The 184th Attack Squadron (184 ATKS) is a unit of the Arkansas Air National Guard 188th Wing located at Ebbing Air National Guard Base, Fort Smith, Arkansas. The 184th is equipped with the MQ-9 Reaper.  In June 2014 the squadron transitioned from A-10C to the MQ-9.

Overview
The 184th Attack Squadron MQ-9 Reaper Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) mission is to provide close air support (CAS), air interdiction, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR), and attack to eliminate threats when present. The multi-role capabilities of these RPAs allows Combat Search and Rescue operations and extended time over targets to locate, track, target, strike, and assess time sensitive targets.

History

Tactical Reconnaissance
Authorized by the National Guard Bureau in 1953 at the 184th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron.  Organized at Fort Smith Regional Airport, Arkansas and extended recognition as a new unit on 15 October 1953.   The squadron was assigned to the Tennessee ANG 118th Tactical Reconnaissance Group, Berry Field, Nashville, for administration, operational control was exercised by the Arkansas Air National Guard.

The 184th TRS was initially equipped with World War II-era RB-26C Invader night photo-reconnaissance aircraft.  The black-painted RB-26s were originally medium bombers that were modified for aerial reconnaissance in the late 1940s.  Most of the aircraft received were Korean War veterans, were unarmed and carried cameras and flash flares for night aerial photography.  In 1956, the B-26 was reaching the end of its operational USAF service, and the squadron was re-equipped with RF-80A Shooting Star daylight reconnaissance aircraft that were also nearly obsolescent.

In January 1957, the 184th retired its worn-out RF-80s and received new RF-84F Thunderstreak reconnaissance aircraft, manufactured for Air National Guard use.  During the 1961 Berlin Crisis, the squadron was federalized and assigned to the mobilized Kentucky ANG 123d Tactical Reconnaissance Group however it remained at Fort Smith and was released from active duty and returned to Arkansas state control on 22 August 1962.

On 22 August 1962, the 184th was authorized to expand to a group level, and the 188th Tactical Reconnaissance Group was established by the National Guard Bureau. The 184th TRS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 188th Headquarters, 188th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 188th Combat Support Squadron, and the 188th USAF Dispensary.

In 1970 with the winding-down of the Vietnam War, the 184th began receiving McDonnell RF-101C Voodoos, replacing the RF-84Fs the unit had been flying for over a decade.  The USAF had, however, planned for the RF-101C to be gradually phased out of USAF service in favor of the McDonnell RF-4C Phantom II and the aircraft remained with the 184th TRS for only a brief period of time, and in 1970 was retired.

Tactical Fighter

Following their withdrawal from the Vietnam War, numerous USAF F-100D Super Sabres were turned over to the Air National Guard.  Tactical Air Command realigned the 151st into a Tactical Fighter Group in 1972, and equipping the unit with Vietnam Veteran F-100D and twin-seat F-100F Trainers.  In 1979, the Super Sabre was being retired and the 184th TFS began receiving F-4C Phantom IIs to be used in an air defense role.   In 1988, as part of the retirement of the Phantom II, the squadron began receiving Block 15 F-16A Fighting Falcons.  The first F-16 delivery to the squadron was on 1 July 1988 and the formal acceptance of the F-16 happened on 15 October. On 15 March 1992, the 184th dropped the Tactical name from the squadron as the parent 184th converted to the USAF Objective organization.

In early 2001 the 184th FS began to retire its F-16A/B block 15s to AMARC in exchange for F-16C block 32s. They never received any D-models. Because the squadron flew the rarely seen block 32, the squadron became a source for spare F-16s for the USAF Thunderbirds flight demonstration team. In the end, the 184th FS never had to give up any of their aircraft as the Thunderbirds took needed aircraft from home based Nellis 57th Fighter Wing.

Deployed to Prince Sultan AB, Saudi Arabia (24 October 2002 to December 2002) in support of Operation Southern Watch. In 2005, the 188th deployed nearly 300 Airmen and multiple F-16C Fighting Falcons to Balad Air Base, Iraq, in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom.

BRAC 2005
BRAC 2005 initially decided to inactivate the 188th Fighter Wing and close Fort Smith ANGB.   With a great deal of effort by Arkansas' leaders caused the BRAC panel to change its decision on the 184th FS and give it a new mission. The squadron would still lose its F-16s but in their place would get a total of eighteen A-10 Thunderbolt II ground attack aircraft. One of the deciding factors was Fort Smiths location near Fort Chaffee, a former National Guard training post.

On 18 October 2006 the 184th FS began giving up F-16s when two departed for the 194th Fighter Squadron located at Fresno Air National Guard Base, California. By April 2007 the 184th FS had already begun to receive the A-10 from the Massachusetts ANG 104th Fighter Wing and pilots had already commenced cross training in October. On 14 April 2007 the 184th FS marked the day with a celebration 'Viper Out/Warthog In' day. The 184th FS took the opportunity to display their new A-10 paint scheme and to still fly the F-16 but the 184th FS at this point was officially an A-10 unit.

Current status
In early 2012 the Air Force planned to realign the 188th Fighter Wing and replace its 20 A-10 aircraft, converting the 184th FS to operate the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).  However, after extensive discussions in August 2012 it was announced that the 188th Fighter Wing would retain its A-10s.

In July 2012, the Wing deployed 275 airmen and aircraft to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom.   They were assigned to the 455th Air Expeditionary Wing, Bagram Airfield, near Kabul.  This was the second AEF deployment for the 188th as a unit since receiving A-10 Thunderbolt II "Warthogs" 14 April 2007. The 188th's last AEF deployment transpired in 2010 when the unit deployed about 300 Airmen and 12 A-10Cs to the 451st Air Expeditionary Wing at Kandahar Airfield.

The guardsmen remained in Afghanistan until October, flying close-air support in response to ground troops who may be in contact with the enemy, or to escort convoys in particularly hostile areas. When not supporting ground troops, A-10s patrol designated sectors and provided aerial reconnaissance on locations of interest to ground commanders.  In three months, Arkansas ANG A-10s delivered more than 60,000 30mm cannon rounds and more than 250 precision munitions on enemy targets.

In June 2014, the last of the units A-10C aircraft departed and the unit was re-designated the 184th Attack Squadron.

Lineage
 Designated 184th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron and allotted to Arkansas ANG in 1953
 Extended federal recognition on 15 October 1953
 Federalized and placed on active duty, 1 October 1961
 Released from active duty and returned to Arkansas state control, 22 August 1962
 Re-designated: 184th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 1 July 1972
 Re-designated: 184th Fighter Squadron, 16 March 1992
 Designated: 184th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron when elements deployed to United States Air Forces Central during Air and Space Expeditionary Force (AEF) deployments.
 Re-designated: 184th Attack Squadron June 2014

Assignments
 118th Tactical Reconnaissance Group, 15 October 1953
 123d Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, 1 October 1961
 188th Tactical Reconnaissance Group, 22 August 1962
 188th Tactical Fighter Group, 1 July 1972
 188th Fighter Group, 16 March 1992
 188th Operations Group, 1 October 1995–present

Stations
 Fort Smith Regional Airport, Fort Smith, Arkansas, 15 October 1953
 Designated: Fort Smith Air National Guard Station, 1991–present

Aircraft

 RB-26C Invader, 1953–1956
 RF-80A Shooting Star, 1956–1957
 RF-84F Thunderstreak, 1957–1970
 RF-101C Voodo, 1970–1972
 F-100D/F Super Sabre, 1972–1979

 F-4C Phantom II, 1979-1998
 F-16A Fighting Falcon, 1988–2001
 F-16C Fighting Falcon, 2001–2007
 A-10 Thunderbolt II, 2007–2014
 MQ-9 Reaper, 2014–present

References

 188th Fighter Wing history page
 188th Fighter firstname.lastname@example.com
 184th Fighter email@example.com

External links

Squadrons of the United States Air National Guard
Fighter squadrons of the United States Air Force
Military units and formations in Arkansas

184th Attack Squadron


Caelus or Coelus was a god of the sky in Roman myth and theology and literature. Its name usually appears in masculine form when he is thought of as a male generative force.

According to Cicero and Hyginus, Caelus was the son of Aether and Dies ("Day" or "Daylight"). Caelus and Dies were in this tradition the parents of Mercury.

References

Greek gods and goddesses

Caelus


is a dam in Fukuyama in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. The dam began construction in 1974, and the project was completed in 2004. The dam has a height of 58.9 metres and a length of 251 metres. The reservoir has a maximum capacity of 1,650,000 m³ and has a catchment area of 15 km2.

Development
The dam is currently managed by the Tsutsumi Takashi Office of Hiroshima Prefecture. The Shikawa Dam is a concrete gravity dam which was initiated as part of the Kamo River Flood Control Plan. The plan has a number of important functions and aims to improve irrigation and flood control in the area whilst providing water stabilization and environmental protection. The artificial lake,  formed by the dam is at present to the north, just past the dam. Takiyama castle is nearby.

The Shikawa Dam is in the upper reaches of the Kamo River. A pond dam for irrigation was originally completed as early as 1925 but underwent significant renovation between 1974 and 2004 to enable it to control flooding in the area.

The dam also serves as a sewage treatment works with its water treatment facilities. Sludge generated by the turbines is re-used. The mass recycling of the sludge earned the dam the Merit Award for Recycling in 2002 by the Ministry of Transport even before the dam was officially opened.

References

External links

Dams in Hiroshima Prefecture
Dams completed in 2004

Shikawa Dam


The Humber Pullman is a four-door limousine which was introduced by the British Humber company in 1930 as a successor to the Humber 20/65 hp and long-wheelbase version of the Humber Snipe.

In 1939 an upgraded version was launched badged as the Humber Imperial, but postwar the car reverted to the Pullman name. Between 1948 and 1954 the car was offered with a central partition (for chauffeured use) as the Pullman, but without a partition was badged as the Humber Imperial for owner-drivers.

The Pullman / Imperial was not offered for sale to the public during the Second World War; the factory's limited output were used as staff cars. It returned to the market in 1945 and remained in production till 1954. At the present time only eight units of this vehicle are still extant.

Before World War II

The 1930 car came with a 3498cc straight six cylinder overhead inlet side exhaust valve engine and a claimed power output of 80 hp (60 kW). The classic limousine style body featured rear- hinged doors and in some respects resembled the Humber Snipe 80 with which it shared its engine, but the Pullman was longer and wider. For this heavy car Humber claimed a top speed of 73 mph (117 km/h). As well as the limousine, Landaulette and Sedanca de Ville bodies were available. Humber, the manufacturer lost its independence in 1931 when the Rootes Group acquired a majority share holding in it. A coupé was added to the body range in 1935 for one year only.

