Michigan Avenue is a north-south street in Chicago that runs at 100 east on the Chicago grid.  The northern end of the street is at Lake Shore Drive on the shore of Lake Michigan in the Gold Coast Historic District. The street's southern terminus is at Sibley Boulevard in the southern suburb of Dolton, but like many other Chicago streets, it exists in several disjointed segments.

As the home of the Chicago Water Tower, the Art Institute of Chicago, Millennium Park, and the  shopping on the Magnificent Mile, it is a street well-known to Chicago natives as well as tourists to the city.  Michigan Avenue also is the main commercial street of Streeterville. It includes all of the Historic Michigan Boulevard District and most of the Michigan–Wacker Historic District, including the scenic urban space anchored by the DuSable (Michigan Avenue) Bridge.

History

19th century
The oldest section of Michigan Avenue is the portion that currently borders Grant Park in the Chicago Loop section of the city. The name came from Lake Michigan, which until 1871 was immediately east of Michigan Avenue. The street at that time ran north to the Chicago River and south to the city limits. Michigan Avenue initially was primarily residential. By the 1860s, however, large homes and expensive row houses dominated Michigan Avenue.

At no point is Michigan Avenue currently called Michigan Boulevard, but prior to the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the street was officially known as Michigan Boulevard and often referred to as "Boul Mich". But in the 1900-1907 Ads for the Chicago Musical College, the address was referred to as "202 Michigan Boul." As recently as the 1920s, North Michigan Avenue (especially the Magnificent Mile) was referred to as "Upper Boul Mich".   Paris's Boulevard Saint-Michel is the original Boul Mich.

North of the Chicago River today's Michigan Avenue was known as Pine Street. In 1866, a small portion of Pine Street was "vacated" and moved  further west of the original Pine street location to accommodate the installation of the new pumping station's standpipe. This standpipe, engineered to regulate water pressure, would be housed within architect William W. Boyington's castle structure (Water Tower) that still stands on that site today. In 1869 the Board of Public Works began paving Pine Street from Chicago Avenue to Whitney street (today, Walton street) the northern terminus, with Belgian wood blocks also known as Nicolson pavement.

Pine Street was renamed to Lincoln Park Boulevard as far south as Ohio Street when the street connected with Lake Shore Drive in the early 1890s, and then became part of Michigan Avenue, which already had the name Michigan Avenue and was called Michigan Boulevard before the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, south of the Chicago River. Both the North and South Michigan Avenues were joined physically with the opening of the Michigan Avenue bridge in 1920. In 1926, after years of clogged automobile traffic, the water tower and pumping station were separated by realigning Michigan Avenue to run between them.

In the Great Fire of 1871, all buildings on Michigan Avenue from Congress Street north to the river were destroyed. Immediately after the fire, the character of Michigan remained residential, but the street no longer was directly on the lake shore, as after the Fire, wreckage from the burnt district was used to fill in the inner harbor of Chicago, beginning the landfills that by the 1920s had moved the lake shore more than a quarter-mile east of its original shoreline, creating space for an expanded Grant Park. Beginning in the 1880s, the expansion of the central business district replaced houses on Michigan Avenue so that today, Michigan's character is primarily commercial north of 35th Street.

The first city showcase on Michigan Avenue was the Exposition Building, which was built on the current site of the Art Institute, the east side of Michigan at Adams, in 1874.  By the 1890s, an imposing wall of buildings was constructed on the west side of Michigan Avenue downtown, including the Auditorium Building and the main branch of the Chicago Public Library (now the Chicago Cultural Center).  As the east side of Michigan Avenue downtown was developed as a park, the wall of buildings lining the west side of Michigan Avenue across from the park became the nucleus of the city's skyline.

20th century
In 1924, the first traffic lights in Chicago were installed on Michigan Avenue after John D. Hertz fronted the city $34,000 for the purchase, installation, and maintenance.

Historically, Illinois Route 1 and U.S. Route 41 were routed on Michigan Avenue. Illinois Route 1 has been truncated to Chicago's south side and U.S. Route 41 is now routed on Lake Shore Drive.

Route

North Michigan Avenue and the Magnificent Mile

Michigan Avenue originally ended at the Chicago River, and what is now Michigan Avenue north of the river was originally named Pine Street, after scattered pine trees originally found in its vicinity. As early as 1891 plans were proposed to extend Michigan Avenue north across the river. An early plan called for a tunnel to link Michigan Avenue south of the river with Pine Street, and in 1903 an editorial in the Chicago Tribune newspaper proposed a new Bascule bridge across the river at Michigan Avenue.

This plan was further elaborated upon in Daniel Burnham's 1909 Plan of Chicago, and in 1911 a plan was selected that included the widening of Michigan Avenue from Randolph Street to the river, replacing the Rush Street bridge with a new bridge at Michigan Avenue and the construction of a double-decked boulevard along Pine Street as far as Ohio Street. When the Michigan Avenue Bridge was completed, Pine Street was renamed Michigan Avenue.  At its north end it merges into Lake Shore Drive near the Drake Hotel.

Today, the area north of the Chicago River is referred to as the "Magnificent Mile", or sometimes simply the Mag Mile. It contains a mixture of upscale department stores, restaurants, high-end retailers, office buildings and hotels, and caters primarily to tourists and the affluent. The area also has a high concentration of the city's advertising agencies.

It is the home of Chicago's famous Water Tower landmark, Jane Byrne Park around the Water Tower with its historic clock, as well as the eight-level Water Tower Place shopping center which grew up next door to, and overshadowed, the comparatively diminutive landmark.  North of the shopping center can be found the famous John Hancock Center, the art deco Palmolive Building (also known as the Playboy Building) and the lavish Drake Hotel. The entire mile is noted for its spectacular Christmas displays. At the northern edge of this district can be found the One Magnificent Mile building; Chicago Landmark East Lake Shore Drive District, an extremely expensive and exclusive one-block area of real estate running east from North Michigan Avenue and facing directly onto Lake Michigan; and the on-ramp to northbound Lake Shore Drive.

From the River southwards

For a few blocks on both sides of the Chicago River, the road is double-decked, including the bridge over the river. The lower level north of the river is where the famous Billy Goat Tavern is located, and south of the river it intersects with Lower Wacker Drive.  On the upper lever, tall office buildings and hotels line both sides of the Avenue, until Millennium Park.

The portion of Michigan Avenue opposite Grant Park is the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District. Major cultural institutions, such as the Chicago Cultural Center, Symphony Center, and the Auditorium Theater are located here, as are many late 19th and early 20th century skyscrapers. In 2009, the Chicago Cultural Mile Association was created to bring "awareness of the unique strengths and diverse offerings available to visitors" in this portion of Michigan Avenue.

The Art Institute of Chicago is across the boulevard, in Grant Park along the Avenue.  Several large historic hotels are located just south of Ida B. Wells Drive, including the Hilton Towers Chicago (formerly, the Stevens Hotel), the Congress Plaza Hotel and the Blackstone Hotel. Between them is the Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies.

The Avenue extends south into Near South Side, Chicago and beyond – past what was once the notorious Levee District, the graceful homes of the Prairie Avenue District, the historic Second Presbyterian Church, the former home of the legendary Chess Records at 2120 South Michigan and the site where the Lexington Hotel, a hideout of Al Capone, once stood.

South of Cermak Road is the Motor Row District, a historic strip along Michigan Avenue that was home to many early 20th century automobile "palaces." A point of interest in this area is the former Illinois Automobile Club, which later was used as the home of the Chicago Defender, a prominent African-American Chicago newspaper at 2400 South Michigan. A little bit further south is Bronzeville, a historic black community in Chicago. Points of interest include the historic Mercy Hospital and Medical Center, the Illinois College of Optometry and the South Side Community Art Center.

The intersection of Michigan Avenue and 35th Street is home to two important local institutions. On the northwest corner is De La Salle Institute, a Catholic high school which was attended by future Chicago mayors Richard J. Daley, Richard M. Daley, and Michael Bilandic. On the southwest corner is the Chicago Police Department Headquarters. Michigan Avenue continues through the South Side and dead ends at 63rd Street, just north of a rail yard and parking lots.

The Avenue continues heading south at 66th Street to Marquette Road, where it moves a half-block to the east back into alignment with the run north of 63rd Street. It then continues south to 89th Street where it dead ends once again for a housing subdivision and a railroad line. It resumes at 91st Street heading south through the working class Roseland community, featuring a large commercial strip along Michigan between 111th and 115th streets. The street dead ends again at 127th Street just before the Cal-Sag Channel. It begins again in the south suburb of Riverdale before finally terminating at Sibley Boulevard or IL RT-83.

Transportation
The Chicago "L" Red Line's Chicago and Grand stations are useful for reaching the Magnificent Mile. Both the Monroe and Jackson stations are close to the Art Institute. Stations on the east side of the Loop (Adams/Wabash and Washington/Wabash stations) are also close to the Art Institute. Millennium and Van Buren Street stations are located east of Michigan Avenue serving the Metra Electric and South Shore Lines. The avenue is also traversed by a multitude of bus routes and taxi cabs primarily in the Downtown and Magnificent Mile areas.

South of downtown, plenty of bus routes (e.g. bus routes 1 and 4) continue to run south along Michigan Avenue before reaching the Bronzeville neighborhood. There are no bus routes along Michigan Avenue between 35th Street and 95th Street. South of 95th Street, more bus routes run along Michigan Avenue as multiple bus routes in the South Side end at the 95th/Dan Ryan station. At 121st Street, the State Street station on the Blue Island branch of the Metra Electric District serves Michigan Avenue.

See also

References

External links

Chicago's Magnificent Mile

Busking venues
Chicago
Neighborhoods in Chicago
Shopping districts and streets in the United States
Streets in Chicago
U.S. Route 41

Michigan Avenue (Chicago)


Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was an atypical pneumonia. It started in November 2002 in Guangdong Province, in the city of Foshan, of the People's Republic of China. The disease was caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS CoV), a new coronavirus. It was also a part-time STD, it can be spread through both sexual and casual contact.

SARS is a zoonosis: it is a disease which comes from animals: it came from  Asian palm civets to cave-dwelling horseshoe bats. Exactly how the virus got to humans is not known.

SARS was first reported in Asia in February 2003. Over the next few months, the illness spread to more than 24 countries in Asia, North America, South America, and Europe before the SARS global outbreak of 2003 was contained. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a total of 8098 people worldwide became sick with SARS during the 2003 outbreak. 774 of them died.

