The Congress of Verona met at Verona on 20 October 1822 as part of the series of international conferences or congresses that opened with the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15, which had instituted the Concert of Europe at the close of the Napoleonic Wars.

Representation
The Quintuple Alliance was represented by the following persons:
 : Emperor Alexander I and Count Karl Robert Nesselrode (minister of foreign affairs). Count George Mocenigo (Ambassador of Russia in Turin) was also present;
 : Prince Metternich;
 : Prince Hardenberg and Count Christian Gunther von Bernstorff;
 : Anne-Adrien-Pierre de Montmorency-Laval (minister of Foreign Affairs) and François-René de Chateaubriand;
 : The Duke of Wellington, who was taking the place of Lord Londonderry after the latter's suicide on the eve of the congress.

Issues

While the representatives of Great Britain and the European powers had at first, during the Congress of Vienna, acted largely in concert, the extent to which the concord epitomized in the expression the "Concert of Europe" had unraveled in seven years became apparent in the way in which the three main questions before this Congress were handled.

The instructions drawn up by Londonderry, as he then was, for his own guidance, had been handed to Wellington by George Canning without alteration. They defined the British position towards the three questions which it was supposed would be discussed: the Eastern question (currently surfacing in the Greek insurrection), the question of intervention in favor of the Bourbon royal power in Spain and the revolted Spanish colonies in America, and the Italian Question.

Italian Question
The matter of the Italian Question dealt with the continued Austrian rule in Northern Italy. Since Britain could not undertake to support a system in which she had merely acquiesced, Wellington did not even formally present his credentials until the other Powers had disposed of the matter, a British minister Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry (Castlereagh's half-brother and successor in the Londonderry title) attending merely to keep informed and to see that nothing was done inconsistent with the European system and the treaties.

Greek Question
In the Greek Question, the probable raising of which had alone induced the British government to send a minister plenipotentiary to the Congress, Wellington was instructed to suggest the eventual necessity for recognizing the belligerent rights of the Greeks, and, in the event of concerted intervention, to be careful not to commit Britain, beyond a supporting role. (See Greek War of Independence.)

As for Russia and Austria, the immediate problems arising out of the Greek Question had already been privately settled between the Emperor Alexander and Metternich, to their mutual satisfaction, at the preliminary conferences held at Vienna in September.

Spanish Question

When the plenipotentiaries met in Verona, the only question raised was the Spanish Question, of the proposed French intervention in Spain, in which Wellington's instructions were to express London's uncompromising opposition to the whole principle of intervention.

The discussion was opened by three questions formally propounded by Montmorency:
 Would the Allies withdraw their ministers from Madrid in the event of France being compelled to do so?
 In case of war, under what form and by what acts would the powers give France their moral support, so as to give to her action the force of the Quintuple Alliance, and inspire a salutary fear in the revolutionaries of all countries?
 What material aid would the powers give if asked by France to intervene, under restrictions which France would declare and they would recognize?

A series of gilt-copper medals apparently struck in England represent participants of the Congress in less than flattering lights: the "Count de Chateaubriand" (Ludwig Ernst Bramsen, Médallier) bears an inscription that offers the British view of the French position in a nutshell: "The King of France, my master, demands the freedom of Ferdinand VII to give his people institutions which they cannot hold but from him", while the Emperor Francis I of Austria asserts "My troops occupy Naples to chastise the Neapolitans for daring to change their constitution."

The reply of Alexander, who expressed his surprise at the desire of France to keep the intervention wholly French, was to offer to march 150,000 Russians through Germany to Piedmont, where they could be held ready to act against any Jacobins, whether in Spain or France. This solution appealed as little to Metternich and Montmorency as to Wellington; but though united in opposing it, four days of confidential communications revealed a fundamental difference of opinion.  Wellington, firmly based on the principle of non-intervention, refused to have anything to do with the suggestion, made by Metternich, that the powers should address a common note to the Spanish government in support of the action of France. Finally, Metternich proposed that the Allies should hold a common language, but in separate notes, though uniform in their principles and objects. This solution was adopted by the continental powers; but Wellington, in accordance with his instructions not to countenance any intervention in Spanish affairs, took no part in the conferences that followed. On October 30 the powers handed in their formal replies to the French memorandum.

Russia, Austria and Prussia would act as France should in respect of withdrawing their ministers, and would give to France every assistance she might require, the details to be specified in a treaty. Wellington, on the other hand, replied on behalf of Great Britain that having no knowledge of the cause of dispute, and not being able to form a judgment upon a hypothetical case, he could give no answer to any of the questions.

Thus was proclaimed the open breach of Britain with the principles and policy of the Quintuple Alliance, as it had become with the admission of France in 1818, which development is what gives to the congress its main historical interest. The ensuing French intervention ended with the Battle of Trocadero, which reinstated Ferdinand VII of Spain and opened a reactionary period of Spanish and European politics that led to the Year of Revolutions, 1848.

References

Further reading

 W. Alison Phillips, in Cambridge Modern History, chapter I: The Congresses
 I. C. Nichols, European Pentarchy and the Congress of Verona, 1822

 Nichols, Irby Coghill. The European Pentarchy and the Congress of Verona, 1822 (Springer Science & Business Media, 2012).
 Nichols Jr,  Irby C. "The Congress of Verona, 1822: A Reappraisal." Southwestern Social Science Quarterly (1966): 385–399 online
 Reinerman, Alan. "Metternich, Italy and the Congress of Verona, 1821–1822." Historical Journal 14.2 (1971): 263–287. online

External links

The Chateaubriand medal illustrated
The Francis I medal illustrated
Full text edition of the Post-Napoleonic congresses as held by the National Archives of Austria:
as held by the National Archives of Austria:

Post-Napoleonic congresses
Diplomacy during the Greek War of Independence
1822 in Europe
Diplomatic conferences in Italy
19th-century diplomatic conferences
1822 in international relations
1822 conferences
October 1822 events
History of Verona
National questions
François-René de Chateaubriand
Klemens von Metternich
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
Alexander I of Russia

Congress of Verona


Rossby-gravity waves are equatorially trapped waves (much like Kelvin waves), meaning that they rapidly decay as their distance increases away from the equator (so long as the Brunt–Vaisala frequency does not remain constant).  These waves have the same trapping scale as Kelvin waves, more commonly known as the equatorial Rossby deformation radius.  They always carry energy eastward, but their 'crests' and 'troughs' may propagate westward if their periods are long enough.

Derivation

The eastward speed of propagation of these waves can be derived for an inviscid slowly moving layer of fluid of uniform depth H.  Because the Coriolis parameter (f = 2Ω sin(θ) where Ω is the angular velocity of the earth, 7.2921 × 10−5 rad/s, and θ is latitude) vanishes at 0 degrees latitude (equator), the "equatorial beta plane" approximation must be made.  This approximation states that f is approximately equal to βy, where y is the distance from the equator and β is the variation of the Coriolis parameter with latitude, .  With the inclusion of this approximation, the primitive equations become (neglecting friction):

 the continuity equation (accounting for the effects of horizontal convergence and divergence and written with geopotential height):

 the U-momentum equation (zonal wind component):

 the V-momentum equation (meridional wind component):

.

These three equations can be separated and solved using solutions in the form of zonally propagating waves, which are analogous to exponential solutions with a dependence on x and t and the inclusion of structure functions that vary in the y-direction:

.

Once the frequency relation is formulated in terms of ω, the angular frequency, the problem can be solved with three distinct solutions.  These three solutions correspond to the equatorially trapped gravity wave, the equatorially trapped Rossby wave and the mixed Rossby-gravity wave (which has some of the characteristics of the former two) .  Equatorial gravity waves can be either westward- or eastward-propagating, and correspond to n=1 (same as for the equatorially trapped Rossby wave) on a dispersion relation diagram ("w-k" diagram).  At n = 0 on a dispersion relation diagram, the mixed Rossby-gravity waves can be found where for large, positive zonal wave numbers (+k), the solution behaves like a gravity wave; but for large, negative zonal wave numbers (−k), the solution appears to be a Rossby wave (hence the term Rossby-gravity waves).  As mentioned earlier, the group velocity (or energy packet/dispersion) is always directed toward the east with a maximum for short waves (gravity waves).

Vertically propagating Rossby-gravity waves

As previously stated, the mixed Rossby-gravity waves are equatorially trapped waves unless the buoyancy frequency remains constant, introducing an additional vertical wave number to complement the zonal wave number and angular frequency.  If this Brunt–Vaisala frequency does not change, then these waves become vertically propagating solutions.  On a typical "m,k" dispersion diagram, the group velocity (energy) would be directed at right angles to the n = 0 (mixed Rossby-gravity waves) and n = 1 (gravity or Rossby waves) curves and would increase in the direction of increasing angular frequency.  Typical group velocities for each component are the following: 1 cm/s for gravity waves and 2 mm/s for planetary (Rossby) waves.

These vertically propagating mixed Rossby-gravity waves were first observed in the stratosphere as westward-propagating mixed waves by M. Yanai.  They had the following characteristics: 4–5 days, horizontal wavenumbers of 4 (four waves circling the earth, corresponding to wavelengths of 10,000 km), vertical wavelengths of 4–8 km, and upward group velocity.  Similarly, westward-propagating mixed waves were also found in the Atlantic Ocean by Weisberg et al. (1979) with periods of 31 days, horizontal wavelengths of 1200 km, vertical wavelengths of 1 km, and downward group velocity.  Also, the vertically propagating gravity wave component was found in the stratosphere with periods of 35 hours, horizontal wavelengths of 2400 km, and vertical wavelengths of 5 km.

See also
Rossby wave
Equatorial Rossby wave

References

Physical oceanography
Gravity waves

Rossby-gravity waves


Ciara Princess Harris (born October 25, 1985) professionally known as Ciara, is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actress.

Music career
In 2004, Ciara released her debut studio album Goodies, which produced three hit singles: "Goodies," "1, 2 Step," and "Oh." The album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and earned her four nominations at the 48th Grammy Awards. She released her second studio album, Ciara: The Evolution, in 2006 which spawned the hit singles "Get Up," "Promise," and "Like a Boy." The album reached number one in the US and was certified platinum. Her third studio album Fantasy Ride, released in 2009, was considerably less successful than Ciara's first two albums. However, it produced the worldwide top-ten hit "Love Sex Magic"  featuring Justin Timberlake, which earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. The following year, Ciara released her fourth studio album Basic Instinct, which was met with low sales and continued a downward trend in her commercial success. In 2011, she signed a new record deal with Epic Records, and  she released her  fifth studio album, Jackie, which is preceded by the lead single, "Sorry" in 2015. In 2019, she released her sixth studio album, Beauty Marks, which is preceded by the hit lead singles, "Level Up", "Thinkin  Bout You" and the album titled song "Beauty Marks ".

