Ali Hassan Majid al-Tikriti (; 30 November 1941 – 25 January 2010), nicknamed Chemical Ali (), was an Iraqi politician and military commander under Saddam Hussein who served as defence minister, interior minister, and chief of the Iraqi Intelligence Service. He was also the governor of Kuwait during much of the 1990–91 Gulf War.

A first cousin of former Ba'athist Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, he became notorious in the 1980s and 1990s for his alleged role in the Iraqi government's campaigns against internal opposition forces, namely the ethnic Kurdish rebels of the north, and the Shia rebels of the south. Repressive measures included deportations and mass killings; al-Majid was dubbed "Chemical Ali" (, Ali Al-Kīmyāwī) by Iraqis for his use of chemical weapons in attacks against the Kurds.

Al-Majid was captured following the 2003 invasion of Iraq and was charged by the Iraqi government with war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. He was convicted in June 2007 and was sentenced to death for crimes of genocide against the Kurds committed in the al-Anfal campaign of the 1980s. His appeal of the death sentence was rejected on 4 September 2007, and he was sentenced to death for the fourth time on 17 January 2010 and was hanged eight days later, on 25 January 2010.

Early life

Ali Hassan al-Majid is thought to have been born in 1941 in al-Awja near Tikrit, though he claimed in court that he was born three years later in 1944. The US, the United Nations and the Bank of England have also listed possible alternative birth years of 1943, 1939 & 1940. Official Iraqi court documents and the vast majority of journalistic obituaries cite 1941 as his approximate year of birth. Al-Majid was a member of the Bejat clan of the Al-Bu Nasir tribe, to which his elder cousin Saddam Hussein also belonged. Saddam later relied heavily on the clan and tribe to fill senior posts in his government. Like Saddam, al-Majid also was a Sunni Muslim who came from a poor tribal family and had little formal education. He worked as a motorcycle messenger and driver in the Iraqi Army from 1959 until the Ba'ath Party seized power in 1968. Thereafter, he was able to gain entry into the Military Academy and was commissioned as an officer in the Infantry.

His rise thereafter, aided by his cousin Saddam, was swift. He initially became an aide to Iraqi defence minister Hammadi Shihab in the early 1970s after joining the Ba'ath party. He then became head of the government's Security Office, serving as an enforcer for the increasingly powerful Saddam. In 1979 Saddam seized power, ousting President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr. At a videotaped assembly of Ba'ath party officials in July 1979, Saddam read out the names of political opponents, denouncing them as 'traitors', ordering that they be removed one by one from the room; many were later executed. Al-Majid could be seen in the background telling Saddam, "What you have done in the past was good. What you will do in the future is good. But there's this one small point. You have been too gentle, too merciful."

Al-Majid became one of Saddam's closest military advisors and head of the Iraqi Intelligence Service, Iraqi secret police known as the Mukhabarat. Following an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Saddam in 1983 in the town of Dujail, north of Baghdad, al-Majid directed the subsequent collective punishment operations in which scores of local men were killed, thousands more inhabitants were deported and the entire town was razed to the ground.

Al-Anfal campaign

During the late stages of the Iran–Iraq War al-Majid was given the post of Secretary General of the Northern Bureau of the Ba'ath Party, in which capacity he served from March 1987 to April 1989. This effectively made him Saddam's proconsul in the north of the country, commanding all state agencies in the rebellious Kurdish-populated region of the country. He was known for his ruthlessness, ordering the indiscriminate use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas and the extremely potent and toxic nerve agents sarin, tabun, and VX, against Kurdish targets during a genocidal campaign dubbed Al-Anfal ("Spoils of War"). The first such attacks occurred as early as April 1987 and continued into 1988, culminating in the notorious attack on Halabja in which over 5,000 people were killed.

With Kurdish resistance continuing, al-Majid decided to cripple the rebellion by eradicating the civilian population of the Kurdish regions. His forces embarked on a systematic campaign of mass killings, property destruction and forced population transfer (called "Arabization") in which thousands of Kurdish and Assyrian villages were razed and their inhabitants either killed or deported to the south of Iraq. He signed a decree in June 1987 stating that "Within their jurisdiction, the armed forces must kill any human being or animal present in these areas." By 1988, some 4,000 villages had been destroyed, an estimated 180,000 Kurds had been killed and some 1.5 million had been deported. The Kurds called him Chemical Ali ("Ali Al-Kīmāwī") for his role in the campaign; according to Iraqi Kurdish sources, Ali Hassan openly boasted of this nickname. Others dubbed him the "Butcher of Kurdistan".

Persian Gulf War and Iraq War

Al-Majid was appointed Minister of Local Government following the war's end in 1988, with responsibility for the repopulation of the Kurdish and Assyrian region with Arab settlers relocated from elsewhere in Iraq. Two years later, after the invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, he became the military governor of the occupied emirate. He instituted a violent regime under which Kuwait was systematically looted and purged of "disloyal elements". In November 1990, he was recalled to Baghdad and was appointed Interior Minister in March 1991. Following the Iraqi defeat in the war, he was given the task of quelling the uprisings in the Shi'ite south of Iraq as well as the Kurdish and Assyrian north. Both revolts were crushed with great brutality, with many thousands killed.

Al-Majid was subsequently given the post of Defense Minister, though he briefly fell from grace in 1995 when Saddam dismissed him after it was discovered that al-Majid was involved in illegally smuggling grain to Iran. In December 1998, however, Saddam recalled him and appointed him commander of the southern region of Iraq, where the United States was increasingly carrying out air strikes in the northern no-fly zone. Al-Majid was re-appointed to this post in March 2003, immediately before the start of the Iraq War. He based himself in the southern port city of Basra and in April 2003 he was mistakenly reported to have been killed there in a U.S. air strike.

Al-Majid survived the April 2003 attack but was arrested by American forces on 17 August 2003 in Basra. He had been listed as the fifth most-wanted man in Iraq, shown as the King of Spades in the deck of most-wanted Iraqi playing cards. In 2006 he was charged with genocide and crimes against humanity for his part in the Anfal campaign and was transferred to the Iraq Special Tribunal for trial. He received four death sentences for his role in killing Shia Muslims in 1991 and 1999, the genocide of the Kurds in the 1980s, and ordering the gassing of Kurds at Halabja.

Trial and execution
The trial began on 21 August 2006, in acrimonious circumstances when al-Majid refused to enter a plea. He subsequently had a not guilty plea entered on his behalf by the court.

He was unapologetic about his actions, telling the court that he had ordered the destruction of Kurdish and Assyrian villages because they were "full of Iranian agents". At one hearing, he declared: "I am the one who gave orders to the army to demolish villages and relocate the villagers. The army was responsible to carry out those orders. I am not defending myself. I am not apologizing. I did not make a mistake."

During the trial, the court heard tape-recorded conversations between al-Majid and senior Ba'ath party officials regarding the use of chemical weapons. Responding to a question about the success of the deportation campaign, Ali Hassan told his interlocutors:

I went to Sulaymaniyah and hit them with the special ammunition [i.e. chemical weapons]. That was my answer. We continued the deportations. I told the mustashars [village heads] that they might say that they like their villages and that they won't leave. I said I cannot let your village stay because I will attack it with chemical weapons. Then you and your family will die. You must leave right now. Because I cannot tell you the same day that I am going to attack with chemical weapons. I will kill them all with chemical weapons! Who is going to say anything? The international community? Fuck them! The international community and those who listen to them.

... This is my intention, and I want you to take serious note of it. As soon as we complete the deportations, we will start attacking them everywhere according to a systematic military plan. Even their strongholds. In our attacks we will take back one third or one half of what is under their control. If we can try to take two-thirds, then we will surround them in a small pocket and attack them with chemical weapons. I will not attack them with chemicals just one day, but I will continue to attack them with chemicals for fifteen days. Then I will announce that anyone who wishes to surrender with his gun will be allowed to do so. Anyone willing to come back is welcome, and those who do not return will be attacked again with new, destructive chemicals. I will not mention the name of the chemical because that is classified information. But I will say with new destructive weapons that will destroy you. So I will threaten them and motivate them to surrender.

During the next few days of the trial, more recordings of al-Majid were heard in which he once again discussed the government's goals in dealing with the Iraqi Kurds. In the recordings, Ali Hassan calls the Iraqi Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani "wicked and a pimp," and promises not to leave alive anyone who speaks the Kurdish language.
Ali Hassan's defence claimed that he used such language as "psychological and propaganda" tools against the Kurds, to prevent them from fighting government forces. "All the words used by me, such as 'deport them' or 'wipe them out,' were only for psychological effect," Ali Hassan said.

On 24 June 2007, the court returned a verdict of guilty on all counts. The presiding judge, Mohammed Oreibi al-Khalifa, told al-Majid: "You had all the civil and military authority for northern Iraq. You gave orders to the troops to kill Kurdish and Assyrian civilians and put them in severe conditions. You subjected them to wide and systematic attacks using chemical weapons and artillery. You led the killing of villagers. You ... committed genocide. There are enough documents against you."

He received five death sentences for genocide, crimes against humanity (specifically willful killing, forced disappearances and extermination), and war crimes (intentionally directing attacks against a civilian population). He was also sentenced to multiple prison terms ranging from seven years to life for other crimes. As his sentences were upheld, under Iraqi law, sentence was to be carried out by hanging, subject to the convictions being upheld following an automatic appeal, and he was to be executed in the following 30 days along with two others – Sultan Hashim Ahmad al-Tai, military commander of the Anfal campaign; and Hussein Rashid, deputy general commander of the Iraqi armed force, assistant chief of staff for military operations, and former Republican Guard commander. However, the executions were postponed to 16 October, because of the arrival of the holy month of Ramadan. He was supposed to be executed 16 October 2007, but the execution was delayed when Iraqi President Jalal Talabani and Vice President Tariq al-Hashemi expressed opposition to the sentences of al-Majid's co-defendants and refused to sign the execution orders. He then entered into a legal row with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, and as a result the Americans refused to hand any of the condemned prisoners over until the issue was resolved.

