A tanning bed is a device that emits ultraviolet radiation to give people a tan (make their skin darker).  Like the sun, a tanning bed can also cause a sunburn if the person stays in too long.  There are many kinds of tanning beds, but most look like the one in the photo.

History
Tanning beds became popular in Europe and America because of the work of Friedrich Wolff around 1979.  He patented his design and charged others to use his ideas. His company, "Wolff Systems" does not build the tanning beds, they research and design for the tanning lamp. Some of the early adopters of the Wolff technology include ETS, Inc., SCA, Sun Industries, Inc., Montego Bay, Sunal. Later, Friedrich sold Wolff Systems to his brother Jorg Wolff, who was the founder of Cosmedico, Ltd., another pioneer in the tanning industry.

Design
Tanning beds use a special fluorescent lamps (16 to 32 per tanning bed) that creates visible light and ultraviolet light.  Like all fluorescent lights, they use a ballast system to limit the electricity going to each lamp, which is most often 100 watts per lamp.  The tanning beds use a special acrylic, or clear shield over the lamps.  Most clear plastics will block ultraviolet, but this special type of plastic lets most of the ultraviolet light pass through.  Most tanning beds also have a cooling fan system, to cool the electronics inside the tanning bed and keep it from getting too hot.  All tanning beds have a timer, a device to limit the amount of time the person is exposed to the ultraviolet light.  After a few minutes, the timer makes the bed turn off.

Benefits and risks
Unlike the sun, tanning beds do not help the body produce vitamin D as their bulbs emit mostly UVA light. The human body needs UVB light to produce vitamin D. Both the sun and tanning beds can damage your skin if you stay exposed for too long.  Getting too much UV, or many sunburns can cause skin cancer, including melanoma, which can be deadly.  There is a lot of controversy due to the risks.  Most countries have many laws and rules that regulate tanning beds.

References

Electromagnetic radiation
Skin

Tanning bed


The sensory system is the way animals find out about their nearby environment and their bodies. To do this they have special devices for collecting data called sense organs. The sense organs act as transducers: they turn energy from the outside or inside of the body into nerve signals. The signals are then very rapidly processed by the brain. The whole arrangement is the sensory system.

It is usual to say the sensory system has five senses:
 Hearing is the sense of sound. Ears hear sounds.
 Sight is the sense of seeing. Eyes see.
 Touch is the sense of feeling. Sense organs feel.
 Taste is the sense of the flavor. Tongues taste.
 Smell is the sense of scent or odor. Noses smell.

There are other senses. For example, we have a sense of equilibrioception which checks our balance, and proprioception which is the sense of the relative position of one's own parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement. Fishes have a sense system which no land animal has. It is called the lateral line system. This senses movement and vibration in the water pressure and other functions. Some fish can sense patterns of electrical current in the water.

Handling the data
A huge amount of data comes in from the sensory system. About 11 million pieces of information per second is one estimation, of which ten million comes from our eyes. Of this huge number we only handle about 40 in our conscious mind. The rest is handled non-consciously.

References

Sensory system


was a pen name of a novelist in Taishō and Shōwa period Japan. His real name was .

Early life
Naoki Sanjūgo was born in what is now Chūō-ku, Osaka. The noted historian Uemura Seiji, specialist in East Asian history, was his brother. Against the wishes of his father, Naoki attended the preparatory schools of Waseda University to study English Literature but was forced to drop out of school on occasion due to his inability to pay the tuition. In 1920, he collaborated with Ton Satomi, Masao Kume, and Isamu Yoshii on the literary journal Ningen ("Human"). He returned to Osaka shortly after Great Kantō earthquake of 1923. At first, he attempted to work at a cosmetics company, but was soon drawn back to the literary world.

Literary career
At the invitation of Matsutarō Kawaguchi, Naoki started working in Osaka as editor of the literary magazine Kuraku ("Joys and Sorrows"), contributed his own works of fiction as well, and soon began publishing novels. Although interested in the new trends toward the cinema, he experimented with movie script-writing but failed to interest any movie studios. In 1927, he moved back to Tokyo where opportunities looked more promising. He obtained a post at the literary magazine Bungeishunjū, where he developed a reputation for writing scathing literary criticism, mixed with scandalous gossip about the writer, which outraged many of his contemporaries.

In 1929, he had an historical novel, Yui Kongen Taisakki, serialized in a weekly magazine, and a similar historical novel about the Satsuma Rebellion, Nangoku Taiheiki, serialized in a newspaper following year. The success of these established him firmly as a writer of popular fiction.

His novel Mito Komon Kaikokuki, a fictional history of the travels of Tokugawa Mitsukuni in disguise around the country was the basis of a movie starring Ryūnosuke Tsukigata and was the first of nearly fifty of his novels to be made into movies. It later metamorphosed into the extremely long-running television series Mito Kōmon, which remains popular to this day and which is largely responsible for turning the historical Tokugawa Mitsukuni into a folk hero.

Naoki had a reputation for being eccentric, as evidenced by his choice of a pen name, which he changed four times between ages 31 and 35 to match his age (skipping over 34, as four is an unlucky number according to Japanese superstition). When he reached age 35 (Sanjūgo), he decided to keep the same name from that point onward.

As well as historical novels such as Araki Mataemon and Odoriko Gyojoki, Naoki wrote biographies of historical figures — including Kusunoki Masashige, Ashikaga Takauji, and Genkuro Yoshitsune — and contemporary social fiction, including Nihon no Senritsu ("Japan Shudders") and Hikari: Tsumi to Tomoni ("Light: With Crime").

Death
Naoki died in 1934 at the age of 43 from an acute case of Japanese encephalitis. Yasunari Kawabata, with whom Naoki shared a common interest in the game of go, wrote the eulogy for his funeral. His grave is at the temple of Chōshō-ji in Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama.

Legacy
In 1935, on the suggestion of Kikuchi Kan (founder of the  Bungeishunjū magazine), Naoki's name was given to an award for popular fiction, the Naoki Prize. Alongside the Akutagawa Prize for new writers, it is one of the most prestigious literary awards in Japan.

See also
Japanese literature
List of Japanese authors
Naoki Prize

References

Fukuyama, Hikomaro. Naoki Sanjūgo Nyumon-Konna omoshiroi hito data. Shinpu Shobo. ASIN: 488269574X (Japanese)

External links
e-texts of works at Aozora Bunko (Japanese site)
Naoki Sanjūgo Memorial Museum in Osaka (Japanese site)

20th-century Japanese novelists
Japanese literary critics
Japanese art collectors
Writers from Osaka
Waseda University alumni
1891 births
1934 deaths

Sanjugo Naoki


This page is about 'group' in the common sense. For the mathematical concept, see Group (mathematics).

A group is a set of things or a number of individuals who have regular contact and frequent interaction.

Examples of groups
 A family of people
 A herd of animals
 A class of students
 A sports team
 Ethnic group
 The apples on a tree
 The hats in a box
 Britain, China, France, Russia, and the United States of America are in the United Nations Security Council.
 Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and phosphorus are a group of chemical elements that life needs.

Basic English 850 words

Group


Lundy is an island off the coast of Devon, England, UK. It has a very small population.  In the 1930s the owner sold stamps and coins as if Lundy was an independent country. You can hire cottages on this island to stay in for a week or so. You can get to Lundy by helicopter or a ferry in the summer.

Islands of England

Lundy


Von Steuben Day is a holiday traditionally held on a weekend in mid-September (von Steuben was born September 17), celebrating the Prussian-born Baron Friedrich von Steuben, who arrived in the United States as a volunteer offering his services to General George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. Von Steuben is still regarded as one of the most important German Americans, as his training of the young American troops made victory against the British possible. Thus, his work helped gain independence for the United States of America. The day is generally considered the German-American event of the year, and many participants wear tracht costumes, including dirndls and lederhosen, to celebrate their heritage. Celebrations focus on parades where participants march, dance, and play music.

Parades
The German-American Steuben Parade is an annual parade traditionally held in cities across the United States on Von Steuben Day.

The New York City parade is held every third Saturday in September. It was founded in 1957 by immigrants from Germany who, part of the most significant self-reported immigrant ancestral group in the United States, wanted to keep the traditions of their German homeland alive.

The Philadelphia parade, founded in 1970, is usually held every fourth Saturday in September.

The Chicago parade was featured in the film Ferris Bueller's Day Off.

Many parades were canceled in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

New York
While Steuben Day is celebrated in many cities all across the United States, the largest crowds gather in New York City. Every year on the third Saturday in September, German-Americans celebrate the Annual Steuben Parade on Fifth Avenue and an Oktoberfest-style beer fest complete with food and live music in Central Park. The parade was founded in 1957 and has grown into one of the largest celebrations of German and German-American culture in the United States.  In 2007, German-Americans celebrated the 50th anniversary of this affair and welcomed former US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger as Grand Marshal and former German chancellor Helmut Kohl as Guest of Honor. In 2017, the parade celebrated its 60th anniversary with Grand Marshals Admiral Nielson from the German Navy along with longtime Parade Volunteer and German-American Community Leader Heinz Buck. But three years later, the parade was canceled on the grounds of COVID-19 pandemic and was deferred to 2021.

The first Steuben Parade was held in the German neighborhood of Ridgewood Queens. In 1958, the parade moved to Yorkville, known then as Germantown, and lined up on 86th Street. Over the years, as the event grew more extensive, it drew an ever-larger number of spectators. Soon, it gained the city's recognition and marched up Fifth Avenue, turning onto 86th St, and marching across to First Avenue to cheering crowds.
86th Street was once the heart of Little Germany and was affectionately called the "German Boulevard." It hosted many German shops, Konditereis, Biergartens, Vereins, theaters, restaurants, newspapers, and dance halls.

Today, the parade still marches up Fifth Avenue but now ends only at Fifth Avenue and 86th Street. It is led by cadets representing the German Language Club of the Military Academy of West Point, which General von Steuben founded. The three-hour parade is dominated by traditional German groups, spectacular colorful floats, marching bands, clubs, and organizations from Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, as well as the US and Canada, wearing their traditional German costumes. The parade honors one or more Grand Marshals, either American citizens with a German background or German citizens with a special relationship to America.

