Vincent Laforet (born 1975, Switzerland) is a French-American director and photographer. Laforet shared the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography with four other photographers (Stephen Crowley, Chang Lee, James Hill, Ruth Fremson) as a member of The New York Times staff's coverage of the post 9/11 events overseas that captured  "the pain and the perseverance of people enduring protracted conflict in Afghanistan and Pakistan." In 2006, Laforet became the Times' s first national contract photographer. He has been sent on assignment by Vanity Fair, The New York Times Magazine, National Geographic, Sports Illustrated, Time, Newsweek, and Life. He is represented by the Stockland Martel agency.

In 2002, PDN named Vincent Laforêt as one of the "30 photographers under 30 to watch″. In 2005, American Photo Magazine recognized Laforêt as one of the "100 Most Influential People in Photography." He and four other photographers were awarded the Pulitzer Prize in Feature Photography for their post-9/11 coverage overseas in 2002. His work has been recognized in the Communication Arts Annual, PDN Annual, The SPD Magazine Cover of the Year (Society of Publication Designers), The World Press Photo Awards, The Pictures of the Year Competition, The Overseas Press Club, The National Headliners Awards, The Pro-Football Hall of Fame. Vincent is a Canon Explorer of Light and Canon Printmaster and serves as consultant to companies such as Apple, Adobe, Carl Zeiss, Leica, Canon, Bogen, Lexar, and X-Rite.  He and his work have been profiled on CNN and Good Morning America.

Works

Reverie (2008)
In 2008, Laforet directed "Reverie", the first widely available short film shot with the Canon 5D Mark II camera. The video has been cited by proposers of the use of DSLR cameras in digital cinematography.

Beyond The  Still (2010)
In 2010, he launched a nationwide film competition "Beyond The Still" and he directed the final chapter the film which was screened at the Sundance Film Festival. He is a DGA Director (Directors Guild of America) and of the ICG (International Cinematographers' Guild – Local 600.)  He has directed a number of short films and numerous commercials.

Mobius (2011)
In 2011, he was chosen by Canon to be one of the first 4 filmmakers to shoot with their first cinema camera, the Canon C300,  and he directed the film "Mobius"  which premiered at Paramount Studios. The opening was attended by Martin Scorsese, Ron Howard, Robert Rodriguez, and JJ Abrams.

Visual Stories (2011)
In 2011, his first book VISUAL STORIES was released by Peachpit and describes his thought process and approach to a variety of assignments throughout his photography career.

Background
Laforet has been awarded 3 of the prestigious Cannes Lions (Platinum, Gold, Silver) for his commercial directing work.

Laforet attended the Dalton School and received his B.S. from the Medill School of Journalism at Northwestern University in 1997. He is fluent in French and English, and speaks Russian and Spanish. He lives in Manhattan Beach, California.

Laforet was an adjunct professor at the Columbia Journalism's Graduate School of Journalism, The International Center of Photography and the Poynter Institute.   He was inducted in Northwestern's Alumni Hall of Fame in 2010.

In the fall of 2020, Laforet joined Apple Inc, with a focus on photography, video and future technologies.

References

External links
 His site: Laforet Visuals
 Vimeo Page

Living people
American directors
American photographers
Photography in Pakistan
Medill School of Journalism alumni
French emigrants to the United States
1975 births
People from Manhattan Beach, California

Vincent Laforet


South Prussia (; ) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1793 to 1807.

History
South Prussia was created out of territory annexed in the Second Partition of Poland and in 1793 included:
the Poznań, Kalisz and Gniezno Voivodeships of Greater Poland;
the lands of Sieradz and Łęczyca;
the Kuyavian voivodeship of Brześć and Dobrzyń Land;
adjacent parts of the Masovian voivodeships of Płock and Rawa.
The capital of the province was Poznań (1793-1795) at first, afterwards Warsaw (1795-1806), which was added in 1795 after the Third Partition, but it was actually administered by the General Directory (General-Direktorium) in Berlin.

South Prussia bordered on the Brandenburgian Neumark region in the west and the Prussian Netze District in the north. After the Third Partition, the lands of Dobrzyń and Płock northeast of the Vistula river were transferred to New East Prussia, while South Prussia gained the Warsaw region of the former Masovian Voivodeship. In the southeast the Pilica river marked the border with those Lesser Polish territories that in 1795 became part of Austrian New Galicia. In the southwest it bordered on the Prussian Silesia Province and New Silesia, a smaller province including the former Duchy of Siewierz, which was administered from South Prussia.

Some German colonists invited to settle on the province's noble estates were known as Hauländer, while others who settled on royal crown lands were known as  Kolonisten.  The term Hauländer is a German corruption of the original Hollender who negotiated special terms of democratic rule for their settlements which came to be known as Hollendry.  Many Germans still lived under the Schulzendorf style of village government and therefore were not Hauländer.

The underdeveloped province was administered with fiscal profit being a primary goal. The first provincial minister Otto von Voss said that "South Prussia shall not have been bought at too high a price: it should be no burden to other provinces, it should even benefit them and the Prussian state" Thus, while engaging in Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions, the Prussian state extracted more revenue than what it spent from the province and levied duties on goods from the province, which seriously discouraged its industrial development.

Following Napoleon Bonaparte's victory in the War of the Fourth Coalition and a Polish uprising, the territory of South Prussia became part of the Duchy of Warsaw, a French client state, according to the 1807 Treaties of Tilsit. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, it was divided between the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen and Congress Poland, a part of the Russian Empire.

The General Directory records dealing with the history and genealogy of the Prussian part of Poland were taken from the Prussian archives by Napoleon Bonaparte soon after 1806 and transferred to Warsaw.

Demographics
In 1806 the province had 1,503,508 inhabitants.

Administration

Departments
It was subdivided into the Kammerdepartements Posen (Poznań), Kalisch (Kalisz), and Warschau (Warsaw).

Districts

In 1806, South Prussia consisted of three departments (Kriegs- und Domänen-Kammern) divided into the following districts or counties (Kreise):

References

External links
FAQ for Posen, South Prussia, and New East Prussia

Former administrative regions of Greater Poland
History of Masovia
Provinces of Prussia
Prussian Partition
States and territories established in 1793
1793 establishments in Prussia
1807 disestablishments in Prussia
History of Łódź Voivodeship
History of Masovian Voivodeship

South Prussia


Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh (c. 1610 – buried 28 June 1670) was a Dutch Golden Age painter of genre works.

Biography
Born in Rotterdam, Sorgh became a pupil of David Teniers the Younger and Willem Pieterszoon Buytewech. Sorgh painted mostly interiors with peasants.  His kitchen interiors feature elaborate still lifes.  He also painted market scenes, portraits, and marine and historical scenes.
Sorgh's works include, for example, A Man Writing, Interior with Jacob and Esau, and A Kitchen.

He married Adriaantje Hollaer on 20 February 1633. She became famous in 1947 because of her marriage portrait which had been painted by Rembrandt and was pictured on the Dutch 100-guilder banknote, printed from 1947 - 1950. Through her sister, he was brother-in-law to his friend the painter Crijn Hendricksz Volmarijn. Her portrait by Rembrandt was long considered a pendant companion to a portrait of him, but it is no longer certain since an 18th-century engraving of that portrait held the caption Nicholas Berchem. The engraved portrait of him in Arnold Houbraken's The Great Theatre of Dutch Painters was based on his self-portrait, currently in a private collection.

In 1659 he became headman of the Rotterdam Guild of St. Luke. His pupils were Jacobus Blauvoet, Abraham Diepraam, Cornelis Dorsman, Pieter Nijs, and Pieter Crijnse Volmarijn.

There is also a painting by Hendrick Sorgh in the Hunterian Art Gallery ("Interior with Card Players") in Glasgow, Scotland.

References

External links
 Works and literature on Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh
 Vermeer and The Delft School, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh (see index)
 The Milkmaid by Johannes Vermeer, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh (cat. no. 5)

Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch male painters
1610 births
1670 deaths
Painters from Rotterdam

Hendrik Martenszoon Sorgh


Haraldsonnenes saga-Sigurd Slembe hudflettes-W. Wetlesen.jpg

Sigurd Magnusson Slembe (or Slembedjakn) (died 12 November 1139) was a Norwegian pretender to the throne.

He was the subject of Sigurd Slembe, the historical drama written by the Norwegian playwright Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1862.

Biography

Sigurd is commonly believed to have been born around 1100 in southern Norway and was said to have been raised by the priest Adalbrikt. His mother was apparently Thora Saxesdatter. Sigurd himself was consecrated to be a deacon. In Old Norse, his nickname slembi could be translated to mean "noisy", Slembidjákn would mean "noisy priest".  Sigurd appeared before King Harald Gille claiming that he was an illegitimate son of the late King Magnus III of Norway.   He demanded his putative half-brother King Harald Gille, whose origin actually was quite similar, share power with him as co-kings.

Sigurd  married Audhild Torleiv, the daughter of Thorleif Maddadsson. Sigurd had himself proclaimed king in 1135, but his claim was not recognized by King Harald Gille.  In 1136, Sigurd arranged for Harald Gille to be killed in his sleep. As soon as Harald was dead, Sigurd had the previous King Magnus IV of Norway, his putative nephew, reinstated as co-king. This was apparently in the hope of increased support and in order to secure his own position. Magnus had previously been imprisoned, blinded and mutilated by Harald. As Magnus was rather incapacitated, Sigurd claimed royal power in Magnus' name. However, Sigurd was convicted and outlawed for regicide.

Sigurd Slembe and Magnus continued to find little support in Norway. King Eric II of Denmark supported them for an unsuccessful campaign. On November 12, 1139, in the naval Battle of Holmengrå near Hvaler in Oslofjord, the Danish supported forces of Magnus and Sigurd were put against supporters of King Inge I of Norway, who was still a child. Magnus was killed in the battle, while Sigurd was captured and betrayed. Sigurd met his end in a brutal manner, tortured to death. His arms and calves were first crushed with axe-hammers, after which the skin on his head was cleaved, his back was flayed and his spine broken. He was thereafter hanged, decapitated and thrown into a scree of rocks.

