The International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (ICPPED)  is an international human rights instrument of the United Nations intended to prevent forced disappearance, which, as defined in international law, is part of crimes against humanity. The text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 December 2006 and opened for signature on 6 February 2007. It entered into force on 23 December 2010. As of April 2023, 98 states have signed the convention and 71 have ratified it.

Genesis
Following a General Assembly resolution in 1992 containing a 21 article declaration about enforced disappearance, and its resolution of 1978 requesting that recommendations be made, the Commission on Human Rights established an "inter-sessional open-ended working group to elaborate a draft legally binding normative instrument for the protection of all persons from enforced disappearance" in 2001.

The Group concluded its work in 2006 and its draft international convention was adopted by the Human Rights Council on 29 June 2006, and welcomed the offer by France to host the signing ceremony.

On 20 December 2006, the General Assembly adopted without a vote the text of the Convention and opened it for signature at the signing ceremony in Paris.

Summary

The convention is modelled heavily on the United Nations Convention Against Torture.

"Enforced disappearance" is defined in Article 2 of the Convention as

the arrest, detention, abduction or any other form of deprivation of liberty by agents of the State or by persons or groups of persons acting with the authorization, support or acquiescence of the State, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of liberty or by concealment of the fate or whereabouts of the disappeared person, which place such a person outside the protection of the law.

Article 1 of the Convention further states that

No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification for enforced disappearance.

The widespread or systematic use of enforced disappearance is further defined as a crime against humanity in Article 5.

Parties to the convention undertake to:

 investigate acts of enforced disappearance and bring those responsible to justice;
 ensure that enforced disappearance constitutes an offence under its criminal law;
 establish jurisdiction over the offence of enforced disappearance when the alleged offender is within its territory, even if they are not a citizen or resident;
 cooperate with other states in ensuring that offenders are prosecuted or extradited, and to assist the victims of enforced disappearance or locate and return their remains;
 respect minimum legal standards around the deprivation of liberty, including the right for imprisonment to be challenged before the courts;
 establish a register of those currently imprisoned, and allow it to be inspected by relatives and counsel;
 ensure that victims of enforced disappearance or those directly affected by it have a right to obtain reparation and compensation. (Article 24. 4)
 the right to obtain reparation covers material and dangers and, where appropriate, other forms of reparation such as; a) Restitution. b) Rehabilitation. c) Satisfaction, including restoration of dignity and reparation. d) Guarantee of non-repetition. (Article 24. 5)

The Convention will be governed by a Committee on Enforced Disappearances elected by its parties.  Parties are obliged to report to this committee on the steps they have taken to implement it within two years of becoming subject to it.

The Convention includes an optional complaints system whereby citizens of parties may appeal to the Committee for assistance in locating a disappeared person. Parties may join this system at any time, but may only opt out of it upon signature.

Reservations

New Zealand
While the New Zealand government supports the Convention and joined the consensus leading to its adoption, it retains significant concerns around inconsistencies between the convention and established international law. These include the definition of enforced disappearance as a crime against humanity in Article 5, and the Article 6 provisions relating to command responsibility. According to an MFAT spokesperson, New Zealand "has no immediate plans" to sign or ratify the Convention.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom stated its position during the discussion that followed the adoption of the General Assembly resolution on several technical points about the Convention.  For example, on Article 18, which sets out the minimum information that a lawyer or relative of a person deprived of liberty should have access to (such as when the arrest took place, who gave the order, and the health of the person), the ambassador explained that if the deprivation of liberty of a person was done legally according to the laws of the country, and was not an "enforced disappearance", then such information could be withheld from the relatives and legal counsel.

A question asked in Parliament about whether there was any intention to sign the Convention, resulted in the answer that the Government needed "to conduct a detailed analysis of the provisions of the treaty and their implications for implementation in order to determine the UK's position towards ratification".

United States
A question during the daily State Department Press briefing that coincided with the date of the signing ceremony resulted in the following exchange:

QUESTION: Did you notice that 57 countries signed a treaty today that would basically bar governments from holding secret detainees and the U.S. did not join?
MR. MCCORMACK: Yeah. This is—I understand that there is a Convention for the Protection of All Persons and Enforced Disappearances. And I know—I have some information on it here, George. I confess I don't have all the details. I do know that we participated in all the meetings that produced the draft. Beyond that, I can't give you specific reasons here from the podium as to why we didn't sign on to it. We've put out a public document that I can give you the citation for afterwards and it explains our reasons for not participating in the draft. But I think just as a general comment, clearly the draft that was put up for a vote or put for signature was not one that met our needs and expectations.

Signatories and ratifications
The Convention attracted 57 signatures when opened for signature in Paris. Controversially, the United States did not sign, saying that it "did not meet our expectations". A number of European countries were not initial signatories to the convention; these included the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. Spain, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands have subsequently signed and ratified the convention. The initial signatories were Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Azerbaijan, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Congo, Croatia, France, Ghana, Guatemala, Haiti, Japan, Lithuania, Maldives, Moldavia, Morocco, Uganda, Senegal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Macedonia, Chad, Tunisia, Vanuatu, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia Herzegovina, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Chile, Comoros, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cyprus, Finland, Grenada, Honduras, India, Kenya, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Mali, Malta, Mexico, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Niger, Paraguay, Portugal, Samoa, Sweden, and Uruguay.

As of April 2023, 71 states have ratified or acceded to the convention.

International Campaign for the Convention
The International Coalition against Enforced Disappearances (ICAED) is a global network of organisations of families of disappeared and NGO's campaigning in a nonviolent manner against the practice of enforced disappearances at the local, national and international level. The ICAED was founded in 2007 as a result from the 25-year-long struggle of families of disappeared and human rights defenders for an international legally binding instrument against enforced disappearances. The primary purpose of the ICAED is working together towards early ratification and effective implementation of the International Convention for the Protection of all Persons from Enforced Disappearances. Amnesty International is campaigning for Costa Rica, Pakistan, East Timor, Burundi, Portugal, Morocco, Lebanon, Cape Verde, Serbia, and Paraguay to ratify the convention.

See also
 United Nations Convention Against Torture
 Forced disappearance
 Saturday Mothers
 Crimes against humanity
 International Day of the Disappeared
 International human rights law
 Operation Condor
 Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance Persons

References

External links
 Full text of the Convention
 UN list of signatories and ratifications
 International Coalition Against Enforced Disappearances
 Procedural history and related documents on the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law

Human rights instruments
United Nations treaties
International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance
Treaties concluded in 2006
Treaties entered into force in 2010
Treaties of Albania
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Belgium
Treaties of Belize
Treaties of Benin
Treaties of Bolivia
Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Treaties of Brazil
Treaties of Burkina Faso
Treaties of Cambodia
Treaties of the Central African Republic
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of Dominica
Treaties of Ecuador
Treaties of Fiji
Treaties of France
Treaties of Gabon
Treaties of the Gambia
Treaties of Germany
Treaties of Greece
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of Iraq
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Japan
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of Lesotho
Treaties of Lithuania
Treaties of Malawi
Treaties of Mali
Treaties of Malta
Treaties of Mauritania
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of Mongolia
Treaties of Montenegro
Treaties of Morocco
Treaties of the Netherlands
Treaties of Niger
Treaties of Nigeria
Treaties of Oman
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Peru
Treaties of Portugal
Treaties of Samoa
Treaties of Senegal
Treaties of Serbia
Treaties of Seychelles
Treaties of Slovakia
Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Sri Lanka
Treaties of Sudan
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of Togo
Treaties of Tunisia
Treaties of Ukraine
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of Zambia
International criminal law treaties
2006 in France
Treaties adopted by United Nations General Assembly resolutions
Treaties extended to the Caribbean Netherlands


Timothy Ludwig Pflueger (September 26, 1892 – November 20, 1946) was an architect, interior designer and architectural lighting designer in the San Francisco Bay Area in the first half of the 20th century. Together with James R. Miller, Pflueger designed some of the leading skyscrapers and movie theaters in San Francisco in the 1920s, and his works featured art by challenging new artists such as Ralph Stackpole and Diego Rivera. Rather than breaking new ground with his designs, Pflueger captured the spirit of the times and refined it, adding a distinct personal flair. His work influenced later architects such as Pietro Belluschi.