Every year, the German-American Steuben Parade is led by cadets representing the German Language Club of the Military Academy of West Point, which General von Steuben founded. However, it is not a parade in the military tradition. The rest of the about three-hour-long parade is dominated by traditional German brass music groups and marching bands, by clubs and organizations wearing traditional German Tracht, as well as by carnival groups, sharpshooters, or representatives of other traditions. For many years, the parade has had a solid Bavarian theme, dominated by men wearing lederhosen, women in dirndl, and groups dancing the traditional Schuhplattler. Recently, though, the parade opened up to represent more German themes.

Grand Marshal and Guest of Honor
Every year, the German-American Steuben Parade is led by one or more Grand Marshals, either American citizens with a German background or German citizens with a special relationship with America.

The Grand Marshals in 2009 were Congressman Michael McMahon, Fox 5 TV reporter Linda Schmidt, A&P Chairman Christian Haub, and Parade Co-founder Ted Dengler. In previous years, Grand Marshals included Hollywood star Ralf Möller, NYSE CEO Duncan Niederauer and Col. Gail Halvorsen, the "Candy-Bomber" from the 1948–49 Berlin Airlift.

In 2007, celebrating the 50th Anniversary of the German-American Steuben Parade, the Grand Marshal was former US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, born in the Franconia region of Bavaria in Germany. The Guest of Honor was Dr. Klaus Scharioth, the German Ambassador to the United States. Also invited was former German chancellor Helmut Kohl, known to have a deep personal friendship with America.

Over the years, many distinguished Germans and Americans have led the Steuben Parade. Former Grand Marshals include Donald Trump, Siegfried & Roy, George Steinbrenner, Carol Alt, Michael Bloomberg, Eric Braeden, John Roland, Louis Freeh, Norbert Schramm. Several Mayors of New York City of non-German background have also led the parade, including Rudolph Giuliani and George Pataki.

Among the Guests of Honor have been three German presidents: Walter Scheel, Richard von Weizsäcker and Johannes Rau, as well as other dignitaries from the political and economic fields, including state prime ministers Erwin Teufel, Kurt Biedenkopf and Bernhard Vogel.

Parade events
While the German-American Steuben Parade is held on the third Saturday in September, starting at noon, other weekend festivities exist. Usually, up to 35 music and costume groups from overseas are greeted at City Hall Park on the Friday preceding the parade. On the eve of the parade, a gala benefit banquet takes place as a fundraiser for the parade.

The parade leads to the German-American Friendship Party in Central Park. This is the most significant beer fest in New York, featuring many German brands on tap, as well as traditional German food such as bratwurst.

Miss German-America
Each May, the German-American Steuben Parade Committee crowns a Miss German-America, who serves as Queen of the Steuben Day Parade in September. She is selected based on her German-American heritage and knowledge of German culture. She is expected to promote the parade, its events, and numerous German festivals throughout the New York region each summer. Past winners include: Nicole Radske (2006), Christina Rom (2007), Melissa Gratzl (2008), Virginia Kovak (2009), Stephanie Russell-Kraft (2010), Denise Manukian (2011), Kirsten Mueller (2012), Kristina Kren (2013) Stefanie Kraker (2014) and Samantha Hart (2015).

Logo
The cornflower is the official flower and the logo of the German-American Steuben Parade of New York City, as it widely grows in both Germany and the United States. Also, the color blue symbolizes friendship and hope. In addition, the Cornflower was the national Flower of Prussia since its introduction by Kaiser Wilhelm I to honor his mother Queen Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz and because of its color (prussian blue).

Organization
The German-American Steuben Parade Committee organizes the parade and all related events. Since 2014, the committee has been led by General Chairman Bob Radske. The two Vice Chairwomen are Nicole Miskiewicz and Melissa Alke-Sparnroft. The committee membership consists of representatives of many German-American organizations from the New York metropolitan area, some involved in founding the parade in 1957. The Steuben Parade is overseen by the German-American Committee of Greater New York, a not-for-profit organization registered in New York with 501(c)3 status.

Philadelphia
To celebrate the accomplishments of Baron von Steuben, the Philadelphia Von Steuben Day Parade is 50 miles from Valley Forge, where Steuben trained the Revolutionary Army. Philadelphia is where the Continental Congress met to sign the Declaration of Independence. It was also home to Benjamin Franklin, sent to France by the Continental Congress. It was during this trip that Franklin was introduced to von Steuben.

In addition, in 1683, William Penn invited the thirteen German families from Krefeld to join his "Grand Experiment". They eventually settled and founded Germantown, now a section of Philadelphia. In 1983, a parade celebrated the 300th anniversary of the founding of Germantown. At that time, a group from Krefeld brought the Tri-Centennial Bike, a thirteen-seat bicycle that has become a feature of our annual parade.

Parade events
While the German–American Steuben Parade is held on the fourth Saturday in September, starting at noon, other weekend festivities exist. On the eve of the parade, a gala benefit banquet is held at the Cannstatter Volksfest Verein.

On Parade day itself, the day begins with an Ecumenical Service at 10:00 am. After the parade, participants are welcome to join the Oktoberfest held by the Bavarian Volksfest Verein on the grounds of the United German-Hungarian Club.

Organization
The Steuben Day Observance Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity organize the parade and all related events. The association is led by General Chairman Thomas Markow and two Vice Chairmen, Werner Fricker and James Schwartz. The association's membership consists of representatives of many German-American organizations from the Philadelphia metropolitan area. The Steuben Day Observance Association of Philadelphia and Vicinity is a not-for-profit organization registered in Pennsylvania with 501(c)3 status.

Von Steuben Day in pop culture
The Chicago parade was in the 1986 John Hughes movie Ferris Bueller's Day Off, even though other movie details indicate that the film takes place near the end of the school year, not in September or on a Saturday.

Drunk History Season 2 Episode 8 Philadelphia as retold by Nick Rutherford features David Cross as Baron von Steuben.

See also
 German-American Day
 Oktoberfest
 Casimir Pulaski Day

References

External links

 German American National Congress
 German-American Steuben Parade
 German-American Steuben Parade of New York
 United German-American Societies of Greater Chicago
 Official Website of the Steuben Parade of Philadelphia
 Bavarian Groups in New York

Public holidays in the United States
German-American culture
German-American history
Holidays related to the American Revolution
September observances
Saturday observances
Holidays and observances by scheduling (nth weekday of the month)

de:Steubenparade
fr:Von Steuben Day

Von Steuben Day


A V12 engine often just called a V12 is an internal combustion engine with 12 cylinders. The engine has six cylinders on each side called banks. The two banks form a "V" shaped angle. In most engines, the two banks are at a 60° angle to each other. All twelve pistons turn a common crankshaft. It can be powered by different types of fuels, including gasoline, diesel and natural gas.

Each cylinder bank is basically a straight-6. This set-up has perfect balance no matter which V angle is used. A V12 engine does not need balance shafts. A V12 angled at 45°, 60°, 120°, or 180° from each other has even firing and is smoother than a straight-6. This provides a smooth running engine for a luxury car. In a racing car, the engine can be made much lighter. This makes the engine more responsive and smoother. In a large heavy-duty engine, a V12 can run slower, and  prolonging engine life.

Aviation

V12 engines were first used in aircraft. By the end of World War I, V12s were popular in the fighters and bombers. Many Zeppelins had V12 engines.

The Rolls-Royce Merlin V12 powered the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters that played a vital role in Britain's victory in the Battle of Britain. The long, narrow configuration of the V12 contributed to good aerodynamics, while its exceptional smoothness allowed its use with relatively light and fragile airframes.

After World War II, V12 engines were mostly replaced by turbojet and turboprop engines. These engines produced more power for their weight, and fewer problems in large aircraft.

Road cars

In cars, V12 engines are not common because of their complexity and cost. They are normally found only in high-end sports cars and luxury cars. For these cars, they are desired for their power, low vibration, and distinctive sound.

Before World War II, V12 engines were found in many luxury cars. In the 1930s, V8 engines started to replace the V12s. The V8 engine design was improved to make it lighter and produce more power than the V12. Since World War II, only a few car manufactures have used V12 engines.

In 1997, Toyota equipped their Century Limousine with a 5.0 L V12, making it the first Japanese production passenger car with a V12. In 2009, China FAW Group Corporation equipped their Hongqi HQE with a 6.0 L V12, making it the first Chinese production passenger car so equipped.

Auto racing

In the past, V12 engines were common in Formula One and endurance racing. Ferrari used V12 engines in 1950, the first year of Formula One. Several factors made teams stop using the V12 engine. Improvements to the V8 engine, in particular Ford Cosworth engine. Small, lightweight turbocharged engines were developed that produced more power for the weight. And finally rule changes that limited the size of engines and the power they could produce.

In the 2007 24 Hours of Le Mans, the first place car was a Audi R10 TDI, with a V12 diesel engine. The second place car was a Peugeot 908, also with a V12 diesel.

Large diesel engines
V12 is a common configuration for large diesel engines. Heavy trucks often use large V12 engines. Many diesel locomotives have V12 engines. Mercedes (MTU) builds V12 diesel engines for marine use.

V12 is a common configuration for tanks and other armored fighting vehicles (AFVs).

References

Other websites
 Technical history of the Jaguar V12

Motors

V12 engine


Huckabay is an unincorporated community located at the intersection of State Highway 108 and Farm to Market Road 219, ten miles northwest of Stephenville in Erath County, Texas, United States. It had a population of approximately 150 in 2000.

History
The small town of Huckabay was founded in the late eighteen hundreds.  Gerldine Griswold wrote of how the community was started by John A. Huckabay, Ben Fincher, John and W.C. Copeland, John Gentry, Abe Metsgar, John W. Jones and others who were moving west from Arkansas and Tennessee. The head of the Bosque was the area where they settled which was known as "Flatwoods," but was changed to Huckabay, when John Huckabay established a post office. One hundred and sixty acres was claimed by each of the families, which was where they built their homes.  After the settlers had wells dug and their homes built, churches, schools and other public buildings began to go up. Ryan Patrick Huckabay is the current mayor of Huckabay.

The Historic Businesses of Huckabay

The families who started settling the land now known as Huckabay worked hard to build buildings and dig wells.  A smoke house and a storm cellar were the first two buildings to be contructed.  The smoke house was where the citizens put fresh meat to begin curing, while the storm cellar was a place of storage for fresh fruits and vegetables and protection for families.

In the late 1870s, the community began to expand.  With the purchase of a gin by Bill Rigsby in 1879, cotton was what supported the town until the peanut production took over for a short period of time.  When peanut production decreased, the dairy industry took over.  The milk production in this area still remains important to the community.