A rebodied Pullman with two-piece V windscreen appeared in 1936, sharing the  wheelbase of its predecessor, but with the overall length of the car increased to . Engine size was now raised to 4086cc while claimed power was 100 hp (75 kW). The power increase was also evident from the claimed top speed which now edged up to 75 mph (121 km/h). The chassis gained independent front suspension, and hydraulic brakes were fitted in 1940. As well as the factory body options, some cars were supplied in chassis form to independent coachbuilders, especially Thrupp & Maberly.

In 1939 the Pullman was joined by the Humber Imperial or Snipe Imperial which shared the engine with the Pullman, but was built on the  shorter Snipe chassis and correspondingly brisker, with an advertised top speed of 81 mph (130 km/h). The car nevertheless remained spacious, and was favoured for use by British government ministers during the 1940s. Four and Six-light saloons and drophead coupé bodies were available. Civilian availability ended in 1940 when the factory was given over to production of the 'Ironside' Reconnaissance Car. However, production of the newly introduced "razor-edge" Pullman continued throughout the war for the government and the military.

After World War II

The Pullman returned to the market in 1945 with seven-seat limousine and landaulette bodies, to be replaced in 1948 by a reworked and lengthened version on a lengthened chassis and designated the Humber Pullman Mk II. From 1948 the car was available with or without a partition between the front and rear of the cabin. The version with a division retained the Pullman name, while for the mechanically identical owner-driver version the Humber Imperial name was now revived. The headlamps were no longer standalone but fitted into the wings.

The Mark III version introduced in 1951 was little changed from the Mark II, apart from being even longer and having an all-synchromesh gearbox. At  the Mk III Humber Pullman was the same length as the Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud which would emerge from Crewe in 1955. A total of 2200 Mk II and III Pullmans, and 1526 Imperials, were manufactured.

In 1953 more power was offered for the Mark IV Pullmans and Imperials, still with straight six cylinder engines, but now of 4139cc with overhead valves, and published power output of 113 hp (84 kW) or 116 hp (87 kW). Production ended in 1954.

Imperial revival

In 1964 the company revived the Humber Imperial name for a top-of-the-line Humber Super Snipe, distinguished by a slightly lower different-shaped coupé-like vinyl-clad roof. Automatic transmission was standard and there was a more luxuriously appointed interior. The range of large Humbers, including the Imperial, was withdrawn by Rootes in 1967.

References

Pullman
Rootes vehicles
1960s cars
Cars introduced in 1930
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Executive cars

Humber Pullman


Cecil John Rhodes (5 Julie 1853 - 26 Mairch 1902) wis a Breetish-born Sooth African businessman, minin magnate, an politeecian. He wis the founder o the diamond company De Beers, that markets 60% o the warld's roch diamonds the day an at ae time mairketed 90%. He wis a strang believer in colonialism an wis the founder o the state o Rhodesia, that wis cried aifter him.

Rhodes profited greatly frae ruthlessly controllin Southern Aifrica's naitural resoorces bi his uiss o Aifrican forced labor, an uised the proceeds tae fund the Rhodes Scholarship in pairt upon his death. Rhodes famously declared: "To think of these stars that you see overhead at night, these vast worlds which we can never reach. I would annex the planets if I could; I often think of that. It makes me sad to see them so clear and yet so far."

References

1853 births
1902 daiths
Alumni o Oriel College, Oxford
Breetish colonisation in Africae
Breetish Empire
Breetish minin businessfowk
Breetish fowk o Inglis strynd
De Beers
Inglis agnostics
Cecil Rhodes
Members o the Privy Cooncil o Ireland
Members o the Privy Cooncil o the Unitit Kinrick
Fowk frae Bishop's Stortford
Fowk frae Kimberley, Northern Cape
Fowk o the First Matabele War
Fowk o the Seicont Boer War
Fowk o the Seicont Matabele War
Prime Meenisters o the Cape Colony
Randlords
Cecil Rhodes
Rhodesian politeecians
Sooth African agnostics
Sooth African minin businessfowk
N M Rothschild & Sons fowk
Freemasons o the Unitit Grand Lodge o Ingland

Cecil Rhodes


Without Face were one of the most famous internationally known Hungarian progressive metal bands. They were formed in the city of Veszprém, Hungary in 1997. The band featured a dual female and male vocal line-up similar to that of gothic metal, with progressive metal and thrash metal overtones and they managed to mix these different styles in a very original own version. Their lyrics are influenced by the writings of H. P. Lovecraft, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

In 1998, Without Face recorded its first self-titled demo Without Face. Constant touring and the demo resulted in a deal for their first album Deep Inside with Hammer Music Productions, in 2000. Without Face also appeared on a number of the label's metal music compilations. Their first album was subsequently re-released in the United States by the Dark Symphonies Records label.

The band were approached by English producer Lee Barrett, from Elitist - Earache Records for a four-album deal and worldwide release in 2002. A full-length album, Astronomicon was released in late 2002 and received favourable reviews from the metal music press. It was awarded "Album of the Month" in the English music magazine Metal Hammer. They eventually split up and finished their career in 2008.

Members
 Andras Szabo - male vocals
 Nori Pádár - female vocals
 Zsolt Horváth (Roomy) - guitar
 Szilard Sárik (Sasza) - keyboard
 Gergo Maros - bass guitar
 Peter Sütõ - drums

Without Face have gone through several line-up changes. Péter Márton (bass guitar), Anett Balássi (vocals), Péter "Incho" Inotai (guitars), Kyrah Németh (keyboards), and Bertalan Temesi (bass guitar), were all original members who left in 2000 and 2001. Juliette Kiss, who replaced Anett on vocals, has since left to form UK band To-Mera. Andras Szabo, one of the original vocalists and forming member of the band, departed in 2006, and has since joined ex-Sutcliffe guitarist Tommy's new project Lunatic Asylum, with ex-To-Mera drummer Akos.

Discography
 (Men) Without Face (1998) demo recording
 Deep Inside (2000)
 Astronomicon (2002)

External links
 Without Face official website
 Encyclopaedia Metallum entry
 Without Face biography
 Without Face on Myspace
 Official Without Face Fanpage

Gothic metal musical groups
Hungarian heavy metal musical groups
Progressive metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 1997
Earache Records artists

Without Face


Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.

Google Apps
Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.

Trademark issues
In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".

In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.

References

Other websites
 Gmail Website

Mail
E-mail

Gmail


Alfred Rahlfs (; ; 29 May 1865 – 8 April 1935) was a German Biblical scholar. He was a member of the history of religions school. He is known for his edition of the Septuagint published in 1935.

Biography
He was born in Linden near Hanover, and studied Protestant Theology, Philosophy, and Oriental Languages in Halle and Göttingen, where he received a Dr. Phil. in 1887. His professional career developed in Göttingen, where he was Stiftsinspektor (from 1888), Privatdozent (from 1891), Extraordinarius (from 1914), and Professor for Old Testament (from 1919). He retired in 1933 and died in Göttingen.

Influenced by his teacher Paul de Lagarde, Rahlfs's academic interest focused on the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. Together with Rudolf Smend and others, Rahlfs was responsible for the creation of the Septuaginta-Unternehmen under Göttingen's and Berlin's Academies of Sciences and Humanities in 1907, which he directed from 1908 until 1933. Its goal has been to reconstruct the original wording of the Septuagint, and since Rahlfs' death it had published twenty volumes.

Rahlfs edited a preliminary but influential edition of the Septuagint, which appeared in two volumes in the year he died, in addition to one critical volume (Psalmi cum Odis) and two slim volumes on the Book of Ruth and Genesis. In 2006, a revision of his Septuaginta, made by Robert Hanhart, was published by the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. This editio altera includes over a thousand changes to the text and apparatus. Rahlfs' sigla of Septuagint manuscripts are still cited.

Select bibliography
Alfred Rahlfs, Septuaginta-Studien, 3 vols., Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1904–11.
Alfred Rahlfs, Verzeichniz der griechischen Handschriften des Alten Testaments, für das Septuaginta-Unternehmen, Göttingen 1914.
Alfred Rahlfs (ed.), Das Buch Rut griechisch als Probe einer kritischen Handausgabe der LXX, Stuttgart: Privileg. Württ. Bibelanstalt, 1922.
Alfred Rahlfs (ed.), Genesis, Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum graecum I, Stuttgart: Privilegierte Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1926.
Alfred Rahlfs (ed.), Psalmi cum Odis, Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum graecum X.1, Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1931.
Alfred Rahlfs (ed.), Septuaginta: id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interpretes, 2 vols., Stuttgart: Privileg. Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1935.

Notes

References
 Klaus-Gunther Wesseling, "RAHLFS, Alfred." In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL), Vol 7, Bautz, Herzberg 1994, , pp. 1267–1269.

1865 births
1935 deaths
Writers from Hanover
20th-century German Protestant theologians
German biblical scholars
Old Testament scholars
German male non-fiction writers
University of Göttingen alumni

Alfred Rahlfs


Redland is a set of free software libraries written in C that provide support for the Resource Description Framework (RDF), created by Dave Beckett (a former resident of Redland, Bristol).

The packages that form Redland are:

 Redland RDF Application Framework providing the C RDF API
 Raptor RDF Parser Toolkit for parsing and serializing RDF syntaxes (RDF/XML, N-Triples, Turtle, RSS tag soup, Atom)
 Rasqal RDF Query Library for executing RDF queries with RDQL and SPARQL
 Redland Language Bindings for APIs to Redland in C#, Java, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby and Tcl

Redland is a mature set of libraries, in development since 2000 and closely conformant to the relevant W3C specifications.

See also
Semantic Web

External links
http://librdf.org/
http://md.devc.at/internet/semantic-web/rdf/redland-rdf (TM-hub)
http://kill.devc.at/internet/semantic-web/rdf/redland/tutorial

RDF data access
Resource Description Framework
C (programming language) libraries
Python (programming language) libraries
Free software programmed in Python

Redland RDF Application Framework


In Anglican church music, a Service is a piece of music for the choir to sing during a service of worship.   It uses the words which are a traditional part of the service.  The choir is usually accompanied by the organ, but sometimes it can be just for choir without organ.

In Morning Prayer the words which are set to music for the choir are the words of the Venite (Psalm 95), the Te Deum and the Jubilate (Psalm 100) or Benedictus.

For a Holy Communion the set words will usually be the Gloria, sometimes the Creed, Sanctus, Agnus Dei as well as responses.

For Evening Prayer the words will be the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis.  Singers in the choir often call these "Mag and Nunc" for short.  Many composers have set these words.  They make them into a piece for choir which is like an anthem.

In the Tudor and early Stuart periods, services were described as "Short", "Great" or "Verse" services.  Short services were short, the words were only sung once and it was often unaccompanied (no organ).  A Great service was longer: some of the words were often sung many times.  William Byrd wrote a famous Great Service.  A Verse service was also long: there were several verses which need to be sung by a solo choir member.  In between each verse there is some music for the whole choir to sing.

