New Letters, the name it has been published under since 1970, is one of the oldest literary magazines in the United States and continues to publish award-winning poems and fiction. The magazine is based in Kansas City, Missouri.

History and editors
The University Review was founded in 1934 at the University of Kansas City, a small, private school that later became part of the University of Missouri system. In its first two years, the periodical published a discussion on "Art and Social Struggle", including contributions from Thomas Hart Benton and Diego Rivera, a story by Vance Randolph, a poem by Edgar Lee Masters, and a personal note from Pearl S. Buck.

Starting with the Spring 1938 issue, Alexander P. Cappon became editor and remained in that post for the next 33 years. In 1944 the magazine's name was changed to The University of Kansas City Review. In that time the magazine published work by May Sarton, J.D. Salinger, E.E. Cummings, Marianne Moore, May Swenson, James T. Farrell, Kenneth Rexroth.

In 1971, David Ray took over as editor and the magazine's name was changed again, this time to New Letters. Ray published work by Robert Bly, Cyrus Colter, Anselm Hollo, Joyce Carol Oates, Richard Hugo, Robert Peters and Josephine Jacobsen.

In 1986, James McKinley became editor, and under his editorship the magazine published new work by Amiri Baraka, Thomas Berger, former President Jimmy Carter, Annie Dillard, Tess Gallagher, William Gass, Charles Simic, John Updike, and Miller Williams.

Robert Stewart took over the post of editor-in-chief for New Letters, New Letters on the Air, and their affiliate, BkMk Press in September 2002. Since becoming editor, the magazine has published such writers as Brian Doyle, Quincy Troupe, Daniel Woodrell, Sherman Alexie, Sergio Troncoso, Marilyn Hacker, Maxine Kumin and Charlotte Holmes.

New Letters won the National Magazine Award for the essay on May 1, 2008 at Lincoln Center in New York.  The essay "I Am Joe's Prostate" by Thomas E. Kennedy appears in Volume 73, Issue 4.

New Letters on the Air
In 1977, editor David Ray and his wife, Judy, began the audio literature program New Letters on the Air, a half-hour radio program featuring writers reading from their work and talking about it.

Rebekah Presson produced and hosted the show for many years until 1996 when Angela Elam took over. The program is now the longest continuously-running national literary radio series, having broadcast more than 1,200 programs. The show is now heard on radio stations worldwide, and is available to even more listeners as a podcast. It is distributed by PRX.

New Letters Literary Awards
The New Letters Literary Awards program was begun in 1986. It consists of prizes for poetry, essays and short stories:
 New Letters Poetry Prize — $1,500 for the best group of three to six poems
 Dorothy Churchill Cappon Essay Prize — $1,500 for the best essay
 Alexander Patterson Cappon Fiction Prize — $1,500 for the best short story

See also
List of literary magazines

References

External links
 New Letters website
 New Letters literary awards web page
 the air/ New Letters On the Air website

Poetry magazines published in the United States
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1934
University of Missouri–Kansas City
Magazines published in Missouri
1934 establishments in Missouri

New Letters


Paul Tournier (12 May 1898 – 7 October 1986) was a Swiss physician and author who had acquired a worldwide audience for his work in pastoral counseling. His ideas had a significant impact on the spiritual and psychosocial aspects of routine patient care, and he has been called the twentieth century's most famous Christian physician.

Life and education
Tournier was born in Geneva, Switzerland, the son of Pastor Louis Tournier and Alisabeth Ormond. His 70-year-old father, who was a highly respected clergyman at St. Peter's cathedral, died three months after his birth. At the age of six he was orphaned when his mother, then 42, died from breast cancer. Afterwards Tournier and his 10-year-old sister were raised by his uncle and aunt, Mr, and Mrs, Jacques Ormond.

This painful   experience had a profound effect on Tournier. He withdrew into himself and became lonely and shy. Throughout his adolescence he maintained a sense of insecurity, which he would hide behind an intellectual facade, accentuated by his mathematical success in grade school and by a Greek teacher in high school.

In 1923 Tournier received an M.D. degree at the University of Geneva. During his student years he acted as the Swiss president of the student movement Zofingia and became a Red Cross delegate for the repatriation of Austrian and Russian prisoners of war in Vienna.

On 4 October 1924 he married Nelly Bouvier. The couple had two children. In 1984, ten years after the death of his first wife, he married Corinne O'Rama in Geneva.

Tournier died from carcinoma at his home Le grain de blé (The grain of wheat) in Troinex, Switzerland.

Career
Through 1924 Tournier was assistant medical doctor at the Medical Polyclinic in Geneva under Prof. Bickel. In 1925 Tournier opened a private practice in Geneva and started operating as general medical practitioner.

Tournier became increasingly interested in Calvinism and the Reformed faith, and was heavily involved in civic and medical groups. In 1932 he joined the Oxford Group.  As a result of his interests he investigated the relationship between medicine, counseling, and spiritual values. Although he initially considered giving up medicine for counseling, he finally decided to combine the two, and in 1937 he transformed his private medical practice into a counseling practice.

In 1940 he published his first book Médecine de la Personne (trans. The Healing of Persons), which was dedicated to Frank Buchman, the founder of the Oxford Group, wherein he advocates that man is more than just body and a mind, he is also a spiritual being. This combination is what makes man a person.  Therefore, it is impossible to know and treat him if one disregards his deepest reality. After the success of Médecine de la Personne he became a prolific writer of books dealing with the subject. Although he did not have any formal training in psychiatry or theology, his writing has influenced a generation of medical and religious professionals the world over. His books would eventually be translated into 13 languages.

Around 1946 he disassociated himself from the Oxford Group (now called Moral Re-Armament). He would eventually (in 1982) reconcile with the group (renamed again as Initiatives of Change).

Psychosomatic medicine was still in its infancy, and Tournier observed that the contemporary approach to illness was purely organic and failed to consider the patient as a whole. Tournier saw the need to consider not only the physical aspects of health, but also the psychological and spiritual dimensions.  He therefore invited medical colleagues from a variety of fields and a number of philosophers to reflect on this with him.  This international study group called Médecine de La Personne met for the first time in 1947, and has met annually ever since. According to the group:

Medicine of the Person is not just another branch of medicine. It is an attitude towards contact, an approach to patient-care, applicable in all areas. It puts the emphasis on awareness of patients as whole persons, with places in their community and society. Both the organic and the psychological approach are integral parts of Medicine of the Person, as is consideration of the connection between state of health, life events, social insertion and spirituality.

Tournier and two other doctors established the ecumenical Group of Bossey (named after the Chateau de Bossey, near Geneva). His book, A Doctor's Casebook in the Light of the Bible, grew out of this effort. How Tournier practiced his work can be seen in A Tournier Companion.

Throughout his career Tournier was known for his presence, gentle personality and sincere demeanor, and his ability to communicate across language barriers. As his views became more popular, he was invited to lecture overseas.  He would subsequently travel extensively to promote his ideas.

Tournier's world view and philosophy

Two religious experiences would underlie Tournier's later work.  When he was 12, he became a Christian.  As he grew up he became active in the church, started writing articles about Calvinism, and argued for orthodoxy and against liberalism.  His Christian experience did not, however, become totally meaningful to him until a second experience, which he called a "face-to-face encounter with God".  This encounter transformed his life and changed everything, and gave him a vital interest in "that other side of life, for its inner dimension, so necessary to us."

This encounter caused him to radically change his medical practice.  Instead of merely treating the physical disorders of his patients, he started addressing the deeper problems of the whole person.  In 1937 he wrote a letter to all his patients informing them of this new orientation.

Tournier describes his newfound interest in the whole person thus:

I can speak endlessly of myself, to myself or to someone else, without ever succeeding in giving a complete and truthful picture of myself... The same thing happens with all these people who come to see me, and take so much trouble over their efforts to describe themselves to me with strict accuracy; inevitably I form an image of them which derives as much from myself as from them.  If they go and see one of my colleagues he will certainly not see them exactly as I do. And they for their part will not show themselves to him in the same way they show themselves to me.

The reader will see now why it is that this problem of the person has for twenty years been of such absorbing interest to me.  It has a general significance which is of vital importance for all thought and civilization: what is man?  But it also has a particular significance, which is equally important for my own life:  who am I, really, myself?

Some have argued that Tournier believed in universal salvation, that all would eventually be saved; however, it is more accurate to state that he believed in the ultimate triumph of Good over Evil in mankind through Christ's reconciling work. In response to a letter from a graduate student writing a master's thesis on his theology, Tournier wrote:

That you say as a theologian that I am a universalist is evident, in the sense that I believe that Jesus was sent into the world to save the sinners that we all are. This is what I understand Saint Paul to say when he mentions that sin has entered the world through one man, Adam, and spread to all men, and that he calls Jesus the second Adam through Whom redemption entered the world for all men, and even as he says 'all of creation,' that the redemption of Christ is the victory of God over the Fall. I believe that this great plan of salvation is universal, concerns not only all men but the universality of the world and that Jesus on the Cross has accomplished this Salvation, this reconciliation of men with God, that the 'chastisement' as Isaiah says is fallen upon Him to free men from the malediction of the Fall. This plan of God therefore seems to be collective, global, universal.

Tournier was active in the Ecumenical Institute of the World Council of Churches.

Legacy

Tournier's work has received widespread international interest and acclaim. According to Viktor Frankl:

He [Paul Tournier] was the pioneer of person-centered psychotherapy.  Psychotherapy should also have a spiritual dimension, dealing with each person in his or her uniqueness and individuality.  Psychotherapy cannot be personal enough.

Paul Tournier is remembered by the efforts of:
 The Paul Tournier Institute, a  division of the Christian Medical and Dental Associations (CMDA).  The Paul Tournier Institute is an educational endeavor, providing unique resources developed and published by the CMDA.
 Association Paul Tournier, a non-profit organization promoting ideas of Paul Tournier.
 International Group of Medicine of the Whole Person, an organization dedicated to furthering the Medicine of the Whole Person through annual meetings.
 In 2006 Christianity Today magazine listed Paul Tournier's The Meaning of Persons as one of the top 50 books that have influenced the way Evangelicals think, talk, witness, worship, and live.