Primary sources
The main sources for Sigurd and his era are the kings' sagas Heimskringla, Fagrskinna, and Morkinskinna. They in turn base their accounts on the now lost Hryggjarstykki, whose author, Eiríkr Oddsson, either witnessed the events himself, or spoke to people who had.

Historical context
During the civil war period of Norwegian history (1130–1240), there were several interlocked conflicts of varying scale and intensity. The background for these conflicts were the unclear Norwegian succession laws, social conditions and the struggle between church and king. There were then two main parties, firstly known by varying names or no names at all, but finally condensed into parties of Bagler and Birkebeiner. The rallying point regularly was a royal son, who was set up as the head figure of the party in question, to oppose the rule of king from the contesting party.

Ancestry

See also
Civil war era in Norway

References

Related sources
 Bagge, Sverre Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1991).

Norwegian civil wars
1139 deaths
Impostor pretenders
Pretenders to the Norwegian throne
Year of birth unknown
Norwegian torture victims
People executed by Norway by hanging
Executed Norwegian people
House of Hardrada
12th-century executions by Norway

Sigurd Slembe


A glossary is a list of words and what they mean.  They are usually found at the end of a book or report that uses hard words to read or special words.  Websites about complicated subjects also sometimes have glossaries.

For example, in a book about philosophy that has the word "epistemology", there might be a glossary at the end of the book with the definition of this word.

Words
Reference

Glossary


Iris was known as the goddess of the rainbow and another messenger for the gods in Greek mythology.

She is depicted as a beautiful golden goddess, with wings (for flight), sandals, a staff, and a tunic. There is often much art, such as vases and murals, shown of her because she is worshiped and very beautiful. She was also seen briefly in Homer's Legacies.

Iris is generally seen as Hera's personal servant and messenger. Iris is very swift and fast and she generally travels by rainbow. It is even said that the reason the rainbow comes and goes so fast is because Iris only uses it for travel and since she is so fast, it is only in the sky for a small amount of time.

She is seen today in both Roman, and Greek mythology, as an important figure to Greece, and the gods. In Greek mythology it is believed that if you throw a drachma (Greek currency) into a rainbow you can communicate with anyone anywhere (like the Skype of ancient times).

Her parents are Thaumas (marine titan) and Elektra (cloud nymph). Her husband is Zephryus (west wind). In some versions of Greek mythology, Iris is the mother of Pothos.

Related pages
Iridium

Greek gods and goddesses

Iris (goddess)


Simon Fraser (20 May 1776 – 18 August 1862) was a Canadian explorer and fur trader who charted much of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia. He also built the first European settlement in British Columbia.

Employed by the Montreal-based North West Company, he had been by 1805 put in charge of all of the company's operations west of the Rocky Mountains. He was responsible for building that area's first trading posts, and in 1808, he explored what is now known as the Fraser River, which bears his name. Fraser's exploratory efforts were partly responsible for Canada's boundary later being established at the 49th parallel (after the War of 1812) since he, as a British subject, was the first European to establish permanent settlements in the area. According to the historian Alexander Begg, Fraser "was offered a knighthood but declined the title due to his limited wealth."

Early life

Fraser was born on 20 May 1776 in the village of Mapletown, Hoosick, New York. He was the eighth and youngest child of Captain Simon Fraser (d.1779), of the 84th Highland Regiment, and Isabella Grant, daughter of the Laird of Daldregan. Captain Simon Fraser grew up at his family's seat, Guisachan (Scottish Gaelic: 'Giùthsachan'), as the second son of William Fraser (d.1755), 8th Laird of Guisachan and 3rd Laird of Culbokie, by his wife Catherine, daughter of John McDonell, 4th Laird of Ardnabie. The Frasers of Guisachan and Culbokie were descended from a younger brother of the 10th Chief of the Frasers of Lovat.

Simon's father came with his regiment to North America in 1773 and died in prison after being captured during the Battle of Bennington (1777). After the war ended, Simon's mother was assisted by her brother-in-law, Captain John Fraser, who had been appointed Chief Justice of the Montreal district.

Fur trade
At the age of 14, Fraser moved to Montreal for additional schooling, where two of his uncles were active in the fur trade, in which his kinsman, Simon McTavish, was the undisputed leading figure. In 1790, he was apprenticed to the North West Company.

Exploration west of the Rockies
In 1789, the North West Company had commissioned Alexander Mackenzie to find a navigable river route to the Pacific Ocean. The route he discovered in 1793 — ascending the West Road River and descending the Bella Coola River — opened up new sources of fur but proved to be too difficult to be practicable as a trading route to the Pacific. Fraser was given responsibility for extending operations to the country west of the Rockies in 1805. Mackenzie's expeditions had been primarily reconnaissance trips, while Fraser's assignment, by contrast, reflected a definite decision to build trading posts and take possession of the country, as well as to explore travel routes.

Ascending the Peace River and establishing posts
In the autumn of 1805, Fraser began ascending the Peace River, establishing the trading post of Rocky Mountain Portage House (present-day Hudson's Hope) just east of the Peace River Canyon of the Rocky Mountains. That winter Fraser and his crew pushed through the mountains and ascended the Parsnip and Pack Rivers, establishing Trout Lake Fort (later renamed Fort McLeod) at present-day McLeod Lake. This was the first permanent European settlement west of the Rockies in present-day Canada. The name given by Fraser to this territory was New Caledonia, in honor of his ancestral homeland of Scotland. Further explorations by Fraser's assistant James McDougall resulted in the discovery of Carrier Lake, now known as Stuart Lake. In the heart of territory inhabited by the aboriginal Carrier or Dakelh nation, this area proved to be a lucrative locale for fur trading, so a post — Fort St. James — was built on its shore in 1806. From here, Fraser sent another assistant John Stuart west to Fraser Lake. Later the two men would build another post there which is now known as Fort Fraser. Fraser later sent the expedition's logbook keeper,  Jules-Maurice Quesnel, up the river at the forks to see what was there and ended up naming the river after him aka the Quesnel River and lake.

Delays and the founding of Fort George (Prince George)
Fraser had found out from the Indigenous people that the Fraser River, the route by which Mackenzie had ascended the West Road River, could be reached by descending the Stuart River, which drained Stuart Lake, and then descending the Nechako River to its confluence with the Fraser. It had been Fraser's plan to navigate the length of the river which now bears his name. Fraser and others believed that this was, in fact, the Columbia River, the mouth of which had been explored in 1792 by Robert Gray.

Unfortunately, Fraser's plan to begin the journey in 1806 had to be abandoned due to a lack of men and supplies as well as the occurrence of local famine. Fraser would not be resupplied until the autumn of 1807, meaning that his journey could not be undertaken until the following spring. In the interval, Fraser contented himself with a journey to the confluence of the Nechako and Fraser Rivers. There he established a new post named Fort George (now known as Prince George), which would become the starting point for his trip downstream.

Descending the Fraser River
From the outset, the aboriginal inhabitants warned Fraser that the river below was nearly impassable. A party of twenty-four left Fort George in four canoes on May 28, 1808. They passed the West Road River where Mackenzie had turned west and on the first of June ran the rapids of the Cottonwood Canyon where a canoe became stranded and had to be pulled out of the canyon with a rope.  They procured horses from the Indigenous peoples to help with the portages, but the carrying-places were scarcely safer than the rapids. They passed the mouth of the Chilcotin River on the 5th and entered a rapid couvert where the river was completely enclosed by cliffs. The next day the river was found to be completely impassable. The canoes and superfluous goods were cached and on the 11th the party set out on foot, each man carrying about 80 pounds. On the 14th they reached a large village, possibly near Lillooet where they were able to trade for two canoes. On the 19th they reached a village at the mouth of the Thompson River, where they obtained canoes for the rest of the party. After more rapids and portages, and losing one canoe but no men, they reached North Bend where they again had to abandon their canoes. In places, they used an aboriginal path made by poles set on the side of the gorge (probably somewhere near Hells Gate). On the 28th they left the Fraser Canyon near Yale where the river becomes navigable. Escorted by friendly Indigenous people and well-fed on salmon, they reached the sea on the second of July. Fraser took the latitude as 49°. Since he knew that the mouth of the Columbia was at 46° it was clear that the river he was following was not the Columbia.

Fraser proved adept at establishing friendly relations with the tribes he met, being careful to have them send word to tribes downstream of his impending arrival and good intentions. For the most part, this tactic was effective, but Fraser encountered a hostile reception by the Musqueam people as he approached the lower reaches of the river at present-day Vancouver. Their hostile pursuit of Fraser and his men meant that he was unable to get more than a glimpse of the Strait of Georgia on July 2, 1808. A dispute with the neighboring Kwantlen people led to a pursuit of Fraser and his men that was only broken off near present-day Hope.

Returning to Fort George proved to be an even more perilous exercise, as the hostility Fraser and his crew encountered from the aboriginal communities near the mouth of the river spread upstream. The ongoing hostility and threats to the lives of the Europeans resulted in a near mutiny by Fraser's crew, who wanted to escape overland. Quelling the revolt, Fraser and his men continued north upstream from present-day Yale, arriving in Fort George on August 6, 1808. The journey upstream took thirty-seven days. In total it took Fraser and his crew  months to travel from Fort George to Musqueam and back.

Fraser and the Battle of Seven Oaks
Fraser was just thirty-two years old when he completed the establishment of a permanent European settlement in New Caledonia through the epic journey to the mouth of the river that would one day bear his name. He would go on to spend another eleven years actively engaged in the North West Company's fur trade, and was reassigned to the Athabasca Department, where he remained until 1814. For much of this time, he was in charge of the Mackenzie River District. After this, he was assigned to the Red River Valley area, where he was caught up in the conflict between the North West Company and Thomas Douglas, Lord Selkirk, a controlling shareholder of the Hudson's Bay Company who had established the Red River Colony. The conflict culminated in the Battle of Seven Oaks in June 1816, resulting in the death of the colony's governor, Robert Semple, and nineteen others. Though not involved in the attack, Fraser
was one of the partners arrested by Lord Selkirk at Fort William. He was taken in September to Montreal where he was promptly released on bail. Fraser was back at Fort William in 1817 when the North West Company regained possession of the post, but this was evidently his last appearance in the fur trade. The following year, Fraser and five other partners were acquitted of all charges related to the incident in the dead colony.

