Never Forget is a jukebox musical with a book written by Guy Jones and Ed Curtis, with screenwriter Danny Brocklehurst acting as story advisor, based on the 1990s songs of boy band Take That, written by Gary Barlow. In addition to Barlow's songs, Never Forget features additional music and lyrics by Barry Manilow, Dan Hartman and Adrienne Anderson, all of which were covered by Take That in the 1990s. The musical's story focuses on the themes of friendship, ambition, love and betrayal among the members of a Take That tribute band, but it is not related to the history of Take That. The musical is named after Take That's chart-topping single "Never Forget".

The musical Never Forget premiered at the Wales Millennium Centre, Cardiff, in July 2007 prior to a short UK tour. The show was nominated for the 2008 WOS Theatregoers Choice Award for Best Touring Production and received generally favourable notices.  It then re-opened at The Churchill Theatre, Bromley, London, in March 2008 for a second six-city pre-West End tour.

The musical began previews on 7 May 2008 at the Savoy Theatre in London and officially opened on 21 May 2008 to generally favourable reviews.  The tours and West End production were both directed by Ed Curtis and choreographed by Karen Bruce.  The set design was by Bob Bailey, lighting design by James Whiteside, sound design by Richard Brooker and costume design by Christopher Woods.  The production closed at the Savoy on 15 November 2008.

The original touring production is available on DVD, filmed on the press night at Manchester Opera House.

Synopsis
The plot of Never Forget has been through several incarnations since the initial workshop production which toured the UK in 2007. Each version of the script is deliberately different in order to update the setting of the show. When the original production played, Take That had just reformed and the show referenced this. In more recent productions, the characters have noted the success the boyband have seen since their comeback.

Act 1
Ash Sherwood is a struggling singer-songwriter in Manchester, England, with dreams of making it big.  He proposes to his girlfriend Chloe and, to his surprise, she accepts ("Could It Be Magic"), and the couple's engagement party follows.  Ash's mum's pub, 'The Three Bells' is under threat due to mounting debt, and Ash needs to raise money quickly.  Taking a desperate chance, Ash and his best friend, Jake Turner (Chloe's older brother), decide to audition for a tribute band set to be entered into the lucrative 'Battle of the Tribute Bands' competition.  Holding the auditions is Ron Freeman, an eccentric but hard-nosed band manager.  With money problems of his own, Ron is looking for a group of lads he can mould into the ultimate Take That tribute band.

At the audition ("Pray"), the band come together as Ash and Jake are joined by three others: Adrian Banks, an introverted bank manager trying to win back his adulterous wife; Dirty Harry, a dim but endearing stripper who is desperate to escape the world of stripping; and Jose Reize, a Spaniard come to England in search of fame and fortune, and happy to escape from his overbearing mother.  Once Ron chooses the band members, rehearsals begin, and the boys are joined by their new choreographer and backing dancers ("Pray" (reprise)).  In her dark and empty pub, Babs Sherwood has just received her final eviction notice.  She reminisces over her years spent behind the bar ("Never Forget").  Ash promises Babs that he will save the pub with his competition winnings (if they win).  Chloe, immersed in wedding magazines, wants the perfect wedding.  Babs tries to convince Ash that it's too late for the pub, and the money would be better spent on the wedding.

The following day at the gym, the boys are working out with their choreographer and backing dancers.  Jake tries to hit on the choreographer, who is not best pleased with the bands progress in the rehearsal room; she turns on him and calls the band amateurs.  The argument between the band members and choreographer turns into a 'dance off' between the boys and the backing dancers ("Take That & Party").  Ron enters the gym's changing room to discover the boys messing around, and he lectures them about dedication.  He makes them sign his contract and relays the news that they are scheduled to perform a 'practice gig' the next night at a local pub in Salford.

The following evening, back stage at the pub, Ron gives the band his pre show pep talk and inspires them with stories of "World Ruddy Domination".  Ron takes Ash aside to tell him that there will be somebody special watching the performance.  On stage at the pub, the boys lose their confidence in front of the audience, and the other four leave Ash alone to begin the number ("Babe").  Inspired by Ash's performance, the others regain their confidence and join Ash on stage.  Ron and Annie Borrowman, Ron's record-producer friend, watch the performance from the sidelines.  After the performance, they take Ash aside and offer him a special contract – a solo deal.  Ash tells Chloe about the offer, vowing to try to talk Annie into taking the rest of the group as well.

On Ash's Stag Night, whilst queuing outside the Salsa Bar, Ash and his friends bump into Chloe and her friends out for her Hen Night.  Ash's mum forces them to combine the 2 parties inside the club ("It Only Takes a Minute").  Ron and Annie turn up for the party, and Chloe discovers that Annie is after more than just Ash's talent.  Ash is unable to convince Annie to take on any of the other boys as part of her special deal.  A jealous Chloe throws her drink at Annie.  Outside the club, Chloe and Ash argue over Annie and the special deal.  Chloe shouts "Do What You Like", leaving Ash alone to make his choice: loyalty to his friends and fiancée or his solo career.

The next day, at the Three Belles Pub, Chloe tells her brother and the rest of the group about Annie's secret offer.  Ash enters and is forced to tell them that he has decided to take Annie's offer, which could lead to stardom, and to leave the boys and their tribute band behind.  The rest of the band leave Chloe and Ash behind in disgust.  Chloe is upset, and after another argument calls off the engagement.  Ash is left alone with his thoughts and wanders in the rain ("Back for Good").  Ash and Chloe are unable to resolve their differences.  The rest of the band and the crowd returns ("Never Forget" (reprise)) and the rain stops.

Act 2

The front cloth flies out to reveal the four remaining band members tap dancing to the tune of ("I Found Heaven"), but there is a void where Ash should be.  The four boys carry on without him.  In a back stage dressing room, Chloe decides to join the group to fill in Ash's missing space.  The four boys, happy with that resolution, decide to visit Ash to make peace.  In the TV studio, Ash is busy rehearsing his own number with his new dancers under the scrutinising eye of Annie ("Every Guy").  The four boys enter, interrupting the rehearsal to speak to Ash, and Annie reluctantly gives them five minutes.  During this time the boys make up, but Harry accidentally lets on that Chloe has replaced Ash in their band.  Ash is struck with a sudden pang of jealousy.

After the rehearsal is finished, Annie decides to take Ash out for a quiet drink to discuss his career.  The 'drink' ends in a seedy pole dancing club where Annie seduces Ash ("Once You've Tasted Love").  The next morning, Chloe appears at Ash's flat in Manchester to try to resolve their problems.  Annie appears in the doorway inside half dressed.  Chloe flees, distraught, and wanders off into the streets of Manchester ("Love Ain't Here Anymore").

In Ash's backstage dressing room, he is preparing to go on stage to perform his own entry in the 'Battle of the Bands' competition.  His mum gives him a 'right good telling off' for the way he has treated Chloe, when Annie enters to tell Ash he should be warming up.  Babs and Annie have a massive argument, during which Annie reveals that the money he was expecting for his deal actually went to Ron to Buy him out of his previous contract.  Babs finally tells Ash he is too late to save the pub anyway, it's gone.  They leave Ash alone, but when Ron enters, Ash throws him to the ground in a heated rage before storming off.  Ron is left alone with his own thoughts ("Never Forget").

In the band's dressing room, the four boys are preparing to go on stage to perform their number for the competition. Ash joins them and wants to make amends; he's decided to break his deal with Annie and re-join his friends in their tribute band.  They agree to accept him back.  Chloe arrives to discover that they have let Ash back into the band without her approval, and she storms off.  On The Battle of the Bands concert stage, the final act is announced.  Amidst spectacular flames, the band perform ("Relight My Fire"), with Chloe reluctantly taking on the role made famous by Lulu.  After the performance, the competition winners are announced, with the band a winner.  Ron joins the band on stage to apologise for selling Ash off to Annie.  Ash forgives him, and they all leave a happy Ron on stage with his trophy.

Outside the concert hall, Ash chases after Chloe, wanting to make things right, and they reconcile ("A Million Love Songs").  Later, at the church where wedding guests are arriving, the children's choir and priest are on the pulpit.  Ash and Chloe enter and walk up the isle under a trumpet fanfare of "Never Forget".  The children's choir sing as the couple are married, and after the ceremony is complete, all join in.

Characters

The Band

Ash Sherwood
An aspiring singer-songwriter struggling to make it on the Manchester music scene. He's chasing the prize money that might help save his mum's struggling pub and pay for his wedding to Chloe.