In February 2008 an anonymous informant stated that Ali Hassan al-Majid's execution was finally approved by Talabani, al-Hashemi, and al-Maliki; this was the final hurdle in the way of the execution. On 2 December 2008, al-Majid was once again sentenced to death, but this time for playing a role in killing between 20,000 and 100,000 Shi'ite Muslims during the revolt in southern Iraq that followed the 1991 Persian Gulf War.

On 2 March 2009, al-Majid was sentenced to death for the third time, this for the assassination of Grand-Ayatollah Mohammad al-Sadr in 1999.

The Iraqi Cabinet put pressure on the Presidential council on 17 March 2009 for Al-Majid's execution.

The situation was similar on 17 January 2010 prior to 9 am (GMT); a fourth death penalty was issued against him in response to his acts of genocide against Kurds in the 1980s. He was also convicted of killing Shia Muslims in 1991 and 1999. Alongside him in the trial was former defense minister Sultan Hashem, who was also found guilty by The Iraqi High Tribunal for the Halabja attack and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment. Al-Majid was executed by hanging on 25 January 2010. He was buried in Saddam's family cemetery in al-Awja the next day; near Saddam's sons, half-brother and the former vice president, but outside the mosque housing the tomb of Saddam. While he was sentenced to death on four separate occasions, the original 2007 verdict sentenced him to five death sentences, and so the combined tally of death sentences handed out was eight.

Amnesty International's Middle East and North Africa Director Malcolm Smart later criticized the execution as "only the latest of a mounting number of executions, some of whom did not receive fair trials, in gross violation of human rights..."

Sources

External links

 Ali Hassan Al Majeed

1940s births
2010 deaths
21st-century executions by Iraq
Defence ministers of Iraq
Directors of intelligence agencies
Executed Iraqi people
Executed mass murderers
Executed military leaders
Executed politicians
Governors of Kuwait Governorate
Interior ministers of Iraq
Iraq War prisoners of war
Iraqi generals
Iraqi military personnel of the Iran–Iraq War
Iraqi people convicted of crimes against humanity
Iraqi people convicted of war crimes
Iraqi people convicted of genocide
Iraqi people of the Iran–Iraq War
Iraqi politicians convicted of crimes
Iraqi prisoners of war
Iraqi Sunni Muslims
Kurdish genocide perpetrators
Members of the Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
Military leaders of the Gulf War
Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards
People executed by Iraq by hanging
People executed for crimes against humanity
People from Tikrit
People of the 1991 uprisings in Iraq
Tulfah family

Ali Hassan al-Majid


Pack is the name given to canines, which live and hunt together. That means the dog tribe, known as the Canini. It does not apply to foxes (the tribe Vulpini). Other caniforms (Caniformia) live singly or come together at mating times, with some exceptions (like the badger).

So, not all canids form packs. If they do, the size of the pack, and the social behaviour in the pack varies by species. The animals in the pack know each other. Always there is a hierarchy of dominance inside the pack. The classic case is the grey wolf. All packs are united by genetic relationship: they are family members.

One reason why some mammalian predators evolved group behaviour is that their prey lives in massive herds on grassland. The most notable predators on grassland are the wolves and jackals (caniforms) and the lions and hyaenas (feliforms). The same principle works with aquatic predators: if their prey goes in shoals or family groups, then the predators go in groups.

Related pages
Collective animal behaviour
Herd

Ethology

Pack (canine)


Maria Teresa of Savoy (31 January 1756 – 2 June 1805) was a Princess of Savoy and the wife of Charles Charles, Count of Artois future Charles X of France. In France she was known as  Marie Thérèse de Savoie.

Background

Born at the Royal Palace of Turin, she was the child of Victor Amandeus of Savoy and his wife Maria Antonia of Spain and was baptised with the names Maria Teresa. At the time of her birth her grandfather, Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, was the King of Sardinia and her father was the heir to the throne.

Marriage

Maria Teresa was engaged to Charles Philippe of France, youngest grandson of Louis XV. Her marriage with Charles Philippe, known as the Count of Artois, was the last of three marriages which were carried out between 1771 and 1775. These marriages were between her oldest brother and sister and the younger grandsons of Louis XV and his older granddaughter Marie Clotilde of France.

She was married officially at the Palace of Versailles on 16 November 1773. The most important female at court was her sister-in-law, Marie Antoinette. Maria Teresa's sister, Marie Joséphine had a higher rank than Maria Teresa as she had married the older brother, the Count of Provence. The two sisters did not have good relations with Marie Antoinette. Despite this, Maria Teresa was more popular than her sister Marie Joséphine who was very ugly. Despite this it was said that she was silent and was interested in absolutely nothing.

The marriage produced four children, two of which survived infancy. She fled France with her husband shortly after the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789 which marked the beginning of the French Revolution. Some time after, she took refuge in her homeland of Savoy under the protection of her father who had become king in 1773. Moving to Austria, she died in exile at Graz in 1805. She was buried in the Imperial Mausoleum next to Graz cathedral. Her husband became Charles X of France in 1824.

Children

Louis Antoine d'Artois (6 August 1775 - 3 June 1844) married Marie Thérèse of France no issue.
 Sophie d'Artois (5 August 1776 – 5 December 1783) died young.
 Charles Ferdinand d'Artois (24 January 1778 – 14 February 1820) married Carolina of Naples and Sicily and had issue.
 Marie Thérèse d'Artois (6 January 1783 -  22 June 1783) died young.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

31 January 1756 – 16 November 1773 Her Royal Highness Princess Maria Teresa of Savoy
16 November 1773 – 2 June 1805 Her Royal Highness The Countess of Artois (Madame la Comtesse d'Artois)

References and notes

1756 births
1805 deaths
People from Turin
House of Bourbon
Princes and Princesses of Savoy

Princess Marie Thérèse of Savoy


The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a standards organization that oversees global IP address allocation, autonomous system number allocation, root zone management in the Domain Name System (DNS), media types, and other Internet Protocol–related symbols and Internet numbers.

Currently it is a function of ICANN, a nonprofit private American corporation established in 1998 primarily for this purpose under a United States Department of Commerce contract. ICANN managed IANA directly from 1998 through 2016, when it was transferred to Public Technical Identifiers (PTI), an affiliate of ICANN that operates IANA today. Before it, IANA was administered principally by Jon Postel at the Information Sciences Institute (ISI) of the University of Southern California (USC) situated at Marina Del Rey (Los Angeles), under a contract USC/ISI had with the United States Department of Defense.

In addition, five regional Internet registries delegate number resources to their customers, local Internet registries, Internet service providers, and end-user organizations. A local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers.

Responsibilities
IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet and Internet-connected systems. IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function.

In the case of the two major Internet namespaces, namely IP addresses and domain names, extra administrative policy and delegation to subordinate administrations is required because of the multi-layered distributed use of these resources.

IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers, which are numerical identifiers assigned to an Internet resource or used in the networking protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system (AS) numbers.

IP addresses

IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks to regional Internet registries (RIRs). Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world. Collectively the RIRs have created the Number Resource Organization formed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally.

The RIRs divide their allocated address pools into smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers and other organizations in their operating regions. Since the introduction of the CIDR system, IANA has typically allocated address space in the size of /8 prefix blocks for IPv4 and/23 to/12 prefix blocks from the 2000::/3 IPv6 block to requesting regional registries as needed. Since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA.

Domain names
IANA administers the data in the root nameservers, which form the top of the hierarchical Domain Name System (DNS) tree. This task involves liaising with top-level domain "Registrar-of-Record"s, the root nameserver operators, and ICANN's policy making apparatus.

Since the root zone was cryptographically signed in 2010, IANA is also responsible for vital parts of the key management for the DNSSEC operations (specifically, it is the "Root Zone KSK Operator"). Among other things, this involves regularly holding signing ceremonies where members of a group of Trusted Community Representatives (TCR) physically meet at a predefined location and go through scripted procedures to generate key material and signing keys. The TCRs cannot be affiliated with ICANN, PTI (an ICANN affiliate) or Verisign because of these organizations' operational roles in the key management, but are chosen from the broader DNS community. Past and present TCRs include Vinton Cerf, Dan Kaminsky, Dmitry Burkov, Anne-Marie Eklund Löwinder and John Curran.

IANA operates the int registry for international treaty organizations, the arpa zone for Internet infrastructure purposes, including reverse DNS service, and other critical zones such as root-servers.

Protocol assignments
IANA maintains protocol registries in tables of protocols and their parameters and coordinates registration of protocols. As of 2015 there were over 2,800 registries and subregistries.

Time zone database
The IANA time zone database holds the time zone differences and rules for the various regions of the world and allows this information to be mirrored and used by computers and other electronic devices to maintain proper configuration for timekeeping.

IANA assumed responsibility for the database on October 16, 2011, after the Astrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al. decision caused the shutdown of the FTP server which had previously been the primary source of the database.

Language subtag registry

The IANA Language Subtag Registry was defined by IETF RFC5646 and maintained by IANA.

History
IANA was established informally as a reference to various technical functions for the ARPANET, that Jon Postel and Joyce K. Reynolds performed at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) and at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute.
On March 26, 1972, Vint Cerf and Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC 322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a phone call, "describing the function and socket numbers of network service programs at each HOST". This catalog was subsequently published as RFC 433 in December 1972. In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself the czar of socket numbers.

The first reference to the name "IANA" in the RFC series is in RFC 1083, published in December 1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, referring to Joyce K. Reynolds as the IANA contact. However, the function, and the term, was well established long before that; RFC 1174 says that "Throughout its entire history, the Internet system has employed a central Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)..."

In 1995, the National Science Foundation authorized Network Solutions to assess domain name registrants a $50 fee per year for the first two years, 30 percent of which was to be deposited in the Intellectual Infrastructure Fund (IIF), a fund to be used for the preservation and enhancement of the intellectual infrastructure of the Internet. There was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power (and money) in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft on IANA and the creation of new top-level domains.  He was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he unexpectedly died about two years later.