Later life
Fraser settled on land near present-day Cornwall, Ontario, and married Catherine McDonnell on June 2, 1820. He spent the remainder of his life pursuing various enterprises, none with much success. He served as captain of the 1st Regiment of the Stormont Militia during the Rebellions of 1837.  According to historian Alexander Begg, Fraser "was offered a knighthood but declined the title due to his limited wealth."

He had nine children altogether; one died in infancy. Fraser was one of the last surviving partners of the North West Company when he died on August 18, 1862. His wife died the next day, and they were buried in a single grave in the Roman Catholic cemetery at St. Andrew's West.  Begg quotes Sandford Fleming in an address to the Royal Society of Canada in 1889 as saying that Fraser died poor.

An account of Fraser's explorations can be found in his published journals: W. Kaye Lamb, The Letters and Journals of Simon Fraser, 1806-1808. Toronto, The MacMillan Company of Canada Limited, 1960.

List of British Columbia communities founded by Fraser
Hudson's Hope – (1805)
McLeod Lake – (1805)
Fort St. James – (1806)
Fort Fraser – (1806)
Prince George – (1807)

List of place names, institutions and other named for Fraser

The Fraser River, named for him by the explorer David Thompson.
Fraser Lake, a lake in north-central British Columbia.
Fort Fraser, just east of Fraser Lake.
Simon Fraser University, in Burnaby, British Columbia
Simon Fraser Elementary School in Vancouver, British Columbia
The Simon Fraser Bridge in Prince George over the Fraser River
 The Simon Fraser Rose, (explorer series) developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honor.
 Fraser Squadron, Royal Military College of Canada
 CCGS Simon Fraser, a former Canadian Coast Guard vessel

References

External links

Simon Fraser, Canadian Explorer
Biography at Discover Vancouver
Ontario Plaques - Simon Fraser

1776 births
1862 deaths
19th-century explorers
Canadian fur traders
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Explorers of British Columbia
Explorers of Canada
Fraser River
North West Company people
People from Bennington County, Vermont
People from Hoosick, New York
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Pre-Confederation British Columbia people

Simon Fraser (explorer)


The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived Before Achilles is a children's book. It was written by Padraic Colum. Willy Pogany drew the pictures. This book uses English words to tell a lot of stories that were told in the Greek language before. The stories are very old. This book was published in 1921. In 1922, it was made a Newbery Medal Honor Book.

Story
This book tells about a young man named Jason who went on an adventure far away from home. He was looking for the Golden Fleece. He took fifty friends with him. His friends were the strongest and bravest people in the world. They were called the Argonauts, because they sailed in a ship called Argo. One of his friends, Orpheus, was the best singer and music maker in the world. In this book, while Jason and his friends look for the Golden Fleece, Orpheus tells them a lot of other stories about places they go and people they meet. Of all the stories in the book, the ones that are not the main story about Jason go in this order:
 Jason's mother tells Jason and his fifty friends the story of the Golden Fleece.
 Orpheus tells the Argonauts how the world began.
 The Argonauts land on an island where only women live. Orpheus tells the women the story of the goddess Demeter and how she lost her daughter Persephone. This story explains why winter happens.
 Atalanta, who is one of the Argonauts, tells a story about how another girl named Atalanta was tricked into losing a race.
 Castor and Pollux tell the story of Pandora, Epimetheus, and Pandora's box. This story explains why bad things happen.
 The Argonauts pass the mountain where Prometheus is chained up. Orpheus tells how Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to human beings. This story teaches people not to want things they should not have.
 Orpheus tells the story of how Perseus killed Medusa. Medusa was a kind of monster called a Gorgon. Her hair was made of snakes. She looked so scary that anyone who looked at her was turned into stone.

After Jason gets the Golden Fleece, he hears that if he goes home right away his wicked uncle will kill him. So he and his fifty friends go and have other adventures instead. These are those adventures:
 They hunt the Calydonian boar, and Atalanta falls in love, but the man she loves is killed before they can get married.
 One of the Argonauts, Peleus, marries a sea nymph. He has a son, Achilles.
 Theseus, who is another one of the Argonauts, kills a monster called the Minotaur.
 Hercules is also one of the Argonauts. He does his well-known labors, which are hard jobs. Hercules also hears a funny story about frogs and mice fighting a big battle.
 Orpheus gets married, but his wife dies. Orpheus goes down to the place where dead people stay. He tries to bring his wife back. He does not get her back.

Finally it is safe for Jason to go back home. He goes home and lives happily ever after, and teaches younger people to have adventures.

References

Other websites
 The Golden Fleece and the Heroes Who Lived Before Achilles at Project Gutenberg

Children's books
Newbery Honor books
1921 books
Irish literature


Keith Walker (born May 15, 1978) is an American professional wrestler who competes in North American and international promotions including Ring of Honor, Harley Race's World League Wrestling and Pro Wrestling Noah.

In November 2006, he signed a World Wrestling Entertainment developmental contract and assigned to Deep South Wrestling and Florida Championship Wrestling before being released from his contract the next year. Since then, he and Rasche Brown have been competing as the SkullKrushers, and currently hold the record for the longest reign as NWA World Tag Team Champions.

Professional wrestling career

Early life and career (2003–2005)
Born and raised in Chicago, Walker was a wrestling fan as a child and whose favorite wrestlers included Hulk Hogan, Ric Flair and The Road Warriors (Hawk and Animal). He also often went to events at the Rosemont Horizon. Attending North Park University, Walker graduated with a Bachelor of Science and a degree in exercise physiology as well as having an athletic career competing in college football, baseball and wrestling. He also competed in amateur bodybuilding during college, winning second place in the 2002 and 2003 Mr. Illinois competition.

In 2003, he began training to become a professional wrestler. His trainer Eric Priest was himself trained by independent wrestlers Danny Dominion and Ace Steel. Prior to his debut, he had a brief stint with the National Indoor Football League playing for the Myrtle Beach Stingrays. Following his debut, Walker wrestled throughout the United States both under his real name and as Mike Venom, winning numerous championship titles on the independent circuit as well as facing his boyhood idols The Road Warriors in several tag team matches.

World League Wrestling (2005–2006)
Walker joined World League Wrestling soon after his debut and took part in the Harley Race–Pro Wrestling Noah training camp during 2005 and 2006. On September 24, 2005, Walker scored one of his first major victories defeating Kenny Omega, later aired by Pro Wrestling Noah on Japanese television, and feuded with WLW Heavyweight Champion "Wild" Wade Chism. At the end of the year, he lost to Chism in a three-way mach with Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake on December 10, 2005. The following month, the title was held up, in part to interference by the villainous referee Trevor Murdoch, during a match between the two in Eldon, Missouri on January 28, 2006. On February 24, Walker lost a 3-way dance when Jason Bates was pinned by Chism in St. Joseph. The next night however, Walker was pinned by Bates in a second 3-way dance with Chism to win the title.

Walker also toured Japan with Pro Wrestling Noah in April. A month later, with manager Johnny Gold, he defeated Wade Chism for the WLW Heavyweight Championship in St. Joseph on May 13 although he lost it to Chism two days later. In mid-June, he teamed with Shane Hagadorn against The Irish Airborne (Jake and David Crist) and defeated Bobby Dempsey and C.J. Otis in a three-way match in back-to-back appearances for Ring of Honor.

On November 2, Walker was signed to a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment and left the promotion. He did, however, continue to make appearances with other independent promotions during the next week. On November 4, he lost to Tyler Black at a show for AAW in Berwyn, Illinois and, less than a week later, he and Egotistico Fantastico defeated Matt Longtime and Mickey McCoy at a Brew City Wrestling card.

World Wrestling Entertainment

Deep South Wrestling (2006–2007)
A month after signing with WWE, Walker was assigned to its developmental territory Deep South Wrestling. On December 21, he made his debut losing to Jake Hager in a dark match. Early the next year, he wrestled as Keith Samson Walker against Kofi Nahaje Kingston and, the next week, under the name Keith Samson when he defeated Robert Anthony in a dark match on January 11, 2007. He would alternately use both names during his time with DSW and teamed with Johnny Curtis losing to The Major Brothers and Henry Godwinn and Ray Gordy. On March 1, he defeated Ray Gordy and, with Frankie Coverdale, lost a tag team match to Robert Anthony and Johnny Curtis later that night in what turned out to be his last appearance with the promotion.

Florida Championship Wrestling (2007)
Two months later, he was assigned to another WWE developmental territory, Florida Championship Wrestling, making his debut in a tag team match with Rycklon Stephens to defeat Eric Perez and Kofi Nahaje Kingston on June 26, 2007. They also defeated Team Elite (Mike Knox and Derrick Neikirk) that same week.

On August 4, he and Heath Miller lost to Jake Hager and Ted DiBiase, Jr. The next month, he defeated Hager and Neikirk in a three-way match on September 2. On September 15, he and Shawn Osborne lost to Egotistico Fantastico and Johnny Curtis. After another defeat by Ted DiBiase, Jr. on October 2, Walker was released from his WWE contract due to a "lack of progress".

Return to WLW (2007)
On October 27, Walker made his return to World League Wrestling defeating Derek McQuinn for the WLW Heavyweight title in Waterloo, Iowa. On November 9, Walker also defeated Dinn T. More for the AWA-Brew City Wrestling Heavyweight Championship. The next night at the NWA Pro Wrestling Summit in Hammond, Indiana, Walker lost to Misterioso. On November 24, he lost to AAW Heavyweight Champion Jerry Lynn at an All American Wrestling event. He also teamed with Dan Lawrence to defeat Derek St. Holmes, Kris Hybrid and Bonebreaker Brooks on December 15, 2007.