Pflueger, who started as a working-class draftsman and never went to college, established his imprint on the development of Art Deco in California architecture yet demonstrated facility in many styles including Streamline Moderne, neo-Mayan, Beaux-Arts, Mission Revival, Neoclassical and International. His work as an interior designer resulted in an array of influential interior spaces, including luxurious cocktail lounges such as the Top of the Mark at the Mark Hopkins Hotel, the Patent Leather Bar at the St. Francis Hotel and the Cirque Room at The Fairmont, three of the most successful San Francisco bars in their day.

Pflueger's social and business connections spanned the city, including three private men's clubs which he joined: the Bohemian Club, the Olympic Club and The Family. He designed buildings and interior architecture for the latter two. Pflueger was highly placed in several important planning organizations: He was the chairman of a committee of consulting architects on the Bay Bridge project and he served on the committee responsible for the design of the Golden Gate International Exposition in 1939. Pflueger was a board member of the San Francisco Art Association starting in 1930, and served variously as chair and director. While on the board, Pflueger helped the organization found the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA).

Early life
Pflueger was born the second of seven sons in the Potrero Hill area of San Francisco to German immigrants August Pflueger and Ottilie Quandt who had met in Los Angeles and married. Other Quandt relatives lived in the Noe Valley neighborhood, and, in 1904, the Pflueger family moved closer, to 1015 Guerrero Street in the Mission District, a melting pot neighborhood of blue-collar workers. At age 11, Pflueger took his first job working for a picture-framing firm near his home.

After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Pflueger continued his grade-school education, graduating at age 13 in a mass ceremony held in Golden Gate Park for all the city's devastated public schools. By 1907, Pflueger was working as a draftsman and soon joined the architectural firm Miller and Colmesnil, under the guidance of James Rupert Miller, senior partner. Young Pflueger sketched ornamental details based on ideas from his bosses, and attended Mission High Evening School to further his education. In 1911, Pflueger joined the San Francisco Architectural Club (SFAC), an organization that helped budding architects receive training in the informal Atelier Method where older experts taught the practical side of architecture including waterproofing, lighting and structural concerns to students who had no hope or wish to study Beaux-Arts in an established school abroad. Pflueger became thoroughly involved with SFAC's collegial activities and was chosen director in 1914.

Early career
In 1912, while Miller and Colmesnil were busy with their entry in the competition to redesign San Francisco City Hall as well as with the design of many new hotels, apartments and private homes, Timothy L. Pflueger was given the opportunity to serve as chief architect on a rural church project funded by The Family, a club to which Miller belonged. Pflueger designed Our Lady of the Wayside Church with a main theme of Spanish Mission Revival based on his childhood familiarity with Mission San Francisco de Asís (locally known as Mission Dolores) but added his own personal statement: a striking Georgian main entrance topped by a scrolled pediment. After working with sub-contractor members of The Family on the project, Pflueger joined the club himself. The rural church was declared California Historical Landmark number 909 in 1977.

Colmesnil left the firm some time around 1913, leaving Miller to conduct business as "J. R. Miller". Subsequently, Pflueger was assigned by Miller to work closely with the firm's major client, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, who engaged in a succession of expansion projects at their San Francisco location at 600 Stockton Street. The first expansion, completed in 1914, gave the building a roof garden, dining room, kitchen and subbasement.

Pflueger volunteered for World War I in 1917, working for the Quartermaster Corps to design base facilities. He was first stationed in Washington, D.C. and then sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico to take part in base expansion there. Returning to San Francisco in 1919, Pflueger once again focused on the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, who now wished for a further doubling in size, extending their Stockton Street frontage 140 feet to California Street, and adding a seventh floor. A massive new entrance incorporating 17 Ionic columns was erected, topped by a pediment displaying a tableau carved by Armenian sculptor Haig Patigian. The Neoclassic-style project was completed in 1920. In 1984, the building was designated San Francisco Landmark No. 167.

1920s

In June 1920, Pflueger passed his architecture licensing exams to become a certified California architect. He was elected president of the SFAC later that year, taking office in early 1921.

J. R. Miller, relying more and more on Pflueger's hard-working energy, social conviviality and artistic talent, gave him a wide variety of assignments including designs for an automobile showroom, a firehouse and a number of private homes. Pflueger extended his proposed styles to include Aztec elements and Spanish Colonial Revival themes, the latter favored by several clients for their homes.

Miller made Pflueger his junior partner following their completion of the US$80,000 San Francisco Stock Exchange building at 350 Bush Street in 1923. The firm conducted business as Miller and Pflueger. The building at 350 Bush, a neoclassic design topped with a pediment displaying a sculpture by Jo Mora and later called the San Francisco Mining Exchange, is currently empty; it was designated San Francisco Landmark No. 113 in 1980.

Skyscrapers

Miller and Pflueger were selected in 1923 to build an expansive new headquarters tower for Pacific Telephone & Telegraph. In June 1924, Pflueger showed his plans for a $3 million skyscraper, 26 stories high, designed with continuous vertical elements and a progression of step-backs narrowing the floors near the top. Arthur Frank Mathews was brought in to paint a mural in the boardroom on the 18th floor. The structure was fully devoted to offices for 2,000 employees, mostly female. Pflueger's vision was strongly influenced by Eliel Saarinen's second-place entry in the competition to design the Tribune Tower in Chicago. In June, 1925, the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company Building was completed for $4 million ($ million in current value), becoming the tallest building in San Francisco for the next 40 years, tied by the Russ Building in 1927.

450 Sutter Street was completed on October 15, 1929, using a primarily unbroken exterior verticality without step-backs, featuring triangular thrust window bays, the whole decorated with stylized Mayan designs impressed on the terra cotta sheathing and inscribed in metals, marble and glass within the luxurious lobby. In 1983, Pietro Belluschi said that the vertical triangular faceted lines of 450 Sutter formed part of the inspiration for the similarly faceted exterior of 555 California.

As the Telephone Building was being completed in 1925, a group of Methodist Episcopalians came to Pflueger, asking him to design a new skyscraper containing both a church and a hotel for them at 100 McAllister Street. After a dispute, Miller and Pflueger were fired from the project to be replaced by Lewis P. Hobart. Miller and Pflueger sued for $81,600, alleging that Hobart's design was not significantly changed from Pflueger's original. Three months after the hotel and church opened in January 1930, Miller and Pflueger won $38,000 in court, equivalent to $ today.

Artists

By the late 1920s, Pflueger was already working with a number of artists such as Haig Patigian, Jo Mora and Arthur Mathews who provided fine detail and craftsmanship to his larger designs.

In March 1928, Pflueger published his submission for a new building to house the San Francisco Stock Exchange, featuring strong Zigzag Moderne themes with classicist notes. Miller and Pflueger won the competition for the commission. Eight months later, the Exchange committee decided instead to rebuild the Sub-treasury building at 301 Pine Street while keeping its Tuscan columns and entrance steps, requiring a completely new approach. Pflueger's first response was a sketch with little ornamentation. Construction began in December 1928. By January 1929, Pflueger's plans indicated prominent sculptures, bas-reliefs, inscriptions and carvings, to be detailed by local artists.

