Championship was "extremely successful", and both Oldfield and Beachey earned more than $250,000 in their barnstorming.

After being reinstated by the AAA, Oldfield competed in the 1914 and 1916 Indianapolis 500, finishing fifth in each attempt. He was the first person to run a 100-mile-per-hour lap. His 1914 Indy finish was in an Indianapolis-built Stutz, and he was the highest-finishing driver in an American car in a race that was dominated by European brands.

Oldfield used the same car in his victory at the Los Angeles to Phoenix off-road race in November 1914. Oldfield also finished second in two major road races that year, the Vanderbilt Cup and the Corona 300. In 1915 he won the Venice, California 300 road race.

In November 1914 he won the Los Angeles-to-Phoenix Cactus Derby Race; the victor's medal proclaimed him "Master Driver of the World". On May 28, 1916, he became the first person to lap the Indianapolis Speedway at more than 100 mph in the front-wheel-drive "Christie Racer", designed by John Walter Christie. He used the Blitzen Benz to break the existing mile, two-mile, and kilometer records at the Daytona Beach Road Course at Ormond, Florida. Afterward, he charged $4,000 for each of his appearances at driving races.

In June 1917 Oldfield used his Golden Submarine, designed with a roll bar to protect the driver, to beat fellow racing legend Ralph DePalma in a series of 10- to  match races at Milwaukee.

He retired from racing in 1918, but continued to tour and make movies. In what was his last attempt at racing, in 1932 he tried to re-enter speed racing with a new car design, but was unable to find any financial sponsors.

Oldfield died on October 4, 1946, of a heart attack. He had married a total of four times. He was survived by Bessie Gooby Oldfield, whom he had divorced in 1924 and remarried in 1945, making her both his second and fourth wife. When they were first married, they adopted a daughter, Betty (who by his death was married to a Kelly). He was buried in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.

Beyond racing

Performances

Oldfield starred as himself for ten weeks in the Broadway musical The Vanderbilt Cup (1906).

He also appeared in movies, including the silent film Barney Oldfield's Race for a Life (1913), where he raced against a train to rescue a heroine tied to the train tracks. He was also featured in The First Auto (1927) as an early pioneer of the automotive history. He was a technical advisor for the Vanderbilt Cup sequence in the feature film Back Street (1941). He starred as himself in a racing film titled Blonde Comet, the story of a young woman trying to achieve success as a racecar driver.

Racing safety

Bob Burman, one of Oldfield's rivals and closest friends, was killed in a wreck during a race in Corona, California. Oldfield and Harry Arminius Miller, who developed and built carburetors and was one of the most famous engine builders, worked after that to design a racecar that was not only fast and durable, but would protect the driver in the event of an accident.  They built a racecar with a roll cage inside a streamlined driver's compartment, which completely enclosed the driver, calling it the "Golden Submarine".

Business ventures

Oldfield helped fellow racer Carl G. Fisher found the Fisher Automobile Company in Indianapolis. This is widely considered the first automobile dealership in the United States.

He also developed what was called the Oldfield tire for Firestone. In its slogan, Firestone touted that Oldfield had said, "Firestone Tires are my only life insurance". In 1924, the Kimball Truck Co. of Los Angeles built the only 1924 Oldfield.

Awards and honors

The Oakshade Raceway in Wauseon, Ohio, Oldfield's birthplace, holds an annual race named for him.
 In 1946 he was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame.
 In 1953, Oldfield was one of the first ten pioneers of auto racing enshrined in Auto Racing's Hall of Fame, located in Detroit.
 In 1989 he was inducted into the inaugural class of the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America as the at-large representative.
 In 1990, he was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame.
 In 1990 Oldfield was named to the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame.

In popular culture

 Barney Oldfield appears as the Master Driver in the 1927 silent movie The First Auto, directed by Roy Del Ruth. (See above for other performances in film and stage related to his racing career.)
 In the TV series I Love Lucy episode "Lucy Learns to Drive" (Season 4): Ethel remarks "Oh, pardon me, Barney Oldfield."
 In the TV series "Dennis The Menace" episode "The Soapbox Derby," Mrs. Wilson tells Mr. Wilson, "You're a regular Barney Oldfield"
 In the TV series "The Partridge Family," (Season 1, Episode 3) "Who do you think that you are, Barney Oldfield?"
 Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke remarked about Oldfield in reference to astronaut John Young's driving of the lunar rover on the Moon in 1972. "Indy has never seen a driver like this-Barney Oldfield," quipped Duke.