Musical forms
Christian music

Service (music)


Henry John Burnett (5 January 1942 – 15 August 1963) was the last man to be hanged in Scotland, and the first in Aberdeen since 1891. He was tried at the high court in Aberdeen from 23 to 25 July 1963 for the murder of merchant seaman Thomas Guyan. His execution, at HM Prison, Craiginches, Aberdeen, was performed by hangman Harry Allen.

Background

On 2 February 1957, Thomas Guyan married Margaret May, and a year later they moved into a first floor flat at 14 Jackson Terrace, Aberdeen, a house owned by May's grandmother Annie Henderson.

A son was born in September 1958, followed by a second in February 1961; however, the father of this second child was not Thomas. This led to marital problems which came to a head in 1962 when Margaret consulted a solicitor about the possibility of a divorce which her husband refused. Then, in December of that same year she went to work at John R. Stephen Fish Curers where she met a new admirer, Henry Burnett.

A relationship soon developed and, by May 1963, Margaret had moved out of Jackson Terrace with her younger son Keith to share a new address in Skene Terrace with Burnett.

Events of 31 May 1963

Henry Burnett came to believe that, given the chance, Margaret would leave him, so he took to locking her in the house whenever he went out. This was not a state of affairs which Margaret relished so when by chance she met her estranged husband on 31 May, she agreed to go back to him.

Margaret Guyan arrived at 40 Skene Terrace at 4.00 pm, to collect her son Keith. A family friend, Georgina Cattanagh, went with her for moral support. As soon as Margaret announced her intention to go back to her husband, Burnett cried "Margaret, Margaret, you are not going to leave me!" He then drew a knife to Margaret's throat, closing the door behind them.

Fearful of what was happening inside, Cattanagh banged repeatedly on the front door and demanded the release of Margaret. Minutes later, Burnett threw open the door and ran off down the street. Margaret was shaken, but relatively unhurt. The two women made their way back to 14 Jackson Terrace.

Burnett went to his brother Frank's workplace and told him what had happened; his brother urged him to go to the police. But Burnett, still set on revenge, instead went to Frank's house in the city's Bridge of Don area to borrow his brother's shotgun. Because Frank's wife had been told never to lend the gun to anyone, Burnett forced the cabinet open and stole the gun, along with some cartridges, after which he boarded a bus to 14 Jackson Terrace.

He arrived at the Guyans' flat and forced his way in. After Cattanagh screamed "You can't come in here!", Thomas Guyan jumped to his feet to see what the problem was. As he opened the kitchen door, he was met by Burnett, carrying the gun. A shot rang out and Guyan fell dead, having been shot in the face at close range. Burnett then took Margaret out of the flat at gun point; on the way down the stairs, he threatened a young boy from a neighbouring flat.

Burnett dragged Margaret down a lane and as far as a garage on Seaforth Road, near the main route north out of Aberdeen.  John Innes Irvine was filling his car with petrol at the garage when Burnett demanded his car. Irvine tried to stop Burnett from stealing the car, but was threatened with the shotgun. The police were soon notified of the theft and began following the car, which was driving north towards Peterhead. After driving for about 15 miles, Burnett pulled the car over near the town of Ellon and offered no resistance as he was arrested by Constable James G. Raeper and Constable Mitchell.

Trial

At his trial, Burnett's defence was that at the time of the crime he was insane or alternatively, that this was a case of diminished responsibility. Both defences failed after the jury had considered the evidence for 25 minutes. The court had heard expert witness evidence from three psychiatrists: A. M. Wylie, the Physician Superintendent of the Royal Cornhill Hospital, Professor Miller and Ian M Lowit, Consultant Child Psychiatrist, all of whom agreed that Burnett should be reprieved on psychiatric grounds. In letters later sent to The Scotsman newspaper, Professor Miller and Dr Lowit explained that their evidence suggested that Burnett displayed what Miller described as psychopathic tendencies, for which he had received treatment in hospital in the past. It was revealed in Court that he had been violent in the past and had also attempted suicide.

In correspondence with The Scotsman and the Howard League for Penal Reform, it appears that the expert psychiatric evidence was mocked by the press and discounted by the Crown.  The argument for capital punishment hinged upon the use of a firearm: murder by firearm was by law a capital offence, in order to deter criminals from deeds like armed robbery; the expert witnesses indicated that Burnett's use of the weapon better fitted an impulsive crime of passion than a crime motivated by the intentions that capital punishment was supposed to deter. His mother and father both appeared in the witness box and his mother broke down in the court.

After he was sentenced to death, both his own family and that of the victim petitioned for his reprieve.

However, there was no appeal from Burnett and at 8.00 am on Thursday, 15 August 1963, the 21-year-old was executed on Britain's newest gallows (built in 1962 to Home Office-approved specifications) as a crowd of 200 people gathered outside the prison. Executioner Harry Allen and his assistant Samuel Plant performed the hanging. Shortly afterwards, Burnett's body was buried in an unmarked grave within the walls of the prison, as was customary.

Craiginches Prison closed permanently in January 2014 and the grounds were ear-marked for redevelopment. In early August 2014 the remains of Burnett were exhumed from the prison and taken to Aberdeen Crematorium, where a  private ceremony was held on 7 August.

See also
Capital punishment in the United Kingdom
John Alan West, whose murder led to the last executions in the UK, in 1964.

References
Adams, Norman (2003); Blood on the Granite; Black and White Publishing;

MacKay Donald  "Scotlands Hanged 1946-1963" (2016)

1942 births
1963 deaths
People from Aberdeen
People executed for murder
History of Aberdeen
Place of birth missing
Executed Scottish people
20th-century executions by the United Kingdom
People executed by Scotland by hanging
Scottish people convicted of murder
20th-century Scottish criminals
1963 in Scotland
1963 murders in the United Kingdom
Murder in Scotland
20th-century executions by Scotland

Henry John Burnett


Christian G. Wolff (born March 8, 1934) is an American composer of experimental classical music and classicist.

Biography
Wolff was born in Nice, France, to the German literary publishers Helen and Kurt Wolff, who had published works by Franz Kafka, Robert Musil, and Walter Benjamin. After relocating to the U.S. in 1941, they helped to found Pantheon Books with other European intellectuals who had fled Europe during the rise of fascism. The Wolffs published a series of notable English translations of European literature, mostly, as well as an edition of the I Ching that came to greatly impress John Cage after Wolff had given him a copy.

Wolff became an American citizen in 1946. When he was sixteen (in 1950) his piano teacher Grete Sultan sent him for lessons in composition to the new music composer John Cage. Wolff soon became a close associate of Cage and his artistic circle  which was part of the New York School and included the fellow composers Earle Brown and Morton Feldman, the pianist David Tudor, and the dancer and choreographer Merce Cunningham. Cage relates several anecdotes about Wolff in his one-minute Indeterminacy pieces.

Almost completely self-taught as composer, Wolff studied music under Sultan and Cage. Later Wolff studied classics at Harvard University (BA, PhD) and became an expert on Euripides. Wolff taught Classics at Harvard until 1970; thereafter he taught classics, comparative literature, and music at Dartmouth College. After nine years, he became Strauss Professor of Music there. He retired from teaching at Dartmouth in 1999. In 2004, he received an honorary degree from the California Institute of the Arts. He was also awarded the Foundation for Contemporary Arts John Cage Award (1996).

Wolff is married and has four children.

Music
Wolff's early compositional work included a lot of silence and was based initially on complicated rhythmic schema, and later on a system of aural cues. He innovated unique notational methods in his early scores and found creative ways of dealing with improvisation in his music. During the 1960s he developed associations with the composers Frederic Rzewski and Cornelius Cardew who spurred each other on in their respective explorations of experimental composition techniques and musical improvisation, and then, from the early 1970s, in their attempts to engage with political matters in their music. For Wolff this often involved the use of music and texts associated with protest and political movements such as the Wobblies. His later pieces, such as the sequence of pieces Exercises (1973-), offer some freedom to the performers. Some works, such as Changing the System (1973), Braverman Music (1978, after Harry Braverman), and the series of pieces Peace March (1983–2005) have an explicit political dimension, in that they respond to contemporary world events and express political ideals.

Wolff collaborated with Merce Cunningham for many years and developed a style which is more common now, but was revolutionary when they began working together in the 1950s – a style where music and dance occur simultaneously, yet somewhat independently of one another. Wolff stated, of any influence or affect, the greatest influence on his music over the years was the choreography of Cunningham.  Wolff recently said of his work that it is motivated by his desire "to turn the making of music into a collaborative and transforming activity (performer into composer into listener into composer into performer, etc.), the cooperative character of the activity to the exact source of the music. To stir up, through the production of the music, a sense of social conditions in which we live and of how these might be changed."

Wolff's music reached a new audience when Sonic Youth's SYR4: Goodbye, 20th Century featured works by avant-garde classical composers such as John Cage, Yoko Ono, Steve Reich, and Christian Wolff played by Sonic Youth along with several collaborators from the modern avant-garde music scene, such as Christian Marclay, William Winant, Wharton Tiers, Takehisa Kosugi and others, as well as Wolff himself.

Major works
Duo for Violins (1950)
For Prepared Piano (1951)
Duo for Pianists I (1957)
For Piano With Preparations (1957)
For Pianist (1959)
Summer (for string quartet) (1961)
For 1, 2, or 3 People (1964)
Edges (1968)
Pairs (1968)
Prose Collection (1968–71)
Tilbury 1, 2, and 3 (for piano) (1969)
Snowdrop (for trombone, violin, and piano) (1970)
Burdocks (1970–71)
Exercises (1973- )
Wobbly Music (1975–76)
I Like to Think of Harriet Tubman (1985)
Piano Trio (Greenham-Seneca-Camiso) (1985) Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp The Seneca Women's Encampment for a Future of Peace and Justice
Piano Miscellany (1988)
Percussionist Songs (1994–95)
Spring (for chamber orchestra) (1995)
Berlin Exercises (2000)
Ordinary Matter (2001–04)
John Heartfield (Peace March 10) (2002)
Long Piano (Peace March 11) (2004-05)Microexercises (2006)Winter Exercise (2013)Trio IX – Accanto (2017)Resistance (2017)Mountain Messengers (2020)

 References

 Further reading
(1998) Wolff, Christian, Cues: Writings & Conversations/Hinweise: Schriften und Gespräche, Köln: Musiktexte (eds.) G. Gronemeyer & R. Oehlschagel.
(2001) Robert Carl, Christian Wolff: On tunes, politics, and mystery, in Contemporary Music Review. Issue 4, pp. 61–69.