Take That member: Gary Barlow

Jake Turner
Ash's best friend and brother of Chloe, a sharp witted, wannabe ladies man he's hoping the band will get him out of his dead end job.

Take That member: Robbie Williams

Adrian Banks
An introverted bank manager, hopelessly attempting to win over his adulterous wife.

Take That member: Mark Owen

Dirty Harry
A dim yet endearing stripper looking to recover his self-respect.

Take That member: Howard Donald

Jose Reize
A wide-eyed and optimistic Spaniard, who has travelled to England to make something of himself – away from the clutches of his overbearing mother.

Take That member: Jason Orange

Supporting roles

Chloe Turner
A young teaching assistant, engaged to Ash. She is sensitive and naive, and therefore surprises all when she goes on to take on Lulu's part in Relight My Fire.

Ron Freeman
A businessman trying to form a Take That tribute band, loosely based upon Take That's former manager Nigel Martin-Smith.

Annie Borrowman
A record-production executive from the fictional MBA records. The show's main antagonist, she is manipulative, and is likened during the musical to Simon Cowell.

Babs Sherwood
Ash's mother, landlady of a Manchester pub which is having money trouble.

Musical numbers

Act 1
Overture:(Never Forget)
Could It Be Magic – Ash, Chloe and Chorus
Pray – Ash, Jake, Adrian, Harry and Jose
Never Forget – Babs ++
Take That & Party – Ash, Jake, Adrian, Harry, Jose and Backing Dancers
Babe – Ash, Jake, Adrian, Harry and Jose
It Only Takes a Minute – Chorus
Do What U Like – Ash and Chorus +
Back for Good/Never Forget Medley Ash, Chloe, Jake, Adrian, Harry, Jose and Chorus

Act 2
I Found Heaven – Jake, Adrian, Harry, Jose and Chorus
 Every Guy – Ash
Once You've Tasted Love – Annie
Love Ain't Here Anymore – Chloe
Never Forget (reprise) – Ron ++
Relight My Fire – ''Ash, Jake, Adrian, Harry, Jose and Chloe
A Million Love Songs – Ash and Chloe
Never Forget ''Ash, Chloe, Jake, Adrian, Harry, Jose, Children's Choir and Chorus
Never Forget Remix – Full Company

+ In the 2009 tour of the UK, the song Do What U Like was played only as instrumental at a scene changeover, whereas it was sung by Ash with the chorus in the original production.

++ With the exception of the finale, Never Forget and its reprise are sung as ballads by Babs and Ron respectively.  The chorus is not sung in these versions, changing the tone and meaning of the piece.  The finale is sung in the original format made famous by Take That.

Notable casts

West End cast
Ash Sherwood – Dean Chisnall
Jake 'The Face' Turner – Craige Els
Jose Reize – Stephane Anelli
Adrian Banks – Tim Driesen
Dirty Harry – Eaton James
Chloe Turner – Sophia Ragavelas
Annie Borrowman – Joanne Farrell
Ron Freeman – Teddy Kempner
Babs Sherwood – Marilyn Cutts

2009 Tour cast
Ash Sherwood – Mark Willshire
Jake 'The Face' Turner – Adam C. Booth
Jose Reize – Scott Garnham
Adrian Banks – Tom Bradley
Dirty Harry – Philip Olivier
Chloe Turner – Aimie Atkinson
Annie Borrowman – Kay Murphy
Ron Freeman – Teddy Kempner
Babs Sherwood – Penelope Woodman

Reception

Reviews for the tour were mostly positive. For instance, the headline for the review in The Guardian declared, "Hell, you've got to love 'em – A million love songs and a happy ending: it's hard not to fall for Take That's own Mamma Mia!" Another Manchester critic's assessment was less enthusiastic: "For a story which could touch upon the post-Factory Manchester music scene, the rise of boy bands and the regeneration of the city after the bomb, Never Forget is surprisingly damp. Writers Guy Jones and Danny Brocklehurst have seemingly taken the money and run on this one, turning in a script which is a bland and childish tale of friendship surviving against the rigours of fame."

Reviews for the West End opening were generally favourable, bestowing particular praise on Karen Bruce's choreography and the falling rain special effect. The Daily Telegraph theatre critic Charles Spencer wrote that it was "not nearly as terrible as I secretly hoped it would be....  [It was] rapturously received [and] clearly destined to do a lucrative trade". However, box office returns quickly fell off, and the production lost money.

Controversy
In April 2006, EMI licensed the Take That songs to be used in Never Forget.  At the time, Take That had not performed together since the 1990s.  Soon thereafter, however, the band re-formed.  In 2007, Take That posted the following statement on their website: "The band would like to state categorically that this production is being undertaken with neither their involvement nor their endorsement.  They would wish their fans and the general public to know that this production is absolutely and 100 per cent nothing to do with Take That."

After the musical's opening in London, Gary Barlow told the BBC, "At first I thought it sounded horrible... [but] the reports I've seen have been really good so there must be something good in it.  I'm just worried that they're better than us."

Awards and nominations
Best New Musical: Theatre Goers Choice Awards 2009 (Nominee)
Best Choreographer – Karen Bruce: Theatre Goers Choice Awards 2009 (Nominee)
Best Supporting Actress – Sophia Ragavelas (Playing Chloe Turner): Theatre Goers Choice Awards 2009 (Nominee)
Best Touring Production: Theatre Goers Choice Awards 2008 (Nominee)

References

External links
 Never Forget – The official Never Forget musical website
 Never Forget Fan Site – The official Never Forget fan website
 Never Forget Musical Lyrics

Take That
West End musicals
2008 musicals
Jukebox musicals
Rock musicals
British musicals
Musicals set in England

Never Forget (musical)


The Praieira revolt, also known as the Beach rebellion, was a movement in the Pernambuco province of the Empire of Brazil that lasted from 1848 to 1849.  The revolt, influenced by revolutions taking place in Europe, was due in part to unresolved conflicts left over from the Regency period and local resistance to the consolidation of the Empire of Brazil that had been proclaimed in 1822. The movement was led by radical elements of the Liberal Party of Pernambuco against the ruling Conservatives.

Background
The Praieira Revolt was the Brazilian response to the series of revolutions taking place at the same time in Europe. Although they had no permanent liberalizing effect, the successful February revolution in France gave visions of a better life for ordinary people and struck a responsive chord with the Brazilians.  The journalist-politician José Tomás Nabuco de Araújo recorded that "the proclamation of the republic in France shook our political world to its depths."
Socialist writers such as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Charles Fourier, who were widely read in Brazil, gave inspiration to the Brazilians.

The Conservatives were in power between 1841 and 1845. The Liberals were returned to power once again in 1845 to form a cabinet, and managed to enact several programs: a protectionist tariff (1844), electoral reforms that extended suffrage and reduced the number of electors (1846), and the creation of a new office, president of the Council of Ministers (1847). This last act facilitated parliamentary procedure, contributed to the power of the cabinet, and consequently extended the authority of the imperial government.

Event
The principal event occurred near the journal Diário Novo ("New Journal") which is located on the Praia Street (Beach Street) in Recife, the capital of Pernambuco and its principal port (the revolution is named after the name of the street). The radical wing of the Liberal Party of that state, also known as the "praieiros", met regularly in the premises of Diário Novo.  They were committed to removing the provincial governor Antônio Chicorro da Gama and the powerful entrenched Pernambucan aristocracy that was linked to the Conservatives.

The revolt was a culmination of mounting conflicts between Liberals and Conservatives that escalated with the end of the Ragamuffin War in 1845.  Under the unreformed colonial social structure that remained from the 18th century, a small group of landowners in the influential province of Pernambuco controlled most of the workable land and preferred to concentrate on agricultural products for export.  Since Brazilian economy was based on slavery and sugar, the long depression in the world sugar market aggravated social and racial ills in the 1840s.

In this feudal atmosphere of enforced silence, the editor of the short-lived journal O Progresso (1846–1848), Antônio Pedro de Figueiredo, spoke out for half of the province's population that were "vassals under the yoke" and declared that "the division of our soil in grand properties is the source of the major part of our ills." Another contemporary observer maintained that the Cavalcanti family owned one third of Pernambuco's sugar plantations (engenhos).  Cavalcante was head of the Conservative Party in Pernambuco and a network of kinship ties extended the family's power.  A popular saying of the time went:

Quem viver em Pernambuco,
Deve estar desenganado.
Ou há de ser Cavalcante,
Ou há de ser cavalgado.

which translates approximately as:

Whoever lives in Pernambuco,
Should not be deceived.
Either you are Cavalcante (mounter),
Or you will be mounted.