After the Chinese government suppressed news of the SARS outbreak, the disease spread rapidly, reaching Hong Kong and Vietnam in late February 2003, and then to other countries via international travellers. The last case in this outbreak occurred in June 2003. There were a total of 8437 known cases of the disease, with 813 deaths (a mortality rate of 9.636%).

In May 2005 the disease itself was declared 'eradicated' by the WHO and it became the second disease in mankind to receive this label (the other was smallpox). The New York Times reported that "not a single case of severe acute respiratory syndrome has been reported this year or in late 2004. It is the first winter without a case since the initial outbreak in late 2002. Also, the epidemic strain of SARS that caused at least 813 deaths worldwide by June of 2003 has not been seen outside a laboratory since then."

References

Diseases caused by viruses
Pulmonology
Coronaviruses
Zoonoses

Severe acute respiratory syndrome


Benson and Hedges were a cigarette manufacturer.  The company were bought by the Gallaher Group The name became a brand of the Gallagher.  The brand sponsored Formula One racing teams for many years.

In April 2007 Japan Tobacco bought the Gallaher Group.

Companies of Japan

Benson & Hedges


Les Sylphides () is a ballet choreographed by Michel Fokine to the music of Frederic Chopin. The music was orchestrated by Stravinsky among others. The scenery and costumes were designed by Alexandre Benois.

The ballet was first performed by the Ballets Russes in Paris at the Théâtre du Châtelet on 2 June 1909. It starred Nijinsky, Tamara Karsavina, Anna Pavlova, and Maria Baldina. The ballet is non-narrative. It does not tell a story. It is a series of dances meant to evoke the atmosphere and ambiance of a romantic ballet.

Les Sylphides was developed from a Fokine ballet called Chopiniana. This ballet was performed in St Petersburg on 21 March 1908. It was a series of imagined scenes from Chopin's life that included a Polish wedding and a ballroom polonaise. It was revised. All characters and any suggestion of a plot were dropped to create instead an evocation of the romantic ballet.

The revised ballet (still called Chopiniana) was performed in St Petersburg on 6 April 1908. This second version was costumed in the long white ballet tutu made famous by Marie Taglioni in La Sylphide.  Chopiniana was renamed Les Sylphides when it was presented in Paris.

Les Sylphides generally includes the following musical numbers:
 Polonaise in A major, Op. 40, No. 1 ("Military", the Prelude in A major, Op. 28, No. 7 is sometimes substituted)
 Nocturne in A flat major, Op. 32, No. 2
 Waltz in G flat major, Op. 70, No. 1
 Mazurka in D major, Op. 33, No. 2
 Mazurka in C major, Op. 67, No. 3
 Prelude in A major, Op. 28, No. 7
 Waltz in C sharp minor, Op. 64, No. 2
 Grande valse brillante in E flat major, Op. 18

References
 Balanchine, George. 1975. 101 Stories of the Great Ballets. Anchor Books. pp. 473-9.

Other websites
NYCB website
Margot Fonteyn performing in Les Sylphides
ExploreDance.com
The Ballet Encyclopedia
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry for Glazunov
MusicWeb

Ballets choreographed by Michel Fokine
Ballets Russes productions
Ballets starring Nijinsky

Les Sylphides


Pack-in games are video games that come with a game system. They are often in the same box as the game system, which is why they are called pack-in games. Pack-in games are used to help show players how to use the system the game came with, such as the  game Wii Sports for the Wii system. It is made to show people how to play Wii.

Video games

Pack-in game


Scheherazade is a legendary Persian queen who is the storyteller in One Thousand and One Nights.

The story, which was written many hundreds of years ago, tells of a Arabian king who married a young girl every night. At the end of every night he would send his new wife to have her head chopped off. He had already killed 3000 women in this way.

Then, one day, Scheherazade heard about the king. She said she wanted to spend the night with him. Her father disagreed, but she still went. She spent all night telling him a story. At the end of the night she stopped the story at an exciting moment. The king wanted to hear the end of the story, but Scheherazade said he would have to wait until the next night to hear the rest.

The next night she finished the story and began another one, which she again stopped when it was dawn. The king had to wait another night to hear the rest of the story. Scheherazade kept this up for 1001 nights. She told him 1001 stories. In the end the king had fallen in love with Scheherazade and they already had three children, so he did not have her executed.

Historical prototypes
The main part of these stories is formed by an old Persian book called Hezar-afsana or the "Thousand Myths" (Persian: هزارافسانه).

Related pages
Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

Notes

Other websites
 The Arabian Nights Entertainments Project Gutenberg

Fictional royalty

Scheherazade


The Blaenau Gwent People's Voice Group was a political party based in the Blaenau Gwent area of Wales.

The party was formed in the aftermath of the election to the House of Commons of Peter Law as an independent Member of Parliament, beating the official Labour candidate. Peter Law stood against the official party candidate after an internal party row. His victory was one of three independent successes in the 2005 general election, the other two being Dr Richard Taylor (Health Concern - Wyre Forest) and George Galloway (RESPECT - Bethnal Green and Bow). Dai Davies (Law's agent) was elected at a by-election following Law's death in 2006. At the 2010 general election, Davies lost the seat to Labour.

The BGPVG formed with the purpose of ensuring a continuing independent presence in the constituency, which was considered a more pressing need following the death of Peter Law in April 2006. Two by-elections were required, as Law represented the seat at Westminster and as a member of the National Assembly for Wales. The 2006 Blaenau Gwent by-elections were held on 29 June 2006 and resulted in two victories for the Party, with Dai Davies, Peter Law's former election agent, winning the Westminster seat and Law's widow Trish Law taking the Welsh Assembly seat. Neither candidate formally stood as a BGPVG candidate on the ballot papers (Davies stood as an independent and Law used no party description). Davies held the seat until he was overwhelmingly defeated by Labour's Nick Smith by over 10,500 votes at the 2010 General Election, a swing from BGPV to Labour of 29.2%.

It was registered as a political party with the Electoral Commission on 30 January 2007 under the simple name of People's Voice.

In March 2007, People's Voice signalled its aim to expand into other constituencies with Torfaen, Monmouth, Islwyn, Newport East, Swansea and Blackpool all being mentioned. However, in the nominations for the Assembly Election of May 2007, Trish Law defended her seat as an independent, and there was a People's Voice candidate only in Torfaen. While Law was successful in retaining her seat, the Group made no gains coming in third in Torfaen with 14.4% of the vote.

In the 2008 Welsh local elections People's Voice gained eight council seats, five in Blaenau Gwent County Borough Council and 3 in Torfaen County Borough Council. The Torfaen People's Voice Group has since broken up over an internal dispute over Blaenau Gwent PV Group wanting to impose a candidate on Torfaen.

In June 2010 Dai Davies said he was standing down as leader of the group and was retiring from politics. In August 2010 the party was disbanded and all five BGPVG Councillors resigned from party and sat as Independents on the Council. The party planned to become a pressure group.

On 20 September 2010, the only People's Voice representative, Trish Law AM, announced that she would not seek re-election at the 2011 Assembly election. There were talks for the former MP Dai Davies to stand in place of Law, but he decided not to.

References

External links
 Blaenau Gwent People's Voice website

2005 establishments in Wales
2010 disestablishments in Wales
Politics of Blaenau Gwent
Defunct political parties in Wales
Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom
Locally based political parties in Wales
Political parties established in 2005
Political parties disestablished in 2010

Blaenau Gwent People's Voice


The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian is the first of a three-volume set collecting the Conan stories by author Robert E. Howard. It was originally published in 2002, first in the United Kingdom by Wandering Star Books under the title Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932–1933) and the following year in the United States by Ballantine/Del Rey under the present title. The Science Fiction Book Club reprinted the complete set in hardcover; the set presents the original, unedited versions of Howard's Conan tales.  This volume includes thirteen short stories as well as miscellanea for Howard fans and enthusiasts (e.g., drafts, notes, maps, etc.) and is illustrated by  comic book artist Mark Schultz.

Contents
"Foreword" (Mark Schultz)
"Introduction" (Patrice Louinet)
"Cimmeria" (poem)
"The Phoenix on the Sword"
"The Frost Giant's Daughter"
"The God in the Bowl"
"The Tower of the Elephant"
"The Scarlet Citadel"
"Queen of the Black Coast"
"Black Colossus"
"Iron Shadows in the Moon"
"Xuthal of the Dusk"
"The Pool of the Black One"
"Rogues in the House"
"The Vale of Lost Women"
"The Devil in Iron"
"The Phoenix on the Sword" (first submitted draft)
"Notes on Various Peoples of the Hyborian Age"
"The Hyborian Age"
Untitled Synopsis ("The Hall of the Dead")
Untitled Synopsis ("The Scarlet Citadel")
Untitled Synopsis ("Black Colossus")
Untitled Fragment ("The Hand of Nergal")
Untitled Synopsis #2 ("The Snout in the Dark")
Untitled Draft ("The Snout in the Dark")
"Hyborian Names and Countries"
Hyborian Age Maps (drawn by Howard)
"Hyborian Genesis: Notes on the Creation of the Conan Stories" (Patrice Louinet)
"Notes on the Conan Typescripts and the Chronology" (Patrice Louinet)
"Notes on the Original Howard Texts"

See also

Conan the Barbarian
Robert E. Howard

Conan the Barbarian books by Robert E. Howard
American fantasy novels
2002 short story collections

The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian


The Black Balloon is a 2008 Australian drama movie about an unusual suburban family in Sydney in the early 1990s. It was directed by Elissa Down and written by Down and Jimmy Jack. It stars Rhys Wakefield as 15 year old Thomas Mollison, Luke Ford as his slightly older brother Charlie, Toni Collette as his pregnant mother Maggie and Erik Thomson as his father Simon, who is in the army. Charlie is mentally retarded, severely autistic, unable to speak, hyperactive, overemotional and has outbursts of inappropriate, sometimes destructive, behaviour. Gemma Ward plays Thomas' girlfriend Jackie Masters.