In January 1998, Postel was threatened by US Presidential science advisor Ira Magaziner with the statement "You'll never work on the Internet again" after Postel collaborated with root server operators to test using a root server other than Network Solutions' "A" root to act as the authority over the root zone.  Demonstrating that control of the root was from the IANA rather than from Network Solutions would have clarified IANA's authority to create new top-level domains as a step to resolving the DNS Wars, but he ended his effort after Magaziner's threat, and died not long after.

Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998.  By his almost 30 years of "selfless service", Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure. After his death, Joyce K. Reynolds, who had worked with him for many years, managed the transition of the IANA function to ICANN.

Starting in 1988, IANA was funded by the U.S. government under a contract between the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and the Information Sciences Institute. This contract expired in April 1997, but was extended to preserve IANA.

On December 24, 1998, USC entered into a transition agreement with the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ICANN, transferring the IANA project to ICANN, effective January 1, 1999, thus making IANA an operating unit of ICANN.

In June 1999, at its Oslo meeting, IETF signed an agreement with ICANN concerning the tasks that IANA would perform for the IETF; this is published as RFC 2860.

On February 8, 2000, the Department of Commerce entered into an agreement with ICANN for ICANN to perform the IANA functions.

On October 7, 2013 the Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation was released by the leaders of a number of organizations involved in coordinating the Internet's global technical infrastructure, loosely known as the "I*" (or "I-star") group. Among other things, the statement "expressed strong concern over the undermining of the trust and confidence of Internet users globally due to recent revelations of pervasive monitoring and surveillance" and "called for accelerating the globalization of ICANN and IANA functions, towards an environment in which all stakeholders, including all governments, participate on an equal footing". This desire to move away from a United States centric approach is seen as a reaction to the ongoing NSA surveillance scandal. The statement was signed by the heads of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet Architecture Board, the World Wide Web Consortium, the Internet Society, and the five regional Internet address registries (African Network Information Center, American Registry for Internet Numbers, Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre, Latin America and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry, and Réseaux IP Européens Network Coordination Centre).

In October 2013, Fadi Chehadé, current President and CEO of ICANN, met with Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff in Brasilia. Upon Chehadé's invitation, the two announced that Brazil would host an international summit on Internet governance in April 2014. The announcement came after the 2013 disclosures of mass surveillance by the U.S. government, and President Rousseff's speech at the opening session of the 2013 United Nations General Assembly, where she strongly criticized the American surveillance program as a "breach of international law". The "Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (NET mundial)" will include representatives of government, industry, civil society, and academia. At the IGF VIII meeting in Bali in October 2013 a commenter noted that Brazil intends the meeting to be a "summit" in the sense that it will be high level with decision-making authority.  The organizers of the "NET mundial" meeting have decided that an online forum called "/1net", set up by the I* group, will be a major conduit of non-governmental input into the three committees preparing for the meeting in April.

In April 2014 the NetMundial Initiative, a plan for international governance of the Internet, was proposed at the Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (GMMFIG) conference (23–24 April 2014)
and later developed into the NetMundial Initiative by ICANN CEO Fadi Chehade along with representatives of the World Economic Forum (WEF)
and the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (Comitê Gestor da Internet no Brasil), commonly referred to as "CGI.br".

The meeting produced a nonbinding statement in favor of consensus-based decision-making. It reflected a compromise and did not harshly condemn mass surveillance or include the words "net neutrality", despite initial support for that from Brazil. The final resolution says ICANN should be under international control by September 2015.
A minority of governments, including Russia, China, Iran and India, were unhappy with the final resolution and wanted multi-lateral management for the Internet, rather than broader multi-stakeholder management.

A month later, the Panel On Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms (convened by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the World Economic Forum (WEF) with assistance from The Annenberg Foundation), supported and included the NetMundial statement in its own report.

Oversight
IANA was managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) under contract with the United States Department of Commerce (DOC) and pursuant to an agreement with the IETF from 1998 to 2016.  The Department of Commerce also provided an ongoing oversight function, whereby it verified additions and changes made in the DNS root zone to ensure IANA complied with its policies. The Internet Architecture Board (IAB), on behalf of the IETF, could terminate the agreement under which ICANN performs IANA functions with six months' notice.

ICANN and the Department of Commerce made an agreement for the "joint development of the "mechanisms methods, and procedures necessary to effect the transition of Internet domain name and addressing system (DNS) to the private sector" via a "Joint Project Agreement" in 1998.

On January 28, 2003, the Department of Commerce, via the Acquisition and Grants Office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, issued a notice of intent to extend the IANA contract for three years. In August 2006, the U.S. Department of Commerce extended the IANA contract with ICANN by an additional five years, subject to annual renewals.

Since ICANN is managing a worldwide resource, while the IANA function is contracted to ICANN by the US Department of Commerce, various proposals have been brought forward to decouple the IANA function from ICANN.

On October 1, 2009 the "Joint Project Agreement" between ICANN and U.S. Department of Commerce expired, replaced by an "Affirmation of Commitments". On March 14, 2014, the U.S. Department of Commerce announced its intent to transition key Internet domain name functions to a global multi-stakeholder community.

In August 2016 ICANN incorporated Public Technical Identifiers, a non-profit affiliate corporation in California, to take over the IANA functions once the current contract expired at the end of September. The Department of Commerce confirmed that its criteria for transitioning IANA Stewardship to the Internet multistakeholder community had been met, and that it intended to allow its contract with ICANN to expire on September 30, 2016, allowing the transition to take effect. On October the contract between the United States Department of Commerce and ICANN to perform the IANA functions was allowed to expire and the stewardship of IANA functions was officially transitioned to the private-sector.

Managers
 In 1972, Jon Postel and Joyce K. Reynolds.
 In 1998, Joyce K. Reynolds.
 In 2003, Doug Barton.
 In 2005, David Conrad (engineer).
 In 2010, Elise Gerich.
 In 2018, Kim Davies.

See also

 American Registry for Internet Numbers
 Internet governance
 List of information technology initialisms
 List of TCP and UDP port numbers
 Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation
 National Internet registry
 NetMundial Initiative, a plan for international governance of the Internet first proposed at the Global Multistakeholder Meeting on the Future of Internet Governance (GMMFIG) conference, 23–24 April 2014).
 Private Enterprise Number
 Registration authority

References

External links

 IANA MIME media types list
 IANA character sets
 Numbers Resource Organization
 USC/ICANN transition agreement
 IANA Functions Purchase Order of the United States Department of Commerce
 ICANN contract for IANA, March 2003
 IANA List of Registrars

Organizations established in 1988
1988 establishments in the United States

International telecommunications
Internet governance organizations
Internet Standard organizations
Internet in the United States
History of the Internet

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority


Secularism, also called Secularity, is the idea of something being not religious or not connected to a church or other religious organization. An example of this is the government, which is independent of any religion in many states. In some countries, such as Pakistan, England (though not the rest of the UK), Greece, Iran or Saudi Arabia, there is a state religion. In that case, the government follows the state religion. In contrast, India, South Africa or the United States have laws that religion and government should stay separate.

In a theocracy like the Vatican City and Iran, the priests of religion are the rulers of the country.

Related pages
Secular humanism
Secular state
Separation of church and state
State religion
Theocracy
Freedom of religion

Secularism


Jean-François Oeben, or Johann Franz Oeben (9 October 1721
Heinsberg near Aachen – Paris 21 January 1763) was a German ébéniste (cabinetmaker) whose career was spent in Paris. He was the maternal grandfather of the painter Eugène Delacroix.

Life and career
Nothing is securely known about his training. He was in Paris by about 1740; from 1749 he lived in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine.

During 1751 - 1754 he worked as compagnon at the workshop of Charles-Joseph Boulle, son of the great ébeniste of Louis XIV, André Charles Boulle, and then independently in premises in the Galleries of the Louvre sublet to him by Boulle. From 1754 he was granted premises, at first at the Manufacture des Gobelins, then, in 1756, in workshops and lodgings at the Arsenal.

Though he had workshops under royal appointment, throughout his career the royal cabinet-maker, ébeniste du Roi, was Gilles Joubert. Oeben worked for the aristocracy sometimes through intermediary marchands-merciers, providing extremely refined case furniture with marquetry of flowers that gave way, in the last years of his career, to sober geometrical tiled patterns.

Oeben worked extensively for Madame de Pompadour: in the inventory drawn up after his death there were ten items awaiting  delivery to Mme de Pompadour. She had ordered many pieces of furniture from him in 1761, doubtless for the Château de Bellevue, and had already paid 17,400 livres on account. In the inventory after her death, there were sixteen commodes "à la Grecque" that must have come from Oeben, who was in the forefront of this first phase of neoclassical style; in the announcement advertising the sale of his stock after his death, it was explicitly stated that all was "in a new style" (Eriksen 1974:208). Not all of the furnishings for Mme de Pompadour had abandoned the rococo manner: at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a mechanical table stamped by Oeben and his brother-in-law R.V.L.C. has pierced cabriole legs, for an unusual effect of lightness and grace. Its mounts bear Pompadour's armorial bearing, a tower, and R.V.L.C.'s stamp shows that it was one of the pieces in the workshop that was left unfinished at the time of Oeben's death, completed and stamped by Roger Vandercruse.

Oeben's distinguished marquetry appears at its most ambitious on the famous, minutely-documented roll-top Bureau du Roi, made for Louis XV, which was begun in 1760 and remained unfinished at his death; it was finished and delivered in 1769, signed by Jean Henri Riesener, but it was Oeben who devised its intricate mechanisms.