The key to this saying is the witty Portuguese pun between Cavalcante (a rich family of Pernambuco, but also horse rider, mounter) and cavalgado (ridden, mounted).

The breaking point was the appointment by the Emperor of a new Conservative cabinet led by Pedro de Araújo Lima. A rebellion against the new provincial government, initiated by the "praieiros" in Olinda, began on November 7, 1848 and spread rapidly through the state. A "Manifesto to the World" calling for free and universal voting rights, freedom of the press, federalism and the end of the "Poder Moderador" (the Moderating Power – the supremacy of the emperor over the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of the government that was instituted in the Brazilian Constitution of 1824), was on January 1, 1849.  However, with only 2500 combatants, the movement quickly collapsed and was dispersed by the government forces. Other similar provincial movements swiftly followed suit.

See also
 Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil

Bibliography

Footnotes

References
 Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
 Nabuco, Joaquim. Um Estadista do Império. Volume único. 4 ed. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Aguilar, 1975.

Further reading
 Naro, Nancy (1980). Brazil's 1848: the Praieira revolt. University of Chicago.

External links
 An account of the incident with social context

Revolutions of 1848
Conflicts in 1849
Rebellions in Brazil
1848 in Brazil
Wars involving Brazil
History of Pernambuco

Praieira revolt


A rain shadow is an area of land that lies behind a mountain which gets almost no rainfall. This side of a mountainous area is away from the wind. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a "shadow" of dryness behind them.

As shown by the diagram to the right, the incoming warm and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains.  As it does so, it cools and condenses, and relief rainfall removes the moisture before it crosses the top.  The air, without much moisture left, goes on over the mountains creating a dry side called the "rain shadow".

Meteorology
Mountains

Rain shadow


Chromic acid is a chemical that comes in several forms. It is made by reacting chromates or dichromates with acids or by reacting chromium(VI) oxide with sulfuric acid. As its name shows, it is an acid. It is a strong oxidizing agent. When it is reduced, it turns green. It is used to oxidize many chemicals, such as alcohol. It is very toxic because it contains the chromate ion. It is either a reddish solution or red flakes. It is used to make chromyl chloride.

Related pages
Chromium
Chromium(VI) oxide
Chromium(III) oxide, one of the chemicals it is reduced to

Chromium compounds

Chromic acid


The NBA Finals, previously known as the NBA World Championship Series until 1987, is the championship series of the National Basketball Association, played under a best-of-seven playoff format. The team who wins the Eastern Conference Finals earns one of the two places in the championship round, with the other place for the team that wins the Western Conference Finals to win the Larry O' Brien Trophy, which is named after the former commissioner. This event has been played at the end of every NBA and BAA season in history. The first was held in 1947.

List of NBA champions

Finals

NBA Finals


The ghazal is a poetic form that has rhyming couplets and a refrain, with each line sharing the same meter. A ghazal talks about both the pain of loss and the beauty of love in spite of that pain. The form is ancient.  It started in 6th century Arabic verse. It comes from the Arabian panegyric qasida. The structure of the ghazal are similar in strictness to those of the Petrarchan sonnet. In its style and content it is a genre with a lot of variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation. It is one of the main poetic forms the Indo-Perso-Arabic civilization gave to the eastern Islamic world.

The ghazal spread into South Asia in the 12th century.  This was because of the influence of Sufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic Sultanate. Although the ghazal is mostly a form of Dari poetry and Urdu poetry, today it is found in the poetry of many languages of the Indian sub-continent.

Ghazals were written by the Persian mystics and poets Rumi (13th century) and Hafiz (14th century), the Azeri poet Fuzuli (16th century), as well as Mirza Ghalib (1797–1869) and Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938).  Through Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832), the ghazal became very popular in Germany during the 19th century.  The form was used by Friedrich Rückert (1788–1866) and August von Platen (1796–1835). The Kashmiri-American poet Agha Shahid Ali liked the form. He edited a volume of "real ghazals in English".

It is common in ghazals for the poet's name to be in the last verse.  This is known as takhallus.

Poetry forms
6th-century works

Ghazal


The Society of Experimental Psychologists (SEP), originally called the Society of Experimentalists, is an academic society for experimental psychologists.  It was founded by Edward Bradford Titchener in 1904 to be an ongoing workshop in which members could visit labs, study apparatus, and hear and comment on reports of ongoing research.  Upon Titchener's death in 1927 the club was reorganized and renamed the Society of Experimental Psychologists.  The object of the society is "To advance psychology by arranging informal conferences on experimental psychology."

The SEP meets annually to conduct plenary sessions in which members can present papers. It holds meetings every spring, scheduled by a member at the host university who serves as the chair of the SEP for that year. The meetings are open to all members and to students and faculty from the host university who are invited by the chair.

Membership in the SEP is by invitation only and is considered to be a great honor because it represents significant accomplishment in the field of experimental psychology.  The SEP currently admits at least 6 new members annually from among the leading experimentalists in North America. It has a current membership of 220 individuals, about 5 - 10% of the practicing experimental psychologists.

The SEP confers three awards:
 The Howard Crosby Warren Medal, endowed to recognize individuals who have made outstanding contributions to the field of experimental psychology during the previous five years.
 The Norman Anderson Lifetime Achievement Award, endowed to recognize individuals who have made outstanding contributions to the field of Experimental Psychology over the course of their lifetimes.
 The Early Investigator Award, created to recognize individuals who have made significant contributions to the field of experimental psychology early in their careers.

References

External links
 Official Website of the SEP
 Fellows of the SEP

Experimental psychology
Psychological societies
Psychology organizations based in the United States

Society of Experimental Psychologists


For the state in Brazil, see Acre (state).

An acre is an English unit of area, which is also used in the United States and some Commonwealth countries. It is most often used to describe areas of land.
 By the official definition it is 4,046.8564224 m2 (4,840 square yards). It is the area of one furlong by one chain.
 The international acre is 4,046.8564224 m2, or 0.404686 hectares. This is based on international foot of 0.3048 m.

An acre is approximately equal:
 the area of an American football field.

Originally, it was seen as the area of land a farmer could plough with an ox in a day. Since this definition depended on the farmer and the ox, it looked variable. Therefore, Edward I, Edward III, Henry VIII and George IV passed laws fixing its size. The Commonwealth countries, including the United States then also introduced these laws.

Other websites
 The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995
 NIST Handbook 44

Units of area

Acre


Gliosis is a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells in response to damage to the central nervous system (CNS). In most cases, gliosis involves the proliferation or hypertrophy of several different types of glial cells, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. In its most extreme form, the proliferation associated with gliosis leads to the formation of a glial scar.

The process of gliosis involves a series of cellular and molecular events that occur over several days. Typically, the first response to injury is the migration of macrophages and local microglia to the injury site. This process, which constitutes a form of gliosis known as microgliosis, begins within hours of the initial CNS injury. Later, after 3–5 days, oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also recruited to the site and may contribute to remyelination. The final component of gliosis is astrogliosis, the proliferation of surrounding astrocytes, which are the main constituents of the glial scar.

Gliosis has historically been given a negative connotation due to its appearance in many CNS diseases and the inhibition of axonal regeneration caused by glial scar formation. However, gliosis has been shown to have both beneficial and detrimental effects, and the balance between these is due to a complex array of factors and molecular signaling mechanisms, which affect the reaction of all glial cell types.

Astrogliosis

Reactive astrogliosis is the most common form of gliosis and involves the proliferation of astrocytes, a type of glial cell responsible for maintaining extracellular ion and neurotransmitter concentrations, modulating synapse function, and forming the blood–brain barrier. Like other forms of gliosis, astrogliosis accompanies traumatic brain injury as well as many neuropathologies, ranging from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis to fatal familial insomnia. Although the mechanisms which lead to astrogliosis are not fully understood, neuronal injury is well understood to cause astrocyte proliferation, and astrogliosis has long been used as an index for neuronal damage. Traditionally, astrogliosis has been defined as an increase in intermediate filaments and cellular hypertrophy as well as an increase in the proliferation of astrocytes. Although this hypertrophy and proliferation in their extreme form are most closely associated with the formation of a glial scar, astrogliosis is not an all-or-none process in which a glial scar forms. In fact, it is a spectrum of changes that occur based on the type and severity of central nervous system (CNS) injury or disease triggering the event. Changes in astrocyte function or morphology which occur during astrogliosis may range from minor hypertrophy to major hypertrophy, domain overlap, and ultimately, glial scar formation. The severity of astrogliosis is classically determined by the level of expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin, both of which are upregulated with the proliferation of active astrocytes.