Also in January, Pflueger booked a flight in a small mail plane heading for New York but a winter storm forced the pilot and his two passengers down in the Sierras. The three men waited 36 hours exposed to the cold before being rescued. Pflueger immediately continued his trip and met with his Metropolitan Life Insurance clients regarding a third expansion project.

Early in 1929, Pflueger met Ralph Stackpole, an art professor at California School of Fine Arts and a former student of Mathews, who agreed to sculpt monumental figures for the stock exchange project as well as recommending and supervising other artists. Stackpole wrote later of his experience that "the artists were in from the first. They were called in conference and assumed responsibility and personal pride in the building." Pflueger hired nine artists to help decorate the neighboring Stock Exchange Tower at 155 Sansome, and instructed them only to keep their themes light and airy. Diego Rivera was brought with some difficulty from Mexico to paint a two-story mural in the stairwell between the 10th and 11th floors of the Stock Exchange Luncheon Club (now the City Club). Stackpole himself worked with a crew of assistants to direct carve heroic figures in stone above the tall 155 Sansome entrance, as well as carving two large sculpture groups flanking the Tuscan columns of 301 Pine Street.

Architectural lighting design

Over the Stock Exchange floor, Pflueger mounted a ceiling composed of interconnected sheet metal strips above which he used indirect lighting to soften the edges and reduce shadows made by traders on the floor below. The result was so effective that Pflueger used it on a much larger scale above the audience seating at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, where it extended from and formed a continuity with the incised art on the proscenium. In Oakland, Pflueger flanked the stage with structures that appeared to be pillars supporting the proscenium but were instead layered, curved sheets of thin metal behind which lighting instruments cast light indirectly to give the columns a suffused glow. In 1931, he used the same concept to frame the stage at the Bal Tabarin (now Bimbo's 365 Club), and to bring a changing palette of color to the ceiling above the dance floor. Pflueger filed for and, in 1934, received two architectural lighting design patents, one for his ceiling grid with indirect lighting and one for the thin metal panels hiding lighting instruments. He used the patented ceiling grid once more in the Patent Leather Bar, in 1939.

Metropolitan Life Insurance expanded their 600 Stockton location yet again in 1929, with Pflueger designing a new wing on the Pine Street side.

Movie palaces

The three Nasser brothers, William, Elias and George, specifically requested Pflueger in 1920 after they received financing for a grand movie palace on Castro Street. In a hurry to see the 2,000-seat project completed, the Nasser Brothers gave Pflueger a free hand in its design. The Castro Theatre was finished in June 1922 for $300,000 ($ in today's dollars) in a largely Spanish Baroque style which evoked cathedrals in Spain and Mexico. Churrigueresque elements were used sparingly on the facade, and ornate tile detailing was employed in the vestibule, ticket booth and the lobby. A canopy modeled after ancient Roman silk brocade shelters was fashioned of steel lath and plaster and painted with Asian and Buddha figures to overhang the main theater seating area. The whole was an eclectic assemblage of styles.

In 1925, Michael Naify and William Nasser turned to Pflueger again for a new neighborhood theater design based on the Alhambra in Grenada, Spain. The Alhambra Theatre opened on November 5, 1926 with a grand facade flanked by twin minarets that glowed red at night. Pflueger's vision stayed firmly planted in the Moorish Revival style, complete to the iron scrollwork and amber shade redesign of two municipal streetlamps standing outside of the theater. Pflueger worked with muralist Arthur Frank Mathews to achieve a rich palette of color most prominently displayed in a geometric floral pattern on the main ceiling. The Alhambra was named San Francisco Landmark No. 217 in 1996.

The Nassers and Naify contracted with Pflueger in early 1926 to build three large movie theaters in central California cities. They assigned Pflueger the design of the Tulare Theatre (1927) in Tulare, the Senator Theatre (1928) in Chico and the State Theatre (1928) in Oroville. The $250,000 Tulare Theatre (now demolished) featured motifs based on the Ishtar Gate of Babylon. Pflueger included zigzag patterns in the twin-towered facade trimmed in neon accents, and brought Streamline Moderne stylings to the interior via sweeping curves in steel banister railings as well as Mayan touches in the stepped mirrors. The $250,000 State Theatre appeared Spanish Colonial with its tiled roof and concrete bas-relief exterior, but turned to Streamline Moderne in a 1,529-seat interior that featured chrome railings, plush carpet and indirect lighting. Aztec elements were incorporated in the proscenium design. The $300,000 Senator Theatre was delayed in construction by the discovery of running water under the foundation, a condition that required channelization and pumps. The movie palace's eclectic theme was largely Egyptian with Moorish, Asian and Aztec details dominated by a landmark tower topped by a giant faceted amber glass gem lit from within.

Back in San Francisco, Pflueger designed the Nasser Brothers' 1,830-seat El Rey Theatre (1931) at 1970 Ocean Avenue in pure Moderne style, including a sleek tower topped by an aircraft warning beacon. A mirrored foyer in black and gold held floral and geometric accents, and twin curved stairways to the balcony flanked the foyer.

Shortly before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, investors including William Henry Crocker bought adjoining parcels of land in Oakland for the purpose of erecting a movie palace to rival the nearby Fox Orpheum, intending that Miller and Pflueger build it. One of the largest studio and theater chains in the country, Paramount Publix, showed great interest, but wanted to use their own East Coast architect instead. Pflueger went to New York and convinced Paramount Publix to use his firm by demonstrating that past projects of his had stayed within budget, a concern of increasing importance in the cautious financial climate of early 1930.

For the 3,200-seat design, Pflueger took his inspiration from Green Mansions, a romantic fantasy novel by William Henry Hudson set in the Guyana jungle of Venezuela. Tropical rain forest motifs were used throughout the theater, including climbing vines, waterfalls, parrots and emerald green lighting. As with his other works, Pflueger mixed together sources from around the world, adding images of Greek and Egyptian gods and goddesses as well as Egyptian lotuses to the primarily jungle theme. Plans were complete in November and in December 1930 ground was broken in a ceremony that called for "prosperity celebration".

The grand opening was held December 16, 1931 with a crowd which extended out to the street. Live action variety performances alternated with film showings. Unfortunately for the theater, the number of tickets sold in the subsequent months was not enough to keep the theater in the black. It closed in June 1932, reopening in 1933 as only a movie theater, devoid of the extravagant live pieces.

Increasingly tough economic times in the early 1930s caused many theater owners to cancel plans for new construction and concentrate on attracting customers to existing theaters. Only one more cinema, the 2,168-seat Alameda Theatre (1932) in Alameda, California would ever be built by Pflueger. Commissioned by the Nasser Brothers, the eclectic Alameda's exterior incorporated deeply incised and intricate Moorish Revival rosettes on cream-colored smoothly curved sides on either side of Art Nouveau flowers in bas relief rising between eight vertical Moderne speed lines. The Art Deco interior design used imitation silver and gold leaf for accents and warm colors for a stylized mezzanine mural with a hint of Cubism. In the interest of economy, the Alameda's floor plan was nearly identical to that of the El Rey Theatre, including twin curved staircases, and some floral and geometric elements were borrowed from the Paramount.

1930s

During the Great Depression, Pflueger continued to win commissions, but because of the straitened financial climate, the most noteworthy examples were no longer prominent downtown skyscrapers. Pflueger designed a handful of unique schools for San Francisco Unified School District, including two elementary schools, a junior high, two high schools and every major building on the first campus (Ocean campus) of San Francisco Junior College, an institution that would later expand to become City College of San Francisco.

