Geb was the Egyptian god of the earth and a mythological member of the Ennead of Heliopolis. He could also be considered a father of snakes. It was believed in ancient Egypt that Geb's laughter created earthquakes and that he allowed crops to grow.

Name
The name was pronounced as such from the Greek period onward and was originally wrongly read as Seb.

Role and development

The oldest representation in a fragmentary relief of the god was as an anthropomorphic bearded being accompanied by his name, and dating from king Djoser's reign, 3rd Dynasty, and was found in Heliopolis. However, the god never received a temple of his own. In later times he could also be depicted as a ram, a bull or a crocodile (the latter in a vignette of the Book of the Dead of the lady Heryweben in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo).

Geb was frequently feared as father of snakes (one of the names for snake was s3-t3 – "son of the earth"). In a Coffin Texts spell Geb was described as father of the mythological snake Nehebkau of primeval times. In more mythology, Geb also often occurs as a primeval divine king of Egypt from whom his son Osiris and his grandson Horus inherited the land after many conflicts with the disruptive god Set, brother and killer of Osiris. Geb could also be regarded as personified fertile earth and barren desert, the latter containing the dead or setting them free from their tombs, metaphorically described as "Geb opening his jaws", or imprisoning those there not worthy to go to the fertile North-Eastern heavenly Field of Reeds. In the latter case, one of his otherworldly attributes was an ominous jackal-headed stave (called wsr.t Mighty One') rising from the ground onto which enemies could be bound.

In the Heliopolitan Ennead (a group of nine gods created in the beginning by the one god Atum or Ra), Geb is the husband of Nut, the sky or visible daytime and nightly firmament, the son of the earlier primordial elements Tefnut (moisture) and Shu ("emptiness"), and the father to the four lesser gods of the system – Osiris, Seth, Isis and Nephthys. In this context, Geb was believed to have originally been engaged with Nut and had to be separated from her by Shu, god of the air. Consequently, in mythological depictions, Geb was shown as a man reclining, sometimes with his phallus still pointed towards Nut. Geb and Nut together formed the permanent boundary between the primeval waters and the newly created world.

As time progressed, the deity became more associated with the habitable land of Egypt and also as one of its early rulers. As a chthonic deity he (like Min) became naturally associated with the underworld, fresh waters and with vegetation – barley being said to grow upon his ribs – and was depicted with plants and other green patches on his body.

His association with vegetation, healing and sometimes with the underworld and royalty brought Geb the occasional interpretation that he was the husband of Renenutet, a minor goddess of the harvest and also mythological caretaker (the meaning of her name is "nursing snake") of the young king in the shape of a cobra, who herself could also be regarded as the mother of Nehebkau, a primeval snake god associated with the underworld. He is also equated by classical authors as the Greek Titan Cronus.

Ptah and Ra, creator deities, usually begin the list of divine ancestors. There is speculation between Shu and Geb and who was the first god-king of Egypt. The story of how Shu, Geb, and Nut were separated in order to create the cosmos is now being interpreted in more human terms; exposing the hostility and sexual jealousy.  Between the father-son jealousy and Shu rebelling against the divine order, Geb challenges Shu's leadership. Geb takes Shu's wife, Tefnut, as his chief queen, separating Shu from his sister-wife. Just as Shu had previously done to him. In the book of the Heavenly Cow, it is implied that Geb is the heir of the departing sun god.  After Geb passed on the throne to Osiris, his son, he then took on a role of a judge in the Divine Tribunal of the gods.

 Goose

Some Egyptologists (specifically Jan Bergman, Terence Duquesne or Richard H. Wilkinson) have stated that Geb was associated with a mythological divine creator goose who had laid a world egg from which the sun and/or the world had sprung. This theory is assumed to be incorrect and to be a result of confusing the divine name "Geb" with that of a Whitefronted Goose (Anser albifrons), also called originally gb(b): "lame one, stumbler".

This bird-sign is used only as a phonogram in order to spell the name of the god (H.te Velde, in: Lexikon der Aegyptologie II, lemma: Geb). An alternative ancient name for this goose species was trp meaning similarly 'walk like a drunk', 'stumbler'. The Whitefronted Goose is never found as a cultic symbol or holy bird of Geb. The mythological creator 'goose' referred to above, was called Ngg wr "Great Honker" and always depicted as a Nile Goose/Fox Goose or Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiacus) who ornithologically belongs to a separate genus and whose usual Egyptian name was smn, Coptic smon. A coloured vignette irrefutably depicts a Nile Goose with an opened beak (Ngg wr!) in a context of solar creation on a mythological papyrus dating from the 21st Dynasty.

Similar images of this divine bird are to be found on temple walls (Karnak, Deir el-Bahari), showing a scene of the king standing on a papyrus raft and ritually plucking papyrus for the Theban god Amun-Re-Kamutef. The latter Theban creator god could be embodied in a Nile goose, but never in a Whitefronted Goose. In Underworld Books a diacritic goose-sign (most probably denoting then an Anser albifrons) was sometimes depicted on top of the head of a standing anonymous male anthropomorphic deity, pointing to Geb's identity. Geb himself was never depicted as a Nile Goose, as later was Amun, called on some New Kingdom stelae explicitly: "Amun, the beautiful smn''- goose" (Nile Goose).

The only clear pictorial confusion between the hieroglyphs of a Whitefronted Goose (in the normal hieroglyphic spelling of the name Geb, often followed by the additional -b-sign) and a Nile Goose in the spelling of the name Geb occurs in the rock cut tomb of the provincial governor Sarenput II (12th Dynasty, Middle Kingdom) on the Qubba el-Hawa desert-ridge (opposite Aswan), namely on the left (southern) wall near the open doorway, in the first line of the brightly painted funerary offering formula. This confusion is to be compared with the frequent hacking out by Akhenaten's agents of the sign of the Pintail Duck (meaning 'son') in the royal title 'Son of Re', especially in Theban temples, where they confused the duck sign with that of a Nile Goose regarded as a form of the then forbidden god Amon.

Geb alias Cronus
In Greco-Roman Egypt, Geb was equated with the Greek titan Cronus, because he held a quite similar position in the Greek pantheon, as the father of the gods Zeus, Hades, and Poseidon, as Geb did in Egyptian mythology. This equation is particularly well attested in Tebtunis in the southern Fayyum: Geb and Cronus were here part of a local version of the cult of Sobek, the crocodile god. The equation was shown on the one hand in the local iconography of the gods, in which Geb was depicted as a man with attributes of Cronus and Cronus with attributes of Geb. On the other hand, the priests of the local main temple identified themselves in Egyptian texts as priests of "Soknebtunis-Geb", but in Greek texts as priests of "Soknebtunis-Cronus". Accordingly, Egyptian names formed with the name of the god Geb were just as popular among local villagers as Greek names derived from Cronus, especially the name "Kronion".

References

Earth gods
Harvest gods
Egyptian gods
Snake gods
Earth in religion
Personifications
Mythological rapists
Cattle deities

Geb


A snail is a common name for a kind of mollusc. The term is used for a gastropod with a coiled shell. Their fossil records extends back into the Carboniferous period.

Land snails and slugs breathe with a kind of lung. They used to be put together in a group, the Pulmonata. This was a well-known order in traditional taxonomy. However, the Pulmonata is polyphyletic. This means the same life-style evolved in a number of different lines. This is called convergent evolution. Therefore, the Pulmonata is no longer an official term in biological classification.

The term "snail" is also sometimes used for aquatic snail-like gastropods, which usually have gills. Actually, most snail species are marine snails. There are more species of them, and they are far greater in numbers. Many kinds of snails can also be found in fresh water habitats.

Most land snails and slugs are herbivorous. Aquatic snails and slugs are usually omnivores or predatory carnivores.

In many countries around the world, people eat snails as a delicacy. In France, snails are called escargots, which is also the name of the dish. In French cuisine, the snails are cooked in salt water and then served with a garlic sauce.

The biggest snail is the giant African snail. Their foot is up to 35 cm long.
The fastest snail is the Helix aspersa. It can reach speeds up to 0.047 kmh.
There are known more than 43000 species of snails all over the world.

Body parts

Shell
Snails are invertebrates, which are animals with no backbones. The shell on the snail helps protect it, and also reduces the loss of water by evaporation. Shells have many different shapes, sizes, and colors. Snails do not breathe through their mouths, instead they have a breathing hole under their shells.

Foot
A snails "foot" is a muscle which allows it to move slowly across the ground. The foot puts out ('exudes') slime, which eases the snail's movement, leaving a trail. Snails can absorb mineral nutrients through their foot by simply sitting on a rock.

Head
The head is attached to the foot. On the head there are 15 mm stalks. At the end of the stalks are snail's eyes.

Habitat
Snails are found all over the world. Generally speaking, land snails live in  damp habitats. They live in caves and dark places. Snails can be found in dark places such as in a garden under plant's foliage leaves. Some species live in cold places like the Arctic and a few are found in warm places like beaches and deserts.

Food
Land snails eat vegetables and fruits, such as lettuce, carrots, cucumber and apples. Aquatic snails are often carnivorous. Snails use their radula to cut food. The radula is a hard, rough plate in the mouth. Radula teeth are like little pieces of sandpaper. They are good for cutting up plants and if the snail eats meat they are good for tearing the meat apart.

Many animals eat snails. Fireflies, snakes, beetles, fish, insects, turtles and people eat snails too. To defend themselves, snails pull back into their shells.

Related pages
 Ampullariidae
 Gastropoda
 Helix (genus)
 Slug
 Sea slug

References

 O'Neil, Sarah 1999. Snails. Scholastic Canada. .
 Henwood, Chris 2005. Keeping minibeasts: snails and slugs. Sea to Sea. .
 Stidworthy, John 2002. Cool facts: creepy crawlies. Parragon 2000. .
 Ghesquiere, Stijn 1998. Apple snails.