Modulation of astrogliosis
Changes in astrogliosis are regulated in a context-dependent fashion, and the signaling events which dictate these changes may modify both their nature and severity. It is these changes in astrogliosis which allow the process to be complex and multifaceted, involving both a gain or loss of function as well as both beneficial and detrimental effects. Reactive astrocytes are affected by molecular signals released from a variety of CNS cell types including neurons, microglia, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, leukocytes, endothelia, and even other astrocytes. Some of the many signalling molecules used in these pathways include the cytokines interleukin 6 (IL-6), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Although many of these specific modulatory relationships are not yet fully understood, it is known that different specific signaling mechanisms result in different morphological and functional changes of astrocytes, allowing astrogliosis to take on a graduated spectrum of severity.

Effects of astrogliosis
Although astrogliosis has traditionally been viewed as a negative response inhibitory to axonal regeneration, the process is highly conserved, suggesting it has important benefits beyond its detrimental effects. Generally, the effects of astrogliosis vary with the context of the initial CNS insult and also with time after the injury. A few of the most important effects of astrogliosis are listed below.

Beneficial effects
Neuroprotective effects – Reactive astrocytes release neurotrophic factors, such as glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which protects against programmed cell death
Maintenance of the extracellular environment – Astrocytes are responsible for the uptake of glutamate, which restricts excitotoxicity to neurons and other cell types, as well as the elimination of free radicals
Release of anti-inflammatory molecules
Restoration of blood brain barrier function
Seclusion of the injury site and containment of infection from healthy tissue

Detrimental effects
Restriction of axon regeneration – In cases of glial scar formation, reactive astrocytes enmesh the lesion site and deposit an inhibitory extracellular matrix consisting of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. The dense structure of these proteins is a physically and chemically inhibitory barrier to axon regeneration and the reestablishment of axon connections.
Secretion of neurotoxic substances – These may include pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic cytokines. Examples of these molecules include nitric oxide radicals and TNF-α.
Release of excitotoxic glutamate
Hindrance of functional recovery and worsening of clinical signs

Microgliosis
Microglia, another type of glial cell, act as macrophage-like cells in the CNS when activated. Unlike other glial cell types, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small changes in the cellular environment, allowing for a rapid response to inflammatory signals and prompt destruction of infectious agents before sensitive neural tissue can be damaged. Due to their fast response time, microgliosis, or the activation of microglia, is commonly the first observed stage of gliosis.

Microgliosis following a CNS insult most commonly involves the development of an altered cellular morphology, specifically the enlargement of cellular processes. The microglial immunological surface receptor CR3 is also upregulated within 24 hours after the initial injury. Within the first week following the injury, microglia begin to proliferate abnormally and while doing so exhibit several immunophenotypic changes, particularly an increased expression of MHC antigens. The population of activated microglia at the site of a CNS injury includes not only endogenous microglia of the CNS but also exogeneous perivascular cells originating in the bone marrow that migrate to the area and transform into microglia to supplement the microgliosis response.

While in their activated state, microglia may serve a variety of beneficial functions. For example, active microglia are the primary effectors of innate immunity and fulfill this role by phagocyting the proteins of dead neurons, presenting antigens at their surface, and producing a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines and toxic molecules that compromise the survival of surrounding neurons which may be similarly damaged or infected. Active microglia also perform critical homeostatic activity, including the clearing of cell debris through phagocytosis, a function essential to neuron survival. In addition, active microglia release anti-inflammatory factors and other molecules, such as IL-6 and TGF-β, which regulate neurogenesis after injury. However, the over-activation of microglia can also be detrimental by producing several neurotoxic substances including pro-inflammatory factors, such as TNF-α, prostaglandin E2, and interferon-γ, and oxidative stress factors, including nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide. Notably, unlike astrogliosis, microgliosis is a temporary and self-limited event, which generally lasts only one month after injury, even in cases of extreme damage.

Neural modulation of microgliosis
Microglial activation has been shown to be a reactive process in which microglia respond to signals given off by injured neurons. Because various characteristics of microgliosis occur in different time frames after the initial triggering insult, microgliosis must depend on mechanisms which fluctuate temporally based on injured neuronal signals. Studies have shown that in cases of reversible neuronal injury, such as axotomy, neuron signals cause microglia to produce trophic factors, which promote neuron survival. In cases of irreversible injury, however, microglia are induced to release neurotoxic factors that promote increased degeneration of the neuron and more rapid phagocytosis by the microglia. Such specificity of the process of microgliosis indicates that it primarily serves a beneficial purpose, selectively conserving some neural tissue while eliminating others, based on the specific initial CNS insult.

Microglial regulation of astrogliosis
Although the molecular triggers of gliosis, including both astrogliosis and microgliosis, are not fully understood, in vitro studies have indicated that activated microglia have an important role in initiating and modulating astrogliosis. One critical piece of evidence supporting this relationship is the widely documented temporal correlation between the onsets of the two processes. Unlike the microglial response, which occurs rapidly, the start of astrogliosis is often delayed. A likely cause of this relationship is the pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines released at elevated levels by microglia upon activation. These include macrophage inflammatory protein-1 (MIP), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), the interleukins IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8, and TNF-α. Receptors for these molecules have been identified on astrocytes, and the molecules, when exogenously introduced, have been shown to induce, enhance, or accompany astrogliosis. Astrocytes themselves also produce cytokines, which may be used for self-regulation or for the regulation of microglia, which contain similar cytokine receptors. This phenomenon creates a feedback loop, allowing both microglia and astrocytes to regulate one another. In addition, evidence suggests microglial regulation of astrogliosis may also include inhibitory effects. Reduced levels of microgliosis have been associated with reduced astrocyte numbers, which also suggests that microglia are important regulators of the degree of astrocyte activation.

Response of oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes are another type of glial cell which generate and maintain the formation of myelin around the axons of large neurons in the CNS, allowing for rapid transmission of neural signals. Unlike astrocytes and microglia, oligodendrocytes undergo a much more limited reaction to injury. Rather, in cases of CNS trauma, they are more similar to neurons in their susceptibility to sustaining damage. The degeneration of axons as a result of trauma or pathology invariably results in the degeneration of the myelin sheath. Depending on the mechanism of insult, several different patterns of oligodendrocyte injury and reaction may be observed. In all cases, however, some oligodendrocytes are lost, through necrosis or apoptosis, while others survive and may form part of the glial scar along with myelin debris. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also affected by CNS insult and are recruited to demyelinated areas within a week following traumatic injury. Some of these cells may produce new myelin when exposed to signals from activated microglia and astrocytes.

Triggers of gliosis
In general after any CNS insult, gliosis begins after the blood brain barrier is disrupted, allowing non-CNS molecules, such as blood and serum components, to enter the brain. These components, along with activated macrophages they carry, are known to have a role in beginning the formation of the glial scar by inducing the disconnection of axons, also called secondary axotomy, and the upregulation of fibrous extracellular matrix components which eventually form the scar tissue. The specific molecular triggers responsible for this action, however, remain unknown. One potential trigger is transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). TGF-β2, whose expression is gradually increased as gliosis occurs, has been shown to increase astrocyte production of scar-forming proteoglycans. Experimental reduction of both TGF-β2 and TGF-β1, which is expressed immediately after injury, has resulted in reduced glial scarring. The interleukins are another potential molecular trigger of gliosis. These molecules, notably IL-1, initiate an inflammatory response in various cells including astrocytes that contributes to the gliosis reaction. Finally, interactions between the inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) may also be responsible for the induction of gliosis. In culture, both molecules act as mitogens, prompting the proliferation of astrocytes. Moreover, addition of IFN-γ to brain lesion sites has resulted in an increase in glial scarring.

In CNS injury and disease
Gliosis is the universal response of the CNS to tissue injury and occurs as a result of many acute conditions such as trauma, ischemia, and stroke. Additionally, gliosis is present in a wide variety of CNS pathologies, including Alzheimer's disease, Korsakoff's syndrome, multiple system atrophy, prion disease, multiple sclerosis, AIDS dementia complex, vasculitis, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. In every case, gliosis involves some degree of hypertrophy or proliferation of glial cells, but the extent and nature of the gliosis response vary widely based on the triggering insult. Gliosis in any form entails an alteration in cellular activity that has the potential to create widespread effects on neurons as well as other non-neural cells, causing either a loss of normal functions or a gain of detrimental ones. In this light, gliosis may be seen not only as a characteristic of many neuropathologies but as a potential contributor to, or even cause of, many CNS disease mechanisms. A select group of CNS conditions associated with gliosis are described below.