(2004) Stephen Chase & Clemens Gresser, 'Ordinary Matters: Christian Wolff on his Recent Music', in Tempo 58/229 (July), pp. 19–27.
(2006) Rzewski, Frederic "The Algebra of Everyday Life". Liner note essay on Christian Wolff. New World Records.
(2009)  Steenhuisen, Paul.  "Interview with Christian Wolff".  In Sonic Mosaics: Conversations with Composers.  Edmonton:  University of Alberta Press, 2009.
 (2009) Tilbury, John "Christian Wolff and the Politics of Music". Liner note essay. New World Records.
 (2010) Chase, Stephen & Thomas, Philip (editors), "Changing the System: the Music of Christian Wolff" Ashgate, 2010
 (2012) Bredow, Moritz von, "Rebellische Pianistin. Das Leben der Grete Sultan zwischen Berlin und New York." (Biography). Schott Music, Mainz, Germany.  (Detailed account of the life of pianist Grete Sultan, Christian Wolff's piano teacher who eventually acquainted him with Cage. Contains many references to the New York Avant-garde).
 (2017) Wolff, Christian, Occasional Pieces – Writings and Interviews, 1952–2013, New York: Oxford University Press
 (2018) Jim Igor Kallenberg, "Intergalactic mutant music: The music of Christian Wolff and the politics of 1968. Christian Wolff in conversation with Jim Igor Kallenberg", Wien Modern 31: Sicherheit. 28.10.-30.11.2018. Essays (Festivalkatalog Band 2), pp. 90–95.
 (2020) Zimmerman, Walter, Desert Plants – Conversations with 23 American Musicians'', Berlin: Beginner Press in cooperation with Mode Records (originally published in 1976 by A.R.C., Vancouver). The 2020 edition includes a cd featuring the original interview recordings with Larry Austin, Robert Ashley, Jim Burton, John Cage, Philip Corner, Morton Feldman, Philip Glass, Joan La Barbara, Garrett List, Alvin Lucier, John McGuire, Charles Morrow, J.B. Floyd (on Conlon Nancarrow), Pauline Oliveros, Charlemagne Palestine, Ben Johnston (on Harry Partch), Steve Reich, David Rosenboom, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, James Tenney, Christian Wolff, and La Monte Young.

External links

 Art of the States: Christian Wolff
 Works
 Interview
 Two pieces
 Improvisations with Kui Dong and Larry Polansky
 19 interpretations of the piece "Stones" (1968)
Christian Wolff papers, 1947-2017 Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

1934 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
French emigrants to the United States
Harvard College alumni
French people of German descent
American people of German descent
Dartmouth College faculty
Experimental composers
Tzadik Records artists
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni

Christian Wolff (composer)


The Adelphi Cinema was a city centre film theatre on Middle Abbey Street, in Dublin, Ireland from 1939 to 1995.

History

This 2,304-seat Art Moderne style movie palace was designed by William R. Glen, (assisted by local Irish architect Robert Donnelly) for the Associated British Cinemas (ABC) circuit and opened on 12 January 1939 with Errol Flynn in The Adventures of Robin Hood. While primarily a cinema, the Adelphi featured live acts as well, most notably the only appearance in Dublin by the Beatles on 7 November 1963. The Rolling Stones appeared there on 3 September 1965, and Bob Dylan on 5 May 1966. Other performers who appeared at the Adelphi included the Beach Boys, Marlene Dietrich, Louis Armstrong, Diana Ross, and Roy Orbison.

In October 1970, the cinema was triplexed, and later, in 1973 became a quad. The Adelphi Cinema was closed on 30 November 1995, screening High Society and Gigi, with no admission charged. This once-glamorous cinema was demolished except for part of its facade, and a parking garage was built in its place. Cars now drive in and out of what was once the Adelphi's main entrance.

References

External links
 Archiseek Architecture site
 British Pathe

Former cinemas in Dublin (city)

Adelphi Cinema


A lead acid battery is a secondary cell, meaning that it is rechargeable. It is very common in cars and trucks. It contains plates of lead and lead(IV) oxide in a sulfuric acid solution. The lead(IV) oxide oxidizes the lead plate, making an electrical current.

Lead-acid batteries are the cheapest rechargeable batteries and can produce much power. They contain toxic lead, though, and should be recycled. They are wet cells, and the dangerous acid can spill out. Sealed lead acid batteries are batteries where the sulfuric acid is in a gel which stays in, even when the battery is turned up side down.

Reactions:

 lead(IV) oxide + sulfuric acid + extra hydrogen ions → lead(II) sulfate + water at cathode
 lead + extra sulfate ions → lead(II) sulfate at anode

These reactions are reversed when the battery is charged.

Related pages
Wet cell
Table of batteries

Batteries

Lead acid battery


A concertina is a musical instrument that makes sounds using air pushed and pulled through reeds using a bellows. The fingers push buttons at both ends of the instrument.

The Anglo concertina has the bass notes at the left side and makes other tones pushing than pulling a button.

The English concertina makes the same tone pushing and pulling a button.

The duet concertinas have the bass notes at the left side and make the same tone pushing and pulling a button.
The Hayden duet concertina has the same fingering for all scales. It has a shifted 6-plus-6 keyboard layout.

Related pages
 Bandoneon

Other websites

Keyboard instruments

Concertina


Dương Văn Minh (; 16 February 19166 August 2001), popularly known as Big Minh, was a South Vietnamese politician and a senior general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and a politician during the presidency of Ngô Đình Diệm. In 1963, he became chief of a military junta after leading a coup in which Diệm was assassinated. Minh lasted only three months before being toppled by Nguyễn Khánh, but assumed power again as the fourth and last President of South Vietnam in April 1975, two days before surrendering to North Vietnamese forces. He earned his nickname "Big Minh", because at approximately 1.83 m (6 ft) tall and weighing 90 kg (198 lb), he was much larger than the average Vietnamese.

Born in Tiền Giang province in the Mekong Delta region of southern Vietnam, Minh joined the French Army at the start of World War II, and was captured and tortured by the Imperial Japanese, who invaded and seized French Indochina. After his release, he joined the French-backed Vietnamese National Army (VNA) and was imprisoned by the communist-dominated Viet Minh before breaking out. In 1955, when Vietnam was partitioned and the State of Vietnam controlled the southern half under Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm, Minh led the VNA in decisively defeating the Bình Xuyên paramilitary crime syndicate in street combat and dismantling the Hòa Hảo religious tradition's private army. This made him popular with the people and Diệm, but the latter later put him in a powerless position, regarding him as a threat.

In 1963, the authoritarian Diệm became increasingly unpopular due to the Buddhist crisis and the ARVN generals decided to launch a coup, which Minh eventually led. Diệm was assassinated on 2 November 1963 shortly after being deposed. Minh was accused of ordering an aide, Nguyễn Văn Nhung, to kill Diệm. Minh then led a junta for three months, but he was an unsuccessful leader and was heavily criticized for being lethargic and uninterested. During his three months of rule, many civilian problems intensified and the communist Viet Cong made significant gains. Angered at not receiving his desired post, General Nguyễn Khánh led a group of similarly motivated officers in a January 1964 coup. Khánh allowed Minh to stay on as a token head of state in order to capitalize on Minh's public standing, but retained real power. After a power struggle, Khanh had Minh exiled. Minh stayed away before deciding to return and challenge General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu in the presidential election of 1971. When it became obvious that Thieu would rig the poll, Minh withdrew and did not return until 1972, keeping a low profile.

Minh then advocated a "third force", maintaining that Vietnam could be reunified without a military victory to a hardline communist or anti-communist government. However, this was not something that Thiệu agreed with. In April 1975, as South Vietnam was on the verge of being overrun, Thieu resigned. A week later, Minh was chosen by the legislature and became president on 28 April. Saigon fell two days later on 30 April, and Minh ordered a surrender to prevent bloody urban street fighting. Minh was spared the lengthy incarceration meted out to South Vietnamese military personnel and civil servants, and lived quietly until being allowed to emigrate to France in 1983. He later moved to California, where he died.

Early years
Minh was born on 16 February 1916 in Mỹ Tho Province in the Mekong Delta, to a wealthy landowner who served in a prominent position in the Finance Ministry of the French colonial administration. He went to Saigon where he attended a top French colonial school, now Le Quy Don High School, where King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia also studied. Unlike many of his classmates, Minh declined French citizenship and joined the Corps Indigène, the local component of the French colonial army.

He began his military career in 1940, and was one of only 50 Vietnamese officers to be commissioned when he graduated from the École Militaire in France. During the 1940s, Imperial Japan invaded Indochina and seized control from France. Minh was captured and later had only a single tooth that remained from the torture he had suffered at the hands of the Kempeitai (Japanese military police). He always smiled displaying the single tooth, which he regarded as a symbol of his toughness.

Vietnamese National Army/battles against Bình Xuyên and Hòa Hảo
Minh then transferred to the French-backed State of Vietnam's Vietnamese National Army in 1952. In 1954, Minh was captured by the Việt Minh. He escaped after strangling a communist guard and fighting off a few others.

In May 1955, he led VNA forces in the Battle of Saigon, when they dismantled the private army of the Bình Xuyên crime syndicate in urban warfare in the district of Chợ Lớn. With the Bình Xuyên vanquished, Diệm turned his attention to conquering the Hòa Hảo. As a result, a battle between Minh's VNA troops and Ba Cụt's men commenced in Cần Thơ on 5 June. Five Hòa Hảo battalions surrendered immediately; Ba Cụt and three remaining leaders had fled to the Cambodian border by the end of the month. The soldiers of the three other leaders eventually surrendered in the face of Minh's onslaught, but Ba Cụt's men fought to the end. Understanding that they could not defeat Minh's men in open conventional warfare, Ba Cụt's forces destroyed their own bases so that the VNA could not use their abandoned resources, and retreated into the jungle. Ba Cụt's 3,000 men spent the rest of 1955 evading the 20,000 VNA troops commanded by Minh. Ba Cụt was arrested by a patrol on 13 April 1956, and later executed, and his remaining forces were defeated by Minh.

The victories over the Hòa Hảo and the Bình Xuyên were the zenith of Minh's battlefield career. When Minh arrived at a military parade in his jeep before the reviewing stand after the victories, Diệm embraced him and kissed both cheeks. He was particularly popular among the population of Saigon, having purged their city of the Bình Xuyên. This earned him the respect of US officials and he was sent to the United States to study, despite his poor English, at the US Command and General Staff College at Leavenworth, Kansas.

In November 1960, a coup attempt was made against Diệm. Minh, by this time disillusioned, did not come to Diệm's defense during the siege and instead stayed at his Saigon home. Diệm responded by appointing Minh to the post of Presidential Military Advisor, where he had no influence or troops to command in case the thought of coup ever crossed his mind. According to historian Howard Jones, Minh was "in charge of three telephones", and remained in the post until Diệm's overthrow.

