Gertrude Elizabeth Vachon ( ; January 12, 1962 – August 27, 2010) was an American-Canadian professional wrestler, better known as Luna Vachon. Over the course of her 22-year career, she wrestled for promotions such as the World Wrestling Federation (now WWE), Extreme Championship Wrestling, the American Wrestling Association, and World Championship Wrestling. She was posthumously inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame, and Women's Wrestling Hall of Fame.

Career

Training
As a child, Gertrude Vachon wanted to continue her family's wrestling legacy. Attending wrestling events she used to play in the ring, which often resulted in training with various World Wide Wrestling Federation stars. Her family objected to her entering the wrestling business and tried to dissuade her, as they considered a wrestler's life at that time too harsh for a female. André the Giant, with whom she was close and who took her on a trip to Paris in 1974, also tried to dissuade her. Around the age sixteen, she began training under her aunt Vivian and then The Fabulous Moolah.

Early career (1985–1992)
Gertrude started her professional career wrestling for Moolah's all-women's promotion. She then moved to Florida and, competing under the ring name Angelle Vachon, became a member of a four-woman wrestling troupe led by Mad Maxine. While in Florida, she shared residence with wrestlers Scott Levy (later known as Raven), and Denny Brown.

In 1985, she debuted in Florida Championship Wrestling, as a young, soft-spoken reporter named Trudy Herd, who was giving Kendall Windham an award. A melee ensued and she was slapped twice by Kevin Sullivan. The angle had her driven mad by Sullivan's treatment and she ended up joining Sullivan's Army of Darkness stable under the new ring name, Luna Vachon. As part of her gimmick, she shaved one half of her head, which was the first step to her trademark Mohawk hairstyle, covered her face in bodypaint, and continuously sneered. Looking back, Vachon expressed her uneasiness about some elements of this angle.

During her time in Florida, Luna first wrestled Madusa Miceli, beginning a long-lasting in-ring rivalry. Beginning in Florida, Luna teamed up with The Lock as the Daughters of Darkness, a part of Sullivan's Army. The duo also provided back-up vocals for the thrash metal band Nasty Savage. In early 1987, Luna and Lock appeared in the Continental Wrestling Association.  During the next three years, Luna also traveled to Japan, where her father Butcher Vachon acted as her manager, as well as Puerto Rico. She also wrestled in David McLane's Powerful Women of Wrestling (POWW) and, during POWW's alliance with the American Wrestling Association (AWA), participated in the latter's only pay-per-view event, SuperClash III in December 1988, competing in a Battle royal.

In the early nineties she took over management of The Blackhearts, a masked tag team coming out of Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling. The team consisted of Tom Nash — a childhood friend of Luna and her then-husband — and David Heath, her future husband, under the names "Apocalypse" and "Destruction", respectively. Luna worked with them in Joel Goodhart's Tri-State Wrestling, in Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation, and finally Giant Baba's All-Japan, where the team split up. Luna also worked at Wild Women of Wrestling, as a competitor, commentator, and booker.

World Wrestling Federation (1993–1994)
In 1992, while wrestling in Puerto Rico, she tried to get David Heath a job with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), which resulted in the WWF developing an interest in her. They hired her, but not without some complications. No one actually knew exactly where she was; even her father only knew that she was staying in Florida. The WWF actually hired a private investigator to find her. When she was found, she was working as a waitress at a restaurant.

Luna's first WWF appearance was in April 1993 at WrestleMania IX, accompanying Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels in his match against Tatanka, who was accompanied by Michaels' former valet Sensational Sherri. After the match, Luna attacked Sensational Sherri at ringside, and then again in the first aid area. She was arrested by security, starting a vicious feud between the two.

At the same time Luna and Sherri were at odds, Bam Bam Bigelow had a confrontation with Sherri. This led to him being attacked by Tatanka and the two of them feuding. Soon after, Bam Bam (kayfabe) announced that he had fallen in love and presented Luna as his "main squeeze". He also endearingly called her his "Tick", which fans combined with her name to the chant "Luna-tic". From then, Bam Bam was seen blowing kisses to Luna at the end of matches, and in her honor even included the Moonsault, redubbed Lunasault, into his repertoire. A mixed tag team match between the two pairs was planned for SummerSlam in 1993, but had to be canceled because Luna (legit) injured her arm and then Sherri left the WWF. Instead, Bigelow and The Headshrinkers fought and lost to Tatanka and The Smokin' Gunns in a six-man tag team match. In the autumn of 1993, Bam Bam and Luna ran afoul of some practical jokes from Doink the Clown, leading to a Survivor Series style match at the 1993 event of the same name pitting Bam Bam, The Headshrinkers, and Bastion Booger against four Doinks (actually Men on a Mission and The Bushwhackers in clown makeup). During this time Luna was the cause of dissension between Bam Bam and his part-time tag team partner Bastion Booger, who had also (kayfabe) fallen in love with her. At WrestleMania X, Bam Bam and Luna finally got their revenge on Doink by beating the Clown and his midget side-kick Dink in a mixed tag team match.

When the WWF's women's division was revived, Luna's old rival Madusa, who had entered the WWF under the name Alundra Blayze, won the Women's Championship. Luna set her eyes on the title and had a series of matches with Alundra, all resulting in victories for Blayze. It was during this time the relationship between Luna and Bam Bam first showed cracks after interference in a match backfired. In the summer, Luna sold Bam Bam's contract to Ted DiBiase, who was beginning to build his "Million Dollar Corporation". Luna then picked Japanese wrestler Bull Nakano to win the Women's title from Blayze, which she eventually did. Luna, however, left the WWF shortly after this title match.

In 1994, Luna was the first woman to appear in a WWF video game, when – despite previous objections – she was included in WWF Raw.

Independents and Extreme Championship Wrestling (1994–1997)
After leaving the WWF, Luna wrestled on the independent circuit. Upon the recommendation of Kevin Sullivan's wife Nancy, she entered Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW). She was brought as Tommy Dreamer's new valet in his long running feud with Raven (Scott Levy). Dreamer introduced Luna as "someone out of your past", as Luna had been housemate to Levy in her Florida days and both had simultaneously worked in the WWF. While in ECW, Luna would stand with Tommy, feuding with Raven and his lackeys, which included Stevie Richards, and even her husband The Vampire Warrior (who, in kayfabe, had become jealous of the time she was spending with Dreamer). She had more than a few physical confrontations with Richards, including a steel cage match, which she won.

In the same year, she was rated #306 in the PWI 500 – the second woman to be included in that list after Miss Texas.

In 1996/97, she competed in Puerto Rico for the World Wrestling Council and American Wrestling Federation, using the name Angel Baby',  and the IWA Mid-South.1997 matches at Genickbruch.com.1997 matches at WrestlingData.com.

World Championship Wrestling (1997)

In early 1997, Luna had a short run with World Championship Wrestling (WCW), again going after her rival Madusa. Luna interfered in Madusa's matches against WCW Women's Champion Akira Hokuto, preventing a title win by Madusa. Luna and Madusa met each other in a series of matches, including a match at the 1997 Slamboree. Although Luna dominated the matches, Madusa managed to get the pinfall every time.

Return to WWF (1997–2000)
Later in 1997, Luna returned to the WWF, first as Goldust's manager, helping him to reinvent himself as "The Artist Formerly Known as Goldust". The pair sported a variety of different outfits and roles, including a dominatrix, a slave, a "New Year Baby", and his nurse. Their first feud was against Vader. Luna's first appearance had her wheeling the allegedly paralyzed Goldust to the ring and then blinding Vader with some "medical fluid". Later when Goldust, dressed like a Christmas tree, recited poems in the ring, he was attacked by Santa Claus, who turned out to be Vader. Vader eventually defeated Goldust at the 1998 Royal Rumble. The Goldust/Luna pairing also took to imitating other wrestler's gimmicks, often those of Goldust's opponents. At one point Goldust and Luna impersonated European Champion Triple H and Chyna in a title match against Owen Hart. What Triple H had intended as a joke resulted in Owen beating Goldust and Commissioner Slaughter awarding the title to Hart, considering Goldust to be a legit replacement.

At this time, Goldust also teamed up with Marc Mero, which led to another feud, as Luna and Mero's valet Sable started to fight outside of the ring. The feud culminated in a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV, pitting the two couples against each other. After this, Luna challenged Sable to an Evening Gown match at Unforgiven and scored the victory by stripping her opponent down to her underwear. The animosity between Luna and Sable was not entirely kayfabe. As Sable's popularity increased, she adopted a presumptuous attitude towards other competitors. According to Luna, as the two trained in the preparation for their WrestleMania match, Sable refused to learn how to "take bumps", while Luna was threatened by WWF officials that hurting her opponent in the ring would put her job in jeopardy. Sable also annoyed Luna with bragging about being promised the Women's Championship, a goal that had eluded Vachon. Luna was also hurt after she had carried Sable in their match, as Sable was universally congratulated while Luna was only consoled by Owen Hart. Still, Luna described the match as a highlight in her career.

In August 1998, Luna had apparently patched up her differences with Sable, as the latter, now split from Marc Mero, introduced her as the newest member of the Human Oddities stable. Luna attacked Marc Mero's new valet Jacqueline, the former Miss Texas. Luna scored a pinfall victory in August, but lost a rematch in September. In December, Sable, who had won the reinstated WWF Women's Championship, was attacked by the masked "Spider Lady", who turned out to be Luna. She justified her heel turn and attack towards her partner with the words: "It's about me, it's about what I deserve." In this feud against Sable, Shane McMahon personally supported Luna's efforts to win the championship after taking personal offense to Sable's attitude towards him and booked a Leather Strap match at the Royal Rumble. Leading up to that event, in the storyline, Luna was repeatedly attacked by an obsessed Sable fan. At the Royal Rumble, Sable successfully retained the title thanks to the interference of that fan, who now entered WWF competition as Tori. During the weeks prior to the Royal Rumble, Luna also defeated Gillberg, a WWF parody of World Championship Wrestling's star Goldberg. Luna was due to challenge Sable for another title shot several weeks later at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, but the match was canceled due to Luna's suspension for fighting with Sable backstage.

Six months later, Luna returned at SummerSlam, chasing then Women's Champion Ivory backstage after a successful title defense against Tori. This started a feud between the two with Luna even scoring a pinfall victory during an impromptu, non-title match. At Unforgiven, however, she lost to Ivory in a Hardcore Rules match. During that feud, Luna also answered a challenge from then Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett and defeated him via disqualification, thanks to Ivory's interference.