National Wrestling Alliance and AWA Superstars of Wrestling / Wrestling Superstars Live (2008–2010)
At an event for Brew City Wrestling, he and Skullkrusher fought to a double-countout on January 12, 2008. He lost the WLW Heavyweight title a little over three months later to "The Masterpiece" Chris Masters on February 9 in Fordland, Missouri. On March 29, Walker lost to reigning AWA Superstars of Wrestling United States Championship Ricky Landell in an "MMA vs. Wrestling" match to crown the first WSL Fighting World Champion. Following this match, the United States title was abandoned. He later teamed up with Rasche Brown, formerly known as Skullkrusher, to form the Skullkrushers. On October 4, the Skullkrushers defeated Los Luchas to win the NWA World Tag Team Championship. Walker again defeated Landell on February 21, 2009, in Michigan City, Indiana to win the Wrestling Superstars Live World Heavyweight Championship. On November 20, 2010, Walker and Brown lost the NWA World Tag Team Championship to The Dark City Fight Club (Kory Chavis and Jon Davis), ending their reign at 778 days.

Pro Wrestling Noah (2010)
On April 14, 2010, the team of Keith Walker and Bison Smith defeated Takeshi Rikio and Muhammad Yone to become the GHC Tag Team Champions in Osaka. On August 31, however, Walker's father died. He later chose not to immediately return to Japan, and on September 10 he and Bison Smith were stripped of the GHC Tag Team Championship.

Championships and accomplishments
All American Wrestling
AAW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Brew City Wrestling
BCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
BCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Rasche Brown

Mid American Wrestling
MAW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)

Midwwestern States Pro Wrestling
MSPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

National Wrestling Alliance
NWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Rasche Brown

Pro Wrestling Epic
PWE Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him #241 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2011
Pro Wrestling Noah
GHC Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Bison Smith
World League Wrestling
WLW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)

Wrestling Superstars Live
WSL Fighting World Championship (1 time)
WSL World Heavyweight Championship (1 time, final)

World Wrestling Zone
WWZ Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Buddha

References

External links
Profile at Online World of Wrestling
CageMatch.de - Keith Walker

1978 births
21st-century professional wrestlers
American male professional wrestlers
Living people
Professional wrestlers from Illinois
Sportspeople from Chicago
GHC Tag Team Champions
NWA World Tag Team Champions
AAW Heavyweight Champions

Keith Walker (wrestler)


Senna obtusifolia (Chinese Senna nai to Sicklepod)  ek rakam ke bean hae.  Ii  North, Central, aur South America, Asia, Africa, aur Oceania ke jangle me hoe hae, au iske dher jagha pe weed maana jaawe hae. Its leaves, seeds, and root are used in folk medicine, primarily in Asia. It is believed to possess a laxative effect, as well as to be beneficial for the eyes. As a folk remedy, the seeds are often roasted, then boiled in water to produce a tea. The plant's seeds are a commercial source of cassia gum, a food additive usually used as a thickener and named for the Chinese Senna's former placement in the genus Cassia. Roasted and ground, the seeds have also been used as a substitute for coffee. In traditional Korean medicine, they are called gyeolmyeongja (결명자) and usually prepared as tea. They are also used in Kampō (traditional Japanese medicine) where they are called ketsumei-shi (ケツメイシ, 決明子) or by their Chinese name jué míng zǐ (traditional: 決明子, simplified: 决明子).

Bahaari jorr
 Our Monsoon Plants

Fiji ke perr

Chakorr


Incense is a fuel that is burned to make a smell. It can be used for many purposes, for example, during rituals in some religions. Incense can be used to make a place smell better or to help improve mood.

In Judaism, instructions for the use of incense were given in Exodus. (E.g. Exodus 30:1). In Christianity, Christ is given myrrh and frankincense by the wise men. (Gospel of Matthew 2:11)

Incense is also used in Hindu rituals.

Other websites
 Incense in Catholicism

Religious objects
Magic (paranormal)
Perfumery

Incense


The Treaty of Yandabo ( ) was the peace treaty that ended the First Anglo-Burmese War. The treaty was signed on 24February 1826, nearly two years after the war formally broke out on 5March 1824, by General Sir Archibald Campbell on the British side, and the Governor of Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin from the Burmese side, without any due permission and  consent of the Ahom kingdom, Kachari kingdom or the other territories covered in the treaty. With the British army at Yandabo village, only  from the capital Ava, the Burmese were forced to accept the British terms without discussion.

According to the treaty, the Burmese agreed to:
 Cede to the British- Assam, Manipur, Rakhine (Arakan), and the Taninthayi (Tenasserim) coast south of the Salween River.
 Cease all interference in Cachar region of Assam and the Jaintia Hills district.
 Pay an indemnity of one million pounds sterling in four installments.
 Allow an exchange of diplomatic representatives between Ava and Calcutta.
 Sign a commercial treaty in due course.

The treaty ended the longest and most expensive war in British Indian history. Fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown (but almost certainly higher) number of Burmese. The campaign cost the British five million pounds sterling (roughly 18.5 billion in 2006 dollars) to 13 million pounds sterling; this expenditure led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833.

For the Burmese, it was to be the beginning of the end of their independence. The Third Burmese Empire, briefly the terror of British India, was effectively undone, crippled and no longer a threat to the eastern frontier of British India. The Burmese would be crushed for years to come by repaying the huge indemnity of one million pounds (then US$5 million), a large sum even in Europe at that time. The British would wage two more wars against the much weaker Burmese, and swallow up the entire country by 1885.

Initial negotiations
The British were already in a commanding position when initial peace negotiations were commenced in September 1825 in Ngagyaungbinzeik, 20 miles north of Pyay (Prome). After their victory at the Battle of Danubyu in April 1825 that killed Burmese commander-in-chief Gen. Maha Bandula, the British consolidated their gains in Lower Burma, Rakhine and Taninthayi coasts as well as in Assam and Manipur. The British demanded that the Burmese recognize independence and "desist from interference with Assam, Manipur and Cachar", "cede Rakhine and its dependencies", receive a British Resident at the Court of Ava, and pay an indemnity of two million pounds sterling. Yangon, and Taninthayi would be held until the indemnity was paid.

The Court of Ava had not expected, and were unwilling to accept, the full dismemberment of their western empire and the crushing penalty demanded. But with the army severely depleted, the Burmese envoy, the lord of Kawlin, replied that his government:
 Would give up any claim to Assam and Manipur
 Objected to the British choice for the future Manipuri raja
 Would cede the Taninthayi coast but not Rakhine.

The British were unimpressed: "The question is not how much you will cede to us but how much we shall return to you".

Breakdown of negotiations
The negotiations broke down, and the Burmese decided to fight on. In November 1825, the Burmese forces under Maha Ne Myo, mainly consisting of several Shan regiments led by their own Shan sawbwas, made a daring push to recapture Pyay and nearly succeeded. But by early December, the superior firepower of the British had won out and defeated the last-ditch effort by the Burmese.

By the beginning of 1826, the British were making steady advances towards Ava. They captured the ancient city of Pagan on 8 February, and on 16 February, the village of Yandabo, less than 50 miles or four days march away from Ava.

Signing
Left with little choice, the Burmese sued for peace. The Burmese king Bagyidaw sent a delegation, consisting of one American, one English and two Burmese ministers, to meet the commander of British forces, General Sir Archibald Campbell. Final negotiations were not negotiations at all. The Burmese had to agree to all British demands.

The British demanded and the Burmese agreed to:
 Cede to the British Assam, Manipur, Tripura,  Rakhine (Arakan), and Taninthayi (Tenasserim) coast south of Salween river,
 Cease all interference in Cachar and Jaintia,
 Pay an indemnity of one million pounds sterling in four installments,
 Allow for an exchange of diplomatic representatives between Ava and Calcutta,
 Sign a commercial treaty in due course.

The first installment of indemnity was to be paid immediately, the second installment within the first 100 days from signing of the treaty, and the rest within two years. Until the second installment was paid, the British would not leave Yangon.

The Treaty of Yandabo was signed by Gen. Campbell from the British side and Governor of Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin from the Burmese side on 24 February 1826. The Burmese paid 250,000 pounds sterling in gold and silver bullion as the first installment of the indemnity, and also released British prisoners of war.

Aftermath
The treaty imposed a severe financial burden to the Burmese kingdom, and effectively left it crippled. The British terms in the negotiations were strongly influenced by the heavy cost in lives and money which the war had entailed. Some 40,000 British and Indians troops had been involved of whom 15,000 had been killed. The cost to British India's finances had been almost ruinous, amounting to approximately 13 million pounds sterling. The cost of war contributed to a severe economic crisis in India, which by 1833 had bankrupted the Bengal agency houses and cost the British East India Company its remaining privileges, including the monopoly of trade to China.

Territories like Assam became a part of British India. For the Burmese, the treaty was a total humiliation and a long lasting financial burden. A whole generation of men had been wiped out in battle. The world the Burmese knew, of conquest and martial pride, built on the back of impressive military success of the previous 75 years, had come crashing down. The Court of Ava could not come to terms with the loss of the territories, and made unsuccessful attempts to get them back. An invited British Resident in Ava was a daily reminder of humiliation of defeat.

More importantly, the burden of indemnity would leave the royal treasury bankrupt for years. The indemnity of one million pounds sterling would have been considered a colossal sum even in Europe of that time, and it became frightening when translated to Burmese kyat equivalent of 10 million. The cost of living of the average villager in Upper Burma in 1826 was one kyat per month.

The treaty achieved its objective: Leave Burma crippled. Indeed, the British would make two more, much easier, wars against the now much weaker Burmese in 1852 and 1885, eventually annexing the entire country by 1885.

References

External links
Treaty of Yandabo

History of Myanmar
Treaties of Myanmar
Peace treaties of the United Kingdom
1826 treaties
British rule in Burma
First Anglo-Burmese War
History of Assam
Treaties of the British East India Company
1826 in Burma
1826 in the United Kingdom
Myanmar–United Kingdom relations
1826 in British law
February 1826 events

Treaty of Yandabo


Patrick Giles (1899 – 13 March 1965) was an Irish Fine Gael politician. He was born in 1899 on a family farm outside Longwood village in County Meath.

During the Irish War of Independence he was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), and was captain of the local Longwood Company. In 1920 he and some of his brothers took part in a raid on the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) Barracks in Trim, which was burnt to the ground. The aim of the raid was to supply arms to local volunteers. After the raid the arms were dispersed to different sites, one of which was the Giles family farm. During a raid by the Crown forces, his name was found on a note linking him to the storing of these arms and he was sent to prison in Perth, Scotland for three years, but he got out after one year shortly before the Anglo-Irish Truce. In the split that followed after the Anglo-Irish Treaty, he, like most of the IRA in County Meath took the Pro-treaty side. Later he served in the National Army and achieved the rank of captain.