Personal life
On Ciara's 28th birthday, Future asked her if she would marry him. They became engaged but was the engagement was called off later that year. January 14, 2014 Ciara said on The View that she was pregnant with Future's child. In June 2016, she married Seattle Seahawks  NFL star quarterback Russell Wilson. They had their  first child, Sienna Princess Wilson, on April 29, 2017.

Discography

 Goodies (2004)
 Ciara: The Evolution (2006)
 Fantasy Ride (2009)
 Basic Instinct (2010)
 Ciara (2013)
 Jackie (2015)
 Beauty Marks (2019)

Tours
Headlining
 2006: The Evolution Tour
 2007: Screamfest '07 (with T.I.)
 2009: Jay-Z & Ciara Live (with Jay-Z)
 2010: Basic Instanct Tour
 2015: Jackie Tour
 2019: ''Beauty Marks Tour

Supporting act
 2005: Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005
 2007: Good Girl Gone Bad Tour
 2009: The Circus Starring Britney Spears
 2010: Summerbeatz

References

1985 births
Living people
Actors from Austin, Texas
African American actors
African-American singers
American dancers
American movie actors
American record producers
Grammy Award winners
Singer-songwriters from Texas
American composers
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American funk singers
American hip hop musicians
American hip hop singers
American models
American pop singers
Mezzo-sopranos
Musicians from Atlanta
Musicians from Austin, Texas
Singers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Sopranos
Warner Bros. Records artists

Ciara


A chimney is a structure used to ventilate hot flue gases  or  smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Most chimneys are vertical, or almost vertical, to make sure that the gases flow easily, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the United States, the term smokestack  is also used when talking about locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys, the word funnel can be used too.

The Height of a chimney is really important, when higher, chimney's dispersion of pollutants will not cause too much influence on surrounding areas. Tall chimneys also allow chemicals to self-neutralize in the air before they reach the ground.

References

Architectural elements

Chimney


Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (born as Máxima Zorreguieta; 17 May 1971) is the wife of Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands.

Early life and education
She was born Máxima Zorreguieta in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971. Máxima is the daughter of Jorge Horacio Zorreguieta Stefanini, a farmer and a politician (died 2017). He was the under-secretary of Agriculture under Jorge R. Videla's military dictatorship. She studied in Northlands School, in Argentina. She has two brothers, a sister and three half-sisters by her father's first wife.
She graduated with a degree in Economics from the Universidad Católica Argentina in 1995 before working for large international companies in Finance in Argentina, New York and Europe.

In June 2018, her sister Inés Zorreguieta, committed suicide by hanging herself at her Buenos Aires apartment, aged 33.

She has been serving as the United Nations Secretary General's Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development (UNSGSA) since 2009.

Relationship with Willem-Alexander
Máxima met the crown prince in April 1999 in Sevilla, Spain, during the Seville Spring Fair. This is an important annual event, to which many people from other countries come and dress in typical Spanish Andalusian costume. In an interview, they stated that he introduced himself only as "Alexander," so that she did not know he was a prince. She thought he was joking when he told her he was a Prince. They agreed to meet in New York, where Máxima was working for Dresdner Kleinwort Benson, two weeks later. Their relationship apparently began in New York, but the Princess did not meet the Prince's parents, Queen Beatrix and Claus von Amsberg, for some time.

The news of the couple's relationship and eventual marriage plans caused controversy in the Netherlands. Máxima's father had been the Minister of Agriculture during the regime of former Argentine President Jorge Rafael Videla, a military dictator who ruled Argentina from 1976 to 1981 and who was responsible for many atrocities against civilians (non-military people). An estimated 10,000–30,000 people disappeared during this and later military regimes. Democracy was restored to Argentina in 1983.

Jorge Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he did not know about the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister. Professor Baud was asked by the Dutch Parliament to research in what way Jorge Zorreguieta was involved in the war. He concluded that it would have been unlikely for a person in such a powerful position in the government to not know about the Dirty War. But the research also found that Máxima's father had not been directly involved with the many deaths in question.

The Dutch parliament gave permission for Máxima and Willem-Alexander to marry. This is necessary by law for the Prince of Orange to be able to become king. Because of the research around his involvement in the Dirty War, Máxima's father offered not to attend the wedding. Out of solidarity with her husband, Máxima's mother also did not come to the wedding on 2 February 2002 in Amsterdam.

Marriage
The couple announced their engagement on 30 March 2001. Princess Máxima talked to the nation in fluent Dutch during the live  broadcast on the occasion of the engagement.

Princess Máxima and Prince Willem-Alexander were married on 2 February 2002 in a civil ceremony in the Beurs van Berlage, Amsterdam. After that they had a religious ceremony at the Nieuwe Kerk (also in Amsterdam).

Title

2 February 2002-30 April 2013 Her Royal Highness Princess Maxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau

30 April 2013-present Her Majesty The Queen

Children
 Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (born 7 December 2003)
 Princess Alexia of the Netherlands (born 26 June 2005)
 Princess Ariane of the Netherlands (born 10 April 2007)

The second names of all three of their daughters are also the names of the last three Dutch queens: Amalia's for her grandmother, Queen Beatrix, Alexia's for her great-grandmother, Queen Juliana and Ariane's for her great-great-grandmother, Queen Wilhelmina.

Queen Máxima is also godmother to two royal babies: Countess Leonore of Orange-Nassau (daughter of Prince Constantijn and Princess Laurentien of the Netherlands) and of Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway (son of Crown Prince Haakon and Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway).

References

Other websites

Queen Máxima  (official website of the Dutch Royal House)
Reina Máxima- Biography, news, fashion,etc about Queen Máxima  non-official website, in Spanish, English and Dutch
Ancestry of Maxima Zorreguieta (b. 1971)
Royal House of the Netherlands
Hello Magazine profile
Royalty Magazine on Queen Maxima
Gallery of Queen Maxima on RoyalImages
Year of Microcredit

|-

1971 births
Living people
Dutch economists
Dutch Roman Catholics
Dutch royalty
House of Orange-Nassau
Kings and Queens consort
Scientists from Buenos Aires
Princesses of Orange
United Nations officials
Argentine economists

Queen Máxima of the Netherlands


William Henry Jackson (April 4, 1843 – June 30, 1942) was an American photographer, Civil War veteran, painter, and an explorer famous for his images of the American West. He was a great-great nephew of Samuel Wilson, the progenitor of America's national symbol Uncle Sam. He was the great-grandfather of cartoonist Bill Griffith, creator of Zippy the Pinhead comics.

Early life
Jackson was born in Keeseville, New York, on April 4, 1843, the first of seven children born to George Hallock Jackson and Harriet Maria Allen. Harriet, a talented water-colorist, was a graduate of the Troy Female Seminary, later the Emma Willard School. Painting was William's passion from a young age. By age 19, he had become a skillful, talented artist of American pre-Civil War visual arts. Orson Squire Fowler wrote that Jackson was "excellent as a painter".

After his childhood in Troy, New York, and Rutland, Vermont, Jackson enlisted in October 1862 as a 19-year-old private in Company K of the 12th Vermont Infantry of the Union Army. Jackson spent much of his free time sketching drawings of his friends and various scenes of Army camp life that he sent home to his family as his way of letting them know he was safe. He served in the American Civil War for nine months including one major battle, the Battle of Gettysburg. Jackson spent most of his tour on garrison duty and helped guard a supply train during the engagement. His regiment mustered out on July 14, 1863. Jackson then returned to Rutland, where he worked as an artistic painter in post-Civil War American society. Having broken his engagement to Miss Carolina Eastman, he left Vermont for the American West.

In 1866 Jackson boarded a Union Pacific Railroad train and traveled until it reached the end of the line at that time, about one hundred miles west of Omaha, Nebraska, where he then joined a wagon train heading west to Great Salt Lake as a bullwhacker, on the Oregon Trail. In 1867 along with his brother Edward Jackson he settled down in Omaha and entered the photography business.  On ventures that often lasted for several days, Jackson acted as a "missionary to the Indians" around the Omaha region, and it was there that Jackson made his now famous photographs of the American Indians: Osages, Otoes, Pawnees, Winnebagoes and Omahas.

Career as photographer

Union Pacific expedition

In 1869 Jackson won a commission from the Union Pacific to document the scenery along the various railroad routes for promotional purposes.  When his work was discovered by Ferdinand Hayden, who was organizing a geologic survey to explore the Yellowstone River region, he was asked to join the expedition.

The following year, he got a last-minute invitation to join the 1870 U.S. government survey (predecessor of U.S. Geological Survey) of the Yellowstone River and Rocky Mountains led by Ferdinand Hayden. He also was a member of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 which led to the creation of Yellowstone National Park. Painter Thomas Moran was also part of the expedition, and the two artists worked closely together to document the Yellowstone region. Hayden's surveys (usually accompanied by a small detachment of the U.S. Cavalry) were annual multidisciplinary expeditions meant to chart the largely unexplored west, observe flora (plants), fauna (animals), and geological conditions (geology), and identify likely navigational routes, so as official photographer for the survey, Jackson was in a position to capture the first photographs of legendary landmarks of the West. These photographs played an important role in convincing Congress in 1872 to establish Yellowstone National Park, the first national park of the U.S. His involvement with Hayden's survey established his reputation as one of the most accomplished explorers of the American continent. Among Hayden's party were Jackson, Moran, geologist George Allen, mineralogist Albert Peale, topographical artist Henry Elliot, botanists, and other scientists who collected numerous wildlife specimens and other natural data.

Jackson worked in multiple camera and plate sizes, under conditions that were often incredibly difficult. His photography was based on the collodion process invented in 1848 and published in 1851 by Frederick Scott Archer.  Jackson traveled with as many as three camera-types—a stereographic camera (for stereoscope cards), a "whole-plate" or 8x10" plate-size camera, and one even larger, as large as 18x22".  These cameras required fragile, heavy glass plates (photographic plates), which had to be coated, exposed, and developed onsite, before the wet-collodion emulsion dried. Without light metering equipment or sure emulsion speeds, exposure times required inspired guesswork, between five seconds and twenty minutes depending on light conditions.