Overthrow of Diệm

Minh and Trần Văn Đôn, the ARVN Chief of Staff who had no troops due to Diệm's suspicion of him, went to observe the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)'s military exercises in Thailand, where they were informed about the regional disquiet over Diệm's policies toward Buddhists.

Minh frequently railed against Diệm in his September meeting with Lodge, decrying the police state that was being created by the Cần Lao Party of the Ngô family. Harkins reported that Minh "has done nothing but complain to me about the government and the way it is handled since I have been here". Harkins was skeptical about Minh's claims of widespread public disenchantment.

During late-September, President Kennedy dispatched the McNamara Taylor mission to investigate the political and military situation in South Vietnam. This included investigating an ARVN coup. Minh expressed an interest in meeting McNamara and Taylor, so a game of doubles tennis was organized. McNamara watched on as Taylor played with Minh, giving "broad hints of our interest in other subjects which we gave him during breaks in the game". Minh revealed nothing of his thoughts about a possible coup, leaving his guests bewildered. Minh later messaged Taylor with a complaint about a perceived lack of support from Washington for a coup. Diệm became very unpopular during the Buddhist crisis of 1963; the US informed the Vietnamese generals (through the CIA) that it would not object if Diệm were to be overthrown. Minh was the second highest ranking general at the time, and he led the coup to overthrow Diệm on 1 November 1963.

In the afternoon, Minh ordered his bodyguard, Nguyễn Văn Nhung, to arrest, and later execute, Colonel Lê Quang Tung, one of Diệm's closest and most faithful associates. The generals hated Tung, because, at Ngô Đình Nhu's instructions, he had disguised his men in regular army uniforms and framed the army for the Xá Lợi Pagoda raids several months earlier, in August. At nightfall, Nhung took Tung and Major Lê Quảng Trịeu, his brother and deputy and drove them to the edge of the air base. Forced to kneel over two freshly dug holes, the brothers were shot into their graves and buried. In the early morning of 2 November, Diệm agreed to surrender. The ARVN officers had reportedly originally intended merely to exile Diệm and Nhu, having promised them safe passage".

Minh and Đôn asked Colonel Lucien Conein to secure an American aircraft to take the brothers out of the country. Assistant Secretary of State Roger Hilsman recommended that if the generals decide to exile Diệm, he should also be sent outside Southeast Asia. He went on to anticipate what he termed a "Götterdämmerung in the palace".

Minh then went to Gia Long Palace, and Minh sent an armored personnel carrier to transport Diệm and Nhu, while the others prepared for the ceremonial and televised handover of power to the junta. Minh arrived in full military ceremonial uniform to supervise the arrest of the Ngô brothers, only to find that they had escaped and humiliated him, having talked to him from a safe house. Minh was reported to be mortified when he realised that Diệm and Nhu had escaped in the middle of the night leaving the rebels to fight for an empty building. However, Diệm's hideout was found and surrounded, and Minh sent General Mai Hữu Xuân, his deputy Colonel Nguyễn Văn Quan, his bodyguard Nguyễn Văn Nhung and Dương Hiếu Nghĩa to arrest both brothers.

Nhung and Nghĩa sat with the brothers in the APC as the convoy headed off after the arrest. Before the convoy had departed for the church, Minh was reported to have gestured to Nhung, who was a contract killer and Minh's bodyguard, with two right-hand fingers. This was taken to be an order to kill both brothers. During the journey, the brothers were killed in the APC, with Nhung riddling their bodies with many bullets. An investigation by Đôn later determined that Nghĩa and Nhung sprayed them with bullets before repeatedly stabbing them. When the corpses arrived at military headquarters, the generals were shocked. Đôn ordered another general to tell reporters that the brothers had died in an accident and went to confront Minh in his office.Đôn: Why are they dead?
Minh: And what does it matter that they are dead?

Đôn later reported that Minh had answered his question in a "haughty" tone. At this time, Xuân walked into Minh's office through the open door, unaware of Đôn's presence. Xuân snapped to attention and stated "Mission accomplie".

Minh had his subordinates report that the Ngô brothers had committed suicide. Unclear and contradictory stories abounded on the exact method used by the brothers. Minh said "Due to an inadvertence, there was a gun inside the vehicle. It was with this gun that they committed suicide." Conein soon realized that the generals' story was false. Soon after, photos of the bloodied corpses of the brothers appeared in the media, discrediting the generals' lies. Đôn's assertion that the assassinations were unplanned proved sufficient for Lodge, who told the State Department that "I am sure assassination was not at their direction." Minh and Đôn reiterated their position in a meeting with Conein and Lodge a few days after the coup.

Culpability regarding killings of Diệm and Nhu
The assassinations caused a split within the junta and repulsed world opinion. The killings damaged the public belief that the new regime would be an improvement over Diệm, throwing the generals into discord. Criticism over the killings caused the officers to battle one another for positions in the new government. The responsibility for the assassinations has generally been laid at the doorstep of Minh. Conein asserted that "I have it on very good authority of very many people, that Big Minh gave the order", as did William Colby, the director of the CIA's Far Eastern division. Đôn, however, was equally emphatic, saying "I can state without equivocation that this was done by General Dương Văn Minh and by him alone." Lodge believed Xuân was at least partly culpable, asserting: "Diệm and Nhu had been assassinated, if not by Xuan personally, at least at his direction." Some months after the event, Minh was reported to have privately told an American official that "We had no alternative. They had to be killed. Diệm could not be allowed to live because he was too much respected among simple, gullible people in the countryside, especially the Catholics and the refugees. We had to kill Nhu because he was so widely feared — and he had created organizations that were arms of his personal power."

When Nguyễn Văn Thiệu became president, Minh blamed him for the assassinations. In 1971, Minh claimed that Thiệu had caused the deaths by hesitating and delaying the attack by his 5th Division on Gia Long Palace. Đôn was reported to have pressured Thieu during the night of the siege, asking him on the phone "Why are you so slow in doing it? Do you need more troops? If you do, ask Đính to send more troops—and do it quickly because after taking the palace you will be made a general." Thiệu denied responsibility and issued a statement: "Dương Văn Minh has to assume entire responsibility for the death of Ngô Đình Diệm."

Trần Văn Hương, an opposition politician who was jailed by Diệm, and a future prime minister and president, gave a scathing analysis of the generals' action. He said "The top generals who decided to murder Diệm and his brother were scared to death. The generals knew very well that having no talent, no moral virtues, no political support whatsoever, they could not prevent a spectacular comeback of the president and Mr. Nhu if they were alive."

Conein asserted that Minh's humiliation by Diệm and Nhu was a major motivation for ordering their executions. Conein reasoned that the brothers were doomed to death once they escaped from the palace, instead of surrendering and accepting the offer of safe exile. Having successfully stormed the palace, Minh had arrived at the presidential residence in full ceremonial military uniform "with a sedan and everything else". Conein described Minh as a "very proud man" who had lost face by turning up at the palace, ready to claim victory, only to find an empty building. He claimed that Diệm and Nhu would not have been killed if they were in the palace, because there were too many people present.

American policy makers later came to believe that the coup and the murders of President Diệm and his brother more deeply entrenched the United States in the war, by increasing its responsibility for what had occurred after the deposing of Diệm's administration.

In the view of Stanley Karnow, a former journalist in Saigon for The Saturday Evening Post, ''Minh was not the main mover. But as the senior general, he was the man who crystallized the various factions who were all plotting against Diệm. Everybody and his brother had a plot.''

Rule
Minh took over the government under a military junta on 6 November, which consisted of 12 generals. To give the regime a civilian veneer, Diệm's figurehead Vice President, Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ, was appointed Prime Minister of a provisional civilian government overseen by the Military Revolutionary Council (MRC). Despite his nominally being the second most important person in the Diệm regime, Thơ was a figurehead with little influence, which lay with Diệm's brothers. Diệm held Thơ in contempt and did not allow him to take part in policy decisions. Tho entered into intensive bargaining with Minh on 2 November on the composition of the interim government. Thơ knew that the generals wanted to have him head a new government to provide continuity, and he used this as leverage in bargaining with them about the makeup of the cabinet. The Americans recognized Minh and immediately restored the aid programs and that had been cut to punish Diệm in the last days of his rule.

With the fall of Diệm, various American sanctions that were imposed in response to the repression of the Buddhist crisis and Nhu's Special Forces' attacks on the Xá Lợi Pagoda, were lifted. The freeze on US economic aid, the suspension of the Commercial Import Program and various capital works initiatives were lifted, and Thơ and Minh were recognised. The first order of the new regime was Provisional Constitutional Act No. 1, signed by Minh, formally suspending the 1956 constitution created by Diệm. Minh was said to have preferred playing mah-jongg, playing tennis at the elite Cercle Sportif, tending to his garden and giving tea parties to fighting the Viet Cong or running the country. He was criticised for being lethargic and uninterested. Stanley Karnow said "He was a model of lethargy, lacking both the skill and the inclination to govern". According to Karnow, Minh lamented to him that because of his role as the junta head, he "didn't have enough time to grow his orchids or play tennis".

Saigon newspapers, which Minh had allowed to re-open following the end of Diệm's censorship, reported that the junta was paralysed because all twelve generals in the MRC had equal power. Each member had the power of veto, enabling them to stonewall policy decisions. Thơ's civilian government was plagued by infighting. According to Thơ's assistant, Nguyễn Ngọc Huy, the presence of Generals Đôn and Đính in both the civilian cabinet and the MRC paralysed the governance process. Đính and Đôn were subordinate to Tho in the civilian government, but as members of the MRC they were superior to him. Whenever Thơ gave an order in the civilian hierarchy with which the generals disagreed, they would go to the MRC and make a counter-order.

The press strongly attacked Thơ, accusing his civilian government of being "tools" of the MRC. Thơ's acquiescence to and corruption under Diệm's presidency was also called into question, and he was accused of helping to repress the Buddhists by Diệm and Nhu. Tho claimed that he had countenanced the pagoda raids, claiming that he would have resigned were it not for Minh's pleas to stay. Minh defended Thơ's anti-Diệm credentials by declaring that Tho had taken part in the planning of the coup "from the very outset" and that he enjoyed the "full confidence" of the junta.

On 1 January 1964, a 'Council of Notables' comprising sixty leading citizens met for the first time, having been selected by Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo for Minh's junta. Its job was to advise the military and civilian wings of the government with a view towards reforming human rights, the constitution and the legal system. The council consisted almost entirely of professionals and academic leaders, with no representatives from the agricultural or labour movement. It soon became engaged in endless debate and never achieved its initial task of drafting a new constitution.