Other websites

2000s coming-of-age movies
2008 romantic drama movies
2000s teen drama movies
2000s teen romance movies
Australian drama movies
Australian romance movies
Autism in fiction
Coming-of-age drama movies
Coming-of-age romance movies
2000s English-language movies
Movies about dysfunctional families
Movies about suburbia
Movies set in the 1990s
Sydney
Movies about autism

The Black Balloon


A subtropical cyclone (also known as a subtropical storm) is a cyclonic weather storm. Subtropical cyclones have wide wind patterns with the winds getting stronger as they get farther away from the centre of the storm.

Terms
A subtropical cyclone is more likely to be a tropical cyclone than an extratropical cyclone. Subtropical cyclones are only found in the northern Atlantic Ocean and in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Like normal tropical cyclones, most subtropical cyclones have maximum wind speeds of at least 39 mph to 74 mph (60 km/h to 110 km/h). Subtropical cyclones that have wind speeds less than 39 mph are known as "subtropical depressions". There is no such thing as a "Subtropical Hurricane". If there is a previously subtropical storm with this intensity, it is either fully tropical or extratropical.

History

Naming issue
During the 1950s and 60s, subtropical cyclones were simply called "semi-tropical". There was much discussion between meteorologists in the late 1960s as to what a subtropical cyclone was. So, in 1972, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) officially classified the type under a new category different from actual tropical cyclones. During the 1970s, the NHC began making a new list of names, separate for subtropical cyclones, although that process was soon canceled because it was rejected by many scientists.  After that, subtropical storms were just numbered, such as Hurricane Karen from 2001, which was originally named Subtropical Storm One.  But in 2002, a policy change had tropical and subtropical storms share the same list of names for the whole season, which started with Subtropical Storm Nicole in 2004.

Naming
In the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season, the NHC watched the first named subtropical cyclone: Subtropical Storm Nicole. Later, another unnamed subtropical cyclone was discovered in the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season after someone re-read the records.  Although it could have been named, the subtropical storm remained without a name because it was only identified a long time after the official season had finished.  A third subtropical cyclone was named Subtropical Storm Andrea, which formed on May 9 just before the start of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season.

Formation

A subtropical cyclone can form in many ways:

 Change from an extratropical cyclone to a tropical cyclone (or the other way round)
 An upper-level low meets a cold core and deep convection.
 From a big mesocyclone with a cold core.
 A tropical wave forming over sea surface temperatures of 23 degrees.
 From the remnants of a tropical cyclone after landfall and losing its tropical characteristics.

Types

Upper-level low
The most common type of a subtropical cyclone is an upper-level cold low with circulation expanding to the surface layer and strongest winds usually happening at a radius of about 100 miles/160 kilometers or more from the center.

Mesoscale low
Another type of a subtropical cyclone is a mesoscale low forming in or near an area of horizontal wind shear, also known as a "dying frontal zone", with radius of strongest winds normally less than 30 miles (50 kilometers). The entire circulation may originally have a diameter of less than 100 miles/160 kilometres. These cyclones usually last for a short time. They may be either cold core or warm core, and for some time in 1972 this type of subtropical cyclone was called a "neutercane".  As of 2006, the warm core type was moved under the definition of the term, tropical cyclone; and removed from the subtropical cyclone definition.

Related pages
 Tropical cyclone
 Extratropical cyclone

References

Other websites
 NOAA FAQ on tropical cyclones.
 USA Today article on subtropical storms .
 NASA Earth Observatory: Subtropical Storm Nicole
 TheStormTrack.com: An Early Start to the Season?

Subtropical cyclone


Eddie Koiki Mabo ( 29 June 1936 – 21 January 1992) was an Indigenous Australian activist from the Torres Strait Islands. He became well known for campaigning for indigenous land rights. In particular, he became famous for his role in an historic decision by the High Court of Australia in 1992, which overturned the idea that Australia was terra nullius (land belonging to nobody).

Early life
Mabo was born as Eddie Koiki Sambo. He changed his surname to Mabo when he was adopted by his mother's brother, Benny Mabo. He was born on Mer (Murray Island) in the Torres Strait between Australia and Papua New Guinea. He worked on a number of jobs before becoming a gardener with James Cook University in Townsville, when he was 31 years old. The time he spent on the university campus had a major impact on his life. In 1974, Mabo was surprised to learn that his family did not legally own the land they lived on. In a conversation with Noel Loos and Henry Reynolds, he learned that legally that land belonged to the Crown.

Activism and legacy
In 1981, a conference on land rights was held at James Cook University. Mabo made a speech to the audience where he explained the indigenous customary land inheritance system on Murray Island. One of the people who attended the conference, a lawyer, suggested they should make a case to claim land rights through the court system. A case was made, and took 10 years to reach a decision. Mabo died a few months before the decision. He died on 21 January 1992, of cancer at the age of 55.

Five months later, on 3 June 1992, the High Court overturned the legal doctrine of terra nullius - which was the term applied to the attitude of the British Empire towards land ownership on the continent of Australia. That decision is now commonly called "Mabo v Queensland" in Australia and is widely recognised for its importance. Later in 1992, Mabo was awarded the Australian Human Rights Medal for his work over many years to gain legal recognition for indigenous people's rights.

Three years after Mabo died, which is the traditional mourning period for the people of Murray Island, a memorial service was held in Townsville. Overnight, his grave was vandalised; it was spray-painted with swastikas and the word "abo" (a derogatory slang term for an Aboriginal person). His family decided to have his body reburied on Murray Island.

Related pages
Aboriginal title

References

Other websites
 Mabo Papers at the National Library of Australia
 Biography by Gail Mabo, his daughter
 Collection of art works by Edward Koiki Mabo - held and digitised by the National Library of Australia

1936 births
1992 deaths
Indigenous Australian activists
Cancer deaths in Queensland
People from Queensland

Eddie Mabo


The Redding Brothers are an indie rock trio from Nashville, Tennessee composed of brothers Micah (b. November 1981 in Charleston, West Virginia), Josiah (b. August 1983 in Charleston, West Virginia), and Gabriel (b. February 1987 in Seattle, Washington) Redding  The band is most known for their "Song of the Week" program in which the band members wrote, recorded, and released one new song each Saturday night at midnight for a complete year.

Since their inception, the band has produced 2 studio albums (a third is in progress), 4 EPs, and 2 singles, in addition to their 52 "songs of the week" (released progressively in digital-only format across 4 volumes). They have toured relentlessly since late 2003, having performed well over 320 dates as of this writing. The band performs mainly on the college and military circuits, and has toured all over North America, Southwest Asia, and parts of Africa.

The brothers are sons of Church of Christ minister Lawrence Redding, are all vegetarians, passively promote libertarian politics, and regularly delve into the philosophical in their music, lyrics, and album titles.

Their songs have been televised on NBC's WTAP-TV 5 and CBS's WOWK-TV 13 as well as heard on many radio stations including "The Cutting Edge" WMUL-FM 88.1, "Electric" WVSR-FM 102.7, "ZRock" WZJO-FM 94.5, "Festival of the Arts" on WCTC-AM 1450, and WKLC-FM 105.1. Their music has been featured and reviewed in many publications, including Marysville Globe, Arlington Times, West Virginia Gazz, Voiceboxx, Vibe, Bowling Green Daily News, Bellingham Herald, Shoreline Ebbtide, Charleston Daily Mail, The Parthenon, Charleston Gazette, Huntington Herald-Dispatch, Kanawha Metro, Putnam Metro, Putnam Herald, Putnam Post, The Putnam Standard, All The Rage, Nashville Scene, and more.

In addition to regional and national tours of festivals and college campuses, the band tours internationally in support of the United States military through an association with Armed Forces Entertainment.

Micah is a member of ASCAP performing rights society. Josiah and Gabriel are members of BMI.

Discography
 Feel, digital single   August 8, 2008
 Song of the Week Volume 4, 2008
 Song of the Week Volume 3, 2007
 Song of the Week Volume 2, 2007
 Song of the Week Volume 1, 2007
 The Physics of Immortality, March 9, 2007
 Oakwood (single),  February 24, 2006
 SNOW (EP), December 15, 2005
 Wisdom from the Green Shag Carpet, June 22, 2005
 Sneak Peek, April 15, 2004
 Roughdraft, October 3, 2003

References

External links
 Official Site

American pop music groups
Musical groups from West Virginia
Family musical groups
American indie rock groups
Sibling musical trios

The Redding Brothers


R v Davidson, also known (particularly among medical practitioners) as the Menhennitt ruling, was a significant ruling delivered in the Supreme Court of Victoria on 26 May 1969. It concerned the legality of abortion in the Australian state of Victoria. The ruling was not the end of the case, but rather answered certain questions of law about the admissibility of evidence, so as to allow the trial to proceed.

In the ruling, Justice Menhennitt ruled that abortion might be lawful if necessary to protect the physical or mental health of the woman, provided that the danger involved in the abortion did not outweigh the danger which the abortion was designed to prevent. It was the first ruling on the legality of abortion in any part of Australia. The principles put forward by Justice Menhennitt have since been drawn upon in other parts of the country.

Background to the ruling

Charles Davidson, a medical doctor, was charged with four counts of unlawfully using an instrument to procure the miscarriage of a woman, and one count of conspiring to do the same, offences prohibited in the Victorian Crimes Act 1958. When Justice Menhennitt gave this ruling, the trial had been going for eight days. The prosecution was about to call expert medical testimony, and Menhennitt anticipated that the admissibility of that evidence might be challenged, so he decided to rule on certain questions of law in advance.

The relevant section of the Crimes Act, section 65, stated that:
Whosoever... with intent to procure the miscarriage of any woman whether she is or is not with child unlawfully administers to her or causes to be taken by her any poison or other noxious thing, or unlawfully uses any instrument or other means with the like intent, shall be guilty of a felony, and shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of not more than fifteen years.
, the only subsequent change to this law is in the classification of the crime, from felony to indictable offence. The remainder of the wording remains the same. Menhennitt discussed the background of the section, saying that it was drawn from an 1861 English law, the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which in turn derived from English laws from 1837, 1828 and 1803.

Arguments
The main issue to be considered was what the word "unlawfully" meant in this context. Justice Menhennitt noted that the inclusion of the word implied that some abortions might be lawful. The word "unlawfully" had also appeared in the earlier English legislation from which the Victorian law had derived, and the same word was also used in earlier common law indictments. The word was not defined in any of those statutes, although in the United Kingdom the Abortion Act 1967 had been passed in the meantime, which provided a definition of when abortions were lawful. That legislation had no equivalent in Victoria however, and "unlawfully" remained undefined.