Preparing, exposing, developing, fixing, washing then drying a single image could take the better part of an hour. Washing the plates in 160 °F hot spring water cut the drying time by more than half, while using water from snow melted and warmed in his hands slowed down the processing substantially.  His photographic division of 5 to 7 men carried photographic equipment on the backs of mules and rifles on their shoulders. Jackson's life experience (for example his military service, and his peaceful dealings with Indians) was welcomed.  The weight of the glass plates and the portable darkroom limited the number of possible exposures on any one trip, and these images were taken in primitive, roadless, and physically challenging conditions.  Once when the mule lost its footing, Jackson lost a month's work, having to return to untracked Rocky Mountain landscapes to remake the pictures, one of which was his celebrated view of the Mount of the Holy Cross.

Despite the delays and setbacks Jackson returned with conclusive photographic evidence of the various western landmarks that had previously seemed only a fantastic myth: the Tetons, Old Faithful and the rest of the Yellowstone region, Colorado's Rockies and the Mount of the Holy Cross, and the uncooperative Ute Indians. Jackson's photographs of Yellowstone helped convince the U.S. Congress to make it the first national park in March 1872.

Work in Colorado

Jackson exhibited photographs and clay models of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings at Mesa Verde in Colorado in the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.  He continued traveling on the Hayden Surveys until the last one in 1878.  He later established a studio in Denver, Colorado, and produced a huge inventory of national and international views. He incorporated himself as W.H. Jackson Photograph and Publishing Company in 1883.  Commissioned to photograph for western state exhibitions at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, he eventually produced a final portfolio of views of the just-shuttered "White City" for Director of Works and architect Daniel Burnham.  The Denver Public Library has about 3,000 of Jackson's photographs in its collection, which include many photographs of picturesque Colorado landscapes and railroad scenes.

Railroad line commissions
From 1890 to 1892 Jackson produced photographs for several railroad lines (including the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) and the New York Central) using 18 x 22-inch glass plate negatives. The B&O used his photographs in their exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition.

World's Transportation Commission

From 1894 to 1896 Jackson was a member and photographer for the World's Transportation Commission, organized by Joseph Gladding Pangborn, a publisher for the Railroad. The purpose of the trip was to document traditional and novel forms of transportation internationally, though many photographs did incorporate the local environment and people.

Commission members left New York on September 25, 1894, and traveled across the world. They visited North Africa, the Middle East, India and Australia, then moved on to East Asia, Russia, Europe, East Africa, then finally South and Central America before returning home to the US. Jackson produced more than 900 photographs for the commission, which are now part of a collection on display at the Library of Congress.

Career as a painter
Jackson was a prodigy as a painter in his youth, and during his lifetime produced many paintings of the American west. Jackson's mother was also an accomplished painter of water colors, and he credited her for her encouragement with his success as a painter. His first job as an artist was in 1858. He was hired as a retoucher for a photography studio in Troy, New York, where he worked for two years. Scotts Bluff National Monument in Nebraska, houses the largest collection of William Henry Jackson paintings in the world. During the last decade of his life Jackson returned to illustrating.

Career as publisher

Thrust into financial exigencies by the Panic of 1893, Jackson accepted a commission by Marshall Field to travel the world photographing and gathering specimens for a vast new museum in Chicago; his pictures and reports were published by Harper's Weekly magazine. He returned to Denver and shifted into publishing; in 1897 he sold his entire stock of negatives and his own services to the Detroit Publishing Company (formerly called the Detroit Photographic Company, owned by William A. Livingstone), after the company had acquired the exclusive ownership and rights to the photochrom process in America. Jackson joined the company in 1898 as president – just when the Spanish–American War gained the nation's fervent interest – bringing with him an estimated 10,000 negatives which provided the core of the company's photographic archives, from which they produced pictures ranging from postcards to mammoth-plate panoramas.

In 1903, Jackson became the plant manager, thus leaving him with less time to travel and take photographs. In 1905 or 1906, the company changed its name from the Detroit Photographic Co. to the Detroit Publishing Co.

In the 1910s, the publishing firm expanded its inventory to include photographic copies of works of art, which were popular educational tools as well as inexpensive home decor.

During its height, the Detroit Publishing Company drew upon 40,000 negatives for its publishing effort, and had sales of seven million prints annually. Traveling salesmen, mail order catalogues, and a few retail stores aggressively sold the company's products. The company maintained outlets in Detroit, New York, Los Angeles, London, and Zurich, and also sold their images at popular tourist spots and through the mail. At the height of its success, the company employed some forty artisans and a dozen or more traveling salesmen. In a typical year they would publish an estimated seven million prints.

With the declining sale of photographs and postcards during World War I, and the introduction of new and cheaper printing methods used by competing firms, the Detroit Publishing Company went into receivership in 1924, and in 1932 the company's assets were liquidated.

Today, Jackson's Detroit photographs are housed at the U.S. Library of Congress. This collection of photographs includes more than 25,000 glass negatives and transparencies along with some 300 color photolithograph prints, mostly of the eastern United States. The Jackson/Detroit collection also includes a small group that includes some 900 Mammoth Plate photographs that were taken along several railroad lines in the United States and Mexico in the 1880s and 1890s. The collection also includes views of California, Wyoming and the Canadian Rocky Mountains.

In 1936 Edsel Ford, backed by his father Henry Ford, bought Jackson's 40,000 negatives from Livingstone's estate for "The Edison Institute," known today as The Henry Ford in Dearborn, Michigan. Eventually, Jackson's negatives were divided between the Colorado Historical Society (views west of the Mississippi), and the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division (all other views).

Later life

Jackson moved to Washington, D.C., in 1924, and produced murals of the Old West for the new U.S. Department of the Interior building. He also acted as a technical advisor for the filming of Gone with the Wind.

William Henry Jackson also attended the 75th anniversary commemoration and the 1938 Gettysburg reunion, in July 1938.

In 1942, Jackson died at the age of 99 in New York City.  He was honored by the Explorer's Club for his 80,000 photographs of the American West. He was also memorialized by the Adventurers' Club of New York, of which he was an active member. The SS William H Jackson steamship was in active service in 1945.  Recognized as one of the last surviving Civil War veterans, he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

Mount Jackson el.  just north of the Madison River, in the Gallatin Range of Yellowstone National Park is named in honor of Jackson.

In 1982 Jackson was inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.

Gallery

See also
Adventurers' Club of New York
Hovenweep National Monument
Colorado 1870–2000

References

Further reading

External links

 Encyclopædia Britannica

Archives and libraries

 Extensive collection of W.H. Jackson photos at the Library of Congress
The Library of Congress, Around the World in the 1890s, photographs by William Henry Jackson
William Henry Jackson Photograph and Art Work Collection, L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
Inventory of the William Henry Jackson Photographs, 1869-1874  at the Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Duke University
W.H. Jackson Photochrom Print Collection at the Newberry Library
William Henry Jackson Photochrom Collection, 1898-1905 digital collection at College of Charleston
Photographs of North American Indians, 1840s-circa 1879, at Princeton University Library
Collection of W.H. Jackson photos at the Center for Creative Photography, University of Arizona
Collection of Jackson material at the Scottsbluff National Monument
William H. Jackson Photographic Collection circa 1877 – 1900, held by Archives of The Explorers Club.
William Henry Jackson Papers 1862-1942, New York Public Library
Interview with William Henry Jackson.  Recording from the Records of the Department of the Interior, Office of the Secretary of the Interior. Originally broadcast on 4-3-1941 and re-broadcast on June 29, 2006, on TALKING HISTORY.
William Henry Jackson Photochrom Collection at the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections

1843 births
1942 deaths
Pioneers of photography
Nature photographers
Artists of the American West
Military personnel from Troy, New York
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
American mountain climbers
Yellowstone National Park
Sierra Nevada (United States)
Yosemite National Park
People of Vermont in the American Civil War
Photographers from Colorado
People from Rutland (town), Vermont
History of the American West
Explorers of the United States
People from Keeseville, New York
Photographers from New York (state)
Photographers from Vermont
Union Army soldiers

William Henry Jackson


Salomon Munk (14 May 1803 – 5 February 1867) was a German-born Jewish-French Orientalist.

Biography
Munk was born in Gross Glogau in the Kingdom of Prussia. He received his first instruction in Hebrew from his father, an official of the Jewish community; and on the latter's death he joined the Talmud class of R. Jacob Joseph Oettinger. At the age of fourteen he was able to officiate as "ba'al ḳoreh" (reader of the Torah) in the synagogue of the Malbish 'Arummim society at Gross Glogau.

In 1820 he went to Berlin, where he came into friendly relations with Leopold Zunz and with the philologist A. W. Zumpt, studying Latin and Greek with E. Gans. Two years later he entered the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium, supporting himself at the same time by tutoring. In 1824 he entered the University of Berlin, attending the lectures of Böckh, Hegel, and especially of Bopp.

As no Jews were at that time eligible for government positions in Prussia, Munk left the university without taking a degree, deciding to go to France. However, he first spent one term at the University of Bonn, studying Arabic with Freytag and Sanskrit with Lassen. On passing through Weimar he visited Goethe, who notes that fact in his journal.

In 1828 he went to Paris with the assistance of the young poet Michael Beer, the brother of Meyerbeer. Here also, as in Berlin, he at first supported himself by tutoring, among his pupils being the young brothers Alphonse and Gustave de Rothschild. In 1838 he was appointed cataloguer of Hebrew, Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.

Munk now devoted himself to the study of the Judæo-Arabic literature of the Middle Ages and to the works of Maimonides, more especially the latter's Moreh Nebukim. He went direct to the Arabic original, supplementing the texts he found at the Bibliothèque from texts he had copied at Oxford. At the same time he made a thorough study of Aristotle, who is constantly quoted by Maimonides. In this way he gathered the necessary material for his edition of the Arabic text of the Moreh, with translation and annotations, which he published in three large volumes, long after he had become blind (1856, 1861, 1866). He had lost his eyesight in 1850 while in the course of cataloguing the Sanskrit and Hebrew manuscripts in the possession of the library.

Journey to Egypt

Munk accompanied Montefiore and Crémieux to Egypt in connection with the Damascus affair; and it was due to his knowledge of Arabic (although some claim that the credit is due to Louis Loewe) that the word "justice" was substituted for "mercy" in the firman of Mohammed Ali which exculpated the accused from the charge of ritual murder. It was also largely due to his efforts that schools modeled on European methods of instruction were established by the Egyptian Jews.

At Cairo he purchased a considerable number of Arabic and Hebrew manuscripts on behalf of the Bibliothèque Nationale. On his return Munk was elected secretary of the Consistoire Central des Israélites de France; on December 3, 1858, he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres; and a few years later he was appointed professor of Hebrew at the Collège de France, in succession to Renan. He died in Paris.