The known work of Oeben possesses genuine grace and beauty; as craftsmanship it is of the first rank, and it is typically French in its fluent, idiomatic character. His furniture is found in all the great national collections of decorative arts. The Museu Calouste Gulbenkian has a mechanical table made by Oeben for the comte d'Argenson which opens swing-away secretarial writing surfaces and a tilted reading easel with successive turns of a single key. At the J. Paul Getty Museum is a commode of ca. 1760 stamped by Oeben veneered in parquetry and reflecting the "new style" especially in its gilt-bronze mounts; it is fitted with an elaborate locking mechanism typical of Oeben. He is represented in the Victoria and Albert Museum  by a pair of inlaid corner-cupboards. These, with a bureau and a chiffonier in the French national Garde Meuble, in which bouquets of flowers are delicately inlaid in choice woods, are his best-known and most admirable achievements.

Family
On 29 June 1749 Jean-François married Françoise-Marguerite Vandercruse, the daughter of the ébeniste François Vandercruse called Lacroix, and so was the brother-in-law of another outstanding cabinet-maker, Roger Vandercruse Lacroix. Françoise-Marguerite bore daughter Victoire to Jean-François, and Victoire bore painter Eugène Delacroix.

Jean-François has sometimes been confused with his brother Simon-François Oeben (ca. 1725, Heinsberg - 1786, Paris), his employee since 1754, who married the other Vandercruse sister. Their sister Marie-Catherine married the ébeniste Martin Carlin in 1759.

His widow married his journeyman Jean Henri Riesener, who used Oeben's stamp until he was granted its mastership in 1768.

See also
 Neoclassicism in France

Notes

References

This article was formerly based on Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, "Jean-François Oeben".
Eriksen, Svend, 1974. Early Neo-Classicism in France (London: Faber)
 Stratman Döhler, Rosemarie, Jean François Oeben, Paris, 2002,

German furniture makers
1721 births
1763 deaths
People from Heinsberg
French furniture makers

Jean-François Oeben


Chemical bond is a type of attraction force which holds together different chemical species. Atoms bonded stay together unless the needed amount of energy is transferred to the bond.

In general, strong chemical bonding comes with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases are held together by chemical bonds.

There are two types of bonds; covalent and ionic. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Ionic bonding is the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Chemical bonds are negatively charged electrons that are pulling protons into each other.

Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals and bonds. In molecular formulas the chemical bonds between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion.

A common way chemists describe chemical bonds is through the number of electrons each atom has on itself. Each atom is drawn with the number of electrons as dots or lines to form a maximum of eight.  If the electrons form a chemical bond then a line is drawn between the two electrons. The number of bonds developed increases the number of lines.

Bonds can be double bonds or triple bonds.

Triple bond

Use of Lewis structures to show what is connected thru chemical bond(s)

Related pages
Chemical formula
Double bonds

References

Quantum chemistry
Energy

Chemical bond


Chlorite is an ion. Its chemical formula is ClO2–. It is an oxidizing agent. It contains chlorine in its +3 oxidation state. They can be known as salts of chlorous acid. Some chlorites are explosives. It can be made by dissolving chlorine dioxide in a base. It can also be made by reduction of chlorate with hydrogen peroxide. Sodium chlorite is the most common chlorite.

Related pages
Hypochlorite
Perchlorate

Chlorine compounds
Ions

Chlorite


QUCHIC (BB-22, SGT-32 or 1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid 8-quinolinyl ester) is a designer drug offered by online vendors as a cannabimimetic agent, and was first detected being sold in synthetic cannabis products in Japan in early 2013, and subsequently also in New Zealand. The structure of QUCHIC appears to use an understanding of structure-activity relationships within the indole class of cannabimimetics, although its design origins are unclear. QUCHIC, along with QUPIC, represents a structurally unique synthetic cannabinoid chemotype since it contains an ester linker at the indole 3-position rather than the precedented ketone of JWH-018 and its analogues, or the amide of SDB-001 and its analogues.

Pharmacology
BB-22 acts as a full agonist with a binding affinity of 0.217nM at CB1 and 0.338nM at CB2 cannabinoid receptors.

See also
 5F-PB-22
 JWH-018
 PB-22
 QUPIC
 SDB-001
 SDB-005

References

Cannabinoids
Designer drugs
Indoles
Indolecarboxylates

QUCHIC


In chemistry, a pi bond (π bond) is a covalent chemical bond where the orbital path of one electron crosses (overlaps) with the path of another. The electrons have a lobe shaped figure of eight path (see picture). There are two areas of overlap as the paths overlap on both lobes. Only one of the orbital's nodal planes passes through both of the involved nuclei.

The Greek letter π in their name refers to p orbitals. The orbital symmetry of the pi bond looks the same as the p orbital when seen down the bond axis. P orbitals usually have this sort of bonding. D orbitals are also assumed to use pi bonding but this is not necessarily what happens in reality. The idea of bonding d orbitals fits in with the theory of hypervalence.

Pi bonds are usually weaker than sigma bonds. Quantum mechanics says this is because the orbital paths are parallel so there is much less overlap between the p-orbitals.

Pi bonds happen when two atomic orbitals are in contact through two areas of overlap.  Pi-bonds are more spread out bonds than the sigma bonds. Electrons in pi bonds are sometimes called pi electrons. Molecular fragments joined by a pi bond cannot rotate about that bond without breaking the pi bond. The rotation destroys the parallel paths of the two p orbitals.

Multiple bonds
Atoms that are joined by a double bond have one sigma bond and one pi bond. If they are joined by a triple bond they have  one sigma bond and two pi bonds.

A pi bond is weaker than a sigma bond, but the combination of pi and sigma bond is stronger than either bond by itself. The extra strength of a multiple bond versus a single (sigma bond) is shown in many ways. The most obvious is a contraction in bond lengths. For example in organic chemistry, carbon-carbon bond lengths are in ethane (154 pm), in ethylene (134 pm) and in acetylene (120 pm). More bonds make the total bond shorter and stronger.
Electronic configuration is based on S,P,D,and f -Block.
S has 2 electrons
P has 6 electrons
D has 10 electrons
F has 14 electrons

Special cases
Pi bonds do not necessarily join a pair of atoms that are also sigma-bonded.

In certain metal complexes, pi interactions between a metal atom and alkyne and alkene pi antibonding orbitals form pi-bonds.

In some cases of multiple bonds between two atoms, there is no sigma bond at all, only pi bonds. Examples include diiron hexacarbonyl (Fe2(CO)6), dicarbon (C2) and the borane B2H2. In these compounds the central bond has only pi bonding. In order to get the most orbital overlap the bond distances are much shorter than expected.

References

Chemical bonding

Pi bond


"Jack and the Beanstalk" is an English fairy tale. The story tells of a boy named Jack who climbs a magic beanstalk and finds treasures that make him rich, including a goose that lays golden eggs. In the process, he defeats a wicked giant. The story first appeared in print about 1730. It has been adapted to various media such as television programs and movies

Fairy tales

Jack and the Beanstalk


The "Four Yorkshiremen" is a comedy sketch that parodies nostalgic conversations about humble beginnings or difficult childhoods. It features four men from Yorkshire who reminisce about their upbringing. As the conversation progresses they try to outdo one another, and their accounts of deprived childhoods become increasingly absurd.

The sketch was written by Tim Brooke-Taylor, John Cleese, Graham Chapman and Marty Feldman, and originally performed in 1967 on their TV series At Last the 1948 Show. It later became associated with the comedy group Monty Python (which included Cleese and Chapman), who performed it in their live shows, including Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl.

Performances

At Last the 1948 Show
The sketch was written as "Good Old Days" and performed for the 1967 British television comedy series At Last the 1948 Show by the show's four writer-performers: Brooke-Taylor, Cleese, Chapman, and Feldman. Barry Cryer is the wine waiter in the original performance and may have contributed to the writing. According to John Cleese, the sketch was inspired by "Self-Made Men," a short story by Stephen Leacock published in 1910. The original performance of the sketch by the four creators is one of the surviving sketches from the programme and can be seen on the At Last the 1948 Show DVD as the closing sketch of series 2, episode 6. Its surviving camera script names the characters as Obadiah, Ezekiel, Josiah, and Hezekiah; but only the names Obadiah and Josiah are used, at the beginning.

I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again
A near derivative of the sketch appears in the BBC Radio show I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again Series 7, Episode 5 on 9 February 1969, in which the cast (Cleese, Graeme Garden, Tim Brooke-Taylor, Bill Oddie and David Hatch) in the guise of old buffers at a gentlemen's club, employ the same trope of out-doing each other for hardship, this time in the context of how far and how slowly they had to walk to get to various places in former days. It ends with the same payoff line "...and if you tell that to the young people today, they won't believe you..."

Monty Python
Cleese and Chapman were later among the founding members of the comedy group Monty Python. The "Four Yorkshiremen" sketch has been performed by Python during their live shows Live at Drury Lane (1974, no video recording available), Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982) and Monty Python Live (Mostly) (2014, performed at The O2 Arena), each performance varying slightly in its content. (Tim Brooke-Taylor and Marty Feldman receive special thanks in the closing credits of Live at the Hollywood Bowl due to the inclusion of the sketch.) The performers in each case were Chapman (replaced by Cleese in the 2014 performance), Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin (Palin is the only member of the group actually from Yorkshire). It was also performed by Cleese, Jones, Palin and Rowan Atkinson for The Secret Policeman's Ball, the 1979 Amnesty International benefit gala.

Others

The sketch was revived for the 2001 Amnesty show We Know Where You Live, performed by Harry Enfield, Alan Rickman, Eddie Izzard and Vic Reeves. In 1989, the script was published in the charity fundraiser The Utterly, Utterly Amusing and Pretty Damn Definitive Comic Relief Revue Book under the title "The Good Old Days", with the characters named as Joshua, Obadiah, Josiah and Ezekiel. This book was launched on an edition of the primetime chat show Wogan where the sketch was performed by Terry Wogan, Stephen Fry, Gareth Hale and Norman Pace.

In the mid-1990s, the Hungarian comedy group Holló Színház translated and performed an adapted version of the sketch, substituting "four millionaires" for the Yorkshiremen. The sketch had a particular resonance for older Hungarians because, from the immediate post-war period into the 1950s, exaggerating the level of your family's poverty and proletarian origins was a common practice to gain favour with Communist authorities.