English precedent
The only case that had specifically considered what "unlawfully" meant in the context of abortion was a 1938 English case heard in the Courts of Assize, Rex v Bourne. In that case, Dr Bourne was charged with the crime of abortion under section 58 of the Offences Against The Person Act 1861 (the same section on which the Victorian law drew). During his summing up, the trial judge instructed the jury that "no person ought to be convicted [of the crime of abortion] unless the jury are satisfied the act was not done in good faith for the purpose only of preserving the life of the mother." The trial judge said that first this was the appropriate definition of abortion at common law, and secondly that although particular wording did not appear in the definition of the crime of abortion, it did appear in the definition of the crime of child destruction (which applies when a person kills a child during childbirth), and that the word "unlawfully" in the definition of abortion implied that the wording should also apply to abortion.

The trial judge continued, saying:
I think those words ought to be construed in a reasonable sense, and, if the doctor is of opinion, on reasonable grounds and with adequate knowledge, that the probable consequence of the continuance of the pregnancy will be to make the woman a physical or mental wreck, the jury are quite entitled to take the view that the doctor who, under those circumstances and in that honest belief, operates, is operating for the purpose of preserving the life of the mother.

Justice Menhennitt described why the proviso from the definition of child destruction in the English legislation should also apply to the definition of abortion, by pointing out that under another provision of the same law, abortion was an alternative charge to child destruction and vice versa (that is, the jury could choose to substitute one charge for the other). As such, there was a strong argument to say that the same proviso should apply to both.

However, as Justice Menhennitt pointed out, the Victorian definition of child destruction (in section 10 of the Crimes Act) does not include the proviso in the English legislation; instead, it simply says "unlawfully". As such, that argument would not apply in Victoria, and "what is lawful and what is unlawful must be determined by other legal principles."

Necessity

Justice Menhennitt then considered a discussion of R v Bourne by Glanville Williams, in his book The Sanctity of Life and the Criminal Law, in which Williams said:
The judge's direction to the jury, which resulted in Mr. Bourne's acquittal, is a striking vindication of the legal view that the defence of necessity applies not only to common law but even to statutory crimes. It is true that the direction proceeded in some slight degree on the analogy of the child destruction statute, which contains an express exemption for the preservation of the life of the mother; but the exception in the one statute was not in itself a ground for reading a similar exception into the other.
On this basis, although there were differences in the Victorian legislation, the definition in R v Bourne of "unlawfully" in the context of abortion could indeed be useful in Victoria, if recognised as an expression of the common law defence of necessity.

Justice Menhennitt discussed various definitions of necessity, noting that the concepts of necessity and proportion are usually present. He also quoted a test for necessity laid down by a previous decision of the Supreme Court of Victoria in R v MacKay, a case about the killing of an escaping prisoner:
...the test laid down by the law today for determining whether the homicide is justifiable or not is a twofold test which may be stated in this form: (1) Did the accused honestly believe on reasonable grounds that it was necessary to do what he did in order to prevent the completion of the felony or the escape of the felon? and (2) Would a reasonable man in his position have considered that what he did was not out of proportion to the mischief to be prevented?
In the context of abortion under Victorian law, this principle of necessity would mean that anyone performing a termination would have to have an honest and reasonable belief that conducting the termination was necessary to prevent some serious harm from occurring to the woman. Thus the test would be a subjective one, with the requirement that the beliefs be held reasonably.

Judgment
Justice Menhennitt decided in favour of using the principle of necessity to give substance to "unlawfulness" in this context. He expressed a test for deciding whether a termination would be unlawful or not in this way:
For the use of an instrument with intent to procure a miscarriage to be lawful the accused must have honestly believed on reasonable grounds that the act done by him was (a) necessary to preserve the woman from a serious danger to her life or her physical or mental health (not being merely the normal dangers of pregnancy and childbirth) which the continuance of the pregnancy would entail; and (b) in the circumstances not out of proportion to the danger to be averted.

Consequences
The trial proceeded, and Davidson was found not guilty by the jury on all five charges, on 3 June 1969.

The primary significance of the decision was that it referred to both physical and mental health of the mother as a factor in a lawful abortion.

The principles in the ruling were largely adopted in the state of New South Wales by the District Court of New South Wales in 1971 in the case of R v Wald, which also involved the prosecution of a doctor for performing a termination. That case expanded the definition slightly, by pointing out that "it would be for the jury to decide whether there existed in the case of each woman any economic, social or medical ground or reason which in their view could constitute reasonable grounds upon which an accused could honestly and reasonably believe there would result a serious danger to her physical or mental health". In the state of Queensland, the principles in the Menhennitt ruling were cited in the 1986 case of R v Bayliss & Cullen. In the other states, and in the Northern Territory (but not the Australian Capital Territory), legislation has been adopted to define which abortions are legal and which are not.

In 1974, the Whitlam government provided that Medibank (now called Medicare) benefits could be paid to women who underwent a termination procedure. In 1979, however, there was a motion in the Australian House of Representatives from Stephen Lusher to end medical benefits for terminations, and the debate spilled over to the legality of abortion. Although the decisions in Davidson and Wald were fiercely criticised by some members of parliament, who insisted that abortion was still illegal, others defended the validity of the decisions. Former Prime Minister Billy McMahon said "it has been stated rather foolishly, by a member not very closely attuned to the law – that there has been no appeals. But there could have been an appeal. There was no restriction in either State, Liberal Country Party or Labor government as to appeal."

Despite some disquiet from the anti-abortion lobby, no appeals have been lodged against the Menhennitt ruling or the other decisions, and in most states there have been no successful prosecutions for consensual abortion since those decisions. Anti-abortion writers contend that most abortions remain illegal, and that the courts and the prosecutors are lax in protecting the rights of unborn children. Other commentators argue that calling abortion technically illegal is incorrect, or otherwise pointless, since that is "a meaningless category in law."

In 2008, after a conscience vote in the Victorian parliament, legislation reforming abortion laws was passed.  The new law legalizes abortion on request up to 24 weeks pregnancy; after that time, two doctors must certify that they "reasonably believe that the abortion is appropriate in all the circumstances", with those circumstances encompassing "all relevant medical circumstances; and the woman's current and future physical, psychological and social circumstances."

See also
 Abortion in Australia
 Australian criminal law

References

R v Davidson (Australia)
R v Davidson
Australian criminal law
Supreme Court of Victoria cases
1969 in Australian law
R v Davidson (Australia)

R v Davidson


Salter Street Films was a Canadian television and film production company based in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

History
The company was founded by brothers Paul and Michael Donovan in 1983. Paul was trained as a director at the London Film School; Michael graduated from Dalhousie University's Law School and began as a producer of Paul's film projects. Salter Street Films was named after the street in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where Paul and Michael had been living.

The company began life with early problems.  Its first major feature film was Def-Con 4 (1985), which eventually became profitable, but other pictures such as George's Island (1989), Buried on Sunday (1992), and Paint Cans (1994), though critically acclaimed, were money-losers. The company's salvation turned out to be the science fiction series Lexx, which was a hit in Germany, Russia, and Eastern Europe.  This Canadian-German co-production went on to become a lucrative money-maker through international sales and was one of the first shows to develop a cult following almost exclusively through the Internet.

Concurrently, the Donovan brothers found success with the satirical This Hour Has 22 Minutes becoming a hit on CBC Television as well as other series such as CODCO,  Emily of New Moon, Made in Canada, Blackfly, the children's series Pirates, and the special Talking to Americans. These shows found homes on the CBC as well as other Canadian networks and cable channels. Salter Street also created the stop motion children's series Poko, which is still in production. In 1994, it has a 20% interest in The Popcorn Channel, which was set to be on the air in the first quarter of 1995. In the 1990s, it meant to mine European co-production with four television movies, which were planning on to be in production in 1995.

Based on their reputation for political satire, American documentary filmmaker Michael Moore approached Salter Street to produce his project Bowling for Columbine. Michael Donovan agreed and arranged financing in Canada and Germany. The documentary won both the Anniversary Prize at the Cannes Film Festival and the Oscar for Best Documentary Feature Film.

In 2000, a year after the Donovan brothers had taken the company public, Salter Street was awarded the broadcast licence for IFC by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. This potentially lucrative award, combined with Salter Street's reputation as a content-provider, attracted interest from the powerful media corporation Alliance Atlantis. Alliance bought Salter Street from the majority shareholders the following year. Paul and Michael Donovan remained on as producers.

In 2003, two years after the purchase, Alliance closed the operation, transferring Salter Street's ongoing television productions to Alliance.
Paul Donovan has continued as an independent producer and director. In May 2004, Michael Donovan formed the Halifax Film Company with many of the former Salter Street employees. In 2006, Halifax Film merged with Decode Entertainment to form DHX Media.

References

External links
Official website (archived 2002-06-03)

Defunct film and television production companies of Canada
Cinema of Nova Scotia
Companies based in Halifax, Nova Scotia
Mass media companies established in 1983
Mass media companies disestablished in 2003
1983 establishments in Nova Scotia
2003 disestablishments in Nova Scotia
Lexx
This Hour Has 22 Minutes
Former Corus Entertainment subsidiaries
Alliance Atlantis

Salter Street Films


Key generation is the process of generating keys for cryptography. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted.

Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA).  Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret.  Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key.  The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate).  A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data.

Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and its predecessor SSL as well as the SSH use a combination of the two in which:
 One party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data that will be used to generate it).
 The remainder of the conversation (the remaining party) uses a (typically faster) symmetric-key algorithm for encryption.

The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key.  Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.

Currently, commonly used key lengths are:
 128-bits for symmetric key algorithms.
 1024-bits for public-key algorithms.

Key generation algorithms
In computer cryptography keys are integers.  In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis. Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.

In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a key generation algorithm, using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.

Related pages
 Distributed key generation: For some protocols no party should be in the sole possession of the secret key. Rather, during distributed key generation every party obtains a share of the key. A threshold of the participating parties need to work together in order to achieve a cryptographic task, such as decrypting a message.

References

Cryptography

Key generation


Edubuntu is the version of Linux distribution Ubuntu. It is used for education. It uses GNOME and is designed for use in classrooms.

Edubuntu has been created in collaboration with teachers and technologists in multiple nations. Edubuntu is built on top of the Ubuntu base, and incorporates education-specific applications, designed for the 6–18 years age group.