Quotes

 1845: Palestine, Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique," in "L'Univers Pittoresque ;Under the name Palestine, we comprehend the small country formerly inhabited by the Israelites, and which is today part of Acre and Damascus pachalics. It stretched between 31 and 33° N. latitude and between 32 and 35° degrees E. longitude, an area of about 1300 . Some zealous writers, to give the land of the Hebrews some political importance, have exaggerated the extent of Palestine; but we have an authority for us that one can not reject. St. Jerome, who had long traveled in this country, said in his letter to Dardanus (ep. 129) that the northern boundary to that of the southern, was a distance of 160 Roman miles, which is about 55 . He paid homage to the truth despite his fears, as he said himself, of availing the Promised Land to pagan mockery, "".

Works
Munk's works, apart from his edition of the Moreh, include the following:

"Reflexions sur le Culte des Anciens Hébreux," in vol. iv. of the Bible of S. Cahen
"Notice sur R. Saadia Gaon et sur une Version Persane d'Isaie" (ib. vol. ix)
"Palestine, Description Géographique, Historique et Archéologique," in "L'Univers Pittoresque," 1845 (translated into German by M. A. Levy, 1871–72) (Volume 4 of "L'Univers pittoresque ou histoire et description de tous les peuples, de leurs religions, moeurs, coutumes, industries: Asie")
"Mélanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe," 1859
"Notice sur Abul Walid Merwan ibn Djanah et d'Autres Grammairiens Hébreux du X. et du XI. Siècle," 1850-51 (crowned by the Institut with the "Prix Volney")
"Rapport sur les Progrès des Etudes Sémitiques en France de 1840-1866," in the "Recueil de Rapports" of the Exposition of 1867.

Between 1834 and 1838 he contributed to the Temps articles on Biblical, Hebrew, and Sanskrit literature. Mention must also be made of his interpretations of Phoenician inscriptions at Marseilles and on the sarcophagus of Eshmun'azar, King of Sidon, which he deciphered after losing his sight; of his discovery of the Arabic manuscript of Al-Biruni's description of India, written in the first part of the eleventh century; and of his letter to F. Arago, of the Academy of Sciences, relating to a question on the history of astronomy, which gave rise to a controversy between Biot and Sédillot.

References

External links

 Digitized works by Salomon Munk at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York

1803 births
1867 deaths
French orientalists
German orientalists
Jewish orientalists
19th-century German Jews
People from Głogów
People from the Province of Silesia
Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
Academic staff of the Collège de France
German male non-fiction writers
Judeo-Arabic literature
Historical geographers
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni

Salomon Munk


In 1953, there was an Iranian coup d'état to remove the Prime Minister of Iran, Mohammad Mossadeq, from power. The coup d'état was nicknamed Operation Ajax. The coup was planned by the CIA and Britain's MI6 in August 1953.

Causes
In 1951, Mossaddeq was the chairman of Iran's Oil Committee. He was highly supported by the people of Iran. At that time, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was in power. The Majlis (Iranian Parliament) voted for a law to nationalize (take the company away from the people who owned it and make it owned by the government) the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, an oil company in Iran.

Mossaddeq was elected Prime Minister of Iran in April 1951. His first action as Prime Minister was to put the oil nationalization in place.

The British government had a plan for a coup d'etat to remove Mossadeq from power. They managed to get the United States CIA to help with the coup. The coup was planned by Monty Woodhouse. It was carried out by MI6 and the CIA, and led by General Fazlollah Zahedi, who later went into exile.

Later
Mossaddeq was replaced by Fazlollah Zahedi, but Mossaddeq refused to step down. A military dictatorship was put in place. Shah Pahlavi, known for treating the people of Iran badly, was put back in power. (Pahlavi was in power before this, but he was forced to put Mossadeq back in power at the time.) This made the people angry. They would later start the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The revolution put the Ayatollah Khomeini in power.

References

Coups d'état
20th century in Iran
1953 in Asia

1953 Iranian coup d'état


Patrick Francis McManus (August 25, 1933 – April 11, 2018) was an American humor writer, who primarily wrote about the outdoors. A humor columnist for Outdoor Life, Field & Stream, and other magazines, his columns and stories have been collected in several books, beginning with A Fine and Pleasant Misery (1978) up through The Horse in My Garage and Other Stories (2012).

Biography
McManus was born and raised in Sandpoint, Idaho. His father, who served in the 42nd ("Rainbow") Division under Douglas MacArthur during World War I, died when Patrick was six. Although his mother later remarried, for the most part he was raised by his mother, grandmother, and older sister Patricia McManus Gass (referred to in his childhood stories as "the Troll").  His family didn't have much money and lived on a small farm on the banks of Sand Creek where they grew most of their own food. They had chickens, a milk cow and pigs and went hunting and fishing.

After graduating from Sandpoint High School, McManus worked construction and other such jobs until he had saved enough money to attend Washington State College, now Washington State University, where he majored in journalism. From 1960 to 1983 he taught English, journalism and creative writing at Eastern Washington State College, now Eastern Washington University.

He was married to Darlene "Bun" McManus and had four daughters.

Works
McManus wrote mostly about his outdoor adventures from his childhood with semi-fictional characters such as his old woodsman mentor Rancid Crabtree, his childhood friends Crazy Eddie Muldoon and Retch Sweeney, and his dog Strange. The stories' humor is mostly based on elaborate exaggerations of his surreal adventures in the outdoors. McManus's writing is characterized by a dry wit that has been compared to the writing styles of Mark Twain and Robert Benchley.

His last published work was Circles in the Snow (2014), the sixth in a series of mystery novels starring the character Sheriff Bo Tully. Other departures from his column-collections include Kid Camping from Aaaaiii! To Zip (1979), an alphabetized, and partially serious, listing of useful tips and concepts for beginning campers; Whatchagot Stew (1989), both a cookbook and a less-fictionalized memoir of his childhood; and The Deer on a Bicycle (2000), a discussion of the art of humor writing.

McManus also wrote five separate, distinct one-man comedies for his indentured actor, Tim Behrens. Tim has toured these shows to 21 states and two provinces in more than 1600 performances since 1992. They are:  A Fine and Pleasant Misery; McManus In Love; Pot Luck; Poor Again...Dagnabbit!; and Scrambled McManus.

In October 2011, an index of his stories and novels titled "Where's the One About the Bobcat?"  was compiled and published by Lauren Ball, making it easy for readers to find their favorite stories.

Bibliography
Magazine Columns Collections
 A Fine and Pleasant Misery (1978)
 They Shoot Canoes, Don't They? (1981)
 Never Sniff a Gift Fish (1983)
 The Grasshopper Trap (1985)
 Rubber Legs and White Tail-Hairs (1987)
 The Night the Bear Ate Goombaw (1989)
 Real Ponies Don't Go Oink! (1991)
 The Good Samaritan Strikes Again (1992)
 How I Got This Way (1994)
 Never Cry "Arp!" and Other Great Adventures (1996)
 Into the Twilight, Endlessly Grousing (1997)
 I Fish; Therefore, I Am (2001) (anthology of 1st three books)
 The Bear in the Attic (2002)
 Kerplunk!: Stories (2007)
 The Horse in My Garage and Other Stories (2012)

Sheriff Bo Tully Mysteries
 The Blight Way: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2006)
 Avalanche: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2007)
 The Double-Jack Murders: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2009)
 The Huckleberry Murders: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2010)
 The Tamarack Murders: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2013)
 Circles in the Snow: A Sheriff Bo Tully Mystery (2014)

Other
 Kid Camping from Aaaaiii! to Zip (1979)
 Whatchagot Stew (1989), co-written with Patricia McManus Gass
 The Deer on a Bicycle: Excursions into the Writing of Humor (2000)

Recurring elements
McManus' shorter works include a recurring cast of fictitious characters and running jokes, both from the stories set in his childhood and as an adult. The foremost among the childhood stories is his "mentor" Rancid Crabtree, a colorful woodsman who lives near Pat's childhood home, who doesn't bathe because he believes that soap and water would wash off his 'crust', which would let germs in. Other recurring characters are his childhood best friend, 'Crazy Eddie' Muldoon, his rough-and-tumble mutt appropriately named Strange, and his adulthood friends, the goofy and dim-witted Retch Sweeney, his straitlaced neighbor, Alphonse 'Al' Finley, and his rich friend Fenton Quagmire. Throughout the majority of the stories is a recurring theme of McManus's lifelong love of hunting and fishing—which is mostly an excuse to just enjoy the outdoors, often in good company. Most of his friends likewise enjoy hunting and fishing, even if they aren't particularly good at it. McManus, in his stories, has a certain amount of disgruntlement for people who take great pleasure in the minutiae of various sports (such as encyclopediac knowledge of firearms calibers and ballistics). He refers to firearms enthusiasts as 'gun nuts' and treats their excited sharing of the fine points of ballistic arcs and grain sizes as something to be endured to get on a good hunting trip.

Some of the elements show up in his longer works, and are even worked into the plots. Bo Tully, the protagonist of the Bo Tully Mysteries, shares McManus' views about firearms.  In the course of his job as Sheriff and his hobbies, Tully uses guns, knows about guns, but isn't particularly excited by them or even sentimental towards them. He is, however, aware that many people are. This even serves as plot point in one of the Bo Tully mysteries.

References

External links

Patrick McManus Papers, 1952-2016. Manuscripts, Archives, and Special Collections, Washington State University Libraries, Pullman, WA.

1933 births
2018 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American columnists
American humorists
American male non-fiction writers
American mystery writers
Eastern Washington University faculty
People from Sandpoint, Idaho
Washington State University alumni
Writers from Olympia, Washington
Writers from Spokane, Washington
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers

Patrick F. McManus


Alcina is an opera seria with music by George Frideric Handel. The libretto was written by Riccardo Broschi. The opera is based on an episode in Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando furioso, an epic poem set in the time of Charlemagne's wars against Islam. Handel composed several little ballets in the opera for the famous dancer Marie Sallé.

Alcina was first performed on 16 April 1735 at Covent Garden in London. It was revived in Germany in 1738. It was not performed again until 1928.

Joan Sutherland sang the role for her debut in Venice in 1960. She sang it again the same year in Dallas. She sang it at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, in 1962. Renée Fleming sang the role in Chicago in 1999.

Roles
 Alcina, a sorceress - soprano
 Morgana, her sister - soprano
 Oberto, a boy searching for his father - boy soprano
 Ruggiero, a knight and Bradamente's fiancé - mezzo-soprano castrato
 Bradamante, Ruggiero's fiancée - mezzo-soprano
 Oronte, Morgana's lover - tenor
 Melisso, Ruggiero's former tutor - bass

Story
Alcina is a sorceress. She changes people into stones, trees, and animals. Bradamente lands on Alcina's island looking for her fiancé Ruggiero. He has been enchanted by Alcina. He is in love with her.