In March 2015 the sketch was revived and adapted in a live television performance for Red Nose Day 2015 by Davina McCall, John Bishop, David Walliams and Eddie Izzard, in which they exaggerate what they did to raise money for charities.

See also
 The Aristocrats – Joke that provides a similar ad-lib framework.

References

Comedy sketches
Monty Python sketches
1967 in British television
Fictional British people
Fictional businesspeople
Male characters in theatre
Comedy theatre characters
Male characters in television
Comedy television characters
Television characters introduced in 1967

Four Yorkshiremen sketch


Edward McGivern (October 20, 1874 – December 12, 1957) was a famous exhibition shooter, shooting instructor and author of the book Fast and Fancy Revolver Shooting. McGivern performed extensive research into the art of handgun shooting, particularly with the double-action revolver.

Book

The book Fast and Fancy Revolver Shooting, first published in 1938, is still printed by Skyhorse Publishing as a reference to handgun shooters. In it McGivern covers his career from early experimenting with single-action revolvers, his career in exhibition shooting, his police training, and his experiments in long-range revolver shooting.

Exhibition shooting

Ed McGivern is renowned as one of the best handgunners that ever lived. His Guinness world record for "The greatest rapid-fire feat" (set on August 20, 1932 at the Lead Club Range, South Dakota) still stands. He emptied two revolvers in less than 2 seconds. He set another record on September 13, 1932, shooting five rounds from a double-action revolver at 15 feet in 2/5 of a second, and covering the group with his hand. His accomplishments include "firing two times from 15 feet five shots which could be covered by a silver half-dollar piece in 45/100 of a second". His shooting was so rapid, timing machines would malfunction in attempting to record his shooting speed.

McGivern was capable of many amazing shooting feats, most of them well documented in his book. To name just a few:

 He could break six simultaneously hand-thrown clay pigeons (standard trap targets) in the air before they hit the ground.
 He could hit a tin can hand-thrown 20 ft in the air five times before it hit the ground.
 He could drive a tack or nail into wood by shooting it.
 He could shoot the spots out of playing cards at 18 feet, or even split a playing card edge on.
 He could shoot a dime on the fly.

All of these executed with either hand using a factory Smith & Wesson Model 10 double-action revolver (purportedly his favorite handgun).

Competition shooter Jerry Miculek has attempted, and broken, some of McGivern's long-standing records, such as the record for 60 shots fired from 10 revolvers. Although Miculek holds a number of records, his attempt to beat McGivern's 5-shot record resulted in a time of .57 seconds.
A testament to McGivern's ability was the fact that the 5-shot record was set in 1932, when McGivern was 57 years of age. Soon after that point, arthritis ended McGivern's competitive shooting career.

Long range shooting

McGivern, along with his friend Elmer Keith, were instrumental in pushing the envelope in the early days of magnum revolvers. While Keith was primarily interested in hunting, McGivern was more interested in police use of the revolver. McGivern demonstrated that with proper sights and use, the .357 Magnum could be used on man-sized targets at ranges of up to .
McGivern experimented with different types of iron sights, including peep sights, and telescopic sights. His preferred type of iron sight for this use was a small-diameter rear aperture and a post with a gold bead for the front.

McGivern went on to instruct police agencies, including the FBI, in his shooting techniques.

Legacy

In 2010, McGivern was inducted into the Montana Cowboy Hall of Fame.

Book by Ed McGivern

 Ed McGivern's Book on Fast and Fancy Revolver Shooting, Springfield, MA:  King-Richardson, 1938.

References

1874 births
1957 deaths
American male sport shooters
World record holders in shooting
People associated with firearms
People from Lewistown, Montana

Ed McGivern


Lycium cooperi is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family known by the common name peach thorn. It is native to the southwestern United States,  where it grows in a variety of desert and mountain habitat types. This is a bushy, erect shrub approaching a maximum height of  with many rigid, thorny branches. The branches are lined thickly with fleshy oval or widely lance-shaped leaves each  long and coated with glandular hairs. The inflorescence is a small cluster of tubular flowers roughly  long including the calyx of fleshy sepals at the base. The flower is white or greenish with lavender or green veining. The corolla is a tube opening into a face with four or five lobes. The fruit is a yellow or orange berry under a centimeter wide containing many seeds.

References

External links
Photo gallery

cooperi
Flora of the Southwestern United States

Lycium cooperi


Harry Marshall Ward (21 March 1854 – 26 August 1906), FRS, , was a British botanist, mycologist, and plant pathologist. He was one of the first scientists to study physiological plant pathology

Born in Hereford, the eldest child of Francis and Mary Marshall Ward, Harry Ward was educated at Lincoln Cathedral school. from c. 1864. He went on to scientific studies at the South Kensington Science and Art Department under Thomas Henry Huxley in 1874. Ward then attended first Owens College, Manchester, in 1875, and subsequently Christ's College, Cambridge, from 1876 to 1879.

At Cambridge, Ward achieved a B.A. with First Class honours in the Natural Sciences Tripos. Ward's education at Cambridge was funded by a wealthy fellow student from South Kensington, Louis Lucas. He also studied with leading German botanists Julius von Sachs and Anton de Bary who at the time were way ahead of the English in the field of experimental botany.

From early 1880 until 1882, Ward was employed by the British government in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) to study the coffee rust disease affecting the island's coffee plantations. His detailed and methodical work established his reputation as a plant pathologist and physiologist and although he was unable to stop the rust in the coffee plantations of Ceylon he laid the foundations for solving the problem in the future.  Ward recommended avoiding monoculture, and the cultivation of multiple strains of coffee. Ward demonstrated that disease spores could be spread on the wind and recommended growing trees between plantations to reduce this. However plantation owners in Ceylon had already destroyed many indigenous species on their plantations and planted a single type of coffee on almost every available acre.

In 1883 Ward returned to Owens College as an assistant lecturer,  and married his very patient fiancée Selina Mary Kingdon, who had been waiting for him since around 1870. Their first child was a daughter Winifred Mary Ward born October 1884, and on 6 November 1885 they had a son Francis Kingdon Ward.

In 1885 shortly after the birth of his son he was appointed Professor of botany at the Royal Indian engineering college (Forestry department) at Cooper's hill, now part of Brunel University. He moved with his new family into a house at Englefield Green.

He became F.L.S. (Fellow of the Linnaean Society) in 1886 F.R.H.S. (fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society) in 1887 and F.R.S. (Fellow of the Royal Society) in 1889. He was president of the British Mycological Society in 1900 and 1901.

A great deal of his work and study was influenced by one of his early tutors, W.T. Thiselton-Dyer. It was Thiselton Dyer who suggested him for the job in Ceylon, he who largely got him his first post at Owen's College. Dyer persuaded him to spend time researching the biological processes involved in brewing ginger beer,  and helped ensure his entry to the Linnaean society, his signature was on a letter to the prime minister of the day H. H. Asquith recommending a pension should be paid to his widow, Selina after his death.

In 1895 he became Professor of Botany at Cambridge University, his alma mater.  There was a tremendous amount of work to do with the department which had been neglected by previous incumbents.  Ward worked tirelessly to get the teaching and the facilities up to scratch. His efforts culminated in a complete new building designed and equipped to his own requirements. The building was opened on 1 March 1904 by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. There was a seven course lunch for the King and Queen and a select guest list included Thiselton Dyer.

Meanwhile, he was gaining more honours and positions on committees while still researching, teaching, and administrating. All this work took its toll on his health. He was weakened further by diabetes. He died on 26 August 1906 aged only 52.

He is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, with his wife; his friend Sir Francis Darwin is also buried there.

References

External links

 William Thiselton-Dyer at RBGK.
Harry Marshall Ward: Biography by Oliver Tooley

1854 births
1906 deaths
People from Hereford
British mycologists
Fellows of the Linnean Society of London
British phytopathologists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Royal Medal winners
Professors of Botany (Cambridge)
British botanists
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Horticultural Society
People educated at Lincoln Minster School
Presidents of the British Mycological Society

Harry Marshall Ward


A torus (plural: tori or toruses) is a tube shape that is similar to the surface of a doughnut or an inner tube. In geometry, a torus is obtained by rotating a circle in three dimensional space. To make a torus, the circle is rotated around a line (called the axis of rotation) that is in the same plane as the circle. Usually the line does not touch the circle, so the torus has a hole through the center, and the torus is called a ring torus. For a ring torus, the axis of rotation passes through the center of the hole.

In topology, sizes don't matter, and a torus is any shape that has one hole through it.

The ring torus is the most well-known type of torus, but other types exist. If the line the circle rotates around is tangent to the circle, then it becomes a horn torus, and if it passes through the circle then it is a spindle torus. A toroid is a surface made by rotating any shape around a line, so a torus is one kind of toroid.

If the torus is filled to make a solid shape, it is called a solid torus. A solid torus is often simply called a torus. A solid torus is made by rotating a disk (a filled-in circle) around a line. Common objects that have the shape of a solid torus are a doughnut, a bagel and an O-ring.

A torus is like a tube that is bent into a circle so it connects to itself. The radius of the tube or circle is called the minor radius, write. The distance from the center of the tube to the center of the torus is called the major radius, write .

The surface area of a torus is given by
.
This area is the same as the area of a straight tube that has a radius  and length .

The volume of a solid torus is given by
.
This volume is the same as the volume of a straight rod that has a  radius  and length .

Three-dimensional shapes

Torus


For ōðrum brūcum sēo fȳr (scēadung).

Fȳr is cynn ƿielman. Most typically, the word fire refers to the combination of the brilliant glow and large amount of heat released during a rapid, self-sustaining exothermic oxidation process of combustible gases ejected from a fuel. The flames of the fire themselves are a body of gas that releases heat and light. Fires start when a fuel is subjected to heat or another energy source, e.g. a match or lighter, and are sustained by the further release of heat energy until all the conbustible fuel is consumed.