Characteristics
Included with Edubuntu is the Linux Terminal Server Project, a large number of educational applications including GCompris, KDE Edutainment Suite, The first Edubuntu release coincided with the release of Ubuntu 5.10, which was called Breezy Badger on 2005. Edubuntu CDs can be ordered for free through the official website service.

Project goals

The principal design goals of Edubuntu are easier configuration, users and processes, together with ways for working together in classrooms. Equally important is the gathering together of the best available free software and digital materials for education.

Related pages
 List of Linux distributions

References

Other websites
 Official website

Ubuntu (operating system) derivatives

Edubuntu


Bob Cobbing (30 July 1920 – 29 September 2002) was a British sound, visual, concrete and performance poet who was a central figure in the British Poetry Revival.

Early life
Cobbing was born in Enfield. He attended Enfield Grammar School and then trained as an accountant. He later went to Bognor Training College to become a teacher. During the Second World War, he was a conscientious objector.

Early involvement with poetry and performance
His involvement with performance began with the Hendon Experimental Art Club and the Hendon-based magazine And in 1951. This led to his setting up Writers Forum, which began publishing in 1963. In 1964 he published ABC in Sound, a book that combined his interest in sound and concrete poetry in an exploration of the visual and auditory possibilities of the English alphabet.

Better Books
He left teaching around this time and managed Better Books on Charing Cross Road, London. Better Books was more than a mere bookshop.  Once described as a 'mini Arts Lab' it served as stage, cinema and gallery.  Its cross-disciplinary approach welcomed new art forms like assemblage, performance art, and radical poetry.  Together with other alternative galleries such as 26 Kingly Street and Indica Bookshop, Better Books was one of the hot spots of the London underground scene.

This shop was the venue for a number of events and happenings associated with what Cobbing's friend Jeff Nuttall termed the Bomb Culture, the British version of the 1960s counterculture. As an evolution of the earlier Hendon Film Society he began avant-garde film screenings under the title Cinema 65 which led to the formation of the London Film-Makers' Co-op

1970s
During the first half of the 1970s, Cobbing was able to use the facilities of the Poetry Society to produce Writers Forum books. In all, the press published over 1,000 titles between 1963 and 2002. As well as fostering the younger poets of the British Poetry Revival, Writers Forum also published works by John Cage, Allen Ginsberg and Ian Hamilton Finlay. Writers Forum also ran a regular Saturday afternoon writers' workshop at which poets read and discussed each other's work.

In the early 1970s the Poetry Society did not have any printing facilities. Cobbing had his own equipment elsewhere throughout the 40 years of his (largely solo) operation of Writers Forum. In the mid-1970s, against tremendous opposition of the rump of the old guard on the Poetry Society General Council, Cobbing and others opened a public print shop on the society's premises. Cobbing brought in his own equipment and allowed it to be used by anyone wishing to print their own book of poetry. Later the society provided a desktop litho, plate-maker and golfball typewriter with a diversion of the funds allocated to Poetry Review which was henceforth, for some years, printed in house.

Cobbing also explored his interest in performance works for multiple voices and musical instruments in groups like abAna (a trio with Paul Burwell and David Toop, and sextet with the addition of Lyn Conetta, Herman Hauge and Christopher Small), Bird Yak and Konkrete Canticle, which included poets Paula Claire and Bill Griffiths and musician Michael Chant. He was also co-founder of the Association of Little Presses, an organisation that promoted the work of small publishers in Britain and Ireland.

Later life and work
In 1980 he appeared as a duo with Henri Chopin on the album 'Miniatures - a sequence of fifty-one tiny masterpieces' (51 one-minute tracks by contemporary artists and musicians) produced by Morgan Fisher.
Cobbing was a prolific writer and performer and continued to work right up to his death. In 2000, he performed with Lawrence Upton and Derek Shiel at The Klinker, Islington, London.

He also used his teacher training to work on performances with schoolchildren. Much of his later work consists of visual texts, artist's books and markings that were used as notations or, more strictly speaking, jumping off points for performance. He also worked on more directly collaborative works with other poets, such as the Domestic Ambient Noise project, a series of 300 booklets created with his friend and fellow Writers Forum editor Lawrence Upton. Since Cobbing's death, Upton has carried on the work of running Writers Forum.

Legacy
In 2005, the British Library acquired The Papers of Bob Cobbing consisting of personal material, correspondence, his works, and papers relating to Writers Forum, to the Association of Little Presses (ALP), and to the New River Project.

Publication
"Boooook: The Life and Work of Bob Cobbing"  (published by Occasional Papers, 2015) is the first comprehensive overview of the life and work of Cobbing. It addresses all aspects of Cobbing's rich career, with new essays detailing his key roles in London Film-makers' Co-op, Better Books, abAna, as well as his involvement in the Destruction in Art Symposium, Fylkingen, and his publishing imprint Writers Forum.

References

External links
 Archivio Conz
 Bob Cobbing at EPC
 Bob Cobbing at UBUWeb
 Bob Cobbing at The British Library
 Writers Forum
 Bob Cobbing Solo
 Bob Cobbing at 'edition selene'
 Bob Cobbing interviewed by Charles Amirkhanian, 1972
 Bob Cobbing in North America 1982

1920 births
2002 deaths
British Poetry Revival
English conscientious objectors
People from Enfield, London
Sound poets
People educated at Enfield Grammar School
Signalism
English male poets
20th-century English poets
20th-century English male writers
21st-century English male writers
Visual poets

Bob Cobbing


Calcutta Youth Choir () was set up in 1958 by Ruma Guha Thakurta with Salil Chowdhury and Satyajit Ray.

Calcutta Youth Choir is known for their performance of folk and mass songs. Several years ago, the choir broke out with the song 'Aaj joto juddhabaaj'. Shibdas Bandopadhyay wrote the words and V. Balsara composed the music. The songs performed by choir under the direction of Ruma Guha Thakurta widely includes song of Dwijendralal Ray, Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen, Nazrul Islam, Prem Dhawan, Sudhin Dasgupta, Salil Chowdhury and Sibdas Banerjee.

History
In the year, July, 1974 20-member folk song and dance troupe of Calcutta Youth Choir led by Ruma Guha Thakurta, won the first prize in the Copenhagen Youth Festival. The choir also took part in the 25th anniversary of Independence Day of India in Delhi. Opening song by Calcutta Youth Choir to welcome Nelson Mandela in India in 1990 and to honour Amartya Sen for Nobel in the year 1998, 21 June 2007 performing for 30 years Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) in West Bengal  are the Laurels. More than 5000 shows have been performed by the choir led by Ruma Guha Thakurta. There are more than 300 members in the choir involved in various activities like singing, dancing, playing musical instruments, management, etc. 3 December 1994, Calcutta Youth Choir celebrated its 36th anniversary to celebrate 50 years of Ruma Guha Thakurta's association with music, dance and cinema where sitting chief minister of West Bengal Jyoti Basu, Bijoya Ray (wife of Late Satyajit Ray), Buddhadeb Bhattacharya, singer Usha Uthup, Amit Kumar and many other legend were present.  In spite of her major heart attack since 2004 Ruma Guhathakurta is still regularly performing. This is the only leading choir troupe of Calcutta performing continuously for the last 55 years.

Former chief minister of West Bengal Buddhadeb Bhattacharya inaugurated the new building of the choir in South Calcutta on 29 December 2006.

2 May 2008 in the birthday of Satyajit Ray, Calcutta Youth Choir celebrated 50 years anniversary at Rabindrasadan, Kolkata in presence of Manna Dey, sitting speaker of Parliament Somenath Chatterjee, Sabita Chowdury, Mayor of Kolkata Bikash Bhattacharia, Suchitra Mitra and others. Manna Dey and Sabita Chowdury participated in the song Janeywaleey Sipahi under the direction of Ruma Guha Thakurta.

16 September 2010, choir celebrated its 52nd anniversary where 6 members of Calcutta Youth Choir were honoured for performing regularly with the choir for more than 50 years by Ruma Guha Thakurta.

9 April 2012, choir celebrated its 54th anniversary of Calcutta Youth Choir headed by Ruma Guha Thakurta. This was the last show Guha Thakurta was present and conducted the show.

11 June 2013, choir celebrated its 55th anniversary of Calcutta Youth Choir. For the first time Ruma Guha Thakurta was not present in the Annual Show due to her deteriorating health condition.

27 January 2013, the choir hosted a Dance and Music Festival held at the Uttarpara Jaikrishna Ground. This event showcased the true culture of Bengali music accompanied with folk dance.
5 May 2013, the choir performed a collection of patriotic songs at the Gitanjali Stadium.
23 January 2014, the choir made their next appearance at the Mother Teresa International Award Ceremony and performed various folk songs to keep the audience and dignitaries entertained.
In May 2014, they also performed hit numbers at Pete Seeger's Tribute Concert at the Tollygunge Club.
On 4 July and 17 October 2014 the choir performed in St. James' School and on both the occasions and performed their trademark folk and mass songs.
8 January 2015, the choir performed at Bhantala High School and entertained the crowd with their enthralling music.
On 12 September 2015, the Calcutta Youth choir performed at the Golden Jubilee Celebration of Naragole Raj College in Midnapur.
In July 2016, the choir performed at Rabindra Sadan to celebrate the birth anniversary of D.L. Roy, Atul Prasad Sen and Rajani Ratan Sen.
On 30 December 2016, the Calcutta Youth Choir performed in a Sangeet Anusthan held in the district of Hedua.
The Calcutta Youth Choir has performed at the Bangla Sangeet Mela organised by the Govt. of West Bengal on several occasions:
9 April 2013, the choir participated in the Bangla Sangeet Mela held at the Rabitirtha Hall in Newtown.
In February 2014, 17 February 2015 and 18 December 2016 the choir yet again performed at the historic Bangla Sangeet Mela organised by the Govt. of West Bengal and held at Rabindra Sadan.
19 July 2015, the choir performed to celebrate the birth anniversary of D.L. Roy and Atul Prasad Sen at Rabindra Sadan.