Gastropods

Snail


Armando Gallop (sometimes written as Armando Gallup) (February 12, 1970 – December 17, 1996), who released material under his first name only, was an American house-music producer and DJ who was an early contributor to the development of acid house.

Armando was born in Chicago to parents of Afro-Cuban descent. He was a star baseball player as a youngster before spinal meningitis put an end to his athletic aspirations. He became interested in dance music, organizing parties by age 16 and mixing on radio by age 17. He and Mike Dunn founded Musique Records and Warehouse Records in 1988, the latter releasing Armando's singles "151" and "Land of Confusion". "Land of Confusion" became a transatlantic club hit in Chicago as well as in Britain, where it influenced their early acid-house scene. He also produced Warehouse releases from Ron Trent, DJ Rush, and Robert Armani.

Instead of working on production, Armando spent most of the early 1990s with a residency at Chicago's new Warehouse club (in Randolph Street) from 1992 to 1994. He served as an A&R rep for Felix da Housecat's Radikal Fear label and, soon afterward, recorded  for that label himself. His first and only full-length album, One World, One Future, was released in 1996 on Play it Again, Sam. Armando died of leukemia shortly after the album's release.

References

The Armando Project: An Oral History from Armando's friends and fans

1970 births
1996 deaths
American house musicians
Musicians from Chicago
American people of Cuban descent
PIAS Recordings artists
20th-century American male musicians
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in the United States

Armando (producer)


Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon (13 March 1753 – 23 June 1821), was the daughter of Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre and of Maria Teresa d'Este. At the death of her brother, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, prince de Lamballe, she became the wealthiest heiress in France. She married the future Philippe Égalité, and was the mother of France's last king, Louis Philippe I.  She was a princess of the blood by her marriage.

Background

Marie-Adélaïde was born on 13 March 1753 at the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris. Styled Mademoiselle d'Ivoy initially and, as a young girl, until her marriage, Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (derived from the duchy inherited by her father). The style of Mademoiselle de Penthièvre had been previoulsy borne by her sister Marie Louise de Bourbon (1751–1753) who died six months after Marie Adélaïde's birth. She was raised in a convent, the Abbaye de Montmartre, overlooking Paris.

Marriage

At the death, on 8 May 1768, of her brother and only sibling, the Prince of Lamballe, Marie Adélaïde became heiress to what was to become the largest fortune of France. Her marriage to Louis Philippe Joseph d'Orléans, Duke of Chartres, son of the Duke of Orléans, had been envisaged earlier and, while the Duke of Penthièvre saw in it the opportunity for his daughter to marry into the family of the First Prince of the Blood, the Orléans did not want a union with an illegitimate branch of the royal family. However, the Orléans' mind changed when the Prince of Lamballe's death left his sister sole heiress to the family fortune. Although Marie Adélaîde was much in love with her Orléans cousin, Louis XV warned Penthièvre against such a marriage because of the reputation of the young Duke of Chartres as a womaniser.

Her marriage to the Duke of Chartres took place at the Palace of Versailles on 5 April 1769.

During the first few months of their marriage, the couple appeared devoted to each other, but the duke went back to the life of libertinage he had led before his marriage. It is during the summer of 1772, a few months after his wife had given birth to a stillborn daughter, that began Philippe's secret liaison with one of her ladies-in-waiting, Madame de Genlis, the niece of Madame de Montesson, the morganatic wife of Philippe's father. Passionate at first, the liaison cooled within a few months and, by the spring of 1773, was reported to be "dead". After the romantic affair was over, Félicité remained in the service of Marie Adélaïde at the Palais-Royal, a trusted friend to both Marie Adélaïde and Philippe. They both appreciated her intelligence and, in July 1779, she became the governess of the couple's twin daughters born in 1777.

Revolution

On 5 April 1791, Marie Adélaïde left her unfaithful husband and went to live with her father at the château de Bizy in Normandy. In September 1792, having sided with the Revolution, the Duke of Orléans was elected to the National Convention under the name of Philippe Égalité. Siding with the radical group called The Mountain (La Montagne), he was from the very beginning suspect in the eyes of the Girondists (Girondins), who wanted all the Bourbons to be banished from France.  The fate of the Orléans family was sealed when Marie-Adélaïde's eldest son, the duc de Chartres, "Général Égalité" in the Army of the North commanded by Charles François Dumouriez, sought political asylum from the Austrians in March 1793. On 6 April, all the members of the Orléans family still remaining in France were arrested.

After their arrest in Paris, Philippe Égalité and his son, the comte de Beaujolais, were imprisoned in the Abbey prison (prison de l'Abbaye) in Paris. Later, the two were transferred to the prison of Fort Saint-Jean in Marseille, where they were soon joined by the duc de Montpensier who had been arrested while serving as an officer in the Army of the Alps. The day before his father and brothers were arrested in France, the duc de Chartres rushed to Tournai, near the French border, where his sister Adélaïde and Mme de Genlis had been living since Philippe Égalité had made them emigrate in November 1792.

Upon the execution of her husband, Marie-Adélaïde, now known as "Veuve Égalité" (Widow Égalité), was incarcerated at the Luxembourg Palace, which had been transformed into a prison during the Revolution. There she met the man who was to become the "love of her life", a former member of the National Convention named Jacques-Marie Rouzet. The two always remained together and lived in Paris until 1797, when a decree banished the remaining members of the House of Bourbon from France.

Marie Adélaïde was exiled to Spain, as was her sister-in-law Bathilde d'Orléans. Rouzet accompanied them to the Spanish border and managed to secretly join them in Barcelona where he became her chancellor.

Marie Adélaïde, Rouzet and the Orléans exiled in Spain returned to France in 1814 at the time of the first Bourbon Restoration. After legal battles which lasted until her death, the bulk of her inheritance was eventually recovered. She died in her castle at Ivry-sur-Seine having suffered from breast cancer. She also was buried at the "Chapelle royale de Dreux".

Name

Sometimes the princess is incorrectly named Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon-Penthièvre which is incorrect, and misleading (see her own signature above).

Issue

A daughter (10 October 1771) died at birth.
Louis Philippe I, (1773–1850) had issue.
Antoine Philippe, Duke of Montpensier, (1775–1807) died unmarried.
Françoise d'Orléans (1777–1782) died in infancy.
Adélaïde d'Orléans (1777–1847) died unmarried.
Louis Charles, Count of Beaujolais (1779–1808) died unmarried.

Titles and styles
13 March 1753 – 25 September 1753 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle d'Ivoy.
25 September 1753 – 5 April 1769 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle de Penthièvre.
5 April 1769 – 18 November 1785 Her Most Serene Highness The Duchess of Chartres.
18 November 1785 – 6 November 1793 Her Most Serene Highness The Duchess of Orléans.
6 November 1793 – 27 June 1821 Her Most Serene Highness The Dowager Duchess of Orléans.

Other websites

1753 births
1822 deaths
Cancer deaths in France
Deaths from breast cancer
Dukes and Duchesses of Chartres
Dukes and Duchesses of Montpensier
Dukes and Duchesses of Orléans
Dukes and Duchesses of Valois
House of Bourbon
House of Orléans
People from Paris

Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, Duchess of Orléans


slapt-get is an APT-like package management system for Slackware. Slapt-get tries to emulate the features of Debian's (apt-get)  as closely as possible.

Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, slapt-get is free software.

Features

slapt-get builds functionality on top of the native Slackware package tools (installpkg, upgradepkg and removepkg) enabling package query, remote fetching, system updates, integrated changelog information, and many optional advanced features such as dependency resolution, package conflicts, suggestions, checksum and public key verification, and transfer resumption.

slapt-get uses the libcurl cURL library for transport. libcurl provides support for ftp, ftps, http, https, file:// and other resource types along with transfer resume for incomplete downloads.  slapt-get also uses the GNU Privacy Guard library to validate signatures.

slapt-get provides a simple configuration file format that includes an exclusion mechanism for use with the system upgrade option as well as declarations for all desired package sources.  Each package source can optionally be tagged with a specific priority in order to override the package version comparison and honor upstream software downgrades as might be the case when Slackware reverts to a previous version of a package.

Dependencies

slapt-get does not provide dependency resolution for packages included within the Slackware distribution. It does, however, provide a framework for dependency resolution in Slackware compatible packages similar in fashion to the hand-tuned method APT utilizes. Several package sources and Slackware based distributions take advantage of this functionality.  Hard, soft, and conditional dependencies along with package conflicts and complementary package suggestions can be expressed using the slapt-get framework.

Adding dependency information requires no modification to the packages themselves.  Rather, the package listing file, PACKAGES.TXT, is used to specify these relationships.  This file is provided by Patrick Volkerding and is similar to the Packages.gz file in use by Debian.  Several scripts are available to generate the PACKAGES.TXT file from a group of packages.  The file format used by Patrick Volkerding is extended by adding a few extra lines per package.  slapt-get then parses this file during source downloads.  Typically, third party packages store the dependency information within the package itself for later extraction into the PACKAGES.TXT.  The inclusion of this information within the Slackware package format does not inhibit the ability for Slackware pkgtools to install these packages.  This information is silently ignored and discarded after the package is installed.

Package sources

slapt-get works with official Slackware mirrors and third party package repositories such as http://www.slacky.eu/.  slapt-get looks for support files, PACKAGES.TXT and CHECKSUMS.md5, in the repository for package information.  These files provide package names, versions, sizes (both compressed and uncompressed), checksums, as well as a package description.  These files can be extended, as discussed in the previous section, to add dependency listings, conflict information, and package suggestions.  These files can also proxy for other remote sources by specifying a MIRROR declaration for each package.

GSlapt

GSlapt is a GTK+ frontend to libslapt, the slapt-get library which provides advanced package management for Slackware and its derivatives.  Inspired by the functionality present in Synaptic, Gslapt aims to bring the ease of use enjoyed by Debian and its derivatives to the Slackware world.

GSlapt was written primarily to supersede the vlapt (x)dialog slapt-get frontend used by VectorLinux.