In 1934 he was elected to Meath County Council. In 1935, Giles was elected to the Executive Committee of the League of Youth, one of the many names of Eoin O'Duffy's fascistic Blueshirts.

At the 1937 general election he was elected as a Teachta Dála (TD) for Fine Gael representing the Meath–Westmeath. By this time he had acquired a farm in Drumlargan near Summerhill, County Meath. He held his seat in subsequent elections until the constituency was abolished prior to the 1948 general election. At the 1948 general election he was elected for the re-established Meath constituency. He held his seat up to the 1961 general election in which he was unable to run due to deteriorating health. He died on 13 March 1965.

Anti-semitic quotes
"Who owns the wealth of Dublin? Is it the Irish volunteers or the Irish people? No, it is not, but the rotten old Jews." - Dáil Éireann, 1 December 1937.

" I think it is a terrible thing that we, who call ourselves a Christian people, should stand idly by and allow the Jews, the Gentiles, the Freemasons and Communists to dictate the policy of the world. We stand for Christianity. We stand for it against the Jews, the Gentiles, the Reds and the Freemasons of the world."  - Dáil Éireann, 13 July 1938.

"To-day Minister for Defence Frank Aiken ] is nothing more than Britain's tool for the coming European war, engineered by the financiers and Jews of the world." -  Dáil Éireann, 16 February 1939.

"..the finance of the country is in the hands of Jews and foreigners" -  Dáil Éireann, 10 May 1940.

References

Sources
Politics and War in Meath 1913–1923, Oliver Coogan.

1899 births
1965 deaths
Antisemitism in Ireland
Fine Gael TDs
Irish anti-communists
Members of the 9th Dáil
Members of the 10th Dáil
Members of the 11th Dáil
Members of the 12th Dáil
Members of the 13th Dáil
Members of the 14th Dáil
Members of the 15th Dáil
Members of the 16th Dáil
Members of the Blueshirts
Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood
Politicians from County Meath
National Army (Ireland) officers

Patrick Giles


The National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain (NYO) is an orchestra for young musicians in the United Kingdom.  The members of the orchestra are all aged between 13 and 19 years.  It is a very large orchestra with about 150 players. Children who want to play in the National Youth Orchestra have to be able to play their instrument very well.  They need to be at least Grade 8 Distinction standard and they need to be very good at sightreading so that they can learn very quickly.  They have to pass an audition to get a place in the orchestra.  These auditions take place in the autumn in several towns in Britain.

The National Youth Orchestra was started in 1947 by Ruth Railton (later Dame Ruth King).  The current director is Sarah Alexander.

The orchestra meet three times a year during the school holidays at New Year, Easter and Summer for about two weeks.  They rehearse very hard together and then give one or two concerts in famous concert halls in Britain such as Barbican Hall in London, Symphony Hall in Birmingham, Bridgewater Hall in Manchester, St David's Hall in Cardiff and Glasgow Royal Concert Hall in Glasgow.  Every year they play in a Promenade Concert in the Royal Albert Hall.  In 2007 they played the Leningrad Symphony by Shostakovich at the Proms.  In June that year they played at the Glastonbury Festival.  The trumpeters and drummers  woke people up with Aaron Copland's Fanfare for the Common Man  In April 2008 the NYO played Stravinsky's Rite of Spring in Birmingham Symphony Hall, and in August they will play at the Snape Maltings and at the BBC Proms conducted by Antonio Pappano with the pianist Boris Berezovsky as soloist.

The concerts are always conducted by famous conductors.  Usually the famous conductor will come to rehearse the orchestra for the last few days of the course.

During their courses they also have time to play chamber music together.  They are taught by teachers who are famous musicians.  Some of them are young composers who are learning to compose music.  They are taught by the composer Paul Patterson. The musicians also have time to explore music from other cultures.

The NYO also has Open Days for slightly younger children to explore music.

Other websites
 National Youth Orchestra Official website

Youth orchestras


Clinical psychology is the study in psychology of mental disorders. It is about learning, understanding, diagnosing, treating or preventing these types of illnesses. Clinical psychologists examine the mental functioning of a person and use psychotherapy to treat the disorder. Psychotherapy uses talking instead of medical or physical treatments.

The first psychological clinic opened in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer.In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology mainly was about psychological assessment, and not treatment. After World War II, there was a big increase in the numbers of trained clinical psychologists. There are two main educational models - the Ph.D. scientist-practitioner model which looks at research, and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model which looks at the treatments. Clinical psychologists are now regarded as experts in psychotherapy.

Four main schools
Clinical psychologists generally train in one of the four primary academic areas – psychodynamic, humanistic, behavior therapy/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.

Psychodynamic
Sigmund Freud's ideas led to the development of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Its goal is to help the patient, or client, to understand the meaning of the unconscious desires and conflicts that have caused their problems.

Humanistic
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviourism (the belief that conditioning is the main cause of human behavior) and psychoanalysis (the belief that the unconscious is the main cause of human behavior).
The major principles of humanistic psychology are:
 A person's present is more important than his past or future
 People must take responsibility for their actions to be mentally healthy
 Every person deserves basic human dignity
 Self-improvement and self-understanding is the key to happiness.

References

Branches of psychology

Clinical psychology


Carlos Roberto Reina Idiáquez (13 March 1926 – 19 August 2003) was a Honduran politician, lawyer and diplomat who served as the President of Honduras from 1994 to 1998. He was a member of the Honduran Liberal Party.

Background
He was born in the city of Comayagüela, Honduras. His wife, Bessie Watson, was an American citizen with whom he had two daughters. He completed university studies in the National Autonomous University of Honduras where he earned a bachelor's degree in Juridical and Social Sciences. Later, Reina continued his postgraduate studies in the and
cities of London and Paris.

Political career
Throughout his long political career Reina held a number of political governmental and international jobs, including judge in the court of Tegucigalpa, peace member of the international court of The Hague, Ambassador of Honduras to France, and president of the Central Executive Council (CCE) of the Liberal Party, among other important positions.

Reina was arrested several times for his political activities in opposition to the military governments during his younger years. The first time was in 1944 for protesting against dictator Tiburcio Carías. Later in the 1960s he was sent to prison twice by General Oswaldo López, who had taken over the Honduran government through the use of military force. This led Reina to become a fierce defender of human rights throughout the rest of his life. In 1979, he was nominated president of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of the Organization of American States.

President (1994–1998)
Carlos Reina became president in November 1993, with the Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH, Partido Liberal de Honduras), after defeating Oswaldo Ramos, the candidate of the National Party of Honduras with 56% of the vote. He was accompanied by his vice presidential candidate: retired General Walter López, the politician Juan de la Cruz Avelar and the lady Guadalupe Jerezano Mejía.

On 27 January 1994, Reina replaced president Rafael Leonardo Callejas. Reina inherited a relatively difficult economic situation from the existing nationalist administration. Foreign debt weighed heavily on the economy of the country: debt service represented 40% of Honduran exports. Even though approximately 700 million dollars were condoned to Honduras, the debt 'was' still higher than that it had been at the beginnings of 1990.

In his first presidential speech Reina launched his moral revolution: " I pledge my word of honor before God, before the people and before history, that we will go forward in this enterprise that we have imposed upon ourselves. We will defeat corruption; we will give currency to social liberalism. We will see the moral revolution to its end." The issue of whether his plan was a success or a failure is still highly controversial.

One of Carlos Roberto Reina's main objectives during his government was the reform of the Armed Forces. His reforms were mostly realized by the end of his first year in office. The first one was the total transfer of all power in hands of military men to civilian authorities, followed by the abolition of compulsory military service in the country. These and other reforms to the military are also controversial to the ruling elites, they believed it fomented gangs, by eliminating a source of employment and education for young men.

In July 1996, Reina was awarded the Order of Brilliant Jade by Lee Teng-hui, President of the Republic of China.

Post-presidency and death
Carlos Roberto Reina finished his presidency on 27 January 1998. Later, in October 1998, Reina began his period as president of the Central American Parliament (Parlacén), where he remained until 28 October 1999. Finally on 19 August 2003, Carlos Roberto Reina killed himself with a gunshot at the age of 77. His brother revealed that Reina was suffering from health issues relating to the gallbladder and pancreas.

See also

 History of Honduras

References

External links
 Biography at CIDOB Foundation (Spanish)
 Posas, Mario.(1994),'Reina: "No prometo ríos de leche y miel."' www.envio.org
 Fernandez Gomez, Cristina. (1997), 'Flores, del Partido Liberal, triunfa en los comicios hondureños.' www.elmundo.es

1926 births
2003 suicides
Ambassadors of Honduras to France
Politicians who died by suicide
Presidents of Honduras
Suicides by firearm in Honduras
Liberal Party of Honduras politicians
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras alumni
Inter-American Court of Human Rights judges
Honduran judges
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Honduran judges of international courts and tribunals
Grand Crosses with Diamonds of the Order of the Sun of Peru
People from Francisco Morazán Department
2003 deaths
Presidents of Central American Parliament

Carlos Roberto Reina


Federalism is a political philosophy in which a group of people are bound together, with a governing head. In a federation, the authority is divided between the head (for example the national government of a country) and the political units governed by it (for example the states or provinces of the country).

Several countries in the world have a federal government; examples are United States of America, Canada, Nigeria, Australia, India, Brazil, Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The European Union can be called a sort of federal government as well.

In the United States Constitution for example, the federal government and state governments both have power. When states and the federal government do not agree on something, the federal government can sue the state in court using the Supremacy Clause in Article VI of the Constitution. This case can go as far as the Supreme Court to decide which side is right. The federal government does not always do this. It has taken no action when several states made marijuana legal or when prostitution was made legal in parts of Nevada. It has sued over an immigration law in Arizona.

References

Federalism


Blockbusters was a game show that aired from 1980 to 1987.