In 1932, Pflueger renovated the Nasser brother's New Mission Theater, bringing Art Deco stylings to the lobby in contrast to the Spanish Mission trimmings in the main auditorium. In 1993, the theater closed. The theater, now designated San Francisco Landmark No. 245, was purchased by Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas and completely renovated to its original splendor, opening its doors once again to patrons in December 2015. Pflueger simultaneously worked on the remodeling of the Nasser's New Fillmore Theater, a sister design similar in many respects. The New Fillmore closed in 1957 and was demolished to make way for an urban redevelopment project.

Cocktail lounges

During Prohibition, Pflueger designed bars for private clubs such as the Stock Exchange Luncheon Club where members kept their personal bottles in small lockers behind the bar, and two bars for The Family, one at the Family Farm in Woodside and one at the clubhouse in San Francisco. Pflueger created a cocktail bar and nightclub for Frank Martinelli and Tom Gerun in 1931, the Bal Tabarin, featuring a stage for live music and colorful indirect lighting from above metal fins in the ceiling and behind curved metal strips upstage. When Prohibition ended in December 1933, Bal Tabarin received an immediate renovation by Pflueger along with a liquor license from the state. Pflueger was then asked to design cocktail lounges for several hotels, completing the Cirque for the Fairmont Hotel in 1935, adorned with finely painted murals by Esther Bruton, and in 1939, both the Patent Leather Bar for the St. Francis Hotel and the Top of the Mark for the Mark Hopkins Hotel. The Patent Leather Bar used a metal-finned ceiling much like that which Pflueger had installed above the audience at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland. A padded, serpentine bar snaked through the room's mirror, chrome and black leather decor. Ansel Adams was retained by C. Templeton Crocker to show off the new cocktail lounge in photographs.

Bay Bridge

Pflueger was invited by California governor James "Sunny Jim" Rolph to chair the committee of architects who were given nominal oversight of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge project. Arriving two years into the design phase of the bridge, Pflueger was stymied at every turn by civil engineers citing the inflexible budget in his attempts to bring a more artistic theme to the bridge. A heroic figure of a giant man standing at the central anchorage between the two main suspension spans was suggested and quickly canceled; all that remains of the proposal is a 14-inch study modeled by Ralph Stackpole. The committee of architects succeeded mainly in making the suspension bridge towers more streamlined in appearance by getting rid of the civil engineer's plans for a greater number of horizontal cross members. Pflueger very likely designed the stepped semicircular tunnel entrance and exit portals and, by mounting a campaign of public pressure, prevented the bridge from being painted black, successfully substituting a silvery aluminum-based paint instead. When the bridge was completed, Pflueger designed the Transbay Terminal, the main transit center for the railroad train tracks on the south half of the lower deck of the Bay Bridge, that carried the electric commuter trains of the Southern Pacific, the Key System, and the Sacramento Northern Railroad.

Golden Gate International Exposition

For the Golden Gate International Exposition of 1939–1940 on Treasure Island, Pflueger joined a committee of well-known Beaux-Arts architects and was frustrated in establishing a more modern design scheme, though his own Federal Building amply demonstrated the new direction he espoused. Pflueger's contributions were among the few buildings at the Exposition that received positive reviews. When the Exposition's investors failed to turn a profit in 1939, they decided to extend the fair another year. For the summer of 1940, Pflueger put together a large exhibit of Art in Action, showing a number of artists on display, engaged in creating works. Alfred Frankenstein of The New York Times visited in June and wrote "Here the visitor is privileged to observe a kind of twenty-ring circus of art... On the floor, in a series of little ateliers, sculptors, painters, lithographers, etchers, ceramicists, weavers and whatnot are at work under the direct observation of the public." Pflueger once again brought Diego Rivera to San Francisco, this time to serve as the main attraction at "Art in Action". Rivera painted Pan American Unity on ten steel-framed panels spanning 74 feet in width and reaching 22 feet in height. For the second time, Rivera included Pflueger in a mural of his. Some 68 artists had participated by the end of September when the Exposition was closed. Rivera was not finished, however; he and two assistants labored for two more months in the empty exposition hall. On November 30 and December 2, 30,000–35,000 visitors came to Treasure Island to view the completed mural.

1940s

In 1938, Pflueger sailed to Paris with Grover Magnin, head of the I. Magnin department store chain, aboard . The two men investigated French shopping ideas that could be brought back and used at American department stores. Pflueger gained ideas from the ship's famous Art Deco adornments. Magnin and Pflueger went to Venice and Milan as well, but found very little of use to them on their short European trip. The $3 million I. Magnin store on Wilshire (currently the Wilshire Galleria) opened in Los Angeles on February 10, 1939, with an interior completely devoted to Pflueger's concept of luxuriously separate boutique spaces within which individual sales items would receive unique attention. Pflueger's interior was attuned to women's fashions: the ground level floor was laid with rose-beige marble from France, pink velvet counter tops held gloves for trying on, rose-beige leather panels covered the walls of the shoe salon and the same leather served as covering for sofas and chairs that were provided by Neel D. Parker, interior designer and Pflueger's fellow club member from The Family. Grover Magnin continued to work with Pflueger on three more stores into the 1940s.

In 1939, plans for an underground garage at Union Square were given to Pflueger for political reasons. George Applegarth's 1935 design was actively opposed from several directions and Pflueger's social contacts and his friendship with mayor Angelo Joseph Rossi were needed to get the project moving. Union Square garage opened in 1943 with Pflueger's touch making it a full-service valet garage complete with a waiting room and rest rooms for shoppers and the option of having shopping packages sent directly from a nearby store to the garage or for the car to be delivered to the store. The concept of an underground garage below a city park was influential: New York builder Robert Moses requested copies of Pflueger's plans (little changed from Applegarth's) and Pershing Square in Los Angeles was excavated and rebuilt in 1952 along the same lines.

In 1942, while America geared up for front line involvement in World War II, Pflueger received fewer assignments than he had been seeing previously. Grover Magnin kept a flow of work with I. Magnin designs, and Pflueger also helped the Army with a depot building in Ogden, Utah. He began to draw up plans for a 12-story cross-shaped medical teaching hospital for the University of California, San Francisco (eventually to be built at 505 Parnassus in 1955 with additional design work performed by his brother Milton Pflueger). His firm accepted a commission to excavate below the Mark Hopkins Hotel in order to create a bomb-resistant radio transmission center for AM station KSFO and shortwave programs of the Voice of America. This space became the hotel's underground parking garage after the war.

Death and legacy

Timothy L. Pflueger died suddenly at the age of 54 on November 20, 1946, of a heart attack on Post Street outside of the Olympic Club after taking his usual evening swim. At his death, Pflueger was not finished with the radical interior and exterior transformation of the I. Magnin flagship store at Union Square, a sleek International design that remained influential for years afterward.

All his adult life, Pflueger maintained his residence at his childhood home on Guerrero Street. When entertaining downtown late into the evening, he was known to spend an occasional night at the Olympic Club. Pflueger drove a green Cadillac convertible and was often seen with his steady lady friend on his arm. Pflueger never married and left no children. His brother Milton, fifteen years younger, had been working with the firm since the 1930s and, at Tim's death, Milton reorganized and headed the company, doing business as Milton T. Pflueger, Architect.

In 1990, a bas-relief of influential San Franciscans was sculpted over the facade of 235 Pine Street, a 26-story skyscraper. Timothy L. Pflueger was the only architect among those memorialized. In 2008, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted unanimously to change the name of Chelsea Place, a small alley leading to the garage of the 450 Sutter Street building, to Timothy Pflueger Place.