From then on, Luna reassumed her role as manager for her husband, now working for the WWF under the name Gangrel, participating in several mixed tag team matches and helping Gangrel beat his opponents.

At Survivor Series in 1999, she joined forces with her former rivals Ivory, Jacqueline, and Terri Runnels, against Tori, Debra, The Fabulous Moolah, and Mae Young. Luna's team was defeated when Moolah pinned Ivory. At the Royal Rumble in 2000, she participated in the Swim Suit Contest, though in protest against the whole event she refused to take off her gown. This angle reflected Luna's legit dissatisfaction with the "sexualization" of the WWF's women's division. Vachon then became involved in a brief feud with Jacqueline after the latter had pinned Harvey Wippleman to capture the Women's title. She was the first person to challenge Jacqueline on the February 7 edition of Raw, but failed following a German Suplex. Gangrel, who accompanied her to ringside, responded by executing his Impaler DDT on the champion. This led to a mixed tag on the following episode of SmackDown, in which Vachon and Gangrel defeated Moore and her partner Prince Albert. She was later released from the WWF in early 2000 due to another outburst backstage.

Independent circuit (2000–2007)
After leaving the WWF, Luna continued to manage Gangrel during her independent tours all over the world, as well as wrestling on her own. Venues included the IWA Puerto Rico in 2000,2000 matches at Genickbruch.com. the Australian World Wrestling All-Stars in 2001,2001 matches at Genickbruch.com. the German EWP in 2003, the British ASW in 20062006 matches at Genickbruch.com. and WSU in 2007.2007 matches at Genickbruch.com.

Whilst touring the UK with WWA in 2001 she was defeated by her husband Gangrel in a Black Wedding Match.

On June 9, 2007, Luna became the first Great Lakes Championship Wrestling's Ladies champion defeating Traci Brooks. On December 5, 2007, Luna Vachon announced her retirement; her last match took place on December 7 for Great Lakes Championship Wrestling in Milwaukee. She successfully defended her GLCW Ladies Championship against Traci Brooks and then retired as champion.

Personal life
Born in Atlanta, Georgia, to Charles Henry Wilkerson, a hotel owner and Rebecca "Van" Pierce, Luna's biological father, Charles Wilkerson committed suicide in his hotel in Atlanta in 1966. Paul "Butcher" Vachon, who was staying at the hotel that night, took care of a devastated Van while she was grieving in the hotel and married her, his second wife. He also adopted the four-year old Luna and continued to raise her as his daughter after the marriage split. By virtue of the adoption, Luna is also the niece of "Mad Dog" Vachon and Vivian Vachon. She was also close to André the Giant.

Luna was married three times, first to Dan Hurd, with whom she had two sons, Joshua (born 1980) and Vincent "Van" (born 1982), who competed on Seasons 6 and 17 of Fox's reality cooking show Hell's Kitchen, hosted by Gordon Ramsay. After breaking up, she dated Dick Slater for a while until Slater began physically abusing her. She then married childhood friend Tom Nash. After Nash and Vachon split, David Heath, Nash's tag team partner in The Blackhearts, and Vachon married on October 31, 1994. During this marriage, she was stepmother to David's sons, David, Jr. and Donavan. The two divorced in 2006 but, according to Heath, remained best of friends. She had three grandchildren, Lauren, Austin and Neila.
She was featured in both Playboy and Hustler.

Luna was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. She became a born again Christian in 2004, after attending an Athletes International Ministry conference. She was baptized by fellow wrestler Nikita Koloff along with her then-husband David Heath. In 2007, she worked as a tow truck operator in Port Richey, Florida.Brett Hoffman, "Catching up with Luna Vachon", WWE.com (March 14, 2007).

Final years and death

Luna was honored in April 2009 at the 44th annual Cauliflower Alley Club reunion, given the "Ladies Wrestling Award" in Las Vegas, Nevada. One of her fondest memories about the wrestling business was being able to visit children as part of the Make-A-Wish Foundation. After her retirement, Luna took an interest in fellow Canadian wrestlers and especially monitored the career of Nattie Neidhart, the daughter of fellow wrestler and friend Jim Neidhart.

Around Christmas 2009, Vachon's house was destroyed by a fire in which she lost her wrestling-related memorabilia and other possessions. After the fire, she stayed at her mother's home and joined her father and his third wife Dee on a cruise in February 2010. The fire prompted a call from fellow wrestler and friend Mick Foley (and others) to fans to send Luna-related memorabilia to Vachon's post office box. Foley also suggested that TNA bring her in to manage Tommy Dreamer at the Hardcore Justice pay-per-view in August 2010, but Vachon turned down the offer, stating that she had retired.

On the morning of August 27, 2010, she was found dead by her mother at her home in Pasco County, Florida. She was 48 years old. According to the District Six Medical Examiner's Office in Florida, she died from an "overdose of oxycodone and benzodiazepine". Investigators previously found crushed pill residue and snorting straws at multiple locations inside Vachon's house. Vachon had become addicted to medication at some point and underwent rehabilitation, paid for by WWE, which she completed in June 2009.

Legacy
On April 7, 2015, The Mountain Goats released a pro wrestling concept album called Beat the Champ where one song, Luna, is named after Vachon.

She was posthumously inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame's legacy wing (class of 2019), into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2020, and into the Women's Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2023.

Vice TV's docuseries Dark Side of the Ring aired an episode about Vachon on October 14, 2021.

Championships and accomplishments
 American Wrestling Federation
 AWF Women's Championship (1 time)
 Cauliflower Alley Club
 Ladies Wrestling Award (2009)
 Great Lakes Championship Wrestling
 GLCW Ladies Championship (1 time)
 Ladies Major League Wrestling
 LMLW World Championship (1 time)
 Powerful Women of Wrestling
 POWW Tag Team Champion (2 times) – with Hot Rod Andie
 Pro Wrestling Illustrated Ranked No. 306 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500'' in 1995
 Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
 Class of 2020
 Sunshine Wrestling Federation
 SWF Ladies' Championship (1 time)
 United States Wrestling Association
 USWA Women's Championship (1 time)
 Wild Women of Wrestling
 WWOW Television Championship (1 time)
 Women Superstars Uncensored
 WSU Hall of Fame (Class of 2011)
Women's Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2023
 World Wrestling Entertainment
 WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2019) Legacy Inductee
 Other Titles
 Universal Women's Hardcore Championship

See also
 List of premature professional wrestling deaths

References

External links

1962 births
2010 deaths
21st-century American sportswomen
20th-century female professional wrestlers
20th-century American sportswomen
American female professional wrestlers
Canadian Christians
Canadian female professional wrestlers
Drug-related deaths in Florida
People with bipolar disorder
Professional wrestlers who use face paint
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Sportspeople from Montreal
WWE Hall of Fame Legacy inductees
Vachon family
Stampede Wrestling alumni

Luna Vachon


The Parrish Art Museum is an art museum designed by Herzog & de Meuron Architects and located in Water Mill, New York, whereto it moved in 2012 from Southampton Village. The museum focuses extensively on work by artists from the artist colony of the South Shore (Long Island) and North Shore (Long Island).

The Parrish Art Museum was founded in 1898.  It has grown into a major art museum with a permanent collection of more than 3,500 works of art from the nineteenth century to the present, including works by  such contemporary painters and sculptors such as John Chamberlain, Chuck Close, Eric Fischl, April Gornik, Donald Sultan, Elizabeth Peyton, as well as  by masters Dan Flavin, Roy Lichtenstein, Jackson Pollock, Lee Krasner, and Willem de Kooning. The Parrish houses among the world's most important collections of works by the preeminent American Impressionist William Merritt Chase and by the groundbreaking post-war American realist painter Fairfield Porter.

History

Southampton village location (1898–2012)

The Museum was founded in 1898 by Samuel Longstreth Parrish, a successful attorney and Quaker who began collecting art in the early 1880s and who established the museum to house his collection of Italian Renaissance painting and copies of classical and Renaissance sculpture. Designed by noted architect Grosvenor Atterbury and constructed in 1897 in downtown Southampton at 25 Jobs Lane, the Museum was incorporated the following year as the Art Museum of Southampton.  One of the impetus for founding the museum in an artist colony where  William Merritt Chase founded the Shinnecock Hills Summer School of Art.

The original building was expanded twice, in 1902 and 1913. After his death in 1932, the collection and building were bequeathed to the Village of Southampton but, without Parrish's guiding vision, the Museum ceased to thrive. It wasn't until the 1950s, under the direction of the newly elected president of the board of trustees, Rebecca Bolling Littlejohn, that the Museum enjoyed its own renaissance. Recognizing the importance of this country's contribution to the arts, Mrs. Littlejohn launched a campaign to strengthen the Museum's holdings of American art, with special attention to artists associated with eastern Long Island such as Thomas Moran, Childe Hassam, and Thomas Doughty. Upon her death, the Museum became the beneficiary of more than 300 paintings, drawings, and watercolors from her personal collection, which included work by Martin Johnson Heade, Asher B. Durand, John H. Twachtman, John Sloan, and a remarkable collection of thirty-one paintings by American Impressionist William Merritt Chase.

In 1981, further depth was added to the collection when nearly 200 works of art by the prominent American painter, critic, and longtime Southampton resident Fairfield Porter (1907–1975) were donated by his wife Anne and by the artist's estate. Building from the strength of these collections, the Museum now traces the evolution of American art from its roots in an emerging landscape tradition through the liberating influences of European modernism and the development of the New York School to the stylistic diversity of contemporary art, focusing its exhibitions and acquisitions on American painting of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, with special attention to artists who have lived and worked on Long Island's East End and their influence on the national and international art world. Once home to Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, and Roy Lichtenstein, among many others, today's residents, full-time or seasonal, include Chuck Close, Ross Bleckner, April Gornik, Eric Fischl, Ilya and Emilia Kabakov, and Donald Sultan.

The museum had long had a significant amount of its collection in storage.  It 2000 it acquired the neighboring Rogers Memorial Library for an annex after the library moved to a new building on the edge of town.  The library was acquired for $1.1 million from more than $3 million donated by Carroll Petrie for the acquisition and renovations.

The buildings were still considered too small for the collection.  In 2012 as part of the move to Water Mill the library was sold for $2.875 to Ajax Holding LLC., which has plans to convert the building commercial space and to also restore it.  The original Parrish structure is to undergo renovations designed by architect David Rockwell to become the new Southampton Center.