How to play
One team of two people plays against a solo person to see if two heads are better than one.  The team is represented by the color white while the solo player is represented by the color red. There is a game board with letters inside spaces shaped like a hexagon.  A player picks a letter on the board, and host Bill Cullen asks a question to see how much the players know.  Whoever rings in first and gets the answer right gets their color put on the board in the space where the corresponding letter once was.  If the team makes a connection from left to right, they win.  If the solo player makes a connection from top to bottom, he/she wins.

Gold Rush
Whoever wins after two games goes on to play the "Gold Rush" for a shot at an extra $5,000.  The board is the same, except that the spaces are colored gold, and sometimes more than one letter is seen in each space.  The object of the game is to make a connection across the board within the 60 second time limit.  If they do, they win the $5,000.  If they miss a question, a block will go up and they will have to work their way around it.

Different versions
Blockbusters aired on the NBC network and was hosted by Bill Cullen from 1980 to 1982.  Then in 1987, comedian Bill Rafferty hosted a new version, which ended the same year. It featured two solo players instead of a team of two people and a solo player.

Television game shows
NBC network shows
English-language television programs

Blockbusters


A ham hock (or hough) or pork knuckle is the joint between the tibia/fibula and the metatarsals of the foot of a pig, where the foot was attached to the hog's leg. It is the portion of the leg that is neither part of the ham proper nor the ankle or foot (trotter), but rather the extreme shank end of the leg bone.

Uses
Since this piece generally consists of much skin, tendons and ligaments, it requires long cooking through stewing or braising to be made palatable. The cut of meat can be cooked with greens and other vegetables or in flavorful sauces. It is often added to soups, such as pea and ham soup, with the meat being added to the soup prior to serving. It can also be added to savoury pies. The meat of particularly meaty hocks may be removed and served as is. Ham hocks, like hog jowls (pigs' cheeks), add a distinctive flavor to various dishes. This is particularly true for collard greens, mustard greens, cabbage, green beans and navy beans.

Ham hocks are essential ingredients for the distinct flavor in soul food and other forms of American Southern country cooking. In the Appalachian mountains, it is common to add ham hocks along with chopped onion and spices to pots of pinto beans to make the meal more hearty. In the Mid-Atlantic States, in rural regions settled by the Pennsylvania Dutch, hocks are a commonly used ingredient for making a kind of meat loaf called scrapple. Eisbein is the name of the joint in north German, and at the same time the name of a dish of roasted ham hock, called Schweinshaxe in Bavaria, Stelze in Austria and Wädli in Switzerland. The dish is very popular in Poland, using this cut. The dish is also popular in the Czech Republic, where it is most popular in Ostrava, close to the Polish border. It is the most popular dish in Polish-Czech Silesia, where it is served in a soup made from sauerkraut called Golonka (Czech: Vepřové koleno). Ham hocks are also popular when boiled with escarole, more commonly called endives, in Italian-American cuisine. Fläsklägg med rotmos is a Swedish dish consisting of cured ham hocks and a mash of rutabaga and potatoes, served with sweet mustard. In Canada, and particularly Montreal, ham hocks are referred to as "pigs' knuckles" and are served in bistros and taverns with baked beans. In northern Italy ham hocks are referred to as stinco, and is often served roast whole with sauerkraut.

Gallery

See also

References

External links

Cuisine of the Southern United States
Soul food
Cuts of pork
German cuisine
Czech cuisine
Polish cuisine
Swedish cuisine
Ham
Chinese cuisine
Smoked meat

Ham hock


YDA may refer to:

 IATA code for Dawson City Airport in the Yukon.
 Yale Debate Association
 Young Democrats of America.
 Youth Development Administration, a government agency in Taiwan.
 Yale Dramatic Association ("Dramat") of Yale University.
 A non-playable character from Final Fantasy XIV: A Realm Reborn video game.

YDA


Umberto Eco (; born 5 Januar 1932, Alessandria – dee'd 19 Februar 2016, Milan, Lombardy) wis a Italian writer, philosopher an varsity professor. He haes writ a feck o beuks: novelles (lik The Name o the Rose) an scientive beuks (on semiotics, linguistics an medieval aesthetics amang ither topics). He haes several recognitions in Italy, Fraunce, Germany an Spain.

1932 births
2016 daiths
20t-century Italian philoosphers
21st-century Italian philosophers
20t-century Italian novelists
20t-century male writers
21st-century Italian novelists
Bancarella Prize winners
Fellaes o Kellogg College, Oxford
Umwhile Roman Catholics
Harvard Varsity fowk
Hyperreality theorists
Italian agnostics
Italian essayists
Italian leeterar creetics
Italian male novelists
Italian medievalists
Italian semioticians
Italian fantasie writers
Italian alternate history writers
Male essayists
Members o the Lincean Academy
Fowk frae Alessandria
Fowk frae Turin
Postmodren writers
Prix Médicis étranger winners
Recipients o the Pour le Mérite (ceevil cless)
Strega Prize winners
Translation scholars
Varsity o Turin alumni
Varsity o Bologna faculty
Writers o historical mysteries
Daiths frae cancer in Italy
Daiths frae pancreatic cancer
Beuk an manuscript collectors
Knicht Commanders o the Order o Meerit o the Federal Republic o Germany
20t-century essayists
21st-century essayists

Umberto Eco


Lorenzo Litta (23 February 1756 – 1 May 1820) was an Italian littérateur and churchman, who became a Cardinal.

Biography
Litta was born in Milan, a member of the noble Litta family.

As a youth he was sent by his parents to the Clementine College in Rome, where he made rapid progress in letters and law. Not long after the completion of his studies he was made prothonotary Apostolic by Pope Pius VI. In 1793 he was consecrated titular Archbishop of Thebes, and sent as nuncio to Poland, where he arrived in March, 1794, shortly before the start of the uprising. Notwithstanding the difficulty of his own position, he used his influence with Tadeusz Kościuszko on behalf of the Catholic Church, and saved the life of Monsignor Wojciech Skarszewski, Bishop of Chełm, already condemned to death for collaborating with Russians. He was not so successful with regard to the Bishop of Vilnius and Livonia Ignacy Jakub Massalski.

In the negotiations for the third partition of Poland, he tried to have the three states guarantee the preservation of the Church organization and property — guarantees which were violated by Catherine II of Russia. On her death Litta was sent on an extraordinary mission to Moscow for the coronation of Paul I of Russia, whence he was transferred as ambassador of Pius VI to St. Petersburg, to settle, according to Paul's wish, the affairs of the Latin and the Greek Catholic Ruthenian (Belarusian and Ukrainian) church. He secured the restoration of six dioceses of the Latin Rite and three of the Ruthenian (Połacak, Lutsk, and Brest). The restoration of the See of Kiev was prevented by the Russian Holy Synod. Church property was only partly restored, though the government was obliged to establish suitable allowances for the clergy.

Litta also induced the metropolitans of Gniezno, Poznań, and Lwów to renounce their jurisdiction over the dioceses of the Latin Rite in Russian occupied territory, these being transferred to the new metropolis of Mahiloŭ. Through his efforts also the Basilian Order was restored. In April, 1799, he had to leave Russia.

On the death of Pius VI he went to Venice to assist at the Papal conclave, 1799–1800. When he returned to Rome he was given an office in the papal treasury which enabled him to eradicate many abuses and introduce a better administration. In 1801 he was created cardinal and was made Prefect of the Congregation of the Index and, later, of Studies.

In 1809 he was expelled from Rome with Pope Pius VII and sent to Saint-Quentin on the Seine. During this exile he translated the Iliad, and wrote a series of letters containing a refutation of the four Gallican Articles of 1682, then the subject of much discussion. Some of these letters were addressed to Napoleon himself, and were later published anonymously.

Returning to Rome with Pius VII, Litta was made Prefect of Propaganda, which, under his administration, soon recovered its former status. In 1814 he became suburbicarian Bishop of Sabina, and in 1818 Cardinal Vicar of Rome.

He died at Monte Flavio, near Rome, and was buried at Rome in the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo.

External links
Biography

1756 births
1820 deaths
Nobility from Milan
19th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinal-bishops of Sabina
Apostolic pronotaries
Apostolic Nuncios to Poland
Cardinal Vicars
Members of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
Latin archbishops of Thebes
Clergy from Milan
Cardinals created by Pope Pius VII

Lorenzo Litta


An Undersea cable or Submarine communications cable is a cable that is laid in the sea or in waterways. Usually such cables either carry electricity or they are used for telecommunication. Cables longer than about  use direct current, because the loss is too big with alternating current. Such cables are also built in a very rugged way.

Technology

Undersea cable


Winehaven was a winery and town in Richmond, California, that held the title of "world's largest winery" for 12 years (1907–1919). It later became a fuel depot for the United States Navy.

After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake left the city in ruins, the California Wine Association moved to Point Molate, a promontory on the east shore of San Pablo Bay, and began construction of Winehaven. At the peak of the season, as many as 400 workers lived here, as all of the California Wine Association's shipments to foreign, coastal and New York markets sailed from the Winehaven dock—shipment capacity was 500,000 gallons (1,892,705 liters) a month, and 40 ships sailed annually for New York alone. The winery was shut down by Prohibition in 1919, and the company sold off its assets to avoid bankruptcy. Winehaven went mostly unused from about 1920 until the late 1930s.

A post office operated at Winehaven from 1910 to 1925.

The Navy bought the  site in 1941, moved into the winery buildings, and constructed 20 large concrete tanks on the hillsides above for a fuel depot. Thousands of drums of fuel were stored in huge buildings, pipelines were laid, a new pier was built and the old one was eventually removed. The old Winehaven Hotel was pressed into service for a period as barracks and mess hall, and the workers' houses were renovated for the use of naval personnel. The Commanding Officer of the Naval Fuel Depot was assigned the largest house on the bluff overlooking the others, which previously had been the home of the winery superintendent.

Despite the switch from wine to fuel, the historic district remains virtually unaltered from its days as a winery. There are 35 buildings in the National Register historic district built between 1907 and 1919, the most notable being the castle-like Winehaven Building adorned with crenellated parapet and corner turrets. Also within the district is the Winemaster's House (Building 60), which became the Commanding Officer's residence, and the Village of Point Molate, a row of turn-of-the-century cottages used to house Winehaven and military families. The Navy continued to operate the fuel depot during the Korean War and Vietnam War until it was decommissioned in 1995.