Distributions
Besides Slackware, slapt-get and GSlapt are included by several other distributions, including:
 Absolute Linux
 Salix OS
 Slamd64
 VectorLinux
 Wolvix

References

External links

 Slapt-get on SlackWiki

Free package management systems
Linux package management-related software
Linux-only free software
Slackware

Slapt-get


Pegasus (, Pégasos, 'strong') is a flying horse with wings in Greek mythology. He is the son of Poseidon and the Gorgon Medusa. In cartoons and other stories, Pegasus was said to be the horse of the legendary hero Hercules.

The myth of the Pegasus is interesting and educational, and helps us understand an era gone by.

The Pegasus is a white horse with wings that can fly. It is very beautiful, and can only be controlled with a golden bridle given to Bellerophon by Athena.

Long ago, Perseus killed the monster Medusa using a reflective shield and winged sandals. He cut off her head, which had the hair of poisonous snakes and was so ugly it would turn to stone anyone who looked at it straight on, and from her blood sprang the winged horse Pegasus. Some stories say that Perseus rode Pegasus away, but other stories say he left before Pegasus was born.

Years later, there was a young man named Bellerophon, living in Corinth. Bellerophon had always longed to ride Pegasus, but Pegasus refused to be tamed. Bellerophon decided to pray to Athena, who was the Greek goddess of wisdom. Athena gave him a golden bridle that allowed him to capture Pegasus.

Later, the brother of a king sent Bellerophon on a quest to defeat the Chimera, a legendary beast with the head of a lion that breathed fire, a goat's head sprouting from its back, and the tail of a snake. Together, they defeated it and Bellerophon was honored. Then Bellerophon decided he wanted to be immortal and tried to fly with Pegasus to Mount Olympus, home of the gods. Zeus, angry, sent a gadfly to sting Pegasus, who bucked Bellerophon back to Earth.

After Pegasus left Bellerophon, he sired children by horses, and produced offspring, Pegasi.

References
 Felson, Nancy. "Pegasus." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012.Web. 15 Nov. 2012.
 Legon, Ronald P. "Corinth." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012.Web. 15 Nov. 2012.
 "The Pegasus." American Museum of Natural History. American Museum of Natural History, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2012. <http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/mythic-creatures/air-creatures-of-the-sky/greek-myths/>.

Other websites

Greek legendary creatures

Pegasus


Censorship is when an authority (such as a government or religion) or other group cuts out or suppresses communication.

This has been done widely. All countries, religions and societies have their limits as to what can be said, or written or communication by art or nowadays by computer.

Certain facts are changed or removed on purpose. This may be done because it is considered wrong, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the government or other authority. This can be done for different reasons.

A censor is a person whose job is to look at all types of media and remove material.  There are many reasons to censor something, like protecting military secrets, stopping immoral or anti-religious works, or keeping political power.  Censorship is almost always used as an insult, and there is much debate over what censorship is and when it is okay.

When there is freedom of speech and freedom of the press, most information can published.  However, even in developed countries with much freedom of the press, there are some things that cannot be published.  For example, journalists are usually not allowed to publish many secrets about the military, like where troops will be sent on a mission.  Pornography is censored in some countries because it is seen as not moral.  For these reasons, the government might arrest anyone who publishes it.

Reasons
Most often things are censored for one or more of the following reasons:
 Moral censorship: It is thought that certain facts may be inappropriate for the audience. There are many countries that limit who may see pornography. Additionally, it may be forbidden to show or write about certain forms of pornography, such as child pornography. Obscene words may be forbidden. Since about 1960 pressure groups have tried to stop the use of some words in favour of others. This has happened especially with words that describe race and gender.
 Military censorship: In a war, all news reports might be censored.  This is done to prevent the enemy getting information that might be used to plan fighting.  Censored information may include the existence, size, location, and movements of armed forces, and their strategies and tactics.
 Political censorship: A government (or a political party) may hold back certain kinds of information. This is done to avoid rebellions or embarrassment, or control the population by withholding certain information which those in power feel would damage their reputation or image,
 Religious censorship: Often, there is a dominant religion which removes or changes certain kinds of information. Examples for this are the Vatican censoring Galileo Galilei, or the Iranian Ayatollah Khomeini banning The Satanic Verses, a novel by Salman Rushdie. In Romania, many schools no longer teach evolution, and many schools in the US and UK refuse to discuss Creationism.
 Corporate censorship: (Often large) businesses stop the publication of material because it shows some of their business idea or their employees as bad.

Debate
There is much debate about when censorship should be allowed.  For example, U.S. President Richard Nixon censored the New York Times when they tried to publish articles about the Pentagon Papers, a group of classified military documents that showed that Nixon and the military lied about the Vietnam War.  The Supreme Court in New York Times Co v. United States overturned the censorship, saying that Nixon had not shown it would be dangerous to the military, just embarrassing.  In other countries, journalists and bloggers (who are usually not seen as journalists) are sometimes arrested for saying bad things about the government.  In Egypt, Kareem Amer was famously arrested for insulting Islam and calling the president of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak, a dictator.

Non-governmental censorship
Governments are not the only ones who censor information. For example, when the history department at Middlebury College did not allow professors to accept Wikipedia as a source in papers, some said it was censorship. This was because the department was telling professors (who usually have academic freedom) what works they should or should not accept.  Sometimes, a group or a website will not allow some facts, articles, and pictures that they do not think should be seen. There is much debate over the difference between censorship and editing, that is, deciding what should or should not be published.

Censorship of knowledge
Sometimes there is censorship of knowledge because it is believed  that the average person can be harmed by access to it.

Slate Magazine wrote that in the 18th century the French king's council stopped the distribution of Encyclopédie because it was "destroying royal authority and encouraging a spirit of independence and revolt,"

The Chinese government has blocked the Chinese-language Wikipedia since June 2015.

On July 16, 2019 the National Post ran an article about a woman who was banned fromTwitter.  Lindsay Shepherd who is described as a Free speech advocate claimed that twitter has been too eager  to censor  right-wing public figures. Shepherd was a teaching assistant at Wilfrid Laurier University.

Related pages
 Movie censorship
 Censorship by Google
 Censorship of YouTube
 Reporters Without Borders
 Wikileaks

References

Freedom

Censorship


The Church of St. Blaise () is a Baroque church in Dubrovnik and one of the city's major sights. Saint Blaise (St. Vlaho), identified by medieval Slavs with the pagan god Veles, is the patron saint of the city of Dubrovnik and formerly the protector of the independent Republic of Ragusa.

The church was built in 1715 by the Venetian architect and sculptor Marino Gropelli (1662-1728) on the foundations of the badly damaged Romanesque medieval church. He modeled the church on  Sansovino's Venetian church of San Maurizio.

The church consists of a single square nave with a ground plan in the form of an inscribed Greek cross, an apse flanked by two sacristies and an oblong cupola in the center. A flight of stairs leads to the portal, decorated with statues of angels. The facade is divided by four Corinthian columns. On top of the facade is a semicircular gable and a balustrade with three statues by Marino Gropelli: a free standing Saint Blaise (in the middle) and personifications of Faith and Hope.

The barrel-vaulted interior is richly decorated in Baroque style. The Corinthian columns in the center bear the tambour of the cupola and lantern. The corners of the nave show blind cupolas. The main altar, in a combination of white and polychrome marble, shows in a high niche a precious, gilt silver Gothic statue of Saint Blaise, crafted in the 15th century by an unknown local master. The saint shows in his left hand a scale model of the Romanesque church which was destroyed by the earthquake in 1667. He is flanked by two kneeling angels. This statue was the only one to survive the fire of 1706. The domed antependium is decorated with two angels who unveil a curtain in front of a medallion.

References

 Katarina Horvat-Levaj "Church of St. Blaise, Dubrovnik" in Discover Baroque Art
 Dubrovnik, history, culture, art heritage by Antun Travirka; Forum, Zadar, 2014;

Buildings and structures in Dubrovnik
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1715
18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Croatia
Baroque church buildings in Croatia
Tourist attractions in Dubrovnik

St Blaise's Church


The Turn of the Screw is an opera by Benjamin Britten.  It is a chamber opera (an opera for a small number of characters and very small orchestra).  The story is based on a story with the same title by Henry James.  The libretto (the words of the opera) were written by Myfanwy Piper.  The story of the opera is almost exactly the same as in Henry James's book.   Britten was asked by the Venice Biennale to write the opera.  It was first performed on 14 September, 1954, at the Teatro La Fenice, Venice.  Its first performance in Britain took place a month later on 6 October 1954 at Sadler's Wells Opera in London.

The opera is divided into two acts.  It is further divided into a prologue and sixteen scenes.  Before each scene starts we hear a variation on the 'Screw' theme.  This theme is based on twelve notes which are all the 12 notes in the octave.  This is called twelve-tone row, but it is tonally based (the music is in traditional keys, unlike the music of Schoenberg).  There are only 13 players in the orchestra.

Roles

The story of the opera
Time: The middle of the nineteenth century

Place: Bly, an English country house

Prologue
The prologue is just for a solo singer (tenor) and piano.  He tells us about a young governess he once knew who looked after two children at Bly House. The children's parents were dead, and they were supposed to be cared for by their uncle.  The uncle, who lived in London, was far too busy to care for them, and he hired a governess for them.  He told the governess (who is just called "the governess" in the opera) that she must never write to him about the children.  She must make any decisions about them herself.  She must never ask him about the history of Bly House, and she must always continue to care for the children.

Act 1
The Governess wonders what the children will be like.  The children wonder what their new governess will be like.  When the Governess arrives at Bly House she is greeted by the housekeeper, Mrs. Grose, and the children who (bow and curtsey).  She thinks that the boy, Miles, looks strangely familiar.  Miles goes to a boarding school, but he has come home for the holidays.  A letter from his school arrives saying that he has been expelled because he had been threatening other children. The Governess is sure that Miles, like his sister Flora, is too kind and innocent to have done such terrible things.  Mrs Grose also thinks the same thing.  The Governess decides not to take any notice of the letter.