Albums by Calcutta Youth Choir
 Beje Uthlo Ki Somoyer Ghori, A collection of mass songs released by HMV in 1976
 Waqt Ki Awaz (Hindi), A collection of modern songs released by HMV
 Prarthna Sangeet, A collection of devotional songs released by CBS
 All times Great Calcutta Youth Choir, A collection of selected track from HMV
 Amra Tori Beye Jai, A collection of mass songs released by HMV in 1981
 Manusher Gaan Gai, A collection of mass songs released by HMV in 1982
 Pochis Bochor Dhore, Released by HMV in the year 1983 on 25th anniversary of the choir
 Bharatbarsho Surger Ek Naam, A collection of Bengali modern songs released by HMV
 Swadesi Juger Gaan, a collection of patriotic songs released by HMV
 Chetonar Gaan, A collection of songs to welcome Nelson Mandela in India released by CBS in 1988
 Besh Sotoker Gaan, A collection of Bengali mass songs released by Hindustan Records in 1990 celebrating 300th birthday of Calcutta
 Deshatobodok Gaan, A collection of patriotic songs released by Gathani in 1993
 Din Agato Oi, A collection of modern songs released by Gathani in 1994 for the celebration of Bengali New Year (1400 SATABDI)
 Kadam Kadam Badaye Ja (Hindi), A collection of INA (Azad Hind Fauj) songs by HMV n 100th birth anniversary of Netaji Subhas Bose in 1996
 Mile Sobe Bharat Santan, A collection of modern songs released by HMV in 1998
 Sikol Bhangar Gaan, A collection of Patriotic songs (before India's Independence) released in 2001
 Amader Salilda, A collection of mass songs by Salil Chowdhury released by ASHA AUDIO in 2007
 Ek Dor Mein, A collection of Hindi Translation Rabindra Sangeet released by Saregama(HMV) in 2010

References

External links
 Calcutta Youth Choir, performances

Indian musical groups
Choirs of children
Youth choirs
Musical groups established in 1958
Culture of West Bengal
Culture of Kolkata
Bengali music
Indian choirs
1958 establishments in West Bengal

Calcutta Youth Choir


The Earth/fertility Mississippian cult was associated with earthen platform mounds.

The act of rebuilding the mounds, of adding additional layers of earth over burials, served as a symbol of renewal, which renewed the earthwork as much as human life. The earthen platform served as the earth, a symbolism which endured into historic times. There are historically documented connections between additions to platforms mounds and the communal "Green Corn Ceremony", which celebrated the new harvest and the fertility of the earth. The quadrilateral, flat-topped design of many platform mounds may represent the Southeastern American Indian belief that the earth was a flat surface oriented towards four quarters of the world.

See also
 Mississippian stone statuary

References

External links

Mississippian culture
Native American religion

Earth/fertility cult


The Ferrari 212 Export wis a racin sports caur produced bi Ferrari in 1951 tae replace the 195 S. It haed a shorter wheelbase than the road-oriented Ferrari 212 Inter model, which wis a Grand tourer.

The Colombo ingine uised in the Export haed a 8.0:1 compression ratio, up frae the 7.5:1 ratio uised in the Inter.  Customers who wantit the Export tae be a faster GT than the Inter ordered the ingine wi ane Weber 36 DCF carburetor, which wad gie a pouer ootput o 150 bhp at 6000 rpm.  Maist Exports wur uised in competeetion an wur fittit wi a mair complicated setup wi three Weber 32 DCF carburetors, yieldin a pouer ootput o 175 bhp at 6500 rpm.

Twinty-aicht 212 Export models wur biggit.

In 1951, 212 Exports teuk the first three places in the Tour de France automobile racin event an wan the Giro di Sicilia an the Giro di Toscana motor races.

212

Ferrari 212 Export


Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system, computer program, or a game that allows use by more than one users of the same computer at the same time.

An example is a Unix server where multiple remote users have access (such as via Secure Shell) to the Unix shell prompt at the same time. Another example uses multiple X terminals so that multiple remote users can use X Window on a single machine.

The complementary term, single-user commonly refers to an operating system being usable only by one person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement.

Single-user mode is a mode for Multi-user operating system where the computer boots or switches into a single superuser mode. It is mainly used for maintenance of multi-user environments such as network or Unix servers.

Other websites
 Interix in a Multi-User Windows TSE Environment paper about the Unix multi-user model and MS-Windows NT TSE
 SoftXpand Multi-user software

Computer science
Computing
Video games

Multi-user


Osborne House is a former royal residence East Cowes on the Isle of Wight, England. It was in purchased by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1845. The solent reminded by Prince Albert of the Gulf of Naples, but the old house was too small for their needs, and the house was demolished and rebuilt by Thomas Cubitt in the Italianate style.

The house became a family home, as Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined to bring their children up in a natural and loving environment. Within the grounds was a smaller structure, Swiss Cottage, which was where the royal children played and learned practical skills, such as cooking and farming. The children often entertained their parents here, and Queen Victoria used the simplicity of the cottage to deal with personal correspondence.

Following Prince Albert's death in 1861, Osborne became an effective mausoleum in his memory. Queen Victoria used the house as a retreat away from public life. She died there on 22 January 1901, and her son, King Edward VII, gave the house to the nation. It was used as a naval training school, and then a convalescent home for officers. During the Second World War, Adolf Hitler ordered that the estate was not to be bombed because he wanted to use it as a post-war retreat.

Royal residences in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in the Isle of Wight

Osborne House


Spiders (order Araneae) (kent as ettercaps, attercaps or nettercaps an aa) are air-braithin arthropods that hae aicht legs an chelicerae wi fangs that inject venom. Thay are the lairgest order o arachnids an rank seivent in tot species diversity amang aw ither orders o organisms. Speeders are foond warldwide on ivery continent except for Antarcticae, an hae acome established in nearly ivery habitat wi the exceptions o air an sea colonisation. , at least 45,700 speeder speshies, an 113 faimilies hae been recordit bi taxonomists. Houiver, thare haes been dissension within the scienteefic commonty as tae hou aw thir faimilies shoud be clessifee'd, as evidenced bi the ower 20 different clessifications that hae been proponed syne 1900.

Anatomically, speeders differ frae ither arthropods in that the uisual bouk segments are fused intae twa tagmata, the cephalothorax an abdomen, an jyned bi a smaw, cylindrical pedicel. Unlik insects, speeders dae nae have antennae. In aw except the maist primitive group, the Mesothelae, speeders hae the maist centralised nervish seestems o aw arthropods, as aw their ganglia are fused intae ane mass in the cephalothorax. Unlik maist arthropods, speeders hae na extensor muscles in thair limms an insteid extend them bi hydraulic pressur.

Thair abdomens beir appendages that hae been modifee'd intae spinnerets that extrude silk frae up tae sax teeps o glands. Speeder wabs vary widely in size, shape an the amoont o sticky threid uised. It nou appears that the spiral orb wab mey be ane o the earliest forms, an speeders that produce tangled cobwabs are mair abundant an diverse nor orb-wab speeders. Speeder-lik arachnids wi silk-producin spigots appeared in the Devonian period aboot , but thir ainimals apparently lackit spinnerets. True speeders hae been foond in Carboniferous rocks frae , an are verra seemilar tae the maist primitive survivin suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups o modren spiders, Mygalomorphae an Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, afore .

A yerbivorous speshies, Bagheera kiplingi, wis descrived in 2008, but aw ither kent speshies are predators, maistly preyin on insects an on ither speeders, awtho a few lairge species an aa tak birds an lizards. It is estimait that the warld's 25 million tons o speeders kill 400–800 million tons o prey per year. Speeders uise a wide range o strategies tae captur prey: trappin it in sticky wabs, lassoin it wi sticky bolas, meemickin the prey tae avoid detection, or runnin it doun. Maist detect prey mainly bi sensin vibrations, but the active hunters hae acute veesion, an hunters o the genus Portia shaw signs o intelligence in thair choice o tactics an abeelity tae develop new anes. Speeders' guts are too narrae tae tak solits, an thay liquefee thair fuid bi fluidin it wi digeestive enzymes. Thay an aa grind fuid wi the bases o thair pedipalps, as arachnids dae nae hae the mandibles that crustaceans an insects hae.

Male spiders identifee themsels bi a variety o complex coortship rituals tae avoid bein eaten bi the females. Males o maist species survive a few matins, leemitit mainly bi thair short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, ilk o that mey conteen hunders o eggs. Females o mony speshies care for their young, for ensaumple bi cairyin them aroond or bi sharin fuid wi them. A minority o species are social, biggin communal wabs that mey hoose anywhaur frae a few tae 50,000 individuals. Social behaviour ranges frae precarious toleration, as in the weedae speeders, tae co-operative huntin an fuid-sharin. Awtho maist speeders leeve for at maist twa year, tarantulas an ither mygalomorph speeders can leeve up tae 25 years in capteevity.

While the venom o a few species is dangerous tae humans, scientists are nou resairchin the uise o speeder venom in medicine an as non-pollutin pesticides. Speeder silk provides a combination o lichtness, strenth an elasticity that is superior tae that o synthetic materials, an speeder silk genes hae been insertit intae mammals an plants tae see if thir can be uised as silk factories. As a result o their wide range o behaviours, speeders hae acome common seembols in airt an meethologie seembolisin various combinations o patience, cruelty an creautive pouers. An abnormal fear o speeders is cried arachnophobia.

References

Arachnid orders
Carboniferous arachnids
Extant Pennsylvanian first appearances
Taxa named bi Carl Alexander Clerck

Speeder


The Hagenbach-Bischoff system is a variant of the D'Hondt method, used for allocating seats in party-list proportional representation. It usually uses the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota for allocating seats, and for any seats remaining the D'Hondt method is then applied so that the first and subsequent divisors (number of seats won plus 1) for each party list's vote total includes the number of seats that have been allocated by the quota. The system gives results identical to the D'Hondt method and it is often referred to as such in countries using the system e.g. Switzerland and Belgium. Luxembourg uses the Hagenbach-Bischoff method to allocate seats in its European Parliament elections.

History

While named after the Swiss physicist and electoral reformer Eduard Hagenbach-Bischoff (1833–1910), it was originated by the D'Hondt method's inventor Victor D'Hondt (1841–1901), using the simple or Hare quota. Hagenbach-Bischoff's contribution, in addition to popularizing it, was to suggest a quota that allocates the greatest possible number of seats before the D'Hondt method is used.