See also
 Point Molate Naval Fuel Depot
National Register of Historic Places listings in Contra Costa County, California

References

External links
Historical Sites in the City of Richmond
Contra Costa Times article

Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in California
National Register of Historic Places in Richmond, California
Buildings and structures in Richmond, California
Ghost towns in California
Ghost towns in the San Francisco Bay Area
Former settlements in Contra Costa County, California
Military in the San Francisco Bay Area
Historic American Buildings Survey in California
Populated places on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Agricultural buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in California

Winehaven, California


William Boyce (born London, 11 September 1711; died Kensington,  7 February 1779) is one of the most important English composers of the 18th century.  He was composing during the last years of the Baroque period and the early years of the Classical Period.  He is famous for his church music as well as music for the theatre and orchestral music.

Life

Early years
Boyce was born in the City of  London.  His father was a cabinetmaker.  His house was known by the sign of a Naked Boy which hung outside.

Boyce was a choirboy at St Paul's Cathedral and then studied music with Maurice Greene after his voice broke.   When he had finished his studies he got a job as organist at the Earl of Oxford's chapel in Cavendish Square.  Two years later he went to St Michael's Cornhill.  He was still studying music, now his teacher was Pepusch.

Boyce wrote songs for Vauxhall Gardens.  Many people would have heard these songs.  He became composer to the Chapel Royal in 1736.  This was a great honour.  He wrote several big works, although we do not know much about them or about their performances.  Some time during the 1740s he composed a theatre work called The Secular Masque.  The words were by John Dryden.  In 1749 he was given the title of Doctor of Music after a performance of his anthem O be joyful.

Years of fame

Boyce was very famous by now.  He went to live in a large house in Chancery Lane.  He seems to have married and started a family.  He was asked to compose for the theatre in Drury Lane.  It is surprising he had not been asked to write theatre music before.  It may be because he was going deaf.  This would have made it difficult for him to rehearse his music with the orchestra.

Boyce wrote a good deal of music for the theatre.  There seems to have been some rivalry with the composer Thomas Arne.  Probably the composers themselves did not want this rivalry, it was encouraged by their supporters.

In 1755, when Maurice Green died, William Boyce was made Master of the King's Music in his place.  He was expected to compose odes for every New Year and for the King's birthday.  He did this for the rest of his life.

Later years and reputation

Not much of Boyce's works were published during his lifetime.  He wrote eight symphonies.  The earlier ones are in a Baroque style.  Later his style started to change to become more Classical, but by the time he was very deaf he could not hear new music that was being composed by other people, so his style did not develop any more.  He spent a lot of his time  putting together a collection of church music called
Cathedral Music.  It included music from two centuries of English church music, especially music by John Blow, Henry Purcell, Pelham Humfrey and Orlando Gibbons.  He encouraged singers to sing with a score in front of them (music which shows all the singing parts) instead of just the part that they sing, so that they could see how their part fitted in with the others.  This is normal today, but it was a new idea at the time.  He had to spend a lot of his time writing unimportant music for the king which was unlikely ever to be performed more than once.

His music

Boyce is best known for his eight symphonies, his anthems and his odes. He also wrote the masque Peleus and Thetis and songs for John Dryden's Secular Masque, incidental music for William Shakespeare's The Tempest, Cymbeline, Romeo and Juliet and The Winter's Tale, and a lot of chamber music including a set of twelve trio sonatas.  He also composed the British and Canadian Naval March "Heart of Oak".  The lyrics were later written by David Garrick.  His music is always skilfully written, especially his fugues and dances.

Boyce was largely forgotten after his death.  In the 19th century he was known mainly for editing Cathedral Music.  Today some of his orchestral and instrumental pieces are often played.

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980;

1711 births
1779 deaths
Baroque composers
Classical era composers
English composers

William Boyce


A maid, housemaid or, formerly, maidservant is a female employed in domestic worker. Maids perform typical domestic chores such as cooking, ironing, washing, cleaning the house, grocery shopping, caring for pets, and taking care of children like a nanny. In many places in some poor countries, maids often take on the role of a nurse in taking care of the elderly and people with disabilities. Many maids are required by their employers to wear a uniform.

In June 2011, International Labour Organization has made its Convention No.189 for domestic workers including maids.

Other websites

Personal service occupations
Domestic work

Maid


The Ten Commandments are a set of rules or laws. The Bible says that God gave them to the people of Israel. The commandments exist in different versions. One version can be found in the Book of Exodus of the Bible. Another version can be found in the Book of Deuteronomy. In the Book of Exodus, the mountain where they were given is called Mount Sinai, the Book of Deuteronomy talks about Mount Horeb (the same Mt. Horeb where God called Moses from the burning bush, Exodus 3:1-3). Both are probably different names for the same mountain. The laws were written on stone tablets. These laws are important for Judaism and Christianity. Countries which follow those religions often have some of the commandments as part of their Civil laws.

Sometimes these rules are also called Decalogue (from Greek, can be translated as ten statements). The name decalogue first occurs in the Septuagint. The Israelites  received the commandments after they had left Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmose III. There are different texts talking about the commandments. Most of them are in the Bible: The Book of Exodus, Chapter 20 and the book of Deuteronomy, Chapter 5. The Qu'ran mentions the tablets but does not list exactly the same commandments. For instance Quran 17:23-39 began with worshipping God alone and honouring your parents.

The Exodus version (from the ESV BIBLE)

 "You shall have no other gods before me."
 "You shall not make yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or serve them, for I the Lord your God are only worthy of worship, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments."
 "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain.
 "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath to the Lord your God. On it you shall not do any work, you, or your son, or your daughter, or your servant, or your livestock, or the sojourner who is within your gates. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, and rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy."
 "Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you."
 "You shall not murder."
 "You shall not commit adultery."
 "You shall not steal."
 "You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor."
 "You shall not covet your neighbor's house; you shall not covet your neighbor's wife, or his male servant, or his female servant, or his ox, or his donkey, or anything that is your neighbor's."

Ten Commandments in the Old Testament Torah
The Ten Commandments in Deuteronomy Chapter 5: verses 1-22 NKJV

5 And Moses called all Israel, and said to them: "Hear, O Israel, the statutes and judgments which I speak in your hearing today, that you may learn them and be careful to observe them.  2 The Lord our God made a covenant with us in Horeb.  3 The Lord did not make this covenant with our fathers, but with us, those who are here today, all of us who are alive.  4 The Lord talked with you face to face on the mountain from the midst of the fire.  5 I stood between the Lord and you at that time, to declare to you the word of the Lord; for you were afraid because of the fire, and you did not go up the mountain. He said:

6 'I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.

7 'You shall have no other gods before Me.

8 'You shall not make for yourself a carved image—any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth;  9 you shall not bow down to them nor serve them. For I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations of those who hate Me,  10 but showing mercy to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments.

11 'You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain, for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes His name in vain.

12 'Observe the Sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the Lord your God commanded you.  13 Six days you shall labor and do all your work,  14 but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God. In it you shall do no work: you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant, nor your female servant, nor your ox, nor your donkey, nor any of your cattle, nor your stranger who is within your gates, that your male servant and your female servant may rest as well as you.  15 And remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord your God brought you out from there by a mighty hand and by an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to keep the Sabbath day.

16 'Honor your father and your mother, as the Lord your God has commanded you, that your days may be long, and that it may be well with you in the land which the Lord your God is giving you.

17 'You shall not murder.

18 'You shall not commit adultery with somebody's spouse.

19 'You shall not steal.

20 'You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.

21 'You shall not covet your neighbor's wife; and you shall not desire your neighbor's house, his field, his male servant, his female servant, his ox, his donkey, or anything that is your neighbor's.'

22 "These words the Lord spoke to all your assembly, in the mountain from the midst of the fire, the cloud, and the thick darkness, with a loud voice; and He added no more. And He wrote them on two tablets of stone and gave them to me.

Differences in teachings and interpretation
These commandments are translated from ancient Hebrew to Basic English, so the exact words chosen may not mean to us exactly what they meant to the Hebrews. There are a variety of interpretations of these commandments:

Images

The  Roman Catholics understanding of the commandment to not make "any image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above" means that "likenesses" may be built and used, as long as the object is not worshipped as an idol.

The Eastern Orthodox Church has a very similar position. Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that the incarnation of an invisible God as a visible human, Jesus, makes it alright to use flat images in worship (see Iconoclasm).

Most other Christians allow statues of religious figures, provided there is no "veneration" of them.  They are not commonly found in Protestant Churches, but may be found nearby or in Museums.  Historical figures or busts may be used for educational purposes. Stained glass windows may contain depictions of honored historical or Biblical persons.

Judaism in its various forms usually takes a position somewhere between the Protestant view and that of Islam. Synagogues would not have any statues in them. Images of God are forbidden anywhere.

Islam forbids any images whatsoever of Allah (God) or persons, including Mohammad. That is why their buildings are generally decorated with calligraphy but never depictions of living beings.

Jehovah's Witnesses criticize the use of all of the above, as well as the use of the cross.

The Amish forbid any sort of image, such as photos.

Using God's name improperly
This can be understood to mean cursing or using profanity which includes the name of God.

Many languages have expressions of anger or dismay that include the word "God".  In addition, many times people "swear to God" to try to convince others they are telling the truth. Another offense might be to say that "God told me" to do something when He didn't.  The actual name of God in the Old Testament was YHWH, sometimes pronounced Yahweh or Jehovah.  Pious Jews refrain from using this name or even the word God, for which they substitute G_d.  This is to avoid using God's name in a way that might break this commandment.

Another belief is that the original text translates to "Do not carry the Name of the LORD in vain." This means to not do evil in the Name of God.

Sabbath day

Jews honor the Sabbath (Shabbat) from sundown on Friday until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night, the seventh day of the week on the Jewish calendar.

In the New Testament Jesus did things that made the Sabbath command different from the other nine. Jesus seemed to reduce its demands, unlike some other commandments where he made them stronger. Jesus was often criticized for healing on the Sabbath or doing other things.  He said that "the Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath".  Doing good on the Sabbath seemed to be praised and practiced by Jesus.  In that way he disobeyed some of the strict interpretations that had become common in His day.