Þæt ƿord fȳr by itself often designates uncontrolled fires rather than referring to controlled fires.

Fȳr


A One Day International (ODI) is a form of limited overs cricket, played between two teams with international status, in which each team faces a fixed number of overs, currently 50, with the game lasting up to 7  hours. The Cricket World Cup, generally held every four years, is played in this format. One Day International matches are also called Limited Overs Internationals (LOI), although this generic term may also refer to Twenty20 International matches. They are major matches and considered the highest standard of List A, limited-overs competition.

The international one-day game is a late-twentieth-century development. The first ODI was played on 5 January 1971 between Australia and England at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. When the first three days of the third Test were washed out officials decided to abandon the match and, instead, play a one-off one day game consisting of 40 eight-ball overs per side. Australia won the game by 5 wickets. ODIs were played in white-coloured kits with a red-coloured ball.

In the late 1970s, Kerry Packer established the rival World Series Cricket competition, and it introduced many of the features of One Day International cricket that are now commonplace, including coloured uniforms, matches played at night under floodlights with a white ball and dark sight screens, and, for television broadcasts, multiple camera angles, effects microphones to capture sounds from the players on the pitch, and on-screen graphics. The first of the matches with coloured uniforms was the WSC Australians in wattle gold versus WSC West Indians in coral pink, played at VFL Park in Melbourne on 17 January 1979. This led not only to Packer's Channel 9 getting the TV rights to cricket in Australia but also led to players worldwide being paid to play, and becoming international professionals, no longer needing jobs outside cricket. Matches played with coloured kits and a white ball became more commonplace over time, and the use of white flannels and a red ball in ODIs ended in 2001.

The ICC, international cricket's governing body, maintains the ICC ODI Rankings for teams (see table on the right), batsmen, bowlers and all-rounders.

Rules
In the main the laws of cricket apply. However, in ODIs, each team bats for a fixed number of overs. In the early days of ODI cricket, the number of overs was generally 60 overs per side, and matches were also played with 40, 45 or 55 overs per side, but now it has been uniformly fixed at 50 overs.

Simply stated, the game works as follows:

An ODI is contested by two teams of 11 players each.
The Captain of the side winning the toss chooses to either bat or bowl (field) first.
The team batting first sets the target score in a single innings. The innings lasts until the batting side is "all out" (i.e., 10 of the 11 batting players are "out") or all of the first side's allotted overs are completed.
Each bowler is restricted to bowling a maximum of 10 overs (fewer in the case of rain-reduced matches and in any event generally no more than one fifth or 20% of the total overs per innings). Therefore, each team must comprise at least five competent bowlers (either dedicated bowlers or all-rounders).
The team batting second tries to score more than the target score in order to win the match. Similarly, the side bowling second tries to bowl out the second team or make them exhaust their overs before they reach the target score in order to win.
If the number of runs scored by both teams is equal when the second team loses all its wickets or exhausts all its overs, then the game is declared a tie (regardless of the number of wickets lost by either team).

Where a number of overs are lost, for example, due to inclement weather conditions, then the total number of overs may be reduced. In the early days of ODI cricket, the team with the better run rate won (see Average Run Rate method), but this favoured the second team. For the 1992 World Cup, an alternative method was used of simply omitting the first team's worst overs (see Most Productive Overs method) but that favoured the first team. Since the late 1990s, the target or result has usually been determined by the Duckworth-Lewis-Stern method (DLS, formerly known as the Duckworth–Lewis method), which is a method with statistical approach. It takes into consideration the fact that the wickets in hand plays a crucial role in pacing the run-rate and that a team with more wickets in hand can play way more aggressively than the team with fewer wickets in hand. When insufficient overs are played (usually 20 overs) to apply the DLS, a match is declared no result. Important one-day matches particularly in the latter stages of major tournaments, may have two days set aside, such that a result can be achieved on the "reserve day" if the first day is washed out—either by playing a new game, or by resuming the match which was rain-interrupted.

Because the game uses a white ball instead of the red ball used in first-class cricket, the ball can become discolored and hard to see as the innings progresses, so the ICC has used various rules to help keep the ball playable. Most recently, ICC has made the use of two new balls (one from each end), the same strategy that was used in the 1992 and 1996 World Cups so that each ball is used for only 25 overs. Previously, in October 2007, the ICC sanctioned that after the 34th over, the ball would be replaced with a cleaned previously used ball. Before October 2007 (except 1992 and 1996 World Cups), only one ball would be used during an innings of an ODI and it was up to the umpire to decide whether to change the ball.

Fielding restrictions and powerplays

The bowling side is subjected to fielding restrictions during an ODI, in order to prevent teams from setting wholly defensive fields. Fielding restrictions dictate the maximum number of fielders allowed to be outside the thirty-yard circle.

Under current ODI rules, there are three levels of fielding restrictions:
 In the first 10 overs of an innings (the mandatory powerplay), the fielding team may have at most two fielders outside the 30-yard circle. This allows only attacking fields to be set during the powerplay.
 Between 11 and 40 overs four fielders will be allowed to field outside the 30-yard circle. Either an Attacking or Normal Field can be set in the second powerplay.
 In the final 10 overs five fielders will be allowed to field outside the 30-yard circle. All three types of fields (attacking, defensive and normal fields) Can be used in the third powerplay.
The three powerplays are referenced by P1, P2 and P3 respectively, usually displayed near the score in modern scorecards.

History
Fielding restrictions were first introduced in the Australian 1980–81 season. By 1992, only two fielders were allowed outside the circle in the first fifteen overs, then five fielders allowed outside the circle for the remaining overs. This was shortened to ten overs in 2005, and two five-over powerplays were introduced, with the bowling team and batting team having discretion over the timing for one-one each. In 2008, the batting team was given discretion for the timing of one of the two powerplays. In 2011, the teams were restricted to completing the discretionary powerplays between the 16th and 40th overs; previously, the powerplays could take place at any time between the 11th and 50th overs. Finally, in 2012, the bowling powerplay was abandoned, and the number of fielders allowed outside the 30-yard circle during non-powerplay overs was reduced from five to four.

Trial regulations
The trial regulations also introduced a substitution rule that allowed the introduction of a replacement player at any stage in the match and until he was called up to play he assumed the role of 12th man. Teams nominated their replacement player, called a Supersub, before the toss. The Supersub could bat, bowl, field or keep wicket once a player was replaced; the replaced player took over the role of 12th man. Over the six months it was in operation, it became very clear that the Supersub was of far more benefit to the side that won the toss, unbalancing the game. Several international captains reached "gentleman's agreements" to discontinue this rule late in 2005. They continued to name Supersubs, as required but they did not field them by simply using them as a normal 12th man. On 15 February 2006, the ICC announced their intention to discontinue the Supersub rule on 21 March 2006. Two balls were trialed in ODI for two years but it was rejected.

Teams with ODI status
The International Cricket Council (ICC) determines which teams have ODI status (meaning that any match played between two such teams under standard one-day rules is classified as an ODI).

Permanent ODI status

The twelve Test-playing nations (which are also the twelve full members of the ICC) have permanent ODI status. The nations are listed below with the date of each nation's ODI debut after gaining full ODI status shown in brackets (Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe, Bangladesh, Ireland, and Afghanistan were ICC associate members at the times of their ODI debuts):
 (5 January 1971)
 (5 January 1971)
 (11 February 1973)
 (11 February 1973)
 (5 September 1973)
 (13 July 1974)
 (13 February 1982)
 (10 November 1991)
 (25 October 1992)
 (10 October 1997)
 (5 December 2017)
 (5 December 2017)

Temporary ODI status
Between 2005 and 2017, the ICC granted temporary ODI status to six other teams (known as Associate members). In 2017, this was changed to four teams, following the promotion of Afghanistan and Ireland to Test status (and permanent ODI status). The ICC had previously decided to limit ODI status to 16 teams. Teams earn this temporary status for a period of four years based on their performance in the ICC World Cup Qualifier, which is the final event of the ICC World Cricket League. In 2019, ICC increased the number of teams holding Temporary ODI status to eight.
The following eight teams currently have this status (the dates listed in brackets are of their first ODI match after gaining temporary ODI status):
 (from 27 June 2006, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 1 February 2014, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 1 August 2018, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 1 August 2018, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 27 April 2019, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 27 April 2019, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 27 April 2019, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)
 (from 27 March 2023, until the 2026 Cricket World Cup Qualifier)

Additionally, eight teams have previously held this temporary ODI status before either being promoted to Test Status or relegated after under-performing at the World Cup Qualifier:
 (from 10 October 1997, until 30 January 2014)
 (from 16 May 2006, until 28 January 2014)
 (from 17 May 2006, until 8 April 2009)
 (from 13 June 2006, until 21 May 2017)
 (from 4 July 2006, until 28 January 2014)
 (from 19 April 2009, until 14 June 2017)
 (from 1 May 2014, until 17 March 2018)
 (from 8 November 2014, until 5 April 2023)

The ICC occasionally granted associate members permanent ODI status without granting them full membership and Test status. This was originally introduced to allow the best associate members to gain regular experience in internationals before making the step up to full membership. First Bangladesh and then Kenya received this status. Bangladesh have since made the step up to Test status and full membership; but as a result of disputes and poor performances, Kenya's ODI status was reduced to temporary in 2005, meaning that it had to perform well at World Cup Qualifiers to keep ODI status. Kenya lost ODI status after finishing in fifth place at the 2014 Cricket World Cup Qualifier event.