Motorsports career results

Indianapolis 500 results

References

Further reading

 William F. Nolan, Barney Oldfield: The Life And Times Of America's Legendary Speed King;
 International Motorsports Hall of Fame Biography
 "Barney Oldfield Biography"
 Beachey's aircraft vs. Oldfield's car

External links

 Barney Oldfield - ChampCarStats.com

 Barney Oldfield - Motorsport Memorial
 Great America's Barney Oldfield Speedway

1878 births
1946 deaths
Champ Car champions
People from Fulton County, Ohio
Racing drivers from Ohio
Indianapolis 500 drivers
Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City
International Motorsports Hall of Fame inductees
National Sprint Car Hall of Fame inductees
AAA Championship Car drivers
Catholics from Ohio

Barney Oldfield


The development of the reproductive system is the part of embryonic growth that results in the sex organs and contributes to sexual differentiation. Due to its large overlap with development of the urinary system, the two systems are typically described together as the urogenital or genitourinary system.

The reproductive organs develop from the intermediate mesoderm and are preceded by more primitive structures that are superseded before birth. These embryonic structures are the mesonephric ducts (also known as Wolffian ducts) and the paramesonephric ducts, (also known as Müllerian ducts). The mesonephric duct gives rise to the male seminal vesicles, epididymises and vas deferens. The paramesonephric duct gives rise to the female fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and upper part of the vagina.

Mesonephric ducts

The mesonephric duct originates from a part of the pronephric duct.

Origin
In the outer part of the intermediate mesoderm, immediately under the ectoderm, in the region from the fifth cervical segment to the third thoracic segment, a series of short evaginations from each segment grows dorsally and extends caudally, fusing successively from before backward to form the pronephric duct. This continues to grow caudally until it opens into the ventral part of the cloaca; beyond the pronephros it is termed the mesonephric duct. Thus, the mesonephric duct remains after the atrophy of the pronephros duct.

Development in male
In the male the duct persists, and forms the tube of the epididymis, the vas deferens and the ejaculatory duct, while the seminal vesicle arises during the third month as a lateral diverticulum from its hinder end. A large part of the head end of the mesonephros atrophies and disappears; of the remainder the anterior tubules form the efferent ducts of the testicle; while the posterior tubules are represented by the ductuli aberrantes, and by the paradidymis, which is sometimes found in front of the spermatic cord above the head of the epididymis.

Atrophy in female
In the female the mesonephric bodies and ducts atrophy. The nonfunctional remains of the mesonephric tubules are represented by the epoophoron, and the paroöphoron, two small collections of rudimentary blind tubules which are situated in the mesosalpinx.

Remnants

The lower part of the mesonephric duct disappears, while the upper part persists as the longitudinal duct of the epoöphoron, called Gartner's duct.

There are also developments of other tissues from the mesonephric duct that persist, e.g. the development of the suspensory ligament of the ovary.

Paramesonephric ducts

Shortly after the formation of the mesonephric ducts a second pair of ducts is developed; these are the paramesonephric ducts. Each arises on the lateral aspect of the corresponding mesonephric duct as a tubular invagination of the cells lining the abdominal cavity. The orifice of the invagination remains open, and undergoes enlargement and modification to form the distal tubal opening (abdominal ostium) of the fallopian tube. The ducts pass backward lateral to the mesonephric ducts, but toward the posterior end of the embryo they cross to the medial side of these ducts, and thus come to lie side by side between and behind the latter—the four ducts forming what is termed the common genital cord, to distinguish it from the genital cords of the germinal epithelium seen later in this article. The mesonephric ducts end in an epithelial elevation, the sinus tubercle, on the ventral part of the cloaca between the orifices of the mesonephric ducts. At a later stage the sinus tubercle  opens in the middle, connecting the paramesonephric ducts with the cloaca.

Atrophy in males
In the male the paramesonephric ducts atrophy (but traces of their anterior ends are represented by the appendix of testis of the male), while their terminal fused portions form the prostatic utricle in the floor of the prostatic urethra. This is due to the production of Anti-Müllerian hormone by the Sertoli cells of the testes.

Development in females

In the female the paramesonephric ducts persist and undergo further development. The portions which lie in the genital cord fuse to form the uterus  and vagina. This fusion of the paramesonephric ducts begins in the third month, and the septum formed by their fused medial walls disappears from below upward.

The parts outside this cord remain separate, and each forms the corresponding Fallopian tube. The ostium of the fallopian tube remains from the anterior extremity of the original tubular invagination from the abdominal cavity.

About the fifth month a ring-like constriction marks the position of the cervix of the uterus, and after the sixth month the walls of the uterus begin to thicken. For a time the vagina is represented by a solid rod of epithelial cells. A ring-like outgrowth of this epithelium occurs at the lower end of the uterus and marks the future vaginal fornix. At about the fifth or sixth month the lumen of the vagina is produced by the breaking down of the central cells of the epithelium. The hymen represents the remains of the sinus tubercle .

Gonads

The gonads are the precursors of the testes in males and ovaries in females. They initially develop from the mesothelial layer of the peritoneum.