Most Christians honor the Sabbath on Sunday to remember the Resurrection of Jesus on the first day of the week on the Jewish calendar.

Some conservative Christians are "Sabbatarians" (most of these follow the Reformed traditions). Sabbatarians think the first day of the week or Lord's Day is the new Sabbath, because the 4th commandment has never been removed. They also say that the Sabbath law was given when the world was made. It came before the ten commandments were given.

Others believe that the Sabbath remains as a day of rest on Saturday, while Sunday as a day of worship, in reference to Acts 20:7: the disciples came together on the first day of the week to break bread and to hear the preaching of the apostle Paul. Also, Jesus appeared to his followers on the "first day of the week" while they were in hiding.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, and some others, believe that the custom of meeting for worship on Sunday originated in paganism, specifically Sol Invictus and Mithraism (in which sun god worship took place on Sunday). Instead, Adventists keep Saturday as the Sabbath as a memorial to God's work of creation believing that none of the Ten Commandments can ever be destroyed. Seventh-day Sabbatarians claim that the seventh day Sabbath was kept by the majority of Christian groups until the 2nd and 3rd century, but because of opposition to Judaism after the Jewish-Roman wars, the original custom was gradually replaced by Sunday as the day of worship.

There are also some Christians who believe the Sabbath is still Friday sundown to Saturday sundown, but that you don't need to be religious about it. They find no evidence that the Commandment changed and they still view it as a day of rest from labor. They agree with Jesus's teaching that it's lawful to do good on the Sabbath (Matthew 12:12) and that the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath (Mark 2:7). They believe the use of Acts 20:7 is a misinterpretation, as the Sabbath isn't about fellowship. In Acts 2 it discusses how the Christians gathered in their homes, streets, and the temple every day for the breaking of bread, which would make the Sabbath every day if the Sabbath was about gathering.

Married relations
To "be false to the married relation", called adultery, is when a married person has sexual relations with a person other than his or her spouse. Having sex outside of  marriage is fornication and is also sin. It is condemned in other places in the Bible, but not specifically in the Ten Commandments.  Jesus taught his audience that the outward act of adultery does not happen apart from sins of the heart: "From within people, from their hearts, come evil thoughts, unchastity, theft, murder, adultery, greed, malice, deceit, licentiousness, envy, blasphemy, arrogance, folly. All these evils come from within and they defile." In The New Testament Jesus says "But I say unto you, That whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart."

Killing or murder
There are different translations of this commandment; the Hebrew words  are translated either as "thou shalt not kill" or "thou shalt not murder". Older Protestant translations of the Bible, those based on the Vulgate and Roman Catholic translations usually translate it "Thou shalt not kill".  The Catholic Church believes that endangerment of human life or safety  is a mortal sin that breaks The Fifth Commandment.  Furthermore, the Catholic Church does not believe in a difference between murder and manslaughter the way the law does.  With the exceptions of killing in self-defense (a form of manslaughter in many nations' laws) and killing in war, the Catholic Church believes all other forms of killing or attempting to kill violate The Fifth Commandment. Unsafe driving could also lead to unintentional killing. Jewish and newer Protestant versions tend to use "You shall not murder". There are different opinions as to which translation is more faithful to the original.

The many examples in the Old Testament of killing sanctioned by God, are quoted in defense of the view that "murder" is more accurate.  Furthermore, the Hebrew word for "kill" is "" - "harog", while the Hebrew word for "murder" is "" - "retzach", which is found in the Ten Commandments "" - "lo tirtzach".

Stealing
Many theologians (such as German Old Testament scholar A. Alt: Das Verbot des Diebstahls im Dekalog (1953)) suggest that commandment "you shall not steal" was originally intended against stealing people—abductions and slavery. This would be the same as the Jewish interpretation of the statement as "you shall not kidnap" (e.g. as stated by Rashi). Civil laws in most countries list many types of stealing. These include burglary, embezzlement, looting, robbery, shoplifting or fraud. The penalties depend on the value of the thing stolen, and if violence was used to take it.

In some places stealing horses brought a death penalty.  That is because it could cause danger or even death to the horse's owner who could no longer do necessary travel.  Poaching is the illegal killing of wild animals. Especially in modern times, money is often stolen by trickery or keeping false bank or debt records. In the 21st century this can be done using computers. This is called "White-collar crime".

Some societies have attempted to say that no property is "private" but everything belongs to the whole society. If this were ever put in practice, it would make stealing impossible, but it has not been fully practiced anywhere.

False witness
To "give false witness" would include lying in court which is called perjury. Telling false gossip which harms someone is similar. Some think this commandment includes all lying. It is to knowingly give any false statement.  Others allow a white lie. Some Jewish teachers said that not all lying is false witness (perjury). They say that lying is sometimes "permissible or even commendable". This would include changing the truth to be modest or to avoid harm to someone. Saint Augustine believed that some lies could be pardoned, and that there were in fact occasions when lying would be the right thing to do. He says that lies which hurt nobody and benefit someone may be forgiven. These need to used with great caution, however.

Different numbering
The Bible does not number the commandments. Different religious groups have numbered them in different ways. The Jews, followed by Christian Protestants, end the first commandment with "You are to have no other gods but me." as above. Catholics and Lutherans end the first commandment at "I will have mercy through a thousand generations on those who have love for me and keep my laws." and separate in their last two commandments the desire for a man's wife from the desire for other things he owns.

The commandments passage in Exodus has more than ten important statements, there are 14 or 15 in all. While the Bible itself gives the count as "10", using the Hebrew phrase ʻaseret had'varim—translated as the 10 words, statements or things, this phrase does not appear in the passages usually presented as being "the Ten Commandments". Various religions divide the commandments differently.  The table below shows those differences.

Notes:
{|
|+
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |*
|The Roman Catholic Church uses the translation 'kill' (less specific than 'murder').
|-
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |**
|Some Lutheran churches use a slightly different division of the Ninth and Tenth Commandments (9. You shall not covet your neighbor's house; 10. You shall not covet your neighbor's wife, or his workers, or his cattle, or anything that is your neighbor's).
|-
| style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;" |***
|The Roman Catholic Church combine the original 2nd commandment with the 1st commandment They change the numbers of the 3rd to 9th commandment into 2nd to 8th. They divide the 10th commandment into two.

Use in Christian Worship
In some churches the Ten Commandments are read as part of the worship service.  This is usually followed by a prayer asking for forgiveness. Sometimes in place of the longer reading, the summary of the law given by Jesus is used. You shall love the Lord the God with all your heart, and your neighbor as yourself. The first part is thought to summarize the first 5  commandments, and the last part the last 5 commandments.  Thus the duty to both God and other people is stated.

Other religions
In general, religions other than those mentioned (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) do not recognise the Ten Commandments as ethical standards. Many of them (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, etc.) have similar laws or principles though.
In the atheist Soviet Union the "Moral Code of the Builder of Communism" was a set of rules that resembled the Ten Commandments.

The Ritual Decalogue

The "Ten Commandments" usually means the list mentioned in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. Another set of commandments is given in Exodus 34. A story starts in Exodus 31:18. There the stones with the commandments written on them are created. Exodus 32:19 tells how the stones are broken. The commandments in Exodus 34 are sometimes called "Ritual Decalogue". That is because the are about religious rituals and not moral commands.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and some others believed that the book of Exodus is a combination of several different texts. These people thought that the commandments in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 show a later set of Ten Commandments. They say that the ten ritual commandments in Exodus 34 were the original Ten Commandments. The say that the moral ones came later.

Influence

The commandments have influenced Jewish ethics and law and, through Judaism and Christianity, Western ethics and law since the Roman Empire. Historically monuments containing the Commandments have been placed outside courts of law. In the early 21st century some have been challenged or removed as a violation of freedom of religion.

Christians disagree somewhat as to the purpose of the commandments. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus states that He came to "fulfill" the Law rather than destroy it.  He reinforces the commands about murder and adultery. He also says that the righteousness of His followers must be higher than that of the "scribes and pharisees".  They were very strict in observing the Ten Commandments.

Saint Paul, in his letter to the Roman Christians, says the purpose of the Law is to show us how sinful we are.  It acts as a "schoolmaster" to bring us to Christ for salvation.  The leaders of the Reformation said that this means that keeping the Ten Commandments could not make us holy in God's eyes.  Only faith in Jesus could do that. However, after finding salvation through faith, most of the reformers said we should obey the law.  Some extreme reformers said we could break them since only our faith mattered, not our actions. This teaching is called "Antinomianism" (against the law).

Some modern Christians say that today our only law is the law of love.  Others say that the "moral" law of the Old Testament still applies to Christians today. They say that all of the Ten Commandments are repeated somewhere in the New Testament books.

In the arts

Movies
There are two famous movies called The Ten Commandments. They both were directed by Cecil B. DeMille. The first was a silent movie in 1923, and the second was made in 1956. The 1956 movie starred Charlton Heston as Moses, and was the biggest money making movie of that year.

In animation
In the anime series Seven Deadly Sins, a Japanese manga and anime by mangaka Nakaba Suzuki, there is a group of characters called the Ten Commandments. These individuals all possess a title and supernatural ability named after each commandment.

References

Other websites
 The ten Commandments, at the Website of the Vatican

More reading

Old Testament
Religious ethics

Ten Commandments


The Community of Christ is a Mormon movement. From 1872 to 2001, it was known as Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS). It was founded in the 1860s. It did not recognise Brigham Young as a Prophet, but instead followed Joseph Smith III, the son of the founder of Mormonism, Joseph Smith. Unlike the followers of Young who went to Utah they remained were they were, in the Midwestern United States, mainly in Missouri. A number of court cases established this Church as the follower of law of the church established by Smith. for this reason it has the most manuscripts and the oldest Temple.

In general, their beliefs are closer to mainline Protestant Christianity. Unlike other Latter-day Saints movements, they have a classic view of the Trinity. Their baptism is therefore recognised as a valid Christian one.

Mormonism
1860 establishments in the United States
Christian denominations
Christian organizations based in the United States

Community of Christ