ROM hacking is the process of modifying a ROM image or ROM file of a video game to alter the game's graphics, dialogue, levels, gameplay, and/or other elements. This is usually done by technically inclined video game fans to improve an old game of importance, as a creative outlet, or to make new, unofficial games using the old game's engine. ROM hacks either re-design a game for new, fun gameplay while keeping most if not all the items the same, or unlock/reimplement features that exist in the game's code but are not utilized in-game.

ROM hacking is generally accomplished through use of a hex editor (a program for editing non-textual data) and various specialized tools such as tile editors, and game-specific tools which are generally used for editing levels, items, and the like, although more advanced tools such as assemblers and debuggers are occasionally used. Once ready, they are usually distributed on the Internet for others to play on an emulator or games console.

Fan translation (known as "translation hacking" within the ROM hacking community) is a type of ROM hacking; there are also anti-censorship hacks that exist to restore a game to its original state, which is often seen with older games that were imported, as publishers' content policies for video games (most notably, Nintendo's) were much stricter in the United States than Japan or Europe; as well as randomizers for certain games which shuffle entity placements. Although much of the method applies to both types of hacking, this article focuses on "creative hacking" such as editing game levels.

Communities

Most hacking groups offer web space for hosting hacks and screenshots (sometimes only hosting hacks by the group's members, sometimes hosting almost any hack), a message board, and often have an IRC channel.

Methods
Having been created by many different programmers or programming teams, ROM data can be very diverse.

Hex editing
A hex editor is one of the most fundamental tools in any ROM hacker's repertoire. Hex editors are usually used for editing text, and for editing other data for which the structure is known (for example, item properties), and Assembly hacking.

Editing text is one of the most basic forms of hacking. Many games do not store their text in ASCII form, and because of this, some specialized hex editors have been developed, which can be told what byte values correspond to what letter(s) of the alphabet, to facilitate text editing; a file that defines these byte=letter relationships is called a "table" file. Other games use simple text compression techniques (such as byte pair encoding, also called dual tile encoding or DTE, in which certain combinations of two or more letters are encoded as one byte) which a suitably equipped hex editor can facilitate editing.

A hex editor is the tool of choice for editing things such as character/item properties, if the structure and location of this data is known and there is no game-specific editor for the game that can edit this information. Some intrepid hackers also perform level editing with a hex editor, but this is extremely difficult (except on games whose level storage format closely resembles how it is presented in a hex editor).

Graphics editing

Another basic hacking skill is graphics hacking, which is changing the appearance of the game's environments, characters, fonts, or other such things. The format of graphics data varies from console to console, but most of the early ones (NES, Super NES, Game Boy, etc.) store graphics in tiles, which are 8x8-pixel units of data, which are arranged on-screen to produce the desired result. Editing these tiles is also possible with a hex editor, but is generally accomplished with a tile editor (such as Tile Layer or Tile Molester), which can display the ROM data in a graphical way, as well as finding and editing tiles.

Graphics hacks can range from simple edits (such as giving Mario an afro or Luigi a golf club) to "porting" characters from one game to another (such as creating pixelated "retro-styled" sprites of later generation Pokémon for use in Generation I-V Pokémon games), to full-blown thematic changes (usually with accompanying palette changes; see below).

More sophisticated graphics hacking involves changing more than just tiles and colors, but also the way in which the tiles are arranged, or tile groups generated, giving more flexibility and control over the final appearance. This is accomplished through hex editing or a specialized tool (either for a specific game or a specific system). Examples of graphics hacks include the incomplete Pokémon Torzach, a hack of Pokémon FireRed which attempted to add a whole new generation of Pokémon and tiles to the game, and Super Mario Land 2 DX: 6 Golden Coins, which added full color support (the original game was greyscale-only) as well as removing the original game's issues with screen flickering.

Palette editing

Another common form of hacking is palette hacking, where color values are modified to change the colors a player sees in the game (this often goes hand-in-hand with graphics hacking); Palette values are commonly stored in Hex. This is fairly easy for NES games, the graphics of which use a pre-defined set of colors among which a game selects (using a YIQ-based color palette); palette hacking in this case entails changing which of those colors are selected. The matter is slightly more complicated with Super NES and Sega Mega Drive/Genesis games, as well as games for other systems, which store absolute RGB color values. Palette editors are usually simple and often are with level editors or game-specific graphics editors.

Level editing

One of the most popular forms of ROM hacking, level editing entails modifying or redesigning a game's levels or maps. This is almost exclusively done with an editor specially tailored for a particular game (called a level editor). Level edits can be done to make the game more challenging, to alter the flow of the game's plot, or just to give something new to an old game. Combined with extensive graphics hacking, the game can take on a very different look and feel.

Data editing

A core component of many hacks (especially of role-playing video games) is editing data such as character, item, and enemy properties. This is usually done either "by hand" (with a hex editor) if the location and structure of the data is known, or with a game-specific editor that has this functionality. Through this, a hacker can alter how weapons work, how strong enemies are or how they act, etc. This can be done to make the game easier or harder, or to create new scenarios for the player to face.

Assembly hacking

The most powerful, and arguably the most difficult, hacking technique is editing the game's actual code, a process called ASM hacking ("ASM" means "assembly", referring to the low level programming language that gets executed by the CPU). There is no set pattern for ASM hacking, as the code varies widely from game to game, but most skilled ASM hackers either use an emulator equipped with a built-in debugger or tracer, or run the ROM through a disassembler, then analyze the code and modify it using a hex editor or assembler according to their needs. While quite challenging compared to the relatively simple methods listed above, anything is possible with ASM hacking (of course, within the limits of the hardware/software of the gaming platform), ranging from altering enemy AI to changing how graphics are generated. (Of course, the possibilities are still limited by the hacker's ability to comprehend and modify the existing code.)

If the developers used a typed language, the hacker may be able to compile their own code for the game in the same language if they have access to a proper compiler. One such example would be using C to hack Nintendo 64 games, since MIPS-GCC can compile code for the Nintendo 64.

Music hacking
Music hacks are relatively rare, due to the wide variety of ways games store music data (hence the difficulty in locating and modifying this data) and the difficulties in composing new music (or porting music from another game). As music cracking is very uncommon, many hacks do not have any ported/composed music added in. An exception to this rule can be found in most recent Super Mario World hacks, where custom music can often have new instruments that are not found in the original game. Other games that have music hacking as part of their research and hacking communities are the NES Mega Man games, Final Fantasy VI, and the Mega Drive (Genesis) Sonic the Hedgehog games.

As many Game Boy Advance games use the M4A Engine (also called "Sappy Driver") for music, the program SapTapper can be used to hack Game Boy Advance music data. Various other utilities were created to work with the engine such as Sappy 2006.

Another instance of the same engine being used between games is on the Nintendo 64, in which most games use the same format; however they use different sound banks. A utility known as the N64 Midi Tool was created to edit the sequences that the majority of Nintendo 64 games use, though it does not cover the first-party N64 titles that use a slightly different engine, such as Super Mario 64.

Several Sega Mega Drive/Genesis games use a sound engine unofficially known as "SMPS", which are offered in both 68k and Z80 versions. Used in a number of Japanese-developed games for the system, the sound engine has been researched for decades by many hackers. As of today, various tools exist to alter the music of games which use the SMPS engine (most notably the Sonic the Hedgehog games in particular), and many of them made their way to the Steam Workshop.

ROM expansion

Generally speaking, a ROM hacker cannot normally add content to a game, but merely change existing content. This limit can be overcome through ROM expansion, whereby the total size of the ROM image is increased, making room for more content and, in turn, a larger game. The difficulty in doing this varies depending on the system for which the game was made. For example, expanding an NES ROM may be difficult or even impossible due to the mapper used by the game. For example, if a mapper allows 16 ROM banks and all of them are used, expanding the ROM further is impossible without somehow converting the game to another mapper, which could be easy or extremely difficult. On the other hand, expanding a SNES game is (relatively) straightforward. To utilize the added space, parts of the game code have to be modified or re-written (see Assembly hacking above) so the game knows where to look. Another type of ROM expansion that is fairly easy is Game Boy Advance ROMs. The ROMs themselves are generally small, but the memory space available sometimes exceeds it by multiples of up to 17.

Distribution

Once a hack is completed (or an incomplete version is deemed suitable for an interim release) it is released onto the Internet for others to play. The generally accepted way to do this is by making an unofficial patch (in IPS format or others) that can be applied to the unmodified ROM. This, and usually some form of documentation, is put in an archive file and uploaded somewhere. IPS is a format for recording the differences between two binary files (in this case, between the unmodified and hacked ROMs) and is suitable for ROM hacks. IPS is still used today for small patches—however, as ROMs became larger in size, this format became useless, leading to quite a few file formats being created—such as NINJA and PPF (also known as "PlayStation Patch Format"). PPF is still used today, particularly to patch large files such as ISO CD images as well as Nintendo 64 games. A new patch format, UPS, has also been developed by the ROM hacking community, designed to be the successor to IPS and PPF.
A more recent patching format, the APS patching system, has also been developed by a devoted Game Boy Advance ROM hacker. The APS system is more space efficient, is reversible, and is faster than its predecessor.

The purpose of distributing a hack in patch form is to avoid the legal aspects of distributing entire ROM images; the patch records only what has changed in the ROM, hence distributing it does not usually distribute parts of the original game. A patch is also normally drastically smaller than the full ROM image (an NES ROM can run anywhere from 8 KB to 2 MB; a Super NES ROM can run from 256 KB to 6 MB; and Mega Drive/Genesis ROMs can run from 512 KB to 4 MB). Also, since patches usually only contained user-made code changes and not copyrighted code, it was not illegal to distribute one.

In a novel example of legal distribution, Sega released a Steam-based virtual hub for its previous collection of Mega Drive/Genesis games, entitled Sega Mega Drive Classics Hub. The Hub, besides allowing players to play emulated versions of these older games, takes advantage of Steam's support for user-created content through the Steam Workshop, officially allowing the distribution of ROM hacks of any of the offered games.

Usage
Patched ROMs are often played on emulators, however it is possible to play patched ROMs on the original hardware. The destination cartridge could be the original cartridge from which the initial unpatched ROM was pulled (which involves replacing the original ROM chip with a new one), or another compatible cartridge of the same type, such as flash cartridges.  This is particularly popular for fan translations, homebrew games, prototypes, games for which ROM cartridges were never produced, or for games which require exact timing or other elements of the original hardware which are not available in emulators.