The first store was opened by G.W. Glenn in 1878.  The main economic base for Huckabay has changed many times. Over time, the community grew to the point, it had general merchants, drug stores, grocery stores, blacksmith shops, and a well-equipped gin.  These businesses were located along the main street of Huckabay.  The town did establish the West Texas State Bank at one time but it did not survive.

Over time, the community has disintegrated to only a school, two churches and a few antique houses.  In 1975, a historical marker was placed on FM 219 to preserve the memory of the small community.

The Past Congregations of Huckabay, Texas
Huckabay, being a small community, did not have many churches.  The Church of Christ was an early church that was built in 1876.  The community also had two other churches, the Baptist Church and the Methodist Church, both which were organized in 1881.  John Haven organized the Methodist while Joe Lockhart the Baptist.

Three acres, only costing one hundred dollars, was purchased in 1910 in order to build a tabernacle.  The tabernacle was used for various community and religious activities.  Although it is over ninety years old, it still stands today.  The antique structure is used for annual Huckabay Homecoming Reunions and many other school and community affairs.

Today, Huckabay still has two community churches that hold services regularly.  The Huckabay Baptist Church is located a few hundred yards down from the tabernacle, and The Huckabay Church of Christ is located up the hill from the tabernacle a few hundred yards.

Education
The Huckabay Independent School District serves area students and home to the Huckabay High School Indians.

Photo gallery

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year.  The Köppen Climate System describes the weather as humid subtropical, and uses the abbreviation Cfa.

External links

 Huckabay, Texas from the Handbook of Texas Online

History of Huckabay, Texas

References

Unincorporated communities in Texas
Unincorporated communities in Erath County, Texas

Huckabay, Texas


Beukkeepin (the keepin o beuks an aw) is the process o merkin the financial transactions o a business.  This micht be sales, purchases, income an peyments makkit bi a body or ony ither organisation (a company or siclike).  Beukkeepin is cairit oot bi a beukkeeper (keeper o the beuks an aw).  Beukkeepin shoudna be mistakken for accoontin.  The information gaithert bi beukkeepers is uised bi accoontants for makkin up statements that shew it. The're twa main standards in formal beukkeepin: Single-entry beukkeepin an Dooble-entry beukkeepin o whiten the latter is prefairt.

Beukkeepin seestems

Twa common beukkeepin seestems uised bi businesses an ither organisations are the single-entry beukkeepin seestem an the dooble-entry beukkeepin seestem. Single-entry beukkeepin uises anely income an expense accoonts, recordit mainly in a revenue an expense jurnal. Single-entry beukkeeping is awricht for mony smaw businesses. Dooble-entry beukkeepin requires beukkeepers tae record ilka transactions twice, uisin debits an credits.

Daybeuks

Thir is chronologically ordert record o financial transactions an are eften kent collectively as beuks o oreeginal entry. The recordin o this data is the first step in the accoontin paper trail.  Different types o daybeuk includes:

 Sales - uised for recordin sales invyces
 Sales credits - uised for recordin sales credit notes
 Purchases - uised for recordin purchase invyces
 Purchases credits - uised for recordin purchase credit notes
 Cashbeuk (or cash daybeuk) - uised for recordin cash peyd in an cash peyd oot (as agin the ordinar credit sales/purchases), it is aft spleet intil twa beuks (i.e. ane for debits an ane for credits)

Petty cash beuk

This is a beuk uised for recordin tottie (relative tae the size o the business) transactions.  It is maist aften governed bi the imprest seestem.  Items that's necessar integral tae the rinnin o a business (sic as tea an coffee) are aft recordit as petty cash.

Jurnals

A jurnal is a formal an chronological record o financial transactions afore thair values are accoontit in general ledger as debits an credits. Journals are recordit in the jurnal daybeuk, ane o the beuks o first entry. For eilka debit jurnal thare maun be a credit jurnal. Thare maun be at least twa jurnal entries for eilka transaction recordit.

Ledgers

A ledger (cried a beuk o final entry an aw) is a record o accoonts, ilkane o thaim recordit individual wi its balance. Unalike the jurnal (that lists chronologically types o transaction 'ithoot a balance), the ledger summarises values o ae type o financial transaction per accoont.  Thir accoonts gies the basis for the balance sheet an income statement. Some ensaumples coud be:

 Customer ledger, for financial transactions wi a customer (aft kent as the sales ledger).
 Supplier ledger, for financial transactions wi a supplier (aft kent as the purchase ledger).
 Nominal ledger, that shews assets, liabilities, income an expenses.

Modernisation

Thir days, maist businesses o a reasonable size tends tae uise computers for tae eliminate the huge amoont o paper needit tae record thair day tae day financial acteevities.  Deed some lairger retail oriented businesses (sic as supermercats) haes automatit seestems that records transaction in real-time.

See as weel

Accoontin

Economics
Accoontin

Beukkeepin


"Welcome to the Black Parade" is the first single and fifth track from My Chemical Romance's third studio album, The Black Parade. It was released on September 11, 2006 on iTunes and October 9, 2006 on CD. It is the band's ninth single. The studio version was available on MySpace on September 2, 2006. The song became the group's first number one in the UK on October 15, 2006, and later rose to number one on the Modern Rock Tracks on October 26, 2006, where it would stay for seven weeks. It was originally intended to be called "The Five Of Us Are Dying."

The song ranked at #17 on Rolling Stone's "The 100 Best Songs of 2006".

References

Other websites
 "Welcome to the Black Parade" sound track at The Black Parade official website

2006 songs
My Chemical Romance songs
Alternative rock songs
Hard rock songs

Welcome to the Black Parade


Montgomery Blair (May 10, 1813 – July 27, 1883) was an American politician and lawyer from Maryland. He served in the Lincoln administration cabinet as Postmaster-General from 1861 to 1864, during the Civil War. He was the son of Francis Preston Blair, elder brother of Francis Preston Blair Jr. and cousin of B. Gratz Brown.

Early life and education
Blair was born in Franklin County, Kentucky, site of the state capital of Frankfort. His father, Francis Preston Blair, Sr., was editor of the Washington Globe and a prominent figure in the Democratic Party during the Jacksonian era. As a boy, Montgomery "often listened to the talk of his father and Andrew Jackson."

Blair graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1835, but after a year's service in the Seminole War, he left the Army, married Caroline Rebecca Buckner of Virginia, and began studying law at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky. Blair began to practice law in 1839 at St Louis, Missouri, working as a United States district attorney. After the death of his first wife, Carolina, in 1844, he later married Mary Elizabeth Woodbury, daughter of Levi Woodbury.

After serving as United States district attorney (1839–43) and later as judge of the court of common pleas (1843–1849), Blair moved to Maryland in 1852 and devoted himself to law practice principally in the United States Supreme Court. He was United States Solicitor in the Court of Claims (1855–58) and was associated with George T. Curtis as counsel for the plaintiff in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857.

Career

The Blairs, like many other nationalist Democrats, but unusual for politicians from the border states, had abandoned the Democratic Party in the wake of the Kansas–Nebraska Act and had been among the founding leaders of the new Republican Party. Four years after Blair switched political parties, President Buchanan removed Blair from his position as Solicitor of the United States Court of Claims in 1858. In 1860, Blair took an active part in the presidential campaign on behalf of Abraham Lincoln. After his election, Lincoln appointed Blair to his cabinet as Postmaster General in 1861. Lincoln expected Blair, who advocated taking a firm stance with the southern states, to help balance more conciliatory members of his cabinet. While Postmaster-General, Blair instituted a uniform rate of postage and free delivery in cities. Blair also began the sale of money orders by post offices to reduce the mailing of currency to reduce post office robberies. He also called for the First International Postal Conference, which was held in Paris in 1863 and began the process that led to the Universal Postal Union.

While the Blairs, as a family, were often characterized as conservative on the issue of slavery, Blair notably served as the defense counsel for Dred Scott when the enslaved African-American took his case to the Supreme Court in 1857. Scott was the slave of an Army doctor,  who had taken his enslaved servant along for prolonged stays in free territory.  On Scott's behalf, Blair argued that the time the black man had spent in the free state of Illinois and in Minnesota, free territory since the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, made him a free man. The ruling by Court's majority against Scott's right to freedom is often cited as one of the contributing causes of the Civil War. Writing for the majority, Chief Justice Roger Taney affirmed that the black man had no rights "that the white man was bound to respect" and that black slaves could not be considered American citizens despite having been born in the U.S. This landmark decision was denounced as a step toward the "nationalization" of slavery by Lincoln and others opposed to the expansion of that institution. Conservative as he may have been on other aspects of the slavery issue, Blair's work in the case of Dred Scott vs. Sandford suggests a willingness to embrace more progressive viewpoints.

Blair served as Postmaster-General from 1861 until September 1864, when Lincoln accepted an earlier offer by Blair to resign. Lincoln's action may have been a response to the hostility of the Radical Republican faction, which stipulated that Blair's retirement should follow the withdrawal of John C. Frémont as a candidate for President in that year. Regarding Lincoln's action, Blair told his wife that the president had acted "from the best motives" and that "it is for the best all around." After he left the cabinet, Blair still campaigned for Lincoln's re-election and Lincoln and the Blair family retained close ties.

Under Blair's administration, such reforms and improvements as the establishment of free city delivery; the adoption of a money order system; and the use of railway mail cars were instituted, the last of which had been suggested by George B. Armstrong (d. 1871), of Chicago, general superintendent of the United States railway mail service from 1860 to his death.

Differing from the Republican Party on the Reconstruction policy, Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic Party after the Civil War, along with his brother, who was the Democratic vice presidential candidate in 1868.

In 1876, Blair, along with Matthew H. Carpenter and Jeremiah S. Black, was counsel to Secretary of War William W. Belknap during the House of Representatives investigation into the Trader post scandal. Blair asked the House Investigation Committee chaired by Hiester Clymer to drop the charges against Belknap if the latter resigned office. Clymer, however, declined Blair's offer. Belknap was impeached by the House of Representatives for receiving illicit payments from the Fort Sill trader post on the Western frontier while Secretary of War. Belknap had been given sole power by Congress to choose sutlers to operate lucrative trader posts that sold supplies to U.S. soldiers and Indians. Belknap resigned over the scandal and was acquitted in a Senate trial during the summer of 1876. Many senators did not believe that Congress could convict a private citizen, but the Senate passed a resolution that stated Congress could convict a private citizen.