See also
Pastoral care
Biopsychosocial model
Health psychology
Existential therapy
Holistic medicine

Bibliography
 The Healing of Persons
 Escape from Loneliness (De la solitude à la communauté, Delachaux & Niestlé, Neuchâtel / Paris, 1943/1948)
 The Person Reborn (Technique et Foi), trans. Edwin Hudson (SCM Press, 1966, 1967)
 The Whole Person in a Broken World
 The Strong and the Weak
 A Doctor's Casebook in the Light of the Bible (Bible et Médecine, Delachaux & Niestlé, Neuchâtel / Paris)
 The Frontier between Psychotherapy and Soul-healing
 The Meaning of Persons (Le personage et la personne, Delachaux & Niestlé)
 Guilt and Grace
 The Meaning of Gifts
 The Seasons of Life
 To Resist or to Surrender?
 Marriage Difficulties
 To Understand Each Other
 Toward a Christian Anthropology
 Fatigue in Modern Society
 Secrets
 The Adventure of Living (L'Aventure de la Vie, Delachaux et Niestlé, Neuchâtel et Paris, 1965)
 Forgiveness and Mental Health
 What is Mental Health?
 "The Person in an Age of Conformity" in Are You Nobody?
 A Place for You (L'Homme et son lieu, Delachaux et Niestlé, Neuchâtel, 1966)
 A Dialogue between Doctor and Patient
 Listen to God
 There's a New World Coming
 Learn to Grow Old
 My Religious Vocation as Physician
 The Naming of Persons
 The Gift of Feeling
 The Meaning of Possessiveness
 Creative Suffering (Face a la souffrance, Labor et Fides 1981)
 The Violence Within, Harper & Rowe, 1978
 A Tournier Companion

References

External links
Association Paul Tournier

1898 births
1986 deaths
Physicians from Geneva
Swiss writers in French
Swiss general practitioners
Swiss medical writers
20th-century Christian universalists
Christian counselors

Paul Tournier


An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are smoke, oceanic haze, air pollution, smog and CS gas. When they say aerosol most people mean an aerosol spray can or the spray it makes.

To differentiate suspensions from true solutions, the term sol evolved—originally meant to cover dispersions of tiny (sub-microscopic) particles in a liquid. With studies of dispersions in air, the term aerosol evolved and now embraces both liquid droplets, solid particles, and combinations of these.

Physical chemistry
Pollution

Aerosol


In chemistry, an electrophile is a molecule or an atom that is happy to take electrons from another one. Many electrophiles have a positive charge. They are also called Lewis acids. Some examples of electrophiles are molecules where the atoms have a big difference in electronegativity, like HCl or a carbonyl, or also oxidizing agents.

Electrophiles get attacked by a nucleophile, which is the opposite kind of molecule. This happens for example in addition reactions.

Organic Chemistry

Addition of halogens
C2H4 + Br2 → BrCH2CH2Br

References

Organic chemistry

Electrophile


The Wee Free Men is the 30th in the Discworld book series by Terry Pratchett. It was published in 2003. It is the second Discworld book written for children, but it's still liked by many adults.

Plot

The Queen of the Elves tries to invade the Discworld again by stealing children and invading dreams.
Tiffany Aching, a 9-year-old girl discovers that her grandmother used to be a witch. Tiffany also discovered that she has a talent for magic, too.
When Tiffany's baby brother is stolen by the evil queen, Tiffany enters the elves' world to save him with the help of "The Wee Free Men" and Miss Tick. "The Wee Free Men" are small blue fairies and they speak with a Scottish accent.

2003 books
Books by Terry Pratchett
English children's books

The Wee Free Men


Great Shunner Fell is the third highest mountain in the Yorkshire Dales, North Yorkshire, England, and the highest point in Wensleydale; at 716 metres above sea level. In clear weather the summit affords views of Wensleydale to the south, Ribblesdale to the south west and Swaledale to the north, as well as views into Cumbria and County Durham beyond the A66.

The Pennine Way passes over its summit, on the way from Hawes to Keld. The popularity of this route had eroded vegetation from a strip 70 m wide across the moor, which has been alleviated since 1996 by the construction of a path made of flagstones.

The summit holds a cross-shaped windbreak of which the triangulation pillar has been built into the northern 'arm'.

Great Sleddale Beck, which becomes the River Swale after its confluence with Birkdale Beck has its sources on the northern slopes of Great Shunner Fell, while the southern slopes drain into the River Ure and Wensleydale.

The dominating rock type in the area is limestone, but millstone grit forms outcrops extensively on Great Shunner Fell, and coal seams have also been worked on its slopes.

Great Shunner Fell is the most southerly remaining outpost in Great Britain for the yellow marsh saxifrage, Saxifraga hirculus.

Gallery

See also
 List of peaks in the Yorkshire Dales

References

Marilyns of England
Hewitts of England
Peaks of the Yorkshire Dales
Nuttalls
Richmondshire

Great Shunner Fell


Manuel José Quintana y Lorenzo (April 11, 1772 - March 11, 1857), poet, was born at Madrid, Spain.

Writings
In 1801 Quintana wrote a tragedy, El Duque de Viseo, written about a patriotic theme. which was successful.

Life
The first book of his Vidas de Españoles célebres, about the lives of Spanish heroes, helped to promote Quintana the post of secretary to the Cortes during the French invasion. But on the return of Ferdinand VII he was put in prison at Pamplona from 1814 to 1820. He was finally given a small post in the civil service, became tutor to Queen Isabella II, and was nominated senator.

Death
Quintana died at the age of 84. Philanthropy and patriotism helped him write. The thought he put into his poems is not deep, but his faith to Spain attracted people to read them.

References
 Albert Dérozier: "Les étapes de la vie officielle de Manuel Josef Quintana". Bulletin Hispanique 66 (1964): 363-383
 Albert Dérozier: Manuel Josef Quintana et la naissance du libéralisme en Espagne. 2 vols. Paris: Les belles Lettres, 1968-70. Annales littéraires de l'Université de Besançon, 95, 105.
 Albert Dérozier: Manuel José Quintana y el nacimiento del liberalismo en España / Albert Dérozier. Trad.: Manuel Moya. Madrid: Turner, 1978.
 Diego Martínez Torrón: Manuel José Quintana y el espíritu de la España liberal (con textos desconocidos). Sevilla: Ed. Alfar, 1995. .
 E. Mérimée: "Les poésies liriques de Quintana." Bulletin Hispanique 4 (1902): 119-153.
 José A. Valero: "Manuel José Quintana y el sublime moral." Hispanic Review 71 (2003): 585-611

Quintana, Manuel José
Quintana, Manuel José
Quintana, Manuel José

Manuel José Quintana


Dina matematik, aljabar Borel (atawa Borel σ-aljabar) dina ruang topologi nyaéta dua σ-aljabar séjén dina topologi ruang X:
  The minimal σ-algebra containing the open sets.
  The minimal σ-algebra  containing the compact sets.
The  minimal σ-algebra on a set X containing
a subset T of the power set 2X of X is the smallest σ-algebra containing T. The existence and uniqueness of the minimal  σ-algebra is shown by noting that the intersection of all σ-algebras containing T is itself a σ-algebra  containing T. The elements of the Borel algebra are called Borel sets.

In general topological spaces, even locally compact ones, the two structures are different.  They are however identical whenever the topological space is a locally compact separable metric space.

In the case X is a metric space, the Borel algebra in the first sense may be described generatively as follows: First define for any collection A of subsets of X (that is, for any subset of the power set P(X) of X),

Then define by transfinite recursion a sequence Gm, m an ordinal number, as follows:
 For the base case of the definition,

 If i is not a limit ordinal, then i has an immediately preceding ordinal i-1:

 If i is a limit ordinal,

Then the Borel algebra is Gm for the first uncountable ordinal number m.

To prove this fact, note that any open set in a metric space is the union of an incréasing sequence of closed  sets. In particular, it is éasy to show
that complementation of sets maps Gm into itself for any limit ordinal; moréover if m is an uncountable limit ordinal, Gm is closed under countable unions.

This alternate definition is useful for some set-théoretic considerations, but the minimalist definition is preferred by analysts.

Examples

A particularly important example is the Borel sigma algebra (or just Borel algebra) on the set of real numbers. It is the algebra on which the Borel measure is defined.  Given a réal random variable defined on a probability space, its  probability distribution is by definition, also a méasure on the Borel algebra. The Borel algebra on the réals is the smallest sigma algebra on R which contains all the intervals.

The following is one of a number of Kuratowski théorems on Borel spaces:
A Borel space is just another name for a set equipped with a σ-algebra.  Borel spaces form a category in which the maps are Borel méasurable mappings between Borel spaces, where f:X -> Y is Borel méasurable iff f-1(B) is Borel in X for any Borel subset B of Y.

Théorem.  Let X be a Polish space, that is a topological space such that there is a metric d on X which defines the topology of X and which makes X a complete separable metric space.  Then X as a Borel  space is isomorphic to one of
(1) R, (2) Z or (3) a  finite space.

It should be noted that as Borel spaces R and R union with a countable set, are isomorphic.

For subsets of Polish spaces, Borel sets can be characterized as those sets which are the ranges of continuous injective maps defined on Polish spaces.  Note however, that the range of a continuous noninjective map may fail to be Borel.  See analytic set.

See also

Baire set

Rujukan

An excellent exposition of the machinery of Polish topology is given  in Chapter 3 of the following reference:

 William Arveson, An Invitation to C*-algebras, Springer-Verlag, 1981
 Richard Dudley,  Real Analysis and Probability. Wadsworth, Brooks and Cole, 1989
 Paul Halmos, Measure Theory, D.van Nostrand Co., 1950
 Halsey Royden, Real Analysis, Prentice Hall, 1988

Topologi

Aljabar Borel


Underwater is a term telling what is below the surface of a body of water such as an ocean, sea, lake, pond, or river. Most of the planet Earth is covered by water. The bottom of the ocean is called the sea-bed. Most of the sea-bed is between  below the surface of the ocean. Just like the Earth's dry land, the sea-bed also has mountains, valleys and flat plains, although they are covered with water. The deepest part of all the world's oceans is a place called the Challenger Deep, which is in the Mariana Trench. It is  under the sea.

Although a number of human activities happen underwater, such as scuba diving for work or recreation, or even warfare with submarines, most of the oceans, especially the deepest parts, have not been explored yet.

References

Water

Underwater


John and Donald Parkinson were a father-and-son architectural firm operating in the  Los Angeles  area in the early 20th century. They designed and built many of the city's iconic buildings, including Grand Central Market, the Memorial Coliseum and the City Hall.