Minh and Thơ halted Nhu's Strategic Hamlet Program. Nhu had trumpeted the program as the solution to South Vietnam's difficulties with Viet Cong insurgents, believing that the mass relocation of peasants into fortified villages would isolate the Viet Cong from their peasant support base. According to the junta, only 20% of the 8,600 existing strategic hamlets were under Saigon's control, with the rest having been taken over by the communists, contradicting Nhu's claims of widespread success. Those hamlets that were deemed to be tenable were consolidated, while the remainder were dismantled and their inhabitants returned to their ancestral land.

Under Minh's rule, there was a large turnover of officials aligned with Diệm. Many were indiscriminately arrested without charge, most of whom were later released. Đính and the new national police chief General Mai Hữu Xuân were given control of the interior ministry and were accused of arresting people en masse, before releasing them in return for bribes and pledges of loyalty. The government was criticised for firing large numbers of district and provincial chiefs directly appointed by Diệm, causing a breakdown in law and order during the abrupt transition of power.

The provisional government lacked direction in policy and planning, resulting in its quick collapse. The number of rural attacks instigated by the Viet Cong surged in the wake of Diệm's deposal, due to the displacement of troops into urban areas for the coup. The increasingly free discussion generated from the surfacing of new and accurate data following the coup revealed that the military situation was far worse than what was reported by Diệm. The incidence of Viet Cong attacks continued to increase as it had done during the summer of 1963, the weapons loss ratio worsened and the rate of Viet Cong defections fell. The units that participated in the coup were returned to the field to guard against a possible major communist offensive in the countryside. The falsification of military statistics by Diệm's officials had led to miscalculations, which manifested themselves in military setbacks after Diệm's death.

Overthrow by Nguyễn Khánh

General Nguyễn Khánh began to plot against the MRC after it was created. Khánh expected a large reward for his part in the coup, but the other generals regarded him as untrustworthy and excluded him from the MRC. They further moved him to the command of the I Corps in the far north to keep him far away from Saigon. Khánh later claimed that he had built up intelligence infrastructure to weed out the Viet Cong under Diệm, but that Minh's MRC had disbanded it and released communist prisoners. Khánh was assisted by Generals Trần Thiện Khiêm, who controlled the forces around Saigon, Đỗ Mậu and Nguyễn Chánh Thi. Khánh and his colleagues spread rumours to American officials that Minh and his colleagues were about to declare South Vietnam's neutrality and sign a peace deal to end the war with the North.

Khánh overthrew Minh and his colleagues on 30 January 1964, in a bloodless coup, completely catching the MRC off guard. Minh, Đôn and Lê Văn Kim woke up to find hostile forces surrounding their houses and thought it to be a quixotic stunt by some disgruntled young officers.

Khánh used the coup to enact retribution against Minh, Đôn, Kim, Đính and Xuân. He had them arrested, claiming that they were part of a neutralist plot with the French. Khánh cited their service in the Vietnamese National Army in the early 1950s, under the French colonial administration as evidence, although he did as well. Khánh also had Major Nhung, the bodyguard of Minh, shot, causing riots among parts of the population who feared that Khánh would wind back the clock to the Diệm era. Khánh later persuaded Minh to remain as a figurehead head of state. This was partly due to pressure from American officials, who felt that the popular Minh would be a unifying and stabilising factor in the new regime. However, Khánh soon sidelined Minh.

Minh reportedly resented the fact that he had been deposed by a younger officer whom he viewed as an unscrupulous upstart. He was also upset with the detention of his fellow generals and around 30 of his junior officers. The junior officers were set free when Minh demanded that Khánh release them in return for his service. In the meantime, Khánh could not substantiate his claims against the generals.

Khánh presided over the trial, which took place in May. Minh was perfunctorily accused of misusing a small amount of money, before being allowed to serve as an advisor on the trial panel. The other generals were eventually asked by Khánh to "once you begin to serve again in the army, you do not take revenge on anybody". The tribunal then "congratulated" the generals, but found that they were of "lax morality", unqualified to command due to a "lack of a clear political concept" and confined to desk jobs. Khánh's actions left divisions among the officers of the ARVN. When Khánh was himself deposed in 1965, he handed over dossiers proving that Minh and the other generals were innocent. Robert Shaplen said that "the case … continued to be one of Khánh's biggest embarrassments".

August and September power struggle with Khánh

In August, Khánh drafted a new constitution, which would have augmented his personal power and hamstrung Minh of what authority he had left as well as ousting him from power. However, this only served to weaken Khánh as large urban demonstrations broke out, led by Buddhists, calling for an end to the state of emergency and the new constitution. In response to claims that he was harking back to the Diệm era of Roman Catholic domination, Khánh made concessions to the Buddhists, sparking opposition from Khiêm and Thiệu, both Catholics. They then tried to remove him in favour of Minh, and they recruited many officers. Khiêm and Thiệu sought out Taylor and sought a private endorsement to install Minh by staging a coup against Khánh, but the US ambassador did not want any more changes in leadership, fearing a corrosive effect on the government. This deterred Khiêm's group from staging a coup.

The division among the generals came to a head at a meeting of the MRC on 26–27 August. Khánh and Khiêm blamed one another for the increasing unrest across the nation. Thiệu and another Catholic, General Nguyễn Hữu Có, called for the replacement of Khánh with Minh, but the latter refused. Minh reportedly claimed that Khánh was the only one who would get financial assistance from Washington, so they supported him, prompting Khiêm to angrily say, "Obviously, Khánh is a puppet of the U.S. government, and we are tired of being told by the Americans how we should run our internal affairs". Khánh said that he would resign, but no agreement over the leadership could be found, and after more arguing between the senior officers, on 27 August they agreed that Khánh, Minh, and Khiêm would rule as a triumvirate for two months, until a new civilian government could be formed. The trio then brought paratroopers into Saigon to end the rioting. However, the triumvirate did little due to their disunity. Khánh dominated the decision-making and sidelined Khiêm and Minh.

On 13 September, Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức, both Roman Catholics demoted by Khánh after Buddhist pressure, launched a coup attempt with the support of Catholic elements. After a one-day stand-off the putsch failed. During the coup, Minh had remained aloof from the proceedings, angering Khánh and keeping their long-running rivalry going. By the end of October, the Johnson administration became more supportive of Taylor's negative opinion of Minh and concluded that US interests would be optimized if Khánh prevailed in the power struggle. As a result, the Americans eventually paid for Minh to go on a "good will tour" so that he could be pushed off the political scene without embarrassment, while Khiêm was exiled to Washington as an ambassador after being implicated in the coup.

A short while earlier in September, before Minh was sent overseas, the junta decided to create a semblance of civilian rule by creating the High National Council (HNC), an appointed advisory body that was to begin the transitional to constitutional rule. Khánh put Minh in charge of picking the 17 members of the group, and he filled it with figures sympathetic to him. They then made a resolution to recommend a model with a powerful head of state, which would likely be Minh. Khánh did not want his rival taking power, so he and the Americans convinced the HNC to dilute the power inherent in the position to make it unappealing to Minh. The HNC then selected Phan Khắc Sửu as chief of state, and Sửu selected Trần Văn Hương as prime minister, although the junta remained the real power. By the end of the year, Minh was back in Vietnam after his tour.

Khánh prevails

Khánh and a group of younger officers decided to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service, such as Minh and the other generals deposed in Khánh's January coup; nominally this was because they thought them to be lethargic and ineffective, but tacitly, and far more importantly, because they were potential rivals for power. According to Khánh and the Young Turks, this older group was led by Minh and had been crafting plots with the Buddhists to regain power.

Sửu's signature was required to pass the ruling, but he referred the matter to the HNC, which turned down the request. On 19 December, the generals dissolved the HNC; several of its members, other politicians and student leaders were arrested, while Minh and the other older generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku, and later removed from the military.

Exile
Minh went into exile in Bangkok, where he occupied himself with hobbies such as gardening and playing tennis. He still had many American friends, especially among the CIA, who gave him support during this period and paid for his dental bills. The US ambassador, Ellsworth Bunker, was openly contemptuous of him and referred to him in public with obscenities. In return, he wrote a pro-war article for the respected Foreign Affairs quarterly in 1968, condemning the communists and rejecting a power-sharing agreement. This helped to end his exile, with the support of the United States.

Minh opposed General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu, who as part of the so-called "Young Turks" had meanwhile ended the endless power struggles and coups alongside Nguyễn Cao Kỳ, Nguyễn Chánh Thi and Chung Tấn Cang, by finally outmaneuvering Khánh in 1965, had been governing as constitutional President since 1967 and was permanently supported by the United States. Minh was going to run against Thiệu in the 1971 election but he withdrew because it became obvious to him (and most other observers) that the election would be rigged, due to a series of restrictions against would-be opponents. Thiệu was then the only candidate and retained power. Minh kept a low profile after this and was relatively politically inert.

Minh was regarded as a potential leader of a "third force" which could come to a compromise with the North that would allow eventual reunification without a military takeover by one of the parties. The North Vietnamese government carefully avoided either endorsing or condemning Minh, whose brother, Dương Văn Nhut, was a one-star general in the North Vietnamese army. In 1973, Minh proposed his own political program for Vietnam, which was a middle way between the proposals of Thiệu and the communists. Thiệu, however, reportedly opposed any compromise.

Second presidency
In late April 1975, President Thiệu fled to Taiwan and handed over power to Vice President Trần Văn Hương on 21 April. Hương prepared for peace talks with North Vietnam. However, after his overtures were rejected, he resigned. As the main attack on Saigon developed on 27 April 1975, in a joint sitting of the bicameral National Assembly, the presidency was unanimously handed over to Minh, who was sworn in the following day. The French government thought that Minh could broker a cease-fire and had advocated his ascension to power. There was also an assumption that, as Minh had a reputation for indecision, the various groups thought that they could manipulate him for their own ends relatively easily. It was widely known that Minh had long-standing contacts with the communists, and it was assumed that he would be able to establish a cease-fire and re-open negotiations. This expectation was totally unrealistic, as the North Vietnamese were in an overwhelmingly dominant position on the battlefield and final victory was within reach, so they saw no need for power-sharing, regardless of any political changes in Saigon.

On 28 April 1975, North Vietnamese forces fought their way into the outskirts of the capital. Later that afternoon, as President Minh finished his acceptance speech, in which he called for an immediate cease-fire and peace talks, a formation of five A-37s, captured from the South Vietnamese air force, bombed Tân Sơn Nhứt. As Biên Hòa fell, General Nguyễn Văn Toàn, the III Corps commander, fled to Saigon, saying that most of the top ARVN leadership had virtually resigned themselves to defeat. The inauguration of Minh had served as a signal to South Vietnamese officers who would not compromise with the communists. They began to pack up and leave, or commit suicide to avoid capture.