Water Mill location (2012–present)
The museum encountered opposition to its plans to modernize and enlarge its historic Jobs Lane complex.  Recognizing the need to grow and to provide for a modern facility with appropriate climate control, the board of trustees decided to embark on a new project to design and construct a purpose-built building. In 2005 the Museum purchased a 14-acre (57,000 square meter) site in Water Mill, New York for $3.8 million on the site of a former tree nursery immediately adjacent to the Duck Walk Vineyards winery 2.3 miles (3.7 km) from the original location on Jobs Lane, Southampton. Following extensive research of more than 65 architect candidates, Pritzker Prize winners Herzog & de Meuron were engaged to develop a new building for the site. Construction costs were estimated at $80 million.

The original plan Herzog plan called for an $80 million village   62,974 square foot museum consisting of 30 modest, low-slung buildings,  The buildings were to resemble the studios of area painters.

Terrie Sultan assumed the position of Director in April 2008, succeeding Trudy Kramer, who had initiated the new building campaign. With the recognition of impending financial difficulties, she and the Board of Trustees entered into discussions regarding opportunities to explore a different approach to a new building.

In the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 the museum dramatically downsized to be less than a third ($26.2 million) of the original budget.  The new structure is designed as a gigantic barn 615 feet long and 95 feet wide.  It has poured concrete walls. The building's footprint is 34,000 square feet. It has a 6,000 square foot porch as well as educational and multi-purpose spaces. Inside, the single-floor museum is structured in a very simple way, with public functions (such as reception, store, and café) to the west, administrative offices and art handling to the east, and the galleries, arrayed in two parallel bars, on either side of a central hall. There are seven galleries, totaling 7,600 square feet, for the permanent collection, and three for temporary exhibitions. All of the galleries are illuminated by daylight that shifts gradually throughout the day and changes with the seasons. The building which parallels the Montauk Highway to the south and the Long Island Rail Road tracks to the north is said to have been situated so it can catch the "Hamptons light" which is said to be a reason for the area's popularity as an artist colony (its location about a mile from the Atlantic Ocean to the south and two miles from the Little Peconic Bay to the north)   It officially opened on November 10, 2012.  The first temporary exhibit was by Malcolm Morley who has a home in Bellport, New York.

Notable collections

William Merritt Chase
The Parrish holds the largest public collection of William Merritt Chase (over 40 paintings and works on paper) and an extensive archive, including over 1000 photographs relating to the life and work of the artist, in particular, family photographs of summers spent here on the East End.

As portraitist and landscape painter, and as a teacher of art, Chase was unequalled in his day and it was not surprising that when a group of Southampton boosters had the idea of improving the summer resort by establishing an art school, the Shinnecock Hills Summer School of Art, they chose the prominent Mr. Chase to be the first teacher.

The Museum's collection features paintings from all periods of his work, including the early Still Life with Fruit (1871); works from the famous New York park scenes series, notably Park in Brooklyn (ca. 1887); major studio paintings from the 1880s, such as The Blue Kimono (ca. 1888); and of course, the paintings made during those summers in the Shinnecock Hills, including The Bayberry Bush (ca. 1895).

Fairfield Porter
Fairfield Porter was one of the most important American realist painters from 1949 until his death in 1975. Not coincidentally, these were the years when Porter lived in Southampton, New York, and in 1979 his estate recognized the bond between the artist and the Museum by donating some 250 works to the Parrish collection.

Porter was both a gifted painter and an accomplished writer who produced some of the most lucid art criticism and commentary of the time, notably his reviews for the magazine Art News. He insisted that he painted what he saw rather than what he might assume to be there. Porter painted what he was familiar with—his family and friends and the places he lived and visited, including Southampton, New York and a family-owned island off the coast of Maine where he had summered since childhood.

Writing about the intimate interior paintings of the French artists Vuillard and Bonnard, Porter found that in their work that recorded the ordinary "…the extraordinary is everywhere." An artist who steadfastly maintained a figurative vision, he knew and admired many Abstract Expressionist artists on the East End, especially Willem de Kooning. Porter once wrote: "The realist thinks he knows ahead of time what reality is, and the abstract artist what art is, but it is in its formality that realist art excels, and the best abstract art communicates an overwhelming sense of reality."

Other collections
While the Chase and Porter collections are cornerstones of the Museum's holdings, the permanent collection is wide-ranging. In 1958, Alfred Corning Clark donated to the Parrish more than two dozen paintings and watercolors, among them works by Ralph Blakelock, James A. M. Whistler, William Glackens, and Arthur B. Davies. Works by William Sidney Mount, Winslow Homer, Ernest Lawson, and Charles Burchfield were given to the Museum by
Clark a year later. In 1961, in addition to artists mentioned previously, Mrs. Littlejohn bequeathed to the Parrish works by John Frederick Kensett, Otis Bullard, E. L. Henry, George Luks, and Everett Shinn, among others.

Since the Porter bequest of 1975, the Parrish has increasingly focused on American painting of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, with a special emphasis on artists who have maintained studios on the East End of Long Island since the 1950s. Among those represented in the collection are Jane Freilicher, Larry Rivers, James Brooks, Alfonso Ossorio, Esteban Vicente, Jane Wilson, and Robert Dash, to name just a few. More recent East End arrivals whose work the Museum holds are Chuck Close, Joan Snyder, Joe Zucker, Alice Aycock, Lynda Benglis, April Gornik, Keith Sonnier, Mary Heilmann, Malcolm Morley, and many more. At the same time the Museum continues to strengthen its earlier twentieth-century holdings.

The collection also includes a substantial number of prints and drawings, among them works by George Bellows, Marsden Hartley, Larry Rivers, Helen Frankenthaler, and Robert Rauschenberg. In 1982 Paul F. Walter donated drawings by many Minimalist painters and sculptors, including Barry Le Va, Dorothea Rockburne, Mel Bochner, and Jennifer Bartlett. Robert Dunnigan gave the Museum more than 500 etchings in 1976, with prints by many of the American artists who participated in the "painter-etcher" movement of the late nineteenth century. Also in the Museum's print collection are nearly 200 Japanese woodblock prints presented as part of the Littlejohn bequest. Dating from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they provide a contrast to their American counterparts from the same period.

Exhibitions
The Museum schedules four or five exhibitions per year. While some recent shows, such as Fairfield Porter: Raw—The Creative Process of an American Master and American Landscapes: Treasures from the Parrish Art Museum, are drawn from the permanent collection, the majority are exhibitions organized by Parrish curators exploring themes and concepts in art. Recent solo shows have included Alice Aycock: Some Stories are Worth Repeating; Jennifer Bartlett: History of the Universe—Paintings 1970–2011; Rackstraw Downes: Onsite Paintings, 1972–2008; Alex Katz: Seeing, Drawing, Making; Roy Lichtenstein: American Indian Encounters; Platform: Maya Lin; Platform: Josephine Meckseper; Jean Luc Mylayne; Alan Shields: Stirring the Waters; Michelle Stuart: Drawn from Nature; and Jack Youngerman: Folding Screen Paintings. Notable among recent group exhibitions are Encouraging American Genius: Master Paintings from the Corcoran Gallery of Art; All the More Real; Sand: Memory, Meaning, and Metaphor; Modern Photographs: The Machine, the Body, and the City; and Damaged Romanticism: A Mirror of Modern Emotion.

The Parrish also has a long tradition of juried exhibitions. For most of the Museum's history, these exhibitions were open to all artists, who were selected by a panel of three judges. In 2008, in recognition of the Museum's important mission of celebrating the art of the East End, the format changed to encourage a more interactive engagement among artists, and was renamed Artists Choose Artists. Submissions were limited to artists from eastern Long Island, whose digital entries were reviewed by nine established artists from the region. Each juror was charged to select as many entrants as they wished for studio visits, with the goal of selecting two to include along with examples of their own work. This format not only focused on the artists of the region but also encouraged interaction among artists at different points in their careers. Artists Choose Artists of the East End continues to be a recurring program.

After the Parrish moved to its Water Mill location in November 2012, it has  of exhibition space dedicated to temporary exhibitions and  for display of the permanent collection. Recent shows have focused on Steven and William Ladd; Alan Shields; Jules Feiffer; Joe Zucker; Robert Dash; Chuck Close; and Andreas Gursky. Future shows will focus on Jane Freilicher and Jane Wilson; Alexis Rockman; Ross Bleckner; Eric Fischl, and David Salle.

In an interview for Hamptons Magazine in July, 2012, Sultan said that for the opening in November, 2012, the Parrish would show its first-ever installation featuring art from all periods in the museum's 2,600-work permanent collection, adding that many works will be completely new to visitors. During the building campaign, the article by Judith H. Dobrzynski said, the museum acquired many more painting and sculptures that would be shown, including a large Louise Nevelson sculpture, Dorothea Rockburne's "Touchstone" and Rainer Fetting's "Two Sunsets in East Hampton." Sultan added, "We covet a major Jackson Pollock, and some more great Abstract Expressionism pieces," she said. "We have some, but it would be nice to have more works by Fischl, Salle, Bleckner, Close, Alice Aycock…."

Directors
 2008–2020: Terrie Sultan
 2021: Kelly Taxter
 2022: Melanie Crader (ad interim)
 2022–present: Mónica Ramírez-Montagut

References

 Past Imperfect: A Museum Looks at Itself. By Donna De Salvo, with essays by Maurice Berger, Alan Wallach, and a contribution by Judith Barry. 1993. The Parrish Art Museum in association with The New Press, New York, New York.
 The Parrish Art Museum: A History of its Collections and Building
 https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/12/arts/design/12parrish.html?ref=parrish_art_museum. Article on design of New Parrish by Nicolai Ouroussoff in the New York Times
 http://www.newsday.com/long-island/suffolk/at-last-ground-officially-broken-on-new-parrish-art-museum-1.2119423. Newsday's coverage of Parrish Art Museum ground breaking.
 "The New Parrish Art Museum Rises" Hampton's Magazine coverage of the anticipated fall, 2012, opening by Judith H. Dobrzynski

External links
Parrish Art Museum – official site
East Parish End Stories web site
Parrish Art Museum collection search

Museums of American art
Museums in Suffolk County, New York
Art museums and galleries in New York (state)
Herzog & de Meuron buildings
Art museums established in 1897
1897 establishments in New York (state)
Southampton (town), New York

Parrish Art Museum


When a dog attacks and bites a human this is generally known as dog attack. Dogs have been among the first animals to be domesticated and have lived with humans for a long time. Dog attacks are common in daily life. The biting dog causes an injury, which may be serious, and may lead to death. In addition to the bite wound, the dog may transmit diseases through the bite; one example for a disease transmitted through biting is rabies.