Bradamente has a magic ring that allows her to break spells. She intends to use it to free Alcina's victims. She lets Ruggiero wear it. He sees at once that Alcina is a cruel enchantress and that her island is a desert.

Alcina is truly in love with Ruggiero. Her magic powers slip away. Bradamente and Ruggiero destroy an urn that is the source of Alcina's power. Alcina's world disappears. Her victims become humans again.

References
 Dean, Winton (2006), Handel's Operas, 1726-1741, Boydell Press,   (The second of the two volume definitive reference on the operas of Handel)

Other websites
Libretto from www.librettidopera.it
Summary  from Opera-Opera.com  (Second section down)
  from Bayerische Staatsoper (Bavarian State Opera). Video clip
   Video clip from Semperoper, November 2011 Dresden
Full score (German Handel Society: Leipzig. 1868)

Compositions by George Frideric Handel
1730s operas
1735

Alcina


Lesnes Abbey  is a former abbey, now ruined, in Abbey Wood, in the London Borough of Bexley, southeast London, England. It is a scheduled monument, and the abbey's ruins are listed at Grade II by Historic England.

The adjacent Lesnes Abbey Woods are a Local Nature Reserve. Part of the wood is the Abbey Wood SSSI, a geological Site of Special Scientific Interest which is an important site for early Tertiary fossils.

History
After the Norman Conquest in 1066, the area of Lesnes, close to the town of Erith, passed into the possession of Bishop Odo, and was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Loisnes in the Hundred of Litlelai. The year 1178 saw the foundation of the Abbey of St Mary and St Thomas the Martyr at Lesnes, on a site now located in the suburbs of southeast London to the north of the ancient but long-managed Lesnes Abbey Woods that are named after it, where the land rises above what would originally have been marshland.

Lesnes Abbey, as it is now known, was founded by Richard de Luci, Chief Justiciar of England, in 1178. This may have been in penance for his role in the protracted conflict between Henry II and Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, which culminated in the latter's murder in 1170 by four of the kings' knights. In 1179, de Luci resigned his office and retired to the abbey, where he died three months later. He was buried in the chapter house.

In 1381 Abel Ker of Erith led a local uprising during the Peasants' Revolt, a rebellion which initially broke out in the neighbouring county of Essex. A group from Erith forced their way into nearby Lesnes Abbey and made the abbot to swear an oath to support them. They subsequently marched to Maidstone to join the main body of men led by Wat Tyler.

The Abbot of Lesnes Abbey was an important local landlord, and took a leading part in draining the marshland. However, this and the cost of maintaining river embankments was one of the reasons given for the Abbey's chronic financial difficulties. It never became a large community, and was closed by Cardinal Wolsey in 1525, under a licence to suppress monasteries of less than seven inmates. It was one of the first monasteries to be closed after the dissolution of the monasteries in 1534, and the monastic buildings were all demolished, except for the Abbott's Lodging. Henry Cooke acquired the site in 1541 and it eventually passed to Sir John Hippersley who salvaged building materials, before selling the property to Thomas Hawes of London in 1632. It was then bequeathed to Christ's Hospital in 1633. Some of the stone is said to have been used in the construction of Hall Place in nearby Bexley.

The abbey was effectively lost and the area became farmland, with the abbot's house forming part of a farmhouse. In modern times it has been restored to show some of the walls and the entire outline of the abbey is visible giving a good idea of the size and atmosphere of the original place. It is located on the Green Chain Walk and surrounded by parkland and an ornamental garden. There is a café and a small exhibition of the abbey and toilet facilities for visitors.

There is a large externally propped mulberry tree (Morus nigra) at the northern side of the abbey.

The site was excavated by Woolwich & District Antiquarian Society in about 1909 to 1910. Some archaeological finds from the Abbey's site are displayed in Greenwich Heritage Centre, Artillery Square at Woolwich SE18 4DX, others are further east in the museum in Erith Library 100 High Street DA8 1SL. The Missale de Lesnes is in the library of the Victoria & Albert Museum in South Kensington, London.

The former London County Council purchased the site of the ruins in 1930, which were opened to the public as a park in 1931. Since 1986, the site has been the property of the London Borough of Bexley. A branch of the Green Chain Walk passes the ruins on its way from Oxleas Wood to Thamesmead riverside.

Burials at Lesnes Abbey
Richard de Luci was buried at the abbey on 14 July 1179.

Lesnes Abbey ward

Lesnes Abbey gives its name to one of the London Borough of Bexley's 21 electoral wards. The ruins themselves are in the north of Lesnes Abbey ward. Woolwich Road, the A206 road, cuts through the middle of the ward spanning east to west; the A2041 road spans north to south marking the ward's western boundary. West Heath is located within the ward to the south of Woolwich road. Lesnes Abbey ward is  long north to south at its longest point, and little under  at its widest point east to east. The population of the ward at the 2011 census was 11,346.

Gallery

See also
Lesnes Abbey Woods
Lessness Heath

References

External links

Bexley Abbey ruins, London Borough of Bexley
Lesnes Abbey Conservation Volunteers (LACV)

1178 establishments in England
1525 disestablishments in England
Christian monasteries disestablished in the 16th century
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Former buildings and structures in the London Borough of Bexley
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Bexley
Monasteries in London
Ruined abbeys and monasteries
Ruins in London
Scheduled monuments in London
Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Bexley
Peasants' Revolt

Lesnes Abbey


In biology, a bolus (from the Latin word for ball), is a ball-shaped living thing.

In medicine, a bolus is a large amount of a drug given to patients to raise the blood level before treatment.

A bolus can also refer to a ball of food after it has been chewed. It passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.

Physiology
Drugs
Biology

Bolus


Carlo Cafiero (September 1, 1846 - July 17, 1892) was an Italian anarchist and friend of Mikhail Bakunin during the second half of the 19th century.

Biography

Early years
Carlo Cafiero was born in Barletta, in the Apulia region of Italy on September 1st, 1846 from a rich and noble family of Southern Italy. His father was Carbonari in 1821, one of his brothers and a brother-in-law were deputies, while Carlo Cafiero was always called the 'black sheep' of the family. In 1864 he went to Naples, where he got a degree in law. He then went to Florence and at the beginning of 1870 he was in Paris. The Paris he went to London, where he matured, renouncing his diplomatic career, his wealth and family, to join the revolution and socialism. In London Cafiero made contacts with Marx and Engels. He joined the International Workingmen's Association and was charged to go back to Italy and conquer it to Marx's ideology, where instead there was the strong influence of the Anarchism of Mikhail Bakunin and the Republicanism of Giuseppe Mazzini. He restored the ancient section of 'L'Internazionale' in Naples, with the help of the young Errico Malatesta. There, during an assembly, he was imprisoned for the first time.

Cafiero became an anarchist
After over a year spent in Italy as a representative of Marx and Engels Cafiero felt the influence of anarchism. And thanks to the friendship with Giuseppe Fanelli, he passed on to the other side of the barricade, with Bakunin and his Italian followers. In early 1872 came the first issue of the newspaper La Campana and Cafiero wrote for, and gave money towards the publication. In the same year he met Bakunin in Locarno (Switzerland). In the summer of 1873, with the help of Cafiero, an old project was realised: to create an international center for the revolution in Italy and the world. Cafiero, selling all his inherited lands, bought a farm in Switzerland where Bakunin could live. This center was called La Baronata, would also be a safe shelter for revolutionaries persecuted by their respective governments. In 1875 Cafiero went to Milan and joined the editorial staff of the first socialist daily paper, La Plebe, directed by Enrico Bignami. In April 1877, Cafiero, Malatesta, Ceccarelli, the Russian Stepniak and 30 other comrades began an insurrection in the province of Benevento. They took the village of Letino without violence and with great enthusiasm. Arms and food were expropriated and distributed amongst the people, tax money was returned and official documents destroyed. Cafiero, in dialect, explained about anarchism, freedom, justice and the new society without the State, without masters, servants, soldiers and owners. His proclamations convinced even the parish priest who called the rebel group 'the true apostles sent by the Lord'. The following day the village of Gallo was taken in a similar fashion. As they were leaving Gallo the Internationalists were surprised and surrounded by government troops and all were arrested. Held in prison for over a year before being brought to trial all the accused were eventually acquitted in August 1878. In 1878, Cafiero was living in Marseilles working as cook and docker. In October he was arrested with Malatesta, then released and expelled from France. He rested in Switzerland, meeting with Kropotkin, and with the collaboration of Élisée Reclus promoted the publications of Bakunin. In 1881 Cafiero went to London, where he remained for a long time. In March 1882 he returned to Italy, expressing the will to take part in the imminent electoral campaign.

The exile and the rest of life
On April 5th he was arrested without any charge but on May 2nd, while imprisoned, he was the victim of a strong mental crisis and attempted to kill himself. The scandal of a man imprisoned without reason and crazy exploded and Cafiero was released with only the choice between forced residence in Barletta, his birth town, or exile to Switzerland. Cafiero chose the exile in the small town of Chiasso. Emilio Bellerio took Cafiero to his house in Locarno and Errico Malatesta wrote about him "if his mind is ill, his heart is still healthy...". In February 1883 Cafiero left for Florence, but was found in a street very shocked, so some doctors transferred him to a lunatic asylum in the city. After the lunatic asylum for the rest of his life had problems, Olimpia Kutusoff, mate of Cafiero, returned from Russia in September 1883 to assist him in the asylum of Imola. Olimpia left him after one and a half years because Cafiero in his crises was violent with her. Carlo expressed the will to return in Barletta where he arrived in the second half of '89. However his brothers turned him away and after living some time in a hotel he was taken in by his brother Pietrantonio. In 1891, following another crisis, Carlo Cafiero was confined in the asylum of Nocera Inferiore where he died on Sunday July 17, 1892.

Important work
 The Compendium of The Capital

Related pages
 List of anarchists

Other websites
 Carlo Cafiero Page  at Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia
 Page at Italy's Who's Who

1846 births
1892 deaths
Anarchist communists
People from Apulia

Carlo Cafiero


John Cordner (3 July 1816 – 22 June 1894) was the first Unitarian minister in Canada.

Cordner was born in Ireland, where his family in Newry belonged to a politically radical sect of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. Cordner studied at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution, then worked in commerce. He was ordained in 1843 as a Unitarian minister. That year, he emigrated to Montreal to become minister to the first Unitarian congregation in Canada.