PAVN columns advanced into the city center encountering very little resistance. Except in the Mekong Delta, where South Vietnamese military forces were still intact and aggressive, the South Vietnamese military had virtually ceased to exist. Just before 05:00 on 30 April, US Ambassador Martin boarded a helicopter and departed and at 07:53 the last Marines were evacuated from the US Embassy's rooftop. At 10:24, being advised by General Nguyễn Hữu Hạnh, President Minh went on Saigon Radio and ordered all South Vietnamese forces to cease fighting and later declared an unconditional surrender. He announced, "The Republic of Vietnam policy is the policy of peace and reconciliation, aimed at saving the blood of our people. We are here waiting for the Provisional Revolutionary Government to hand over the authority in order to stop useless bloodshed."

According to General Nguyen Huu Hanh's interview from BBC, President Duong Van Minh did not want to evacuate the Saigon government to the Mekong Delta to continue military resistance. General Hanh also stated President Minh planned a peace to end the war.

Around noon, a North Vietnamese tank crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace. When the communist troops entered the Independence Palace they found Minh and his cabinet sitting around the big oval table in the cabinet room, waiting for them. As they entered, Minh said "The revolution is here. You are here." He added, "We have been waiting for you so that we could turn over the government." The ranking North Vietnamese officer, Colonel Bùi Văn Tùng replied, "There is no question of your transferring power. Your power has crumbled. You cannot give up what you do not have." Later in the afternoon, he went on radio again and said, "I declare the Saigon government is completely dissolved at all levels."

After his official surrender, he was summoned to report back. After a few days he was permitted to return to his villa, unlike almost all remaining military personnel and public servants, who were sent to re-education camps, often for over a decade in the case of senior officers. He lived there in seclusion for eight years, where he continued to raise birds and grow exotic orchids. It was assumed that Hanoi had resolved that as Minh had not actively opposed them in the final years of the war, he would be allowed to live in peace as long as he remained quiet and did not engage in political activities.

Life in exile
Minh was allowed to emigrate to France in 1983 and settled near Paris, and it was again assumed that the communists had permitted him to leave on the basis that he remain aloof from politics and history. In the late 1980s, there was speculation he would be allowed to return to Vietnam to live out his last years, but this did not happen. In 1988, he emigrated to the US, and he lived in Pasadena, California with his daughter, Mai Duong. He later needed a wheelchair for mobility. In exile, Minh kept his silence, did not talk about the events in Vietnam, and did not produce a memoir.

Death
On 5 August 2001, Minh fell at his home in Pasadena, California. He was taken to Huntington Memorial Hospital in Pasadena, where he died the following night at the age of 85. He was buried in Rose Hills Memorial Park in Whittier, California. Minh's death was largely unmourned by overseas Vietnamese, who were still angry at him for ordering South Vietnamese soldiers to put their weapons down, and who saw him as the officer responsible for South Vietnam's fall.

References

Citations

Sources

External links

"General Duong Van Minh Dies at 86", Asian Week, 17–23 August 2001
"Gen. Duong Van Minh Buried at Rose Hills", Los Angeles Times, 19 August 2001
"Duong Van Minh, 85, Saigon Plotter, Dies", The New York Times, 8 August 2001

|-

Army of the Republic of Vietnam generals
South Vietnamese politicians
Heads of state of South Vietnam
Leaders who took power by coup
1916 births
2001 deaths
People from Mỹ Tho
Vietnamese Buddhists
Vietnamese people of the Vietnam War
Non-U.S. alumni of the Command and General Staff College
People of the First Indochina War
Vietnamese expatriates in the United States
Burials at Rose Hills Memorial Park
Vietnamese anti-communists
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan
French military personnel of World War II
French prisoners of war in World War II

Dương Văn Minh


Salah ad-Din al-Bitar () (born Damascus 1912, dee'd Paris 21 Julie 1980), wis a Sirie politeecian who, wi Michel Aflaq, foondit the Arab Baa'th Pairty in the early 1940s.  Durin thair student days in Paris in the early 1930s, the twa wirked thegither tae formulate a doctrine that combined aspects o naitionalism an socialism. Al-Bitar later served as prime meenister in several early Ba'thist govrenments in Sirie, but became alienatit frae the pairty as it grew mair radical, an in 1966 fled the kintra. He lived maist o the rest o his life in Europe, an remained politically active till he wis assassinatit bi unkent fowk in 1980.

1912 births
1980 daiths
Murther in 1980
Daiths bi fireairm in Fraunce
Prime Meenisters o Sirie
Assassinatit Sirie politeecians
Arab naitionalist politeecians
Arab naitionalist thinkers
Fowk frae Damascus
Sirie foreign meenisters
Sirie fowk murthert abroad
Fowk murthert in Fraunce
Recipients o Sirie presidential pardons
Ba'ath Pairty (Sirie) politeecians

Salah ad-Din al-Bitar


Kottabos () was a party game played at symposia in Ancient Greece. It was popular in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. It was also popular with the Etruscans. The game is played by flinging a bit of wine from one's cup at targets. The player would utter the name of his lover. The game was probably of Sicilian origin but spread throughout the Greek world. Many Greek poets mention the game in their works. By the time of the Roman Empire and the Age of Alexander the Great, the game had died out. It is not mentioned in Latin literature.

References

Ancient Greek culture
Games

Kottabos


A by-election or bye-election is a type of special election. These elections are held in between general elections. General elections are elections for all members of an elected body. By-elections are elections for just some members. A by-election could be needed if a member dies or resigns while in political office. They are also used if a person is removed from office for some reason, for example if he/she is guilty of a crime or is not qualified to be a member anymore.

By-elections in the United States and the Philippines are called "special elections". In India, they are called "bypolls".

In the 1980s, all 12 of the Unionist MPs in the British House of Commons resigned and all of the elections happened on the same day. Although unusual, these were still only by-elections. It is also defined as an election held in a single political constituency to fill a vacancy that has happened during a government's term of office.

Types of elections
Elections

By-election


Douglas Arthur Wimbish (born September 22, 1956) is an American bassist, primarily known for being a member of rock band Living Colour and funk/dub/hip hop collective Tackhead, and as a session musician with artists such as Sugarhill Gang, Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, The Rolling Stones, Mick Jagger, Depeche Mode, James Brown, Annie Lennox, Tarja Turunen, and Barrington Levy (as well as his studio work for the rap/hip hop label Sugarhill Records and the experimental dub label On-U Sound).

Biography and career

Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Wimbish started playing guitar at the age of 12 and switched to bass guitar at the age of 14. In 1979 he was hired together with guitarist Skip McDonald and drummer Keith LeBlanc to form the house rhythm section for Sugarhill Records. Although they did not play on the Sugarhill Gang's famous song "Rapper's Delight" (the rhythm tracks for this song were played by the group Positive Force), they did play on many other popular song tracks, including "The Message" by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, "White Lines" by Grandmaster Flash and Melle Mel, "New York City" by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, and "Apache" by the Sugarhill Gang.

Together with McDonald and LeBlanc, Wimbish headed to London in 1984 and started working with producer Adrian Sherwood and formed the group Tackhead. Together with Tackhead and as a session bassist, Wimbish found himself in demand as a bass player for many artists and was considered as a permanent sideman for the Rolling Stones after the departure of bassist Bill Wyman in 1993, but lost the position to Darryl Jones. In the late 1980s Wimbish began crossing paths with vocalist Bernard Fowler, who collaborated with Tackhead and Little Axe. Both sang on records by the Rolling Stones, and Wimbish later played on the Stones' 1997 album Bridges to Babylon. Wimbish joined Living Colour in 1992 (he replaced Muzz Skillings, who left the band) to tour and record the album, Stain.

Living Colour disbanded in 1995, and Wimbish joined his old Sugarhill Gang partners to play in Little Axe, an ambient-dub project initiated by Skip 'Little Axe' MacDonald.

After Living Colour disbanded, Wimbish went back to London to continue his career as a studio bassist. In 1999 he formed the drum and bass group Jungle Funk together with drummer Will Calhoun and percussionist/vocalist Vinx. Also in 1999, Wimbish solo album Trippy Notes for Bass was released. In 2000, Living Colour was re-formed and toured in the United States, South America and Europe.  In 2001 and 2002 Wimbish recorded and played with rapper Mos Def in a band called BlackJack Johnson, which also featured members of P-Funk and Bad Brains in the lineup.

Wimbish also formed Head Fake, a drum and bass project with drummer Will Calhoun. They released a CD, In The Area. In 2005 they started recording new songs. The recording took place in Brussels, Belgium and was followed by an extensive European tour. The CD has never been released. A Head>>Fake DVD was released in 2008. It features a recording of a Head>>Fake concert in Prague.

In 2008 Wimbish, signed with Enja Records, and released his second solo album, CinemaSonics.

In 2009, Living Colour released and toured for the album "The Chair in the Doorway".

Wimbish was also featured on six Little Axe albums with Alan Glen on harmonica.

Gear
Wimbish has endorsed Ibanez and Spector bass guitars.

Discography

Solo albums
 Trippy Notes for Bass (1999)
 CinemaSonics (2008)

With Michael Bolton
 The Hunger (Columbia Records, 1987)

With Naomi Campbell
 Baby Woman (Epic Records, 1994)

With Chris Catena
 Freak Out! (Frontiers, 2003)

With Depeche Mode
 Ultra (Mute, 1997)

With Sheena Easton
 No Sound But a Heart (EMI, 1987)

With Bernard Fowler
 Friends With Privileges (Sony, 2006)
 The Bura (MRI, 2016)

With Gary Go
 Gary Go (Decca Records, 2009)

With Al Green
 Don't Look Back (BMG, 1993)
 Your Heart's in Good Hands (MCA Records, 1995)

With Nona Hendryx
 The Heat (RCA Records, 1985)

With Mick Jagger
 Primitive Cool (Columbia Records, 1987)
 Wandering Spirit (Atlantic Records, 1993)

With Billy Idol
 Cyberpunk (Chrysalis Records, 1993)

With Annie Lennox
 Diva (Arista Records, 1992)
 Medusa (Arista Records, 1995)

With Madonna
 Erotica (Warner Bros. Records, 1992)

With Melba Moore
 I'm in Love (Capitol Records, 1988)

With Nicole Renée
 Nicole Renée (Atlantic Records, 1998)

With Joe Satriani
 The Extremist (Relativity Records, 1992)
 Time Machine (Relativity Records, 1993)

With Carly Simon
 Spoiled Girl (Epic Records, 1985)
 Letters Never Sent (Arista Records, 1994)

With Candi Staton
 Nightlites (Sugar Hill Records, 1982)

With Tarja Turunen
 My Winter Storm (2007)
 What Lies Beneath (2010)
 Colours in the Dark (2013)
 The Brightest Void (2016)
 The Shadow Self (2016)
 In the Raw (2019)

With Steven Van Zandt
 Freedom – No Compromise (EMI, 1987)

With Ronnie Wood
 Slide on This (Continuum Records, 1992)

References

External links

1956 births
Musicians from Hartford, Connecticut
American session musicians
Living people
African-American rock musicians
American heavy metal bass guitarists
American funk bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
Living Colour members
Tackhead members
Alternative metal bass guitarists
Guitarists from Connecticut
American male guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
Fats Comet members
African-American guitarists

Doug Wimbish


Recrystallization (see also crystallization) is an essentially physical process that has meanings in chemistry, metallurgy and geology.