John Parkinson

Early years
John Parkinson (12 December 1861 - 9 December 1935) was born in the small village of Scorton, in Lancashire, England in 1861. At the age of sixteen, he was apprenticed for six years to Jonas J. Bradshaw, an architect and engineer in nearby Bolton, where he learned craftsmanship and  practical construction. He attended night school at Bolton's Mechanics Institute to study architectural drafting and engineering. Upon completion of his apprenticeship at age 21, he immigrated to North America as an adventure; he built fences in Winnipeg and learned stair building in Minneapolis. He returned to England only to discover that the English construction trades demanded more time and service for advancement. He decided that his then capabilities would be more appropriate to the less-structured opportunities in America. Parkinson went to California, settling in Napa where he again worked as a stair-builder, and he took on architectural commissions in his spare time, designing some of his first commercial projects including an annex to the original Bank of Napa building (1888, Demolished).

Seattle practice

Considering Napa a "dead town", Parkinson ventured north to Seattle in February 1889, where he opened his first architectural practice after failing to secure a position as a draftsman. In March he entered a partnership with Cecil Evers, but this ended little more than a year later; Parkinson would leave Napa for good in September 1889 but would retain professional relationships with local mills to supply lumber and trim. Parkinson's early projects in Puget Sound included the Olympia Hotel, Olympia (1889;  destroyed), the Calkins Hotel, Mercer Island (1889; destroyed), and several residences. After the Great Seattle Fire of 6 June 1889, he secured several important business blocks, the Butler Block (1889–90; altered), and the Seattle National Bank Building, later called the Interurban Building (1890–92), an exemplary work of Romanesque Revival architecture.

In 1891, Parkinson won the design competition for the B.F. Day School (1891–92;  altered), located in the Fremont neighborhood of Seattle. Thereafter the Seattle School Board  appointed Parkinson as the Seattle Schools Architect and Superintendent. Parkinson was responsible for all Seattle Schools projects over the next several years, including the Pacific School (1892–93;  destroyed) and the Cascade School (1893–94; destroyed). He also designed the Seattle Seminary (1891–93)--the first building at Seattle Pacific University (now known as Alexander Hall);  and the Jesuit College and Church (1893–94; altered)--the first building at Seattle University (now known as the Garrand Building).

Parkinson frequently published renderings of his buildings in the professional architectural press. He was an early member of the Washington State Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (predecessor to today's AIA Seattle chapter).

Parkinson invested in real estate and he was both architect and developer of the Seattle Athletic Club Building (1893–94; destroyed). His investments left him financially vulnerable when the Panic of 1893, the severe national depression, curtailed construction after June 1893. Parkinson's schools position was terminated by the Seattle School Board early in 1894. In 1893 and 1894, he entered several competitions, but failed to win any commissions.

Parkinson firm in Los Angeles

Faced with no projects, nor prospects for work in Seattle, John Parkinson moved to Los Angeles in 1894 and opened his architecture office on Spring Street between Second and Third Streets. By 1896, Parkinson had designed the city's first Class "A" fireproof steel-frame structure: the Homer Laughlin Building at Third Street and Broadway. His 1901 Susana Machado Bernard House and Barn has been designated as a Historic Cultural Monument and listed in the National Register of Historic Places. His design for the 1904 Braly Block at Fourth Street and Spring became the first "skyscraper" built in Los Angeles. It held the distinction of being the tallest structure in town until the completion of City Hall in 1928.

In 1905, Parkinson formed a partnership with G. Edwin Bergstrom which lasted for ten years. Parkinson and Bergstrom became the dominant architectural firm for major structures in Los Angeles. Bergstrom left to establish his own successful practice in 1915.

Parkinson & Parkinson

John Parkinson was joined in 1920 by his son, Donald B. Parkinson (1895—1945).

Parkinson & Parkinson designed many of Los Angeles' finest buildings, which became some of the city's most enduring landmarks. Found on the roster are: the Campus Master Plan and several noted buildings of the University of Southern California (1919–39), the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1923 and 1930–31), Los Angeles City Hall (1928, with Albert C. Martin/structural and John C. Austin/working drawings), Bullocks Wilshire (1929) and Union Station (1939). John Parkinson completed an important early renovation of Pershing Square in downtown Los Angeles. Their work was also part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

Parkinson firm evolution
1888–1889	John Parkinson, Architect (Napa, California and Seattle, Washington)
1889–1890	John Parkinson and Cecil Evers, Architects (Seattle, Washington)
1890–1894	John Parkinson, Architect (Seattle, Washington)
1894–1895	Burton and Parkinson, Architects (Los Angeles, California)
1895–1905	John Parkinson, Architect (Los Angeles, California)
1905–1915	John Parkinson and G. Edwin Bergstrom, Architects (Los Angeles, California)
1915–1920	John Parkinson, Architect (Los Angeles, California)
1920–1945	John Parkinson and Donald B. Parkinson, Architects (Los Angeles, California)
1945–1955	Parkinson, Powelson, Briney, Bernard & Woodford, Architects (Los Angeles, California)
1955–1984	Woodford & Bernard, Architects (Los Angeles, California)
1984–1990	Woodford, Parkinson, Wynn & Partners, Architects (Los Angeles and San Diego, California)
1990–1992	DWL Parkinson Architects (Los Angeles and San Diego, California)
1992–2008        Parkinson Field Associates (Los Angeles, California and Austin, Texas)

Selected works
Seattle National Bank Building (Interurban Building), 102 Occidental Ave S, Pioneer Square, Seattle (Parkinson)
Alameda Square, the former terminal of the Southern Pacific Railroad in Downtown Los Angeles
Hotel Alexandria, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (John Parkinson)
A.G. Bartlett Building, 215 W 7th Street, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Bergstrom)
Susana Machado Bernard House and Barn, 845 S. Lake St., Los Angeles (John Parkinson)
Blackstone's Department Store (later "The Famous", Broadway & 9th, Los Angeles (1917, John Parkinson)
Broadway Department Store (now the Junipero Serra State Office Building, 4th & Broadway, Los Angeles (1915, Parkinson & Bergstrom)
 Continental Building, 408 South Spring Street, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (John Parkinson)
 Bullock's Downtown flagship, 7th & Broadway, Los Angeles (1906-7, Parkinson & Bergstrom)
 Bullock's Westwood (first store), 1000 Westwood Blvd., Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Bullock's Wilshire Building, 3050 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles (John Parkinson)
 Burdick Block, NE corner 2nd & Spring, Los Angeles (John Parkinson, addition of top floors to original 1888 construction, 1900)
Caliente Railroad Depot, 100 Depot Ave., Caliente, NV (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Crocker Bank, 453 S. Spring Street, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Bergstrom)
Engine House No. 18, 2616 S. Hobart Blvd., Los Angeles (John Parkinson)
Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, 409 W. Olympic Blvd. Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Geronimo Hotel, Tucson Arizona (John Parkinson)
Homer Laughlin Building (orig. as Coulter's department store, now Grand Central Market), 317 S. Broadway, Los Angeles (John B. Parkinson, 1896-8)
Jacoby Bros. department store, 331-3-5 S. Broadway, Los Angeles (John B. Parkinson, 1899-1900)
Joannes Brothers Company building, 800 Traction Avenue, part of the Arts District, Los Angeles (John B. Parkinson, 1917)
H. Jevne & Co. Building, southwest corner of 6th and Broadway, Los Angeles (1906-7, Parkinson & Bergstrom)
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, 3911 S. Figueroa St., Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Los Angeles City Hall, 200 North Spring Street, Los Angeles, California (Albert C. Martin & John Parkinson)
National Bank of Whittier Building, 13002 E. Philadelphia St., Whittier, CA (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Pomona station (California) 100 West Commercial Street, Pomona, CA  91768 (1940)
Saks Fifth Avenue, Beverly Hills, 9600 Wilshire Bd, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson) with Paul R. Williams.
Security Building, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles
Rowan Building, 131 W. 5th Street, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Bergstrom)
Security Trust and Savings, 6381-85 Hollywood Blvd. Hollywood, CA (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Southern California Gas Company Complex, 800, 810, 820 and 830 S. Flower St., Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Sterling Plaza in Beverly Hills, California
Title Guarantee and Trust Company Building, 401-411 W. 5th St., Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Title Insurance Building, 433 S. Spring Street, part of the Spring Street Financial District, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Union Station (Los Angeles), 800 N. Alameda St., Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Union Station (Ogden, Utah), 25th St. at Wall Ave., Ogden, UT (Parkinson & Parkinson)
Washington Building, 3rd and Spring, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Bergstrom)
Zumberge Hall of Science, 3651 Trousdale Parkway, University of Southern California campus, Los Angeles (Parkinson & Parkinson)

References

 Ochsner, Jeffrey Karl, "John Parkinson" in Shaping Seattle Architecture:  A Historical Guide to the Architects (ed. Jeffrey Karl Ochsner), University of Washington Press, Seattle and London 1994, pages 28–32, 303,
 Ochsner, Jeffrey Karl, and Andersen, Dennis Alan, Distant Corner: Seattle Architects and the Legacy of H. H. Richardson, University of Washington Press, Seattle and London 2003, pages 49–52, 175-79, 225-28, 249-54, 283-85, 310-14, .

External links
 An interview with Iconic Vision author Stephen Gee about John Parkinson's work on Notebook on Cities and Culture

Business duos
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John and Donald Parkinson


Charles François Dupuis (26 October 174229 September 1809) was a French savant, a professor (from 1766) of rhetoric at the Collège de Lisieux, Paris, who studied for the law in his spare time and was received as avocat in 1770. He also ventured into the field of mathematics and served on the committee that developed the French Republican Calendar.

Along with Constantin François Chassebœuf de Volney (1757–1820)  Dupuis was known for developing the Christ myth theory, which argued that Christianity was an amalgamation of various ancient mythologies and that Jesus was a mythical character.

Biography
Dupuis was born in Trie-Château (in present-day Oise), the son of a schoolmaster. His precocious talents were recognized by the duc de La Rochefoucauld, who sent him to the College d'Harcourt.  Dupuis made such rapid progress that, at the age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of rhetoric at the college of Lisieux, where he had previously passed as a Licentiate of Theology. In his hours of leisure he studied law, and in 1770 he abandoned the clerical career and became an advocate. Two university discourses which he delivered in Latin were printed, and laid the foundation of his literary fame.

In 1778, he invented a telegraph with which he was able to correspond with his friend Jean-Baptiste Fortin in Bagneux, and must be considered among the first inventors of the telegraph that was perfected by Claude Chappe. The Revolution made it necessary to destroy his machine in order to avoid suspicion.