Special ODI status
The ICC can also grant special ODI status to all matches within certain high-profile tournaments, with the result being that the following countries have also participated in full ODIs, with some later gaining temporary or permanent ODI status also fitting into this category:
 (1975 World Cup)
 (1975 World Cup, 1979 World Cup)
 (1979 World Cup, 2003 World Cup, 2023 ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier Play-off)
 (1983 World Cup, 1987 World Cup, 1992 World Cup)
 (1986 Asia Cup, 1988 Asia Cup, 1990 Austral-Asia Cup, 1990 Asia Cup, 1995 Asia Cup, 1997 Asia Cup)
 (1994 Austral-Asia Cup, 1996 World Cup, 2004 Asia Cup and 2008 Asia Cup)
 (1996 World Cup, 1996 Sameer Cup)
 (1996 World Cup, 2002 ICC Champions Trophy and 2003 World Cup)
 (1999 World Cup)
 (2003 World Cup)
 (2004 Asia Cup, 2008 Asia Cup and 2018 Asia Cup)
 (2004 ICC Champions Trophy)
 (2023 ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier Play-off)

Finally, since 2005, three composite teams have played matches with full ODI status. These matches were:
The World Cricket Tsunami Appeal, a one-off match between the Asian Cricket Council XI vs ICC World XI in the 2004/05 season.
The Afro-Asia Cup, two three-ODI series played in 2005 and 2007 Afro-Asia Cup between the Asian Cricket Council XI and the African XI.
The ICC Super Series, a three-ODI series played between the ICC World XI and the then-top-ranked Australian cricket team in the 2005/06 season.

One Day records

See also

ICC Test Championship
ICC ODI Championship
ICC T20I Championship
Limited overs cricket
One Day International records
One Day International hat-tricks
List of batsmen who have scored over 10000 One Day International cricket runs
List of One Day International cricket umpires

References

External links
NatWest International One Day Series (archived 9 August 2009)
International Cricket Rules and Regulations at the ICC website (archived 6 August 2013)
ICC Chief Executives' Committee approves introduction of ODI innovations by Jon Long, ICC website, 25 June 2005, Retrieved 25 November 2005 (archived 23 March 2006).
"ODI changes to take effect in NatWest Challenge" by Cricinfo staff, Cricinfo, 30 June 2005, Retrieved 25 November 2005 (archived 23 March 2006).
"Those new one-day rules explained" by Cricinfo staff, Cricinfo, 8 July 2005, retrieved 26 November 2005.
 NatWest Series Cricket – the official website of the NatWest Series (archived 5 February 2006)
 ECB NatWest Series (archived 9 February 2006)

One Day International cricket
Sports originating in Australia
Games and sports introduced in 1971

One Day International


Erre XI were a Puerto Rican reggaetón duo. They were signed with Luny Tunes Mas Flow Inc. label. Composed of Gerry "Lionize" Capó Hernández and Rafael "Raphy" Flores Ramírez, the duo made its recording debut in 2007 on the Luny Tunes album Los Benjamins: La Continuación with the song "Vete". In 2008 the duo released their full-length debut album titled Luny Tunes Presents: Erre XI which spawned the single "Carita Bonita" featuring Pee Wee of Kumbia All Starz. The album was largely produced by Luny Tunes.

In August 2009, Lionize announced the break-up of the duo with Luny Tunes. Luny will keep the name 'Erre XI', but both Lionize and Raphy will be replaced by two other members. It is currently unknown if Lionize and El Raffe will continue to be a duo, or if both artists will pursue their solo-careers. As for the reasoning of the separation, a statement has yet to be given.

Recently Lionize has started his solo career as Gerry Capo and Raphy has been using his name Raphy Flores, and it was announced that Dyland & Lenny were the replacements of Erre XI but they did not want to take the name away from the original artists. On June 29, 2016, they announced their comeback after 7 years separated. In 2018, they break up again, Raphy decided to return to choreographies, and Gerry decided to continue with his solo career

Discography
 2008: Urban Soul
 2008: Luny Tunes Presents: Erre XI
 2010: Errevolucion
 2018: The Last Call

References

External links

Puerto Rican musical duos
Puerto Rican reggaeton musicians
Reggaeton duos
Musical groups established in 2007
2007 establishments in Puerto Rico

Erre XI


Shohreh Solati () (born Fatemeh Solati in Tehran, Iran on 4 Januar 1959) is a well-kent an popular Iranian sangster. She haes vast airtistic skills in singin an performin. She haes haed ane o the maist consistently active an prolific careers amang contemporar, female Iranian sangsters.  Syne the Iranian Revolution, she haes continued her muisic career in exile an achievit acclaim for her contribution tae Iranian muisic.

Biografie
Born in Tehran on 4 Januar 1957 tae a well-tae-dae faimily o airtists an entertainers, Shohreh developit an interest in muisic early on, singin at seiven years o age. She later went on tae study at the Naitional Iranian Muisic Conservatory, whaur she receivit training in singin an the clarinet. Her first album titled Dokhtar-e-Mashreghi (Eastren Girl) wis successful, garnerin some notability.  Magazines directit toward the youth o Iran in the 1970s gave exposure tae the sangster an aw.

The Revolution
Shortly afore the Revolution in 1978, Shohreh left Iran tae pairticipate in a series o concerts in the Unitit States, but she coud no return tae her native kintra acause o restrictions on airtists bi the new rulers. Shohreh then muivit initially in New York Ceety an marriet shortly efter. As the Revolution occurred against aw odds, Shohreh an ither exiled Iranian sangsters wur initially faced some difficulties tae re-establish their commonty. Housomeivver, efter the birth o her dochter, Tannaz, Shohreh became even mair investit in her career.

Discografie

Videografie
Shohreh Live in Canada
Best of Shohreh and Shahram
Best of Shohreh #1
Best of Shohreh #2
Zan Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Ghesseh Goo Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Nemizaram Beri Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Atr Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Safar Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Pishooni Album Videos (Selectit Videos)
Havas Album Videos (Selectit Videos)

References
Havas DVD. Nava Media Co. June 2005. Shohreh's Exclusive Interview
Tehran Magazine. Forouhar, Shohreh, or Helen: Whom Would You Pick as Best?  Issue 479.  Page 72-73.

External links
Shohreh's offeecial wabsteid

1957 births
Livin fowk
Iranian female sangsters
Iranian pop sangsters
Fowk frae Tehran

Shohreh Solati


A person is called single if he or she is not married, not in a civil union, and not in a sexual or romantic relationship. In a more general sense, the word also means that person currently has no exclusive partner, like a boyfriend or girlfriend. Such people can be classified into different types:
People who choose to live alone. This includes hermits and shamans. The Catholic Church does not want that their priests marry. There are also some restrictions in the Orthodox church. Nuns and monks are also not allowed to marry. Such singles are often part of a religious order or community.
People who live alone because of social norms. This was especially true for children who were born outside a marriage, in the Middle Ages.
People who have not yet found their partner. Some people actively search for a mate, others simply wait until the right person comes along.
People whose partner died, or who are divorced.

In English, male singles used to be called bachelors, female singles used to be called spinsters (or bachelorettes, more recently). In general, the word single is used more often now, because it also does not make a difference between the two sexes.

People

Single person


Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly ('Tugurium Avunculi Thomae; sive Vita inter Humiles') est mythistoria abolitionismi ab Harrietta Beecher Stowe anno 1851 in diariis edita et die 20 Martii proximo anno liber divulgata, et statim in vulgus gratissima—fabula quae, odium in Legem Servorum Fugitivorum anni 1850 magnopere augens (McPherson 1988:88–91), initium acceleravit Belli Civilis Americani (Kaufman 2006:18).

Avunculus Tom
Historia servitutis in Civitatibus Foederatis
Motus iurum civilium Afroamericanus (1954-68)
Origines Belli Civilis Americani
Onkel Toms Hütte, statio ferriviae metropolitanae Berolinensis
Ramona

Bibliographia

 Gates, Henry Louis, et Kwame Anthony Appiah. 2005. Africana: Arts and Letters: An A-to-Z Reference of Writers, Musicians, and Artists of the African American Experience. Running Press.
 Jordan-Lake, Joy. 2005. Whitewashing Uncle Tom's Cabin: Nineteenth-Century Women Novelists Respond to Stowe. Vanderbilt University Press.
 Kaufman, Will. 2006. The Civil War in American Culture. Edinburgh University Press.
 Lott, Eric. 1993. Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class. Novi Eboraci: Oxford University Press.
 Lowance, Mason I., Jr., Ellen E. Westbrook, et R. De Prospo. 1994. The Stowe Debate: Rhetorical Strategies in Uncle Tom's Cabin. University of Massachusetts Press.
 McPherson, James M. 1988.
 Rosenthal, Debra J. 2003. Routledge Literary Sourcebook on Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Routledge.
 Sundquist, Eric J., ed. 1986. New Essays on Uncle Tom's Cabin. Cambridge University Press.
 Tompkins, Jane. 1985. In Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction, 1790–1860. Novi Eboraci: Oxford University Press.
 Weinstein, Cindy. 2004. The Cambridge Companion to Harriet Beecher Stowe. Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press.
 Williams, Linda. 2001. Playing the Race Card: Melodramas of Black and White from Uncle Tom to O. J. Simpson. Princeton University Press.

Nexus externi

 Uncle Tom's cabin: or Life among the lowly; frontispiece by John Gilbert; ornamental title-page by Phiz; and 130 engravings on wood by Matthew Urlwin Sears, 1853 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
 Pictures and stories from Uncle Tom's cabin; "The purpose of the editor of this little work, has been to adapt it for the juvenile family circle. The verses have accordingly been written by the authoress for the capacity of the youngest readers …" 1853 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)

 ''Uncle Tom's Cabin, available at Internet Archive. Scanned, illustrated original editions.
 Uncle Tom's Cabin Historic Site
 Free audiobook of Uncle Tom's Cabin at Librivox
 More on the lack of international copyright
 "Uncle Tom's Cabin and American Culture: A Multi-Media Archive," situs Universitatis Virginiae
Interpretatio Theodisce

Civitatum Foederatarum scripta
Libri de Bello Civili Americano
Libri de servitute
Mythistoriae Anglicae
Mythistoriae Civitatum Foederatarum
Mythistoriae primum forma seriali editae
Mythistoriae sentimentales
Scripta 1852
Servitus in Civitatibus Foederatis

Uncle Tom's Cabin


Alberta's Rockies comprise the  Canadian Rocky Mountains in Alberta, Canada. On the southwestern part of the province along the British Columbia border, the region covers all but the south of Census Division 15.