See also

Arthur Brown, Jr.
Clarence W. W. Mayhew
Sargent Claude Johnson
William Wurster

References
Notes

Bibliography

External links

 A letter from Diego Rivera to Pflueger (undated, ca. March–April 1940)
 National Museum of Murals and Mosaics. Presenting: Diego Rivera's The Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City – image of Pflueger painted by Diego Rivera (1931)

1892 births
1946 deaths
American interior designers
Architects from California
American lighting designers
Artists from the San Francisco Bay Area
Architecture in the San Francisco Bay Area
American people of German descent
Art Deco architects
Burials at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park

Timothy L. Pflueger


Pyotr Ilyich Klimuk (; ; born 10 July 1942) is a former Soviet cosmonaut and the first Belarusian to perform space travel. Klimuk made three flights into space. From 1991 to 2003, he headed the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.

Life

Klimuk attended the Leninski Komsomol Chernigov High Aviation School and entered the Soviet Air Force in 1964. The following year, he was selected to join the space programme.

His first flight was a long test flight on Soyuz 13 in 1973. This was followed by a mission to the Salyut 4 space station on Soyuz 18 in 1975.

From 1976 he became involved in the Intercosmos and made his third and final spaceflight on an Intercosmos flight with Polish cosmonaut Mirosław Hermaszewski on Soyuz 30 in 1978.

He resigned from the cosmonaut team in 1978 to take up a position as the Assistant to the Chief of the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. In 1991 he was promoted to Chief of that facility and remained in that post until retirement in 2003.

Klimuk is a graduate of the Gagarin Air Force Academy and the Lenin Military-Political Academy.

He is the author of two books on human spaceflight: Beside the Stars, and Attack on Weightlessness.

Honours and awards
 Hero of the Soviet Union, twice (1973, 1975)
 Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR
 Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
3rd class (2 March 2000) – a great service to the state in the development of manned space flight
4th class (1996)
 Three Orders of Lenin (1973, 1975, 1978)
 Order for Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR, 3rd class (1984)
 Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (12 April 2011) – for the great achievements in the field of research, development and use of outer space, many years of diligent work, public activities
 Order "For Service to Motherland", 2nd class (Belarus, 15 July 2002) – for services to develop and strengthen scientific, technological and military cooperation

 Order of Friendship of Peoples (Belarus) (16 July 2007) – for his significant contribution to strengthening the friendly relations and cooperation between Belarus and the Russian Federation
 Cross of Grunwald, 1st class (NDP, 1978)
 Order of Parasat (Kazakhstan, 1995)
 Officer of the Legion of Honour (France, 2004)
 Medal, "Brotherhood in Arms", twice (Poland)
 Medal "For the strengthening of friendship in Arms", 1st class (Czechoslovakia)
 Medal "100th anniversary of the fall of the Ottoman yoke" (NRB)
 Medal "from the grateful people of Afghanistan" (1988)
 USSR State Prize (1978) – for his work on medical justification and implementation of complex methods and means of preventing the adverse effects of weightlessness on the human body, allowing for the possibility of prolonged manned space flights
 Lenin Komsomol Prize (1978) – script for the documentary "Common Space"
 Tsiolkovski Gold Medal
 Gagarin Gold Medal
 Gold Medal from the Polish Academy of Sciences
 Honorary citizen of the cities of Kaluga, Gagarin, and Dzhezkasgan

Books

 The official website of the city administration Baikonur - Honorary citizens of Baikonur

References

1942 births
Living people
People from Brest District
Soviet cosmonauts
1973 in spaceflight
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Soviet Air Force officers
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 1st class
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Recipients of the Lenin Komsomol Prize
Recipients of the Order of Parasat
Recipients of the Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration"
Recipients of the Medal of Zhukov
Lenin Military Political Academy alumni
Salyut program cosmonauts
Belarusian cosmonauts

Pyotr Klimuk


A posthumous award is an award given after the recipient has died.

Many prizes, medals, and awards can be granted posthumously. Australian actor Heath Ledger, for example, won the Academy Award after his death in 2008.

Military decorations, such as Hero of the Soviet Union or the Medal of Honor, are often given posthumously. Sports awards and titles can be awarded posthumously, for example 1970 Formula One champion Jochen Rindt, who died in a crash late in the season, but still had enough points to be named champion.

Awards

Posthumous award


Kyran Paul Patrick Bracken MBE (born 22 November 1971) is a world-cup winning former rugby union footballer who played at scrum-half for Saracens, Bristol and Waterloo.

He won a total of 51 England caps and captained the team on three occasions, retiring from international rugby in 2004.

Early life
Bracken was born in Dublin, Ireland. His father was a dentist and his mother had played hockey for Ireland. They originally lived in Skerries but moved to England when Bracken was four.

He was brought up in Liverpool and was educated at St. Edward's College, and later at Stonyhurst College in Lancashire, where he was coached by former England Rugby Union Head Coach, Brian Ashton. He attended a trial for Liverpool FC and scored three goals. He also flirted with the idea of playing rugby league for St. Helens.

After school he read law at the University of Bristol whom he represented at rugby union and later qualified as a solicitor. He was turned down by Ireland as 'not good enough' but signed up by Bristol.

Rugby career
Bracken made his England debut in November 1993 against the All Blacks. However, a stamp from Jamie Joseph seriously injured his ankle, putting him out of action for three months and leaving him with a permanent weakness. He started the 1994 Five Nations, but was dropped halfway through in favour of Dewi Morris. He missed the summer tour to South Africa, studying for law exams, but played in the 1995 Five Nations. Injury kept him out of the 1995 World Cup.

Bracken joined Saracens in 1996 and was part of the team that won the Tetley's Bitter Cup against Wasps in 1998.

He missed out on selection for the 1997 British Lions tour to South Africa in favour of Matt Dawson and Austin Healey, but was called up as injury replacement for Rob Howley but did not play in the tests.

He then became an irregular scrum half for England, with Dawson generally having the upper hand but being frequently injured. Bracken himself had a serious back injury that kept him out for most of the 1999–2000 season, including the 1999 World Cup.

He missed out on selection for 2001 Lions tour to Australia, instead captaining England on a three match development tour of North America. By then he was mostly having to compete with Matt Dawson as first-choice scrum-half. In 2003 he played in the summer tour beating Australia and New Zealand. He appeared four times for England during the 2003 World Cup, mostly as a substitute or blood replacement, becoming a world-cup winner as England lifted the trophy. He won his 50th cap against Wales in the quarter-final, and gained his last cap in the semi-final against France.

Bracken was also the player who drew groans from the cast of Friends after being tackled in the episode "The One with All the Rugby".

Dancing on Ice

Bracken starred in and won ITV's celebrity ice dancing competition Dancing on Ice in 2007, with partner Melanie Lambert. In the semi-final he received the highest score in the history of Dancing on Ice at that time (29.5 out of a possible 30) matched only by rival Clare Buckfield the next week. He was then voted into the final alongside actress Clare Buckfield and former Blue member Duncan James.

He won the final on 17 March 2007 after a performance which included the required element of "flying" on wires and a final performance of Bolero.

On 24 March 2007 he won the special edition of Dancing on Ice 'The Champion of Champions', after repeating his record 29.5-point score.

He toured with Holiday on Ice in their show "Romanza".

Bracken made an appearance during preparations for Dancing on Ice 2008, week 5, to help contestant and friend Steve Backley with his performance.
After finishing the tour with Holiday on Ice Bracken has confirmed he was appearing in the Dancing on Ice Live tour 2008.