Systems and games
The majority of ROM hacking is done on NES and SNES games (including Sega Mega Drive/Genesis games to an extent), since such games are small and simple compared to games of more advanced consoles such as the Nintendo 64 or Nintendo DS. Games for the Game Boy, Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance are also popular for hacking, as well as games for the PlayStation to a lesser extent. However, games intended for more recent consoles are not exempt from hacking, and as computers have become faster over time and more programs and utilities have been written, more PlayStation, Nintendo 64 and Nintendo DS hacks have emerged.

Of these, popular games to play are popular games to hack; many hacks have been released of games of the Sonic the Hedgehog series, Super Mario series (including Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 2, Super Mario Bros. 3, Super Mario Land, Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins, Super Mario 64 and Super Mario World), Mario Kart series (most notably Super Mario Kart, Mario Kart Wii, Mario Kart 7, and Mario Kart DS), Pokémon series, Chip's Challenge, Castlevania, Final Fantasy, The Legend of Zelda, games from the Mega Man series, Fire Emblem series, EarthBound, Super Metroid, and many others.

A notable hacked arcade game was Street Fighter II: Rainbow Edition, which featured increased game speed and new special moves. The success of this game prompted Capcom to release Street Fighter II: Hyper Fighting as an official response.

Your Sinclair magazine published a monthly column called "Program Pitstop". This focused mainly on cheat hacks for games, but also featured both a level map printer for the original Gauntlet, as well as a full level editor for the same game.

See also
 Emergent gameplay
 Fangame
 Fan translation of video games
 Forking (software development)
 Game Genie
 GameShark
 Homebrew (video games)
 Video game modding
 Undubbing

References

Video game mods
Hacker culture

ROM hacking


Hypnos is the god of sleep in Greek mythology. He is the son of Nyx and the twin brother of Thanatos, the god of death.

His sons are the Oneroi: Morpheus, Phobetor and Phantasos.

His Roman equivalent was Somnus. Hypnos was represented as a gentle young man, usually with wings attached to his temples or shoulders.

Greek gods and goddesses

Hypnos


In astronomy, an elliptical orbit refers to an object (such as a planet or star) which orbits around a central body in an elliptical motion. This motion follows Kepler's Laws. An elliptical orbit occurs when the eccentricity of its orbit is greater than 0, and less than 1.

The Moon moves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit, and the planets move around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.

Other types of motion in astronomy include circular orbit, parabolic trajectory, and hyperbolic trajectory.

Orbits

Elliptical orbit


The Wolf of Wall Street is an 2013 American black comedy movie directed by Martin Scorsese and produced by Leonardo DiCaprio. The movie is about a stockbroker who works on Wall Street in New York City during the 1990s. He runs a company that commits stock fraud and insider trading. The story is based on the memoirs of Jordan Belfort.

DiCaprio plays Belfort (the stockbroker), Matthew McConaughey plays Mark Hanna, Jonah Hill plays Donnie Azoff, Rob Reiner plays Max Belfort and Kyle Chandler plays Denham. P. J. Byrne, Jon Favreau, Joanna Lumley, Margot Robbie, Spike Jonze, and Edward Herrmann also appear in the movie. The movie is 179 minutes long. Some sex scenes were cut away to prevent MPAA from giving NC-17. It was released on December 25, 2013. It was nominated for five Academy Awards, including Best Picture.

Release dates

Other websites

2013 comedy movies
2013 crime movies
2010s biographical movies
2010s black comedy movies
2010s criminal comedy movies
American biographical movies
American black comedy movies
American criminal comedy movies
2010s English-language movies
Movies about drugs
Movies directed by Martin Scorsese
Movies set in New York City
Movies set in the 1980s
Movies set in the 1990s
Trading movies
Controversies

The Wolf of Wall Street (2013 movie)


Between Friends is a comic strip from Canada created by Sandra Bell-Lundy. It features three women with troubles with parenting and life. Sometimes they go back in time to simpler days. For example, at a department store, they compared themselves as teenage girls buying outfits to enhance sex appeal in the 1970s to buying conservative clothes in the 1990s.

List of Characters

 Susan - married to Harvey and has a daughter named Emma
 Maeve - she is divorced and always has a sense of humor
 Kimberly - a stepmother to a son named Danny, she works at home
 Danny - stepson of Kimberly, interested in children's things like Pokemon and Crash Bandicoot
 Derek - Kimberly's husband and Danny's father

Comic strips

Between Friends


Boutros Boutros-Ghali ( ; 14 November 1922 – 16 February 2016) was an Egyptian politician and diplomat. He was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) from January 1992 to December 1996.

Education
Boutros-Ghali graduated from Cairo University in 1946. He received a PhD in public international law from the University of Paris. Then he received a diploma in international relations from the Sciences Po in 1949.

Political career

Boutros-Ghali's political career took off during the days of former president Anwar El-Sadat. He was a member of the Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union (1974-77). He had been Egypt's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1977 until early 1991. He then became Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs for several months before moving to the UN. As Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, he played a part in the peace agreements between Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin.

Secretary General tenure
Elected to the top post of the UN in 1991, Boutros-Ghali's term in office remains controversial. He was criticised for the UN's failure to act during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, which officially left about 937,000 people dead, and he appeared unable to muster support in the UN for intervention in the continuing Angolan Civil War. One of the hardest periods for his office during his term was dealing with the crisis of the Yugoslav wars after the disintegration of former Yugoslavia. His reputation thus became entangled in the larger controversies over the effectiveness of the UN and the role of the United States in the UN. For his detractors, he came to symbolise the UN's alleged inaction in the face of humanitarian crises.

Second term
In 1996, ten Security Council members, led by African members Egypt, Guinea-Bissau and Botswana, sponsored a resolution backing Boutros-Ghali for a second five-year term, until 2001. However, the United States vetoed a second term for Boutros-Ghali. In addition to the United States, the United Kingdom, Poland, South Korea, and Italy did not sponsor this resolution, although all four of those nations voted in support of Boutros-Ghali after the US had firmly declared its intention to veto. Although not the first vetoed (China vetoed the third term of Kurt Waldheim in 1981), Boutros-Ghali was the first and only UN secretary-general not to be elected to a second term in office. He was succeeded at the UN by Kofi Annan.

US counter-terrorism czar Richard Clarke, Michael Sheehan, and Jamie Rubin participated in what they called "Operation Orient Express." From page 201 of Clarke's book Against All Enemies: "Albright and I and a handful of others (Michael Sheehan, Jamie Rubin) had entered into a pact together in 1996 to oust Boutros-Ghali as Secretary General of the United Nations, a secret plan we had called Operation Orient Express, reflecting our hope that many nations would join us in doing in the UN head. In the end, the US had to do it alone (with its UN veto) and Sheehan and I had to prevent the President from giving in to pressure from world leaders and extending Boutros-Ghali's tenure, often by our racing to the Oval Office when we were alerted that a head of state was telephoning the President. In the end Clinton was impressed that we had managed not only to oust Boutros-Ghali but to have Kofi Annan selected to replace him. (Clinton told Sheehan and me, 'Get me a crow, I should eat a crow, because I said you would never pull it off.')"

Later life
From 1997 to 2002 Boutros-Ghali was Secretary-General of La Francophonie, an organisation of French-speaking nations. From 2003 to 2006, he served as the Chairman of the Board of the South Centre, intergovernmental research organisation of developing countries. He was currently President of the Curatorium Administrative Council at the Hague Academy of International Law. In 2003 Boutros-Ghali was appointed as The Director of the Egyptian National Council of Human Rights.

From April 2007 Boutros-Ghali had supported the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. He was one of the initial signers of the campaign's appeal. In a message to the campaign, he stressed the necessity to establish democratic participation at the global level.

Death
Boutros-Ghali died on 16 February 2016 at a hospital in Cairo, Egypt after suffering from a broken pelvis. He was 93.

Works
Boutros-Ghali published two memoirs:
 Egypt's road to Jerusalem (1997), about the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.
 Unvanquished: A U.S.-U.N. Saga (1999), about his time as Secretary-General at the UN.

Quotes
 "It would be some time before I fully realised that the United States sees little need for diplomacy. Power is enough. Only the weak rely on diplomacy… The Roman Empire had no need for diplomacy. Nor does the United States."
 "The best way to deal with bureaucrats is with stealth and sudden violence."

References

1922 births
2016 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Copts
African diplomats
Order of Canada
Politicians from Cairo
Alumni of the Institut d'études politiques de Paris

Boutros Boutros-Ghali


A monophthong (pronounced "Mono-F-thong") is simply a vowel. The word monophthong comes from the old Greek language. Mono means one or single, and the -phthong means sound or tone, from the basic word phthalein, which means to speak, create sound with the voice. The word monophthong shows that a vowel is spoken with exactly one tone and one mouth position. For example, when you say "teeth", then while you are creating the sound of the "ee", nothing changes for that sound.

A monophthong can be a lexeme of a language and as such it can as well be a syllable. There is no shorter syllable than a single monophthong.

Related pages
 Diphthong

Vowels

Monophthong


Bastet was the ancient Egyptian goddess of protection and cats. She was the warrior daughter and defender of Ra, who sent her to fight his archenemy Apep. As protectress, she was seen as defender of the pharaoh, after Sekhet, the lioness, and consequently of the chief god Ra.

Bast is also known as Bastet, Ubasti, and Pasch. She was worshiped at least since the Second Dynasty in Ancient Egypt. The centre of her cult was in Per-Bast (Bubastis in Greek), which was named after her. Originally she was seen as the protector goddess of Lower Egypt and her image was that of a fierce lion. The name Bast means '(female) devourer'.

In later times Bast became the goddess of protection and blessing and was the protectress of women, children and domestic cats. She was the goddess of sunrise, music, dance and pleasure as well as family, fertility and birth.  When Anubis became the god of embalming, Bast, as goddess of ointment, was connected to him (sometimes viewed as his wife and sometimes as his mother) until Anubis became Nephthys' son.

This gentler characteristic, of Bast as goddess of perfumes, following Lower Egypt's loss in the wars between Upper and Lower Egypt, meant that in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt she became seen as a domestic cat and not as a lioness.  Owing to associations with the maternal nature of cats, Bast was also regarded as a good mother and she was commonly depicted with kittens. Sometimes Egyptian women who wanted children wore an amulet showing the goddess with kittens; the number of kittens on the amulet would correspond to how many children the woman wanted to have.