Ovaries
The ovary is differentiated into a central part, the medulla of ovary, covered by a surface layer, the germinal epithelium. The immature ova originate from cells from the dorsal endoderm of the yolk sac. Once they have reached the gonadal ridge they are called oogonia. Development proceeds and the oogonia become fully surrounded by a layer of connective tissue cells (pre-granulosa cells). In this way, the rudiments of the ovarian follicles are formed. The embryological origin of granulosa cells, on the other hand, remains controversial. Just as in the male, there is a gubernaculum in the female, which pulls it downward, albeit not as much as in males. The gubernaculum later becomes the proper ovarian ligament and the round ligament of the uterus.

Testes
The periphery of the testes are converted into the tunica albuginea. Cords of the central mass run together and form a network which becomes the rete testis, and another network, which develops the seminiferous tubules. Via the rete testis, the seminiferous tubules become connected with outgrowths from the mesonephros, which form the efferent ducts of the testis.

In short, the descent of the testes consists of the opening of a connection from the testis to its final location at the anterior abdominal wall, followed by the development of the gubernaculum, which subsequently pulls and translocates the testis down into the developing scrotum. Ultimately, the passageway closes behind the testis. A failure in this process can cause indirect inguinal hernia or an infantile hydrocoele.

Division of cloaca

After the separation of the rectum from the dorsal part of the cloaca, the ventral part becomes the primary urogenital sinus. The urogenital sinus, in turn, divides into the superficial definitive urogenital sinus and the deeper anterior vesico-urethral portion.

Definitive urogenital sinus
The definitive urogenital sinus consists of a caudal cephalic portion and an intermediate narrow channel, the pelvic portion.

Vesico-urethral portion
The vesico-urethral portion is the deepest portion, continuous with the allantois. It absorbs the ends of the mesonephric ducts and the associated ends of the renal diverticula, and these give rise to the trigone of urinary bladder and part of the prostatic urethra. The remainder of the vesico-urethral portion forms the body of the bladder and part of the prostatic urethra; its apex is prolonged to the umbilicus as a narrow canal, the urachus, which later is obliterated and becomes the median umbilical ligament of the adult.

Prostate
The prostate originally consists of two separate portions, each of which arises as a series of diverticular buds from the epithelial lining of the urogenital sinus and vesico-urethral part of the cloaca, between the third and fourth months. These buds become tubular, and form the glandular substance of the two lobes, which ultimately meet and fuse behind the urethra and also extend on to its ventral aspect. The median lobe of the prostate is formed as an extension of the lateral lobes between the common ejaculatory ducts and the bladder.

Skene's glands in the female urethra are regarded as the homologues of the prostatic glands.

The bulbourethral glands in the male, and Bartholin's gland in the female, also arise as diverticula from the epithelial lining of the urogenital sinus.

External genitalia

Until about the ninth week of gestational age the external genitalia of males and females look the same, and follow a common development. This includes the development of a genital tubercle and a membrane dorsally to it, covering the developing urogenital opening, and the development of the labioscrotal fold. The urogenital folds become the penoscrotal raphe in the male and the labia minora in the female.

Even after differentiation can be seen between the sexes, some stages are common, e.g. the disappearing of the membrane. On the other hand, sex-dependent development include further protrusion of the genital tubercle in the male to form the glans and shaft of the penis and in the female, the glans and body of the clitoris. The labioscrotal swelling evolves into the scrotum in males, and into the labia majora in females.

Common development

Before differentiation

Urogenital membrane
There is initially a cloacal membrane, composed of ectoderm and endoderm, reaching from the umbilical cord to the tail, separating the cloaca from the exterior. After the separation of the rectum from the dorsal part of the cloaca, the ventral part of the cloacal membrane becomes the urogenital membrane.

Genital tubercle
Mesoderm extends to the midventral line for some distance behind the umbilical cord, and forms the lower part of the abdominal wall; it ends below in a prominent swelling, the cloacal tubercle, which after the separation of the rectum becomes the genital tubercle. Dorsally to this tubercle the sides are not really fused. Rather, the urogenital part of the cloacal membrane separates the ingrowing sheets of mesoderm.

Phallus
The genital tubercle develops into the primordial phallus, the first rudiment of the penis or clitoris.

The terminal part of the phallus, representing the future glans becomes solid. The remainder of the phallus, which remains hollow, is converted into a longitudinal groove by the absorption of the urogenital membrane.

The term genital tubercle still remains but only refers to the future glans

Urogenital opening
In both sexes the phallic portion of the urogenital sinus extends on to the under surface of the cloacal tubercle as far forward as the apex. At the apex the walls of the phallic portion come together and fuse, obliterating the urogenital opening. Instead, a solid plate, the urethral plate, is formed. The remainder of the phallic portion is for a time tubular, and then, by the absorption of the urogenital membrane, it establishes a communication with the exterior. This opening is for a while the primitive urogenital opening, and it extends forward to the corona glandis.