In 1882, Blair unsuccessfully ran for U.S. Representative from Maryland's sixth district.

Later life and death

His  manor in present-day Silver Spring, Maryland was named Falkland. It was burned by Confederate troops during their thrust towards Washington, D.C. After several years afflicted with "inflammation of the spinal membranes," he died at Silver Spring on July 27, 1883. The funeral services were held at Rock Creek Church, and he was buried at Rock Creek Cemetery. In memory of Blair, the United States Post Office closed on July 30, 1883.

Personal life
Blair's wife was Mary Woodbury, a daughter of Levi Woodbury. They had one daughter, Minnie Blair, and had three sons, Woodbury Blair, Gist Blair, and Montgomery Blair Jr., all of whom were attorneys. Montgomery Blair and Mary Woodbury Blair are the great-grandparents of actor Montgomery Clift.

In popular culture
Blair is portrayed by actor Lew Temple in the 2012 film Saving Lincoln.
In the 2012 film Lincoln, Blair is inaccurately portrayed by actor Byron Jennings. In the film, Blair is incorrectly depicted as not being in favor of the 13th Amendment, referring to it as "rash and dangerous." In reality, though Blair began the Civil War more concerned with punishing secessionists and restoring the union than abolishing slavery, he accepted the abolition of slavery as necessary (despite his dislike of abolitionists) by 1863.
To commemorate the centennial of the First International Postal Conference, Blair's portrait appeared on a U.S. airmail stamp, Scott catalogue C66, issued in 1963.

Works
 Speech on the Causes of the Rebellion (1864)

Legacy
Montgomery Blair High School in Silver Spring, Maryland is named after Blair.

Gallery

Notes

References

 Goodwin, D. K. Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005.  (electronic edition).

Further reading
 Davis, Madison. The Public Career of Montgomery Blair: particularly with reference to his services as Postmaster General of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Columbia Historical Society, 1910
 Moroney, Rita Lloyd. 	Montgomery Blair, Postmaster General. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963 44p.

External links
Biography
Mr. Lincoln and Friends: Montgomery Blair
Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Montgomery Blair
Mr. Lincoln's White House: Montgomery Blair

1813 births
1883 deaths
People from Franklin County, Kentucky
United States Military Academy alumni
American people of the Seminole Wars
Maryland state court judges
United States Attorneys for the District of Missouri
United States Postmasters General
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
People of Maryland in the American Civil War
Union (American Civil War) political leaders
Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery
Maryland Democrats
Maryland Republicans
Lincoln administration cabinet members
19th-century American politicians
Missouri Democrats
19th-century American judges
Deaths from meningitis
Neurological disease deaths in Maryland
Blair family
People from Silver Spring, Maryland

Montgomery Blair


Disfigurement is the state of having one's appearance deeply and persistently harmed medically, such as from a disease, birth defect, or wound. General societal attitudes towards disfigurement have varied greatly across cultures and over time, with cultures possessing strong social stigma against it often causing psychological distress to disfigured individuals. Alternatively, many societies have regarded some forms of disfigurement in a medical, scientific context where someone having ill will against the disfigured is viewed as anathema. In various religious and spiritual contexts, disfigurement has been variously described as being a punishment from the divine for sin (such as Yahweh's defacement of Cain for Abel's murder in Judaism), as being (such as Paul of the New Testament's arguments about Christ's sufferings) caused by supernatural forces of hate and evil against the good and just, which will be later atoned for, or as being without explanation per se with people just having to endure.

The topic has been frequently commented on and referred to in a great many forms of fictional media as well. Villainous examples include the iconic fiend The Joker from various DC Comics and the mysterious figure with a "red right hand" from the song of the same name by the band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds. Heroic examples include Daredevil, a crime-fighter who was rendered blind (from Marvel Comics), and the compassionate character Edward Scissorhands from the film of the same name. Antiheroic examples include Deadpool, a mercenary whose healing factor gives his skin a scarred appearance, and The Punisher, who has facial disfigurement, also from Marvel Comics.

Overview
Disfigurement, whether caused by a benign or malignant condition, often leads to severe psychosocial problems such as negative body image; depression; difficulties in one's social, sexual, and professional lives; prejudice; and intolerance. This is partly due to how the individual copes with looking 'visibly different', though the extent of the disfigurement rarely correlates with the degree of distress the patient feels. An additional factor which affects people with a disfigurement is the reaction they get from other people. The general population responds to people with a disfigurement with less trust and respect, and often try to avoid making contact or having to look at the disfigurement. Disfigurements affecting visible areas, such as the face, arms, and hands, are thought to present greater difficulty for affected people to cope with than do other disfigurements.

Deliberate mutilation resulting in physical disfigurement has also been practiced by many cultures throughout human history for religious or judicial purposes. During the Byzantine Empire, the emperor was considered God's viceregent on Earth, and as such, the physical wholeness of his person was an essential complement to the perfection of Heaven. For this reason, many deposed emperors were blinded, had their noses cut off, or their tongue split by their successors, as these permanent disfigurements disqualified them from ever reclaiming the throne.

A case of voluntary disfigurement is that of St. Æbbe the Younger and the nuns of Coldingham Monastery in Scotland. When the monastery was attacked by Vikings and they feared being raped,  the nuns and she cut off their own noses and upper lips. In revenge, the Vikings burned down the building with the nuns inside. This is said to be the origin of the phrase "cutting off the nose to spite the face".

In some cases of disfigurement, it can also involve animal attacks, such as survivors of chimpanzee maulings, like Charla Nash, whose face and hands were disfigured from Travis.

Causes
Conditions that can cause disfigurement include:

severe acne
acromegaly
amniotic band constriction
amputation
argyria
birthmarks
burns
cancer
cataracts
circumcision
cleft lip
eczema
elephantiasis
erysipelas
frostbite
gangrene
gigantomastia
gynecomastia

keloids
leprosy
necrosis
McCune–Albright syndrome
neurofibromatosis
noma
paralysis
proteus syndrome
radiation poisoning
scalping
scars
smallpox
severe strabismus
synkinesis
syphilis
vitiligo
severe warts

Plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery is available in many cases to disfigured people. Some health insurance companies and government health care systems cover plastic surgery for these problems when they do not generally cover plastic surgery for what is labeled as "cosmetic purposes".

The term "disfigurement" is sometimes used pejoratively to describe the results of intentional body modification. Scarification and other forms of such modification are sometimes referred to as such by neutral parties or by advocates of the processes, as well. Many types of body modification are subject to strong social debate as such.

Society and culture
People with disfigurement are often treated poorly.

In American fiction

In most adaptations (literary, stage, film, or otherwise) of The Phantom of the Opera, the title character (known as "Erik" or "The Phantom") wears either a full- or half-face mask to conceal a disfigurement. Some adaptations infer that his disfigurement was present from birth, such as in the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical, whereas others infer or show it to be the result of a horrible accident such as burning from fire or chemicals. The Phantom's disfigured face is usually described as having caused him anguish and despair, thus influencing him to adopt the enigmatic "phantom" persona.
The DC Comics character the Joker, often a foe of Batman, possesses a clown-like grin and a grotesque combination of bleached skin, red lips, and green hair that are typically described or inferred to be the result of injuries and disfigurement in most media. A common origin of his skin and hair colors revolve around chemical burns as the result of the Joker character either falling into, jumping into, or being thrown into a vat of noxious chemicals. In Tim Burton's 1989 film adaptation of Batman, the Joker character, in this version a criminal originally known as "Jack Napier", receives his distinct rictus grin as the result of a botched plastic surgery that he received after a ricocheted bullet that Napier intended to harm Batman badly injured the Joker's face. In most media, the Joker's mania and insanity begin as a result of him seeing his own disfigurement, the 1989 film being an example.
Several enemies of fictional British secret agent James Bond have been known for their distinctive facial features. An example is the North Korean criminal and terrorist Zao from the film Die Another Day. Played by Rick Yune, the terrorist has partly translucent skin with thick veins shown on his face and numerous diamonds embedded into his skin.
The Punisher, an antihero appearing in various Marvel Comics-related works, has confronted several enemies known for their drastic facial disfigurement. A prominent example is Jigsaw, a sadist and psychopath with incredible stamina, while having no superhuman powers that has a deeply mutilated face somewhat similar to a jigsaw puzzle. Perhaps the Punisher's most iconic nemesis, he was played in 2008's Punisher: War Zone by Dominic West.
Deadpool, an antihero also appearing in Marvel Comics-related works, was disfigured from a healing factor that gives his skin a scarred appearance.
Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' popular alternative rock song "Red Right Hand", first released in 1994's Let Love In, describes a nightmarish figure with a blood-red, disfigured hand (as referred to in the title).

See also

AboutFace – Canadian charitable organization
Changing Faces (charity) – British charitable organization
Dermatology
Face transplant – experimental treatment for severe facial disfigurement
Corporal punishment, of which disfigurement is the most permanent type

References

External links

Changing Faces – a British organization for people with facial disfigurements
Project Harar – a British organization helping children with facial disfigurements in Africa
Let's Face It – an American organization for people with facial disfigurements
Unique Face – a Japanese organization for people with facial disfigurements
 Centre for Appearance Research - Psychological and psychosocial research at the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
 Derriford Appearance Scale - a standardised psychological measure of distress and dysfunction in relation to disfigurement and visible difference

www.karibuanawim.com – Australian organisation for people with facial disfigurements

Injuries

Disfigurement


Oil droplets are found in the eyes of some animals, being located in the photoreceptor cells. They are especially common in the eyes of diurnal (active during the day) reptiles (e.g. lizards, turtles) and birds (see bird vision), though are present in other taxa such as lungfish. They are found in cone cells far more often than in rods, suggesting a role in colour vision. Occurrence in rod cells may imply that they have been modified from a cone cell ancestor. They occasionally occur in double cones/double rods. Some oil droplets are coloured, while others appear colourless. They are located in the cone inner segment, where they intercept and filter light before it can pass through to the cone outer segment where the opsins are, the molecules that sense light.

The adaptive advantage of oil droplets is not firmly established. Coloured oil droplets have a cost in that they reduce the amount of light available to the visual system. They also reduce the overlap in spectral sensitivity between different types of cone (e.g. short wavelength sensitive, medium wavelength sensitive etc.). This can be a benefit because it increases the number of colours that can be discriminated, and calculations by Vorobyev (2003) support the hypothesis that this is of net benefit.