The Governess sings about her wonderful position at the house and the beautiful children she has in her care. But at night she hears strange footsteps and a cry outside her door.  Suddenly, she sees a pale-faced man sitting on a tower of the house. When the man disappears, she becomes frightened and wonders if she has seen a ghost.  But then she is comforted when she hears the children singing the nursery rhyme "Tom, Tom, the Piper's Son". The Governess doubts that she saw anything, but decides to tell Mrs. Grose. The housekeeper tells the Governess about Peter Quint, who used to be a servant at Bly House.  What Mrs. Grose says seems to suggest that Quint had done nasty things to Miles.  At that time Miles had a governess called Miss Jessel.  Mrs. Grose suggests that Quint had a sexual relationship with Miss Jessell, and that they both had sexual relations with the children. The housekeeper said she could do nothing about it, as Quint cleverly found any letters that came for her and he threatened her with physical harm. But when Miss Jessel became pregnant and people found out how bad she was, she abandoned the children and ran away.  Soon afterwards she died.  Shortly after that Quint died a mysterious death on an icy road near Bly House.

The next morning, the Governess is teaching Miles Latin when he goes into a trance-like state and sings a song which shows that Quint had abused him.

Later that day, the Governess sits by the side of a lake with Flora. Flora names the seas of the world, finishing with the Dead Sea. Flora compares the Dead Sea (where nothing can live) to Bly House.  This worries the Governess. As Flora plays on the shore with her doll, the Governess suddenly sees a strange woman across the lake who seems to be watching Flora.  It is the ghost of Miss Jessel, who has returned to get Flora. The Governess hurries Flora home to safety.

That night, Miles and Flora slip out into the woods to meet Miss Jessel and Peter Quint. The children fantasize about a world where dreams come true. The Governess and Mrs. Grose arrive as the children are about to be possessed, and the spirits depart. Miles sings a song about how he has been a bad boy.

Act 2
The ghosts of Peter Quint and Miss Jessel reappear. They argue about who harmed whom first when they were alive, and accuse one another of not acting quickly enough to possess the children. In her room, the Governess worries about the evil she feels in the house.

The next morning, the family goes to church. The children sing a song which sounds like a song praising God. Mrs. Grose does not realize the meaning of the song until the Governess tells her they are singing about horrors.  The Governess runs off and goes to her room.  She can feel the presence of Miss Jessel and sees her sitting at her desk.  The Governess now knows that she cannot abandon the children.  She writes to the children's uncles saying that she must see him.

When the Governess asks Miles what happened at school Quint's voice is heard.  Miles shrieks and the candle goes out.  Miles is tempted by Quint to pick up the letter. He steals it and rushes off.  Miles distracts the grown-up's attention by playing the piano, so they do not notice Flora going off to the lake.  Mrs Grose and the Governess find Flora by the lake.  The Governess tries to make Flora say that she can see Mrs Jessel, but she shouts that she can't see anybody. Mrs Grose takes her home.

In the last scene Flora has become mad.  Mrs Grose tells the Governess that her letter to the uncle must have been stolen.  She asks Miles whether he stole it.  He denies it, but all the time he can see Peter Quint who is telling him he must not tell them the truth about him.  In the end Miles screams: "Peter Quint!  You devil!" and then dies.  The Governess is left holding the dead boy in her arms.

Instrumentation
The instruments used in the orchestra are: 2 violins, viola, cello, double bass, flute/alto flute/piccolo, clarinet/bass clarinet, harp, oboe/cor anglais, piano, celesta and percussion.

References
The New Kobbe's Opera Book ed. The Earl of Harewood and Antony Peattie, 2000;

Compositions by Benjamin Britten
1950s operas
1954 works

The Turn of the Screw (opera)


Fyodor Serafimovich Druzhinin, also Fedor, (; 6 April 1932 in Moscow – 1 July 2007) was a Soviet violist, composer and music teacher.

Druzhinin studied viola at the Moscow Central Music School with Nikolai Sokolov (1944–1950) and at the Moscow Conservatory with Vadim Borisovsky (1950–1957).  In 1957, he won first place at the All-Union Competition of Musicians in Moscow.  He replaced Borisovsky as violist of the Beethoven Quartet in 1964.

From 1980, Druzhinin was the head of the viola department at the Moscow Conservatory.  Among his students are many noted violists such as Yuri Bashmet, Yuri Tkanov, Alexander Bobrovsky and Svetlana Stepchenko.

Druzhinin composed several works for viola.  His Fantasia for Viola and Orchestra is best known.  He worked closely with Dmitri Shostakovich and other composers such as Mieczysław Weinberg (Moisei Samuilovich Vainberg), Alfred Schnittke, Andrei Volkonsky, Roman Ledenyov.  Shostakovich wrote his last composition for Druzhinin, the Sonata for Viola and Piano, Op.147 (1975).  Other dedications include Concerto-Poem (1963–1964) for viola and orchestra by Ledenyov, Viola Sonata (1971) and Viola Concerto (1972) by Grigory Frid, and Weinberg's Sonata No.1 (1971) for unaccompanied viola.

Druzhinin was a 1988 recipient of the People's Artist of Russia award.  In 2001, he published his memoirs: Воспоминания. Страницы жизни и творчества (Memoirs. Pages of Life and Work).  The book relates countless memories of Shostakovich, Schnittke, Igor Stravinsky, Maria Yudina, Anna Akhmatova and colleagues of the Beethoven Quartet, among others.

Selected works
Original compositions
 Fantasia for viola and orchestra (1980)
 Sinfonia a due, Duet for 2 violas (published 2003)
 Sonata for viola solo (1959)
 Variations for viola solo (1968)

Transcriptions for viola and piano
 Johannes Brahms – Sapphische Ode (Ода Сафо), Op. 94 No. 4; original for voice and piano
 Frédéric Chopin – Nocturne (Ноктюрн); original for piano solo
 Edvard Grieg – Evening in the Mountains (Вечер в горах), Op. 68 No. 4; original for piano solo
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Andante from the Sonata in C Major (Анданте из сонаты до мажор)
 Hugo Wolf – Song after Konstantin G. Mostras (Песня по К. Г. Мострасу); original for voice and piano

Discography
 Fyodor Druzhinin – Melodiya MEL CD 10 00867 (2004); Fyodor Druzhinin, viola; Mikhail Muntyan, piano (Glinka, Rubinstein); Larisa Panteleyeva, piano (Shostakovich)
   Mikhail Glinka: Sonata in D Minor for Viola and Piano (1825–1828)
   Anton Rubinstein: Sonata in F Minor for Viola and Piano, Op.49 (1855)
   Dmitri Shostakovich: Sonata for Viola and Piano, Op.147 (1975)
 Great Artists of the Moscow Conservertoire – Moscow Conservatory SMC 036 (1998); Fedor Druzhinin, viola; Maria Yudina, Anna Levina, Larisa Panteleyeva, piano
   C.P.E. Bach: Sonata in G Minor
   Mikhail Glinka: Sonata in D Minor for Viola and Piano (1825–1828)
   Arthur Honegger: Sonata for Viola and Piano, H.26 (1920)
   Paul Hindemith: Sonata for Viola and Piano, Op.11 No.4 (1919)
 Rubinstein: Viola Sonata; Quintet for Piano & Winds – Russian Disc (1994); Fedor Druzhinin, viola; Larisa Panteleyeva, piano
   Anton Rubinstein: Sonata in F Minor for Viola and Piano, Op.49 (1855)
 Melodiya LP 33D-025045/6 (1969); Fyodor Druzhinin, viola; Chamber Orchestra of the Moscow Conservatory, Moscow Symphonic Orchestra
   J.C. Bach/Henri Casadesus: Concerto in C Minor for Viola and Strings
   Roman Ledenyov: Concerto-Poem in A Minor for Viola and Orchestra, Op.13 (1963–1964)
   Grigory Frid: Concerto for Viola and Orchestra, Op.52 (1972)
 Melodiya LP S10-08249/50 (1976); Fyodor Druzhinin, viola; Mikhail Muntyan, piano
   Moisei Samuilovich Vainberg (Mieczysław Weinberg): Sonata No.1 for Solo Viola, Op.107 (1971)
   Grigory Frid: Sonata for Viola and Piano, Op.62 No.1 (1971)

External links
 performed by violist Julia Rebekka Adler

1932 births
2007 deaths
Russian classical violists
Russian male composers
Soviet classical violists
Soviet composers
Soviet male composers
People's Artists of Russia
Moscow Conservatory alumni
Academic staff of Moscow Conservatory
20th-century Russian male musicians
20th-century violists

Fyodor Druzhinin


The Mediterranean Sea is the body of water that separates Europe, Africa, and Asia.

The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by a narrow passage called the Strait of Gibraltar.  The sea is almost completely surrounded by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Middle East. It covers around . Its name was invented in the early Middle Ages from Latin words for "in the middle of land".

To the east it connects to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. The Sea of Marmara, which is an inner sea like the Black Sea, is rarely considered as a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The much bigger Black Sea is generally not considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (hē thálassa; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα (hē megálē thálassa; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα (hē hēmetérā thálassa; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡμᾶς (hē thálassa hē kath'hēmâs; "the sea around us").

The 163 km (101 mi) long man-made Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. The canal is between Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula, and was built by the French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez from 1859 to 1869.

History
Some of the most ancient human civilizations were made around the Mediterranean Sea, so it has had a large influence on the history and ways of life of these cultures. It provided a way of trade, colonization and war, and was the basis of life (like fishing and catching other seafood) for many communities throughout the ages. The combination of similarly shared climate, geology and access to a common sea has led to lots of historical and cultural connections between the ancient and modern societies around the Mediterranean.