After differentiation

The following developments occur in both males and females, although a difference in the development between the sexes already can be seen:

The corpus cavernosum penis, and the corpus cavernosum of clitoris, and the corpus spongiosum penis arise from the mesodermal tissue in the phallus; they are at first dense structures, but later vascular spaces appear in them, and they gradually become cavernous.
The prepuce in both sexes is formed by the growth of a solid plate of ectoderm into the superficial part of the phallus; on coronal section this plate presents the shape of a horseshoe. By the breaking down of its more centrally situated cells the plate is split into two lamellæ. Thus, a cutaneous fold, the prepuce, is liberated and forms a hood over the glans.

Female
In the female, a deep groove forms around the phallus. The sides of it grow dorsalward as the labioscrotal folds, which ultimately form the labia majora in females. The labia minora, in contrast, arise by the continued growth of the lips of the groove on the under surface of the phallus; the remainder of the phallus forms the clitoral glans.

Male
The labioscrotal folds extend around between the pelvic portion and the anus, and form a scrotal area. During the changes associated with the descent of the testes this scrotal area is drawn out to form the scrotal sacs. The penis is developed from the phallus.

As in the female, the urogenital membrane undergoes absorption, forming a channel on the under surface of the phallus; this channel extends only as far forward as the corona glandis.

Urogenital opening
Later, this opening, which is located on the dorsal side of the penis, closes from behind forward. Meanwhile, the urethral plate of the glans breaks down centrally to form a median groove continuous with the primitive ostium. This groove also closes from behind forward, leaving only a small pipe running in the middle of the penis. Thus, the urogenital opening is shifted forward to the end of the glans.

Diagram of internal differentiation

A.—Diagram of the primitive urogenital organs in the embryo previous to sexual distinction.
 3. Ureter.
 4. Urinary bladder.
 5. Urachus.
 cl. Cloaca.
 cp. Elevation which becomes clitoris or penis.
 i. Lower part of the intestine.
 ls. Fold of integument from which the labia majora or scrotum are formed.
 m, m. Right and left Müllerian ducts uniting together and running with the Wolffian ducts in gc, the genital cord.
 ot. The genital ridge from which either the ovary or testis is formed.
 ug. Sinus urogenitalis.
 W. Left Wolffian body.
 w, w. Right and left Wolffian ducts.

B.—Diagram of the female type of sexual organs.
 C. Greater vestibular gland, and immediately above it the urethra.
 cc. Corpus cavernosum clitoridis.
 dG. Remains of the left Wolffian duct, such as give rise to the duct of Gärtner, represented by dotted lines; that of the right side is marked w.
 f. The abdominal opening of the left uterine tube.
 g. Round ligament, corresponding to gubernaculum.
 h. Situation of the hymen.
 i. Lower part of the intestine.
 l. Labium majus.
 n. Labium minus.
 o. The left ovary.
 po. Epoophoron.
 sc. Corpus cavernosum urethrae.
 u. Uterus. The uterine tube of the right side is marked m.
 v. Vulva.
 va. Vagina.
 W. Scattered remains of Wolffian tubes near it (paroöphoron of Waldeyer).

C.—Diagram of the male type of sexual organs.
 C. Bulbo-urethral gland of one side.
 cp. Corpora cavernosa penis cut short.
 e. Caput epididymis.
 g. The gubernaculum.
 i. Lower part of the intestine.
 m. Müllerian duct, the upper part of which remains as the hydatid of Morgagni; the lower part, represented by a dotted line descending to the prostatic utricle, constitutes the occasionally existing cornu and tube of the uterus masculinus.
 pr. The prostate.
 s. Scrotum.
 sp. Corpus cavernosum urethrae.
 t. Testis in the place of its original formation.
 t', together with the dotted lines above, indicates the direction in which the testis and epididymis descend from the abdomen into the scrotum.
 vd. Ductus deferens.
 vh. Ductus aberrans.
 vs. The vesicula seminalis.
 W. Scattered remains of the Wolffian body, constituting the organ of Giraldès, or the paradidymis of Waldeyer.

References

In-line

General
Henry Gray (1821–1865). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.

External links
Animations of gonadal sex, duct differentiation, and external genital development at AboutKidsHealth.ca

Embryology of urogenital system
Andrology
Gynaecology

Development of the reproductive system


Dad's Army is a sitcom made by the BBC which was shown on British television between 1968 and 1977. It is about a Home Guard platoon during World War II. It was very popular at the time and is still repeated. It starred several well-known British actors including Arthur Lowe, John Le Mesurier, John Laurie Bill Pertwee, and Clive Dunn.