Worship
Bastet (Bast) was the most honored feline deity in Ancient Egypt. The cult of Bastet started around the town of Bubastis, located in the Eastern Delta in Lower Egypt (around 3,200 B.C.), and was an important town from the Old Kingdom through the Late Period. During early Egyptian times the city was called Per-Bast which translates into "the domain of Bast". Later the city was called Bubastis and is today known as Tell Basta.  Bastet was worshipped throughout other regions of the Egyptian region as well. Bast was worshipped in Memphis (during the Old Kingdom), where she was associated with Sekhmet; in Heliopolis (during the Old Kingdom) where she was called the "Daughter of Tem" (connected to Tefnut); in a city called "Hill of Bast" in the precinct of Mut in Thebes (during the New Kingdom) and in the city of Nit during the Late Period. Festivals celebrating Bastet were held in the cities of Bubastis, Memphis, Thebes (Luxor) and Esna.

Names of the elaborate festivals of Bastet included: "Procession of Bastet", "Bastet Protects the Two Lands", "Bastet Goes Forth from Per-Bast", "Bastet Appears Before Ra" and the "Festival of Hathor and Bastet". Her main festivals were celebrated in April and May in Bubastis. Her festivals were characterized by music, dancing and wine and were some of the most popular festivals in Egypt at the time. For some festivals, over 700,000 people came from all over Egypt, often in boats, sailing along the Nile.

In Bubastis, the festival began by making sacrifices to Bastet. The Temple of Bast stood in the town center so that it could be seen from everywhere and stood on raised ground. The outside wall of the temple was decorated with pictures of animals and inside the temple was a courtyard, planted with a grove of trees surrounding her shrine. Worshippers came from all over Egypt, often leaving offerings, bronze statues, amulets and mummified cats in her temple. Thousands of these cats were later found in underground crypts where her temple once stood.

During the days of celebration, the Egyptians spent many days making music, dancing and being joyful. Worshippers went to her temple playing instruments, beating drums, shaking tambourines, carrying sistras (sacred rattles), singing and dancing through the streets. On the last night of the festival, a single light would be lit inside the Temple of Bast and from there the light would spread through the town, carried by devotees. Prayers throughout the night would be accompanied by music and incense. Bast was important in worship and the Egyptian people would make sacrifices to her of spices, water, wine, milk, bread and meat. Gifts of gold, diamonds, silver, perfumes and other riches would also be given. The people of Egypt would also dance and sing to her because was the goddess of both dance and song.

Relatives
Bastet's father was Ra, the God of the Sun and All Creation. Hathor (Sekment), the cow-headed god of the sky and women, was also a daughter of Ra. Hathor had two sons named Nefertem (meaning 'water lily' or 'the sun' or 'he who is beautiful'), the God of Healing, and Maahes, a solar lion-headed God of War. Bastet did not have a mother because Ra, as the Creator deity, was called "The Great He-She" and was considered to be able to be both male and female. Bastet's husband was Ptah, the god of Craftsmen, Rebirth and Creation. When associated with Isis, Bastet was sometimes called the "Soul of Isis".

These familial associations are somewhat misleading, however, because Egyptian gods shared relationships beyond traditional family contexts. Sekhmet, Bastet and dozens of other goddesses were considered to be "Eyes-of-Ra". Bastet and Sekhmet were paired, for example, but they were paired geographically and not as opposite personalities of Bastet. The main place of Bastet's worship was in Lower Egypt while Sekhmet was worshipped primarily in Upper Egypt. Egyptians traditionally associated Bastet as a "She of the North" and Sekhmet as a "She of the South". Sometimes Bastet was also called "Lady of the East" (Protectress of the Eastern Delta) while Sekhmet was called the "Lady of the West" (Protectress of the Western Delta).

References
Remler, Pat Egyptian Mythology A to Z, pages 23 – 24
Adil, Janeen Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, page 18
Millmore, Mark Imagining Egypt, page 21
Wilkinson, Richard H. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt, pages 177 – 178
Redford, Donald B. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Vol. 1, pages 512 – 516
The World Book Encyclopedia 2010, Vol. 3 C-Ch, pages 284 – 297
Ars Mundi Magazine, Germany, Christmas 2009, page 94

Other websites
 Moggies website: in honour of Bast, ancient Egyptian goddess

Cats
Egyptian gods and goddesses

Bast


Wilhelm Weinberg (1862 – 1937) was a German Jewish physician who became an important geneticist. He was a obstetrician and gynecologist, practising in Stuttgart. In 1908, he expressed the principle which would later come to be known as the Hardy–Weinberg law. Weinberg is also credited as the first to explain the effect of ascertainment bias on observations in genetics.

Life
Weinberg was born in Stuttgart and studied medicine at Tübingen and Munich, receiving an M.D. in 1886. He returned to Stuttgart in 1889, where he remained running a large practice as a gynecologist and obstetrician until he retired to Tübingen a few years before his death in 1937. Much of his academic life was spent studying genetics, especially on applying the laws of inheritance in populations.

Hardy–Weinberg law

Weinberg developed the principle of genetic equilibrium independently of British mathematician G.H. Hardy. He delivered an exposition of his ideas in a lecture on 13 January 1908, about six months before Hardy's paper was published in English. His lecture was printed later that year in the society's yearbook.

Weinberg's contributions were unrecognized in the English speaking world for more than 35 years. Curt Stern, a German geneticist who emigrated to the United States before World War II, pointed out in a brief paper in Science that Weinberg's exposition was both earlier and more comprehensive than Hardy's.

Ascertainment bias
Weinberg pioneered studies of twins, and developed techniques to analyse phenotypic variation. His aim was to partition this variance into genetic and environmental components. In the process, he recognized that ascertainment bias was affecting many of his calculations, and he produced methods to correct for it.

Weinberg observed that proportions of homozygotes in familial studies of classic recessive genetic diseases generally exceed the expected Mendelian ratio of 1:4, and he explained how this is the result of ascertainment bias. In his work with albino children, he recognized that in some families where both parents carry a recessive mutation, by chance no albino child occurs. He reasoned that many carrier couples were not being counted, and he demonstrated methods for correcting results to produce the expected Mendelian ratios.

He discovered the answer to several seeming paradoxes caused by ascertainment bias. For example, he explained that the reason that parents as a whole are more fertile than their children is because children must necessarily come from fertile parents.

By the same token, he recognized that ascertainment was responsible for a phenomenon known as genetic anticipation, the tendency for a genetic disease to manifest earlier in life and with increased severity in later generations. Weinberg recognized that this was because those later generations were the offspring of that selected group of earlier carriers that had successfully reproduced.

Additional contributions by Weinberg to statistical genetics included the first estimate of the rate of twinning. Realizing that identical twins would have to be the same sex, while non-identical twins could be either same or opposite sex, Weinberg derived the formula for estimating the frequency of MZ and DZ twins from the ratio of same and opposite sex twins to the total of maternities. Weinberg also estimated that the heritability of twinning itself was close to zero.

References

German geneticists
German doctors
Jewish German scientists
Scientists from Stuttgart
1862 births
1937 deaths
Obstetricians
Gynecologists

Wilhelm Weinberg


Linda Thelenius (born Linda Maria Elisabeth Gedin later Linda Rosing 21 January 1974 in Västerås, Sweden) is a model and was a participant in the 2003 edition of Big Brother in Sweden. In the Big Brother house, she and another participant, Micke, became involved in a relationship which was followed closely by the producers. During the show, she had sex on live TV, making her an instant tabloid celebrity.

Thelenius released her debut single, "Summer Love", in 2004. In 2006, she released her autobiography, Den nakna sanningen ("The naked truth"), written together with journalist and television host Daniel Nyhlén.

In the summer of 2006, Thelenius became the leader of a new political party, 'Unika Partiet', or 'The Unique Party'. This is a so-called non-registered party, meaning that there is no official record of the party. Thelenius was listed as the only candidate for the party, listed as an author on the party ballot. She received 222 votes out of more than 5.6 million votes cast in the election. Thelenius is also famous for her many plastic surgery operations. She has breast implants, has had a facelift, and uses botox injections.

References
the local introducing Linda Rosing
Linda Rosing

1974 births
Living people
Autobiographers
Big Brother contestants
Swedish models
Swedish politicians

Linda Thelenius


Aron Jean-Marie Lustiger (; 17 September 1926 – 5 August 2007) was a French cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was Archbishop of Paris from 1981 until his resignation in 2005. He was made a cardinal in 1983 by Pope John Paul II. His life is depicted in the 2013 film Le métis de Dieu (The Jewish Cardinal).

Life and work

Early years
Lustiger was born Aron Lustiger in Paris to a Jewish family. His parents, Charles and Gisèle Lustiger, were Ashkenazi Jews from Będzin, Poland, who had left Poland around World War I. Lustiger's father ran a hosiery shop. Aron Lustiger studied at the Lycée Montaigne in Paris, where he first encountered anti-Semitism. Visiting Germany in 1937, he was hosted by an anti-Nazi Protestant family whose children had been required to join the Hitler Youth.

Sometime between the ages of ten and twelve, Lustiger came across a Protestant Bible and felt inexplicably attracted to it. On the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the family moved to Orléans.

In March 1940, during Holy Week, the 13-year-old Lustiger decided to convert to Roman Catholicism. On 21 August he was baptized as Aron Jean-Marie by the Bishop of Orléans, Jules-Marie-Victor Courcoux. His sister converted later. In October 1940, the Vichy regime passed the first of many anti-Semitic laws, which forced increasingly strict conditions on Jews in the unoccupied zone.

Lustiger, his father, and sister sought refuge in unoccupied southern France, while his mother returned to Paris to run the family business. In September 1942, his mother was deported to the Auschwitz concentration camp where she was murdered the following year. The surviving family returned to Paris at the end of the war. Lustiger's father tried unsuccessfully to have his son's baptism annulled, and even sought the help of the chief rabbi of Paris.

Early career

Lustiger graduated from the Sorbonne with a literature degree in 1946. He entered the seminary of the Carmelite fathers in Paris, and later the Institut Catholique de Paris. He first visited Israel in 1951. On 17 April 1954 he was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop Émile-Arsène Blanchet, rector of the Institut Catholique. From 1954 to 1959 he was a chaplain at the Sorbonne.

For the next ten years, he was the director of Richelieu Centre, which trains university chaplains and counsels lay teachers and students of the grandes écoles, graduate schools such as the ÉNS-Fontenay-Saint-Cloud or the Ecole des Chartes.

From 1969 to 1979, Lustiger was vicar of the Parish of Sainte-Jeanne-de-Chantal, in the wealthy 16th arrondissement of Paris. His parochial assistant was André Vingt-Trois, who years later would succeed him as Archbishop of Paris.