Above all, it was the superhighway of transport in ancient times. It allowed for trade and cultural exchange between peoples of the region – Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Minoans and Hittites on the eastern side of the mediterranean and the Carthaginians, Romans, Etruscans, Celtiberians, Gauls and Berbers on the western side.

The history of the Mediterranean is important in understanding the origin and development of Western civilization.

The ancient Punic Wars and the Battle of the Mediterranean during World War II gave the winners control over it so they could destroy the losers.  Today the Mediterranean Sea still connects the economies of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East as it did in ancient times.  The European migrant crisis resulted in many refugees drowning in the Mediterranean Sea.

Oceanography
Almost 6 million years ago, continental drift closed the Strait of Gibraltar. With no water coming in from the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean partly dried up. The remaining part became extremely salty. After half a million years the straits opened again, making the Mediterranean as it is now.

Being nearly landlocked affects the Mediterranean Sea's properties. Tides are limited by the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The water is saltier, partly because of evaporation. The Mediterranean has a deep blue color.

Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and surface runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. This pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar.  Thus, seawater flow is eastward at the Strait's surface, and westward near the bottom.  In the Atlantic, this chemically distinct deep "Mediterranean Intermediate Water" can persist thousands of kilometers away from its source.

Related pages
 Mediterranean climate

References

Bodies of water of Africa
Bodies of water of Asia
Bodies of water of Europe

Mediterranean Sea


Chidananda Saraswati  (24 September 1916 – 28 August 2008) was president of the Divine Life Society, Rishikesh, India. He is well known in India as a yogi and spiritual leader. He succeeded as president of the Divine Life Society in 1963, after the death of his predecessor, Sivananda Saraswati, who founded the Society.

Chidananda's birth name was Sridhar Rao. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Loyola College, Chennai. He pursued a life of renunciation in 1936 and joined the Sivananda Ashram run by Sivananda Saraswati in Rishikesh in 1943.

He was appointed General Secretary of the Divine Life Society in 1948. He was initiated into the Sannyas order by his guru, Sivananda, on Guru Purnima day, 10 July 1949. It was then that he received his monastic name "Chidananda", which means "one who is consciousness and bliss".

He was elected president of the Divine Life Society in August 1963, upon the death of Sivananda.

Chidananda Saraswati died on 28 August 2008, at 20:11 pm.

Early life

Sridhar Rao (name of Chidananda Saraswati before sannyasa) was born to a  South Indian Hindu family in Mangalore. His parents were Sri Srinivasa Rao and Sarojini, and Sridhar was born on 24 September 1916 as the second of five children and the eldest son. Sri Srinivasa Rao was a prosperous Zamindar, a rich landlord owning several villages, extensive lands and palatial buildings in South India. Sarojini was an ideal Indian mother, noted for her saintliness.

At the age of eight, Sridhar Rao's life was influenced by Sri Anantayya, a friend of his grandfather, who used to relate to him stories from the epics, Ramayana and Mahābhārata. Doing tapas (austerities), becoming a rishi (sage), and having a vision of the Lord became ideals which he cherished.

His uncle, Krishna Rao, shielded him against the influences of the materialistic world around him, and sowed in him the seeds of the nivritti life (life of renunciation) which he joyously nurtured until, as later events proved, it blossomed into sainthood.

His elementary education began at Mangalore. In 1932, he joined the Sir M.Ct. Muthiah Chettiar Higher Secondary School in Madras, where he distinguished himself as a brilliant student. His cheerful personality, exemplary conduct, and extraordinary traits earned for him a distinct place in the hearts of all teachers and students who came into his contact.

In 1936, he was admitted to Loyola College, University of Madras, whose portals admit only the most brilliant of students. In 1938, he emerged with the degree of Bachelor of Arts.

The family was noted for its high code of conduct, and this was infused into his life. Charity and service were the glorious ingrained virtues of the members of the family. These virtues found an embodiment in Sridhar Rao. He discovered ways and means of manifesting them. No one who sought his help was sent away without assistance. He gave freely to the needy.

Service, especially of the sick, often brought out the fact that he had no idea of his own separate existence as an individual. It seemed as if his body clung loosely to his soul. Nor was all this service confined to human beings. Birds and animals claimed his attention as much as, if not more than, human beings. He understood their language of suffering. His service of a sick dog evoked the admiration of his Guru, Sivananda. He would raise his finger in grim admonition when he saw anyone practicing cruelty to dumb animals in his presence.

Quite early in life, although born in a wealthy family, he shunned the pleasures of the world to devote himself to seclusion and contemplation. In the matter of study, it was the spiritual books which had the most appeal to him, more than college books. Even while he was at college, text-books had to take second place to spiritual books. The works of Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, and Sivananda, took precedence over all others.

He shared his knowledge with others, so much so that he virtually became the Guru of the household and the neighborhood, to whom he would talk of honesty, love, purity, service and devotion to God. He would exhort them to perform japa of Rama-Nama. While still in his twenties, he began initiating youngsters into this great Rama Taraka Mantra. He was an ardent admirer of Sri Ramakrishna Math at Madras and regularly participated in the Satsangs (association with the wise) there. The call of Swami Vivekananda to renounce resounded within his pure heart. He ever thirsted for the darshan (meeting/s) of Saints and Sadhus (renunciate) visiting the metropolis.

In June 1936, he disappeared from home. After a vigorous search by his parents, he was found in the secluded Ashram of a holy sage some miles from the sacred mountain shrine Tirupati. He returned home after some persuasion. This temporary separation was but a preparation for the final parting from the world of attachments to family and friends.

Initiation

The final decision came in 1943. He was already in correspondence with Sivananda Saraswati. He obtained Sivananda's permission to join the Ashram.

On arriving at the Ashram, he naturally took charge of the dispensary. He became the man with the healing hand. The growing reputation of his divine healing hand attracted a rush of patients to the Sivananda Charitable Dispensary.

Very soon after joining the Ashram, he gave ample evidence of the brilliance of his intellect. He delivered lectures, wrote articles for magazines and gave spiritual instructions to the visitors. When the Yoga-Vedanta Forest University (now known as the Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy) was established in 1948, Sivananda paid him a fitting tribute by appointing him Vice-Chancellor and Professor of Raja Yoga. During his first year he inspired the students with his brilliant exposition of Maharishi Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.

It was also in the first year of his stay at the Ashram that he wrote his magnum opus 'Light Fountain', an immortal biography of his Guru Sivananda. Sivananda once remarked: "Sivananda will pass away, but 'Light Fountain' will live".

In addition to his multifarious activities and intense Sadhana, he founded, under the guidance of Sivananda, the Yoga Museum in 1947, in which the entire philosophy of Vedanta and all the processes of Yoga Sadhana are depicted in the form of pictures and illustrations.

Towards the end of 1948, Sivananda nominated him as the General Secretary of The Divine Life Society. The great responsibility of the organization fell on his shoulders. From that very moment he spiritualized all his activities by his presence, counsel, and wise leadership. He exhorted all to raise their consciousness to the level of the Divine.

On Guru Purnima day, 10 July 1949, he was initiated into the holy order of Sannyasa by Sivananda. He now became known as Chidananda, a name which connotes: "one who is consciousness and bliss".

Accomplishments
Again in 1968, Chidananda undertook the Global Tour at the request of numerous disciples and devotees of Sivananda, and visited all countries of the world. Wherever he went, devotees received him cordially, and listened to him with rapt attention. In one of his innumerous meetings Swami Chidananda met Sri Sri Sitaramdas Omkarnathdev and declared him as Naam Avatara and said "Beloved Babaji is verily Naam Avatara. His entire life and personality is a radiant example and expression of Naam Bhakti and Naam Shakti. I bow down in silent reverence and love at his holy feet."

Chidananda Saraswati, right from the beginning worked and served the cause of Sivananda's mission tirelessly, and to spread his Divine Life message far and wide, not only in Bharatavarsha (India) but also in countries outside.  He inspired others through the practice of self-discipline.  For example, after completing a thirty-day fast while in Canada, Swami Chidananda arranged for resources to be provided to support the founding of a Sivanada Ashram in Vancouver.  He practiced a non-denominational, universal form of yoga.  He often led satsang (group chanting) that named and elevated all of the prophets and sages of all of the world religions equally (Lord Jesus, Ahura Mazda, Lord Buddha, etc.).

One of Chidananda Saraswati's disciples was Lilias Folan who went on to become popular for teaching yoga on American TV. Her show was called "Lilias, Yoga, and You!" and first aired on public television in 1972.

Books
Books by Chidananda Saraswati:

An Instrument of thy Peace
Awake, Realise your Divinity
Bhaja Govindam
Bliss is Within
Call to Liberation
Chidananda Hun
Daily Swadhyaya
Divine Vision
Eternal Messages
Essentials of Higher Values in Life
Gita Vision
God as Mother
Guide Lines to Illumination
Guide to Noble Living
Lectures on Raja Yoga
Liberation is Possible !
Light on the Yoga Way of Life
Manache Shlok (Translation)
Message of Swami Chidananda to Mankind
New Beginning
Path Beyond Sorrow
Path to Blessedness
Philosophy, Psychology and Practice of Yoga
Ponder These Truths
Practical Guide to Yoga
Renunciation—a Life of Surrender and Trust
Seek The Beyond
Swami Sivananda—Saint, Sage and Godman
The Quintessence of the Upanishad
The Role of Celibacy in Spiritual Life
The Truth That Liberates
Twenty Important Spiritual Instructions
Ultimate Journey
Verses Addressed to the Mind

References

External links

1916 births
2008 deaths
Indian Hindu spiritual teachers
Loyola College, Chennai alumni
People from Rishikesh
Writers from Mangalore
20th-century Hindu philosophers and theologians
Indian spiritual writers
20th-century Hindu religious leaders
20th-century Indian non-fiction writers
Indian yoga gurus

Chidananda Saraswati


The Yanomami (also spelled Yąnomamö or Yanomama) is a local tribe living in southern Venezuela (Amazonas department) and northern Brazil (Amazonas state and Roraima). There are approximately 35,000 Yanomami people who live in some 200–250 villages. They live in shabonos, which are villages made with wood, straw and palm leaves.
They are also called Yanomamo and Yanam.
The word "Yanomami" means "human being".