It was written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft based partly on Jimmy Croft's experience in the Home Guard but also on the work of comedians such as Will Hay.

Plot
The Home Guard were set up in 1940 to protect Britain in the case of invasion. Because most young men were in the regular army, Home Guard platoons were usually made up of older people. The show followed the Walmington-on-Sea platoon, led by Captain Mainwaring (pronounced "Mannering"), a bank manager who appoints himself leader.

His platoon is made up of his posh sergeant, Wilson, elderly butcher Lance Corporal Jones, several senior citizens (Privates Godfrey and Frazer), as well as a "spiv" (Private Walker) and a mother's boy (Private Pike), as well as other men who don't say much. The humour is derived from their antics, as well as the relationship between Mainwaring and his upper-class sergeant.

In early episodes, the humour was based on the difficulty of starting the platoon without any weapons. In later episodes, the comedy was often based on the characters. Because the platoon rarely encountered the Nazis, their enemy was usually the grumpy ARP Warden Hodges, played by Bill Pertwee.

Platoon members
Captain Mainwaring, played by Arthur Lowe - A bank manager in charge of the platoon.
Sergeant Wilson, played by John Le Mesurier - second in charge. He is quiet, well spoken and often appears very relaxed.
Lance Corporal Jones, played by Clive Dunn - third in charge. He is very keen, and an old soldier of the British Empire, although his ideas often go wrong. He also gets very worried when a problem happens, and shouts "Don't Panic".
Private Frazer, played by John Laurie. A regular soldier. He is a grumpy but kind hearted Scottish man.
Private Godfrey, played by Arnold Ridley. A regular soldier. He is a very nice, but very old man, who often needs to go to the toilet.
Private Pike, played by Ian Lavender. A regular soldier. He is very young, and is often told that he is a "stupid boy" by Mainwaring.
Private Walker, played by Jimmy Beck. A chirpy regular soldier. Able to get any supplies for the platoon through illegal methods. He is quite cheeky and is often told off by Mainwaring.
ARP Warden William Hodges, played by Bill Pertwee. The platoon's major rival and nemesis. Mainwaring looked down on him as a greengrocer. As an ARP Warden he was always demanding that people "put that light out".

Other characters
The Vicar - local parish vicar of the town
Mr Yeatmen - the local parish verger and busybody
Captain Square - Commander of the nearby Eastgate Home Guard and old soldier
Mr Gordon - Town Clerk
Mrs Pike - Frank's mother

Other websites

Dad's Army at the former BBC Guide to Comedy (archive)

1968 television series debuts
1977 television series endings
1977 disestablishments in Europe
1960s British television series
1960s sitcoms
1970s British sitcoms
BBC television sitcoms
1970s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
English-language television programs

Dad's Army


Frederic Vester (November 23, 1925 – November 2, 2003) was a German biochemist, and an expert in the field of ecology.

Biography
Vester was born in Saarbrücken, and studied chemistry at the universities of Mainz, Paris and Hamburg. From 1955 to 1957, he was postdoctoral fellow at Yale University and Cambridge. From 1957 to 1966 he worked at Saarland University, Saarbrücken, and from 1969 he worked in Munich, first at the Max Planck Institute. In 1970 he founded the private Munich-based Frederic Vester Studiengruppe für Biologie und Umwelt GmbH ("Frederic Vester Study Group for Biology and Environment, Ltd.), renamed Frederic Vester GmbH ("Frederic Vester, Ltd.") after his death.

From 1982 to 1989 he was a professor at the Bundeswehr University Munich, and from 1989 to 1991 he was Professor for Applied Economics at the Hochschule St. Gallen, Switzerland. Vester's ideas influenced the formation of the environmental movement and the Green Party in Germany. He was a member of the Club of Rome. He was married to Anne Vester. The couple had three children and six grandchildren. He died in Munich.

Work

Networked Thinking
Vester was known as pioneer of networked thinking, a combination of cybernetic and systemic ideas and complexity. Central ideas of network thinking include viewing a system as a network of interrelated effects, leading to emergent behavior of the system as a whole. These networks can be described by using protocols, mathematical networks, computer software, so that even someone with the most basic understanding of networks will see relations, including positive and negative feedback loops. Simulations of systemic networks can help to decide the long-term effects of singular measures.

The Sensitivity Model
Vester's Sensitivity Model combines these ideas, and has been used since the 1980s in studies by Ford, UNESCO and other organizations.