References

Color
Human eye anatomy

Oil droplet


Filipino is the naitional leid o the Philippines an, alang with Inglis, is an offeecial leid designate in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Filipino is an Austronesie leid that is based on existin native leids in the Philippines, the maist significant influence bein the Tagalog leid.  A fair feck o Spaingie an Inglis loanwirds exist in the vocabular an aa.  The Filipino leid remains in evolution, development, an further enrichment on the basis o existin leids o the Philippines an ither leids.

Whiles the term "Filipino" is incorrectly uised as the generic name for aw the leids o the Philippines.  Acause o its similarity tae the leid on whilk it is based, it is still whiles identified wi Tagalog.

The Commission on the Filipino Leid (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino), the regulatin body o Filipino, envisions a process of popularisin regional dialect uisage derived frae regional leids as the basis for standardisin an intellectualisin the leid, stendin throu that the existin inter-ethnic lingua franca to become mair distinctive frae ethnically-specific varieties o Tagalog. Alternatively, leid policies coud conceivably result in the gradual formation a new lingua franca, whilk mey be mair o an amalgam o regional Philippine leids an foreign leids.

Standard leids
Tagalog dialects
Tagalog leid

Filipino leid


The Antioch mosaics are a grouping of over 300 mosaic floors created around the 3rd century AD, and discovered during archaeological excavations of Antioch (Antioch on the Orontes, in modern Turkey) between 1932 and 1939 by a consortium of five museums and institutions. About half of the mosaics are now in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya, with the rest in the Worcester Art Museum, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Baltimore Museum of Art, Harvard University and Princeton University Art Museum among others. The mosaics range in design from realistic imagery and scenes to purely geometric patterns.

History

Antioch was an ancient city located just outside the modern day city of Antakya, Turkey. During the reign of Hadrian, during the 2nd century, through to the reign of Justinian in the 6th century, mosaic floors were the fashion in the city and its surrounding suburbs. The city thrived until it was destroyed by earthquakes in 526 and 528.

Beginning in 1932, a consortium of museums and institutions sponsored expeditions to the archaeological sites where the city of Antioch once stood. These museums, the Worcester Art Museum, Princeton University, the musée du Louvre, the Baltimore Museum of Art, and Harvard University's affiliate Dumbarton Oaks, were attempting to uncover great monuments, palaces, and treasures, but were disappointed when most of what was unearthed, under tons of silt, was just the remains of houses, most without any remaining walls. The only surviving part of the majority of the houses was the floors.

The floors the archaeologists discovered were covered in intricate mosaics. More than 300 mosaics were found.

In 1939 the expedition ended and the archaeologists packed up to leave. They left about half of the unearthed mosaics to the city of Antakya, the modern day city located at Antioch, which subsequently built a museum, the Antakya Archaeological Museum, to house them. The rest of the mosaics were split up amongst the institutions that took part in the dig, and were sent all over the world. To be transported, large amounts of concrete was poured behind the mosaics to create a stable backing. When dividing up the floors, the archeologists, often took apart rooms and sent different parts of the floor to different museums. For an exhibit at the Worcester Art Museum in 2000, mosaics were compiled from Paris, Baltimore, Princeton and Wellesley, to reassemble a single room's floor. After the expedition left, the pits were filled back in and olive groves were planted over them.

Art
The Antioch mosaics were created at a time and place between distinct artistic styles. They show the link between artistic styles of ancient Greece and Rome, and the art of early Christianity. The mosaics are incredibly large, with "The Worcester Hunt," the largest Antioch mosaic in the United States, measuring  x . The mosaics range in design from realistic imagery and scenes, to purely geometric patterns. It is believed that the mosaics were created by mosaic specialists.

The tesserae for the mosaics include both white and colored marble as well as white and colored limestone.

See also

Megalopsychia Hunt of Antioch mosaics
Zliten mosaic
Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East
Late Antique and medieval mosaics in Italy

References

Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities in the Louvre
Art in the Princeton University Art Museum
Roman mosaics
History of Antioch
Mosaics in Turkey

Antioch mosaics


A sheave (pronounced "sheev") is a wheel or roller with a groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope or cable.  When hung between two supports with a belt, rope or cable, one or more sheaves make up a pulley.  The words sheave and pulley are sometimes used interchangeably.

Tools

Sheave (mechanical)


A snowman is a statue of a person made of snow. Snowmen are usually made when people make three balls of snow that are different sizes.(In Japan, snowmen are made by two snowballs) They will stack the balls on top of each other to make a snowman, and stick some things in it to make it look more like a person like a scarf, pebbles, buttons and a carrot (for the nose).

The biggest snowman in the US was built on February 26, 2008, which was 122 feet and 1 inch long.

References

Snow
Statues

Snowman


Gerald Fiten Mason (January 31, 1934 – January 22, 2017) was an American convicted murderer and rapist. Mason's 2003 arrest and prosecution for the 1957 murders of two El Segundo, California police officers made national headlines.

Criminal career

Born in Columbia, South Carolina, he was arrested and spent time in prison for burglary in that state in 1956. After his release in 1957, then aged 23, he hitchhiked his way to California, stopping in Shreveport, Louisiana where he purchased a revolver using an alias. He later stated that it was purchased for protection while hitchhiking.

In Hawthorne, California, Mason came upon four teenagers at a local lover's lane. Drawing his revolver, Mason forced the two couples to strip down to their underwear and bound and blindfolded them. He then raped one of the girls. Leaving the teens alive as they were, Mason then drove off in their 1949 Ford sedan, ran a red light, and was pulled over by Officers Richard Phillips and Milton Curtis of the El Segundo Police Department.

Mason later recalled, "I thought, 'If I don't get them, they're gonna get me.' So when the officer turned away from me, I shot both officers, got back in the car and drove away." Backup units and medical personnel arrived on scene to find Curtis dead in his patrol car, with Phillips lying mortally wounded on the ground. Both had been shot three times. Meanwhile, Mason, who had been wounded by a bullet from Officer Phillips, dumped the car and fled through numerous backyards before hitchhiking his way to safety.

Investigation

The murders of Officers Phillips and Curtis touched off a homicide investigation that continued for almost half a century. In 1960, the murder weapon was recovered a mile from the crime in a back yard. The serial number was traced to a purchase at Sears in Shreveport, Louisiana, under the alias George D. Wilson. The signature was matched to "Wilson's" signature on a YMCA receipt, located near the Sears store. El Segundo detectives proceeded to track down every George D. Wilson in the United States. However all were ruled out, and the investigation went cold.

For the next 45 years, Mason was a law-abiding citizen, never getting so much as a parking ticket. He owned two service stations, had married and raised a family. He was later described by friends and neighbors as friendly and helpful.

In 2002, with advances in computerized finger-printing technology, the FBI decided to expand the system to include prints collected during arrests in all 50 states. A match based on the partial left thumb prints lifted from the steering wheel of the stolen car, came back about a man convicted of burglary in 1956 in Columbia. He had served time for that case. Besides the matching fingerprint the evidence was also based on matching handwriting, thus linking him to the murder weapon.

Police located Mason, who had returned to and was still living in his hometown of Columbia, South Carolina.  He was a wealthy retiree and a grandfather, quietly living with his family in a suburban neighborhood. Then in January 2003, a large group of police officers called at his door. Mason was completely shocked and had asked where they were from. The police officers had said, "We are from the El Segundo Police Department, and the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department."  Mason then said, "You're homicide detectives? I think I need a lawyer." The police officers then told him that they were there because of the murders of two police officers in 1957. Horrified, Mason responded, "My god, you're here for that? That happened so long ago, I can't believe you're here bothering me with that."

Following his arrest, Mason was further identified by the bullet graze wound scar on his back, from a bullet fired by Officer Phillips in 1957.

Confronted with so much evidence, Mason admitted to detectives that he stumbled upon the teenagers while intoxicated. Afterwards, he shot both police officers in an attempt to cover up the rape, robbery, and theft of the car. Mason further told detectives, "I really don't have an explanation for why this happened. I wish I did." When asked why he had raped a 15-year-old girl, Mason responded that he no longer remembered.

In a strange story on Sept. 9, 1966, 23 yr old Larry Stargel of Gainesville, GA pens a letter to police from Reidsville State Prison requesting an interview with local LE and the FBI regarding C&S Bank employee Mary Shotwell Little's disappearance in Atlanta on October 14 1965. Stargel names Gerald Mason as one of the two men responsible for the kidnapping & murder of Mary Shotwell Little. He stated that Mason had told him that they were hired for $5000 each by the husband Roy Little to kidnap & murder his wife. Later Larry Stargel refused to sign his statement to the FBI after mulling it over but did initial the statement. Just 18 months later, Mary Shotwell Little's replacement at C&S Bank, 20 yr old Diane Shields was murdered. Neither Roy Little or Gerald Mason were ever charged with the Mary Shotwell Little or Diane Shields murders. Both have remained unsolved for nearly 60 years.

Sentencing

Mason pleaded guilty to the murders and was sentenced to two consecutive life terms, with a minimum of seven years. As part of the deal, the rape, robbery and grand theft charges were dropped, which spared surviving victims from having to testify and Mason's family from having to listen to testimony about how he'd raped a teenage girl. At his sentencing hearing, Mason tearfully apologized to the families of Officers Phillips and Curtis. He said, "It's impossible to express to so many people how sorry I am. I do not understand why I did this. It does not fit in my life. It is not the person I know. I detest these crimes."

One El Segundo detective commented, "He was remorseful. But I think he was more sad and more sorry for having been caught."

Mason, 75, was turned down for parole in 2009. The three-member board decided Mason should not come before the panel again for the maximum period of 15 years until March 2024 when he would have been 90 years old. California prosecutors were determined that he would never be released.

He was incarcerated in South Carolina, as his plea bargain granted him approval to serve his prison sentence near his family.

The widow of Officer Curtis commented, "I'm not his victim any more. My son is not his victim any more. I'm so grateful, and I had to wait this long. It's worth the wait."

In a 2003 interview with People, Jerri Mason Whittaker, Gerald Mason's daughter, said, "There really aren't words to describe the range of emotions we've gone through." Even so, she insisted, "I could not have had a better father."

This story was shown on episodes of Cold Case Files, Forensic Files, 48 Hours Mystery and Murder Book.

Death
Mason died in prison on January 22, 2017, nine days before his 83rd birthday. He had spent 14 years in prison. His next parole hearing was still seven years away.