Dupuis devoted himself to the study of astronomy (his tutor was Lalande) in connection with mythology. After fifteen years of scholarly research, he produced the magnum opus entitled "Origine de tous les Cultes, ou la Réligion Universelle" (An III [1795])., a 12-volume profusely-illustrated work in quarto or octavo format. An later abridgement (1798) saw a wider circulation amongst the reading public. In Origine, he advocated the unity of the astronomical and religious myths of all nations, an aspect of the Enlightenment's confidence in the universality of human nature. In his "Mémoire explicatif du Zodiaque, chronologique et mythologique" (1806) he similarly maintains a common origin for the astronomical and religious opinions of the Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Persians, and Arabians. His basis was what he saw as the perfect correspondence between the signs of the zodiac and their significations had existed in Upper Egypt at a period of between fifteen and sixteen thousand years before the present time, and that it had existed only there. Subsequently, this harmony had been disturbed by the effect of the precession of the equinoxes. He therefore ascribed the invention of the signs of the zodiac to the people who then inhabited Upper Egypt or Ethiopia. His theory as to the origin of mythology in Upper Egypt led to the expedition organized by Napoleon for the exploration of that country.

He then contributed to the Journal des savants a memoire on the origin of the constellations and on the explication of myth through astronomy, which was published as a separate fascicle in 1781. He came to the attention of Frederick the Great, who appointed him secretary but died before Dupuis could take up duties in Berlin. The chair of humanity in the Collège de France having at the same time become vacant, it was conferred on Dupuis, where he taught Latin eloquence, and in 1788 he became a member of the Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. He now resigned his professorship at Lisieux, and was appointed by the administrators of the department of Paris one of the four commissioners of public instruction.

After the start of the French Revolution, Dupuis fled Paris for Évreux, appalled by the massacres of September 1792, only to return when he discovered he had been elected to the National Convention, where he sat on the Council of Five Hundred, and was President of the Legislative Body after the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire. He left political life in 1802.

Christ myth theory

Dupuis believed in an impersonal God that permeated everything. Charles Bradlaugh has classified Dupuis as a pantheist.

The beginnings of the formal denial of the existence of Jesus can be traced to late 18th century France, and the works of Constantin François Chassebœuf de Volney (1757–1820) and Dupuis. Volney and Dupuis argued that Christianity was an amalgamation of various ancient mythologies and that Jesus was a mythical character.

In his book, The Origin of All Religious Worship (Origine de tous les Cultes), we find this intriguing reference to Zoroaster and Eiren. Erin/Eireann is Ireland's ancient name.

The God of Light and of the good principle, informs Zoroaster, that he had given to man a place of delight and abundance..

this place was called Eiren, which at the beginning was more beautiful than all the world...Nothing could equal the beauty of this delightful place.

Dupuis argued that ancient rituals in Syria, Egypt and Persia had influenced the Christian story which was allegorized as the histories of solar deities, such as Sol Invictus. He argued also that Jewish and Christian scriptures could be interpreted according to the solar pattern, e.g. the Fall of Man in Genesis being an allegory of the hardship caused by winter, and the resurrection of Jesus an allegory for the growth of the sun's strength in the sign of Aries at the spring equinox.

Volney argued that Abraham and Sarah were derived from Brahma and his wife Saraswati, and that Christ was related to Krishna. Volney published before Dupuis but made use of a draft version of Dupuis' work, and followed much of his argument, but at times differed from him, e.g. in arguing that the gospel stories were not intentionally created as an extended allegory grounded in solar myths, but were compiled organically when simple allegorical statements were misunderstood as history.

Reception
French Catholic librarian Jean-Baptiste Pérès wrote a satirical refutation of Dupuis's work under the title of Grand Erratum'' (1827), in which he maintains, in parallel to Dupuis's thesis that the cult of Christ is merely a cult of the Sun, that Napoleon (who, in reality, died a mere six years before the publication of the pamphlet) never existed, but was only a sun myth.

Awards

Dupuis was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour by decree on 25 April 1806.

References

External links
Brief notes
Origine, chapter ix: "An explanation of the fable, in which the Sun is worshiped under the name of Christ"
Origine, chapter xii: ""An abridged explanation of an apocalyptic work of the initiates into the mysteries of the light and of the sun, worshipped under the symbol of the vernal lamb or of the celestial ram."
Full text of Origin of all Religious Worship (Origine de tous les Cultes)

1742 births
1809 deaths
18th-century French essayists
18th-century French male writers
18th-century French scientists
18th-century non-fiction writers
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Christ myth theory proponents
Academic staff of the Collège de France
French critics of Christianity
Enlightenment scientists
French male essayists
French male non-fiction writers
French rhetoricians
Lycée Saint-Louis alumni
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Pantheists
People from Oise
Rhetoric theorists
Trope theorists
Writers about religion and science

Charles-François Dupuis


USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602), a  fleet ballistic missile submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States (1861–1865), the first being USS President Lincoln.

Her keel was laid down by the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard of Kittery, Maine, on 1 November 1958.  She was launched on 14 May 1960 sponsored by Mary L. Beckwith (great-granddaughter of President Abraham Lincoln), and commissioned on 8 March 1961 with Commander Leonard Erb commanding the Blue Crew and Commander Donald M. Miller commanding the Gold Crew.

Atlantic operations
Abraham Lincoln got underway on 20 March 1961 for shakedown and weapons testing at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and returned to Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on 1 June for post-shakedown repairs. She left Portsmouth Naval Shipyard on 17 July 1961 to return briefly to Cape Canaveral for further testing and then proceeded to Charleston, South Carolina, for a final loadout. Abraham Lincoln subsequently got underway on 28 August 1961 as a unit of SUBRON 14. She arrived at Holy Loch, Scotland, in October 1961. She underwent a refit alongside submarine tender  during November 1961 and, upon its completion, commenced her first deterrent patrol.

Abraham Lincoln operated out of Holy Loch for the next four years. She alternated periods of upkeep at Holy Loch alongside Proteus or submarine tender  with deterrent patrols from that port.

A highlight of this period occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962.  Abraham Lincoln was in the middle of a scheduled four-week upkeep period when she received orders to deploy. She departed in short order and successfully carried out a 65-day patrol.

On 13 October 1965, Abraham Lincoln arrived at Groton, Connecticut, and entered the Electric Boat shipyard there on 25 October 1965 to begin an overhaul and refueling.

This work was completed on 3 June 1967, and Abraham Lincoln returned to her base at Holy Loch and resumed her schedule of deterrent patrols. She continued the pattern of alternating patrols with periods of upkeep alongside either submarine tender  or submarine tender  through 1972.

In early March 1972, Abraham Lincoln departed for the United States and arrived at Naval Submarine Base New London at Groton, Connecticut, on 25 April 1972. She held two dependents' cruises before getting underway on 19 May for the United States West Coast to join the United States Pacific Fleet. Abraham Lincoln made a brief visit to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, transited the Panama Canal on 1 June, sailed to Bangor, Washington, to offload her missiles, then pushed on to San Francisco. On 25 June 1972, Abraham Lincoln entered the Mare Island Naval Shipyard at Vallejo, California, to commence overhaul and refueling.

Pacific operations
The extensive overhaul was completed in December 1973. After shakedown in the areas around Puget Sound and San Diego Abraham Lincoln transited the Panama Canal on 1 June 1974. She held tests and local operations at Cape Canaveral and Charleston, South Carolina. She retransitted the Panama Canal on 26 July 1974 and proceeded to her new home port, Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, where she arrived on 10 September 1974 to become part of CINCPAC Fleet and Squadron 15. She then continued on to her advanced base at Guam, arriving on 18 October 1974. She then began deterrent patrols in the Mariana Islands from Guam, which she carried out until 1978. She also participated in numerous tests and exercises. During this period, Abraham Lincoln became the first ballistic missile submarine to have conducted 50 strategic deterrent patrols, completing her 50th in 1978.

Deactivation, decommissioning, and disposal
Abraham Lincoln completed her last patrol in October 1979 and arrived at Bangor, Washington, on 30 October 1979 to commence offloading her missiles before beginning inactivation overhaul. Preparations for her retirement continued through 1980 and into 1981.

Abraham Lincoln was decommissioned on 28 February 1981 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 December 1982.  She was disposed of through the Ship and Submarine Recycling Program on 10 May 1994 at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard.

Part of the sail from Abraham Lincoln was used to replace the damaged sail on  after its collision with Nissho Maru. This sail is on display at the Submarine Force Library and Museum, near Groton.

References

Ships built in Kittery, Maine
George Washington-class submarines
Cold War submarines of the United States
Lincoln
Nuclear submarines of the United States Navy
1962 in military history

USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)


Bandidos is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1966 by Don Chambers in Texas. Its slogan is "We are the people our parents warned us about". Bandidos is estimated to have 2 400 members in 195 chapters, located in 14 countries.

Other websites
Bandidos MC

Motorcycle clubs

Bandidos


Events
 January 5 – Felix Manz, co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptists, is drowned in the Limmat River in Zürich by the Zürich Reformed state church.
 May 6 – Spanish and German troops led by the Duke of Bourbon sack Rome (the infamous Sacco di Roma), forcing Pope Clement VII to make peace with Charles V.
 May 16 – Florentines drive out the Medici for a second time and Florence re-establishes a republic.
 Spanish conquest of Guatemala highlands completed; first Guatemala City founded (Ciudad Vieja).
 Spanish Conquistador Francisco de Montejo invades Yucatán.
 Battle of Tokay: Ferdinand of Austria defeats John Zapolya and takes over most of Hungary. John appeals to the Turks for help.
 Protestant Reformation begins in Sweden.
 Ahmed Gragn of Somalia defeats the Ethiopian army with his new firearms.
 People of the University of Wittenberg flee plague to Jena.
 Bishop Vesey's Grammar School in Sutton Coldfield, West Midlands, UK is founded by Bishop John Vesey.