He also created his own Ice Party, held at the Hand Stadium, home of Clevedon Town, which starred himself, Clare Buckfield, Suzanne Shaw and many world-famous skaters.

Bracken placed 5th in the 2014 'all stars' series of Dancing on Ice being eliminated in the Quarter-Finals. He was partnered with professional ice skater Nina Ulanova.

Media career
In 2020, Kyran launched a new podcast called Ruck It! with fellow England international Nick Easter.

Personal life
Bracken and his wife, Victoria, have three sons, Charlie, Jack and Lochlan, and they live in Hadley Wood.

Charitable work
Bracken is an Honorary President of the rugby charity Wooden Spoon improving the lives of disadvantaged children and young people in Britain and Ireland. He is also an Ambassador of the Royal National Children's Foundation (formerly the Joint Educational trust) which helps support vulnerable, disadvantaged young people at state and independent boarding schools throughout the UK.

In 2009 he presented awards for Amersham & Wycombe College in their first awards ceremony.

References

External links
 Personal Website

1971 births
Alumni of the University of Bristol
Bristol Bears players
English people of Irish descent
England international rugby union players
English rugby union players
Living people
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Stonyhurst College
Reality show winners
Rugby union scrum-halves
Saracens F.C. players
Waterloo R.F.C. players
Irish rugby union players
Rugby union players from County Dublin
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from England
Rugby union players from Liverpool
Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom
1995 Rugby World Cup players
2003 Rugby World Cup players

Kyran Bracken


John Theophilus Desaguliers FRS (12 March 1683 – 29 February 1744) was a British natural philosopher, clergyman, engineer and freemason who was elected to the Royal Society in 1714 as experimental assistant to Isaac Newton. He had studied at Oxford and later popularized Newtonian theories and their practical applications in public lectures. Desaguliers's most important patron was James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos. As a Freemason, Desaguliers was instrumental in the success of the first Grand Lodge in London in the early 1720s and served as its third Grand Master.

Biography

Early life and education
Desaguliers was born in La Rochelle, several months after his father Jean Desaguliers, a Protestant minister, had been exiled as a Huguenot by the French government. Jean Desaguliers was ordained as an Anglican by Bishop Henry Compton of London, and sent to Guernsey. Meanwhile, the baby was baptised Jean Théophile Desaguliers in the Protestant Temple in La Rochelle, and he and his mother then escaped to join Jean in Guernsey.

In 1692, the family moved to London where Jean Desaguliers later set up a French school in Islington. He died in 1699. His son, who now used the anglicised name John Theophilus, attended Bishop Vesey's Grammar School in Sutton Coldfield until 1705 when he entered Christ Church, Oxford and followed the usual classical curriculum and graduated BA in 1709. He also attended lectures by John Keill, who used innovative demonstrations to illustrate difficult concepts of Newtonian natural philosophy. When Keill left Oxford in 1709 Desaguliers continued giving the lectures at Hart Hall, the forerunner of Hertford College, Oxford. He obtained a master's degree there in 1712. In 1719, Oxford granted him the honorary degree of Doctor in Civil Laws, after which he was often referred to as Dr Desaguliers.  His doctorate was incorporated by Cambridge University in 1726.

Desaguliers was ordained as a deacon in 1710, at Fulham Palace, and as a priest in 1717, at Ely Palace in London.

Lecturer and promoter of Newtonian experimental philosophy
In 1712, Desaguliers moved back to London and advertised courses of public lectures in Experimental Philosophy. He was not the first to do this, but became the most successful, offering to speak in English, French or Latin. By the time of his death, he had given over 140 courses of some 20 lectures each on mechanics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, optics and astronomy. He kept his lectures up to date, published notes for his auditors, and designed his own apparatus, including a renowned planetarium to demonstrate the solar system, and a machine to explain tidal motion. In 1717, Desaguliers lodged at Hampton Court and lectured in French to King George I and his family.

Demonstrator at the Royal Society
In 1714, Isaac Newton, President of the Royal Society, invited Desaguliers to replace Francis Hauksbee (1660–1713) as demonstrator at the Society's weekly meetings; he was soon thereafter made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Desaguliers promoted Newton's ideas and maintained the scientific nature of the meetings when Hans Sloane took over the Presidency after Newton died in 1727. Desaguliers contributed over 60 articles to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. He received the Society's prestigious Copley Medal in 1734, 1736 and 1741. The last award was for his summary of knowledge to date on the phenomenon of electricity. He had worked on this with Stephen Gray, who at one time lodged at the Desaguliers' home. Desaguliers's "Dissertation concerning Electricity" (1742), in which he coined the terms conductor and insulator, was awarded a gold medal by the Bordeaux Academy of Sciences.

Patronage of the Duke of Chandos
James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos appointed Desaguliers as his chaplain in 1716, but probably as much for his scientific expertise as his ecclesiastic duties. He was also gifted the living of St Lawrence Church, Little Stanmore, which was close to the Duke's mansion called Cannons, then under construction at nearby Edgware.  The church was rebuilt in the baroque style in 1715. As the chapel at Cannons was not completed until 1720, the church was the location of first performances of the so-called Chandos Anthems by George Frideric Handel who was, in 1717/18, like Desaguliers, a member of the Duke's household.

The Cannons estate benefited from Desaguliers' scientific expertise which was applied to the elaborate water garden there. He was also technical adviser to an enterprise in which Chandos had invested, the York Buildings Company, which used steam-power to extract water from the Thames. In 1718, Desaguliers dedicated to the Duke his translation of Edme Mariotte's treatise on the motion of water. It is perhaps no coincidence that in the summer of 1718 Handel composed his opera Acis and Galatea for performance at Cannons. In this work the hero Acis is turned into a fountain, and since, by tradition, the work was first performed outside on the terraces overlooking the garden, a connection with Desaguliers' new water works seems probable.

Desaguliers advised the Duke of Chandos on many projects and appears to have been distracted from his parochial duties by his other interests. The Duke once complained that there were unreasonable delays in burying the dead but this was attributed to the curate who was left in charge of the church.

Engineering interests
Desaguliers applied his knowledge to practical applications. As well as his interest in steam engines and hydraulic engineering (in 1721 he cured a problem in the Edinburgh city water supply) he developed expertise in ventilation. He devised a more efficient fireplace which was used in the House of Lords and also invented the blowing wheel which removed stale air from the House of Commons for many years.
Desaguliers studied the movements made by the human body when working as a machine. He befriended the strong man, Thomas Topham, and although there is no firm evidence that he used Topham as a body guard, Desaguliers recorded several of the feats that he performed.

Desaguliers was a parliamentary adviser to the board concerned with the first Westminster Bridge. This much-needed second crossing of the Thames was not completed until 1750, after his death, but construction work resulted in the demolition of Desaguliers's home in Channel Row.

Desaguliers also made significant contributions to the field of tribology. He was the first to recognise the possible role of adhesion in the friction process. For this contribution, he was named by Duncan Dowson as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology".

Freemasonry
Desaguliers was a member of the Lodge which met at the Goose and Gridiron tavern. This Lodge, later known as the "Lodge of Antiquity", joined with three other lodges on 24 June 1717 to form what would become the Premier Grand Lodge of England. The new Grand Lodge grew rapidly as more lodges joined and Desaguliers is remembered as being instrumental in its early success. He became the third Grand Master in 1719 and was later three times Deputy Grand Master. He helped James Anderson draw up the rules in the "Constitutions of the Freemasons", published in 1723, and he was active in the establishment of masonic charity. During a lecture trip to the Netherlands in 1731 Desaguliers initiated into Freemasonry Francis, Duke of Lorraine (1708–65) who later became Holy Roman Emperor. Desaguliers also presided when Frederick, Prince of Wales, became a Freemason in 1731, and he additionally became a chaplain to the Prince.