On 10 November 1979, Lustiger was appointed Bishop of Orléans by Pope John Paul II after a 15-month vacancy. John Paul had been advised by Cardinal Paolo Bertoli, who was displeased with a new illustrated Catechism for French urban youth (Pierres vivantes) and was on bad terms with most of the French clergy.

Lustiger received his episcopal consecration on 8 December 1979 from Cardinal François Marty, with Archbishop Eugène Ernoult of Sens and Bishop Daniel Pézeril serving as co-consecrators. When installed as bishop, Lustiger avoided all reference to his liberal predecessor Guy-Marie Riobé, a pacifist closely allied to Catholic Action.

Archbishop of Paris (1981–2005)

On 31 January 1981 Lustiger was named Archbishop of Paris, succeeding Cardinal Marty. According to Georges Suffert, he was supported by a letter to John Paul II from André Frossard. Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, the founder of the Traditionalist Catholic group Society of Saint Pius X, criticized his nomination. He said that the position was being given to "someone who is not truly of French origin". Liberal French clergy considered Lustiger's nomination a defeat for them.

Lustiger was considered a first-rate communicator and he was a personal friend of Jean Gélamur, head of the Catholic media group Bayard Presse.  The new archbishop was particularly attentive to the media; he developed Catholic radio and television channels (Radio Notre-Dame) after François Mitterrand's liberalization of French media in 1981. He founded KTO TV in 1999, which struggled financially. Lustiger also founded a new seminary for training priests, bypassing the existing arrangements.

He was considered, primarily by his critics, to be authoritarian, earning him the nickname of "Bulldozer". Lustiger deposed the vicars general Michel Guittet and Pierre Gervaise, had Georges Gilson transferred to Le Mans and Emile Marcus to Nantes, personally headed the meetings of the episcopal council, and made numerous other changes. He dismantled P. Béguerie's team in Saint-Séverin. In October 1981, the French bishops elected the more liberal Jean Vilnet as President of the Episcopal Conference, with whom Lustiger was on difficult terms throughout his life. In 1982, he invited for the celebration of Lent in Notre-Dame Roger Etchegaray (whom he disliked at first) and the Jesuit Roger Heckel. He participated in the annual meeting of the movement Comunione e Liberazione in Rimini in summer 1982. In January 1983 he invited Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger to Notre-Dame de Paris, where the latter criticized new catechisms proposed by a large part of the French clergy.

He was incardinated Cardinal-Priest of Santi Marcellino e Pietro by Pope John Paul II in the consistory of 2 February 1983, at the same time as the Jesuit theologian Henri de Lubac. On 26 November 1994, he was named Cardinal-Priest of San Luigi dei Francesi. As a cardinal, Lustiger began to attract international attention. He was considered papabile, or eligible for election as pope. Certain Catholic circles interpreted the Prophecy of Malachy in reference to him as a Jewish Pope.

Lustiger carried out several reforms in the Archdiocese of Paris concerning priests' training, creating in 1984 an independent theological faculty in the École cathédrale de Paris, distinct from the Institut Catholique. He constructed seven new churches in Paris. In addition, he supported the development of charismatic movements, such as the Emmanuel Community (of which he was in charge until June 2006) and the Chemin Neuf Community. The latter was recognized in 1984 by the Vatican as an International Association of the Faithful. Some parishes were entrusted to charismatic movements. In Paris, he ordained 200 priests; they represented 15 percent of the French total, and were drawn from a diocese which had two per cent of the French population. Strongly attached to the ideal of priestly celibacy, Lustiger used his position as Ordinary for Orientals to prevent the deployment of married Eastern Rite Catholic priests in France. He favoured development of a permanent diaconate, to be filled mainly by married men involved in the workplace.

In 1984, Lustiger led a mass rally at Versailles in opposition to the Savary Law, which reduced state aid to private (which was mostly Catholic) education. He was seen to surpass his comrades Jean Vilnet, Paul Guiberteau and Jean Honoré, who were leaders on the issue. Shortly afterwards Alain Savary had to resign. This opposition cemented Lustiger's relations with the groups supporting private education, from whose midst he was to draw most of his candidates for the priesthood. He supported the 1905 Law on the Separation of Church and State, but, when testifying before the Commission Stasi on secularism, he opposed the 2004 French law on secularity, which limited conspicuous religious symbols in schools.

Lustiger had his right-hand man, André Vingt-Trois, appointed bishop in 1988. Following Marcel Lefebvre's schism in June 1988, Lustiger tried to reduce tensions with the Traditionalist Catholics, celebrating a Tridentine Mass and sending conservative priest Patrick Le Gal as his emissary to Lefebvre. Along with Cardinal Albert Decourtray, he strongly criticised Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ in 1988, clashing with the liberal bishop Jacques Gaillot.

Along with his clerical contacts, Lustiger maintained contacts with the political world. He developed rather good working relations with François Mitterrand's Socialist government, despite their political disagreements. During the celebrations of the second centenary of the French Revolution in 1989, he opposed Minister of Culture Jack Lang about the Pantheonization of the Abbé Grégoire, one of the first priests to take the oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. For this, he was criticized by the liberal Catholic review Golias. He deposed the priest Alain Maillard de La Morandais from his diplomatic functions toward the political sphere, as he considered him to be too pro-Balladur during the 1995 presidential campaign. Despite his opposition to Mitterrand's governments, Lustiger, as Archbishop of Paris, presided over Mitterrand's funeral.

Lustiger's search for dialogue with politicians led to his founding in 1992 of the Centre Pastoral d'Etudes politiques at St. Clotilde church in the 7th arrondissement, close to the hub of the French establishment. He sought to identify and conciliate rising national élites in politics and communication. He was less amenable to initiatives from non-French Catholic groups or individuals (their position was inconclusively debated at the Diocesan Synod).

Relations with the cultural sphere were promoted by a series of Lenten Sermons at Notre-Dame (into which dialogue with prominent French intellectuals and state-employed academics were introduced) and by plans for the opening of the Centre St. Bernard in the 5th arrondissement.

Lustiger was never elected as head of the Conférence des évêques de France (French Episcopal Conference) by his peers, with whom he was not popular. He was elected a member of the Académie française in 1995, succeeding Albert Decourtray and bypassing Cardinal Paul Poupard. Two years later, he organized a World Youth Day in Paris, attended by more than a million people.

Theology and ethics
Lustiger upheld papal authority in theology and morals: "There are opinions and there is faith," he said in 1997. "When it is faith, I agree with the Pope because I am responsible for the faith." Cardinal Lustiger was a strong believer in priestly celibacy and opposed abortion and the ordination of women. Although he fully endorsed John Paul II's views on bioethics, he considered condom use acceptable if one of the partners had HIV. He founded the Non-Governmental Organization Tibériade to attend to AIDS patients.

He considered Christianity to be the accomplishment of Judaism, and the New Testament to be the logical continuation of the Old Testament. In Le Choix de Dieu (The Choice of God, 1987), he declared that modern anti-Semitism was the product of the Enlightenment, whose philosophy he attacked.

He read the Thomistic philosophers Étienne Gilson and Jacques Maritain—one of the main Catholic thinkers of his youth—as well as Jean Guitton, but also the Protestant philosopher Paul Ricœur, and Maurice Clavel, and the existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Close to Augustinism, he preferred the post-conciliar theologian Louis Bouyer to the (pre-conciliar) neo-Thomist Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange. His main influence was Henri de Lubac, as well as the Jesuits Albert and Paul Chapelle. Lustiger, unlike other leading twentieth-century French bishops, did not draw noticeably on patristic writings and was more sensitive to rabbinic texts.

When appointed to Paris he encouraged some liberal clergy to return to the lay state. He was influential in the appointment of his moderate conciliar auxiliary Georges Gilson to the See of Le Mans, replacing senior clergy with men who shared similar views to his own.

He pursued ecumenism but also gave a critical address on Anglicanism when welcoming Archbishop Robert Runcie to Notre Dame. In 1995, Lustiger played a key role in deposing the liberal bishop of Évreux, Jacques Gaillot, who was then transferred to the titular see of Partenia.

Lustiger was an outspoken opponent of racism and anti-Semitism. He was strongly critical of Jean-Marie Le Pen, leader of the French National Front, comparing Le Pen's xenophobic views to Nazism. "We have known for 50 years that the theory of racial inequality can be deadly. ...It entails outrages." He also said: "The Christian faith says that all men are equal in dignity because they are all created in the image of God." He supported the action of the parish priest of St. Bernard-de-la-Chapelle in accepting the protracted sit-in of a group of undocumented immigrants in 1996, but subsequently showed less sympathy to such activities. The police were called to a similar sit-in at St. Merry.

He incurred the hostility of some in the Spanish Church because he strongly opposed the project to canonize Queen Isabella I of Castile. In 1974, Pope Paul VI had opened her cause for beatification, which placed her on the path toward possible sainthood. Lustiger's opposition was due to the fact that Isabella and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon had expelled Jews from her domains in 1492.

Lustiger was a favorite of Pope John Paul II. He had a Polish background and staunchly upheld the Pope's conservative views in the face of much hostility from liberal Catholic opinion in France. This led to some speculation that Lustiger would be a candidate to succeed John Paul II, but he always refused to discuss any such possibility. He was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI.

Relations with the Jewish world
Along with Cardinal Francis Arinze and Bishop Jean-Baptiste Gourion of Jerusalem, Lustiger was one of only three prelates of his time who were converts to the Roman Catholic faith;  he and Gourion were the only two who were born Jewish and still considered themselves "Jewish" all their lives. He said he was proud of his Jewish origins and described himself as a "fulfilled Jew", for which he was chastised by Christians and Jews alike. Former Chief Ashkenazi Rabbi of Israel Yisrael Meir Lau publicly denounced Lustiger. Lau accused Lustiger of betraying the Jewish people by converting to Catholicism. Lustiger, who claimed that he was still a Jew, considered being "Jewish" as an ethnic designation and not exclusively a religious one. Lustiger's strong support for the State of Israel, conflicting with the Vatican's officially neutral position, also won him Jewish support.

On becoming Archbishop of Paris, Lustiger said:

I was born Jewish and so I remain, even if that is unacceptable for many. For me, the vocation of Israel is bringing light to the goyim. That is my hope and I believe that Christianity is the means for achieving it.

The former chief rabbi of France, Rabbi René Samuel Sirat, says he personally witnessed Lustiger entering the synagogue to recite kaddish—the Jewish mourners' prayer—for his mother.