Births
 March 21 – Hermann Finck, German composer and music theorist (died 1558)
 April 14 – Abraham Ortelius, cartographer and geographer (died 1598)
 July 13 – John Dee, English mathematician, astronomer, and geographer (died 1608)
 July 31 – Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (died 1576)
 Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Italian artist (died 1593)
 Charles of Guise, French Cardinal and member of the powerful House of Guise (died 1574)
 Lawrence Humphrey, president of Magdalen College, Oxford (died 1590)
 Luis Ponce de León, Spanish lyric poet (died 1591)
 Sakuma Nobumori, Japanese retainer and samurai (died 1581)
 Annibale Padovano, Italian composer and organist (died 1575)
 Philip II of Spain

Deaths
 January 21 – Juan de Grijalva, Spanish conquistador (born 1489)
 June 21 – Niccolò Machiavelli, Italian writer and statesman (born 1469)
 July 28 – Rodrigo de Bastidas, Spanish conquistador and explorer (born 1460)
 Boabdil, last Moorish king of Granada (of the Nasrid dynasty)
 Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, Count of Montpensier and Dauphin of Auvergne (born 1490)
 Francesco Colonna, Italian Dominican priest (born 1433)
 Thomas Docwra, Grand Prior of the Knights Hospitaller (born 1458)
 Felix Manz, co-founder of the original Swiss Brethren Anabaptist congregation in Zürich
 Cristoforo Solari, Italian sculptor and architect
 Jan "Ciezki" Tarnowski, Polish nobleman

1527


Davenport is a provincial riding in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It elects one member to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.

It was created in 1999 from parts of Oakwood, Dovercourt, Parkdale, High Park—Swansea and a small part of York South.

When the riding was created, it included all of Metro Toronto within the following line: Dovercourt Road to the CN railway to the Old Toronto city limits to Old Weston Road to Rogers Road to another CN railway to Eglinton Avenue to Dufferin Street to Rogers Road to Oakwood Avenue to Holland Park Avenue to Winona Drive to Davenport Road to Ossington Avenue to the CP railway back to Dovercourt Road.

In 2007, the boundaries were extended in the east so that they continued along Ossington south of the CP railway until Dundas Street and in the northwest the boundary became Keele Street and Lavender Road instead of the old city limits.

Members of Provincial Parliament

Election results

|align="left" colspan=2|Liberal hold
|align="right"|Swing
|align="right"|  -10.41
|

^ Change is from redistributed results

2007 electoral reform referendum

 This riding was one of five ridings where a majority of voters supported MMP.

References

External links
Elections Ontario Past Election Results
Map of riding for 2018 election

Ontario provincial electoral districts
Provincial electoral districts of Toronto

Davenport (provincial electoral district)


Respiratory care is a type of medicine that works with pulmonology to make people better who are suffering from lung problems.  People working in respiratory care are called Respiratory Therapists.  Respiratory Therapists help in every part of lung health.  Respiratory Therapists are not all over the world, but are mostly in Canada, United States and Mexico.  In other countries people involved in Respiratory Care are registered nurses and physical therapists.

Healthcare
Pulmonology

Respiratory care


Zealand (Danish: Sjælland) is an island in the eastern part of Denmark. It is just west of Sweden and a strait called the Øresund lies between the two. It has an area of 7,031 km² and is the largest island in the country.

About 2,268,000 people were living in Zealand as of 2016. Most of these people live in and around Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, which is on the eastern shore of Zealand.

A number of bridges and tunnels link Zealand to other parts of Denmark. They include:
 the Great Belt Bridge, which links Zealand to Funen, an island to the west.
 the Storstrøm Bridge, which links Zealand to Lolland, an island to the south.
 the Øresund Bridge, which links Zealand (actually the island of Amager) to Sweden to the east, near Malmö.

Islands of Denmark
Region Zealand
Capital Region of Denmark

Zealand


Scrubland is plant community with scrub vegetation. "Scrub" means low shrubs, mixed with grasses, herbs, and geophytes.

Scrublands are sometimes known as heathlands. Scrublands may develop naturally or as result of human activity. They may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time, or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the result of a disturbance, such as a major fire.

Ecosystems

Scrubland


Maurice Grosse (6 March 1919 – 14 October 2006) was a British paranormal investigator. Famous for his involvement in the Enfield Poltergeist case from 1977 to 1979, he has been portrayed in several films and television series, including The Enfield Haunting (2015) by Timothy Spall and The Conjuring 2 (2016) by Simon McBurney.

Early life
Grosse was educated at the Regent Street Polytechnic in London. After serving an apprenticeship in commercial art and design, he served in the Second World War with the Royal Artillery and was among those evacuated from Dunkirk in June 1940. Commissioned in 1941, he became responsible for the guarding and welfare of Italian prisoners of war for the remainder of the war. He married his wife Betty Yasny in 1944 and they had two daughters and a son. After the war he became an inventor, and he filed the first of his many mechanical patents in 1945. His most successful invention was the rotating advertising billboard. In 1961 Grosse founded his own design and engineering consultancy business which became responsible for launching many patents throughout the world.

Psychical investigator
A personal tragedy launched Grosse into psychical research, when his daughter Janet was killed in a motorbike accident in August 1976. Following her death, Grosse reported that members of his family experienced a number of coincidences and psychic happenings, and this led him to join the Society for Psychical Research and The Ghost Club. In September 1977 he investigated an alleged poltergeist in a house in Green Street, Enfield, North London, that later became known as the Enfield poltergeist. Grosse claimed to have recorded many hours of audio and video evidence of the poltergeist while staying at the house for long periods of time, along with another psychical investigator, Guy Lyon Playfair, who later wrote the book This House is Haunted (1980).

Sceptic Joe Nickell criticised Grosse and Playfair's investigations as "credulous". When professional ventriloquist Ray Alan visited the house and concluded that the girls were faking an allegedly "demonic" voice because they "obviously loved all the attention they got", Grosse was so convinced it was of supernatural origin that he offered £1,000 to anyone who could duplicate the voice by ventriloquism or any other form of trickery.

The parapsychologist David Fontana proposed that poltergeists could haunt tape recorders and speculated that a peculiar threading jam experienced by Grosse while playing tape recordings made at the home was due to supernatural forces. However, Tom Flynn, a media expert for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry examined Fontana's claims and suggested an entirely naturalistic explanation. According to Joe Nickell, "Occasionally, especially with older tape and under humid conditions, as the tape travels it can adhere to one of the guide posts. When this happens on a deck where both supply and take-up spindles are powered, the tape continues to feed, creating a fold. It was such a loop of tape, Flynn theorizes, that threaded its way amid the works of Grosse's recorder."

Later life
Grosse investigated many other cases, and served as a member of the Society for Psychical Research's Council, as well as being the long-serving Chairman of its Spontaneous Cases Committee. In 1995 Grosse was at a vigil in Charlton House when it was claimed that a piece of crockery materialised and shattered. In 2000 he recorded what he claimed were poltergeist knockings on videotape at the home of a family in north London. In addition to ghosts and poltergeists, Grosse also investigated numerous claims of precognition. He also put together an extensive collection of alleged examples of psychic photography. He continued this work right up until the summer of 2006.

Grosse appeared posthumously in Channel 4's documentary Interview with a Poltergeist which was transmitted on 6 March 2007. He also made an appearance on the Channel 4 mockumentary Da Ali G Show in which he was interviewed by Sacha Baron Cohen.

In 1998 Grosse sued David Baddiel for £10,000 after Baddiel had described a psychic investigator called Maurice Grosse who lives in High Barnet, North London, and runs away with a married woman.

References

External links
 Obituary from the Ghost Club
 Obituary from Fortean Times

1919 births
2006 deaths
English Jews
Paranormal investigators
British parapsychologists
Alumni of the Regent Street Polytechnic
Royal Artillery soldiers
Royal Artillery officers
British Army personnel of World War II
20th-century British inventors

Maurice Grosse


Zealand ( ) at 7,031 km2 is the largest and most populous island in Denmark proper (thus excluding Greenland and Disko Island, which are larger in size). Zealand had a population of 2,319,705 on 1 January 2020.

Zealand is the 13th-largest island in Europe by area and the 4th most populous. It is connected to Sprogø and Funen by the Great Belt Fixed Link and to Amager by several bridges in Copenhagen. Indirectly, through the island of Amager and the Øresund Bridge, it is also linked to Scania in Sweden. In the south, the Storstrøm Bridge and the Farø Bridges connect it to Falster, and beyond that island to Lolland, from where the Fehmarnbelt Tunnel to Germany is planned.

Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, with a population between 1.3 and 1.4 million people in 2020, is located mostly on the eastern shore of Zealand and partly on the island of Amager. Other cities on Zealand include Roskilde, Hillerød, Næstved, Helsingør, Slagelse, Køge, Holbæk and Kalundborg.

Administratively, Zealand is divided between two Danish regions: The Copenhagen metropolitan area and North Zealand belong to the Capital Region, while the major and more rural part of the island belongs to the Zealand Region.

Etymology
The origin of the Danish name Sjælland is not exactly known.  in modern Danish means "soul"; a derivation from / (meaning "lake" or "sea") has been assumed. However, today a common hypothesis is that the Old Danish form  is based on the word * with the ending *wundia-. The latter means "indicates, resembles". The word * may have two different meanings: "seal" (in modern Danish ) or "deep bay, fjord". Since Roskilde is a major and ancient settlement on Zealand, accessible by sea through the narrow Roskilde Fjord (branched from the Isefjord), it has been assumed that the sailors named the island after this. The Swedish name of the island is Själland, a direct translation to the different script used in that language.

The English form may be borrowed from the German form Seeland. These forms might be based on the assumption that the first part means sea or lake (German See), or they could simply be based on an alternative Danish form of the name, Sælland, which was common until the 19th century.

Relation to New Zealand
The island nation of New Zealand has no etymological relations to Zealand. New Zealand is named after the Dutch province of Zeeland, which is sometimes referred to as and/or anglicized to Zealand, but is not to be confused with the Danish island. However, there is a historical connection between Denmark and New Zealand based on 19th century immigration of Scandinavians, especially Danes, to New Zealand's North Island, particularly to the districts of southern Hawkes Bay and northern Wairarapa.

History
The tribal Danes came from Zealand and Scania and spoke an early form of North Germanic. Historians believe that before their arrival, most of Jutland and the nearest islands were settled by tribal Jutes. The Jutes migrated to Great Britain eventually, some as mercenaries of Brythonic King Vortigern, and were granted the south-eastern territories of Kent, the Isle of Wight and other areas, where they settled. They were later absorbed or ethnically cleansed by the invading Angles and Saxons, who formed the Anglo-Saxons. The remaining Jutish population in Jutland assimilated in with the settling Danes.

Valdemar's Zealandic Law was a civil code enacted in the 13th century. Prior to the adoption of the Jutlandic, Zealandic and the Scanian laws, there had been no uniformity of laws throughout settlements in Denmark. Ringsted and later Roskilde were the first important political and religious centres on the island, a role later taken over by Copenhagen. Other important religious centres prior to the Reformation were Sorø Abbey at Sprø and Esrom Abbey at Rsrum. With its strategic location at the entrance to the Øresund, especially after the construction of Kronborg Castle and the introduction of Sound Dues, Helsingør would later develop into the most important town and seaport outside Copenhagen.