Family
On 14 October 1712, John Theophilus Desaguliers married Joanna Pudsey, daughter of William and Anne Pudsey of Kidlington, near Oxford. For most of their married life, the couple lived at Channel Row, Westminster where Desaguliers gave the majority of his lectures. When forced to leave due to work on Westminster Bridge, they separated and John Theophilus took lodgings at the Bedford Coffee House in Covent Garden and carried on his lectures there. The Desaguliers had four sons and three daughters, for most of whom they acquired aristocratic godparents, but only two children survived beyond infancy: John Theophilus jnr (1718–1751) graduated from Oxford, became a clergyman, and died childless, while Thomas (1721–1780) had a distinguished military career in the Royal Artillery, rising to the rank of General. He became chief firemaster at the Arsenal, Woolwich, and seems to have been the first to be employed by the English army to apply scientific principles to the production of cannon and the powers of gunnery, for which he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. It was Thomas Desaguliers who in part designed and supervised the fireworks for the first performance of Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks in Green Park. He later became an equerry to King George III.

Final years
John Theophilus Desaguliers had long suffered from gout. He died at his lodgings in the Bedford Coffee House on 29 February 1744 and was buried on 6 March 1744 in a prestigious location within the Savoy Chapel in London. The chapel was probably chosen for its Huguenot associations and in memory of Desaguliers's origins. The press announcements of his death referred to him as 'a gentleman universally known and esteemed'.  In his will Desaguliers left his estate to his elder son who organised the publication of the second edition of his "Course of Experimental Philosophy". Although never a wealthy man, he did not die in poverty as suggested by the oft-quoted but inaccurate lines of the poet James Cawthorn:

How poor neglected Desaguiliers fell!
How he who taught two gracious kings to view
All Boyle ennobled, and all Bacon knew,
Died in a cell, without a friend to save,
Without a guinea, and without a grave.

These are taken from a long poem entitled "The Vanity of Human Enjoyment" (1749) in which the poet attempted to draw attention to the general lack of funding for men of science and not Desaguliers in particular.

Portraits
There are two known engravings, by Peter Pelham and by James Tookey, taken from a lost portrait of Desaguliers painted in about 1725 by Hans Hysing, and an engraving by R. Scaddon of a Thomas Frye painting, also apparently lost, which showed the subject as an old man in 1743. An engraving by Etienne-Jehandier Desrochers was almost certainly made in 1735 when Desaguliers was on his only visit to Paris. There is also an oil attributed to Jonathan Richardson.

Publications
Desaguliers wrote on many topics for the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, produced several editions of notes for the auditors of his lectures and wrote occasional poetry. He translated technical works from French and Latin into English, often adding his own comments. His own Course of Experimental Philosophy was translated into Dutch and French

Some original works
 A Sermon Preach'd before the King at Hampton Court (London, 1717)
 The Newtonian System of the World, the Best Model of Government: An Allegorical Poem (Westminster, 1728)
 A Course of Experimental Philosophy, 1st edition, Vol I (London, 1734) and Vol II (London 1744)
 A Dissertation Concerning Electricity (London, 1742)

Some translations
 Ozanam, Jacques, A Treatise of Fortification, (Oxford, 1711)
 Ozanam, Jacques, A Treatise of Gnomonicks, or Dialling, (Oxford, 1712)
 Gauger, Nicolas, Fires Improv'd: Being a New Method of Building Chimneys, (London, 1st ed., 1715; 2nd ed., 1736)
 Mariotte, Edmé, The Motion of Water and other Fluids, being a Treatise on Hydrostaticks, (London, 1718)
 'sGravesande, Willem, Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy Confirmed by Experiment, or an Introduction to Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy (London, 1720)
 Pitcairn, Archibald, The Whole Works of Dr Archibald Pitcairn (treatise on physic translated from Latin in collaboration with George Sewell) (2nd ed., London, 1727).
 Vaucanson, Jacques, An Account of the Mechanism of an Automaton, (London, 1742)

See also
Electric charge
Development of a practical steam engine
Direct bonding
Dynamometer
Ventilation (architecture)

References

Further reading
 Baker, C. H. Collins, and Baker, Muriel (1949) James Brydges First Duke of Chandos Oxford: Clarendon Press
 Berman, Ric (2012) Foundations of Modern Freemasonry: The Grand Architects: Political Change & the Scientific Enlightenment, 1714–1740 (Sussex Academic Press), Chapter 2.
 Campbell, James W.P. (2020), "The Significance of John Theophilus Desaguliers's Course of Experimental Philosophy to the History of Hydraulics and what it reveals about the first Pump-Driven Fountains", pp.331–347 in James W.P. Campbell, Nina Baker, Karey Draper, Michale Driver, Michael Heaton, Yiting Pan, Natcha Ruamsanitwong and David Yeomans (eds.), Iron, Steel and Buildings: Studies in the History of Construction: The Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the Construction History Society, Cambridge: Construction History Society.
 Carpenter, A. T., (2011), John Theophilus Desaguliers: A Natural Philosopher, Engineer and Freemason in Newtonian England, (London: Continuum/Bloomsbury), ;
 Mackey, Albert G. (1966), An Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, reprint edition, (Chicago:, The Masonic History Company).
 Priestley, Joseph (1769), The History and Present State of Electricity: With Original Experiments (Google eBook), pp 61–67; accessed 12 May 2014
 Stephens, H. M. (2004) Desaguliers, Thomas (1721–1780), rev. Jonathan Spain, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press; online edn, Jan 2014 accessed 12 May 2014

External links

  Masonic biography
 British Journal of Psychology

1683 births
1744 deaths
People from La Rochelle
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
English chaplains
18th-century British inventors
English physicists
English scientists
French–English translators
Fellows of Hertford College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Copley Medal
English male writers
Grand Masters of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England
French emigrants to England
Guernsey people
People from Islington (district)
Tribologists

John Theophilus Desaguliers


Lynne Ewing is an American book writer and a movie writer.

She moved a lot as she was growing up; her father was in the Marine Corps. She has two sisters.  Lynne finished high school in Lima, Peru after going to seven other schools.  The time she was in the country Peru, she learned to speak the language Spanish. She attended the University of California at Santa Barbara. She was 30 years old when she began writing for newspapers, documentaries, magazines, and did screen writing. She is also a counselor.  The first books that she wrote were Drive-By and Party Girl. Drive-By took six years to write, and Party Girl has been made into a movie called Living the Life. She has written the finished book Daughters of the Moon and Sons of the Dark line of books.  She lives in Los Angeles and Washington D.C.. Ms. Ewing has two children, Jonathan, a molecular biologist, and Amber, a lawyer who works around the country. She has also been to Japan, China, Russia, Europe, Malaysia, Singapore, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand. She has started a new line of books named Sisters of Isis.

Books
 Drive By - Written in 1996
 Party Girl - Written in 1999
 Daughters of the Moon - Written from 2000-2007
 Sons of the Dark - Written from 2004-2005
 Sisters of Isis -  2007-2008 She is still writing the book

In 2001, Lynne's book Party Girl became a movie called Living the Life; Lynne was one of two moviewriters.