Cardinal Lustiger gained recognition after negotiating in 1987 with representatives of the organized Jewish community (including Théo Klein, the former president of the CRIF) the departure of the Carmelite nuns who built a convent in Auschwitz concentration camp (see Auschwitz cross). He represented Pope John Paul II in January 2005 during the 60th-year commemoration of the liberation of Auschwitz camp by the Allies. He was also in Birkenau along with the new Pope Benedict XVI in May 2006.

In 1995, Cardinal Lustiger attended the reading of an act of repentance with a group of French rabbis, during which Catholic authorities apologized for the French Church's passive attitude towards the collaborationism policies enacted by the Vichy regime during World War II.

In 1998, Lustiger was awarded the Nostra Aetate Award for advancing Catholic-Jewish relations by the Center for Christian-Jewish Understanding, an interfaith group housed on the campus of Sacred Heart University, a Catholic university at Fairfield, Connecticut, in the United States. The Anti-Defamation League, a Jewish civil rights group, protested the award, saying it was "inappropriate" to honor Lustiger, who was born a Jew but left the faith. "It's fine to have him speak at a conference or colloquium," said the league's national director Abraham Foxman. "But I don't think he should be honored because he converted out, which makes him a poor example." In France, however, Lustiger enjoyed good relations with the Jewish community. Théo Klein observed that although conversions usually carry negative connotations in the Jewish world, it was not so with the Cardinal. Klein called Lustiger "his cousin".

In 2004 and 2006, Lustiger visited New York and included visits to the Bobover Rebbe (who blessed him), Yeshiva University, JTSA, and Yeshivat Chovevei Torah where he addressed the students and faculty along with fellow visiting European bishops.

The World Jewish Congress paid homage to him after his death.

Retirement and death
When Lustiger reached the age of 75 on 17 September 2001, he submitted his resignation as Archbishop of Paris to Pope John Paul II, as required by canon law. The Pope kept it on file for some years. But on 11 February 2005, Lustiger's resignation was accepted and André Vingt-Trois, a former auxiliary bishop of Paris who had become Archbishop of Tours, succeeded him as Archbishop of Paris.

Lustiger made his final public appearance in January 2007.  He died on 5 August 2007 at a clinic outside Paris where he had been battling bone and lung cancer since April. Le Figaro, and French President Nicolas Sarkozy, announced Lustiger's death.

The funeral, presided over by Cardinal Lustiger's successor, was held at Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 August 2007. Sarkozy, on vacation in the United States, returned to attend Lustiger's funeral. In homage to Lustiger's Jewish heritage, the Kaddish—the traditional hymn of praise of God's name—was recited by his cousin Arno Lustiger in front of the portal of the cathedral.

Lustiger's epitaph, which he wrote himself in 2004, can be seen in the crypt of Notre-Dame Cathedral, and translates as:

I was born Jewish.
I received the name
Of my paternal grandfather, Aron.
Having become Christian
By faith and by Baptism,
I have remained Jewish
As did the Apostles.
I have as my patron saints
Aron the High Priest,
Saint John the Apostle,
Holy Mary full of grace.
Named 139th archbishop of Paris
by His Holiness Pope John Paul II,
I was enthroned in this Cathedral
on 27 February 1981,
And here I exercised my entire ministry.
Passers-by, pray for me.

† Aron Jean-Marie Cardinal Lustiger
Archbishop of Paris

Distinctions
: Grand cordon of the National Order of the Cedar
: Bailli Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 : Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry

Auxiliaries

The following bishops served as auxiliaries in the Paris diocese under Cardinal Lustiger.

Daniel Pézeril
Georges Gilson
Emile Marcus
Claude Fricard
André Vingt-Trois
Éric Aumonier
Michel Pollien

Published works

Sermons d'un curé de Paris  (1978)
Pain de vie et peuple de Dieu  (1981)
Osez croire  (1985)
Osez vivre  (1985)
Premiers pas dans la prière  (1986)
Prenez place au cœur de l'Église  (1986)
Six sermons aux élus de la Nation, 1981-1986  (1987)
Le Choix de Dieu. Entretiens avec Jean-Louis Missika et Dominique Wolton  (1987)
La Messe  (1988)
Dieu merci, les droits de l'homme  (1990)
Le Sacrement de l'onction des malades  (1990)
Le Saint-Ayoul de Jeanclos (in collaboration with Alain Peyrefitte, 1990)

Nous avons rendez-vous avec l'Europe  (1991)
Dare to rejoice (American compilation)  (1991)
Petites paroles de nuit de Noël  (1992)
Devenez dignes de la condition humaine  (1995)
Henri de Lubac et le mystère de l'Eglise : actes du colloque du 12 octobre 1996 à l'Institut de France (1999)
Le Baptême de votre enfant  (1997)
Soyez heureux  (1997)
Pour l'Europe, un nouvel art de vivre  (1999)
Les prêtres que Dieu donne  (2000)
Comme Dieu vous aime. Un pèlerinage à Jérusalem, Rome et Lourdes  (2001)
La Promesse  (2002)
Comment Dieu ouvre la porte de la foi  (2004)
Cardinal Jean-Marie Lustiger on Christians and Jews (2010)

See also
 Jacques Fesch

References

External links
 Institutlustiger.fr Institut Lustiger website
 Biographical notice of the Académie française (includes texts by Lustiger)
 Cardinal Lustiger of France dies aged 80, ''The Guardian, 6 August 2007
 Obituary, The Independent, 7 August 2007
 Obituary, The Times, 8 August 2007
  Obituary, The Guardian, 2 October 2007
 Intervention "L'Europe en quête de son identité culturelle" December 2005

1926 births
2007 deaths
Clergy from Paris
20th-century French Jews
French Ashkenazi Jews
French people of Polish-Jewish descent
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
Lycée Montaigne (Paris) alumni
University of Paris alumni
Institut Catholique de Paris alumni
Bishops of Orléans
Archbishops of Paris
21st-century French cardinals
20th-century French cardinals
Members of the Académie Française
Grand Cordons of the National Order of the Cedar
Deaths from bone cancer
Deaths from lung cancer in France
Burials at Notre-Dame de Paris

Jean-Marie Lustiger


Ordinary language philosophy is a way of doing philosophy that uses ordinary, everyday words. It came out of analytic philosophy, the most common way of doing philosophy in English-speaking countries in the 20th century.

Analytic philosophers like Bertrand Russell thought that ordinary language was confused, and tried to use the ideal or most accurate words to describe ideas. Ordinary language philosophers thought that analytic philosophers had a problem with forgetting what words really mean. They thought that using ordinary words would make their ideas clearer and their mistakes easier to spot.

Ordinary language philosophy came out of followers of the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein at the University of Oxford, and was most popular between 1930 and 1970.

Related pages
Philosophy of language

Branches of philosophy

Ordinary language philosophy


V for Vendetta is a 2005 drama movie set in London. The main people who are in it include Hugo Weaving as the character V and Natalie Portman as Evey Hammond.  It was written by the Wachowskis and directed by James McTeigue.  It is based on Alan Moore's graphic novel V for Vendetta.  Moore did not like most movies about his work.  He asked that his name not appear on it. The movie is set in a dystopian future United Kingdom of the year 2020, which has become a totalitarian fascist dictatorship.

Plot
It started Evey Hammond going out to see a co-worker named Gordon Deitrich.  It is past curfew and she will get in trouble if she gets caught.  As she walks, she is stopped by three police officers.  She is about to be harmed when V, a man who wears a Guy Fawkes mask, comes in and rescues her.  He then invites her to a concert.  They go up on the roof.  V waves around and the 1812 Overture begins playing.  Evey is then shocked to see the Old Bailey be destroyed as V laughs.

The next day, V enters the British Television Network (BTN).  He then forces the people there to play a message.  The message goes out to all households.  In the tape, V tells them that they are all to blame for the current state of government.  The government can tape anyone and arrest anyone and people fear it.  He then tells them that he was the one that blew up the Old Bailey and to join him next November 5 if they want to stand up to the government.

The government, meanwhile, has started to pour troops into the BTN.  V fights them off, but is caught.  Evey, who has been hiding, taps the man on the shoulder and sprays him with pepper spray, freeing V.  Evey is knocked out and wakes up inside V's location.  V carried her away because he knew she would be in big trouble for helping him.

After some time, Evey comes to help V.  V wants to kill a priest.  She dresses up like a schoolgirl and goes into the priest's office.  However, she backs out and tells the priest that V wants to kill him.  The priest thinks it's a joke until V bursts in and does so.  Evey runs away to Gordon's house.  Gordon has his own talk show, and one day he decides to make a big joke.  He makes fun of the Chancellor Adam Sutler.  In response, Sutler goes into Gordon's house and arrests him.

Evey tries to escape and is caught.  She is then tortured over many days.  Men plunge her face into water, throw her in a cell, and shave the hair off her head, but she will not tell them any information about V.  Eventually, one of the men tells her that she will be shot behind the barracks if she does not say anything.  Evey says she would rather be shot; she does not have any more fear.  It is then revealed that V was behind the torture and that he wanted her to have no fear.  Evey is angry but soon accepts it.  She later leaves but promises to come back before November 5.

Meanwhile, a Norsefire Party worker named Eric Finch begins to look into the government.  He does not trust it anymore.  He realizes that V is killing everyone who was at a detention camp called Larkhill.  During the movie, V kills the priest, who was at the camp; a general named Lewis Prothero, who is now a talk show host; and Delia Surridge, who was a doctor.  He attempts to find out more information about Larkhill.  In the movie, we learn that V was a prisoner at Larkhill and blew the place up when he escaped.

Eventually, V comes to Finch.  He is disguised and calls himself Rookwood.  He tells them everything that Finch has long thought – that the Norsefire found a plague and decided to infect the people to put them in power.

As November 5 approaches, the city gets restless.  Riots break out.  V gives out thousands of Guy Fawkes masks to people for them to wear on November 5.  A member of the secret police called the "Fingermen" shoots a young girl wearing one of these masks dead.

Evey comes back.  V then shows her what is going to do.  He has loaded explosives into a train that will go underneath the Palace of Westminster.  He then gives her the choice whether to pull the trigger or not.  He then disappears.

V goes to another area, where he finds Peter Creedy, the second-in-command of Norsefire.  Earlier, V made a deal with him: V would turn himself in if Sutler was killed.  Creedy shows Sutler, and then shoots him in the forehead.  He then tells V to surrender, but V says no.  In the final battle, V kills Creedy and all of his men, but is severely wounded himself.  He dies in Evey's arms.