Publications
Most of Vesters books were published in German as well as in other languages, though seldom in English. A list of his works includes:
 1976, Ballungsgebiete in der Krise (Urban Systems in Crisis)
 1979, Das Überlebensprogramm (Plan for Survival)
 1982, Das kybernetische Zeitalter (The Cybernetic Age)
 1985, Ein Baum ist mehr als ein Baum (A Tree is More than a Tree)
 1990, Leitmotiv vernetztes Denken (Key Themes of Networked Thinking)
 1991, Ausfahrt Zukunft: Strategien für den Verkehr von morgen (Gateway Future: Strategies for the Transportation of Tomorrow)
 1999, Crashtest Mobilität (Crash Test Mobility)
 2002, Aufmerksamkeit im Unterricht (Attentiveness in the Classroom)
 2002, Neuland des Denkens (Uncharted Territory of Thought)
 2002, Denken, Lernen, Vergessen (Thinking, Learning, Forgetting)
 2002, Phänomen Stress (Phenomenon Stress)
 2002, Unsere Welt - ein vernetztes System (Our World - A Networked System)
 2007, The Art of interconnected Thinking. Ideas and Tools for Tackling Complexity (MCB)

Vester is also the author of the software tool Sensitivity model and of several cybernetic games:

 1997 Ecopolicy – das kybernetische Strategiespiel (Ecopolicy - The Cybernetic Strategy Game)
 1980/1996 Ökolopoly. Ein kybernetisches Umweltspiel (Ecopoly - A Cybernetic Environment Game)

References

External links

Professional Biography of Dr. Vester (English)
Frederic Vester in the Saarländischen Biografien  (German)

1925 births
2003 deaths
Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz alumni
University of Paris alumni
Cyberneticists
German biochemists
People from Saarbrücken
Systems biologists
Academic staff of Bundeswehr University Munich
Academic staff of the University of St. Gallen
Recipients of the Saarland Order of Merit
German expatriates in France
German expatriates in the United Kingdom
German expatriates in the United States

Frederic Vester


The Limbourg brothers, or in Dutch Gebroeders van Limburg (Herman, Paul, and Johan; fl. 1385 – 1416), were famous Dutch Renaissance miniature painters from the city of Nijmegen. They were active in the early 15th century in France and Burgundy.  They created what is certainly the best known late medieval illuminated manuscript, Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.

Dutch painters
Nijmegen
Renaissance

Limbourg brothers


A game jam is an event where participants try to make a video game from scratch. Depending on the format, participants might work independently, or in teams. The event duration usually ranges from 24 to 72 hours. Participants are generally programmers, game designers, artists, writers, and others in game development-related fields. While many game jams are run purely as a game-making exercise, some game jams are contests that offer prizes.

Traditionally, game jams focus on video games; however, board games have also been the subject of game jams.

History
The term game jam is a composition of the words game and jam session. A jam session describes the musical act of producing music with little to no prior preparation in an effort to develop new material or simply to practice. In the same way, game jams are events in which game developers prototype experimental ideas into playable games.

In March 2002, video game developers Chris Hecker and Sean Barrett, interested in the capability of modern hardware in rendering a large number of sprites, worked with Doug Church, Jonathan Blow, and Casey Muratori in developing a specialized game engine capable of rendering a massive number of sprites. Hecker and Barrett invited a small group of video game developers to meet in Hecker's office in Oakland, California for the purpose of creating innovative video games using this newly built engine. Hecker and Barrett named this gathering the 0th Indie Game Jam, a game design and programming event "designed to encourage experimentation and innovation in the game industry".

Format

Location

Some game jams are local events, taking place in universities, conference halls, or other private spaces. The Global Game Jam takes place at the end of January of every year, with over 800 locations in 100+ countries around the world. The Ludum Dare is an example of a virtual game jam, an event where participants largely remain at home, but present their efforts at the conclusion of the jam.

Time constraint
Game jams typically have restrictive time limits, ranging from a few hours to several days. This time constraint is meant to simulate the pressure of a deadline and to encourage creativity among ideas produced by game jam teams.

Theme
A game jam may be centered on a theme, which all games developed within the jam must adhere to. The theme is usually announced shortly before the event begins, in order to discourage participants from planning for the event beforehand and from using previously-developed material. In addition, themes are meant to place restrictions on developers, which encourages creativity.

Ludum Dare 24, a competitive game jam event, featured the theme of "Evolution". As stated by the Ludum Dare rules, all participants in the competition were recommended to create a game based on this theme. However, the rules also stated that participants were not required to use the theme, which allowed for games to be made outside of the theme.

Technology
The type of technology can vary depending on the type of game being developed, and among the different disciplines involved.

In a video game jam, teams are generally made up of at least a programmer and an artist. A programmer would work in a development environment such as Microsoft Visual Studio for development in a .NET Framework application or Eclipse for a Java-based application. An artist may use tools such as Adobe Photoshop, Blender 3D or Autodesk Maya. Other tools used by developers include videogame frameworks such as the Unreal Engine, CryEngine, Unity, Godot, and Microsoft XNA Framework. If in a team, developers might use communication services such as Discord, and source control services such as GitHub.