CNS trauma
Acute trauma to the brain or spinal cord results in gliosis, most often in its severe form with the development of a glial scar. Different locations around the lesion site may exhibit different severities of gliosis; for example, a glial scar at the location of damaged tissue may be surrounded by areas with less severe astrocyte proliferation or hypertrophy. Diffuse traumatic injury can result in diffuse or more moderate gliosis without scar formation. In such cases, gliosis may also be reversible. In all instances of gliosis resulting from CNS trauma, the long-term clinical outcome is highly dependent on the degree of astrogliosis and scar formation.

Multiple sclerosis and autoimmune inflammatory disorders
Gliosis is a prominent feature of many autoimmune inflammatory disorders, notably multiple sclerosis, in which demyelinated plaques are surrounded by reactive astrocytes. These astrocytes often exhibit extreme hypertrophy and multiple distinct nuclei, and their production of pro-inflammatory molecules has been implicated in several inflammatory disorders. Cytokines produced by both active astrocytes and microglia in inflammatory conditions may contribute to myelin damage and may alter blood-brain barrier permeability, allowing the migration of lymphocytes into the CNS and heightening the autoimmune attack.

Retinal gliosis
In vertebrates, the retina contains Müller cells, a type of glia not found elsewhere in the CNS. Upon retinal injury, gliosis of these cells occurs, functioning to repair damage, but often having harmful consequences in the process, worsening some of the diseases or problems that initially trigger it. Reactive gliosis in the retina can have detrimental effects on vision; in particular, the production of proteases by astrocytes causes widespread death of retinal ganglion cells. A 2011 study compared the effects of two glial toxins, AAA and Neurostatin, on retinal gliosis in mice. AAA did not inhibit the production of protease by astrocytes, and so did not prevent ganglion cell apoptosis. However, Neurostatin successfully inhibited activation of astrocytes, in turn decreasing retinal ganglion cell death significantly. Neurostatin is also effective in the inhibition of other glial cells, and may be an area of interest in the treatment of degenerative diseases such as glaucoma.

Massive retinal gliosis (MRG) is a phenomenon in which the retina is completely replaced by proliferation of glial cells, causing deterioration of vision and even blindness in some cases. Sometimes mistaken for an intraocular tumor, MRG can arise from a neurodegenerative disease, congenital defect, or from trauma to the eyeball, sometimes appearing years after such an incident.

Alzheimer's disease
Gliosis has long been known as a characteristic of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), although its exact role in the disease remains unknown. Gliosis and glial scarring occur in areas surrounding the amyloid plaques which are hallmarks of the disease, and postmortem tissues have indicated a correlation between the degree of astrogliosis and cognitive decline. Exposure of reactive astrocytes to β-amyloid (Αβ) peptide, the main component of amyloid plaques, may also induce astroglial dysfunction and neurotoxicity. In addition, the ability of reactive astrocytes to degrade extracellular Αβ deposits may suggest that astrogliosis may affect the progression or severity of AD.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a debilitating disease involving the degeneration of motor neurons in the CNS. Reactive astrocytes have been implicated in this condition through either a loss of their neuroprotective ability or through the gain of neurotoxic effects. Late stages of ALS are also characterized by significant astrogliosis and astrocyte proliferation around areas of degeneration.

Potential therapeutic targets in gliosis
The implications of gliosis in various neuropathologies and injury conditions has led to the investigation of various therapeutic routes which would regulate specific aspects of gliosis in order to improve clinical outcomes for both CNS trauma and a wide range of neurological disorders. Because gliosis is a dynamic process which involves a spectrum of changes depending on the type and severity of the initial insult, to date, no single molecular target has been identified which could improve healing in all injury contexts. Rather, therapeutic strategies for minimizing the contribution of astrogliosis to CNS pathologies must be designed to target specific molecular pathways and responses. One promising therapeutic mechanism is the use of β-lactam antibiotics to enhance the glutamate uptake of astrocytes in order to reduce excitotoxicity and provide neuroprotection in models of stroke and ALS. Other proposed targets related to astrogliosis include manipulating AQP4 channels, diminishing the action of NF-kB, or regulating the STAT3 pathway in order to reduce the inflammatory effects of reactive astrocytes. Astrogliosis may also be attenuated by inhibiting the microgliosis response. One notable microglial activation inhibitor is minocycline, which is a known suppressor of astrogliosis. The cell cycle inhibitor olomoucine also has been shown to suppress both microglial and astroglial proliferation as well as glial scar formation. Future directions for identifying novel therapeutic strategies must carefully account for the complex array of factors and signaling mechanisms driving the gliosis response, particularly in different stages after damage and in different lesion conditions.

See also
Bergmann gliosis

References

External links

Brain disorders
Glial cells
Medical terminology

Gliosis


محمد عبدالله آل آهاری (تولد:۶ ژانویه ۱۹۶۵) مقاله‌نویس آمریکایی، محقق و نویسنده در موضوعات اسلامی در آمریکا، سیاه پوستان ملی‌گرا، اقلیت‌های مذهبی اسلامی در دنیای اسلامی قدیم و جدید، فلسفه علوم غیبی (ماورائی) در اسلام.
از عبدالله آل آهاری در آمریکا، نیجریه، بوسنی و ترکیه کتاب و مقالاتی در خصوص اسلام منتشر شده‌است. او همچنین در کالج اسلامی آمریکا در شیکاگو به مدت سه سال در مورد فرق اسلامی مانند: صوفیان نعمت الهی، بکتاشیان (تحت شیخ رفیع صنعتی شریف)، تیجانی، نقشبندیه، مطالعه نمود. حاصل این مطالعات و سفرهای سراسری آل آهاری به مساجد و مدارس اسلامی در آمریکا منجر به تمرکز مطالعاتی او بر روی حفاظت و حراست از قطعات نادر از ادبیات اسلامی آمریکا و تهیه مستنداتی از حضور مسلمانان در ایالات متحده و کانادا گردید.