Evey puts him on the train with the explosives.  Finch, who guessed that V would use a train to blow up the Palace, draws a gun and attempts to stop her.  Evey says no.  When Finch asks why, Evey says, "Because this country needs more than a building.  It needs hope."  Finch lowers his gun and allows the train to go.  Because Creedy and Sutler are dead, the army outside the Palace does not know what to do.  The man in charge orders them to stand down, or to put down their weapons and not do anything.  The 1812 Overture begins again, and everyone watches as the Palace of Westminster is destroyed.

References

Other websites

2005 drama movies
DC Comics movies
2000s LGBT movies
2000s British drama movies
British LGBT movies
Movies about totalitarianism
Movies about terrorism
Movies about dictators
Movies about revenge
Movies set in London
Movies set in the future
Movies set in the 2020s
Warner Bros. movies
2000s American drama movies
German drama movies
Dystopian movies

V for Vendetta (movie)


Amanda Thornton Congdon (born August 4, 1981, in New York City) is an American former video blogger.  She began her on-screen career as the first anchor of the online daily news show Rocketboom which she hosted and produced until June 23, 2006.

Involvement with Rocketboom
Congdon began as Rocketboom's anchor with the show's October 26, 2004, debut.

The show went from an initial 700 viewers in 2004 to 70,000 viewers in the first ten months. BusinessWeek labeled it "the most popular site of its kind on the Net". More viewers visited Rocketboom after a June 11, 2006, interview with Congdon on CNN.
Rocketboom's audience continued to increase, going from 100,000 vlog viewers at the end of 2005 to 300,000 by the spring of 2006.

On July 5, 2006, Congdon released a video statement on her blog, announcing her departure from the show.  Andrew Baron, majority stakeholder of Rocketboom, stated she was leaving the show to "pursue opportunities ... in Hollywood" and Joanne Colan stepped in as Congdon's replacement. Congdon claims that she was fired.

Amanda Across America
Congdon's first endeavor after Rocketboom was AmandaAcrossAmerica.com, a blog based on Congdon's travels through America in a hybrid vehicle. The journey took a circuitous route with stops in New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Tennessee, Washington, D.C., Missouri, Wisconsin, Arizona and California.

Now living in California, Congdon and her husband, Mario Librandi, opened a restaurant called Vegan Mario's. The restaurant serves vegan food for lunch daily, upon which Congdon initially planned to create a website series.

References

External links

1981 births
Living people
American women bloggers
American bloggers
American women comedians
Actresses from New York City
Northwestern University alumni
American reporters and correspondents
Video bloggers
Women video bloggers
Participants in American reality television series
Journalists from New York City
Comedians from New York City
American women non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American comedians
21st-century American women writers

Amanda Congdon


A marathon is a long-distance running sport event where an athlete must run 42.195 kilometres (26 miles and 385 yards). There are many marathons held all over the world each year. It is a very difficult event and runners are advised to run many miles before they compete. This event was named after a battle of the Greco-Persian wars.

The famous battle of Marathon was fought in 490 B.C. An army from Persia came to fight the army of Athens. The army from Athens was not expected to win, but they did. After the victory, they sent their best runner, a man named Pheidippides back to Athens to tell everyone the good news. He ran about 25 miles and died of exhaustion when he arrived.

In 1896 the first modern Olympics was held. There was a race called the Marathon there. It was only about 25 miles (40 km) then.

Notes

Marathons

Marathon


The British invasions of the River Plate were two unsuccessful British attempts to seize control of areas in the Spanish colony of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata that were located around the Río de la Plata in South America – in present-day Argentina and Uruguay.  The invasions took place between 1806 and 1807, as part of the Napoleonic Wars, when Spain was an ally of Napoleonic France. In Argentine historiography the two successive defeats of the British expeditionary forces are known collectively as the "Reconquista", which is the same term as that used since the 19th century to designate the southward expansion of Christian rule in Spain at the expense of Moorish lands during the Middle Ages.

Overview
The invasions occurred in two phases. A detachment from the British army occupied Buenos Aires for 46 days in 1806 before being expelled. In 1807, a second force stormed and occupied Montevideo, remaining for several months, and a third force made a second attempt to take Buenos Aires. After several days of street fighting against the local militia and Spanish colonial army, in which half of the British forces were killed or wounded, the British were forced to capitulate and withdraw from Montevideo two months later.

The social effects of the invasions are among the causes of the May Revolution. The criollos, who had so far been denied important positions, could get political strength through military roles. The successful resistance with little help from Spain fostered the desire for self-determination. An open cabildo and the Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires deposed the viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte and designated instead French popular hero Santiago de Liniers, which was a completely unprecedented action: before that, the viceroy was only subject to the King of Spain himself, and no one from the colonies had authority over him.

Background

Pedro de Mendoza founded the Ciudad de Nuestra Señora del Buen Ayre (The City of Our Lady of the Fair Winds) on 2 February 1536 as a Spanish settlement. The site was abandoned in 1541, but it was re-established in 1580 by Juan de Garay with the name Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Ayre (City of the Most Holy Trinity and Port of Saint Mary of the Fair Winds), and the city became one of the largest in the Americas. A Portuguese colony was founded at Colonia del Sacramento, on the opposite bank of the Río de la Plata, in 1680. To deter Portuguese expansion, the Spanish founded Montevideo in 1726, and Colonia was finally ceded to Spain under the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1777, one year after the creation of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the forerunner of modern Argentina.

The South Sea Company was granted trading concessions in South America in the time of Queen Anne, under the Treaty of Utrecht. The British had long harboured ambitions in South America, considering the estuary of the Río de la Plata as the most favourable location for a British colony.

The Napoleonic Wars played a key role in the Rio de la Plata conflict and since the beginning of the conquest of the Americas, the British had been interested in the riches of the region. The Peace of Basel in 1795 ended the war between Spain and France.  In 1796, by the Second Treaty of San Ildefonso, Spain joined France in its war with the United Kingdom, thus giving the United Kingdom cause for military action against Spanish colonies. In 1805 the United Kingdom judged it the right moment after the defeat of the Franco-Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar. This battle forced Spain to reduce to a minimum of its naval communications with its American colonies. Historically, Buenos Aires had been relatively neglected by Spain, which sent most of its ships to the more economically important city of Lima. The last time a significant Spanish military force had arrived in Buenos Aires had been in 1784.

British interest in the region

The United Kingdom had long harboured interests in taking control of the region from the Spanish before the invasions. Attempts had been made by the British in past conflicts to establish a foothold in South America, like in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias, at the peak of the War of Jenkins' Ear.

Back in 1711, John Pullen stated that the Río de la Plata was the best place in the world for making a British colonial trading base. His proposal included Santa Fe and Asunción, and would have generated an agricultural area with Buenos Aires as the main port. Admiral Vernon also declared the benefit of opening markets in those areas in 1741. By 1780 the British government approved a project of colonel William Fullarton to take the Americas with attacks from both the Atlantic (from Europe) and the Pacific (from India). This project was cancelled.

In 1789 the war between the United Kingdom and Spain seemed imminent after the Nootka Crisis. The Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda took the opportunity to appear before prime Minister William Pitt with his proposal to emancipate the New World territories under Portuguese and Spanish rule and turn them into a great independent empire governed by a descendant of the Incas. The plan presented in London requested the assistance of the United Kingdom and the United States to militarily occupy the major South American cities, ensuring that the people would greet the British cordially and would be rushing to organize sovereign governments. In return for this help, the United Kingdom would receive the benefits of unrestricted trade and usufruct of the Isthmus of Panama, in order to build a channel for the passage of ships. Pitt accepted the proposal and began to organize the expedition. The Nootka Convention in 1790 ended hostilities, and the Miranda mission was canceled.

Nicholas Vansittart made a new proposal in 1796: the plan was to take Buenos Aires, then move to Chile and attack from there the Spanish stronghold of El Callao in Peru. This proposal was canceled the following year, but was improved by Thomas Maitland in 1800 as the Maitland Plan. The new plan was to seize control of Buenos Aires with 4,000 soldiers and 1,500 cavalry, move to Mendoza, and prepare a military expedition to cross the Andes and conquer Chile. From there, the British would move from sea to seize Peru and then Quito.

All these proposals were discussed in 1804 by William Pitt, Lord Henry Melville, Francisco de Miranda and Sir Home Riggs Popham. Popham did not believe a complete military occupation of South America was practical but argued for taking control of key locations to allow the main objective, to open new markets for the British economy. Although there was consensus for weakening Spanish control over its South American colonies, there was no agreement as to the system and the moment to take such action. For instance, it was not even agreed whether the cities be turned into British colonies after their capture or just be made into British protectorates.

First invasion

In 1805 Popham received orders to escort the David Baird-led expedition against the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope, which was allied with Napoleon. With nearly 6,300 men they took it in January 1806. Popham received new orders from the admiralty to patrol the east coast of South America, from Rio de Janeiro to the Río de la Plata, in order to detect any attempt to counterattack the Cape. However, Popham had the idea of taking the Río de la Plata with a military action similar to the one made at the Cape. His agent William White had informed him about the local politics of the city, such as the discontent among some groups about the restrictive regulations enforced by Spain about international commerce. Popham manifested Baird his will to take the zone, with or without his help. Baird gave him the 71st Regiment of Infantry, artillery and 1,000 men to attempt the invasion. Baird promoted William Carr Beresford to general and designated him vice governor of the zone if it was taken. The expedition got reinforcements of 300 men from the Artillery and [St Helena] Regiment.

The Spanish Viceroy, Marquis Rafael de Sobremonte, had asked the Spanish Crown for reinforcements many times, but only received a shipment of several thousand muskets and instructions to form a militia. Buenos Aires was then a large settlement housing approximately 45,000, but the Viceroy was reluctant to give weapons to the Creole population. The best troops had been dispatched to the Upper Peru currently Bolivia to guard the frontiers from Túpac Amaru II's revolt, and when Sobremonte learned of the British presence in the area he dispatched the remaining troops to Montevideo, considering that the attack would be in that city. Thus, the British found Buenos Aires almost defenseless.

The British took Quilmes, near Buenos Aires, on 25 June 1806, and reached and occupied Buenos Aires on 27 June. The Viceroy fled to Córdoba with the city's treasury, but lost it to British forces during his escape. Although his action was in line with a law enacted by former Viceroy Pedro de Cevallos, which required the treasury to be kept safe in case of a foreign attack, he was seen as a coward by the population because of it.