See also
 Demoparty
 Hackathon
 BarCamp
 Amnesia Fortnight
 Global Game Jam
 Indie Game Jam
 Ludum Dare
 Nordic Game Jam
 TOJam
 Game Off
 Js13kGames
 Train Jam

References

Video game culture

Video game development competitions

Game jam


The Boeing 247, sometimes called the Boeing Model 247 was an American airliner. It is thought to be the first airliner to fully use advanced things like retractable landing gear, an autopilot and deicing boots.

The Boeing 247 first flew on February 8, 1933. It started being used later that year. Later, planes became bigger and some had four engines. However, no big changes were made until Boeing made the Boeing 307 Stratoliner.

Design and development
The Boeing 247 was an advanced plane. The design was taken from the Boeing Monomail (Models 200, 221, 221A) and the B-9 bomber. The Boeing 247 was faster than the Boeing P-12, which was the main American fighter at the time. The P-12 was did not have a roof on the cockpit, and it was a biplane. The Boeing 247 landed at just 62 mph. This meant that flaps were not needed. At just 10 mph, the back wheel came off the ground, which made it easier to steer.

Also, the 247 was the first airliner with two engines which could fly on just one engine. The Boeing 247 had special propellers. It could fly at 11,500 ft at full weight. The Douglas DC-1 and some other airliners before World War II used parts of the Boeing 247's design.  The 247 was supposed to carry 14 passengers and have Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet engines, but the plane was made smaller and got different engines.

The pilots did not think that the plane, which weighed eight tons, could land on any runway back then. They also did not like the Hornet engines. This was because most pilots were used to Wasps. It was thought that they would find Hornets too powerful. Pratt & Whitney's chief engineer, George Mead, knew that the pilots were wrong. P&W's head, Frederick Rentschler, decided to do what the pilots wanted. This made an argument between Mead and Rentschler.

Even though there were some arguments about the design and engines, the 247 was still a very good design. Boeing showed it at the 1933 Chicago World's Fair.

Boeing wanted to make the plane as safe as possible. They made the plane strong and put in things to make passengers more comfortable. For example, the cabin had air conditioning. It was also sound-proof. The plane had a pilot, co-pilot and a flight attendant. The wheels did not fully go into the plane. A part of the wheels hung down below the plane. This was done to make it safer for the plane to land if the landing gear could not be put down. The wheel at the back of the plane could not be moved.

History

In 1934, Boeing put a Boeing 247 into the MacRobertson Race. In the race, planes raced from England to Australia. The pilots of the Boeing plane were Col.Roscoe Turner and Clyde Pangborn. The 247 was basically a normal plane, but some parts were taken out to make space for more fuel tanks. Many different planes from all over the world took part. Turner and Pangborn came in second place. The Douglas DC-2 came first.

The Boeing 247 won the 1934 US Collier Trophy for "excellence in aviation design".

The 247 could go across the United States eight hours faster than any plane which came before it. The Boeing 247 started being used on May 22, 1933. One set a record of 19½ hours when it flew from San Francisco to New York City.

The first 60 247s were sold to Boeing Air Transport (part of the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation, UATC). They cost $65,000 each. TWA (Transcontinental & Western Air) also ordered the 247 but UATC said no. TWA President Jack Frye asked for a new airliner. He paid Don Douglas to design and build the Douglas DC-1 prototype. Douglas eventually made the DC-3 line.

The Boeing 247 was shown to have some serious problems with its design. Air carriers did not like the fact that it only carried 10 passengers. The DC-2 and later DC-3 could carry many more passengers. This meant that the Boeing 247 would not earn airlines as much money.

Seventy-five 247s were built. Douglas got 800 orders for DC-3s from airlines before the Pearl Harbor attack. Douglas made over 10,000 DC-3s.

Many of United's Boeing 247s were bought by Western Air Express. It was said that they were bought at a very low price.

The 247 was used until World War II. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) had seven 247s to move soldiers around. Some 247s were still flying in the late 1960s. These were either cargo planes or personal planes.

Accidents
October 10, 1933 – A United Air Lines 247 was blown up by a bomb.

November 9, 1933 - A United Air Lines 247 crashed after it took off. Four of the nine people on the plane died.

December 20, 1934 - United Air Lines Flight 6, a 247, crashed near Western Springs, Illinois. Nobody died. The plane was fixed and started flying again.

October 7, 1935 – United Air Lines Trip 4, a 247D, crashed 10 miles to the west of Cheyenne, Wyoming. It is not known why it crashed. Everybody on the plane died.

October 30, 1935 - A United Air Lines Boeing 247D crashed near Cheyenne. Everyone on board died.