References

Sources
"The Ghosts Of El Segundo: Cold-Blooded Crime Haunts Investigators For Half A Century", CBS News, October 2, 2004. (URL last accessed November 17, 2006).
"Final Justice: The Past Catches Up with Gerald Mason, a Murderer on the Lam Since 1957", People Magazine, Author: Patrick Rogers, Date: May 19, 2003. (accessed August 11, 2010).
"The Ghosts Of El Segundo: Cold-Blooded Crime Haunts Investigators For Half A Century", CBS News, Author: Rebecca Leung, Date: October 2, 2004. (accessed August 11, 2010).
"Man sentenced to life in two 1957 murders" Los Angeles Times, Authors: Richard Winton, Steve Berry, Date: March 25, 2003.  (Accessed August 29, 2015)

1934 births
2017 deaths
American people convicted of burglary
American rapists
American robbers
People from Columbia, South Carolina
American people convicted of murdering police officers
American people who died in prison custody
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Criminals from Los Angeles
Criminals from South Carolina
People convicted of murder by California
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California
Prisoners who died in South Carolina detention

Gerald Mason


Niccola Francesco Ippolito Baldassarre Rosellini, known simply as Ippolito Rosellini (13 August 1800 – 4 June 1843) was an Italian Egyptologist. A scholar and friend of Jean-François Champollion, he is regarded as the founder of Egyptology in Italy.

Biography
He was born in Pisa, eldest son of a family originally from Pescia. After studying Hebrew and graduating in theology at the University of Pisa in 1821, Rosellini studied oriental languages under Giuseppe Mezzofanti at Bologna until 1824, when he became professor of the same subject at the University of Pisa.

He was the first disciple, a great friend and an associate of Jean-François Champollion. They met in Florence in August 1825, during Champollion's journey to study the important Egyptological collections in Turin, Rome and Florence. In 1827, he went to Paris for a year in order to improve his knowledge of the method of decipherment proposed by Champollion. Here, he met and then married Zenobia, daughter of the Italian composer Luigi Cherubini. A year later, Rosellini accompanied Champollion in the latter's Egyptian exploration also known as the Franco-Tuscan expedition, as the leader of the Tuscan group (1828–29). The expedition was financed by the Grand-duke of Tuscany, Leopold II, and King Charles X of France.

Champollion's sudden death in 1832 left to the saddened Rosellini the whole responsibility of publishing the report of the expedition: between 1832 and 1843 he exposed the results in his most famous work, I Monumenti dell'Egitto e della Nubia, composed of three parts and nine volumes for a total of 3,300 text pages and 395 illustrated plates.

Since 1836, Rosellini's health started to decline possibly due to malaria, which ultimately led to his death on 4 June 1843 in Pisa. All his papers were donated to the library of the University of Pisa, while the last volume of the Monumenti was published posthumously in 1844. Three years after his death, his widow married his brother Ferdinando Pio, a mathematician, who adopted their three sons.

Selected works
 1826. Di un bassorilievo egiziano della imp. e r. Galleria di Firenze
 1830. Breve notizia degli oggetti di antichità egiziane riportate dalla Spedizione letteraria toscana in Egitto e nella Nubia, eseguita negli anni 1828-29 ed esposti al pubblico nell'Accademia delle arti e mestieri in S. Caterina
 1832-44. I Monumenti dell'Egitto e della Nubia, disegnati dalla spedizione scientifico-letteraria Toscana in Egitto: distribuiti in ordine di materie, interpretati ed illustrati
1832. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo I
1833. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo II
1834. Parte II. Monumenti civili, tomo I
1834. Parte II. Monumenti civili, tomo II
1836. Parte II. Monumenti civili, tomo III
1838. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo III, parte I
1839. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo III, parte II
1839. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo IV
1841. Parte I. Monumenti storici, tomo V
1844 (posthumous). Parte III. Monumenti di culto, tomo unico
 1837. Elementa Linguae Aegyptiacae, vulgo Copticae (ed. by L.M. Ungarelli).

References

Bibliography

External links

1800 births
1843 deaths
People from Pisa
Deaths from malaria
Italian Egyptologists
19th-century Italian writers
19th-century male writers
Writers from Tuscany
19th-century archaeologists
University of Pisa alumni
Academic staff of the University of Pisa
Italian librarians

Ippolito Rosellini


The bodhrán (, ; plural bodhráin or bodhráns) is a  frame drum used in Irish music ranging from  in diameter, with most drums measuring . The sides of the drum are  deep. A goatskin head is tacked to one side (synthetic heads or other animal skins are sometimes used). The other side is open-ended for one hand to be placed against the inside of the drum head to control the pitch and timbre.

One or two crossbars, sometimes removable, may be inside the frame, but this is increasingly rare on modern instruments. Some professional modern bodhráns integrate mechanical tuning systems similar to those used on drums found in drum kits. It is usually with a hex key that the bodhrán skins are tightened or loosened depending on the atmospheric conditions.

History
Seán Ó Riada declared the bodhrán to be the native drum of the ancient Celts (as did bodhrán maker Paraic McNeela), suggesting that it was possibly used originally for winnowing or wool dying, with a musical history that predated Christianity, native to southwest Ireland.

However, according to musician Ronan Nolan, former editor of Irish Music magazine, the bodhrán evolved in the mid-19th century from the tambourine, which can be heard on some Irish music recordings dating back to the 1920s. A large oil painting on canvas from 1833 by Daniel Maclise (1806–1870) depicts a Halloween house party where a tambourine-style bodhrán features clearly. It is in a group of musicians with union pipes, a fiddle, and a fife. The bodhrán is struck with the back of the player's hand, as is sometimes still done, rather than with a cipín, also known in English as a "tipper." In remote parts of the south-west, the "poor man's tambourine" – made from farm implements and without the jingles – was in popular use among mummers, or wren boys. In the early 20th century, home-made frame drums were constructed using willow branches as frames, leather as drumheads, and pennies as jingles. Photographs from the 1940s and videos from the 1950s show bodhráns with jingles played with ''cipín.

Name
The Irish word  (plural ), indicating a drum, is first mentioned in a translated English document in the 17th century. It appears in Jacob Pool's list of words from the Baronies of Forth and Bargy in county Wexford (collected in the late 18th century), meaning "A drum, tambourine...also a sieve used in winnowing corn".

Third-generation bodhrán maker Caramel Tobin suggests that the name  means "skin tray". He also suggests a link with the Irish word , meaning, among other things, a drum or a dull sound (it also means deaf). A relatively new introduction to Irish music, the bodhrán without jingles has largely supplanted its predecessor.

Possible antecedents
The bodhrán is one of the most basic of drums and as such it is similar to the frame drums distributed widely across northern Africa from the Middle East, and has cognates in instruments used for Arabic music and the musical traditions of the Mediterranean region (see Music of North Africa, Music of Greece etc.).  A larger form is found in the Iranian daf, which is played with the fingers in an upright position, without a stick. Traditional skin drums made by some Native Americans are very close in design to the bodhrán as well.

It has also been suggested that the origin of the instrument may be the skin trays used in Ireland for carrying peat; the earliest bodhrán may have simply been a skin stretched across a wood frame without any means of attachment.  The Cornish frame drum crowdy-crawn, which was also used for harvesting grain, was known as early as 1880.

Peter Kennedy observed a similar instrument in Dorset and Wiltshire in the 1950s, where it was known as a "riddle drum", a riddle being a large sieve for separating soil particles from stones etc.

Dorothea Hast has stated that until the mid-twentieth century the bodhrán was mainly used as a tray for separating chaff, in baking, as a food server, and for storing food or tools. She argues that its use as musical instrument was restricted to ritual use in rural areas. She claims that while the earliest evidence of its use beyond ritual occurs in 1842, its use as a general instrument did not become widespread until the 1960s, when Seán Ó Riada used it.

Popularity
There are no known references to this particular name for a drum prior to the 17th century. Although various drums (played with either hands or sticks) have been used in Ireland since ancient times, the bodhrán itself did not gain wide recognition as a legitimate musical instrument until the Irish traditional music resurgence in the 1960s in which it became known through the music of Seán Ó Riada and others.

The second wave roots revival of Irish Traditional music in the 1960s and 1970s brought virtuoso bodhrán playing to the forefront, when it was further popularized by bands such as Ceoltóirí Chualann and The Chieftains.

Growing interest led to internationally available LP recordings, at which time the bodhrán became a globally recognized instrument. In the 1970s, virtuoso players such as The Boys of the Lough's Robin Morton, The Chieftains' Peadar Mercier, Planxty's Christy Moore, and De Dannan's Johnny "Ringo" McDonagh further developed playing techniques.

 International use
Although most common in Ireland, the bodhrán has gained popularity throughout the Celtic music world, especially in Scotland, Cape Breton, North mainland Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. In Southern England tambourines were a popular accompaniment to traditional dance music. In the South West of England a similar instrument made from the frame of a garden sieve was once popular and known as a Riddle Drum. In Cornish traditional music they are called a crowdy-crawn; the use of this instrument to store odds and ends led to the name also being used to mean "miscellaneous". The bodhrán has also found application within the Celtic music of Galicia, often accompanying the  (Galician bagpipes).

 Beaters
The drum is struck either with the bare hand or with a lathe-turned piece of wood called a bone, tipper, beater, stick or .

Tippers were originally fashioned from a double-ended knuckle bone, but are now commonly made from ash, holly, or hickory wood. Brush-ended beaters, and a "rim shot" (striking the rim) technique for contrast, were introduced by Johnny McDonagh.

 Playing

The drum is usually played in a seated position, held vertically on the player's thigh and supported by their upper body and arm (usually on the left side, for a right-handed player), with the hand placed on the inside of the skin where it is able to control the tension (and therefore the pitch and timbre) by applying varying amounts of pressure and also the amount of surface area being played, with the back of the hand against the crossbar, if present. The drum is struck with the other arm (usually the right) and is played either with the bare hand or with a tipper. There are numerous playing styles, mostly named after the region of Ireland in which they originated. The most common is Kerry style, which uses a two-headed tipper; the West Limerick style uses only one end of the tipper.