In chemistry, recrystallization is a procedure for purifying compounds. A crystal compound often has other compounds on it that make it less useful. To get rid of these extra items, the crystal is placed in a boiling liquid. Soon the crystal dissolves. The boiling solution, or the mix of the liquid and the dissolved crystal, gets colder. The crystal will form again. The unwanted compounds stay in the solvent, or the liquid. Now the crystal is pure and made of only the compound. Each type of compound works best in a certain type of liquid. Sometimes two or more liquids mixed together are needed to dissolve a crystal.

In geology, solid-state recrystallization is a metamorphic process that occurs under situations of intense temperature and pressure where grains, atoms or molecules of a rock or mineral are packed closer together, creating a new crystal structure.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock that undergoes metamorphic  recrystallization to form marble, and clays can recrystallize to muscovite mica.

In metallurgy, recrystallization is the nucleation and growth of new undeformed grains in a deformed metal.

For ice, recrystallization means the growth of larger crystals at the expense of smaller ones. Some biological antifreeze proteins have been shown to inhibit this process, and the effect may be relevant in freezing-tolerant organisms.

Related pages

 Crystal
 Crystallization

Gallery

Chemistry
Laboratory techniques
Geology

Recrystallisation


John Maitland (1771 – 20 October 1836) was an officer of the Royal Navy, who saw service during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, eventually rising to the rank of Rear-Admiral.

Family and early life
Maitland was born in Scotland in 1771, the third son of Colonel the Honourable Richard Maitland, who was himself the fourth son of Charles Maitland, 6th Earl of Lauderdale. His mother was Mary Maitland, née McAdam, of New York City. John Maitland was born into a substantial naval dynasty. His uncle was Frederick Lewis Maitland, who was a captain in the navy, and his first cousin was Frederick Lewis Maitland, who reached the rank of rear-admiral. John Maitland also entered the navy, and by 1793 was a midshipman aboard John Jervis's flagship . Maitland was involved in the attacks on the French colonies of Guadeloupe and Martinique, often serving on shore with landing parties. In the assault on Fort Fleur d'Épée he was the first person over the walls, and came to the rescue of Captain Robert Faulknor when Faulknor was attacked by two Frenchmen. Maitland ran one through with a pike and went on to kill another seven or eight of the garrison. During the attack on Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe, Maitland took over command of the landing parties as an acting-lieutenant when all of the more senior officers had been killed or incapacitated by wounds or exhaustion.

Command

Lively and Kingfisher: "Doctor Maitland's Recipe"
He received his commission as a lieutenant on 20 July 1794, and returned to serve in home waters, initially aboard the 32-gun frigate , under Lord Garlies. Maitland then followed Garlies into the 32-gun frigate , soon becoming her acting commander and sailing her to join Jervis's Mediterranean Fleet. He continued to serve with considerable gallantry, capturing the French frigate Touterelle in 1795. An impressed Jervis promoted him to commander on 23 December 1796, appointing him to the sloop . Maitland was moved to  in April 1797, and took her to cruise off Portugal. On 1 August though he was almost the victim of a mutiny. Taking a direct approach he gathered his officers and marines and attacked the mutineers with swords and cutlasses, killing and wounding several. This decisive action quashed the mutiny, and met with Jervis's approval. He described Maitland's actions as 'Doctor Maitland's recipe', and advised that it should be adopted in future instances of attempted mutiny. A further promotion for Maitland followed, he was made post-captain on 11 August 1797 and was given command of , one of the prizes captured by Nelson at the Battle of Cape St Vincent.

Channel duties
Maitland sailed the San Nicolas to Britain, where she was paid off at Plymouth on her arrival, and Maitland went ashore. He married Elizabeth Ogilvy on 22 April 1799, and by 1800 had returned to active service aboard the 36-gun  in the English Channel. He moved to the 38-gun  in 1803, and on 24 July 1803 he spotted the French 74-gun third-rate Duguay-Trouin and the 38-gun frigate Guerrière sailing off Ferrol, Spain. Maitland decided to test whether the French ships were armed en flûte and were being used as troopships, and closing to within range, opened fire. The French returned fire, revealing they were fully armed and manned, and Maitland broke off. The French pursued, but were unable to catch him.  Maitland continued on in the Channel, but while sailing off Brest the Boadicea struck the Bas de Lis rock and was badly holed. She returned to Portsmouth and was back on station eight days later, having spent just three days in dock. He went on to have a successful cruise, capturing the 12-gun French Vanteur, and several merchants.  Maitland and the Boadicea spent 1804 enforcing the blockade of Rochefort, followed by a period in the North Sea and off the Irish coast.

On 2 November he came across a squadron of four French ships of the line under Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley, that had escaped from the Battle of Trafalgar two weeks previously. Maitland fired rockets to attract a nearby British squadron under Captain Sir Richard Strachan, but subsequently lost the French in fog. Strachan was able to make contact with the French thanks to Maitland, and after engaging them in the battle of Battle of Cape Ortegal, captured all of the French ships. A few days later Maitland spotted and gave chase to a French frigate, eventually breaking off after two days pursuit due to the nearness of the coast. He later learnt that the French frigate had run onto the island of Groix. In the autumn of 1806 Boadicea was employed protecting the whale fishery in the Davis Strait. He escorted a convoy to Britain from Oporto, and followed this with service on the Irish station in 1807, blockading Le Havre. During this time the 14-gun French privateer General Concleux was captured, and Maitland left the Boadicea in 1808. He was appointed to the 98-gun  in late 1813, spending the rest of the war aboard her in the Mediterranean.

Flag rank and later life
Maitland married for the second time at Bath on 8 January 1820, this time to Dora Bateman. He was promoted to rear-admiral on 19 July 1821 and died at Montagu Square, London on 20 October 1836 at the age of 65.

Notes

References

1771 births
1836 deaths
Royal Navy admirals
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
British naval commanders of the Napoleonic Wars

John Maitland (Royal Navy officer)


A hill fort is an ancient fortified refuge or defended settlement. It was usually in a place that rises from the surrounding area, given the name. This is done to exploit the rise for military advantage. The fortification usually follows the shape of the hill. Usually it is made of one or more lines of earthworks. There may also be  stockades or defensive walls, and external ditches.Maiden Castle in Dorset is the largest of around 1000 hill forts built in Britain in the Iron Age. In a hill fort, the entrance through the inner ramparts had massive timber gates. The inner rampart was 14m high and topped by a fence of huge, upright timbers. It was faced with big, limestone blocks.

Hill forts were built since the Stone Age. They are most common during later periods though:
 Urnfield culture (c. 1300 BC - 750 BC) Bronze Age
 Hallstatt culture (c. 1200 BC - 500 BC) late Bronze Age to early Iron Age
 La Tene culture (c. 600 BC - 50 AD) late Iron Age

There are many different kinds of hill forts, they were very common. In Europe, the Celts used them for a very long time.

Prehistoric buildings and structures
Fortification
Stone Age

Hillfort


Western Comics was a Western comic book series published by DC Comics. DC's longest-running Western title, it published 85 issues from 1948 to 1961. Western Comics was an anthology series, featuring such characters as the wandering cowboy the Wyoming Kid, the Native American lawman Pow Wow Smith, the Cowboy Marshal, Jim Sawyer, showman Rodeo Rick, and Matt Savage, Trail Boss. The masked Vigilante Greg Saunders appeared in the first four issues of the title, but was soon replaced by itinerant fix-it man Nighthawk.

Notable contributors included writers Don Cameron, Gardner Fox, and France Herron; and artists Carmine Infantino, Gil Kane, Howard Sherman, and Leonard Starr.

Publication history
Whitney Ellsworth edited the book for most of its run, assisted by Julius Schwartz, who took over the editorial reins for the last two years. Originally featuring four or more stories per issue, by issue #70 (July/Aug. 1958), Western Comics reduced the number of stories to three. Western Comics' infrequently appearing letter column was titled "The Hitching Post".

Recurring features
 Wyoming Kid: co-created by Jack Schiff and Howard Sherman, Bill Polk is a cowboy wandering the West looking for his father's murderer. Bill, with his horse Racer, improves his gunfighting skills while working as a ranch hand, rodeo rider, army scout, and so on, finally bringing the murderer to justice. A good-natured hero, the Wyoming Kid appeared in every issue of Western Comics, often featured on the cover in early issues. He was so popular in Western Comics that his adventures were also chronicled in World's Finest Comics from 1949 – 1953.
 Pow Wow Smith: moving over from Detective Comics, the character first appeared in Western Comics issue #43 (Jan./Feb. 1954), at that point becoming a principal figure, often appearing on the cover. He appeared in every issue from #43 to the end of the title's run.
 Nighthawk: masked cowboy Hannibal Hawkes appeared in every issue of Western Comics from #5 (Sept./Oct. 1948) – #76 (July/Aug. 1959)
 Rodeo Rick — co-created by artist Howard Post, Rick and his horse Comet's adventures were later chronicled by writers Gardner Fox and France Herron, and artists Jimmy Thompson, Ramona Fradon, and Tom Cooke. Rick was featured in most issues of Western Comics from #1 – #69 (May/Jun 1958). For a short time in later issues, he wore a disguise and was known as "The Masked Raider".
 Cowboy Marshal, Jim Sawyer — the Cowboy Marshal was featured in every issue of the title from #1 – #42 (Nov./Dec. 1953).
 Matt Savage, Trail Boss — created by Gardner Fox, Gil Kane, and Joe Giella, the character was a late addition to Western Comics (taking Nighthawk's slot) in issue #77 (Sept./Oct. 1959), but was the title's cover feature until the end. It was later established that Matt was Scalphunter's father, and was also related to Lt. Steve Savage, the World War I pilot briefly featured in All-American Men of War.

References

External links

 Western Comics cover gallery
 Western Comic Books - by Michael E. Grost

Comics magazines published in the United States
Golden Age comics titles
Western (genre) comics
1948 comics debuts
1961 comics endings
Comics by Bob Haney
Comics by Gardner Fox
DC Comics titles
Magazines established in 1948
Magazines disestablished in 1961
Defunct magazines published in the United States

Western Comics