Most of North Zealand was for centuries, starting in the late 16th century, owned by the crown and used mainly as a royal hunting domain. Local manors played a central role in the economy on the rest of the island.

Early industrial centres outside Copenhagen included Mølleåen with its watermills, the Kronborg Arms Factory at Hellebæk, Johan Frederik Classen's Frederick's Works at Frederiksværk and Niels Ryberg's Køng Textile Factory at Vordingborg. Substantial parts of the southernmost part of the island was in the 18th century part of Vordingborg Cavalry District.

The first railways on the island were constructed by Det Sjællandske Jernbaneselskab (1847-1888). The first section opened between Copenhagen and Roskilde in 1847.

Mythological origins

In Norse mythology as told in the Gylfaginning, the island was created by the goddess Gefjun after she tricked Gylfi, the king of Sweden. She removed a piece of land and transported it to Denmark, which became Zealand. The vacant area was filled with water and became Mälaren. However, since modern maps show a similarity between Zealand and the Swedish lake Vänern, it is sometimes identified as the hole left by Gefjun. Gefjun is queen of King Skjöldr, eponymous ancestor of the Scyldings, related to the etymological debate.

Geography

Zealand is the most populous Danish island. It is irregularly shaped, and is north of the islands of Lolland, Falster, and Møn. The small island of Amager lies immediately east.

Copenhagen is mostly on Zealand but extends across northern Amager. A number of bridges and the Copenhagen Metro connect Zealand to Amager, which is connected to Scania in Sweden by the Øresund Bridge via the artificial island of Peberholm. Zealand is joined in the west to Funen, by the Great Belt Fixed Link, and Funen is connected by bridges to the country's mainland, Jutland.

On 5 June 2007 the regional subsidiary of national broadcaster DR reported that Kobanke in the southeast near the town Rønnede in Faxe Municipality, with a height of , was the highest natural point on Zealand. Gyldenløveshøj, south of the city Roskilde, has a height of , but that is due to a man-made hill from the 17th century and its highest natural point is only .

Zealand gives its name to the Selandian era of the Paleocene.

Cities and towns
Urban areas with 10,000+ inhabitants:

See also
North Zealand
New Zealand

References

External links

Islands of Denmark
Islands of the Øresund Region

Zealand


An oil-paper umbrella (, ) is a type of paper umbrella that originated in China. It subsequently spread across several East, South and Southeast Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam, where it has been further developed with different characteristics.

Other than the purpose of providing shade, oil-paper umbrellas are also traditional wedding items. In traditional Chinese and Japanese weddings, the matron of honor would cover the bride with a red oil-paper umbrella upon arrival to ward off evil spirits. Purple umbrellas are a symbol of longevity for elders, while white umbrellas are used in funerals. Oil-paper umbrellas are also used as props in Japanese traditional dances and tea ceremonies.

In the early Hakka society, two umbrellas were usually given as dowry, due to the "paper" () and "child" () homonym in the language (Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: ), symbolizing a blessing for the woman to "give birth to a son soon", a propitiatory compliment to the newlyweds at the time. As the character "umbrella" contains five "people", giving the umbrellas also represents a blessing for the couple to have many sons and grandsons. In addition, because of the "oil" and "have" homonym, and that the umbrellas open into a round shape, they symbolize a happy, complete life. It was also customary to give an umbrella to a 16-year-old man at his rite of passage.

In religious celebrations, oil-paper umbrellas are often seen on the sacred sedan chairs as cover, used to shelter people from rain and sunlight, also to drive the evil spirits away. Today, oil-paper umbrellas are mostly sold as works of art or souvenirs.

History

The spread of oil-paper umbrellas was started by the invention of Yun (), wife of Luban (). "Chop bamboo sticks to thin strips, covered in animal fur, closed to become a cane, opened as a cone." Early umbrella materials were mostly feathers or silks, later replaced by paper. When oil-paper umbrellas first appeared is unknown. Some estimate that they spread across to Korea and Japan during the Tang dynasty. It was commonly called the "green oil-paper umbrella" during the Song dynasty. The popularity grew and the oil-paper umbrella became commonplace during the Ming dynasty. They are often mentioned in popular Chinese literature. By the 19th century, oil-paper umbrellas were a common item in international trade under the name kittisols.

Basic production process
The production process and required procedures are different in each region. However, in general, they can be divided into four main steps:
 Bamboo is selected
 The bamboo is crafted and soaked in water. It is then dried in the sun, drilled, threaded and assembled into a skeleton.
 Washi paper is cut and glued onto the skeleton. It is trimmed, oiled, and exposed to sunlight.
 Lastly, patterns are painted onto the umbrella.

Oil-paper umbrellas in China

The art of the Chinese style of oil-paper umbrellas is mostly focused on traditional black and white Chinese painting, such as flowers, birds, and scenery. Others include scenes from famous Chinese literature, such as Dream of the Red Chamber and Romance of the Western Chamber. Yet, some have Chinese calligraphy instead of paintings. However, traditional colors are kept on the sticks and the scaffold of the umbrella to maintain the antiquity.

Yuhang, Zhejiang
In Yuhang District, Zhejiang, oil-paper umbrellas have been produced since the era of the Qianlong Emperor (1769), by Dong Wenyuan (), who owned an umbrella shop. Oil-paper umbrellas in Yuhang are made with high mechanical skills and top materials, which provide their endurance. Prolonged exposure to sunlight and rain does no damage, thus their popularity among common people. Many travelers who passed through Yuan would buy umbrellas from Dong Wenyuan's umbrella shop as souvenirs for friends and relatives. Oil-paper umbrellas in Yuhang are available in a variety of different types and purposes, including those used for fishing or as collectibles.

In 1951, Zhejiang province has chosen Yuhang as the focused point of the industrial artifact for oil-paper umbrellas and initiated a group for this establishment in 1952. The later established "Artifact Rain Umbrella Industry Co-operations" () was the first industry of artifacts in Zhejiang province. This establishment was once in the spotlight of the Chinese media, however, as the popular metallic umbrella appeared on the market and oil-paper umbrellas have faced extinction.

On December 5, 2006, artisan Liu Youquan () met a government official of the Yuhang district and proposed to recover the art of  production in Yuhan, with the intention of starting a new pop culture trend and increase local wealth. Liu spent a few hundred RMB and bought some dozens of the bamboo umbrella from a bamboo umbrella factory. But Liu did not have the skills, only to keep these as a "canvas" for 30 some years. A local media reported for a search of an oil-paper umbrella artisan and increased local awareness. Four days later, four artisans: Fang Jinquan (), Chen Yue Xiang (), Shen Lihua (), and Sun Shuigen () prompted and have intentions to recover the art (drawing oil paintings on the bamboo umbrella). They have passed their skills and technique to some local bamboo farmers and brought income to them. The governmental officials of Yuhang have listed this art for major protection and important antique artifact (Antiquities Act).

Production requires skilled hands and technique as well as personal experience. Training to become a master in oil-paper umbrella manufacture requires an apprenticeship and a great deal of practice. Apprentices must practice the skills for three years to officially master this technique. Tools are made by professional blacksmiths. The material of the umbrellas is chosen with care. The umbrella scaffold is made from either bamboo or wood, tied with hair strings. The best umbrellas are made from peach flowers, as the umbrella surface is soaked in persimmon pigment. The persimmon pigment is made from fermenting the juice of green persimmons, which provides a suitable stickiness. The soaked flower petals are stuck to the umbrella scaffold one by one.  Paintings or pictures are drawn on the peach flower petals prior to painting tung oil on top. The finalized umbrella is left to dry in a dry dark room. It requires at least 70 steps to produce a well-crafted oil-paper umbrella.

Sichuan
In Luzhou, Sichuan, the oil-paper umbrella culture started around the end of Ming dynasty and beginning of Qing dynasty. Oil-paper umbrellas have existed in Sichuan for as long as four hundred years. Here, the umbrellas are exquisite with fine paintings, abundant colors and beautiful outlooks, the umbrellas are also famous for their ability to shield strong winds. In 1993 May, six experienced artisans spent four months producing a famous  umbrella (), which was exported to countries such as England, Malaysia and Singapore. The  was made out of 88 pinaceae and 52 bamboo sticks with 1,800 skins of paper and  of oil pigment. Producing the  required over 70 procedures and it was regarded as the "Chinese King of Umbrellas".

After Western umbrellas had increased in popularity, the Luzhou 's popularity diminished dramatically. In addition, due to the sophisticated procedures, the high production cost and low profit, not many young men were willing to commit to this art. In 2004, only about thirty experienced artisans were willing to continue this umbrella production. Many people worried that the skills may soon become extinct. In October 2005, an exhibition in Shanghai invited the local government to an exhibition of oil-paper umbrellas, and they have recovered some popularity since then.

After the recovery, Yunnan and Luzho minorities gained awareness of oil-paper umbrellas and used them during ceremonies and gifts. Since then, the umbrellas have been exported to Japan, Singapore, Korea, Hong Kong and Macau.

Contemporary local artisans still utilize the traditional method of  production, which includes the 70 or so procedures of total manual production. Such as slicing the bamboo and painting the pictures. Materials used are also orthodox to the traditional materials, such as the bamboo sticks directly brought from the mountains where they were chopped. Tools of production are old too; the black stone ink is already 450 years old. Quality control is strict; the four trenches should not meet and the tung oil must be spread evenly across the umbrella surface. The paintings adhere to the situations they are used for.

Jiangxi
Oil-paper umbrellas in the Wuyuan County of the Jiangxi province are orthodox and beautiful in appearance, as well as endurable with portability, named the "".

During the Song dynasty, a local resident of Jiangxi named "" was awarded the position chancellor, who then brought an oil-paper umbrella back to Jiangxi with him from a major city. One named "" improved upon the prototype and passed it on to his descendants. It was said that during the Ching dynasty when the Kangxi Emperor was on the throne, one day the Kangxi Emperor secretly traveled to Wuyuan and it was raining. Kangxi Emperor saw a child who threw a stone at the umbrella; however, the stone bounced back off from the umbrella without damaging it. Kangxi Emperor was surprised by the quality and strength of the oil-paper umbrella and gave it a positive name called the "Jialu paper umbrella Jia Tianxia" (). Since then they have been commonly called "Jialu umbrellas" ().