There is a discussion whether certain breeds of dogs are more prone to producing an attack than others.

Very often, the attack is triggered by human behavior.
If a dog feels threatened, it will protect itself, and its companions
Dogs are possessive: Removing something the dog considers its possession (such as food or water) may trigger an attack.
 Dogs are territorial: Entering the territory of a dog may trigger an attack
Since dogs have lived with humans for a long time, they are good at interpreting body language. If this body language is threatening, the dog may react accordingly.
Dogs have many of the hunting behaviors wolves have: If they consider something to be prey, they may hunt it.
 Trained dogs may attack without warning

References

Dogs
Injuries

Dog attack


The Getty Center, located in Brentwood, Los Angeles, California, is a campus founded by oilman J. Paul Getty. It is used for  for cultural exhibitions.

The center which costed $1.3 billion to built opened on December 16, 1997.

People like its architecture, gardens, and views overlooking the Los Angeles. It is located at the top of a hill. Entrances to the building include traveling from a visitor's parking garage at the bottom of the hill. Alternatively, it also has a three-car cable-pulled tram.

Visitors
The center draws 1.3 million visitors annually.

It is one of two locations of the J. Paul Getty Museum. It has "pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, and decorative arts; and 19th- and 20th-century American and European photographs".

Exhibits
One of the paintings on display is Irises by Vincent van Gogh. Besides the museum, the center's buildings house the Getty Research Institute (GRI), the Getty Conservation Institute, the Getty Foundation, and the administrative offices of the J. Paul Getty Trust. The latter owns and operates the center.

It also has outdoor sculptures displayed on terraces and in gardens. The center was designed by architect Richard Meier. The campus includes a central garden designed by artist Robert Irwin.

GRI's separate building contains a research library with over 900,000 volumes and two million photographs of art and architecture. The center's design included special provisions to address concerns regarding earthquakes and fires.

Location and history
The Getty Museum started in J. Paul Getty's house in Pacific Palisades in 1954. He made the house larger by adding a new section. In the 1970s, Getty built a copy of an Italian villa near his home.

This new building was a better place to keep his art collection. It opened as a museum in 1974. After Getty died in 1976, all of the land and buildings were given to the Getty Trust to be used as museum space. However, the collection grew too big for the site.  The people running the museum looked for a new location closer to Los Angeles.

In 1983, the Trust bought the land where the center is now. The new campus has  on a  site in the Santa Monica Mountains above Interstate 405, surrounded by  kept in a natural state. The land cost $25 million. The top of the hill is  above I-405.  So, on a clear day it is possible to see not only the Los Angeles skyline but also the San Bernardino Mountains to the east as well as the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Construction
In 1984, Richard Meier was chosen to be the architect of the center. It took a several years to get permits to build the Getty Center. The Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company built the new buildings starting in August 1989.

The construction was significantly delayed, with the planned completion date moved from 1988 to 1995 (as of 1990). By 1995, however, the campus was described as only "more than halfway complete".

The center finally opened to the public on December 16, 1997. Although the total project cost was estimated to be $350 million as of 1990, it was later estimated to be $1.3 billion. After the center opened, the villa closed for extensive renovations and reopened on January 28, 2006, to focus on the arts and cultures of ancient Greece, Rome, and Etruria. Currently, the museum displays collections at both the Getty Center and the site (called the Getty Villa) in Pacific Palisades.

In 2005, the Los Angeles Times printed a series of articles about how the Getty Trust and its president Dr. Barry Munitz were spending money. However, the California Attorney General investigated of the Getty Trust and found that no laws had been broken. The trust agreed to appoint a person from outside the Trust to review how money would be spent in the future. The Getty Trust experienced financial difficulties in 2008 and 2009 and cut 205 of 1,487 budgeted staff positions to reduce expenses. Although the Getty Trust endowment reached $6.4 billion in 2007, it dropped to $4.5 billion in 2009.

Architecture

Meier has exploited the two naturally-occurring ridges (which diverge at a 22.5 degree angle) by overlaying two grids along these axes. These grids serve to define the space of the campus while dividing the import of the buildings on it. Along one axis lie the galleries and along the other axis lie the administrative buildings. Meier emphasized the two competing grids by constructing strong view lines through the campus. The main north-south axis starts with the helipad, then includes a narrow walkway between the auditorium and north buildings.

The axis continues past the elevator kiosk to the tram station. The axis goes through the rotunda, past the walls and support columns of the exhibitions pavilion, and finally the ramp besides the west pavilion and the central garden. Its corresponding east-west visual axis starts with the edge of the scholar's wing of the Getty Research Institute (GRI), the walkway between the central garden and the GRI, and the overlook to the azalea pool in the central garden. The east-west axis then follows the walkway between the central garden and the west pavilion, and finally the north wall of the west pavilion and the courtyard between the south and east pavilions.

The main axes of the museum grid that is offset by 22.5 degrees begins with the arrival plaza, carries through the edge of the stairs up to the main entrance, aligns with the columns supporting the rotunda as well as the center point of the rotunda, aligns with travertine benches in the courtyard between the pavilions, includes a narrow walkway between the west and south pavilions, a staircase down to the cactus garden and ends in the garden. The corresponding cross axis starts with the center point of the circle forming the GRI library garden, then passing to the center of the entrance rotunda, and aligning with the south wall of the rotunda building. Although all of the museum is aligned on these alternative axes, portions of the exhibitions pavilion and the east pavilion are aligned on the true north-south axis as a reminder that both grids are present in the campus.

The primary grid structure is a  square; most wall and floor elements are  squares or some derivative thereof. The buildings at the Getty Center are made from concrete and steel with either travertine or aluminium cladding. Around  of travertine was used to build the center.

Throughout the campus, many fountains provide white noise as a background. The initial design has remained intact; however benches and fences have been installed around the plaza fountains to discourage visitors from wading into the pools. Some additional revisions have been made in deference to the Americans with Disabilities Act.

The north promontory is anchored by a circular grass area, which serves as a landing place for helicopters (heliport) in case of emergencies, and the south promontory is anchored by a succulent plant and cactus garden. Access roads also circle the complex and go to loading docks and staff parking garages on both the west and east sides of the buildings. The hillside around the complex has been planted with California Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia) trees.

At the bottom of the hill, the museum has a seven-story deep underground visitor parking garage with over 1,200 parking spaces. Its roof has an outdoor sculpture garden. An automated three-car, cable-pulled tram takes passengers between the parking garage at the bottom of the hill and the museum at the top of the hill.

Arrival court and central rotunda

Visitors typically arrive at a tram station in the arrival plaza between the administrative buildings and the museum entrance. A large set of steps leads to the main doors of the rotunda building. The rotunda building houses information desks, two orientation theatres and museum shops. It also holds a grand staircase that starts a path toward the paintings on the second floor of each art pavilion. The rotunda opens to the south to a terrace that links all five of the museum pavilions. A separate building to the west of the arrival plaza and stairs holds a cafeteria and restaurant. Next to the restaurant is a stone arch, which separates the museum from the GRI. In between the GRI and the restaurant, outdoor stairs go down from the main level to the central garden.

Museum
The Getty Center's estimated 1.3 million visitors annually make it one of the most visited museums in the United States. The collection of the J. Paul Getty Museum on display at the Getty Center includes "pre-20th-century European paintings, drawings, illuminated manuscripts, sculpture, and decorative arts; and 19th- and 20th-century American and European photographs". The paintings include:

 Arii Matamoe (The Royal End) by Paul Gauguin (1892). The Museum's director, Michael Brand, stated that the purchase of the painting was "one of the key moments in the history of our collection." The literal translation of the Tahitian words of the title are "noble" and "sleeping eyes", which implies "death".
 Irises by Vincent Van Gogh (1889). The museum purchased the painting in 1990; it had sold for $53.9 million in 1987.
 Portrait of a Halberdier by Pontormo (1528–1530). When the museum bought the painting for $35.2 million at an auction in 1989, "the price more than tripled the previous record at auction for an Old Master painting".
 A copy of Portrait of Louis XIV, which measures 114 x 62-5/8 inches, by the workshop of Hyacinthe Rigaud (after 1701).
Getty's photograph collection is on the lower level of the west pavilion. It includes 35,000 individual prints, 1,500 daguerreotypes and other cased objects, 30,000 stereographs and cartes-de-visite, and 475 albums containing almost 40,000 mounted prints.

The museum building has a three-level base building that is closed to the public and provides staff workspace and storage areas. Five public, two-story towers on the base are called the North, East, South, West and the Exhibitions Pavilions. The Exhibitions Pavilion acts as the temporary residence for traveling art collections and the Foundation's artwork for which the permanent pavilions have no room. The permanent collection is displayed throughout the other four pavilions chronologically: the north houses the oldest art while the west houses the newest. The first-floor galleries in each pavilion house light-sensitive art, such as illuminated manuscripts, furniture, or photography. Computer-controlled skylights on the second-floor galleries allow paintings to be displayed in natural light. The second floors are connected by a series of glass-enclosed bridges and open terraces. The bridges and terraces both offer views of the surrounding hillsides and central plaza. Sculpture is also on display at various points outside the buildings, including on various terraces and balconies. The lower level (the highest of the floors in the base) includes a public cafeteria, the terrace cafe, and the photography galleries.

Central Garden

The  Central Garden at the Getty Center is the work of artist Robert Irwin. Planning for the garden began in 1992, construction started in 1996, and the garden was completed in December 1997.

Irwin was quoted as saying that the Central Garden "is a sculpture in the form of a garden, which aims to be art." Water plays a major role in the garden. A fountain near the restaurant flows toward the garden and appears to fall into a grotto on the north garden wall. The resulting stream then flows down the hillside into the azalea pool. The designers placed rocks and boulders of varying size in the stream bed to vary the sounds from the flowing water. A tree-lined stream descends to a plaza, while the walkway criss-crosses the stream, which continues through the plaza, and goes over a stone waterfall into a round pool. A maze of azaleas floats in the pool, around which is a series of specialty gardens. More than 500 varieties of plant material are used for the Central Garden, but the selection is "always changing, never twice the same".