Initially the British forces were met with a somewhat lukewarm welcome by the residents of the city, with some wealthy families throwing feasts in honour of the British officers. Nevertheless, some political figures remained antagonistic. Manuel Belgrano said "Queremos al antiguo amo o a ninguno" (we want the old Master or none at all) before leaving to Uruguay. Religious leaders swore loyalty as well, after the promise that the Roman Catholic religion would be respected. The Royal Audience ceased its activities. Some merchants were displeased by the repeal of the Spanish monopoly and the opening to British trade, as it harmed their interests; one of their leaders was Martín de Álzaga.

Juan Martín de Pueyrredón organised a militia near the city, but was discovered before being ready, and his troops were defeated. Santiago de Liniers, who was assigned to guard a nearby coast defense, got into the city and weighed the situation. He convinced Álzaga to hold on his plan, and moved to Montevideo. The governor Pascual Ruiz Huidobro gave him command of 550 veterans and 400 soldiers to return to Buenos Aires and attempt the re-conquest. Sobremonte was doing the same in Córdoba, but Liniers got to Buenos Aires first.

On 4 August 1806, Liniers landed at Las Conchas, north of Buenos Aires, and advanced with a mixed force of Buenos Aires line troops and Montevideo Militia toward the city. On 10 August he took control of the strategic points of Miserere and El Retiro, holding the north and west entries to the city. Beresford finally surrendered on 14 August. An open cabildo decided afterwards to depose Sobremonte from having military authority, and giving such authority, instead, to the victorious Liniers. As written above, Sobremonte's departure at the beginning of the war made him highly unpopular among the peoples of Buenos Aires. Sobremonte would not return to Buenos Aires, and moved to Montevideo instead. The open cabildo also decided to prepare the city against the possibility of a British counter-attack.

Foreseeing the possibility of a second invasion, militias were formed by the Spanish and criollos, such as the Patricios, Arribeños, Húsares (of Pueyrredón), Pardos and Morenos. The creation of such local forces created concern within the Spanish elite, fearful of an attempt of secession from the Spanish Crown.

On this first invasion, the 71st Regiment of Foot lost both of its Regimental Colours during the combat, which are currently held in Argentina. On the second invasion, there was a frustrated attempt to recover both flags. They were retaken by the Buenos Aires militia and returned to the Santo Domingo convent.

Second invasion

Battle of Montevideo

On 3 February 1807 Montevideo, defended by approximately 5,000 men, was besieged at 2:00am by a 15,000 strong British force in a joint military and naval operation under General Sir Samuel Auchmuty and a naval squadron under Admiral Sir Charles Stirling. Reinforcements for the defenders came en route from Buenos Aires, so that the rapid success of the operation was essential.

Swiftly breached, the city was then assaulted by the 40th regiment and the elite 95th (Rifle) regiment. Once inside the walls, the British met heavy resistance as the Spanish fought to halt their advance, but they gradually spread out and forced back the defenders. On the other side of the city a second assault was launched, spearheaded by the 87th Regiment of Foot taking the Spanish defenders in the rear. The Spanish Governor Ruiz Huidobro accepted Auchmuty's demand of unconditional surrender around 5:00 a.m. The Spanish took 600 casualties and a further 2,000 were taken prisoner while the British had taken 600 casualties.

On 10 May, Lieutenant-General John Whitelocke arrived in Montevideo to take overall command of the British forces -this had about 13,000 soldiers, due to the losses suffered in Montevideo – on the Río de la Plata, landing on 27 June.

Second Battle of Buenos Aires

On 1 July, the force led by Liniers engaged the British but was overwhelmed by superior numbers at Miserere, in the city environs. At this crucial moment, Whitelocke did not attempt to enter the city, but twice demanded the city's surrender.  Meanwhile, Buenos Aires' mayor Martín de Álzaga organised the defence of the city by digging trenches, fortifying buildings and erecting fences with great popular support for the Creoles hungered for independence. Finally, three days after forcing the troops under Liniers to retreat, Whitelocke resolved to attack Buenos Aires.  Trusting in the superiority of his soldiers, he divided his army into 12 columns and advanced without the protection of the artillery.  His army was met on the streets by a mixed-race militia, including 686 African slaves, stiffened by the local 1st Naval Infantry Battalion and 1st 'Patricios' Infantry Regiment, and fighting continued on the streets of Buenos Aires on 4 July and 5 July. Whitelocke underestimated the importance of urban combat, in which the inhabitants employed cooking pots filled with burning oil and boiling water from rooftops, injuring several soldiers of the 88th Regiment. The locals eventually overwhelmed the British troops. The British suffered 1,000 casualties.

By the end of 5 July, the British controlled Retiro and Residencia at the cost of about 70 officers and 1,000 other ranks killed or wounded, but the city's centre was still in the hands of the defenders, and the invaders were now demoralized.  At this point, a counter-attack by the militias and colonial troops present, defeated many important British commanders, including Robert Craufurd and Denis Pack. Then Whitelocke proposed a 24-hour truce, which was rejected by Liniers, who ordered an artillery attack.

After suffering 311 killed, 679 wounded and 1,808 captured or missing, Whitelocke signed an armistice with Liniers on 12 August; the local marines playing an important part in defeating Brigadier-General Robert Craufurd and his two thousand troops at the Battle of Plaza del Mercado which is now recalled by the people of Buenos Aires as 'The Defence'. In the confusion of defeat, many British soldiers deserted their units and more than 50 were returned to the British and were court-martialed, while others were allowed to stay and would form part of the 1,200-strong British contingent that would help in the liberation of Chile.
Whitelocke left the Río de la Plata basin taking with him the British forces in Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and Colonia, but leaving behind 400 seriously wounded. On his return to the United Kingdom, he was court-martialled and cashiered, mainly for surrendering Montevideo. There was much criticism in the British newspapers in the way Whitelocke had conducted himself, and for having surrendered to a largely militia force. Whitelocke would claim that in the 71st Regiment of Foot alone there were 170 deserters. Liniers was later named Viceroy of the Río de la Plata by the Spanish Crown.

According to Uruguayan journalist Juan José de Soiza Reilly, some 3,000 British dead are today buried in a mass grave under passageway Cinco de Julio near Avenida Belgrano in downtown Buenos Aires.

In  commemoration of the victory, 12 August is known in Argentina as the day of the "Reconquista de Buenos Aires".

Towards independence
After having to fight the British invasions by themselves with little direct help from Spain that at the moment was involved in the Napoleonic Wars, the seeds of independence were starting to grow. Local militia battalions being commanded mostly by revolutionaries (like Cornelio Saavedra, Manuel Belgrano, Esteban Romero, Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, Juan José Viamonte and Martín Rodriguez) also contributed to the growth of revolutionary zeal. In 1808, Napoleon placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain giving the chance in 1810 for the May Revolution to take place, as a prelude to the Declaration of Independence of Argentina of 1816.

See also
 Argentine War of Independence

Bibliography

References

Works cited

External links
 Bad day for the empire by Richard Gott. The Guardian, 13 July 2007
  History of the Argentine foreign relations
  British Invasions
  Buenos Aires militia uniforms
 Britain's 'forgotten' invasion of Argentina, BBC News, 10 August 2006
 An Authentic Narrative of the Proceedings of the 1807 Expedition Under the General Craufurd by an officer of the 36th Foot. 1808
   Grenadier company, Tercio de Cantabros Historical reenactment group that represents a militia group which had a courageous performance in Buenos Aires in 1807.
  La Expedición Británica de 1806–07 al Rio de la Plata, Según el Diario del Tte. John Bent  British Expedition of 1806–07 to the Rio del la Plata, Diary of Lieutenant John Bent.

Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
Colonial Uruguay
Conflicts in 1806
Conflicts in 1807
1806 in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
1807 in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
History of Buenos Aires
History of Montevideo
Rio de la Plata
Río de la Plata
Wars involving Argentina
Wars involving Spain
River Plate
Wars involving Uruguay
1806 in Argentina
1807 in Argentina
1806 in Uruguay
1807 in Uruguay
19th century in Buenos Aires
19th century in Montevideo
19th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Argentina–United Kingdom military relations
Spain–United Kingdom military relations
United Kingdom–Uruguay relations
Amphibious operations
Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom
Amphibious operations involving Spain
British military occupations

British invasions of the River Plate


Dublin is a ceety in Erath Coonty, Texas, Unitit States. The population wis 3,754 at the 2000 census.

Economy
The toun is the hame o the warld's auldest Dr Pepper bottlin plant (see Dublin Dr Pepper). The plant, still in operation, wis for mony years the ae US soorce for Dr Pepper made wi real cane sugar (frae Texas-based Imperial Sugar), instead o less expensive high fructose corn syrup. Contractual requirements previously limitit the plant's distribution range tae a 40-mile radius o Dublin, an aurie encompassin Stephenville, Tolar, Comanche an Hico. Housomeivver, this restriction wis later liftit, an nou the "oreeginal" formula is available throughoot maist o Texas an ower the Internet.

Notable residents
Dublin wis an aa the boyhood hame o legendary gowfer Ben Hogan, who wis born on August 13, 1912, at the hospital in nearbi Stephenville. Hogan livit in Dublin till 1921, when he an his faimily relocatit tae Fort Worth.

American jurist an 1924 Texas Republican gubernatorial nominee George C. Butte marriet in Dublin, residit thare for several years, an is interred at Live Oak Cemetery thare.

References

Ceeties in Texas
Ceeties in Erath Coonty, Texas

Dublin, Texas


Sir Francis Child (1642–1713), of Hollybush House, Fulham, Middlesex and the Marygold by Temple Bar, London, was an English banker and politician who sat in the English and British House of Commons  between 1698 and 1713. He served as Lord Mayor of London for the year 1698 to 1699. The goldsmith's business which he built up from 1671 later became one of the first London banks, Child & Co.

Early life
Child was born in 1642, the son of Robert Child, clothier, of Heddington in Wiltshire. He came to London at an early age, and was apprenticed in March 1656 to William Hall, a goldsmith of London, for a term of eight years, on the expiration of which he was admitted, 24 March 1664, to the freedom of the Goldsmiths' Company, and on 7 April 1664 to that of the city of London.