Cordner's ministry was successful and popular, especially among the upper-middle classes and the business elite. He wrote and edited several magazines. In sermons and speeches, he championed progressive issues: world peace, woman's rights, and anti-slavery in the US, among others. He was succeeded by William Sullivan Barnes.

He retired to Boston for the warmer climate where he died in 1894. He was still writing on issues important to the Unitarian movement.

External links
 UUA Biographical Dictionary
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography

Canadian Unitarians
Irish Unitarians
People from Newry
1816 births
1894 deaths
Irish non-subscribing Presbyterian ministers

John Cordner (politician)


The Inca road system (El Camino Inca) of Peru was the most extensive among the many roads and trails that were constructed in pre-Columbian South America.

It went across the Andes mountains and reached heights of over 5,000 m (16,500 feet) above sea level. The Inca road system covered approximately 22,500 kilometres (14,000 mi) and provided access to over three million km² of territory.

Because the Incas did not make use of the wheel for transportation, and did not have horses until the arrival of the Spanish in Peru in the 16th century, the trails were used almost exclusively by people walking, sometimes accompanied by pack animals, usually the llama.

The trails were used by the Inca people as a means of relaying messages, carried via knotted-cord quipu and by memory; and for transporting goods. Messages could be carried by runners covering as much as 240 km (150 mi) per day, working in relay fashion much like the Pony Express of the 1860s in North America.

There were approximately 2,000 inns, or tambos, placed at even intervals along the trails. The inns provided food, shelter and military supplies to the tens of thousands who traveled the roads.

Main routes

The most important Inca road was the Camino Real, as it is known in Spanish, with a length of 5,200 km (3,230 mi). It began in Quito, Ecuador, passed through Cusco, and ended in what is now Tucumán, Argentina. The Camino Real went across the mountain ranges of the Andes, with peak altitudes of more than 5,000 m. El Camino de la Costa, the coastal trail, with a length of 4,000 km (2,420 mi), ran parallel to the sea and was linked with the Camino Real by many smaller routes.

Inca trail to Machu Picchu

By far the most popular of the Inca trails for trekking is the Capaq Nan trail, which leads from the village of Ollantaytambo to Machu Picchu, the so-called "Lost City of the Incas". There are many well-preserved ruins along the way, and hundreds of thousands of tourists from around the world make the three- or four-day trek each year, accompanied by guides.

The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is actually three routes, which all meet up near Inti-Pata, the 'Sun Gate' and entrance to Machu Picchu. The three trails are known as the Mollepata, Classic and One Day trails, with Mollepata being the longest of the three. Passing through the Andes mountain range and sections of the Amazon rainforest, the Trail passes several well-preserved Inca ruins and settlements before ending at the Sun Gate on Machu Picchu mountain. The two longer routes require an ascent to beyond 12,000 ft (3,660 m) above sea level, which can result in altitude sickness.

Further reading
 Inca: Lords of Gold and Glory. Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1992.
 Andean World: Indigenous History: Culture and Consciousness by Kenneth Adrien.

Other websites
 Inca trail map
 Inca trail tour
 Interactive Map Interactive Map
 Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Interactive Map
 Inca Trail to Machu Picchu Information

Inca_civilization

Inca road system


Artavazd Peleshyan (born November 22, 1938) is an Armenian movie director. He makes documentaries.

Peleshyan is also the author of many books, such as his 1988 book Moyo kino (My Cinema).

Peleshyan's work has not been recognized by world cinema until after the fall of the Soviet Union. Since then, he has been able to make two more short films, Life (1993) and The End (1994). He is now living in Moscow and suffering from a severe mental illness.

Films directed
 My I Nashi Gory - 1969

1938 births
Living people
Armenian movie directors
Armenian writers

Artavazd Peleshyan


"E pluribus unum" is a traditional motto of the United States. It means "out of many, one" in Latin. It has been placed on the U.S. dollar bill, and other related items.

The motto was suggested by the first Great Seal committee in 1776. Consultant and artist Pierre Du Simitière chose the Latin motto, and his design expresses this theme.

This motto was well known to literate Americans of the 18th century. It had appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, published monthly in London since 1731, with copies reaching the colonies. The legend "E pluribus unum" was used on the title pages of the magazine's annual complication volumes.

In Thomson's 1782 sketch, for the final design, Charles Thomson put this motto on a scroll held in the bald eagle's beak.

"E pluribus unum" is a clear reference to the Thirteen Colonies united into one nation – symbolized by the shield on the eagle's breast. As explained in the official description of the Great Seal, the thirteen vertical stripes "represent the several states all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a Chief, which unites the whole & represents Congress. The Motto alludes to this union."

References

Latin phrases
Mottos of the United States

E pluribus unum


Hardness is a measure of how much a material resists changes in shape.  Hard things resist pressure. Some examples of hard materials are diamond, boron carbide, quartz, tempered steel, ice, granite, concrete.  Ability of material to resist wear, tear, scratching, abrasion cutting is called hardness.

Harder materials are more difficult to cut and shape than softer ones. They are also usually more brittle which means they do not bend much but can shatter. Hard materials are used in cutting tools, machines and construction materials and other industrial goods.

Hardness tests are important in materials science.  The Mohs scale of mineral hardness tests the hardness of minerals. The Brinell scale and various compression tests and rebound tests are more used for metals and artificial materials.

Weblink
 Guidelines to hardness testing

Materials science
Physics

Hardness


Sugar Sugar Rune (シュガシュガルーン) is a Japanese manga and anime. It tells the story of two young witches who are in a competition together. They are trying to become the new queen of their world.

Story
Vanilla and Chocolat are two young witches who are sent in the humans world in order to decide who will become the new queen of their world. Their goal is succeeding in getting colored hearts from boys by being nice to them. When the boys fall in love with them, their feelings turn into a heart that the witches can take with a magic spell. The hearts are different colors for different feelings, such as surprise, love, or jealousy. Each heart can be used like money in their world, and some are worth more than others. Vanilla and Chocolat go to school like regular humans, and they take the hearts of the boys that they see at school and at other places in town. They can also get a heart that represents friendship from other girls, and they learn that it is important for the future Queen to be able to be nice to girls as well as boys. Also, Vanilla and Chocolat are friends, and they decide that they will stay friends no matter who becomes the queen of their world at the end of the competition.

There are bad guys in their world, though. They are called Ogres, and they like to make people feel jealous of one another or make people hate each other. They use the "Black Hearts" that those bad emotions make as power, and they want to take over the magical world that Vanilla and Chocolat come from. The story shows the competition between Chocolat and Vanilla and how their people handle the Ogres that try to stop their competition.

Main Characters
Chocolat Meilleure : (Chocolat Katô in the world of the humans.) Chocolat is a young witch with a lot of charisma. She is funny and not shy at all. Her personality make her liked in her world, but in her new school, the boys prefer a shy girl like Vanilla. She has a quick temper that scares human boys, but she is not truly cruel-hearted. Later on in the story, some of the boys start to like her. Two boys from her own world also like her a lot and want her to be the queen of their world. Chocolat's mother was also in a competition to become the queen before Chocolat was born, but she died when Chocolat was a baby. Chocolat has a crush on Pierre.

Vanilla Mieux : (Vanilla Ice in the world of the humans). Vanilla is the best-friend of Chocolat. She is very shy. She tries to be nice to everyone, but sometimes the boys want her to like them instead of everyone at once. Vanilla's mother is the queen of their world, and she is a very nice person who helps Vanilla and Chocolat from time to time.

Rockin' Robin : Robin is a wizard from Vanilla and Chocolat's world, and the girls in the human world like him a lot. His job is to help Vanilla and Chocolat while they compete to become the queen of their world. He gives them advice about living with humans.

Pierre He is a cold boy who is not innocent as he looks. He is popular with the girls in Chocolat's world, but he is an evil Ogre (an evil race of wizards and witches). He even tries to kill Chocolat once. He has a fan club of pretty, but cruel girls. Eventually, he starts to warm up and Chocolat saves him and he becomes good again. He likes Chocolat romantically.

References

Manga

Sugar Sugar Rune


In music, the Wicki-Hayden note layout has the same advantage over the traditional keyboard layout as the 6-plus-6-system: There is the same fingering in all 12 scales. It is used for the Hayden duet concertina. Kaspar Wicki patented it in 1896 in Switzerland.  Brian Hayden, a concertina player, refined this layout and patented it again in 1986 in Great Britain.

Keyboard instruments

Wicki-Hayden note layout


The Man Called Flintstone is a 1966 American animated musical comedy film produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions and distributed by Columbia Pictures. The second film by Hanna-Barbera following Hey There, It's Yogi Bear! (1964), it was directed by series creators/studio founders William Hanna and Joseph Barbera from a screenplay by Harvey Bullock and R. S. Allen.

A theatrical spin-off of the 1960–66 television series The Flintstones, and a swan song (series finale), produced immediately following the end of production, the film was released just four months after the series ended. The working title was That Man Flintstone, with the film poster featuring Fred Flintstone in the same pose of the Bob Peak poster for Our Man Flint. The plot is a parody of spy films, primarily those featuring James Bond.

The film marked the first feature voice role for Gerry Johnson (Betty Rubble), and Henry Corden (Fred's singing voice), the latter of whom would go on to fully assume the role of Fred following Alan Reed's death in 1977. Despite numerous musical interludes, including one performed by Louis Prima, the series' iconic theme song is absent.

Plot
In the opening scene, secret agent Rock Slag, who is physically identical to Fred Flintstone, is being chased through Bedrock. His pursuers, Ali and Bobo, think that they have finally killed Slag when they push him off a building. Meanwhile, the Flintstones and Rubbles prepare for a camping vacation which includes trying to drop Dino and Hoppy off at the veterinarian. On the way back, Fred crashes Barney's car, and they make a stop at the hospital where Rock Slag is also recovering. After Ali and Bobo find Rock and put him out of commission, Chief Boulder of the Secret Service enlists Fred to take his place in Paris for a special meeting. His assignment is to meet Tanya, the #1 female lieutenant of master criminal the Green Goose, who has agreed to turn over the Green Goose in return for a chance to meet the irresistible Rock Slag. Rock is not sure that this is such a good idea but the Chief reassures him that he will keep an eye on Fred.