Later players such as Robbie Breathnach, Tommy Hayes, Aidan "Scobie" McDonnell, Abe Doron, and Damien Quinn developed sophisticated pitch-varying techniques which allow players to follow the tune being played. This was the birth of the "top-end" style. Their breakthrough in this style has achieved local and international acclaim, with many beginners now being educated in this manner. This "top-end" style is often played on a smaller (14–15 inch) and deeper (4–6 inch) drum with a thinner resonant skin, prepared like the skin of a Lambeg drum. The tipper in this style is usually straight and most of the expressive action is focused on the top end of the drum.  The concept involves allowing a greater vs. lesser amount of the skin to resonate, with the "skin hand" acting as a moving bearing edge.  Top-end players move the skin hand from the bottom and towards the top of the drum to generate increasingly high pitches.  By making a "C" shape with the skin hand, the player can help enhance and even amplify the sound.  The same concept can be employed while playing at the front of the drum (the skin hand moving towards and away from the player) or in a "bottom end" style, which is essentially top end, but upside down, with the majority of tipper strikes at the bottom of the head.  In any of these styles, crossbars are most often absent, allowing a more unrestricted access for the left hand to modify the tone. This enables a more melodic approach to this rhythm instrument, with a wide range of tones being employed.

When playing the bodhrán as an accompaniment to Irish music, different beats may be used. For example, reels have a 4/4 time. The bodhrán player must stick to this rhythm but is free to improvise within the structure: most simply, they may enunciate the first beat of four, making a sound like ONE two three four ONE two three four; but they can syncopate, put in double pulses, according to the rhythmic characteristics of the tunes being played. This is the difference between sensitive and insensitive playing, a matter of much concern to other traditional musicians. Because the bodhrán typically plays 16th notes (Kerry style), a great deal of variety can be introduced by these syncopations and the use of rests. Combined with manual pitch changes and naturally occurring tonal variations in an animal skin drumhead, the bodhrán can almost sound as melodically expressive as other non-percussive instruments.

 New techniques
Playing styles have all been affected by the introduction of the internal tone ring, driven against the skin to tension/loosen it by screws. This was invented by Seamus O'Kane, from Dungiven, County Londonderry, Northern Ireland, to combat the damp conditions of Donegal in 1975. This system was copied from banjo design but adapted for bodhráns. For a few years only about six drums of this type were made, so it was not until the idea was taken and refined by makers that it caught on. This system is now being used by makers from many diverse cultures worldwide. It has revolutionized the making and playing of bodhráns by removing the threat of atmospheric conditions to the tension of the drumhead. The accepted philosophy of thick skins was challenged also at this time by O'Kane's introduction of thin Lambeg skins. This allowed the bodhrán to achieve both higher and lower crisp notes and allowed the players to become more musical and delicate in their playing.

 Common modifications
It is currently not unusual for the rim of a bodhrán to be covered with electrical tape, either by the drum-maker or the owner. This both reduces "edge-loading" (where the vibrations in the skin hit the rim and bounce back toward the center of the drum), and dampens unwanted overtones, allowing for greater control of the drum's sound. Electrical tape is preferred because the adhesive is rubber-based and will stretch with the skin even after bonding to it, lessening the likelihood of bubbles and other changes in the tape occurring when the skin tension is changed by tuning or atmospheric conditions. Owners of lower quality drums, with thick and rough skins, may also choose to sand the skin very lightly to reduce the rasp when the tipper strikes the face of the drum. Many effects of these and other modifications to the drum-skin, especially high quality skins, can also be achieved through regular use of the drum over time.

As world music in general has become more popular, techniques once associated with other ethnic drumming traditions have become widespread in bodhrán playing.

The World Bodhrán Championships are held in Milltown, County Kerry, Ireland each year.

See also

List of bodhrán players
Tar (drum)
Frame drum

 References

 Nicholas Driver "The Bodhran", English Dance and Sing'' 40/1 1978 p15
  (interview with Johnny McDonagh)

External links

Directly struck membranophones
Hand drums
Hand percussion
Unpitched percussion instruments
Percussion instruments played with specialised beaters
Scottish musical instruments
Irish musical instruments
Celtic musical instruments
European percussion instruments

Bodhrán


The compensation law of mortality (or late-life mortality convergence) states that the relative differences in death rates between different populations of the same biological species decrease with age, because the higher initial death rates in disadvantaged populations are compensated by lower pace of mortality increase with age. The age at which this imaginary (extrapolated) convergence of mortality trajectories takes place is named the "species-specific life span" (see Gavrilov and Gavrilova, 1979).  For human beings, this human species-specific life span is close to 95 years (Gavrilov and Gavrilova, 1979; 1991).

Compensation law of mortality is a paradoxical empirical observation, and it represents a challenge for methods of survival analysis based on proportionality assumption (proportional hazard models).  The compensation law of mortality also represents a great challenge for many theories of aging and mortality, which usually fail to explain this phenomenon.  On the other hand, the compensation law follows directly from reliability theory, when the compared systems have different initial levels of redundancy.

See also

 Ageing
 Biodemography of human longevity
 Biogerontology
 Demography
 Mortality
 Reliability theory of aging and longevity

References
Gavrilov LA,  Gavrilova NS.   "Reliability Theory of Aging and Longevity."   In:  Masoro E.J. & Austad S.N.. (eds.):  Handbook of the Biology of Aging,  Sixth Edition. Academic Press. San Diego, CA, USA, 2006, 3-42.
Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS. Why We Fall Apart. Engineering's Reliability Theory Explains Human Aging. IEEE Spectrum, 2004, 41(9): 30–35.
Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. "The quest for a general theory of aging and longevity".  Science's SAGE KE (Science of Aging Knowledge Environment) for 16 July 2003; Vol. 2003, No. 28, 1–10.   https://www.science.org/loi/sageke,
Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. The reliability theory of aging and longevity. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2001, 213(4): 527–545.
Leonid A. Gavrilov & Natalia S. Gavrilova (1991), The Biology of Life Span: A Quantitative Approach. New York: Harwood Academic Publisher,
Gavrilov, L.A., Gavrilova, N.S.  "Determination of species length of life". Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1979, 246(2): 465–469. English translation by Plenum Publ Corp: pp. 905–908.
Gavrilov, L.A.  "A mathematical model of the aging of animals". Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1978, 238(2): 490–492. English translation by Plenum Publ Corp: pp. 53–55.
Gavrilov, L.A., Gavrilova, N.S., Yaguzhinsky, L.S. "The main regularities of animal aging and death viewed in terms of reliability theory". J. General Biology [Zhurnal Obschey Biologii], 1978, 39(5): 734–742.

Population
Senescence

Compensation law of mortality


Berber carpets are carpets hand-woven by the Berber people in North Africa and the Sahara. The carpets come in traditional and modern designs, which are distinguished by different knotting patterns, dyes and fabric textures.

History

The origin of carpet weaving by the Berber populations dates back several millennia. The hand-spun cloth they created was named after the individual tribe, and they used natural fibres to create cloaks, rugs and other fabrics.

Traditional and modern carpets

Modern industrialized Berber carpets are distinguished by a loop pile construction type that gives a similar appearance to the distinct knot of traditionally woven Berber carpets. The modern carpets usually contain small flecks of dark colour on lighter shades of background colours resembling a natural undyed version of the traditional carpets. They generally consist of a plain colour mix with no pattern, and are relatively cheap and durable. Popular for areas with significantly heavy use such as offices.  The distinctive knot texture and appearance of traditional hand-woven Berber carpets today are generally woven in brightly coloured designs that are different from other oriental rugs.

Handmade and usually homemade Berber carpets are still an active industry in many rural areas of Berber countries. Many Berber families earn their primary income from building-up carpets manually and selling them in local markets, merchants and tourists. Traditional Berber carpets differ from modern mass-produced Berber carpets that are usually found in industrialized markets. They often employ cultural designs and are typically made of natural materials

Today, there are numerous types of modern Berber carpet made from a wide variety of materials, Nylon, Olefin fibre and wool are the most frequently used materials. Tunisian Berber carpets and rugs, usually called "Mergoum", which still preserve techniques inherited from ancestral weaving methods. Tunisian authorities are still controlling every piece to guarantee quality and that 'Berber' spirit in designs, patterns and symbols knotted so only wool is permitted with a total ban of any synthetic material, then each rug or carpet is sealed with a red wax sign (of Tunisian handicrafts authorities).

In other countries, Olefin is the most frequently used and most affordable material, and carpets with blends of the different materials are also available.

Berber carpet is highly durable and is often found in offices, schools, and other high traffic areas. It is stain resistant as well, and is generally more affordable than thicker plush carpets. To care about it is recommended by most professionals that Moroccan Olefin Berber should be cleaned using a low-moisture or dry cleaning process. Traditional steam cleaning with high alkaline detergents can cause potential pH burns in the olefin. These appear as large yellow or brown splotches. Yellow or brown spots also may be tannin bleed from the sugars in natural fibre carpets that are drawn to the top by improper drying usually caused by overwetting. There are carpet chemicals that can remove most of this yellowing or browning but they are very expensive, and it would be better to not get the yellowing or browning. A better, but more difficult, method may be to dry the carpet from the bottom. This method would generally require lifting up some of the carpet to install a carpet fan under the carpet, and using hot air, not just room temperature air. Regrettably, many of these stains can be permanent if not corrected immediately by a professional carpet cleaner. As with all carpets, Berber should be cleaned every 6 to 12 months to prevent permanent wear patterns.

References

Bibliography
 Barbatti, Bruno; Berber Carpets of Morocco: The Symbols, Origin and Meaning, www.acr-edition.com, 2009,

Rugs and carpets
Moroccan handicrafts
C

Berber carpet


Freedom from fear is a fundamental human right. This right was mentioned by American President Franklin D. Roosevelt as one of the Four Freedoms human beings everywhere in the world should have. Roosevelt presented the Four Freedoms at his State of the Union of January 6, 1941, which therefore has been called the Four Freedoms Speech as well.

This right, as well as the other three of the Four Freedoms of Roosevelt, makes part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was accepted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10, 1948. Freedom from fear is written down in the introduction tot the UN Declaration.

In his speech Roosevelt described his fourth right as follows:

In 1943 Norman Rockwell painted his work Freedom from Fear  which is one of four paintings he made on Roosevelts Four Freedoms.

Aung San Suu Kyi has named this right many times in speeches and wrote a book with the title Freedom From Fear on it in 1991. Historian David M. Kennedy was inspired by the right as well and in 1991 he brought out his book with the title Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945.