The Yanomami tribe have lived in the rain forests of South America for centuries.
They live in small groups, and shelter in one huge house and it is called a Yanos which can hold up to 250 Yanomami.

The Yanomami tribe is also known as the Yanomamo. There is an average of 20,000 Yanomami.
About 12,000 of them are Yanomamo. They eat plantains which is the most important food. The Yanomami love to hunt. Most of the child
raising is done by the females of the family. Yanomami tribe villages sometimes have different languages so people from one may not understand the others. Rituals are a very important part of being a Yanomami. There are about 200-250 Yanomami villages in the area between the tropic of cancer to Capricorn.

Ethnic groups in South America

Yanomami


Crossing the Line is a 2008 war short film written and directed by Peter Jackson set in World War I. It is the first film made with the Red One camera. The film has no dialogue apart from the incidental speech of background characters. Neill Blomkamp serves as additional director.

In 2007, the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company, manufacturers of the Red One, a new digital motion-picture camera, offered Jackson the chance to test their prototype cameras and record some sample footage for the 2007 NAB convention. Jackson instead proposed that he should use the testing time to shoot a short film. In March 2007, staff from Red flew to New Zealand with two of their prototype cameras, nicknamed "Boris" and "Natasha". The film was shot over two days, 30 and 31 March, in Masterton. The short film was shown two weeks later at NAB where it attracted large crowds and long lines.

Plot
The film centres on two young soldiers in World War I who are about to go into battle. Both have comforting reminders of home. One of the men is an infantryman who clutches a photograph of his lover. The other a pilot who carefully tucks a teddy bear into a safe place in the cockpit of his biplane.

The pilot takes off, headed for the airspace above the trenches where the other soldier waits for the whistle signalling an attack. The whistle sounds and the soldier tucks his photograph into his pocket and charges forward across the battlefield and dives into a foxhole. When he gets there he is horrified to discover he has dropped his photograph. He spots it lying on the battlefield nearby and begins crawling over to retrieve it. However every time he gets close the wind blows it further away.

Meanwhile, above him, the pilot is now involved in a dogfight with a German triplane while simultaneously struggling to keep control of his bear which keeps coming loose from its safe place in his cockpit. Eventually the bear falls out of his cockpit and becomes caught on the tail section of his plane.

Below on the ground, the infantryman has caught up with his photograph, but he doesn't realise he has wandered into the sights of a German sniper. Just as the sniper is about to fire, the view through his rifle scope is blocked by an object. It is the pilot's bear, which has fallen from the plane. In the time it takes the sniper to knock the bear away, the infantryman has disappeared. In his sights, in the place where the infantryman formerly stood, there is now a tank whose gun is aimed directly at him. The tank fires and the sniper is killed.

References

External links

Films directed by Peter Jackson
2008 films
New Zealand independent films
Crossing the Line
Crossing the Line
American aviation films
American World War I films
Films with screenplays by Peter Jackson
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
Films produced by Carolynne Cunningham
Films produced by Fran Walsh
World War I films

Crossing the Line (2008 film)


A chemical compound is a chemical formed from atoms of different chemical elements. The different atoms are joined by chemical bonds. Each compound has a fixed ratio between the elements.

The elements stick together so strongly that the compound behaves like it is one substance. The chemical that is made depends upon what atoms it is made of and how they are joined together.

Many compounds are made of separate molecules. Each molecule has the exact same number and types of atoms. For example, every water molecule has one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Other compounds are made of a large network of atoms. For example, sodium chloride always has equal numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms, but there are no separate molecules.

Chemical compounds can be solids like sodium chloride, liquids like water, or gases like carbon dioxide. We get compounds from natural sources such as plants or make them in laboratories. Compounds can be made from others by scientists and these are called synthetic chemicals.

When different compounds are mixed together they may have a chemical reaction.
Some chemical compounds can be dangerous but are safe if they are used the right way. Most dangerous chemicals are only used by scientists who have had special training in how to handle and use them. These chemicals might be poisonous, corrosive, explosive, they may catch fire easily, or they may react with other substances.

People who work in factories near chemicals often wear special clothes that stop the chemicals from hurting their body.

References

Chemical compound


The act of locating something, of finding or defining the location of something, is a basic idea of modern science. In physics to say what "to locate" or "location" means, we must explain with clear talk how we do the job of locating something.

For things about our size, we generally use two beginning points that everybody knows about, and then we measure from those points to the thing we want to give a location. We might start with the Plymouth Rock and the Blarney Stone. We could then say, "Captain Smith's ship is 1400 miles from Plymouth Rock going toward the Blarney Stone." Or, in another case we might say, "Captain Jones's ship can be found by drawing a line from Plymouth Rock to the Blarney Stone, finding a point 700 miles along this line from Plymouth Rock, taking a left turn of 90° upon reaching this point from Plymouth Rock, and then traveling an additional 90 miles.

If we have some good way of knowing compass directions, we can say something like, "Go three miles north of that big white rock over there and then go two miles east from that point. That is where I put the gold."

Finding the location of something is ordinarily done by seeing it somewhere, hearing it somewhere, feeling it somewhere, etc. Sometimes we know where something is by looking at a photograph, finding it with radar, or pinging it with sonar.

It is much more difficult to locate an electron, a photon, or anything else about that small. We may construct a light source that only makes one photon at a time. We can aim the light source at a piece of photographic film, let the light source make one photon, and then develop the photographic film. If we had very sensitive photographic film that could be darkened by only one photon, then we would find a tiny speck of silver where the photon ended up. A silver atom is much larger than a photon, so there would be some fuzziness about where the photon ended up, but people probably would agree that the photon must have ended up somewhere within the target formed by the silver atom. However, all we can say is that the photon must have been at that point when it ended its existence. When a photon is absorbed by an electron it gives its energy to the electron and disappears. So when it was briefly at some definite place it immediately lost all of its motion.

Another way to locate a photon is to make it go through a small place. Knowing when the light source sends out a photon, and knowing the speed of light, we can know when it must be going through a hole in a plate put in the center of its path to the film. We can gradually get closer and closer to finding out exactly where it is in the middle of its flight. However, the path that it will take from there on becomes progressively wild. That is because when a photon goes through a hole like that it experiences diffraction.

physics

Locating (physics)


Laurasiatheria is a large group of placental mammals. The name comes from the area where advanced mammals evolved. This was on the northern supercontinent of Laurasia, roughly corresponding to Eurasia today plus North America. When Pangaea broke up, it split first into Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south.

Members of the group include shrews, hedgehogs, pangolins, bats, whales, most hoofed mammals, and carnivorans, and others.

The Laurasiatheria is defined by DNA sequence analysis. The group does not share any obvious anatomical features. It includes these living orders:

Eulipotyphla: hedgehogs, gymnures, moles, shrews, solenodons (cosmopolitan)
Cetartiodactyla: cosmopolitan; includes former orders Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats)
Pholidota: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia)
Chiroptera: bats (cosmopolitan)
Carnivora: carnivores (cosmopolitan)
Perissodactyla: odd-toed ungulates

There are various ideas as to how these groups are related to each other, and no tree of descent is agreed by experts so far.

References

Mammals

Laurasiatheria


MSC Malaysia (formerly known as the Multimedia Super Corridor, and known as the MSC in Malaysia) is a Special Economic Zone and high-technology business district in central-southern Selangor, Malaysia.

Geographical definition
The MSC's northern end is at the Petronas Towers in downtown Kuala Lumpur, extending through Cyberjaya, Putrajaya, the Kuala Lumpur International Airport and most of Sepang constituency, as well as parts of Bandar Tun Razak, Puchong and Serdang constituencies, before terminating at Nilai, Negeri Sembilan.

History
The MSC program was officially inaugurated by the fourth Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad on 12 February 1996. The establishment of the program was crucial to accelerate the objectives of Vision 2020 and to transform Malaysia into a modern state by 2020, with the adoption of a knowledge-based society framework.

Purpose
The MSC flagship applications were launched to boost the MSC Malaysia initiatives and to create a hub for innovative producers and users of multimedia technology. Consortia comprising local and foreign companies (MNCs) collaborated with government agencies, departments and ministries to enhance the socio-economic development of Malaysia in the information age. The vision and mission of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) as expressed by Dr Mahathir Mohammad, the Prime Minister of Malaysia at the time (1981–2003), is essentially this:

MSC is paramount to leapfrog (Malaysia) into the 21st century and to achieve Malaysia's Vision 2020, the MSC was created to endeavour the best environment to harness the full potential of the multimedia without any artificial limits. MSC is a global test bed (hub), where the limits of the possible can be explored, and new ways of living, working, and playing in the new area of the Information Age.Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications.

The Multimedia Super Corridor is a government-designated zone in designed to leapfrog Malaysia into the information and knowledge age. It aims to attract companies with temporary tax breaks and facilities such as high-speed Internet access and proximity to the Kuala Lumpur International Airport.

MSC Malaysia covers an area of approximately  ×  (that is, ) stretching from the Petronas Towers to the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, and including the towns of Putrajaya and Cyberjaya.

It was announced by former Prime Minister Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir at the Multimedia Asia Conference on 1 August 1996. Mahathir's visit to the United States of America in January 1997 to promote the MSC to companies succeeded in attracting the interest of many large information technology companies. During the visit, an international advisory panel comprising 30 information technology experts were formed to exchange ideas toward the success of the MSC.

The Multimedia Development Corporation (MDeC, formerly MDC) was created to oversee development of the MSC. It was later renamed to Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation (MDEC).