Thinking that the Green Goose is an actual bird, Fred tells his family that their vacation has become an all-expense-paid trip to Eurock. Barney and Fred return all the camping gear and use the money to buy the Rubbles tickets to go along. Meanwhile, Ali and Bobo make several attempts on Fred's life assuming that he is Rock Slag. Once in Paris, the Chief tells Fred that he must now go to Rome instead, with the help of master of disguise Triple X. Fred makes attempts to sneak away from Wilma to meet with Tanya, but ends up spending the night trying to escape all of Rock's female admirers. After missing a date with Wilma, Fred buys her a "genuine imitation diamond necklace" from a street hustler to make it up to her, but finds that she slept soundly through the night without even realizing that he was missing.

Discovering the Chief's secret office, Fred tries to back out of his assignment but after finding out what the Green Goose really is, he has pangs of guilt over Pebbles' future and makes an excuse to get away and meet Tanya at a restaurant. Unfortunately, Wilma and the Rubbles go to the same restaurant and catch them together - thinking that Fred is having an affair. Rock actually shows up to replace Fred, but gets mistakenly pounded by an angry Wilma, Betty and Barney and ends up out of commission again. Tanya then leads Fred to the Green Goose (whose hideout is at an abandoned amusement park), but he is unaware that the Chief has been taken out by Ali and Bobo, so he has no back-up. Barney, meanwhile, has followed Fred to see what this is all about, and they both end up captured by the Green Goose. Barney is tortured in an effort to get Fred, who is believed to be Rock, to give him secret information. Fred refuses to talk, despite Barney's torture.

The Green Goose, who is revealed to be Triple X, makes plans to launch his deadly inter-rockinental missile, which is disguised as the park's space ride. Fred and Barney accidentally lock themselves inside the missile until the Green Goose overhears that Fred has an "expensive" necklace on him. When he offers to release them in exchange for it and opens the door, the boys turn the tables on Triple X and lock him in the missile with Ali, Bobo and Tanya—with the target now reset for outer space, sending them all to an unknown fate.

A huge welcome home ceremony is held in Bedrock for the return of Fred, now considered a hero, but he is just grateful to be back home with his family (after the restaurant mishap is cleared), who head on a secret getaway. Unfortunately, Roberta, one of Rock's admirers whom Fred met in Rome, and her brother Mario have secretly moved into Bedrock, and they chase Fred all over town, much to the confusion of Wilma, Barney, and Betty.

Cast
Alan Reed and Henry Corden as Fred Flintstone
Mel Blanc as Barney Rubble, Dino
Jean Vander Pyl as Wilma Flintstone, Pebbles Flintstone
Gerry Johnson as Betty Rubble
Don Messick as Ali
Janet Waldo as Roberta
Paul Frees as Triple X, Green Goose, Bobo, Rock Slag, Mario
Harvey Korman as Chief Boulder
John Stephenson as George Slate
June Foray as Tanya

Soundtrack

The Man Called Flintstone soundtrack album was released on vinyl by Hanna-Barbera Records.

Side A:
"The Man Called Flintstone" (Instrumental)
"Spy Chief" (Instrumental)
"Spy Type Guy"
"Bobo and Ali" (Instrumental)
"Team Mates"
"Paris Bound" (Instrumental)

Side B:
"(Someday) When I Am Grown Up"
"The Happy Sounds of Pareé"
"Pensate Amore (Think Love)"
"Scooter Scootin'" (Instrumental)
"Tickle Toddle"
"The Man Called Flintstone"

Reception
Variety gave The Man Called Flintstone a positive review on August 10, 1966, calling the production "excellent" and noting that the "stone-age scenery and machinery are mildly amusing and sometimes highly inventive". The review judges the plot to be a fast-moving and clever spoof of contemporary spy films.

Home media
In 2005, a North American DVD was released by Warner Home Video.  It was re-released on December 2, 2008, along with Hey There, It's Yogi Bear!, which was re-released as a double feature with The Man Called Flintstone during the 1970s.

In 2010, the film was made available in HD via video on demand outlets, such as the iTunes Store and Amazon Prime Video. Unlike the DVD release (which is 4:3 open matte), the streaming version is presented in a more accurate widescreen aspect ratio of 1.78:1.

The Man Called Flintstone was included in the DVD collection The Flintstones: 2 Movies & 2 Specials in August 2020, and later as a bonus feature on the Blu-ray boxset The Flintstones: The Complete Series in October 2020. In these releases, the film is in its widescreen aspect ratio of 1.78:1, and is only in standard definition on both the DVD and Blu-ray.

See also

List of American films of 1966

References

External links

1966 animated films
1960s American animated films
1966 musical comedy films
American spy comedy films
American children's animated comedy films
American children's animated fantasy films
American musical comedy films
The Flintstones films
Films based on television series
Animated films based on animated series
Animated films set in the Stone Age
Columbia Pictures animated films
Columbia Pictures films
Hanna-Barbera animated films
1960s spy comedy films
Films directed by Joseph Barbera
Films directed by William Hanna
1966 films
Films scored by Marty Paich
Films produced by William Hanna
Films produced by Joseph Barbera
1960s children's animated films
1960s parody films
1960s English-language films

The Man Called Flintstone


Bodrum Castle () is a historical fortification located in southwest Turkey in the port city of Bodrum,  built from 1402 onwards, by the Knights of St John (Knights Hospitaller) as the Castle of St. Peter or Petronium. A transnational effort, it has four towers known as the English, French, German, and Italian towers, bearing the names of the nations responsible for their construction. The chapel was built around 1407 and the first walls completed in 1437. The castle started reconstruction in the late 14th century, only to be taken over by the Islamic Ottoman Empire in 1523. The chapel was converted to a mosque, and a minaret was added. The castle remained under the empire for almost 400 years. After remaining empty following World War I, in the early 1960s, the castle became the home for the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. In 2016 it was inscribed in the UNESCO Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey.

History

Confronted by the now firmly established Ottoman Sultanate, the Knights Hospitaller, whose headquarters were on the island of Rhodes, needed another stronghold on the mainland. Grand Master Philibert de Naillac (1396–1421) identified a suitable site across from the island of Kos, where a castle had already been built by the Order. Its location was the site of a fortification in Doric times (1110 BC) as well as of a small Seljuk castle in the 11th century. The same promontory is also the probable site of the Palace of Mausolos, the famous King of Caria. In his travel diary Travels In Asia Minor, Charles Boileau Elliot describes this palace as the Palace of Mausolus with absolute certainty, and this account was written in the year 1840.The construction of the castle began in 1404 under the supervision of the German knight architect Heinrich Schlegelholt. Construction workers were guaranteed a reservation in heaven by a Papal Decree of 1409. They used squared green volcanic stone, marble columns and reliefs from the nearby Mausoleum of Halicarnassus to fortify the castle.

The first walls were completed in 1437. The chapel was among the first completed inner structures (probably 1406). It consists of a vaulted nave and an apse. The chapel was reconstructed in Gothic style by Spanish Knights of Malta in 1519–1520. Their names can be found on two cornerstones of the façade. Fourteen cisterns for collecting rainwater were excavated in the rocks under the castle. This was a monumental achievement of the day and the family who completed the excavation were given the honorific of "Burrows" for their exceptional digging skills.

Each langue of the Order had its own tower, each in its own style. Each tongue, each headed by a Bailiff, was responsible for the maintenance and defense of a specific portion of the fortress and for manning it with sufficient numbers of knights and soldiers. There were seven gates leading to the inner part of the fortress.

The architect applied the latest features in castle design; the passages leading to the gates were full of twists and turns. Eventual assailants could not find cover against the arrows, stones or heated projectiles they had to confront. The knights had placed above the gates and on the walls hundreds of painted coats of arms and carved reliefs. Two hundred and forty-nine separate designs still remain, including those of grand masters, castle commandants, countries, and personal coat of arms of knights and religious figures.

The construction of the three-storied English tower was finished in 1413. One door opens to the north, to the inner part of the castle, while the other leads to the western rampart. One could only access this tower via a drawbridge. The western façade shows an antique carved relief of a lion. Because of this relief, the tower was also called "the Lion Tower". Above this lion, one can see the coat of arms of King Henry IV of England.

For over a century St. Peter's Castle remained the second most important castle of the Order. It served as a refuge for all Christians in Asia Minor.

The castle came under attack with the rise of the Ottoman Empire, first after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and again in 1480 by Sultan Mehmed II. The attacks were repelled by the Knights of St John. In 1482, Prince Cem Sultan, son of Sultan Mehmed II and brother of Sultan Bayezid II, sought refuge in the castle, after a failure in raising a revolt against his brother.

When the Knights decided to fortify the castle in 1494, they used stones from the Mausoleum once again. The walls facing the mainland were thickened in order to withstand the increasing destructive power of cannon. The walls facing the sea were less thick, since the Order had little to fear from a sea attack due to their powerful naval fleet. Grand Master Fabrizio del Carretto (1513–21) built a round bastion to strengthen the land side of the fortress. Sir Thomas Docwra was appointed Captain of the Castle in 1499.

16th century
Between 1505 and 1507 the few sculptures from the mausoleum that had not been smashed and burnt for lime were integrated into the castle for decoration. These included twelve slabs of the Amazonomachy (combat between Amazons and Greeks) and a single block of the Centauromachy, a few standing lions, and one running leopard.

When faced with an attack from Sultan Suleiman, Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitallers, ordered the Castle to be strengthened again. Much of the remaining portions of the mausoleum were broken up and used as building material to fortify the castle. By 1522 almost every block of the mausoleum had been removed.

In June 1522 the sultan attacked the Order's headquarters in Rhodes from the Bay of Marmaris with 200,000 soldiers (Siege of Rhodes (1522)). The castle of Rhodes fell in December 1522. The terms of surrender included the handing over of the Knights' fortresses in Kos and St Peter's Castle in Bodrum.

After the surrender, the chapel was converted into a mosque and a minaret was added. This mosque was called the Süleymaniye Camii, as attested by a traveler, Evliya Chelebi, who visited Bodrum in 1671. The minaret was destroyed on 26 May 1915 by rounds fired by a French warship during World War I. It was reconstructed in its original shape in 1997.

19th century
In 1846 Lord Canning, HM Ambassador to Constantinople, obtained permission to remove twelve marble reliefs showing a combat between Greeks and Amazons from the castle. Sir Charles Newton, a member of the staff of the British Museum, conducted excavations and removed a number of stone lions and one leopard in 1856. These are all still to be found today at the British Museum.

In later years, the castle has been used for different purposes. It was used as a military base by the Turkish Army during the Greek Revolt in 1824. In the 19th century, the chapel which had been converted for use as a mosque had a minaret added. At the same time, a hamam (public bath) was installed in the castle. In 1895 the castle was turned into a prison. During World War I, the castle was fired upon by a French warship, toppling the minaret and damaging several towers. After the Great War, the Italians established a garrison in the castle but withdrew in 1921 when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk came to power, when the castle stood empty for 40 years.