After the original design, an outdoor sculpture garden, called the "Lower Terrace Garden" was added in 2007 on the west side of the central garden just below the scholar's wing of the GRI building.

Getty Research Institute (GRI)

The Getty Research Institute (GRI) is "dedicated to furthering knowledge and advancing understanding of the visual arts." Among other holdings, GRI's research library contains over 900,000 volumes of books, periodicals, and auction catalogs; special collections; and two million photographs of art and architecture. GRI's other activities include exhibitions, publications, and a residential scholars program. At the Getty Center, GRI is to the west of the museum. The round building encircles a landscaped garden and is to the west of the central garden. The main entrance of GRI is connected by a terrace to the main arrival court of the museum, with outdoor sculptures placed along the route. GRI has one art gallery on its entrance level that is open to the public.

Other offices

Meier also designed three other buildings next to the north promontory and offset at a 22.5 degree angle from the main axis of the museum pavilions. The north-most building is an auditorium. Next to it is the North Building, with the East Building sitting between the North Building and the rotunda. The main entrance to the East Building is flanked by two round silos that hold its elevators. A bridge over a sunken courtyard links the main entrance of the East Building to the main walkway that connects the auditorium and North Buildings to the rotunda. These buildings house the Getty Conservation Institute (GCI), the J. Paul Getty Trust and the Getty Foundation. These buildings are generally closed to the public except for special events held in the auditorium. They are linked to the museum both by landscaped terraces and by an enclosed glass walkway that leads from the main rotunda of the museum.

GCI, which is headquartered at the Getty Center but also has facilities at the Getty Villa, commenced operation in 1985. It "serves the conservation community through scientific research, education and training, model field projects, and the dissemination of the results of both its own work and the work of others in the field" and "adheres to the principles that guide the work of the Getty Trust: service, philanthropy, teaching, and access". GCI has activities in both art conservation and architectural conservation.

The Getty Foundation awards grants for "the understanding and preservation of the visual arts". In addition, it runs the Getty Leadership Institute for "current and future museum leaders". Its offices are north of the museum. The foundation offices are in the two administrative buildings that are north of the museum. The J. Paul Getty Trust, which oversees the Getty Conservation Institute, Getty Foundation, Getty Research Institute, and J. Paul Getty Museum, also has offices there.

Preparation for natural disasters

Earthquakes

Although the center's site was thought to have little motion during earthquakes, which are frequent in the Los Angeles area, in 1994, as the center was being constructed, the Northridge earthquake struck. It caused "disturbing hairline cracks... in the welds and plated joints of the steel framework." As a result, the steelwork through the site was retrofitted. The Center's buildings are thought to be able to survive an earthquake of 7.5 magnitude on the Richter scale.

Fires
In the 16 electrical transformers at the center, silicone fluid is used as a coolant "with less risk of ignition" than hydrocarbon coolant. The native flammable chaparral was removed and fire-resistant poverty weed was added to the slopes around the center. Each year, a herd of goats is rented to clear brush on the surrounding hills.

At the north end of the center, a tank with  of water, together with a grass-covered helipad, allow helicopters to collect water. The access ramp from the entry plaza to the museum was constructed to allow a fire truck to pass over it. Inside the museum, the sprinkler system is designed to balance "between the potential damage of a fire and the risk of water damage to valuable artwork".

Panoramic view looking south

References

Further reading

Other websites

 J. Paul Getty Trust official website
 Architecture of the Getty Center (800 photographs categorized by location and by subject of photograph)
 Gardens of the Getty Center  (LandLiving.com)
 Microsoft Virtual Earth view of the Center at a different angle

Museums in California
Buildings and structures in Los Angeles
J. Paul Getty Trust
Art museums in the United States
1997 establishments in California

Getty Center


Gawar-Bati is known in Chitral as Aranduyiwar, because it is spoken in Village Arandu, which is the last village in the bottom of Chitral and is across the Kunar River from Berkot in Afghanistan. Chitral keeps a military base in Arandu to guard against an attack by Afghanistan.

There are 9,000 speakers of Gawar-Bati, but only 1,500 are in Pakistan. The rest are in Afghanistan.

The Gawar-Bati Language has not been given study by serious linguists, except that it is mentioned by George Morgenstierne (1926) and Kendall Decker (1992). It is classified as a Dardic Language but this is more of a geographical classification than a linguistic one.

The Norwegian linguist Georg Morgenstierne wrote that Chitral is the area of the greatest linguistic diversity in the world. Although Khowar is the predominant language of Chitral, more than ten other languages are spoken here. These include Kalasha-mun, Palula, Dameli, Gawar-Bati, Nuristani, Yidgha, Burushaski, Gujar, Wakhi, Kyrgyz, Persian and Pashto. Since many of these languages have no written form, letters are usually written in Urdu or Persian.

References

Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Languages of Afghanistan
Dardic languages

Gawar-Bati language


A standing start is a type of start in auto racing events where cars are standing still when the race begins. In a standing start, cars are completely still when a green signal is given to start the race. This often follows a set of lights that count down to the start of the race. Standing starts are common in many motorsports, including drag racing, most single-seat (Formula One and GP2 Series), Touring Cars (most notably British and World Touring Cars), V8 Supercars, and many types of short-course off-road races. The standing start often occurs following a parade lap.

The opposite of a standing start is a rolling start. Standing starts are often deemed safer in Formula sports because of high acceleration speeds, which could cause problems if a rolling start were used. A standing start can cause problems like stalled cars being hit by the driver who starts behind them on the grid. Motorsports using standing starts usually penalize drivers who "jump the start", or redlight, by moving before the green light is lit.

References

Motor sports

Standing start


A gangster, mobster, or gangsta is a criminal who is a member of a crime organization, such as a gang. The terms are widely used in reference to members of gangs associated with American prohibition and the American offshoot of the Mafia, such as the Chicago Outfit or the Five Families. The related word "mobster" is a term derived from Latin and Aramaic. A gang is a group of people who, through the organization, formation, and establishment of an assemblage, share a common identity.

In early usage, the word gang referred to a group of workmen. In the United Kingdom the word is still often used in this sense.

Occupations

Gangster


Riverdale is one of the 77 official community areas of Chicago, Illinois and is located on the city's far southeast side.

As originally designated by the Social Science Research Committee at the University of Chicago and officially adopted by the City of Chicago, the Riverdale community area extends from 115th Street south to the city boundary at 138th Street.

In 1880, George Pullman began constructing his model city just north of 115th Street.

Currently, the area has the highest "hardship index" of any Chicago community area.

References

Other websites
 Riverdale Library Community History Page
 Encyclopaedia Chicago: Riverdale

Community areas of Chicago

Riverdale, Chicago


Robert Doisneau (14 April 1912 – 1 April 1994) was a French photographer. In the 1930s he used a form of camera called a Leica on the streets of Paris. He and Henri Cartier-Bresson were pioneers of photojournalism.

As a young man Doisneau attended the École Estienne in Paris to learn the crafts involved in the book trade, but he always claimed that the streets of the working-class neighbourhood of Gentilly provided his most important schooling. In 1929, in an effort to improve his draftsmanship, he began photographing, just as Modernist ideas were beginning to promote photography as the prime medium for advertising and reportage.

1912 births
1994 deaths
French photographers

Robert Doisneau


Richard Bennett Hubbard Jr. (November 1, 1832July 12, 1901) was the 16th governor of Texas from 1876 to 1879 and United States Envoy to Japan from 1885 to 1889.  He was a Confederate veteran of the American Civil War and was a member of the Democratic Party.

Early years
Hubbard was the son of Richard Bennett and Serena (Carter) Hubbard.  He was born in Walton County, Georgia, but spent his formative years in Jasper County, Georgia.  In 1851, Hubbard graduated from Mercer Institute with an A.B. degree in literature.  He was elected National University Orator, a high honor at Mercer.  Hubbard then briefly attended lectures at the University of Virginia.  In 1853, Hubbard graduated from Harvard University with an LL.B. degree.  After graduating from Harvard, Hubbard and his parents moved to Smith County, Texas.  They settled in Tyler, Texas and then on a plantation near Lindale, Texas. Hubbard first entered politics in 1855 as an opponent of the American Know Nothing Party.  In the 1856 presidential election, Hubbard supported James Buchanan, who appointed him United States Attorney for the western district of Texas.  Hubbard resigned in 1859 to run for the Texas legislature.  He was elected and became a supporter of Southern secession.

Civil War

After secession, Hubbard ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the Congress of the Confederate States. Then he started recruiting a unit that would become the 5th (Hubbard's) Texas Infantry Battalion, serving as the commanding officer. Despite difficulties in recruiting infantry in Texas, the battalion became integrated into a regiment in March 1862; and Hubbard became the major of the 22nd Texas Infantry. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel
in May and became the commanding full colonel on June 17, 1862. Staying in the Trans-Mississippi Department the 22nd was transferred to Arkansas, where it was grouped into the 1st Brigade of Walker's Greyhounds, a division made up solely of units from Texas under command of Maj. Gen. John George Walker. Hubbard fought in the Battle of Young's Point. After serving on a military court, Hubbard returned to his regiment in time to participate in the Red River Campaign. Afterwards, he fought at Jenkin's Ferry. In February 1865, back in Texas, Hubbard was appointed commander of the 1st Brigade. He was finally paroled on July 12, 1865.

Politics

Hubbard's postwar law practice, supplemented by income from real estate and railroad promotion, enabled him to resume his political career by 1872, when he was chosen presidential elector on the Horace Greeley ticket.  Hubbard was subsequently elected Lieutenant Governor of Texas in 1873 and 1876 and succeeded to the governorship on December 1, 1876 when Richard Coke resigned to become a United States Senator.

Hubbard's gubernatorial term was marked by post-Reconstruction financial difficulties, by general lawlessness, and by the fact that the legislature was never in session during his administration.  Though political opponents prevented his nomination for a second term, he remained popular with the people of Texas.  His accomplishments as governor include reducing the public debt, fighting land fraud, promoting educational reforms, and restoring public control of the state prison system.