Living people
American screenwriters
1938 births
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists

Lynne Ewing


Casa degli Omenoni is a historic palace of Milan, northern Italy, located in the eponymous street of Via degli Omenoni (number 3). It was designed by sculptor Leone Leoni for himself; he both lived and worked there. It owes its name to the eight atlantes decorating its facade, termed "omenoni" ("big men" in Milanese), which were sculpted by Antonio Abondio, most probably on a design by Leoni. Lions (a reference to the "Leoni" family)  are a recurring theme of its decorations; in particular, a large relief placed under the cornice depicts two lions tearing a satyr into pieces. The overall style of the palace and the decorations have been noted to include several references to the art of Michelangelo. The internal courtyard, modified in 1929 by Piero Portaluppi, has a colonnade with metopes and triglyphs.

Artist and historian Giorgio Vasari expressed his admiration for the palace, stating that it was pieno [...] di capricciose invenzioni ("full of capricious inventions"). At the time, the palace also housed a notable collection of art works and antiquities, which has been dispersed over time. According to an inventory dating back to 1615, it had paintings by Titian, Parmigianino, and Michelangelo; the inventory also mentions a book of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, which scholars identify with the Codex Atlanticus now preserved in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

The palace has been largely restored and restructured in the 19th and 20th century; only the facade has remained almost unchanged, except for the addition of iron balconies and of the attic.

After being owned by Leone Leoni and then by his son Pompeo Leoni, the house was sold by Pompeo's son-in-law Polidoro Calchi, and over time was owned by several notable Milanese families, including the Belgioioso, the Pozzi, and the Besana. It was also used as the seat of the music-publishing company Casa Ricordi, as a seat of the Fascist party, and as a theatre. The building is adjacent to the Palazzo Pozzi Besana.

See also
 Villas and palaces in Milan

References

Omenoni
Renaissance architecture in Milan
Tourist attractions in Milan

Casa degli Omenoni


The Defense Industries Organization (DIO) is a conglomerate of companies run by the Islamic Republic of Iran whose function is to provide the Armed Forces with the necessary manufacturing capacity and technical abilities. In recent years, the DIO has attempted to become export-oriented, allowing Iran to become an exporter of weapons.

History

Prior to 1963, the Iranian military industry consisted of a number of independent factories. Iran's military industry was born under the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1973, the Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) was founded to organize efforts to assemble and repair foreign-delivered weapons. Most of Iran's weapons before the Islamic revolution were imported from the United States and Europe. Between 1971 and 1975, the Shah went on a buying spree, ordering $8 billion in weapons from the United States alone. This alarmed many in the U.S., which strengthened a 1968 law on arms exports in 1976 and renamed it the Arms Export Control Act. Still, the United States continued to sell large amounts of weapons to Iran until the 1979 Islamic Revolution.

In an early effort to overhaul Iran's military capabilities, Mohammad Reza Shah ordered the creation of the Military Industries Organization (MIO). Operating as a branch of the Ministry of War, the MIO was to oversee all military production within Iran. Over the next fifteen years, military plants produced small arms ammunition, batteries, tires, copper products, explosives, and mortar rounds and fuses. They also produced rifles and machine guns under license from West Germany. In addition, helicopters, jeeps, trucks, and trailers were assembled from imported kits in attempts to transfer technical knowledge to Iran. Additionally, the organization was charged with research and development and took the initiative in reverse engineering a number of Soviet RPG-7, BM-21, and SAM-7 missiles in 1979.

The Iranian Revolution halted all the military activities of the MIO. Plagued by the upheavals of the time, the MIO was left unable to operate without foreign specialists and technicians; by 1981 it had lost much of its management ability and control over its industrial facilities.

The outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War in 1980 and the Western arms embargo served as a massive catalyst for the MIO to reorganize its operations. In late 1981, the new revolutionary government of Iran brought together the now disorganised sections of the MIO and placed them under the Defense Industries Organization. The DIO would from this point onwards supervise all production, research and development.

The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps was put in charge of re-organising the domestic military industry. Under their command Iran's military industry was dramatically expanded, and with the Ministry of Defence pouring capital into the missile industry, Iran soon had an arsenal of missiles.

Operations

In 1987, the DIO was governed by a mixed civilian-military board of directors and a managing director responsible for the actual management and planning activities. Although the DIO director was accountable to the deputy minister of defense for logistics, it was the president of Iran, in his capacity as the chairman of the SDC, had ultimate responsibility for all DIO operations.

Since 1992, it also has produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, missiles, a submarine, and a fighter plane.

Today, the DIO has more than 35,000 employees, 30% of whom are university graduates. It is also the key organisation driving Iran's significant military industry.

In 2007, following events in Iran's Nuclear Program, the United Nations Security Council placed sanctions against Iran forbidding it from exporting any form of weapons.

See also
 Iran Electronics Industries
 Iran Aviation Industries Organization

References

External links
 Official DIO Website
 GlobalSecurity.org - DIO
1981 establishments in Iran
Conglomerate companies of Iran
Manufacturing companies based in Tehran
Defence companies of Iran
Companies established in 1981
Ministry of Defence and Armed Forces Logistics of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Defense Industries Organization


A false analogy is an informal fallacy. It applies to inductive arguments. It is an informal fallacy because the error concerns what the argument is about, and not the argument itself.

An analogy proposes that two concepts which are similar (A and B) have a common relationship to some property. A has property X, therefore B must also have property X. In a false analogy, the objects may have some similarities, but they do not both have property X. That way, both objects may have the same color, but this does not mean that they have the same size.  Even if bananas and the sun appear yellow, one could not conclude that they are the same size. One who makes an invalid analogy or comparison is often said to be "comparing apples and oranges".

Examples

The following are examples of false analogies:

 Love is like a spring shower. It brings refreshment to a person's body. (Does it also sometimes lead to thunderstorms and being hit by lightning?)

 Children are like dogs. They need to be strongly disciplined and housebroken. (Should they also eat from a bowl on the floor and see a vet regularly?)

 Tobacco smokers are like people who are sun dumb'. They need to improve their self-care to avoid cancer. (Should they never leave the house?)
 Procrastination on homework is bad. It's like waiting until the last minute to get cancer treatment. (Does not doing homework cause death?)
Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of somebody's wallet.(Does that mean I need to get Bill Gates to give his life earnings to a waitress so I'm not stealing)
You can't give me marriage advice because your wife is dead. (He had a wife in the past so that doesn't mean he knows nothing about marriage'')

Related pages
 Moral equivalence

References

Logical fallacies

False analogy


A string instrument is a musical instrument that makes sound by vibrating the strings on it. The strings are plucked to produce sounds. Each string has a different frequency. The desired frequency can be obtained by adjusting the tension on the string. A string instrument plays soft notes. The strings on the instrument usually come in many shapes and forms. There are many types of stringed instruments. The most common of these appear in the violin family. The violin is a small, stringed instrument played with a bow, usually made of horse's hair. When the bow is drawn across the strings it creates a vibration. You can select what vibration the bow makes by choosing the note on the fingerboard. It is tuned to G, D, A and E. The viola is a very similar instrument aside from some small differences - it is slightly larger, and is tuned to C, G, D, and A. The cello is a stringed instrument that is played in the bass clef. It is much bigger than the violin, and is also played much differently. The double-bass is bigger still and is the lowest of them all.

There are also plucked strings, the most famous of which would probably be the guitar. The guitar uses a fret board and a pick to pluck the strings while holding down on the fret board. It was made famous by rock groups like Led Zeppelin and artists like Eric Clapton. You play by strumming with one hand while choosing notes on the fret-board (string board) with the other. Banjos are also very similar.

Here is a very basic list of some of the most common stringed instruments:

Guitar
Ukulele
Violin
Viola
Cello
String bass
Harp

Related pages
Musical instrument

String instrument