Goldsmiths and Child's Bank
The firm of Child & Co. takes its origin from a family of London goldsmiths named Wheeler. John Wheeler, who carried on his business in Chepe, died in 1575. His son, also named John, moved into Fleet Street, and died in 1609. After him William Wheeler, probably his son, moved from his old shop to the Marygold, hitherto a tavern, next door to Temple Bar. He had a son, likewise named William Wheeler, who was admitted a member of the Goldsmiths' Company by patrimony on 27 April 1666. Child married Elizabeth, sister of the younger William Wheeler, aged 19, on 2 October 1671.
Her father, the elder William Wheeler, had died in 1663, and his widow married Robert Blanchard, who succeeded to the business at the Marygold, and took Child into partnership, probably about the time of his marriage in 1671.
In the little London Directory of 1677, the names of 'Blanchard and Child at the Marygold' are found among the goldsmiths 'that keep running cashes.'

On the death of Blanchard in 1681, Child inherited the bulk of his fortune, and also that of the Wheelers, and in July of the same year the firm became Francis Child and John Rogers.
Child was the first banker who gave up the goldsmith's business, and he is called by Pennant 'the father of the profession.'
Previous to 1690, the old ledgers of the firm were full of goldsmiths' and pawnbroking accounts mixed up with banking transactions. The sign of the marygold may still be seen in the water-mark of the present cheques, and the original sign is preserved in the front shop over the door which leads into the back premises. It is made of oak, the ground stained green, with a gilt border surrounding a marygold and sun, and the motto 'Ainsi mon ame.' Mr. J. G. Nichols, in the 'Herald and Genealogist' (iv. 508), gives an engraving of the sign. It was probably painted about 1670.

The Devil tavern, which adjoined the Marygold in Fleet Street, was pulled down in 1787, having been purchased by Messrs. Child & Co. for £2,800, and in the following year the row of houses now known as Child's Place was built upon the site.
The meetings of Ben Jonson's club had been held in the tavern, and among the relics of the club possessed by Messrs. Child & Co. are a board containing the rules of the club in gold letters, and the bust of Apollo which was formerly placed over the entrance door.
Oliver Cromwell is said to have been a customer of the Wheelers, and in later times Nell Gwyn, Titus Oates, Archbishop Tenison, Barbara Villiers, duchess of Cleveland, and many other celebrated persons.
For many years Messrs. Child & Co. were tenants of the chamber over Temple Bar, for which they paid the corporation £21 per annum, until the removal of the structure in 1878.
They kept here their old ledgers and other books, which amounted in weight to several tons.
It has been usual for the firm upon all state occasions to accommodate the lord mayor and corporation with the use of their premises while waiting for royalty at Temple Bar.

Politics
On 6 January 1681 Child was returned after a contest as a representative for St. Dunstan's precinct of the ward of Farringdon Without in the court of common council, one of his opponents being Mr. Taylor of the Devil tavern.
It is stated in the 'London Gazette' of 3 December 1683 that the subscriptions towards the lottery of the late Prince Rupert's jewels, valued at £20,000, were paid in to Mr. Child at Temple Bar.
The king himself is said to have taken a great interest in the matter, and personally counted the tickets at Whitehall. It is also stated that Child was appointed by the Bishop of London to receive the collection made in February 1682 for the restoration of St. Albans Aabhey.

In October 1689, Child was elected alderman of the ward of Farringdon Without, and on the 29th of the same month he was knighted by William III at Guildhall at the mayoralty banquet. Child was a whig, and now acted as one of the leaders of that party in the corporation. He was admitted a member of the Hon. Artillery Company in February 1690. In 1690 the elections of mayor, sheriffs, and chamberlain were contested on strictly political grounds, the church party putting forward Sir W. Hedges and Thomas Cook for the shrievalty, who were opposed by Child and Sir Edward Clarke on behalf of the whigs. Child headed the poll by a narrow majority. In March 1694 he was elected by the court of lieutenancy to be one of the six colonels of the city trained bands.

Child stood for Parliament at Devizes at the 1695 general election, but was defeated. He was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Devizes at the 1698 general election On 29 September 1698 he was elected lord mayor of London for the following year. His inauguration took place on 29 October, and the pageant, prepared for the occasion by Elkanah Settle at the expense of the Company of Goldsmiths, was published in folio, with plates, under the title Glory's Resurrection, be° the Triumphs of London revived, for the inauguration of the Right Honourable Sir Francis Child, Kt., Lord Mayor of the City of London, 1698. This pageant is now very scarce; a copy is preserved in the Guildhall Library. The procession is described in the London Gazette, and appears to have been of more than usual grandeur. The ambassadors who were in town went into the city to see the sight, and on the return from Westminster the civic barges stopped at Dorset Stairs, where the lord mayor and aldermen disembarked and were entertained by the Earl of Dorset. The procession afterwards landing at Blackfriars proceeded to Guildhall, accompanied by the lords justices, who were attended by the life guards and the horse grenadiers. Child is said by Luttrell (iv. 577) to have been 4,000l. out of pocket by the expenses of his year of office. The emoluments of the mayoralty at that time chiefly consisted of the money realised by the sale of such city offices as fell vacant during the year. During his mayoralty he took measures to regulate the price of corn, and appointed officers to attend daily at Queenhithe and post up the prices to prevent imposition upon the public. Child held the post of jeweller to the king, which he resigned in 1697, his successor being Sir Stephen Evans.

Child's vast wealth enabled him to lend the government large sums of money. In August 1692, he joined Sir J. Herne and Sir S. Evans in an advance of £50,000 to the crown to meet the expenses of the government of Ireland.

The forthcoming election of members of parliament for the City of London  gave rise to an exciting struggle in December 1700. Child, who was now a member of the Tory party, stood unsuccessfully for London at the 1st general election of 1701, when the four Whig candidates carried the seats. However he was returned again at Devizes at that election and at the second general election in 1701. At the 1702 general election, Child was returned for both  Devizes and the City of London, and chose to sit for London. He was master of the Goldsmiths' Company in 1702

At the 1705 general election Child decided not to stand for the City of London and was returned again for Devizes. Then at the 1708 general election he decided not to stand at Devizes, but was defeated at the City of London and left without a parliamentary seat. At the 1710 general election he stood at Devizes with Serjeant Webb but was caught up in a double return and was not seated until 16 December. He appears from the state papers to have been connected in 1711 with the receipt of the land tax for Wiltshire.

Later life and death
Child was a great benefactor to Christ's Hospital, and in 1705, while president, rebuilt the ward over the east cloister at his own cost. His portrait hangs in the hall of the hospital, and another portrait exists at Osterley Park, taken in 1699 in his lord mayor's robes.

For many years he lived at Fulham, in a mansion called East End House, which he built for himself on the east side of Parson's Green. About 1711 he purchased the family seat of Osterley Park; but his son, Sir Robert Child, is said to have been the first of the family who lived there. Child died on 4 October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard, where a monument was erected to his memory.

Family
Lady Child survived her husband a few years, and was also buried at Fulham, 27 February 1719–20.
Child had twelve sons and three daughters, and was succeeded in the firm and also as alderman of Farringdon, by his sons Robert Child, and Francis Child, both of whom were afterwards knighted.
His daughter Elizabeth married Tyringham Backwell, son of Alderman Edward Backwell, the great goldsmith, who was ruined by the closing of the exchequer by Charles II in 1672.

Two of the sons from this marriage, Barnaby and William, afterwards became partners in Childs' bank.

Notes

References

1642 births
1713 deaths
17th-century lord mayors of London
People from Fulham
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
English MPs 1698–1700
English MPs 1701
English MPs 1701–1702
English MPs 1702–1705
English MPs 1705–1707
British MPs 1707–1708
British MPs 1710–1713
Francis 1

Francis Child (died 1713)


Northern Ontario is a geographic and administrative region of the Canadian province of Ontario. It covers the part of Ontario north of Lake Huron (including Georgian Bay), the French River, Lake Nipissing, and the Mattawa River. It includes almost 87 percent of the province but only six percent of the province's population lives in the area. Most of Northern Ontario is on the Canadian Shield.

The region has a land area of 802,000 square kilometers (310,000 square miles). The total population in 2011 was 732,914.

Sometimes the region is divided into Northeastern Ontario and Northwestern Ontario. Northwestern Ontario covers the three westernmost disctricts of the region: Rainy River, Kenora, and Thunder Bay. Northestern Ontario covers the other districts and has two-thirds of the regions population.

Regions of Ontario

Northern Ontario


The Model 1832 foot artillery sword was a  short-sword with a straight, double-edged blade and brass-mounted leather scabbard.

History
The U.S. Model 1832 foot artillery short-sword has a  solid brass hilt, a  crossguard, and a blade usually  in length.  This model was the first sword contracted by the U.S. with the Ames Manufacturing Company of Springfield (later Chicopee), Massachusetts, with production starting in 1832. In later years, it was also imported and supplied by W.H. Horstmann & Sons of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As a personal side arm, it was intended for use by the regular or foot artillery regiments of the United States Army and remained in service until 1872 for use of foot artillerymen. It was the issue sword for sergeants and musicians of infantry regiments from 1832 until 1840. As most artillery regiments were trained and equipped as infantry prior to 1861 a single weapon for both types of troops made sense. It replaced the earlier Starr pattern sword used throughout the 1820s. While the design was impractical for actual combat, it is believed that artillerymen put this weapon to other uses, such as clearing brush or creating trails.  It was an effective tool for cutting paths through the Florida swamps during the Second Seminole War, which occurred during the time it was issued to infantry sergeants, drummers and fifers. This is somewhat corroborated by the French nickname for their version of the sword, coupe choux (cabbage cutter). The last Ames contract for this sword was completed in 1862, although as a stock item it continued to be listed in company catalogs for decades afterwards.

The design was based on the French foot artillery short sword of 1816, which with minor changes was basically repeated in 1831.  The French model was largely inspired by the Roman gladius, the standard sword of the Roman legionaries.

Distinguishing features

French versions can be distinguished from American versions by the hilt design, manufacturers' marks (French manufacturers include Châtellerault, St. Etienne, Talabot, and Thiebaut), and the lack of U.S. markings. Swords supplied by Ames typically bore an eagle on the blade until the Mexican–American War, whereas those made during the civil war by Confederate arsenals were typically unmarked. The Ames Model 1832 has a hilt with an eagle cast into the pommel and a scaled grip surface. French versions have either textured grips (model 1816) or ringed grips (model 1831), and like later English models a plain or smooth pommel on the hilt.

References

External links
Union Army Uniforms and Insignia of the Civil War
Roman Weapons and Armor, by the Eclectic Historian, retrieved from Internet Archive

Blade weapons
Swords of the United States
American Civil War weapons

Model 1832 foot artillery sword