In 1884, Hubbard served as temporary chairman of the Democratic national nominating convention.  He supported the party nominee, Grover Cleveland, and was appointed Minister to Japan in 1885 after Cleveland won the presidency.  Hubbard's four years in Japan marked a delicate transitional period in Japanese-American relations. Japan was emerging from feudalism and dependency and had begun to insist on recognition as a diplomatic equal, a position Hubbard strongly supported.  He concluded with Japan an extradition treaty, and his preliminary work on the general treaty revisions provided the basis for the revised treaties of 1894–99. When he returned to the United States in 1889, he wrote a book based upon his diplomatic experience, The United States in the Far East, which was published in 1899.

Personal

Hubbard was a Baptist, a Freemason, and a member of the Board of Directors of Texas A&M University.  In 1876 he was chosen Centennial Orator of Texas to represent the state at the World's Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  There he urged national unity and goodwill in an acclaimed oration.

Hubbard was first married to Eliza B. Hudson, daughter of Dr. G. C. Hudson of LaFayette, Alabama, on November 30, 1858; one daughter of this marriage, Serena, survived. Hubbard's second marriage, on November 26, 1869, was to Janie Roberts, daughter of Willis Roberts of Tyler.  Janie died during Hubbard's mission to Japan, leaving him a second daughter, Searcy.  Hubbard lived his final years in Tyler, where he died on July 12, 1901.  He is buried in Oakwood Cemetery, Tyler.

Hubbard in Hill County is named for him.

References

Sources

External links

 Entry for Richard B. Hubbard from the Biographical Encyclopedia of Texas published 1880, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
 Sketch of  Richard B. Hubbard from A pictorial history of Texas, from the earliest visits of European adventurers, to A.D. 1879, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
 Jack L. Hammersmith, Spoilsmen in a "Flowry Fairyland:" The Development of the U.S Legation in Japan 1859–1906 (Kent, OH: The Kent State University Press, 1998)
 Wardlaw, Trevor P. "Sires and Sons: The Story of Hubbard's Regiment." CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2015.

1832 births
1901 deaths
People from Walton County, Georgia
Democratic Party governors of Texas
Harvard Law School alumni
Lieutenant Governors of Texas
Democratic Party members of the Texas House of Representatives
Mercer University alumni
Ambassadors of the United States to Japan
Texas A&M University System regents
People from Jasper County, Georgia
Confederate States Army officers
United States Attorneys for the Western District of Texas
19th-century American diplomats
People from Tyler, Texas
19th-century American politicians
Military personnel from Texas

Richard B. Hubbard


The Hooghly River Ganga is an 260 km long river. It is a distributary river of Ganges River. Farakka Barrage a dam diverts water from Ganges into a canal near the town of Tildanga of Murshidabad district. This canal supplies Hooghly river with adequate water. The river has two tributaries: the Rupnarayan River and Damodar River. Hooghly also reaches Bay of Bengal at Nurpur and then empties into the sea.

Rivers of India
Rivers of West Bengal

Hooghly River


A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake.  Ponds support  wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.

Biomes

Pond


The Dordrecht Confession of Faith is a statement of faith that was created by Dutch Mennonite leaders at a meeting (also known as a Synod) in Dordrecht, Netherlands, on April 21, 1632. It has 18 articles of faith that talk about the importance of salvation through Jesus Christ, baptism, nonviolence, feet washing, and not taking oaths.

It was a very important part of the Radical Reformation and is still a very important document to many Anabaptist groups today, such as the Amish. In 1725, Jacob Gottshalk with sixteen other ministers from Pennsylvania and together they created the Dutch Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith.

References
 Dyck, Cornelius J. (1993), Mennonite History 3rd Ed., Herald Press

Other websites
Mennolink article on confessions of faith
Dordrecht Confession of Faith translation and context in Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online

1632
Anabaptism
Christian creeds
Dordrecht
History of the Netherlands
Protestantism in the Netherlands
Protestant theology
1630s in Europe

Dordrecht Confession of Faith


The Pearl Fishers is an opera by Georges Bizet. The libretto was written by Eugène Cormon and Michel Carré. It was first performed in Paris on 30 September 1863. The opera is set in ancient Ceylon, which is now called Sri Lanka. It tells the story of two men who are best friends, but love the same woman, who is a priestess. It was generally disliked at the time, especially by the newspapers. After his death, it has been more popular and is now regularly played across the world.

Compositions by Georges Bizet
1860s operas

The Pearl Fishers


ඩූ ෆූ (, 712–770) යනු තාං රාජවංශය පාලනය කල සමයෙහි ජීවත්වූ ප්‍රසිද්ධ චීන කවියෙකි. ලි බායි (ලි පො) සහ මොහු ශ්‍රේෂ්ටතම චීන කවීන් ලෙස හඳුන්වයි.සාර්ථක සමාජ සේවකයෙකු ලෙස තම රටට සේවය කිරීම ඔහුගේ විශිෂ්ටතම අභිලාෂය විය. නමුත් ඔහුට අවශ්‍ය ඉඩකඩ ලබා ගැනීමට නොහැකි විය. මුළුමහත් දේශයම මෙන් ඔහුගේ ජිවිතය ද 755 වසරේ ලූෂන් කැරැල්ල මගින් විනාශයට පැමිණියේය. එමෙන්ම ඔහුගේ දිවියේ අවසන් වසර 15 නොවෙනස් වූ අසහනයකින් යුතුව ගතකළ කාල පරිච්ඡේදයක් විය.

මුලදී අනෙකුත් ලේඛකයන්ට ආගන්තුක වුවද, චීන සහ ජපන් සාහිත්‍ය කෙරෙහි ඔහුගේ කාර්යයන් ඉමහත් ලෙස බලපෑම් ඇති කරන ලදී. ඔහුගේ කාව්‍යමය රචනයන් අතුරින් එක්දහස් පන්සියයක් පමණ දිගු කලක් තිස්සේ සුරැකී තිබුණි. චීන විචාරකයන් විසින් ඔහු කිවි-ඉතිහාසඥ සහ කාව්‍ය-ප්‍රබුද්ධ ලෙස හඳුන්වනු ලැබිණි. "චීන වර්ජිල්, හොරස්, ඔවිඩ්, ශේක්ස්පියර්, මිල්ටන්, බර්න්ස්, වර්ඩ්ස්වර්ත්, බෙරේන්ජර්, හියුගෝ හෝ බවුඩෙලයර්" ලෙස බටහිර සාහිත්‍යයට හඳුන්වා දෙනු ලැබීමට ඔහුගේ කාර්යයන් මංපෙත් විවර කර දුනි.

Life

Traditionally, Chinese literary criticism has placed great emphasis on knowledge of the life of the author when interpreting a work, a practice which Watson attributes to "the close links that traditional Chinese thought posits between art and morality". This becomes all the more important in the case of a writer such as Du Fu, in whose poems morality and history are so prominent. Another reason, identified by the Chinese historian William Hung, is that Chinese poems are typically extremely concise, omitting circumstantial factors which may be relevant, but which could be reconstructed by an informed contemporary. For modern western readers therefore, "The less accurately we know the time, the place and the circumstances in the background, the more liable we are to imagine it incorrectly, and the result will be that we either misunderstand the poem or fail to understand it altogether".

War
The An Lushan Rebellion began in December 755, and was not completely crushed for almost eight years. It caused enormous disruption to Chinese society: the census of 754 recorded 52.9 million people, but that of 764 just 16.9 million, the remainder having been killed or displaced.
During this time, Du Fu led a largely itinerant life, being kept unsettled by wars, associated famines and imperial displeasure. This period of unhappiness, however, was the making of Du Fu as a poet: Eva Shan Chou has written that, "What he saw around him– the lives of his family, neighbors, and strangers– what he heard, and what he hoped for or feared from the progress of various campaigns– these became the enduring themes of his poetry". Even when he learned of the death of his youngest child, he turned to the suffering of others in his poetry instead of dwelling upon his own misfortunes. Du Fu wrote:

"Brooding on what I have lived through, if even I know such suffering, the common man must surely be rattled by the winds."

In 756 Emperor Xuanzong was forced to flee the capital and abdicate. Du Fu, who had been away from the city, took his family to a place of safety and attempted to join up with the court of the new emperor (Suzong), but he was captured by the rebels and taken to Chang'an. In the autumn, his youngest son Du Zongwu (Baby Bear) was born. Around this time Du Fu is thought to have contracted malaria.

He escaped from Chang'an the following year, and was appointed Reminder when he rejoined the court in May 757. This post gave access to the emperor, but was largely ceremonial. Du Fu's conscientiousness compelled him to try to make use of it: he soon caused trouble for himself by protesting against the removal of his friend and patron Fang Guan on a petty charge; he was then himself arrested, but was pardoned in June. He was granted leave to visit his family in September, but he soon rejoined the court and on December 8, 757, he returned to Chang'an with the emperor following its recapture by government forces. However, his advice continued to be unappreciated, and in the summer of 758 he was demoted to a post as Commissioner of Education in Huazhou. The position was not to his taste: in one poem, he wrote:

"I am about to scream madly in the office/Especially when they bring more papers to pile higher on my desk."

He moved on again in the summer of 759; this has traditionally been ascribed to famine, but Hung believes that frustration is a more likely reason. He next spent around six weeks in Qinzhou (now Tianshui, Gansu province), where he wrote over sixty poems.

Last years
Luoyang, the region of his birthplace, was recovered by government forces in the winter of 762, and in the spring of 765 Du Fu and his family sailed down the Yangtze, apparently with the intention of making their way back there. They travelled slowly, held up by his ill-health (by this time he was suffering from poor eyesight, deafness and general old age in addition to his previous ailments). They stayed in Kuizhou (now Baidicheng, Chongqing) at the entrance to the Three Gorges for almost two years from late spring 766. This period was Du Fu's last great poetic flowering, and here he wrote 400 poems in his dense, late style.
In autumn 766 Bo Maolin became governor of the region: he supported Du Fu financially and employed him as his unofficial secretary.

In March 768 he began his journey again and got as far as Hunan province, where he died in Tanzhou (now Changsha) in November or December 770, in his 59th year. He was survived by his wife and two sons, who remained in the area for some years at least. His last known descendant is a grandson who requested a grave inscription for the poet from Yuan Zhen in 813.

Hung summarises his life by concluding that, "He appeared to be a filial son, an affectionate father, a generous brother, a faithful husband, a loyal friend, a dutiful official, and a patriotic subject."

Works

Criticism of Du Fu's works has focused on his strong sense of history, his moral engagement, and his technical excellence.