Effects on press freedom
Though Malaysian law had provided for strict government controls on print media since 1984, a founding principle of MSC Malaysia was that government censorship of the Internet would not be permitted. Seeing a loophole, journalist Steven Gan and colleague Premesh Chandran started an online news resource that would be free of the controls that they felt stifled print media. In November 1999, the pair founded Malaysiakini, an online, independent news source that would become one of Malaysia's most popular websites. It was awarded a Free Media Pioneer award from the International Press Institute in 2001, and Gan was awarded one of the 2000 CPJ International Press Freedom Awards for his work with the site.

MSC status companies
Since 1997, Malaysian and foreign companies could apply for MSC status. Those approved were provided with a certificate signed by two government ministers listing additional rights and benefits for that company. By 2017 there were over 3000 MSC status companies. Benefits included exemption from Malaysian income tax for ten years, and streamlined immigration of key workers. The first few companies awarded MSC status included Telekom, Intel and Oracle.

Depictions
The reverse side of the 1996 series RM5 banknote featured a map of the Multimedia Super Corridor.

References

External links
Mscmalaysia.my MSC Malaysia website
Mscmalaysia.my MSC Malaysia Animation and Creative Content Center (MAC3)
Mscmalaysia.my MSC Malaysia Capability Development Programmes (CDP)

Sepang District
Development Corridors in Malaysia
High-technology business districts in Malaysia
Information technology places
Science and technology in Malaysia
Economy of Malaysia
Klang Valley
Mass media companies of Malaysia
Populated places in Selangor
Populated places established in 1996
1996 establishments in Malaysia

MSC Malaysia


Constance Cummings-John (1918 – 21 February 2000) was a Sierra Leonean educationist and politician. She was the first woman in Africa to join a municipal council and in 1966 became the first woman to serve as mayor of Freetown, Sierra Leone. She was based in London, England, for the latter part of her life.

Biography

Early years and education; London and New York
She was born Constance Agatha Horton into an influential Creole family, black migrants to West Africa from the Americas in the 18th century who by the 20th century had become intellectuals, business people, and members of the professions. Her father, John William Horton (1861–1916), was city treasurer of Freetown, while her mother, Regina Horton, née Awoonor-Wilson, was a concert pianist.

Constance herself went to London in 1935, aged 17, to train as a schoolteacher. While there, she joined the West African Students' Union and the League of Coloured Peoples. Having gained her teaching certificate, she took up further studies in the United States at Cornell University.

When she returned to London she joined the International African Service Bureau, under the leadership of George Padmore, and married Ethnan Cummings-John, a radical lawyer. In 1937, she returned to Freetown as principal of the African Methodist Episcopal Girls' Industrial School, but her political activities caused her great problems with the British Colonial Office. During the Second World War she established a mining company, which later became an important source of funds for her educational projects.

Between 1946 and 1951, she lived in New York City, where her brother Asadata Dafora Horton was a successful musician and dancer. While living in the US, she worked in hospitals and served on the executives of the American Council for African Education and the Council on African Affairs, the second of which was chaired by Paul Robeson.

Return to Freetown
On her return to Freetown in 1951, Cummings joined the Sierra Leone People's Party. She helped found the Sierra Leone Women's Movement in 1951. She also founded a new school for girls, the Eleanor Roosevelt School, which by 1953 had more than 600 students. During these years, Cummings-John gained a licenciate from the London College of Preceptors, and in 1952 the Governor of Sierra Leone, Sir George Beresford-Stooke, appointed her to the Freetown Council. At the general election of 1957 she was one of two women elected to the new House of Representatives, even though women did not yet have the franchise. The Krio-led opposition then successfully demanded the resignation of both women, but the next year Cummings-John was elected to the Freetown Municipal Council.

In 1961, with the independence of Sierra Leone, Cummings-John's husband became the new country's ambassador to Liberia. In 1966, Prime Minister Albert Margai appointed her as Mayor of Freetown, in succession to Siaka Stevens, but she held the position for only a few months. Her party lost the general election of 1966, and there was then a successful military coup against the new government. Cummings-John was herself accused of financial corruption while outside the country and was advised not to return.

Political activity in London
She settled again in London, where she became an active member of the Labour Party and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and also a school governor.

Cummings-John was a member of political organizations in the United Kingdom and the United States as well as in Sierra Leone, and she and I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson were the only Krio to fight for the participation of the indigenous "Protectorate peoples" in West African political processes. Her actions also led to the formation of the Sierra Leone Market Women's Union and a Washerwoman's Union.

Despite unsuccessful attempts to return to Sierra Leone in 1974 and 1996, Cummings-John lived the rest of her life in London. In 1995, she published an autobiography, Memoirs Of A Krio Leader. She died in London on 21 February 2000 at the age of 82.

Publications
Memoirs of a Krio Leader (Ibadan: Sam Bookman Educational, 1995).

References

1918 births
2000 deaths
20th-century Sierra Leonean women politicians
20th-century Sierra Leonean politicians
Cornell University alumni
Mayors of Freetown
Sierra Leone Creole people
Sierra Leonean city councillors
Sierra Leonean educators
Sierra Leonean expatriates in the United Kingdom
Sierra Leonean expatriates in the United States
Sierra Leoneans of Jamaican Maroon descent
Women mayors of places in Sierra Leone

Constance Cummings-John


The Yasin Valley is a high mountain valley in the Hindu Kush mountains, in the northwest region of Gilgit in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. Yasin is separated from the Ishkoman Valley by a high mountain pass. To reach Yasin one must take the Karakoram Highway north from Islamabad, and then turn left to reach Gupis in Ghizar. After Gupis, one continues northwest to reach the Yasin Valley. Yasin valley has a spectacular natural beauty.

History
Yasin was originally ruled by the Khushwakhte Dynasty, a collateral line of the Katur Dynasty of Chitral.  The Rajas of Yasin were great warriors and fought against the Sikhs and the Dogras of Kashmir, but this house eventually lost power and the ownership of Yasin changed hands several times between  the rule of the Mehtar of Chitral, and the Maharaja of Kashmir.

British era
Although not highly or densely  populated, Yasin was of strategic importance because it leads to a high mountain pass, to Yarkhun in Chitral, and then to Broghol Pass, the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan, and into Tajikistan. Thus, Yasin could have formed an invasion route from Czarist Russia into British India.

People
The primary language of Yasin Valley is the Burushaski language. The Khowar language is also spoken.

The majority of the people in Yasin are Ismailies who lead their lives according to the Islamic principles more concerned with the imam of the time. Currently Prince Karim Aga Khan is the Imam and spiritual leader of the Ismailies. However, other sects of Islam like, Sunni, Shia also live in Yasin.

Ethnically the people of Yasin are of Brosho origin; however, there are the migrants from different parts of the country, mainly from Chitral and even from outside the country like Central Asia.

Passes
The Darkut Pass connects Yasin with Broghol pass and Chitral whilst the Thoi Pass connects Yasin to Yarkhun Chitral and Asumber pass connects Yasin to Ishkomen. Darkot Pass is a historical pass which discriminately has been labelled as restricted zone by Government of Pakistan. This pass used to be the shortest means of Communication between oxus and Indus ([www.yasinvalley.com]www.yasinvalley.com). Local and Foreign Tourism love to trek along the Assumbur pass to Ishqamen valley.

Valleys of Pakistan

Yasin Valley


Social justice is an idea of justice that is based on equality in society. The idea of social justice goes against any kind of discrimination or abuse based on social class, social status or any other reasons.

This idea is discussed by modern philosophers such as John Rawls. It is a fundamental idea for International Labour Organization for universal and lasting peace; And Vienna Declaration also affirm social justice as a subject and a purpose of education for human rights.

Related pages
International Labour Organization
Vienna Declaration

Civil rights

Social justice


The Afghan is a 2006 thriller novel by British writer Frederick Forsyth.

Plot summary
A joint operation by MI6, the CIA, and Pakistan's ISI against al Qaeda operatives in Pakistan uncovers documents concerning a planned terrorist attack codenamed "al-Isra". The cryptic nature of the codename triggers further investigations authorised at the most senior level.

Now eager to learn more about al Qaeda's plans for al-Isra, MI6 and CIA scramble to find out information through their various contacts, including inserting an operative close enough into the terror network's confidence. Middle Eastern scholar Dr. Terry Martin, who is part of a special committee studying the Koran for references to al-Isra, accidentally mentions that his elder brother Mike, a retired Paras and SAS officer, can pass for an Afghan native; Mike's chestnut-brown complexion, which he inherited from his mother and maternal grandmother, is indeed a perfect match. The elder Martin also has a near-perfect command of Arabic and Pashto, based from his tour of duty in Afghanistan supporting the Mujahideen.

Interested with Mike's appearance, the CIA and MI6 recall him to infiltrate al-Qaeda by assuming the identity of Izmat Khan, a Taliban commander now detained at Guantanamo Bay. It is revealed that Khan and Mike share a common past – he saved the wounded Khan from an attack by Soviet helicopters and brought him to a clinic run by Ayman al Zawahiri, where he also meets "the sheikh", Osama bin Laden. A wayward US missile that was launched as part of a strike in retaliation for the 1998 East Africa bombings hits a slope in the Tora Bora, resulting in a landslide that buries Khan's village and his entire family; he swears revenge against the US, joining the Taliban in the process. He is later caught after the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi.

Mike is trained to fully assume Khan's identity (right down to saying Muslim prayers in Pashto) while the real Khan is slated for repatriation to Afghanistan. CIA operatives kidnap Khan and bring him to a secret safehouse in Washington State, with Mike in his place. The ISI engineer Mike's escape after his arrival in Afghanistan and he makes his way back to al Qaeda safe houses in Pakistan and the UAE, where he is accepted as a compatriot after extensive verification by al-Qaeda representatives. The interrogation delves into every chapter of Khan's life, which includes showing his old wound in Afghanistan.