Jialu umbrellas were awarded the first place during an international exhibition in 1936 and reached its peak at 1943, which recorded to have once produced 25,000 umbrellas and exported 17,000 annually. In 2000, however, only three eighty-year-old artisans have possessed the skill, in addition, one of the raw materials, the persimmon tree, is in danger of extinction. Jialu umbrellas have since become extinct. In 2006, the locals have produced a new and natural breed and increased the quality of Jialu . Production reached 50,000 annually and exported to countries such as the United States, Japan, and Korea. Contemporarily, there are four factories located in Wuyuan with a net worth of eight million RMB, thirty villagers and 1,800 workers.

Jialu  are made from high-quality bamboo, skin paper, and tung oil. The main procedures are slicing the umbrella scaffold, cutting the umbrella portion, installing the umbrella sticks, boiling the umbrella stick, adding the skin paper, painting on the skin paper, editing the umbrella skin, brushing on tung oil, stitching the umbrella with decorations, installing the handle and the head. Altogether about thirty procedures.

Hunan
Oil-paper umbrellas in Changsha, Hunan province date back to about 100 years, the earliest oil-paper umbrella shop is , Which is named after Tao Jiqiao (), who established the shop during the Qing dynasty.

In 1900, Liang Jingting (), who worked in an umbrella shop in Changsha opened his own umbrella shop called the  (). It produces the old type of oil, black ink umbrella. The name  () is attributed to its fine features and endurance. In 1921, the Pan Kuiqing () brothers started a factory called  () that mass-produces umbrella skin paper. The umbrella skin it produced included traditional flowered ones and many other pictures, these umbrellas were exported to Hong Kong, Macau and South East Asia. The umbrella was awarded in a Chinese exhibition in 1929. The highest production rate was thirty thousand per year, until February 1975 when Jing Gang Yusan She () was abolished, and Taohengmao () oil-paper umbrella production was terminated.

The raw materials of the Changsha oil-paper umbrella are skin paper, bamboo, cotton silk, rope, tung oil, persimmon water, pigment, cow horn, and wood. The umbrellas produced by Taohengmao () are especially fine-featured and commit to abide by the traditional production methods with strict materials.

Hubei

The Hankou, Hubei, province has produced oil-paper umbrellas for the past few hundred years. In 1864, Somun (), who was originally from Hunan, invested in an umbrella shop. He later opened an official umbrella shop called Suhengtai Sandian (), with 12 workers and 3 apprentices in his employ. Production was at a rate of about 500-600 umbrellas per month. Somun also increased the umbrella's popularity locally, later expanding his business and amassing enormous profits.

Suhengtai () oil-paper umbrella also became locally popular. It was once fashionable to buy umbrellas for weddings; the bride would hold a blue one while the groom would hold a red one with the combined connotation of a beautiful marriage. In 1970, the Sheng Tai oil-paper umbrella business died out. When in production, two types of materials were used: the scaffold was made from a special type of bamboo while the umbrella handle was made from a special type of wood from Hunan. The tung oil, skin paper, and persimmon oil used in production were all meticulously chosen. A Suhengtai oil-paper umbrella would last for about eight to twelve years.

Fujian

Oil-paper umbrella have been produced in both Fuzhou and Nanping of Fujian. The oil-paper umbrella is one of the three treasures in Fuzhou (). The other two are the  (Lacquerware) and the  (combs made of cattle horn). Umbrellas play a large part in Fuzhou residents' daily lives, with local people calling it  – meaning literally "everyone's backpack has an umbrella in it". The oil-paper umbrellas of Nanping are famous alongside two other brands altogether known as the "three mouth" (), the other two mouths being  and . Production initiated in the 20th century with a peak pace of fifty thousand annually. Gradually, however, the traditional oil-paper umbrella was replaced by the collapsible umbrella in the 1970s. Local artisans have since switched to producing small and portable umbrellas. The umbrellas produced in Nanping are currently exported to Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, South East Asia, Europe, and America.

Fuzhou oil-paper umbrella materials are chosen strictly with only those of high quality permitted. The scaffold must be made from bamboo of the Northern Fujian province that has good elasticity and endurance; the bamboo must furthermore be at least five years old. 83 procedures are required for the manufacture of a single umbrella.

Traditional Fuzhou oil-paper umbrella art is divided into five subcategories including umbrella scaffold, umbrella installment, umbrella head, handle and painting, the mainstream of which is the umbrella installment. There are also a few famous local umbrella painters including ,  and .

The oil-paper umbrella in Fuzhou is dated to as long ago as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. When  established his own kingdom called "" (Fujian) at Fuzhou, he brought the oil-paper umbrella from Zhejiang with him. During the Ching dynasty, there were as many as 300 shops in Fuzhou. The oil-paper umbrella was also one of the symbols used in riots against the Japanese during the Xinhai revolution.

The oil-paper umbrella in Fuzhou was famous for its endurance in an expo in Panama in 1915 and Chicago in 1933.

In 1985, the Fuzhou oil-paper umbrella has had significant improvement and advancement and was exported to Japan, Europe and South East Asia. Every umbrella has 72 sticks in the scaffold, opens wide and closes tightly giving it a snake-like appearance, thus giving it the nickname the "Snake Umbrella".

In 1990, a government official, , went to Seattle for an umbrella exhibition, and a red umbrella he showed provoked a great response in the audience. However, the Fuzhou umbrella shop closed down in 1997, resulting in low production with minor exports to Japan. Though local umbrella artisans are already occupied with other jobs, they still petition for the local government's assistance in the recovery of this art.

Nowadays, the oil-paper umbrella has become a form of popular art and decoration. There are workshops and lessons for people to paint on the umbrellas in the traditional way. The umbrellas also serve as an important element of interior design in Fujian, with it being common to see them displayed in such places as high-end restaurants and hotels, people's houses, and museums.

Yunnan

Oil-paper umbrella production in Tengchong, Yunnan, dates back to two-hundred years ago, or nine generations, also called the  (Paper Support). It was rumored that  who once met two umbrella artisans and learned the skills from them brought the skills with him back to Tengchong, and passed it on to his descendants. In the past, oil-paper umbrella spread across all markets in Tengchong. The local Hakka especially liked the oil-paper umbrellas. The village chief  said that once 80% of the villagers knew how to make oil-paper umbrellas, but now only four that are still making them. The current best production household is the , who is picky about the material and techniques. Tung oil and persimmon water are made adhering to the traditional methods of production. The final umbrella is elegant and strong. The production rate is about one to two per day. , who only makes big umbrellas likes to place big umbrellas in front of his shop to shed the sun and attract customers, therefore also named the "shed shop umbrella" (). They only produce umbrellas when they have free time from farm works currently.

The oil-paper umbrellas produced in Tengchong are finely tuned, abundant with colors and beautiful outlook. They were once sold in other provinces of China. However, there has been a gradual decrease in production during the 1950s. The oil-paper umbrella production now is only to pass on the skills to prevent the extinction of this handcraft locally.

The oil-paper umbrella uses special bamboos and wood translocated from  (Yunhua) and  (Guyon) as umbrella handle and scaffold. The umbrella surface uses skin bought from  (Jietou). Brushed with tung oil, named the green cloth (). Procedures including slicing bamboo scaffold, stitching, surface skin, brushing persimmon water, collapsing the scaffold, drying the umbrella, painting, installing the handle, brushing tung oil, adding clothes, stitching again. It averages out about two umbrella a day.

Oil-paper umbrella in customs and cultural ceremonies

Hakka marriage and bride dowry
In traditional Hakka marriages, the bride's parents must pay dowry to the husband's family, in which oil-paper umbrella is one of the required dowries. "" (paper) is a homonym for "" (sons) in Chinese, for the connotation of having sons early. The character "" (umbrella) contains five "" (man) with the connotation of many sons and grandsons. Oil-paper umbrella is straight up, with the symbol to eradicate evil spirits. The circular appearance symbolizes "fullness" connotation of a beautiful marriage. And since the umbrella itself can shield rain and the wind, thus prohibiting evil spirits from entering in. Other dowries that come with the oil-paper umbrella include five colored pants, make up the table, door curtain, and boxes. In wealthier families, dowries could include god and jewelry or high-quality cloth or blankets. In addition, bride family would give vegetables that have homonym with positive words such as celery, garlic, and chives, that are then tied with red rope given as gifts to the husband's family.
Oil-paper umbrella as a dowry is still a custom in the Hakka family in Taiwan and some other countries in South East Asia.

Hakka second burial funerals
Since many of the Hakka populations are in the mountainous areas of China, most corpses are buried on the mountains. Initially, Hakka people do not put up a gravestone, however, after the second time the corpse is buried (usually 3–5 years later), the additional grander ceremony is added. When buying, usually in the eighth month of the Chinese calendar, an experienced burial master is hired to dig into the old grave and disinter the clean bones for an official and permanent burial at the exact spot. The oil-paper umbrella is used to cover the bones while they are being cleaned.

Engagement present of the Yao people
In the population of Yao located in Longhui County of Hunan, oil-paper umbrella is used as an engagement present by the men side. When a consensus is built between the two families, the family of the man's side would hire an experienced man to propose a marriage in the woman's house. The first propose does not require any gift but only the permission of the parents of the bride. During the day of engagement, the man's side needs to bring an oil-paper umbrella to the woman's house and place it on the sacred table located in the house; the bride must take the umbrella from the table personally and close the umbrella that is stitched with 12 triangles. Then the experienced man must bring the oil-paper umbrella back to the husband's house for the proof of a successful engagement. On the way back, the experienced man must not open the umbrella himself. If a divorce is made later, the husband must return the string on the stitch back to the bride.

Funerals of the Dai people
Dai people located in Yunnan use a special type of paper called "" (Garcia) to make oil-paper umbrella, which is brushed with sesame oil. The Dai believe that the umbrella could lead the dead to heaven. This type of umbrella is still available in a village today.

Hakka dance ceremony
"Umbrella Dance" is one of the traditional dances of the Hakka culture, during the ceremony, the dancer must be holding a paper umbrella and wearing a blue shirt (traditional Hakka clothing). Hakka Dance Ceremony is an important part of the Hakka Culture along with "tea leaf drama" and "mountain song".

Oil-paper umbrella in Taiwan
Oil-paper umbrella has been the cultural symbol of the Hakka in Meinong District of Kaohsiung. The production procedures are divided into five major portions. This includes the umbrella scaffold, umbrella production, umbrella head, umbrella handle and art painting. With any one of the above been done, the umbrella could be called as a "full art" ().