Related pages
 Four Freedoms Award
 Civil and political rights
 Right to an adequate standard of living

References

Human rights
Freedom

Freedom from fear


The word Maharashtra, the land of the mainly Marathi-speaking people, appears to be derived from Maharashtri, an old form of Prakrit. Some believe that the word indicates that it was the land of the Mahars and the Rattas, while others consider it to be a corruption of the term 'Maha Kantara' (the Great Forest), a synonym for 'Dandakaranya'. Maharashtra is the third largest state (in area) in India after Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. It covers an area of 307,713 km2 and is bordered by the states of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Telangana to the southeast, Karnataka to the south and Goa to the southwest. The state of Gujarat lies to the northwest, with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli sandwiched between the borders. Maharashtra  has coastline of 720 km.The Arabian Sea makes up Maharashtra's west coast. Maharashtra consists of two major relief divisions. The plateau is a part of the Deccan tableland and the Konkan coastal strip abutting on the Arabian Sea.

Landscape

Located in the heart of India, with a command of the Arabian Sea through its port of Mumbai, Maharashtra has a remarkable physical homogeneity, enforced by its underlying geology. The dominant physical trait of the state is its plateau character; Maharashtra's western part of coastal plains,
western upturned rims rising to form the Sahyadri Range and its slopes gently descending towards the east and southeast. The major rivers and their master tributaries have carved the plateau into alternating broad-river valleys and intervening higher level interfluves, such as the Ahmednagar, Buldana, and Yavatmal plateau.

The Sahyadri Range is the physical backbone of Maharashtra. Rising on an average to an elevation of 1000m. it falls in steep cliffs, to the Konkan on the west. Eastwards, the hill country falls in steps through a transitional area known as Maval to the plateau level. The series of crowning plateaux on the crest forms a distinctive feature of the Sahyadri Range.

The Konkan, lying between the Arabian Sea and the Sahyadri Range is narrow coastal lowland, barely 50 km wide. Though mostly below 200 m., it is far from being a plain country. Highly dissected and broken, the Konkan alternates between narrow, steep-sided valleys and low laterite plateaux.

The Satpuras, hills along the northern border, and the Bhamragad-Chiroli-Gaikhuri Ranges on the eastern border form physical barriers preventing easy movement, but also serve as natural limits to the state and has serve many earthquakes, such as in district Latur.

Geology and topography

Except around Mumbai, and along the eastern limits, the State of Maharashtra presents a monotonously uniform, flat-topped skyline. This topography of the state is the outcome of its geological structure. The state area, barring the extreme eastern Vidarbha region, parts of Kolhapur and Sindhudurg in the west, is practically co-terminous with the Deccan Traps. Roughly 60 to 90 million years ago, the outpouring of basic lava through fissures formed horizontally bedded basalt over large areas. Variations in their composition and structure have resulted in massive, well-jointed steel-grey cliff faces alternating with structural benches (abandoned narrow stepped and rocky paleo-channel of rivers) of vesicular amygdaloid lava and ash layers, all of which contribute to the pyramid-shaped hills and crest-level plateau or mesas (flat sedimentary rock overlaid by harder rock).

Earth sculpturing under the tropical climate completed the panorama-sharply defining the landform features in the semi-arid conditions, and rounding the hilltops by the water erosion. Fluvial action by the Krishna, Bhima, Godavari, Tapi-Purna and Wardha-Wainganga river systems has further aided in the compartmentalisation of the land into broad, open river valleys, alternating with plateau interfluves, that form the ribs of the Sahyadrian backbone. In sharp contrast, the hill torrents of the Konkan, barely a 100 km long, tumble down as roaring streams which flow in deeply entrenched valleys to terminate in tidal estuaries. Apart from mainly occurring rock Basalt; other rocks like- Laterites are found in coastal humid and tropical region. Granite, Granite gneiss, Quartzite, Conglomerates are found exposed in the basement regions of Konkan rivers. Nanded is another region where pink Granites are found. Maharashtra has rich ore deposits. Kamti of Nagpur region is famous for Coal deposits of Gondwana era.

Climate
The state enjoys a tropical monsoon climate; the hot scorching summer(40 to 48 degrees Celsius) from March onwards yields to the rainy monsoon in early June. The rich green cover of the monsoon season persists during the mild winter that follows through an unpleasant October transition, but turns into a dusty, barren brown as the summer sets in again. The seasonal rains from the western sea-clouds are very heavy and the rainfall is over 400 cm., on the Sahyadrian crests. The Konkan on the windward side is also endowed with heavy rainfall, declining northwards. East of the Sahyadri, the rainfall diminishes to a meagre 75 cm. in the western plateau districts, with Solapur-Ahmednagar lying in the heart of the dry zone. The rains increase slightly, later in the season, eastwards in the Marathwada and Vidarbha regions.Usually rain comes in 10th of June in Maharashtra.

The highly pulsatory character of the monsoon, with its short spells of rainy weather and long dry breaks, floods, as well as droughts add much to the discomfort of the rural economy.

Resources

Forests comprising only 17% of the state area cover the eastern region and the Sahyadri Range, while open scrub jungle dots the plateaux. If Maharashtra represented the Maha Kantara in the historic past, today little of it is left; vast sections have been denuded and stripped of the vegetal cover.

The soils of Maharashtra are residual, derived from the underlying basalts. In the semi-dry plateau, the regur (black-cotton soil) is clayey, rich in iron, but poor in nitrogen and organic matter; it is moisture-retentive. Where redeposited along the river valleys, those kali soils are deeper and heavier, better suited for rabi crops. Farther away, with a better mixture of lime, the morand soils form the ideal Kharif zone. The higher plateau areas have pathar (Plateau)soils, which contain more gravel. In the rainy Konkan, and the Sahyadri Range, the same basalts give rise to the brick-red laterites productive under a forest-cover, but readily stripped into a sterile varkas when the vegetation is removed. By and large, soils of Maharashtra are shallow and somewhat poor everywhere .

Water is the most precious natural resource of the state, greatly in the demand, and most unevenly distributed. A large number of villages lack drinking water, especially during the summer months, even in the wet Konkan. Barely 11% of the net sown area is irrigated. Perched water tables in the basalt aquifers have contributed to increased well irrigation, which accounts for approximately 55% of the irrigable water. The granitic-gneissic terrain in the eastern hilly area of Vidarbha accounts for all tank irrigation. Tube-wells in the Tapi-Purna alluvium and shallow wells in the coastal sands are the other main sources of water. Special wells are being made by the Government for the villages lacking water.

The mineral-bearing zones of Maharashtra lie beyond the area of the basalts in eastern Vidarbha, southern Kolhapur and the Sindhudurg area. The Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Bhandara and Nagpur Districts form the main mineral belt, with coal and manganese as the major minerals and iron ore and limestone as potential wealth. The Ratnagiri coast contains sizeable deposits of illimenite.

Protected areas
As of 2017 there were 537 wildlife sanctuaries in India and 41 in Maharashtra. wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and Project Tiger reserves have been created in Maharashtra, with the aim of conserving the rich bio-diversity of the region. As of 2017, India has 103 national parks, of which six are located in Maharashtra. There are 50 Tiger reserve in India and 6 project tiger areas in Maharashtra. viz Tadoba-Andhari, Melghat, Nagazira ,Sahyadri ,Bor and Pench. A large percentage of Maharashtra's forests and wildlife lie along the western Ghats or western Maharashtra and eastern Vidarbha.

 Bhimashankar wildlife Sanctuary. This is situated in the western Ghats and is famous for the Malabar Giant squirrel. The sanctuary is located in Thane, Raigad and Pune district of Maharashtra.
 Bor Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Wardha district of Eastern Vidarbha. Due to large number of tigers along with other wild animals, Bor Wildlife Sanctuary has been declared Special Tiger Zone by Govt. of Maharashtra in 2012.

 Chandoli National Park, located in Sangli district has a variety of flora and fauna. The Prachitgad Fort and Chandoli dam and scenic water falls can be found around the park.

 Gugamal National Park, also known as Melghat Tiger Reserve is located in Amravati district. It is 80 km from Amravati.

 Maldhok Sanctuary, situated in Solapur district. Some of its part is in Ahmednagar district. The sanctuary is for the Great Indian Bustard.

 Navegaon National Park, located near Gondia in the eastern region of Vidarbha is home to birds, deer, bears and leopards.
 Nagzira wildlife sanctuary lies in Tirora Range of Bhandara Forest Division, in Gondia district of Vidarbha region. The sanctuary consists of a range of hills with small lakes within its boundary. These lakes guarantee a source of water to wildlife throughout the year, and heighten the beauty of the landscape.

 Pench National Park, in Nagpur district, extends into Madhya Pradesh as well. It has now been upgraded into a Tiger project.

 Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, a man made wildlife sanctuary situated 30 km from Sangli. Ancient temples of Lord Shiva and Jain Temple of Parshwanath located in Sagareshwar are an attraction.
 Sanjay Gandhi National Park, also known as Borivali National Park is located in Mumbai and is the world's largest national park within city limits.

 Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project, a prominent tiger reserve near Chandrapur in Vidarbha. It is 40 km from Chandrapur.
 Tansa wildlife Sanctuary, situated in Thane district and along the Tansa and Vaitarna river. The major water supplying dams Tansa, Modaksagar and lower vaitarna are located in the Sanctuary. The fauna include Leopard, barking deer, Hyena, Flying squirrel and Wild boar. There are four forest ranges in the sanctuary-Tansa, Vaitarna, Khardi and Parli. The wildlife division headquarters is at Thane.
 Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary, includes 896 ha mangrove cover along the western side of the creek (in Mulund , Vikhroli, Bhandup, Kanjurmarg and Mandala areas plus 795 ha of creek area which is partly exposed during low tide. This is the area used by thousands of flamingos for resting during high tide. The Forest Department, Government of Maharashtra, declared an area of  as Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary on August 6, 2015. The sanctuary is declared especially to protect the habitat of flamingos visiting the creek in thousands.

Apart from these, Maharashtra has 35 wildlife sanctuaries spread all over the state, listed here. Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary are the important ones.

Apart from the above, Matheran, a Hill station near Mumbai has been declared an Eco-sensitive zone (protected area) by the Government of India.

See also

 Geography of India

References

External links
Government of Maharashtra
Maharashtra Water Resources Department

Geography of Maharashtra


The Misanthrope, or The Cranky Lover is a play by Molière. It was first performed on June 4, 1666 at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal, Paris. The play is about a man with idealistic but unrealistic values. He always tells the truth. His friends are not pleased with this trait because they think he should tell little white lies to spare others the truth.

Plays by Molière
1660s plays

The Misanthrope