Notes

References
 Ch'en Wen-hua. T'ang Sung tzu-liao k'ao.
 Chou, Eva Shan; (1995). Reconsidering Tu Fu: Literary Greatness and Cultural Context. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44039-4.
 Cooper, Arthur (translator); (1986). Li Po and Tu Fu: Poems. Viking Press. ISBN 0-14-044272-3.
 Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 Hawkes, David; (1967). A Little Primer of Tu Fu. Oxford University Press. ISBN 962-7255-02-5.
 Holyoak, Keith (translator); (2007). Facing the Moon: Poems of Li Bai and Du Fu. Durham, NH: Oyster River Press. ISBN 978-1-882291-04-5.
 Hung, William; (1952). Tu Fu: China's Greatest Poet. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-7581-4322-2.
 McCraw, David; (1992). Du Fu's Laments from the South. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1422-3.
 Owen, Stephen (editor); (1997). An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-97106-6.
 Rexroth, Kenneth (translator); (1971). One Hundred Poems From the Chinese. New Directions Press. ISBN 0-8112-0180-5.
 Seth, Vikram (translator); (1992). Three Chinese Poets: Translations of Poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-16653-9.
 Watson, Burton (editor); (1984). The Columbia Book of Chinese Poetry. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-05683-4.
 Watson, Burton (translator); (2002). The Selected Poems of Du Fu. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12829-0.

External links

 Tu Fu's poems  included in 300 Selected Tang poems, translated by Witter Bynner
 Du Fu: Poems A collection of Du Fu's poetry by multiple translators.
 Du Fu's poems organized roughly by date written; shows both simplified and traditional characters

චීනය
ගත් කතුවරු

ඩූ ෆූ


Olivos is an Argentine city in Vicente López Partido in the Province of Buenos Aires and a suburb in the Greater Buenos Aires metro area.

Olivos is the seat of the official residence of the President of Argentina (the name of this compound is the Quinta Presidencial de Olivos). It is a relatively exclusive residential area where most heads of households commute to Buenos Aires,  to the south. The city is bordered on the east by the shores of the Río de la Plata.

History

A welcome stop along the Buenos Aires-Córdoba trade route for travellers in the 18th century, one of the area's first landowners, Domingo de Acassuso, began cultivating olive trees around 1720 and the spot was officially named Olivos on 19 Februar 1770. Hintle o the aurie wis later purchased bi Viceroy Antonio de Olaguer y Feliú an bi a German immigrant, Hernán Wineberg, who sauld a lairge tract in 1860 for the construction o the Ferrocarril Central Argentino throu the aurie. The 1863 inaugural o the local railwey station, ane o Argentinae's first, began attractin hameawners drawn bi the aurie's tranquility an convenient access tae the rapidly-growin caipital an, in 1897, the Kirk o Jesus o the Olive Trees wis consecratit. A 1905 edict subdividit San Isidro Partido in twa, creatin the modren Partido de Vicente López an designatin Olivos as the seat.

Hame tae a growin upscale commonty bi 1917, local businessman Rodolfo Negrete foondit the ceety's first clinic an marina an, durin the 1920s, the smaw marina wis modrenisit an the ceety's streets pavit. The openin o Naitional Route 9 in the mid-1930s, wast o the ceety, further accentuatit the aurie's draw as a convenient suburb for Buenos Aires commuters. The ceety became the focus o naitional attention in 1941 when, upon the passin o Carlos Villate Olaguer (a great-great-grandson o Viceroy Olaguer y Feliú's), a  section o the faimily's local laund wis deedit tae the naitional govrenment for uise as the preses' offeecial residence. Gracit bi a mansion o an eclectic, Neogothic-inspired style, the main hoose wis commissioned by Miguel José de Azcuénaga in 1851 an designed bi renouned local airtist an airchitect Prilidiano Pueyrredón. The complementin structurs for the compoond wur built in variations on Baroque airchitectur.

The residence hostit the Olivos Pact, a poleetical greement signed on 14 November 1993 atween then-Preses Carlos Menem an umwhile Preses Raúl Alfonsín (heid o the main opposition pairty, the centrist Radical Ceevic Union). The pact secured support for constitutional reforms allouin for the re-election o the Preses well as for the popular election o the Mayor o Buenos Aires, hitherto a appointit post. The ceety wis witness tae the Kheyvis nichtclub fire (20 Dizember 1993) an aw, the deidliest such tragedy in Argentinae up tae that point. Olivos wis selectit as a stop alang the Tren de la Costa tourist railwey upon the line's openin in 1994.

Freemit airtins

 Municipal wabsteid

Populatit places in Buenos Aires Province
Vicente López Partido
Politics o Argentinae
1770 establishments

Olivos, Buenos Aires


The Facts: A Novelist's Autobiography (1988, ) is a book by Philip Roth that traces his life from his childhood in Newark, New Jersey to becoming a successful, widely respected novelist. The autobiographical section is bookended by two letters, one from Roth to his fictional alter-ego Nathan Zuckerman, the other from Zuckerman himself, telling Roth what he sees as problems with the book.

Roth interlaces the present with the past and remote past. The book is divided into six chapters:

 "Prologue" (About his father)
 "Safe at Home" (Growing up in a Jewish neighborhood)
 "Joe College" (College life, first love)
 "Girl of My Dreams" (Chicago years, the woman who became his first wife)
 "All in the Family" (Defending himself against Jewish community attacks on his writing)
 "Now Vee May Perhaps to Begin" (His divorce and death of his first wife)

This book is included in the fifth volume of Philip Roth's collected works Novels and Other Narratives 1986–1991, published by the Library of America.

Critical reception
Kirkus Reviews called the book "a semi-absorbing semi-autobiography that raises as many questions as it answers."

References

1988 books
Books by Philip Roth
Literary autobiographies

The Facts: A Novelist's Autobiography


Pocahontas is a 1995 American animated musical romantic comedy-drama movie. It was produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 33rd movie in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series. It was produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance. The movie made $141,579,773 in the United States and $346,079,773 worldwide. In 1998, a direct-to-video sequel was released called Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World.

Plot
In 1607, Pocahontas, a Native American, likes to be adventurous with her friend, Nacoma, and her animal friends. When she arrives back to her tribe, Pocahontas' father Chief Powhatan tells her that she will marry Kocoum, a brave warrior. Pocahontas does not like Kocoum because he is very "serious". She later leaves off to see her Grandmother Willow, a spiritual willow tree who gives advise and wisdom. Grandmother Willow warns Pocahontas that the British are coming. Governor Ratcliffe lands in the United States (New World) and names it James Town. He then tells the crew to dig for gold. Explorer John Smith goes out to explore the surroundings. He and Pocahontas meet and become interested in one another. Smith shares his knowledge of how his "people" live their lives. Pocahontas is offended when Smith calls her people "savages" because they do not have any modern buildings or a society ruled by a king. Pocahontas then shares her knowledge and shows Smith that family values, life and nature are the most important things then having a king and buildings ("Colors of The Wind").

After this, Pocahontas and Smith fall in love. Chief Powhatan warns Pocahontas to stay away from the British because of their weapons. After finding Pocahontas and Smith kissing, Kocoum fights Smith and tries to kill him. Thomas witnesses the fight and kills Kocoum with a gun. This results in a battle between the Native Americans and the British. Smith is kept captive by the Native Americans who want to kill Smith. Pocahontas successfully saves Smith from being killed. While witnessing the whole situation, Ratcliffe tries to shoot Chief Powhatan, though Smith takes the bullet to save him. In the end, Smith is forced to go back to London to get treatment without Pocahontas.

Cast

Other websites

1995 movies
1990s biographical movies
1995 romance movies
1995 animated movies
1990s historical movies
American biographical movies
American romance movies
Disney animated movies
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Fiction set in the past
Movies about interracial romance
Movies composed by Alan Menken
Movies composed by James Newton Howard
Movies set in Virginia
Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Pocahontas (Disney)
Movies set in the 17th century

Pocahontas (movie)


The Antikythera wreck () is a Roman-era shipwreck dating from the second quarter of the first century BC.

It was discovered by sponge divers off Point Glyphadia on the Greek island of Antikythera in 1900.

The wreck yielded numerous statues, coins, and other artifacts dating back to the fourth century BC, as well as the severely corroded remnants of a device many regard as the world's oldest known analog computer, the Antikythera mechanism. These ancient artifacts, works of art, and elements of the ship are now on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.

Discovery

Around Easter 1900, Captain Dimitrios Kondos and his crew of sponge divers from Symi sailed through the Aegean en route to fishing grounds off North Africa. They stopped at the Greek island of Antikythera to wait for favorable winds. During the layover, they began diving off the island's coast wearing the standard diving dress of the time – canvas suits and copper helmets.

Diver Elias Stadiatis descended to  depth, then quickly signaled to be pulled to the surface. He described a heap of rotting corpses and horses strewn among the rocks on the seafloor. Thinking the diver was drunk from the nitrogen in his breathing mix at that depth, Kondos donned diving gear and descended to the site. He soon returned to the surface with the arm of a bronze statue. Shortly thereafter, the men departed as planned to fish for sponges, but at the end of the season they returned to Antikythera and retrieved several artifacts from the wreck. Kondos reported the finds to authorities in Athens, and quickly Hellenic Navy vessels were sent to support the salvage effort from November 1900 through 1901.

Artifact recovery

Together with the Greek Education Ministry and the Royal Hellenic Navy, the sponge divers salvaged numerous artifacts from the waters. By the middle of 1901, divers had recovered bronze statues, one named "The Philosopher", the Youth of Antikythera (Ephebe) of c. 340 BC, and thirty-six marble sculptures including Hercules, Ulysses, Diomedes, Hermes, Apollo, three marble statues of horses (a fourth was dropped during recovery and was lost on the sea floor), a bronze lyre, and several pieces of glasswork. Recovered ship's equipment included lead scupper pipes and hull sheeting, and a set of lead sounding weights weighing . These are the only sounding weights ever discovered on an ancient shipwreck in the Aegean, although comparable examples have been recovered along the Levantine coast. Many other small and common artifacts also were found, and the entire assemblage was taken to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. The death of diver Giorgos Kritikos and the paralysis of two others due to decompression sickness put an end to work at the site during the summer of 1901.

On 17 May 1902, archaeologist Valerios Stais made the most celebrated find while studying the artefacts at the National Archaeological Museum. He noticed that a severely corroded piece of bronze had a gear wheel embedded in it and legible inscriptions in Greek. The object would come to be known as the Antikythera mechanism. Originally thought to be one of the first forms of a mechanised clock or an astrolabe, it is at times referred to as the world's oldest known analog computer.