نوشتار و کتب

 Muhammed al-Ahari (1993). Bilali Muhammad: Muslim Juriprudist in Antebellum Georgia, trans
 lated by Muhammad Abdullah al-Ahari, Magribine Press. . This was reprinted by Magribine Press by January 2010 and an expanded illustrated edition with Arabic text will be published in 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120222065928/https://www.createspace.com/3431038
 Muhammed al-Ahari (1992). African Muslim in Antebellum America and Their Education Theories. Magribine Press.
 Muhammed al-Ahari (2006). Five Classic Muslim Slave Narratives. Magribine Press, Chicago. This is a collection of five slave naratives that are either out of print or difficult to find. The presentation of Africa, Islam and slavery in the American slave Narratives of Muslim slaves in the Americas is a topic that is often overlooked in discussing the genre of slave narratives and the birth of African American Literature. In fact the first biography was that of a former Maryland slave, Job Ben Solomon, published in 1730 in Britain. By reexamining these often overlooked narratives we can get insight into African Islam, the turmoil of integration into a foreign culture, life in Africa, and life as a slave in the Americas. The primary sources include: the narrative of Job ben Solomon, the two autobiographical pieces of Muhammad Said of Bornu, the Arabic autobiography of 'Umar ibn Said, the Jamaican narrative of Abu Bakr Said, a discussion of coverage on Bilali Muhammad's excerpts from the Risalah of Abi Zaid, Theodore Dwight's articles on the teaching methods of the Serachule teacher slave Lamen Kebe, and a letter describing Salih Bilali.
 Senad Agic, Muhammed al-Ahari, et.al.(2006). "A Hundred Years of Bosnians in America"("100 Godina Bošnjaka u Americi"). Chicago: Bosnian American Cultural Association, ©2006. The Bosnians were the first Muslims in the United States to incoporate an Islamic Association in 1906 in Chicago, Illinois.
 Muhammed A. al-Ahari (2006). A Heritage of East and West: the writings of Shaykh Kamil Yusuf Avdich. Magribine Press, Chicago.Edited and forward by Muhammed Abdullah Al-Ahari. This is a collection thirty-seven of Imam Kamil Avdić's English language articles. Avdich (1914-1979) was one of the first Bosnians to graduate of Al-Azhar in Cairo, Egypt. He wrote the first textbook for Islamic weekend schools in America entitled The Outline of Islam, was the first Imam of the Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago (ICCGC), and founded the Council of Imams. This text was sponsored by the Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago and promoted at the Centennial of Bosnian immigration to the United States.
 Muhammed al-Ahari, Imam Adnan Balihodzic, and Shaykh Kamil Avdich (2012). The Outline of Islam. Northbrook, Illinois: Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago. The 1959 text had no Arabic text, so all hadith and verses from the Qur'an were translated and given in transliteration. The 2012 edition has Arabic added for حدیث and Qur'anic ayats by Muhammed Al-Ahari and Imam Balihodzic. Imam Balihodzic also did source grading (مصطلح‌الحدیث، hassan, etc.) for the Hadith. Additions tests, teacher aids, an updated bibliography and a forward were added by Muhammed Al-Ahari. [12] This work was sponsored by the Bosnian American Cultural Association Women's Auxillary and the Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago. [13]
 Muhammed al-Ahari (2006). The Islam Papers: The 1893 World Parliament of Religion. Magribine Press, Chicago. This is a collection of ten speeches on islam given at the 1893 World Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893. Two of the speeches are by Muhammad Alexander Russell Webb.
 Muhammed A. al-Ahari (2006). Taking Islam to the Street: The Da'wah of the Islamic Party of North America. Magribine Press, Chicago. This is an annotated edition of five pamphlet published by the Chicago based Islam Party of North America.
 Muhammed A. al-Ahari (2006). Islam in America and Other Writings of Muhammad الکساندر راسل وب. Magribine Press, Chicago. Edited and forward by Muhammed Abdullah Al-Ahari. This work is a collection of three pamphlets and two speeches from Webb.
 Muhammed Abdullah Al-Ahari (۱۰ ژوئن ۲۰۱۱). Islam, the True Faith, the Religion of Humanity by Hajj Shaykh Daoud Ahmed Faisal. Edited and forward by Muhammed Abdullah Al-Ahari. Magribine Press, Chicago. This is the first collection of Shaykh Daoud's writings.
 Muhammed Abdullah al-Ahari (۱۷ مارس ۲۰۱۰). The Black Man, the Father of the Civilization: and other Biblical Commentary by Rev. James Morris Webb. Editing, forward, annotations by Muhammed Abdullah al-Ahari. Magribine Press, Chicago. James Morris Webb was a Garveyite minister and was responsible for the spreading of the idea that Jesus is a Black man.
 Muhammed Abdullah al-Ahari (2011). The Voice of Islam and the Moslem World. An annotated edition of the newspaper of Muhammed Alexander Russell Webb from the 1880s. Magribine Press, Chicago. This is an annotated edition of Webb newspaper The Voice of Islam and the Moslem World from 1894-5. This is the only place any of the contents of these newspapers have been reprinted.
 Muhammed al-Ahari (2011). THE OSMANLI DIASPORA & The Development of an Ethnic Press by Muhammed al-Ahari (2011). Magribine Press, Chicago. Sponsored by the Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago. A study of Ottoman Diaspora newspapers in the United States. Over half focuses on Bosnian-American newspapers.
 Muhammed al-Ahari (2006). Painting Coal Gold. Chicago: Magribine Press. A study of Freemasonry, Bektashism, and the Dawoodi Bektashi Order. Chicago: Magribine Press.
 Naim Frasheri, Huseyin Abiva, and Muhammed A. al-Ahari (2006). The Bektashi Pages. Chicago: Babagan Press. The foreward to the translation from the Albanian language original by Muhammed A. al-Ahari.

منابع

1. Al-Ahari, Muhammad Abdullah. "Muhammad Alexander Russel Webb". The Minaret January/February 1992:51-2. and a half dozen other articles to be added.

2. Muhammad Abdullah Al-Ahari Rudder; translated by I. Kasumović to Croatian "Mogućnosti bilingvalnog metoda u nastavi: (historijski razvoj islama u Americi)" Islamska misao, 13, 156, str. 39-44 (1991). Contains a biographic sketch that documents Muhammed al-Ahari's studies of Islam in America.

3. https://web.archive.org/web/20101222191323/http://fountainmagazine.com/article.php?ARTICLEID=574

4.Svijest contains an articles Muhammed al-Ahari wrote on Bosnian cuisine, Bosnian Coffeehouses, and the history of Bosnian immigration to America. One of the issues also contains a two page interview documenting Muhammed al-Ahari's conversion to Islam and his documenting of the history of Islam in America.

5. https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020533/http://reocities.com/Heartland/Woods/4623/amexemtimes/amexemtimes16.html

6. http://www.icc-greaterchicago.com/  The newsletter is available in both print and online versions.

7. The conference proceedings were also videotaped and include two interviews of Muhammed al-Ahari that were broadcast on Canton One Television in Sarjevo in 2001.

8.  Contains the complete article in English with a summary in Turkish of the article "The Use and Misuse of the Name Bektashism." The article was expanded and published as the text "Coal Painted Gold." This also contains a brief biographic sketch of Muhammed al-Ahari that documents his research on Bektashism and Sufism.

9. http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=22976. A Bosnian language review of the text 100 Godina Bošnjaka u Americi. It includes a list of all contibutors.

10. http://loibookstore.wordpress.com/category/book-discussion-group/ This is one book circle that chose Muhammead Alexander Russell Webb's "Islam in America and Other Writings" for one of their selections.

11. Dr. Ronald Judy (1993). (Dis)forming the American Canon: African-Arabic slave narratives. Page 323 documents Muhammed al-Ahari's translation of Arabic slave narratives and his work on the Bilali Muhammad text. The second edition of Allan Austin's "African Muslims in Antebellum America: transatlantic stories and spiritual struggles" (1997) includes translations from Muhammed al-Ahari and thanks Muhammed for locating five manuscripts that were not in the first edition.

12. Muhammed al-Ahari, Imam Adnan Balihodzic, and Shaykh Kamil Avdich (2012). The Outline of Islam. Northbrook, Illinois: Islamic Cultural Center of Greater Chicago. Muhammed al-Ahari's introduction is on page 5-11.

13. https://web.archive.org/web/20110209091457/http://zgbaca.com/. This webpage contains information about the book promotion for the text The Outline of Islam.

افراد زنده
زادگان ۱۹۶۵ (میلادی)
مسلمانان اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا
نوکیشان مسلمان

محمد عبدالله آل آهاری


Artificial selection is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as selective breeding and is an ancient method of genetic engineering.

Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals may have traits that a breeder will want to carry over to the next generation. The breeder will therefore select those animals to breed which have that quality, rather than those that do not.

Inbreeding is a particular kind of selective breeding, designed to produce a population which is genetically virtually identical.  Such populations are rarely viable outside the laboratory.  They lose fertility.  To control this, most breeds are outcrossed or backcrossed to wild-type individuals, or at least less inbred stock. The details differ from breed to breed.  The improvement when outcrossing is done is called hybrid vigour.

Charles Darwin used the example of artificial selection to introduce his idea of natural selection. Artificial selection may be contrasted with the process of natural selection. In natural selection, the differential reproduction of organisms with certain traits happens. This is because some variations help the organism to have better survival and reproduction. The process maintains or enhances the fitness of a population in its natural habitat.

Artificial selection may sometimes be unintentional; it is thought that domestication of crops by early humans was largely unintentional.

References

Classical genetics
Domesticated animals
Agriculture

Artificial selection


Vincenzo La Scola (26 January 1958 – 15 April 2011) was an Italian tenor who had a successful international opera career for more than 25 years. He was particularly admired for his portrayals in operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, Gaetano Donizetti, and Vincenzo Bellini. He also achieved success as a crossover artist, particularly in his many collaborations with singer-songwriter Cliff Richard and for his solo crossover album for EMI, Vita Mia (1999). In 2000 he was made a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador, and from 2004 until his sudden death in 2011 he served as principal teacher and artistic director of the Accademia Verdi Toscanini in Parma.