History and modifications
Oil-paper umbrella production in Meinong initiation has two rumors.
One was that it started during the Japanese rule, during which, Lin () and Wu () invited oil-paper umbrella artisans from mainland China to Taiwan for the purpose of passing the skills to the locals.
The other was that oil-paper umbrella artisan Guo () have arrived in Taiwan from Guangdong province. Since then, he had permanently stayed in the Meinong district and spread the skills locally. Early Meinong oil-paper umbrella factor was called "" (pronounced "Young") for connotations of wealth, wide and progression. In 1960, oil-paper umbrella, tobacco leaves, and rice were Meinong district's major income sources. At that time, it was the renaissance of oil-paper umbrella. It was estimated that there were at least twenty factories producing twenty thousand oil-paper umbrellas annually. However, with the rapid industrialization in Taiwan, mechanically produced Western umbrellas have replaced them in attribute to low cost, longevity, and portability. Taiwan has become the key country of Western umbrella production and forced many traditional handmade oil-paper umbrella factories out of business.

In 1970, an English journal used the Goung () oil-paper umbrella pioneer, Lin () and his umbrella as the magazine cover, along with a detailed article on the culture and production of oil-paper umbrella. BBC have also included a series of recording of the oil-paper umbrella called the "Long Search". In addition, 1983, famous Hakka movie producer, Lin Fu-De (), have incorporated the oil-paper umbrella into his drama, Star Knows My Heart. When the drama was played in the Japanese television, Taiwanese oil-paper umbrella gained impression in the Japanese, who have ordered a large quantity for imports. After 1980, with the increase of Taiwan overall financial status, Meinong's increased tourism, oil-paper umbrella have recovered its utility in the daily life along with its value as a local culture and travel souvenir.

Production and materials
Meinong oil-paper umbrella scaffolds are made mainly from bamboo sticks, which are translocated from places such as Puli, Zhushan, Nantou County and the Cishan District of Kaohsiung. Especially the famous moso bamboo of the Qushan district. Moso bamboo is famous for its strength and elasticity. Thus the scaffold is mainly made of moso bamboo. Prior to production, most bamboo is soaked in water to eliminate the sugar for a month. Then they are dried under the sun to prevent infection of bugs. After cutting and slicing, they become the fundamental scaffold of the umbrella, with additional modifications such as umbrella head, handle and hole drilling for stitching. After the scaffold production, the wax is applied onto the surface as well as the sides. Then persimmon oil, sun bake, painting, handle installment, umbrella head fixed, stitched for a finalized oil paper umbrella.

Oil-paper umbrella in Japan

Oil-paper umbrellas are often known in Japanese as , and these with a bull's-eye design are called . The handle and scaffold are often colored black, however, sometimes other colors are applied as well. The surface paintings include traditional Japanese culture, gained popularity from the Azuchi–Momoyama period to Edo period.

History

The origin of oil-paper umbrellas could be traced to those fabric canopies brought from Korea to Japan during the Asuka period, which samples are preserved among the Shōsōin treasures. Initially, the oil-paper umbrella was a sacred instrument in Buddhist ceremony. During the Heian period, techniques in paper production and bamboo work advanced. In the Muromachi period, pigments and wax were applied to the surface of the paper for additional resistance to water.

During the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Luzon Sukezaemon introduced an umbrella with a shield from the Philippines, which contributed the popularity of the wages. During the Genroku era, modifications were made to enhance its utility to specific circumstances. Some monks and doctors used shorter and thicker umbrellas with business trademarks or logos on them, then lent them to customers as an advertisement. Umbrellas also became the geisha's tool as well. In addition, some unemployed Edo period samurai crafted oil-paper umbrellas as a secondary occupation. A famous example is the , made in Nagano Prefecture, which is still made there.

However, with the popularity of Western umbrellas in the Meiji period, oil-paper umbrellas have diminished markets today, with only a few locations producing it, such as Kyoto, Gifu Prefecture and Yodoe, Tottori Prefecture.

Tsujikura is the oldest shop of the oil-paper umbrella in Japan.

Kyoto

A style of oil-paper umbrella in Kyoto is called . It is completely handmade, colors and images are of Japanese features, materials are also strictly controlled. The handle and scaffold are made from bamboo of Kameoka, Kyoto; the umbrella skin is made from Meinong paper of Gifu. The surface of the umbrella skin is brushed with sesame oil and tied with fine strings. An experienced artisan usually produces ten to twenty kyowagasa a month. One umbrella style has concentric circles on the exterior side of the umbrella skin called the , which literally means eye of a snake.

Gifu
Oil-paper umbrella production in Gifu started around 1750. Every oil-paper umbrella made in Gifu goes through over a hundred procedures. During the Shōwa period, the production in Gifu reached its peak at about fifteen million annually. Today, the production is only about a few tens of thousands per year.

Yodoe
Oil-paper umbrella production started in Yodoe, Tottori in 1821, by the . During the Meiji period, the production in Yodoe was only about a few thousand annually. However, due to the abundance and accessibility of bamboo and other raw materials, during the Taishō period, production by factories increased 71% and a net production of 17,000 Wagasa annually. Most areas in western Japan regularly used the Yodoe Wagasa.

Oil-paper umbrella in Japanese culture

Other than its utility, oil-paper umbrellas appear quite often in Japanese culture, and are often associated with geisha, traditional dance, tea ceremony, and daily utility including wedding ceremony. Oil-paper umbrella shops in Gion have classified their customers into categories for different styles of oil-paper umbrella:
Geisha use purple
Dancers use pink
Middle aged clients like green or red
Men and elderly use dark blue
Actors tend to pick black or brown
Different colors have different connotations and symbolism; in traditional weddings, brides are usually covered under a red oil-paper umbrella.

In tea a red parasol called nodatekasa (野点傘) is used for outdoor occasions (nodate).

Oil-paper umbrella in Korea

Korea also traditionally used oil-paper umbrellas. Korean oil-paper umbrellas are characterized by the use of Korean paper in a variety of colours.

History
The exact time period when oil-paper umbrellas began to be used in Korea is unclear, but paintings show their use at least during the Joseon Dynasty. Oil-paper umbrellas later became more widely popular, and were used as such until the 1960s; however, oil-paper umbrellas have gradually disappeared in Korea due to the emergence of more durable modern umbrellas.

Currently, the only craftsman who makes oil-paper umbrellas resides in Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do. Their production was designated as an intangible cultural property in 2011 and continues to exist in South Korea.

Oil-paper umbrellas in Thailand

Oil-paper umbrella art in the Northern Thailand, or Chiang Mai dates back to around two hundred years. The umbrella scaffold is made from green bamboo sticks, the colors and images are abundant including pictures of scenery, animals, people and flowers. The umbrella surfaces can have a square shape in addition to the traditional circular one. Oil-paper umbrellas in Thailand have unique features, which often entice tourists to buy them. Of the several types, the most famous are the ones made in the Bo Sang village. Most farmers produce oil-paper umbrellas during their free time in specialized factories.

History and modifications
The rumors of the local people have guessed that the oil-paper umbrella has been brought into Thailand by the Bamar. Long ago, a monk in Thailand named "Pra In that" who practiced Buddhism in "Wat Bo Sang" temple and traveled a lot. One time as he approached near the Northern border of Burma and stayed there for a few days, the Thai people there accommodated him while his stay. During a time when Pra In that ate his breakfast, a Bamar gave him an umbrella along with the prayer of the monk. The monk thought the umbrella was very convenient and was curious for how it was made, he decided to learn to make the umbrella. Thus he visited the village that was specialized in the production of umbrella located in Burma. Pra In that recorded the detailed production procedures and brought it with him back to Wat Bo Sang temple.

After arriving back at Wat Bo Sang, Pra In that was on a hunt for the needed materials to produce the umbrella, with some assistance of the villagers, they were able to make the first umbrella in Thailand. Initially, not many villagers were motivated to make umbrellas, however, once they found the convenience of it, many were attracted to mass-produce and buying it. Oil-paper umbrella production became one of the major sources of income for the Bo Sang village.

In 1941, Bo Sang villagers have cooperated and established the "Bo Sang Umbrella Making Cooperative Ltd.". The chief of the company is Jamroon Suthiwiwat. The company is specialized in making umbrella of different sizes such as 14, 16, 18, 20, 35, 40  inches and even bigger umbrella. In 1957, Governmental association "Center for Industrial Promotion for the North" have assisted the villagers and improved their production techniques.

Production and materials

The umbrella skin is made from the tree skin of morus plant called "sa". Morus skin is cooked to soft, washed, smashed, washed and bleached. It is covered in cloth to increase the thickness. Then dried under the sun. Oil-paper umbrella production is all handmade including slicing the bamboo stick, combining the umbrella scaffold, addition of the skin, painting, and drying. Bo Sang umbrella use oil paint to paint and are all painted completely by hand.

Umbrella festival
The oil-paper umbrella festival takes place in Chiang Mai during the January or February of every year. It is one of the most popular festivals and attracts a lot of tourists. The festival mainly takes place in the streets of Bo Sang, every place in the village are decorated with oil-paper umbrella. There are also competitions taking place between artisans and artists of the oil-paper umbrella, prizes are awarded to the winners. Women from the Bo Sang village performs the bicycle show with the oil-paper umbrella and are simultaneously competing for "Miss Bo Sang" of the year.

Oil-paper umbrella in Vietnam

Vietnamese people also have a long tradition of using oil-paper umbrellas, but so far there has been no research on the type of oil-paper umbrellas used by Vietnamese people.

Gallery

See also
 Cocktail umbrella
 Kittisol
 Payung mesikhat
 Gifu umbrellas

Notes

References

Chinese art
Chinese inventions
Crafts
Japanese folk art
Korean art
Taiwanese art
Thai handicrafts
Umbrellas
Korean traditions
Vietnamese traditions

Oil-paper umbrella


In Norse mythology, Bifröst is the bridge between the land of mortals, Midgard, and the land of the gods, Asgard. The gods cross it every day to meet and decide things at Urdarbrunn (Well of Urd) under the tree Yggdrasill. The bridge is a rainbow. It was built by the Æsir and is guarded by the god Heimdall.

Only the thunder god Thor was not allowed to use the rainbow, because he may break it. The bridge will be destroyed at the end of the world, Ragnarök, when the relentless army of giants and the dead run on it to attack Asgard.

Alternative names: Bilröst, Ásbrú, Bifrost.

Places in Norse mythology

Bifröst