Now accepted into al-Qaeda's fold as Izmat Khan, Mike volunteers to join the operating team for al-Isra. Part of the plan calls for an al-Qaeda agent posing as a businessman to charter a freighter and a tanker carrying liquid petroleum gas. The freighter is later captured by pirates and sank with all hands killed while the tanker is brought to a secret place in Borneo and refitted as the freighter. Another group hijacks a cargo ship in the Caribbean, although this is intended to serve as a decoy. Martin successfully alerts his handlers to the general nature of the threat, but is left incommunicado for several weeks as the ship steams to the US East Coast through the Indian Ocean (maritime authorities search all ships in the Pacific). A CIA official involved with planning Mike's mission drops hints about the al-Isra attack possibly a repeat of the 1917 explosion in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Meanwhile, an aircraft on approach to McChord Air Force Base develops engine trouble and accidentally crashes into the CIA safehouse, blasting open Khan's cell and giving him an opportunity to escape his captors. A Special Forces team chases Khan across the Cascades and kills him as he uses a public phone in Canada to call his allies.

Eventually, the tanker reaches the mid-Atlantic, where a G8 summit is being held on the Queen Mary 2. Martin finally learns that the terrorists intend to release and then ignite the gas on board the tanker, which could incinerate the liner as it passed within range. Martin's last-minute heroism, quick reflexes and self-sacrifice prevent a tragedy.

Background
The Afghan can be seen as a sequel to The Fist of God, with the re-appearance of the Martin brothers. However, due to unexplained reasons, Forsyth rewrote the brothers' backstory as explained in The Fist of God. In that book, their parents got married in Iraq in 1952 with Mike being born in 1953 and Terry in 1955. In The Afghan, the couple waited ten years before deciding to have children. As a result, Mike's military record is adjusted ten years forward, with his career now including stints in Northern Ireland, Sierra Leone and Afghanistan - he was part of the relieving force during the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi. The story relationship with The Fist of God ends when Mike escapes Iraq and is almost killed by Foreign Legionnaires patrolling the border with no details are alluded to anything connected to the Supergun.

Critical reception
The book reaped mixed reviews. Kirkus Reviews labelled the book as a "post 9/11 apocalyptic western."

References

2006 British novels
Novels by Frederick Forsyth
Books about al-Qaeda
British thriller novels
Novels about terrorism
Bantam Press books

The Afghan


Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) was an Italian cardinal, scholar, patron of the arts and Governor of Siena. He was the brother of Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

Biography

Prince Leopoldo was born at the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany then ruled by his father, Grand Duke Cosimo II. His mother Maria Magdalena of Austria was a sister of Queen Margarita of Spain and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.

Leopoldo was educated under Jacopo Soldano, Father Flaviano Michelini and Evangelista Torricelli. When his brother was elected Grand Duke, Leopoldo acted as his advisor for manufactures, agriculture and trades. Leopoldo, a disciple of Galileo, took a real interest in the proceedings of the justly celebrated academy 'Del Cimento' (the test), signing its correspondence, following closely the work of Evangelista Torricelli da Modigliana, inventor of the barometer.

He took a great interest in science and technology. In 1638 he founded the Accademia Platonica, and, together with Ferdinando, the Accademia del Cimento ("Academy of Experiment") in 1657 to promote observation of nature through the Galileian Method. In 1641 Leopoldo had been named member of the Accademia della Crusca, for which he edited the entries regarding art for the 3rd edition of the Crusca Dictionary (1691).

Leopoldo was also a great collector of rare books, paintings (the Venetian collection at the Uffizi is inherited from him), drawings, statues, coins and self-portraits. He left a wide correspondence with artists and art collectors of his time. He experimented with telescopic lenses and all manner of scientific instruments, and also commissioned those thermometers, astrolabes, calorimeters, quadrants, hygrometers, quadrants and other ingenious mechanical devices which visitors to the Pitti Palace saw displayed in such profusion. Leopoldo spent four hours each day 'up to his neck in books'.

On 12 December 1667 Pope Clement IX named him cardinal of Santi Cosma e Damiano. From that point on Leopoldo made frequent trips to Rome, pursuing his artistic interests. He died in 1675. His large collections are included in several museums of Florence.

Leopoldo had a long correspondence with Christiaan Huygens.

Ancestors

References

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1617 births
1675 deaths
Nobility from Florence
Governors of Siena
17th-century Italian cardinals
Italian art collectors
Italian Roman Catholics
Leopoldo
Museum founders
Clergy from Florence
17th-century Italian nobility
Burials at San Lorenzo, Florence
Sons of monarchs

Leopoldo de' Medici


Samandağ,  is a toun an destrict in Hatay Province o soothren Turkey, at the mooth o the Orontes River on the Mediterranean coast, near Turkey's border wi Sirie, 25 km (16 mi) frae the ceety o Antakya. The mayor is Mithat Nehir (ÖDP).

Etymology
Samandağ wis umwhile kent as Samanda, Yukarı Alevışık, Levşiye an Süveydiye an wis offeecially namit Samandağ in 1948.

History
Samandağ lies near the site of the ancient Seleucia Pieria, founded in 300 BC by Seleucus Nicator a general of Alexander the Great, in the Seleucid era that followed Alexander's demise. Seleucia Pieria quickly became a major Mediterranean port o the Hellenistic an Roman eras, the port o Antioch.  But it wis subject tae siltin an an earthquake in 526 feenally completit its demise as a port. Samandağ, then cried St Symeon, became the port o Antioch, an played an important role in the captur o the ceety bi the Crusaders in 1098.

Geography
Samandağ itself is a sma toun o 35,000 fowk, close tae the ceety o Antakya. The local economy depends on fishin an agricultur, especially citrus fruits, an Samandağ haes the air o a kintra mercat toun, wi young men buzzin through the streets on mopeds. Aroond the veelage o Çevlik (derived frae Seleucia) there is a lang sandy coastline popular wi daytrippers frae Antakya, although the sea can be stormy.  This is an important nestin aurie o the endangered sea turtles Caretta caretta.

Population
Besides Turks, Samandağ haes a sizable Arabic speakin population who adhere tae the Alawite sect o Shia Islam.  There are an aw Arab-Aramaic Christian communities in the destrict an the veelage o Vakıflı is Turkey's last remainin rural Armenie community. Poleetically Samandağ is traditionally left-leanin. In the 2009 local elections, Freedom an Solidarity Pairty (ÖDP) candidate Mithat Nehir wis electit mayor o the ilçe (the sole victorious ÖDP candidate in the entire republic).

Places o interest
 The tunnel o Vespasian, in the veelage o Kapısuyu , built as a water channel in the 2nt century.
 The tomb o the Muslim saunt Hızır.

References

Freemit airtins
 Govrenorship o Samandag
 photo album o Samandağ
 infor on Seleucia Pieria

Populatit places in Hatay Province

Samandağ


Chorlton-cum-Hardy is a southern district of Manchester, England. It is usually called just Chorlton. The river Mersey runs past its southern end, in a part called Chorlton Ees. "Ees" (plural) is a Saxon word for water meadow.

Neighbouring districts of Manchester are Whalley Range and West Didsbury, and to the west and north are Stretford and Old Trafford which are parts of Trafford. Hough End Hall is a manor house built in 1596. There are two churches belonging to the Church of England, St Clement's and St Werburgh's, and also St John's Church which is Roman Catholic, a Methodist church and a United Reformed church.
(The present St Clement's church replaced an older church, founded about 1512.)
Cosgrove Hall was an animation studio in Chorlton. Its most famous cartoon is Dangermouse. Some notable current and past residents of Chorlton are: George Best, the Bee Gees, The Stone Roses, and Blessed Ambrose Barlow.
There are six primary schools in the Chorlton area.

Districts of Manchester

Chorlton-cum-Hardy


An Unyon Aprikana (Iningles:African Union) usa ka katig-uban han mga kagamhan han 55 ka estado ha Afrika. Natukod han 9 Hulyo 2002, an Unyon Aprikana amo an sumunod ha Katig-uban han Pagkaurusa han Aprika (Iningles:Organisation of African Unity (OAU)).

Pinanbasaran

Bibliograpiya
Strengthening Popular Participation in the African Union: A Guide to AU Structures and Processes , AfriMAP and Oxfam GB, 2010
Towards a People Driven African Union: Current Challenges and New Opportunities  AfriMAP, AFRODAD and Oxfam GB, January 2007
The New African Initiative and the African Union: A Preliminary Assessment and Documentation</cite> by Henning Melber, Publisher: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Sweden; ISBN 91-7106-486-9; (October 2002)
"The African Union, NEPAD and Human Rights: The Missing Agenda" Human Rights Quarterly Vol.26, No.4, November 2004.
 Bibliography on the AU at the Peace Palace Library

Mga sumpay ha gawas

African Union official site
African Union Mission in the United Nations
1st African Union Summit July 2002  in Durban, South Africa, website created by SA government
2nd African Union Summit July 2003  in Maputo, Mozambique
3rd African Union Summit July 2004 , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4th African Union Summit January 2005 , Abuja, Nigeria
5th African Union Summit July 2005  in Sirte, Libya.
6th African Union Summit January 2006  in Khartoum, Sudan.
7th African Union Summit July 2006  in Banjul, the Gambia.
7th African Union Summit 2006  in Banjul, the Gambia, website created by the host government.
8th AU summit January 2007 , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
9th AU summit July 2007 , Accra, Ghana
10th AU summit January 2008 , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
11th AU summit July 2008 , Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt
12th AU summit January 2009 , Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
13th AU summit June 2009 , Sirte, Libya

Iba pa
AU Monitor
AfriMAP  The Africa Governance Monitoring and Advocacy Project of the Open Society Institute
Southern Africa Regional Poverty Network  Page on the AU and NEPAD – many useful links
Pan-African Perspective Background on Union Government debate
BBC Profile: African Union

Africa: 50 years of independence Radio France Internationale in English
The broken dream of African unity, Jean-Karim Fall Radio France Internationale in English

Unyon Aprikana