Variations

As used in Belgium's national parliamentary elections from 1919 to 2003 the system could be said to have existed in a two-tier form, until it was replaced by a single-tier PR system. First, the Hare rather than Hagenbach-Bischoff quota was applied in the constituencies of  provinces, and second, any seats remaining after quota allocation were aggregated, along with parties' provincial vote totals, at the provincial level where the D'Hondt method was then applied, including in the divisors for each party the number of seats it had won in the constituencies. Slovakia uses a variant of Hagenbach-Bischoff system.

References

Carstairs, Andrew McLaren (1980): A Short History of Electoral Systems in Western Europe. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Hoag, Clarence Gilbert and George Hervey Hallett (1926): Proportional Representation. New York: Macmillan.

Party-list proportional representation

Hagenbach-Bischoff system


Class and object are basic building blocks in object-oriented programming languages. A class is written by a programmer in a defined structure to create an object (computer science) in an object oriented programming language. It defines a set of properties and methods that are common to all objects of one type.

For example, a class could be a car, which could have a color field, four tire fields, and a drive method.
Another related class could be a truck, which would have similar fields, but not be exactly the same as a car. Both a car and a truck could be a kind of a third class which could be called a vehicle class. In this way, the programmer could create the parts of the program that are the same for both the car and the truck in programming the vehicle class, yet the programmer would be free to program how a car is different from a truck without duplicating all of the programming.

In this example, there are three classes: 1) a class called "car", 2) a class called "pick-up truck", and 3) a class called "vehicle". These classes would be used to make objects. Although there is only one class called "car", there could be many objects that are created from the class called "car". And, although there is only one class that is called "truck", many objects of type truck could be created from this class. The "vehicle" class is actually general and there would probably not be any objects that were only of the class "vehicle". But a car would be a kind of vehicle and a truck would also be a kind of vehicle. So, you could say that both cars and trucks are from the same class, vehicle.

Inside of classes are two kinds of things: methods and fields (or properties). Methods can store the code for doing actions; in this example you could have a drive method and a brake method, and maybe a turnRight and turnLeft method. Fields store data; you could have a color field, a speed field and a size field. You can call methods by first making an object of the Car or Truck class, and call it for example ferrari, and doing ferrari.methodName(). In this case, if we wanted to make the vehicle move, we could do ferrari.drive().

Example
Here is an example realized with Java. Please notice that all unnecessary aspects are left out.

public class vehicle { // base class for all vehicles
  String color; // field color
  int position; // field position

  public void drive(int distance) { // method drive
    this.position += distance;
  }
}

public class car extends vehicle {
  int persons; // a new field called persons

  public void getIn() { // method to get into the car
    this.persons++;
  }

  public void getOut() { // method to get out of the car
    this.persons--;
  }
}

public class truck extends vehicle {
  String load; // a new field called load

  public void load(String load) { // method to load the truck
    this.load = load;
  }

  public String unload() { // method to unload the truck
    String oldLoad = this.load;
    this.load = null;
    return oldLoad;
  }
}

Computer programming

Class (programming)


CompactFlash is a name of a standard used for a mass storage device, which is mostly used in digital cameras. Today, most CompactFlah devices use flash memory. Since most CompactFlash cards have no movable parts, they are also used in embedded systems. Compact flash cards are 36.4mm by 42.8mm in size, and either 3.3mm or 5mm thick. The 3.3mm type is known as Type I, the 5mm type is known as Type II. Most type II devices are small hard disks. The transfer speed is often given as an x rating, where the base is 150kB/s for 1x speed, which was also the base speed for reading compact discs.

In many cases, reading is faster than writing, often by a factor of two to three. That way, a speed of "133x" is roughly that of 20MB/sec. When the speed is given as a rate, usually in MB/s, this speed is the maximum speed that can be obtained reading from the device.

There are ComactFlash devices of different capacities.

Storage devices

CompactFlash


An obelisk is a monument made out of stone, much like a column but supporting nothing.

Obelisks were erected by Ancient Egyptians for commemoration. Obelisks were usually made of a single piece of stone.

A bird's eye view of obelisk is square and this structure has gradually tapering four sides and its ends in a pyramidal top.

Obelisks originated with the holy stone of sanctuary which served the sun god, Ra, in Heliopolis. There usually was a pair in front of a gate or sanctuary, and on each side of obelisk there were written hymns and some actions of the of king in hieroglyphics.

Obelisks can have interior spaces.

There are similar forms of obelisks in Europe and America, and some were taken from Egypt by Europeans and Americans. The Washington Monument is a large, modern, built obelisk.

Related pages

 Stele

Monuments and memorials

Obelisk


Chouf (an aa spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf, in Arabic جبل الشوف Jebel ash-Shouf) is a historic region o Lebanon, as well as an admeenistrative destrict in the governorate (mohafazat) o Munt Lebanon.

Locatit sooth-east o Beirut, the region comprises a narrae coastal strip notable for the Christian toun o Damour, an the valleys an muntains o the wastren slopes o Jabal Barouk, the name o the local Munt Lebanon massif. Chouf is the hertland o the Lebanese Druze community, wi Druze leader Walid Jumblatt residin at the Jumblatt palace in the toun o Moukhtara. The Emirs o Lebanon uised tae hae their residence in Chouf, maist notably Bachir Chehab II, who built the magnificent palace o Beiteddine durin the first hauf o the 19t century. Anither historical toun, locatit juist belaw Beiteddine, is Deir al Qamar (the monastery o the Moon).

Baakline, anither lairge toun in the Chouf, uised tae be the caipital o auld Muntain o Lebanon, whaur Amir Fakher El-Deen wis born. He wis well liked bi baith Christians an Druze. He switched his residence tae Deir al Qamar seembolizin his neutrality.

The Chouf is livin proof o the harmony atween Maronite Christians an Druze, although several violent clashes hae occurred atween the twa groups in 1848, 1860 an maist recently in 1983-1984, durin the Lebanese Ceevil War (Muntain War, Arabic: Harb el-Jabal). This saw the Progressive Socialist Pairty (PSP), a fundamentally Druze pairty, face the Lebanese Forces (LF), comprisin Maronite Christians. Reconciliation atween the Druze an Christian communities came tae fruition on August 8, 2001, when the Maronite Patriarch o Antioch, Cardinal Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir made a historic visit tae the Chouf an met wi Druze leader, Jumblatt.

Despite a bloody history, the Chouf is ane o the best-preserved Lebanese destricts an its natur haes been generally spared frae the intense biggin frenzy that haes spoiled neighbourin Metn an Kesrouan. The biggest forest o Cedars o Lebanon is foond on the flanks o Jabal Barouk.

Demographics

Despite the historical feuds atween Maronites an Druze, the Chouf destrict is ane o the maist releegiously diverse regions in Lebanon. The Druze, Maronite Catholics an Sunni Muslims are the lairgest releegious groups. Mairower, there is a substantial Greek Catholic population, as well as a smawer Shi'a Muslim population. The current population is maistly Druze, but the oreeginal population wis Predominantly Maronite, wi a lairge minority o Druze an a smawer Sunni minority. Maist o the Christians muivit tae Beirut, an some who immigratit ootside Lebanon.

Ceeties an touns

Ain Qani
Ammatour
Baakline
Barja
Barouk
Bakaata
Beitedine
Beykoun
Bsaba
Bourjain
Boutmeh
Brih
Dalhoun
Damour
Daraya
Deir el Qamar
Dibbiyeh
El Bireh
Gharife
Jahlieh
Jiyyeh
Kahlouniye
Kfarfakoud
Mazraat el chouf
Maasser
Moukhtara (Home to Walid Jumblatt; Politician and Leader of the Druze Progressive Socialist Party)
Mtolleh
Niha
Serjbel
Shheem
Zaarourieh
Mristi

Destricts o Lebanon
Chouf Destrict
Biosphere reserves o Lebanon

Chouf Destrict


Tronie' of a Young Man with Gorget and Beret, formerly known as Self-portrait as a young man (both with variant titles) is a tronie portrait of a young man that was traditionally regarded as one of over 40 painted self-portraits by Rembrandt.  It is now in the Galleria degli Uffizi in Florence, where the most recent restoration by Daniele Rossi revealed a signature previously hidden under old varnish.

The Rembrandt Research Project and other modern scholars now doubt that it is by Rembrandt at all, although it might be an unfinished Rembrandt portrait taken over by another artist.  Even more unlikely is that it is a Rembrandt self-portrait, simply on the low level of resemblance of the face to the many certain examples. It used to be dated to about 1634, on the grounds of the age of the subject, if a self-portrait, and the lack of the moustache that Rembrandt usually has for most of the 1630s.  Seen in terms of Rembrandt's style alone, about 1639-40 seems more likely.

As in many of Rembrandt's actual self-portraits, the subject wears fanciful dress that suggests the 16th rather than the 17th century.  The gorget was contemporary wear for a soldier, included in a number of Rembrandt's tronie self-portraits.

Provenance
The painting belonged to the art-loving Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine ("Jan Willem", r. 1690-1716), who was married to Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, the last of the Medici family.  Johann Wilhelm had his own collection of artists' self-portraits, like his father in law.  He gave the painting to the Gerini family,  Florentine grandees and art patrons.  It was exhibited in Florence as a Rembrandt self-portrait in 1724, and so described in the published illustrated catalogue of the Gerini collection in 1759. In the Palazzo Gerini an allegory of the arts in fresco by Giuseppe Zocchi (1711–67) shows the personification of "Painting" looking at the catalogue, held by two putti, open to the page illustrating this painting.  The highly unusual rendition in fresco of a reproductive print shows the prestige the painting had. In 1818 it entered the Uffizi's famous collection of artists' self-portraits.

Notes

References
White, Christopher, Buvelot, Quentin (eds), Rembrandt by himself, Cat. # 52, 1999, National Gallery, London/Mauritshuis, The Hague,

External links

 Uffizi page/ Google Art Project

1634 paintings
Self-portraits by Rembrandt
Paintings in the Uffizi

'Tronie' of a Young Man with Gorget and Beret


A French braid, also called a French plait, is a type of braided hairstyle. The three-strand gathered plait includes three sections of hair that are braided together from the crown of the head to the nape of the neck.

Description
In the simplest form of three-strand braid, all the hair is initially divided into three sections, which are then simultaneously gathered together near the scalp. In contrast, a French braid starts with three small sections of hair near the crown of the head, which are then braided together toward the nape of the neck, gradually adding more hair to each section as it crosses in from the side into the center of the braid structure. The final result incorporates all of the hair into a smoothly woven pattern over the scalp.