Career
La Scola was born in Palermo, Italy, and studied singing with Arrigo Pola, Carlo Bergonzi, and Rodolfo Celletti. In 1982 he won the Alessandro Ziliano Award at the Vico Verdiane Competition. He made his professional opera debut in 1983 at the Teatro Regio in Parma as Ernesto in Gaetano Donizetti's Don Pasquale. His career developed rapidly, and by 1989 he had already performed in leading roles at the Cologne Opera House (debut 1985), the Festival Puccini (debut in 1987 as Rinuccio in Puccini's Gianni Schicchi), La Fenice (debut in 1987 as Tonio in Donizetti's La fille du régiment), La Monnaie (debut in 1984 as Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore), the Kiel Opera House (debut 1985), the Opéra-Comique (debut in 1987 as Rinuccio), the Opéra Royal de Wallonie (debut 1984), the Ravenna Festival (debut in 1989, Alfredo in La Traviata), the Teatro Comunale di Bologna (debut in 1988, Arlecchino Battocchio in Mascagni's Le maschere), the Teatro Regio in Turin (debut in 1988), and La Scala (debut in 1988 as Nemorino). In 1986 he made his first three recordings: the tenor soloist in Rossini's Petite messe solennelle for Erato Records, and two full-length opera releases, Franco Battiato's Genesi and Bellini's Beatrice di Tenda.

Several more invitations to appear at other important houses continued in the early 1990s, including the Royal Opera, London (debut in 1990, Rodolfo in La bohème); the Teatro Carlo Felice (debut in 1990, Rodolfo); the Macerata Opera (debut in 1990, Rodolfo); the San Francisco Opera (debut in 1991 as Tebaldo in I Capuleti e i Montecchi); the Teatro di San Carlo (debut 1991 as Gennaro in Lucrezia Borgia); the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma (debut 1991 as the Duke of Mantua in Rigoletto): the Hamburg State Opera (debut 1991); the Arena di Verona Festival (debut 1992); the Vienna State Opera (debut 1992); and the Metropolitan Opera (debut in 1993 as Rodolfo).

In 2006, La Scola appeared at the 20th anniversary concert of the Suntory Hall in Japan. During this concert, in addition to singing, he also demonstrated his flute-playing ability, including an instrumental rendition of "Casta Diva" on the flute.

La Scola continued to appear regularly on the stages of the world's best opera houses up until his death of a sudden heart attack in Turkey in 2011. Other roles in his repertoire included Cavaradossi in Tosca, Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor, Gabriele Adorno in Simon Boccanegra, Pinkerton in Madama Butterfly, Pollione in Norma, Radamès in Aida, Riccardo in Un ballo in maschera, and the title roles in Roberto Devereux, Don Carlos, and The Tales of Hoffmann among others.

Death
Vincenzo La Scola died at the age of 53 on 15 April 2011 in Mersin, Turkey due to a heart attack.

Discography

Albums
1999: Vita Mia

Singles
1999: "Vita Mia" (with Cliff Richard)

References

1958 births
2011 deaths
Musicians from Palermo
Italian operatic tenors
Opera crossover singers
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
20th-century Italian male opera singers

Vincenzo La Scola


An It bag is a high-priced designer handbag that has become a popular best-seller. The phenomenon arose in the fashion industry and was named in the 1990s and 2000s. Examples of handbag brands that have been considered "It bags" are Chanel, Hermès and Fendi.

History
One of the first designers credited with creating the concept of the easily identifiable "status bag" was Giuliana Camerino, founder in 1945 of the Venetian fashion house Roberta di Camerino. Camerino's handbags were instantly recognisable due to their artisan-made hardware and distinctive use of fabrics formerly reserved for clothing. Her innovations included in 1946, bags patterned with a trellis of R's (foreshadowing Gucci's G's), woven leather bags in 1957 (predating Bottega Veneta) and in 1964, she designed a handbag with a unique articulated frame which was later taken up by Prada.

The fashion houses of Hermès, Chanel and Louis Vuitton created handbags that became famous in their own right well before the concept of the "It bag" took hold. In 1935 Hermès created a top-handled leather bag called a sac à dépêches as part of their leather goods range.  In 1956 this design was renamed the Kelly after being prominently worn by Grace Kelly. Coco Chanel first created her quilted-leather 2.55 in February 1955. In 1984, Hermès modified another of their designs, the Haut à Courroies (originally created around 1900) to create a bag for the actress and singer Jane Birkin. The Birkin subsequently became one of the most desirable, widely recognised bags during the 1990s and early 2000s designer bag craze.

The term "It bag" was coined in the 1990s with the explosive growth of the handbag market in fashion. Designers competed to produce a single, easily recognisable design which, if cleverly marketed, endorsed by the fashion press, or seen being carried by a celebrity, would become that season's must-have bag, selling in large numbers. Designers such as Bottega Veneta, Chanel, Fendi, Hermès, Prada, Gucci, and Vuitton continued to be known as creators of desirable bags, rather than enjoying fame for one or two specific models. Among the more successful individual designs created during this time were the Paddington by Chloé, the Motorcycle by Balenciaga, and the Alexa (named for Alexa Chung) by Mulberry. Chloé, in order to enhance the prestige and scarcity of the Paddington, enforced a waiting list for orders, although this led impatient customers to knowingly purchase counterfeit bags. Must-have bags for a particular season were often targeted by criminals and stolen to order, to be sold for significantly reduced prices to people who wanted a fashionable bag without paying full retail. For example, in 2007, the targeted bags were the Lanvin Olga Sac and the Givenchy Bettina, and in 2008, they were the Chanel 2.55 and the Balenciaga Motorcycle.

In the early 2000s the conceptual New York label Slow and Steady Wins the Race, founded by the Chinese-American designer Mary Ping, offered a range of consciously affordable bags deliberately based on It bags by Balenciaga, Dior and Gucci, but made in inexpensive calico with metalwork from hardware stores mirroring the original bags' exclusive designer fittings. These bags were Slow and Steady'''s way of challenging the concept of consumerism and inbuilt obsolescence in traditional fashion manufacture.

By 2008 the popularity of the "It bag" was reported to be in decline. In May 2011, whilst acknowledging that there would always be customers for expensive status bags, Celia Walden reported that the concept of the must-have "It bag" was no longer in fashion.

See also
It girl

References

Further reading
 Eric Wilson, Is This It for the It Bag?, The New York Times'', Nov. 1, 2007. Accessed 30 March 2012.
The It bags...a must?, Softpedia, January 22, 2007. Accessed 30 March 2012.

Bags (fashion)
Leather goods
20th-century fashion
21st-century fashion
1990s fashion
2000s fashion

It bag


The year 2003 in birding and ornithology.

See also 2002 in birding and ornithology, main events of 2003, other specialist lists of events in 2003 and 2004 in birding and ornithology.

Worldwide

New species

See also Bird species new to science described in the 2000s

 The Munchique wood-wren from the Colombian Andes is described as new to science in the online journal Ornitologica Colombiana
 The Okarito brown kiwi from South Island, New Zealand is described as new to science in the Records of the Auckland Museum

To be completed

Taxonomic developments
To be completed

Ornithologists

Deaths
 12 January - Dean Amadon
 16 January - Chris Mead
 13 February - Stuart Keith
 24 April - Guy Mountfort
 26 April - Edward Max Nicholson
 27 April - Mick Rogers
 7 August - Roxie Collie Laybourne
 15 September - Richard Liversidge
 10 October - Frank Pitelka
 ? - Sakae Tamura
 ? - Stephen Marchant
 ? - Colin Harrison

Europe

Britain

Breeding birds
To be completed

Migrant and wintering birds
 130 chiffchaff overwintered at St Austell, 50 at Helston and 25 at Countess Weir. All the sites were "old fashoned" sewage works where the micro climate and lush vegetation ensure plenty of insects through the winter

Rare birds
 Taiga flycatcher was added to the British list, with a male at Flamborough Head, east Yorkshire in April, followed by a first-winter in Shetland in September.
 Britain's first Audouin's gull was found in May at Dungeness, Kent
 A male black lark at South Stack, Anglesey in June was initially thought to be Britain's first, and was seen by thousands of birders; it subsequently transpired that an earlier record, also a male, from Spurn, east Yorkshire in 1984 had just recently been accepted by the British Birds Rarities Committee, so making the South Stack bird Britain's second
 A female redhead on Barra, Outer Hebrides from September through until April 2004 was Britain's third (but the first female).
 Britain's third American coot occurred in Shetland in November and stayed into 2004.
 Britain's third lesser sand plover, a breeding-plumaged male of the race mongolus occurred at Keyhaven Marshes, Hampshire in July.
 Britain's fourth (and first spring) thick-billed warbler occurred on Fair Isle in May; the same island hosted Britain's fourth Siberian rubythroat and third Savannah sparrow simultaneously during October.
 A record influx of Hume's leaf warblers occurred in late autumn, consisting of over 20 birds.
 The first ever influx of Arctic redpolls of the Greenland race hornemanni occurred during the autumn.

Other events
 The British Birdwatching Fair has Madagascar's wetlands as its theme for the year.