Museum of Underwater Archaeology

In 1962 the Turkish Government decided to turn the castle into a museum for the underwater discoveries of ancient shipwrecks in the Aegean Sea. This has become the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, with a collection of amphoras, ancient glass, bronze, clay, and iron items. It is the biggest museum of its kind devoted to underwater archaeology. Most of its collection dates from underwater excavations carried out by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) after 1960. These excavations were performed on several shipwrecks:
Finike-Gelidonya  shipwreck (12th century BC): 1958–1959; first underwater excavation in Turkey
Bodrum-Yassiada  shipwreck (Byzantine, 7th century AD): 1961–1964; Roman merchant vessel with 900 amphoras
Bodrum -Yassiada shipwreck (Late Roman, 4th century AD)
Bodrum-Yassiada shipwreck (Ottoman, 16th century AD) (dated by a 16th-century four-real silver coin from Seville (Philip II) )
Ṣeytan Deresi shipwreck (16th century BC)
Serçe Limanı Shipwreck (glass, 11th century AD): 1977; collection of Islamic glassware
Marmaris-Serçe harbour shipwreck (Hellenistic, 3rd BC)
Kaṣ-Uluburun shipwreck (14th century BC): 1982–1995; 10 tons of Cypriot copper ingots; one ton of pure tin ingots; 150 glass ingots; manufactured goods; Mycenaean pottery; Egyptian seals (with a seal of queen Nefertiti) and jewelry
Tektaṣ Burnu Classical Greek shipwreck (5th century BC): 1999-2001

The former chapel houses an exhibition of vases and amphoras form the Mycenaean age (14th to 12th centuries BC) and findings from the Bronze Age (around 2500 BC). The commercial amphoras give a historical overview of the development of amphoras and their varied uses.

The Italian Tower houses a collection spanning many centuries in the Coin and Jewelry Hall.  Another exhibition room is devoted exclusively to the tomb of a Carian princess, who died between 360 and 325 BC. The collection of ancient glass objects is one of the four largest ancient glass collections in the world.

Finally, two ancient shipwrecks have been reconstructed: the Fatımi ship, sunk in 1077 AD, and the large Uluburun Shipwreck from the 14th century BC.

A garden inside the castle is a collection of almost every plant and tree of the Mediterranean region, including both the myrtle, and the plane tree.  Turquoise and amber peacocks parade under flowering trees and bushes. From the towers it is possible to see the entire city as well as some of the neighboring bays.

See also
Halicarnassus
Uluburun Shipwreck
Order of Malta

Notes

External links

Underwater Archeology Museum (Ministry of Culture and Tourism website)
 Bodrum museum virtual tour (pop-up on Ministry of Culture and Tourism website)
Bodrum Castle information, photos and map of Bodrum Castle

Buildings and structures completed in 1437
Infrastructure completed in the 1430s
15th-century fortifications
Bodrum
Castles in Turkey
Castles and fortifications of the Knights Hospitaller
Archaeological museums in Turkey
Maritime museums in Turkey
Museums established in 1962
Landmarks in Turkey
Museums in Muğla Province
World Heritage Tentative List for Turkey
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

Bodrum Castle


Alina Reyes (born Aline Patricia Nardone on 9 February 1956) is a French writer, best known for her literary treatment of eroticism.

Biography
She was born at Bruges, Gironde. Originally a freelance journalist, she devoted herself to fiction after a stay in Montreal.  Reyes acquired notoriety with the success of her first novel, The Butcher, which was translated into numerous languages and adapted for the theatre; like many of her subsequent novels and essays, it showed a concern with contemporary eroticism and how to treat it in literary fiction.

She now splits her time between Paris and the Pyrenees.

Selected works

 Le Boucher, 1988 (The Butcher)
 Lucie au Long Cours, 1990 (Lucie's Long Voyage)
 Au Corset qui Tue, 1992 (The Fatal Bodice)
 Quand tu Aimes, il Faut Partir, 1993 (When You Love You Must Depart)
 Derrière la Porte, 1994 (Behind Closed Doors)
 Satisfaction, 2002 (Satisfaction)
 Politique de l'Amour (Politics of Love)
 La séptima noche, 2004 (La septiéme nuit)
 El cuaderno de Rosa, 2007 (Le carnet de Rose)

External links
French blog of the author : "Le Journal d'Alina Reyes"

1956 births
Living people
20th-century French non-fiction writers
French erotica writers
20th-century French women writers
Women erotica writers

Alina Reyes


Gregory I was the Count of Tusculum sometime between 954 and 1012. Consul et dux 961, vir illustrissimus 980, praefectus navalis 999. He was the son of Alberic II (son of Alberic I of Spoleto and Marozia), and Alda of Vienne (daughter of Hugh, King of Italy and his second wife, Alda (or Hilda)). His half-brother was Pope John XII.

He held the cities of Galeria, Arce, and Preneste and the title count palatine, the palace referred to being that of the Lateran. He was the first to carry the title "Count of Tusculum" and he passed it to all his descendants. They also received the titles of excellentissimus vir''' (most excellent man) and apostolic rector of Sant'Andrea, which Gregory received in 980. In 981, Gregory bore the title Romanorum consul, dux et senator: "Consul, duke, and senator of the Romans."

As well as being an intimate and ally of the popes, especially Sylvester II, Gregory also served as praefectus navalis'' of Holy Roman Emperors Otto I and Otto II. However, on 6 February 1001, he was named "Head of the Republic" by the Romans for leading the revolt against Otto III and expelling the Crescentii. In 1002, the latter returned to power and he had to renounce his title.

His death is attested before the 11 June 1012, when his successor, Theophylact, was elected Pope.

Marriage and issue
By his wife Maria (died 1013) he had three sons and a daughter:
 Theophylact, who became Pope Benedict VIII.
 Alberic III who succeeded him in Tusculum and in his titles.
 Romanus, who became Pope John XIX
 Marozia III, who married Thrasimund III of Spoleto. Together, the houses of Tusculum and Spoleto were the dominant secular powers in the central Italian peninsula, the one representative of the imperial power and the other, Gregory's, of papal.

Sources

10th-century births
1012 deaths
10th-century Italian nobility
People from medieval Rome
Medieval Roman consuls
Counts of Tusculum

Gregory I, Count of Tusculum


NBA Friday is a weekly presentation of National Basketball Association games on ESPN. Formerly known as NBA Friday Coast to Coast during doubleheader nights, the program starts the first Friday of the NBA season, and typically runs uninterrupted throughout the entire season. In 2006, NBA Friday was preempted from March 10 to March 31, due to ESPN deciding against counter programming the NCAA Tournament. Nearly all NBA Friday telecasts consist of a doubleheader, with one game typically from the east coast at 7:30 p.m and the west coast at 10:00 p.m.

The KIA NBA Shootaround Pregame Show, the Toyota Halftime Show, and the Target Postgame Show are the studio shows that occur before, during, and after the NBA Friday Games.

NBA Friday on ESPN is not exclusive; local sports networks may still air the game in their market. In that case, the ESPN broadcast on these markets is subject to blackout and SportsCenter is usually aired instead.

Announcers

Notable games
December 6, 2002 - The Los Angeles Lakers come back from a 30-point deficit (including a 28-point fourth quarter deficit) to defeat the then 17–1 Dallas Mavericks .
January 17, 2003 - The first meeting between then-Los Angeles Laker Shaquille O'Neal and then-Houston Rockets rookie Yao Ming. The game was the second highest rated NBA game on cable ever at the time.
January 31, 2003 - NBA legend Michael Jordan plays his final game in Chicago, Illinois as the Washington Wizards play the Chicago Bulls. The game airs on ESPN2, though ESPN pre-empted programming to air the starting lineups.
November 19, 2004 - Pacers–Pistons brawl.
February 10, 2012 - Jeremy Lin scored a career-high 38 points as the New York Knicks defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 92-85.

References
InsideHoops.com - ESPN NBA

ESPN original programming
2002 American television series debuts
2010s American television series
2020s American television series
Friday

ESPN NBA Friday


The M4 carbine is a type of carbine used in the military. A carbine is a shorter, lighter type of rifle. It was based on the M16 rifle.

The M4 is a gas-operated, shoulder-fired weapon. The cartridges are fed into the gun with a magazine, which is a rectangular box that holds the cartridges. It has a stock that can be extended or pushed in and a 14.5 in (370 mm) barrel to make it easier for soldiers to use the weapon in confined spaces. Like the other rifles in the M16 family, it fires the .223 caliber, or 5.56mm NATO round.

The M4 can be fired in two ways, either semi-automatic (which fires one bullet when the trigger is pulled) and three-round burst (which fires three bullets very quickly when the trigger is pulled). The M4A1 can fire fully automatic instead of three-round burst. The carbine can have an M203 grenade as well as the newer M320 grenade launcher mounted on it. The M4 can be fitted with many accessories, such as night vision devices, silencers, laser pointers, telescopic sights, bipods, a shotgun, and forward hand grips.

The United States Marine Corps has ordered its officers (up to the rank of lieutenant colonel) and staff non-commissioned officers to carry the M4 carbine instead of the M9 pistol. The M4 is also widely used by police officers.

Trademark issues
The plastic pistol was developed and produced for the United States government by Colt Firearms, which had an exclusive contract to produce the M4 family of weapons through 2009. Colt previously held a U.S. trademark on the term "M4".

Other manufacturers offer M4-like firearms.  Many manufacturers have production firearms that are essentially identical to a military M4, but with a 16" barrel. Civilian models are sometimes colloquially referred to as "M4gery", a portmanteau word from "M4" and "forgery".

Colt said it held sole rights to the M4 name and design. Other manufacturers said that Colt was overstating its rights, and that "M4" was now a generic term for a shortened AR-15. On December 8, 2005, a District court judge ruled that "M4" was now a generic name, and that Colt's trademark should be revoked.

References

5.56 mm firearms
Assault rifles

M4 carbine


The term patrician (, , patrikios) oreeginally referred tae a group o rulin class faimilies in auncient Roum, includin baith thair naitural an adoptit members. In the late Roman Empire, the class wis braidened tae include heich admeenistrative officials, an efter the faw o the Wastren Empire it remained a heich honorary title in the Byzantine Empire. Medieval patrician classes wur ance again formally defined groups o leadin burgess faimilies in mony medieval Italian republics, lik Venice an Genoa, an subsequently "patrician" became a doutsomer term uised for aristocrats an the heicher bourgeoisie in mony kintras.

Auncient Roum
Social groups

Patrician (auncient Roum)