If the main mass of hair is initially parted into two or more sections along the scalp that are kept separate from one another, multiple French braids may be created, each in its own section. One unique feature about the French braid is that an individual can braid their own hair without the help of others. (The difficulty of braiding can depend on the type of hair the individual has, however, as some styles of hair are easier to braid than others.) The length of hair also plays a role in the ability to braid; shorter hair can be more of a challenge. Bobby pins can be useful when braiding shorter hair or hair with many different layers to keep all of the hair in the French braid in place. There are many different ways of French braiding that make it unique; for example, a person can braid at a slant, braid into a bun, or only braid the bangs (fringe).

Compared to the simplest form of hair braid, a French braid has several practical advantages: it can restrain hair from the top of the head that is too short to reach the nape of the neck, and it spreads the weight and tension of the braid across a larger portion of the scalp. Its sleek appearance is often regarded as being elegant and sophisticated. A French braid is more difficult to construct than a simple braid because of its greater complexity. When performed on one's own hair, it also requires a more prolonged elevation of the hands above the back of the head, and leaves more tangled hair along the scalp when unbraiding.

In this style of braid, start on top of the head and braid it till the end of the hair. Braiding in this manner can be done with different braid types but the most popular are the classic braid and the fishtail braid. A sister braid to the French braid is the Spanish braid. The Spanish braid is like a French braid but in the beginning, instead of grabbing three sections of hair, only two are used.

History

The phrase "French braid" appears in an 1871 issue of Arthur's Home Magazine, used in a piece of short fiction ("Our New Congressman" by March Westland) that describes it as a new hairstyle ("do up your hair in that new French braid"). However, no visual illustrations are provided for that context, making it impossible to tell whether it refers to the same hairstyle described above.

Variations

Variations on this hairstyle include:

 Dutch braid: A Dutch braid (also called an inverted French braid or pineapple braid) is created when the three hair sections are crossed under each other, instead of over. It results in the look of a braid standing up from the rest of the hair, instead of being under the hair.

 Fishtail braid: A fishtail braid resembles a French braid in its smoothly woven appearance, but divides the hair into only two sections instead of three. A small piece of each section is passed over to the other section over and over to form the braid.  This style was called the "Grecian braid" in the 19th century.
 Variations of the French braid are also used to prepare horses' tails for showing polo and polocrosse.

See also
 List of hairstyles
 French twist (hairstyle)
 Ponytail

References

External links

Braid hairstyles
Articles containing video clips

French braid


Lateral thinking is a term invented by Edward de Bono, a Maltese psychologist, physician and writer. It first appeared in the title of his book The Use of Lateral Thinking, published in 1967. De Bono explains lateral thinking as methods of thinking about changing concepts and perception. Lateral thinking is about reasoning that is not immediately obvious and about ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic.

Thought

Lateral thinking


Kozani is a city in northern Greece. It is the capital of Kozani Prefecture and of the region of Macedonia. The population of the city is 38,591, according to 2001 census. In district of Kozani products the main amount of electrical energy of Greece.

Cities in Greece

Kozani


Spandau Prison was a prison in the borough of Spandau in the British Sector of West Berlin.

The prison was built in 1876 and knocked down in 1987 after the death of its last prisoner, Rudolf Hess.  This was to stop it from becoming a neo-Nazi shrine.

History
The prison was built in 1876. At first it was only used for soldiers but after 1919 it was also used for civilian inmates. It held up to 600 inmates at that time.

In the aftermath of the Reichstag Fire of 1933, opponents of Hitler and journalists such as Egon Kisch and Carl von Ossietzky were held there in so-called protective custody.  Spandau Prison became a sort of predecessor of the Nazi concentration camps. It was supposed to be controlled by the Prussian Ministry of Justice but the Gestapo tortured and abused its inmates, as Egon Erwin Kisch recalls in his memories of Spandau Prison. By the end of 1933 the first Nazi concentration camps had been built (at Dachau, Osthofen, Oranienburg, Sonnenburg, Lichtenburg and the marshland camps around Esterwegen). All remaining prisoners in "protective custody" in state prisons were transferred to these concentration camps.

After World War II it was operated by the Four-Power Authorities to house the Nazi war criminals sentenced to imprisonment at the Nuremberg Trials.

Only seven prisoners were finally imprisoned there.  Arriving from Nuremberg on 18 July 1947, they were:
Rudolf Hess - serving a life sentence (died 1987)
Walther Funk - serving a life sentence (released 16 May 1957)
Erich Raeder - serving a life sentence (released 1955)
Albert Speer - serving a 20 year term (released 1966)
Baldur von Schirach - serving a 20 year term (released 1966)
Konstantin von Neurath - serving a 15 year term (released 1954)
Karl Dönitz - serving a 10 year term (released 1956)

Of the seven, only four served all of their sentence; the remaining three, Neurath, Raeder, and Funk, were released early due to ill health. Between 1966 and 1987, Rudolf Hess was the only inmate in Spandau Prison. His only companion was the warden, Eugene K. Bird, who became a close friend. Bird wrote a book about Hess's imprisonment entitled The Loneliest Man in the World.

Spandau was one of only two Four-Power organizations to continue to operate after the breakdown of the Allied Control Council; the other being the Berlin Air Safety Center. The four occupying powers of Berlin would alternate control of the prison on a monthly basis, each having the responsibility for a total of three months out of the year.

The prison was demolished in 1987, largely to prevent it from becoming a Neo-Nazi shrine, after the death of its final remaining prisoner, Rudolf Hess, who had been the prison's sole occupant after the release of Speer and von Schirach in 1966. The site was made into a car park and a NAAFI shopping centre, named The Britannia Centre Spandau and nicknamed Hessco's after a British supermarket chain called "TESCO". All materials from the demolished prison were ground to powder and dumped in the North Sea or buried at the former RAF Gatow.

In 2006 a Kaiser's Supermarket, ALDI and a Media Markt consumer electronics store occupied the former prison grounds. In late 2008, Media Markt left the main shopping complex.

The prison
The prison, first designed for a population in the hundreds, was an old brick building surrounded by one wall 15 feet high, another of 30 feet, a 10 foot high wall topped with  electrified wire, followed by a wall of barbed wire. In addition, some of the sixty soldiers on guard duty manned nine machine-gun armed guard's towers twenty-four hours a day. Due to the number of cells available, an empty cell was left between the prisoners' cells, to avoid the possibility of prisoners communicating in Morse Code. Other remaining cells in the wing were designated for other purposes, with one being used for the prison library and another for a chapel. The cells were approximately 3 metres long by 2.7 metres wide and 4 metres high.

Garden
The highlight of the prison, from the inmates' point of view, was the garden. The garden space was first divided into small personal plots that were used by each prisoner in many ways, usually for growing vegetables. Dönitz liked growing beans, Funk tomatoes, and Speer flowers, although the Soviet director later banned flowers for a time. By regulation, all of the produce was to be put toward use in the prison kitchen, but prisoners and guards alike often skirted this rule and indulged in the garden's offerings. As prison regulations slackened and as prisoners became either apathetic or too ill to maintain their plots, the garden was consolidated into one large workable area. This suited the former architect Speer, who, being one of the youngest and liveliest of the inmates, later took up the task of refashioning the entire plot of land into a large complex garden, complete with paths, rock gardens, and flower displays. On days without access to the garden, for instance when it was raining, the prisoners occupied their time making envelopes together in the main corridor.

Controversy
The Allied powers originally took over the prison in November 1946, expecting it to accommodate a hundred or more war criminals. Besides the sixty or so soldiers on duty in or around the prison at any given time, there were teams of professional civilian warders from each of the four countries, four prison directors and their deputies, four army medical officers, cooks, translators, waiters, porters and others. This was thought to be the wrong way to use the money and resources, and became a serious point of contention among the prison directors, politicians from their respective countries. The West Berlin government was especially unhappy at the arrangements because it cost them a lot of money but they still had a lack of space in their own prison system.

Life in the prison

Prison regulations

Every part of life in the prison was strictly set out by a set of rules designed before the prisoners' arrival by the Four Powers — France, Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Compared with other established prison regulations at the time, Spandau's rules were quite strict.

The prisoners' outgoing letters to families were at first limited to one page every month;
 Talking with fellow prisoners was prohibited;
 Newspapers were banned;
 Diaries and memoirs were forbidden;
 Visits by families were limited to one of fifteen minutes every two months, and
 Lights were flashed into the prisoners' cells every fifteen minutes during the night as a form of suicide watch.

A lot of the stricter regulations were either later relaxed, or deliberately ignored by prison staff. The directors and guards of the Western powers (France, Britain, and the United States), often complained about many of the stricter measures. The complaints were often vetoed by the Soviet Union, because it thought the rules should be stricter. The Soviet Union suffered 19 million civilian deaths during the war, and wanted the death penalty for all of the prisoners at the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg. Western commentators accused the Russians of keeping Spandau prison in operation chiefly as a centre for Soviet spying, as they had an excuse to drive into western Berlin, and the soldiers often looked out over the city instead of into the prison grounds.

Daily life
Every day, prisoners had to wake up at 06:00 hours, wash, clean their cells and the corridor together, eat breakfast.  They then stayed in the garden until lunch-time at noon (weather permitting), after lunch they rested in their cells, then returned to the garden. Supper followed at 17:00 hours, after which the prisoners were returned to their cells. Lights out was at 22:00 hours. Prisoners were given a shave and a haircut, if necessary, every Monday, Wednesday and Friday; they did their own laundry every Monday. This routine, except the time allowed in the garden, changed very little throughout the years, although each of the controlling nations made their own interpretation of the prison regulations.

All prisoners feared the months when the Soviets were in control; the Russians were much stricter in enforcing prison regulations and offered poorer quality meals. Each nation in charge would bring its own cook and, in the American, French, and British months, feed the prisoners better than regulations allowed. The Soviets would offer an unchanging diet of coffee, bread, soup, and potatoes. This rigidity was primarily due to the much-loathed Soviet director, who perpetually enforced these measures and whom Russian and Western guards alike feared and despised. Until this director's sudden removal in the early 1960s, the 'Soviet month' was dreaded. Afterwards, matters, including diet, were improved.

References

1876 establishments in Europe
1987 disestablishments in Europe
Buildings and structures in Berlin
Prisons in Germany

Spandau Prison