The main industry in this region is tourism.

Geography

This human region is almost identical to the Alberta Mountain forests ecozone.  The region contains the Central Front Ranges and the Continental Ranges of the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and includes the Banff National Park and Jasper National Park, as well as the Kananaskis Country park system and the Willmore Wilderness.

The main transportation corridors run through the Kicking Horse Pass and the Yellowhead Pass from east to west, while the Bow Valley and Athabasca River valley are followed by the longitudinal Icefields Parkway. Another important waterway that crosses this region is the North Saskatchewan River.

Tourism
Some of the best ski resorts of the Rockies are located in this region, and are important tourist destinations. They include Fortress Mountain Resort, Lake Louise, Marmot Basin, Mount Norquay, Nakiska and Sunshine Village. Other tourist attractions include the glaciers of the Columbia, Wapta and Waputik Icefields such as the Athabasca, Bow, Crowfoot, Hector, Peyto, Saskatchewan and Vulture Glaciers.

Glacial lakes line the Icefields Parkway and dot the surrounding valleys. Some of the more spectacular are Bow, Hector, Louise, Maligne, Moraine, Peyto, Pyramid and Vermilion lakes.

Infrastructure
Banff and Jasper are the main communities in the region. The length is defined by the Icefields Parkway, and it is crossed by the Trans-Canada Highway and the Yellowhead Highway into British Columbia. David Thompson Highway leads from the Rockies into central Alberta from Saskatchewan River Crossing, and Banff Windermere Parkway leads from Castle Junction (south of Lake Louise) through the Kootenay National Park to the Columbia River valley. The Bighorn Highway defines most of the eastern limit of the region.

Health care has been the responsibility of Alberta Health Services, since the province's health regions were amalgamated in 2008. Before then, Calgary Health Region was the health region ensuring well-being in the south of this region, while the north was supervised by the Aspen Regional Health Authority.

Health care centres established in the area are:
Seton Jasper Healthcare Centre - Jasper
Hinton Healthcare Centre - Hinton
Canmore General Hospital - Canmore
Banff Mineral Springs Hospital - Banff

Politics
On a provincial level, southern Alberta is represented in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta by MLA's elected in the ridings of Banff-Cochrane and part of Rocky Mountain House and West Yellowhead.

Communities
The following communities are located in Alberta's Rockies.
 Towns of Banff and Canmore
 Municipality of Jasper (specialized municipality)
 Summer villages of Ghost Lake and Waiparous
 Hamlets of Lake Louise, Harvie Heights,  Exshaw, Dead Man's Flats and Lac des Arcs
 Saskatchewan River Crossing (unincorporated community)
 Kananaskis Village (resort community)

The towns of Grande Cache and Hinton, located on the eastern edge of the Rockies, are sometimes considered as part of this region.

The following rural municipalities are located in Alberta's Rockies.
 Municipal District of Bighorn No. 8
 Improvement District No. 9 (Banff National Park)
 Improvement District No. 12 (Jasper National Park)
 Improvement District No. 25 (Willmore Wilderness Park)
 Kananaskis Improvement District

See also

List of regions of Canada

References

Canadian Rockies
Mountain ranges of Alberta
Geographic regions of Alberta

Alberta's Rockies


Exeter Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in the city of Exeter, Devon, in the southwest of England. It is the seat of the Bishop of Exeter. The present building was complete by about 1400, and has the longest uninterrupted vaulted ceiling in England, and other notable features. The cathedral is built in Gothic style.

History
In 1107, William Warelwast, a nephew of William the Conqueror, was appointed to the see, and this was the catalyst for the building of a new cathedral in the Norman style. Its official foundation was in 1133, after Warelwast's time, but it took many more years to complete. In 1258 the building was already outmoded, and it was rebuilt in the Decorated English Gothic architecture style, following the example of nearby Salisbury Cathedral. However, much of the Norman building was kept, including the two massive square towers and part of the walls. It was constructed entirely of local stone, including Purbeck Marble. The new cathedral was complete by about 1400, apart from the addition of the chapter house and chantry chapels.

World War II
On 4 May 1942, an early morning air raid took place over Exeter. The cathedral sustained a direct hit by a large high-explosive bomb on the chapel of St James, completely demolishing it. The muniment room above, three bays of the aisle and two flying buttresses were also destroyed in the blast. The medieval wooden screen opposite the chapel was smashed into many pieces by the blast, but it has been reconstructed and restored. Fortunately many of the cathedral's most important artifacts, such as the glass of the great east window, the misericords, the Exeter Book, the bishop's throne and the Bronescombe Effigy, had been removed at the start of the war in anticipation of such an attack. Subsequent repairs and the clearance of the area around the western end of the building uncovered portions of earlier structures, including remains of the Roman city and of the original Norman cathedral.

Astronomical clock
The clock is one of a group of famous 14th to 16th century astronomical clocks to be found in the West of England. Another one is at Wells Cathedral.

The main, lower, dial is the oldest part of the clock, dating from 1484. The fleur-de-lys 'hand' indicates the time (and the position of the sun in the sky) on a 24-hour analogue dial. The numbering consists of two sets of I-XII Roman numerals. The silver ball and inner dial shows both the age of the moon and its phase (using a rotating black shield to indicate the moon's phase). The upper dial, added in 1760, shows the minutes.

The Latin phrase Pereunt et Imputantur, a favourite motto for clocks and sundials was written by the Latin poet Martial. It is usually translated as "they perish and are reckoned to our account", referring to the hours that we spend, wisely or not. The original clockwork mechanism was much modified, repaired, and neglected until it was replaced in the early 20th century. The door below the clock has a round hole near its base. This was cut in the early 17th century to allow entry for the Bishop's cat to deter vermin. The vermin were attracted to the animal fat used to lubricate the clock mechanism.

Reference

Anglican cathedrals in England
Buildings and structures in Devon
13th-century buildings and structures

Exeter Cathedral


In some countries, a civil union is a contract between two people which gives them rights similar to those they can obtain in marriage. In countries where it is allowed, a civil union is often available to people of the same sex; marriage is often limited to people of opposite sex. The first country to introduce civil unions was Denmark, in 1989. In Denmark, a civil union was limited to people of the same sex. These people got the same rights and duties as married people. In 2010, such couples were also allowed to adopt children. As of 2012, Denmark allows people of the same sex to marry, and the civil union is no longer available.

LGBT rights
Family law
LGBT marriages

Civil union


Hemotoxins, haemotoxins or hematotoxins are toxins  that destroy red blood cells, disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage. The term hemotoxin is to some degree a misnomer since toxins that damage the blood also damage other tissues. Injury from a hemotoxic agent is often very painful and can cause permanent damage and in severe cases death. Loss of an affected limb is possible even with prompt treatment.

Hemotoxins are frequently employed by venomous animals, including snakes (vipers and pit vipers) and spiders (brown recluse). Animal venoms contain enzymes and other proteins that are hemotoxic or neurotoxic or occasionally both (as in the Mojave rattlesnake, the Japanese mamushi, and similar species). In addition to killing the prey, part of the function of a hemotoxic venom for some animals is to aid digestion. The venom breaks down protein in the region of the bite, making prey easier to digest.

The process by which a hemotoxin causes death is much slower than that of a neurotoxin.  Snakes which envenomate a prey animal may have to track the prey as it flees.  Typically, a mammalian prey will stop fleeing not because of death, but due to shock caused by the venomous bite. Symptoms are dependent upon species, size, location of bite and the amount of venom injected. In humans, symptoms include nausea, disorientation, and headache; these may be delayed for several hours.

Hemotoxins are used in diagnostic studies of the coagulation system. Lupus anticoagulant is detected by changes in the dilute Russell's viper venom time, which is a laboratory assay based on—as its name indicates—venom of the Russell's viper.

References

External links

 Introduction to the special edition of Journal of Toxicology - Toxin Reviews, 21(1 & 2)

Toxins by organ system affected
Hematology

Hemotoxin


A  school of thought, or intellectual tradition, is the perspective of a group of people who share common characteristics of opinion or outlook of a philosophy, discipline, belief, social movement, economics, cultural movement, or art movement.

History
The phrase has become a common colloquialism which is used to describe those that think alike or those that focus on a common idea. The term's use is common place.

Schools are often characterized by their currency, and thus classified into "new" and "old" schools. There is a convention, in political and philosophical fields of thought, to have  "modern" and "classical" schools of thought. An example is the modern and classical liberals. This dichotomy is often a component of paradigm shift. However, it is rarely the case that there are only two schools in any given field.

Schools are often named after their founders such as the "Rinzai school" of Zen, named after Linji Yixuan; and the Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy, named after Abu l'Hasan al-Ashari. They are often also named after their places of origin, such as the Ionian school of philosophy, which originated in Ionia; the Chicago school of architecture, which originated in Chicago, Illinois; the Prague school of linguistics, named after a linguistic circle founded in Prague; and the Tartu–Moscow Semiotic School, whose representatives lived in Tartu and Moscow.

An example of a school of thought in Christianity (and Gnosticism) is Neoplatonism, which has massively influenced Christian thought, from Augustinianism to Renaissance/Humanism to the present day.

See also
 Commentary of a philosophical text
 List of philosophies
 Mindset
 Paradigm
 Philosophical movement
 Worldview

References

Colloquial terms
Category

School of thought


A bag is a kind of soft container. It can hold or carry things. It may be made from cloth, leather, plastic, or paper. Many bags are disposable but some are made to use for a long time. A bag may have one or two handles or a shoulder strap. Bags come in different shapes and sizes depending on how they will be used. A small bag that can be carried with a single hand is sometimes called a handbag, purse, or pocketbook.  Children can suffocate, or stop breathing and die, when they put certain kinds of bags over their heads, due to having the supply of oxygen cut off.

Other websites

Basic English 850 words

Bag