December 15, 1936 – Seven people died when Western Air Express Flight 6, a 247D, crashed on Lone Peak in Utah.

December 27, 1936 - United Air Lines Trip 34, a 247D, crashed in Los Angeles County, California. All 12 people on board died.

January 12, 1937 – Western Air Express Flight 7, a 247, crashed into a mountain in Newhall, California. Five people died.

Different types of Boeing 247

 Model 247
First type made.
247A
Special order from Deutsche Luft Hansa.
247E
The very first Boeing 247 plane was called this.
247D
At first only meant for the MacRobertson Race. It had special propellers which made the plane 7 mph faster.
247Y
A version with guns on it.

Users

Airlines

Viação Aérea Bahiana used one plane.

Canadian Pacific Airlines
 Quebec Airways

Avianca used 10 aircraft.

Lufthansa had four aircraft.

Boeing Air Transport (later United Air Lines) used 60 aircraft.
 Empire Air Lines
National Parks Airways
Pennsylvania Central Airlines
United Aircraft Corporation used 10 aircraft.
Wien Air Alaska
Western Airlines
 Woodley Airways
 Wyoming Air Service

Military

Royal Canadian Air Force

Royal Air Force

United States Army Air Corps

Planes which still exist

c/n 1699, CF-JRQ
This plane is in the Canada Aviation Museum, Ottawa. It was given to the museum in 1967 by California Standard Oil.

c/n 1722, N18E
This plane is in the National Museum of Science and Industry, Wroughton, UK

c/n 1729, N13347
This plane can still fly. It is in the Museum of Flight Restoration Center, Paine Field, Snohomish County, Washington, USA.

c/n 1953, NC13369 / NR257Y
This plane is in the Hall of Air Transportation at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, DC, USA. It has United Air Lines colours.

Details (Boeing 247D)

References
Notes

Bibliography

 Bowers, Peter M. Boeing aircraft since 1916. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1989. .
 Bryan, C.D.B.  The National Air and Space Museum. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1979. .
 Fernandez, Ronald. Excess Profits: The Rise of United Technologies. Boston, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1983. .
 Gould, William. Boeing (Business in Action). Bath, Avon, UK: Cherrytree Books, 1995. .
 Mondey, David, The Concise Guide to American Aircraft of World War II. London: Chancellor, 1996. .
 Pearcy, Arthur. Douglas Propliners: DC-1–DC-7. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1995. .
 Pedigree of Champions: Boeing Since 1916, Third Edition. Seattle, Washington: The Boeing Company, 1969. No ISBN. WorldCat.
 Seely, Victor. "Boeing's Grand Old Lady." Air Classics, Vol. 4, No. 6, August 1968.
 Serling, Robert J. Legend & Legacy: The Story of Boeing and its People. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. .
 van der Linden, F. Robert. The Boeing 247: The First Modern Airliner. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 1991. . Retrieved: July 26, 2009.
 Yenne, Bill. Boeing: Planemaker to the World. New York:, Crescent Books, 1989. .

Other websites
 Gallery: Boeing 247 Images
 Boeing Model 247: First modern airliner

247

Boeing 247


Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics. It describes how a price is formed in a market economy. There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand. Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other. This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good.  In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal.  This happens at the equilibrium market price.

For normal goods, and a normal market, there are four basic laws that determine the change in the market, if either supply or demand changes:
If the demand increases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.
If the demand decreases, and the supply remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply increases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a surplus, and the price will go down.
If the supply decreases, and the demand remains the same, there will be a shortage, and the price will increase.

When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily. When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it.

When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being. The greater the demand, the faster this happens. This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution.

History

One of the first to see this was Adam Smith. In his book The Wealth of Nations (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good. He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price. David Ricardo published the book Principles of Political Economy and Taxation in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above. Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras.

Goods and markets where the rules are different
There are certain goods which violate the model above
A Giffen good is one where people consume more, if the price for a better good rises.
There are certain goods which people buy to display their wealth or spending power. These goods are called luxury goods, and the effect is known as conspicuous consumption. In economics, the goods are known as Veblen goods.
It is possible to classify consumers by the amount of money they have available; there are also certain kinds of goods where the demand for a certain good by people of a higher income level is inversely related to the demand for the good by individuals of a lower income level. This is known as the snob effect.

The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price. If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently. Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly).  When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought.  The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price. If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.

Other websites
Marshallian cross diagrams and their uses before Alfred Marshall: the origins of supply and demand geometry  by Thomas Humphrey (via the Richmond Fed)
Supply and demand  by Hubert D. Henderson at Project Gutenberg.
Price theory and applications by Steven E. Landsburg
An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, Adam Smith, 1776
By what is the price of a commodity determined?, a brief statement of Karl Marx's rival account
 Supply and demand -Citizendium

Microeconomics

Supply and demand