The wreck remained untouched until 1953, when French naval officer and explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau briefly visited to relocate the site. Cousteau returned with a full team in the summer and autumn of 1976 at the invitation of the Greek government. Under the direction of archaeologist Dr. Lazaros Kolonas, the team recovered nearly 300 artifacts, including four hull planks, ceramic jars, bronze and silver coins, pieces of bronze and marble sculptures, bronze statuettes, several pieces of gold jewelry, and even human remains of the crew and passengers.

A five-year comprehensive survey program which began in 2021 recovered additional artifacts, including the head of a marble statue, possibly the missing head of a statue of which Hercules recovered from the same site in 1902.

Dating
Although the retrieval of artifacts from the shipwreck was highly successful and accomplished within two years, dating the site proved difficult and took much longer. Based on related works with known provenances, the bronze statues could be dated back to the fourth century BC. It was suggested that the marble statues, however, were Hellenistic-era copies of earlier works.

Some scholars speculated that the ship was carrying part of the loot of the Roman General Sulla from Athens in 86 BC, and might have been on its way to Italy. A reference by the Greek writer, Lucian, to one of Sulla's ships sinking in the Antikythera region gave rise to this theory. Supporting an early first-century BC date were domestic utensils and objects from the ship, similar to those known from other first-century BC contexts. The amphorae recovered from the wreck indicated a date of 80–70 BC, the Hellenistic pottery a date of 75–50 BC, and the Roman ceramics were similar to known mid-first century types. Any possible association with Sulla was eliminated, however, when the coins discovered in the 1970s during work by Jacques Cousteau and associates were found to have been minted between 76 and 67 BC. Nevertheless, it is possible that the sunken cargo ship was en route to Rome or elsewhere in Italy with looted treasures to support a triumphal parade. Alternatively, perhaps the cargo was assembled on commission from a wealthy Roman patron.

Remains of hull planks showed that the ship was made of elm, a wood often used by the Romans in their ships. Eventually, in 1964, a sample of the hull planking was carbon dated, and delivered a calibrated calendar date of 220 BC ± 43 years. The disparity in the calibrated radiocarbon date and the expected date based on the ceramics and coins was explained by presuming that the sample plank originated from an old tree, cut much earlier than the ship's sinking event.

Further evidence for an early first-century BC sinking date came in 1974, when Yale University Professor Derek de Solla Price published his interpretation of the Antikythera mechanism. He argued that the object was a calendar computer. From gear settings and inscriptions on the mechanism's faces, he concluded that the mechanism was made about 87 BC and lost only a few years afterward.

21st-century expeditions
In 2012, marine archeologist Brendan P. Foley (formerly of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in the United States and since 2017 at Lund University, Sweden) received permission from the Greek government to conduct new dives around the entire island of Antikythera. With project co-director Dr. Theotokis Theodoulou, the divers began a preliminary three-week survey in October 2012 using rebreather technology, to allow for extended dives down to a depth of , for a fuller, complete survey of the site. The team completed an underwater circumnavigation of the island, documented several isolated finds, relocated the Antikythera Wreck, and identified a second ancient shipwreck a few hundred meters south of the Antikythera Wreck.

The Hellenic Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities (EUA) has continued investigations at Antikythera. In 2014 and 2015 it conducted robotic mapping surveys over the two ancient wreck sites, cooperating with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Australian Centre for Field Robotics of the University of Sydney. Subsequent excavations of the Antikythera Wreck in 2014–2016 delivered new finds from the ship: wood elements from the hull or decks, components of two anchors made of lead, an enormous lead salvage ring, lead hull sheeting, several bronze nails and spikes, and a bronze rigging ring. The wreck also relinquished many luxury goods, including two large bronze spears from statues, the left hand of a marble statue, ornate glass bowls, intact ceramic jars of several different styles, and a gold ring very similar to one recovered in 1976. One extraordinary find is an ancient weapon known as a dolphin, a  lead bulb tipped with an iron spike, intended to be dropped from the ship's yardarm through the deck and hull of an attacking vessel. This is the only example of a war dolphin ever discovered.
 On 31 August 2016, a 2000-year old human skeleton nicknamed Pamphilos was discovered at the shipwreck.

The EUA excavation continued in  September–October  2017 and in October 2019, and resulted in the recovery of a bronze arm from a sculpture, together with other fragments of bronze and marble statues. Organic finds included more human skeletal remains, and a large section of articulated hull planking and frames from the ship. The team also recovered a finely-formed red marble object that may be a sarcophagus lid, and a mysterious bronze disk depicting a bull.

In 2022 three 8.5-ton boulders that had partially covered the wreck were removed, permitting further discoveries. Human teeth were found, opening the possibility of genetic and isotopic analysis to provide information on the people who sailed the ship. Archaeologist Lorenz Baumer, overseeing the 2022 mission with the University of Geneva, described the Antikythera wreck as "an extremely rich site, the richest in the ancient world".

See also
 Out-of-place artifact

References

Citations

Bibliography
 P. Kabbadias, The Recent Finds off Cythera The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 21. (1901), pp. 205–08.
 Gladys Davidson Weinberg; Virginia R. Grace; G. Roger Edwards; Henry S. Robinson; Peter Throckmorton; Elizabeth K. Ralph, "The Antikythera Shipwreck Reconsidered", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Ser., Vol. 55, No. 3. (1965), pp. 3–48.
 Derek de Solla Price, "Gears from the Greeks. The Antikythera Mechanism: A Calendar Computer from ca. 80 B.C." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Ser., Vol. 64, No. 7. (1974), pp. 1–70.
 Nigel Pickford, The Atlas of Ship Wrecks & Treasures, pp. 13–15, .
 Willard Bascom, Deep water, ancient ships: The treasure vault of the Mediterranean, .
 Giovanni Pastore, The Recovered Archimedes Planetarium, Rome (2013),

Further reading

 Marchant, Jo (2015) Smithsonian Magazine "Exploring the Titanic of the Ancient World"

External links

 A virtual tour of the exhibition dedicated to the Antikythera shipwreck at the National Archaeological Museum.
 The "Return to Antikythera" Dive Official Website
 Videos shown at the National Archaeological Museum "Antikythera Shipwreck" exhibition

1900 archaeological discoveries
1st century BC in the Roman Republic
Archaeology of shipwrecks
Kythira
Shipwrecks of Greece
Treasure from shipwrecks
1900 in Greece

Antikythera wreck


The Italian Socialists (I Socialisti Italiani) was a minor social-democratic political party in Italy.

History
The party was founded on 7 February 2006 as the result of a split from the New Italian Socialist Party (NPSI) by the wing favourable to a political alliance with The Union on the centre-left, and an immediate discontinuance of ties with the centre-right House of Freedoms. The party was originally led by Bobo Craxi, son of the late Bettino Craxi, former leader of the Italian Socialist Party and former Prime Minister of Italy.

In the 2006 general election the party was part of The Union coalition, being present only in few constituencies and thus gaining only 0.3% of the vote for the Chamber of Deputies and 0.4% for the Senate. The party saw none of its members elected and even Craxi, who had a place on The Olive Tree electoral list, was not elected, leaving the party without representation in Parliament. However, the centre-left coalition won the election and Craxi was appointed Under-Secretary of Foreign Affairs in the Prodi II Cabinet.

The first party convention, held on 10–11 March 2007, elected unanimously Saverio Zavettieri as party secretary and deliberated the change in name from The Socialists (I Socialisti) to The Italian Socialists. The party also discussed and rejected the opportunity to join the Democratic Party.

In July 2007, the party decided to merge into the modern-day Italian Socialist Party (PSI), which was launched on 5 October 2007, but, in July 2008, Zavettieri left that party and re-organised The Italian Socialists. In October 2009 also Craxi left the PSI, paving the way for a new party with Zavettieri into which The Italian Socialists were finally merged, the United Socialists.

References

External links
Official website

2006 establishments in Italy
2009 disestablishments in Italy
Defunct social democratic parties in Italy
Political parties disestablished in 2009
Political parties established in 2006
Defunct political parties in Italy

The Italian Socialists


The Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch is a group of Christians. They are a part of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Their patriarch lived in Antioch in the past. However, he now lives in Damascus. The members of the Church are called "Greek" because most of them spoke the Greek language in the past.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch


The Canadian Prairies is a region of Canada. There are different ways of deciding what parts of Canada is included in this region. Usually, the Prairie provinces include Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, since these provinces include prairie areas.

The prairie grasslands only cover the southern parts of these provinces. The geography of the prairie provinces also include forests, the Canadian Shield, and the Canadian Interior Plains.

Regions of Canada

Canadian Prairies


Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855), was a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, and is usually thought of as the first existentialist philosopher.

He wrote many philosophical books about faith, existence, emotions, and feeling. He disliked people who tried to make Christianity political and people who tried to limit the single individual in favour of groups of many people. Many people have found his works interesting and have said that they were great works of philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20th-century philosopher, thought Kierkegaard was "by far, the most profound thinker of the nineteenth century".

Life
He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He attended Copenhagen University and earned his master's degree in 1841. During this time, he met and fell in love with Regine Olsen in 1837. Although they were engaged for a time, Kierkegaard ended the engagement in 1841.

After breaking up with Regine, he spent much of his time writing book after book, in a highly dramatic yet subtle way. He also wrote some of his works using pen names, or pseudonyms. He died in Copenhagen. Although his works were not very popular during his lifetime, after his death they became influential in the 20th century.

Works
Books by Kierkegaard. Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, both published in 1843, are thought to be especially significant.

 (1841) The Concept of Irony (Om Begrebet Ironi med stadigt Hensyn til Socrates)
 (1843) Either/Or (Enten - Eller)
 (1843) Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven)
 (1843) Repetition (Gjentagelsen)
 (1844) Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler)
 (1844) The Concept of Dread (Begrebet Angest)
 (1845) Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei)
 (1846) Concluding Unscientific Postscript to The Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift)
 (1847) Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits
 (1847) Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger)
 (1848) Christian Discourses (Christelige Taler)
 (1849) The Sickness Unto Death  (Sygdommen til Døden)
 (1850) Training in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom)

Related pages
List of Danish writers

References

1813 births
1855 deaths
19th-century philosophers
Danish writers
People from Copenhagen

Søren Kierkegaard