Scandinavia
To be completed

North America
 An unprecedented movement of American robins in eastern North America on 8–9 November. Over 500,000 were recorded passing over Cape May after a deep low pressure system swept migrants into the north east of the United States

References

Birding and ornithology
Bird
Birding and ornithology by year

2003 in birding and ornithology


Alfred Ray Lindesmith (August 3, 1905 – February 14, 1991) was an Indiana University professor of sociology. He was among the early scholars providing a rigorous and thoughtful account of the nature of addiction. He was a critic of legal prohibitions against addictive drugs, arguing that such prohibitions had adverse societal effects. Lindesmith's work in drug policy and addiction at Indiana U. was an element of progressivism, along with the landmark work of Alfred Kinsey and his associates at The Kinsey Institute, under the supervision of IU President Herman Wells .

Lindesmith's interest in drugs began at the University of Chicago, where he was trained in social psychology by Herbert Blumer and Edwin Sutherland, earning his doctorate in 1937. His education there was a mixture of the methodological and theoretical, a balance that would later appear in his drug studies. The work at Chicago involved research with interactionist theory, including the research of Chicago's Herbert Blumer, emphasizing the idea of self-concept in human interaction.

Theory of addiction
Lindesmith's work on drugs began with his questioning of the nature of addiction in a 1938 essay entitled "A sociological theory of drug addiction". This paper appeared in the American Journal of Sociology and involved in-depth interviews with 50 so-called addicts.

As this work progressed, it developed into a full theoretical and empirical account of the nature of opiate addiction, culminating in his book Opiate Addictions in 1947 (republished as Addiction and Opiates in 1968).

What Lindesmith developed was an account of opiate addiction that (1) distinguished between the physical reactions of narcotic withdrawal and its psychological (phenomenological) experience, and (2) described the relationship between these two phenomena and addiction. Addressing the question of why regular users of opiates do not necessarily become dependent or addicted, he found that, while continuous opiate use does cause many to experience physical withdrawal, the impact of withdrawal on the likelihood of dependence and addiction is not certain. Lindesmith's "addicts" revealed this, in part, as did general reports from individuals who, despite regular use of opiates, failed to become habitual users, stressing "the advantage of attributing the origin of addiction, not to a single event, but to a series of events, thus implying that addiction is established in a learning process extending over a period of time."

This learning process has two parts. First, opiate users must connect their drug withdrawal to their use of the drug, which is something that individuals exposed to opiates in hospital settings are more likely to do. When withdrawal is interpreted as a form of addiction, the perceived (and felt) need for more drugs grows. More recent research has shown that, because hospital patients often associate opiate analgesia with an illness and/or hospital care, and because the drugs cause sedation and other mind-altering effects, patients rarely experience any withdrawal.

Here is the second part of the equation: if and when an opiate user identifies opiate withdrawal as such, he or she must initiate a ritual activity that is a physiological, cognitive, and behavioral mixture. As Richard DeGrandpre writes in The Cult of Pharmacology, "the opiate user must first experience withdrawal (a physical phenomenon), he or she must develop a concern over the withdrawal experience as such (a cognitive phenomenon), and then he or she must engage in drug use, taking opiates repeatedly to eliminate or avoid opiate withdrawal (a behavioral phenomenon). A breakdown in any part of this bio-psycho-social circuit can keep a pattern of dependent opiate use from emerging."

In Robert Scharse's study of Mexican-American users, for example, some interpreted withdrawal as a sign of emerging drug dependence, and subsequently reduced or quit their drug use.  For others, the withdrawal experience caused an obsession over the prospect of withdrawal, encouraging them to repeatedly use in order to avoid it. This then completed a circuit, with Lindesmith's learning process being reinforced and strengthened.

As his career ended, Lindesmith held on to his belief that opiate addiction is not the simple product of one's exposure to opiates. Rather it is the result of a dramatic shift in a person's mental and motivational state. Once the individual concludes that he or she is hooked, it rarely occurs to them that they are engaging in a self-fulfilling prophecy, trapped within a belief that makes the experience exactly what it is feared to be.

While Lindesmith's theory retains its canonical importance, it has been subject to several serious critiques. Lindesmith's theory of opiate addiction cannot explain relapse after physiological withdrawal symptoms have ceased and, more fundamentally, it relies on an outdated division of human perception into: (1) brute biological sensations the body passively experiences in immediate response to its physical environment, and (2) the mind's active and deliberate interpretation of those sensations. In short, Lindesmith's reliance on Herbert Blumer's voluntaristic understanding of meaning and interpretation profoundly undermined his capacity to theorize addiction as a loss of self-control, or as something suffered rather than chosen (Weinberg 1997). For a debate of this critique see (Galliher 1998, Weinberg 1998).

War on drugs
The fact that Lindesmith's work threatened the emerging demonization of heroin, etc., is clear from how the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN)—predecessor of the DEA—worked to discredit him. This is outlined in a paper by Galliher, Keys, and Elsner, "Lindesmith v. Anslinger: An Early Government Victory in the Failed War on Drugs". As early as 1939, FBN director Harry Anslinger had the Chicago District Supervisor of the Bureau notify Indiana University that one of their professors was a drug addict. An internal FBN memo also suggests that, some years later, a wire tap may have been placed on Lindesmith's phone by the Bureau. Incidentally, there is no evidence that Lindesmith ever used illegal drugs. As Galliher et al. point out, "the targeting of Lindesmith was possible because Lindesmith acted virtually alone in standing up against federal drug control policies."

In his book The Addict and the Law, Lindesmith presents a detailed account of U.S. laws, regulations, police practices and court procedures, often in painful detail. He was describing what we now know as the beginning of the "war on drugs", although that term was not coined until 1971. It was published just 3 years after Anslinger retired. In his book, Lindesmith expressed hope that the relatively liberal drug policies of the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations would continue, but that was not to be.

Criticism
Professor Nils Bejerot argued that Lindesmith made wrong conclusions about what caused the low abuse of opium in the late 1940s in England.  Lindesmith had noticed that England in the 1940s had very liberal narcotics laws (see the Rolleston Committee Report of 1924) and low drug abuse and drew the conclusion that the liberal drug laws contributed to a low abuse of opium.  Drug addiction was by the Rolleston Committee seen as a personal problem that could be treated by a family doctor.  Bejerot – who was very familiar with the discussion about drug policy in the UK and had studied epidemiology and medical statistics at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine in 1963 – drew the opposite conclusion. He argued instead that the low number of drug abusers in England until the 1950s was the cause of liberal drug laws in England. When the number of addicts of heroin in England doubled every sixteenth months from 1959 to 1968, the British government was forced to implement more restrictive drug laws.

Lindesmith wrote his earlier books from close personal interviews with a very limited number of addicts, about 50, almost all of them victims of therapeutic use of drugs when they were in health care for other reasons. Bejerot agreed with Lindesmith that these therapeutic addicts could be treated as personal health problems. These addicts were often ashamed of their drug abuse and the risk that they should introduce others in drug addiction was low. Bejerot claimed that persons from other, much larger, groups of drug addicts often were those that introduced others in their habit to use drugs (Bejerot studied this issue in his doctor thesis about persons who injected amphetamine). Bejerot claimed that the liberal drug laws that Lindesmith recommended – neglecting smaller amounts of illegal drugs for personal use etc. – therefore would open the doors for a much larger drug epidemic. Then, the society will rebound with much more restrictive laws (compare with the War on drugs).

Personal life
Lindesmith was born in Clinton Falls Township, Steele County, Minnesota, and gained an early fluency in German from his German-born mother.  He attended public school in nearby Owatonna, Minnesota, where he graduated from high school in 1923.  He graduated from Carleton College in 1927 and received an M.A. in education from Columbia University in 1931.  Lindesmith taught school before entering the University of Chicago, where he received his Ph.D. in 1937, writing his dissertation under the direction of Herbert Blumer.  In the development of his dissertation, Lindesmith applied the tenets of symbolic interactionism, communicated to him from Blumer before that perspective even had its present name.  He was a close colleague of Edwin Sutherland, who chaired the Department of Sociology at Indiana until his death in 1950 and collaborated with luminaries in symbolic interaction such as Anselm Strauss, Howard Becker, and Edwin Lemert.  Lindesmith's teaching career at Indiana University spanned forty years from 1936 to 1976. He became University Professor of Sociology there in 1965. He was president of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, 1959–1960.

Lindesmith married Gertrude Louise Augusta Wollaeger (1907–1985) in 1930.  They had one daughter, Karen Lindesmith.  He died in Bloomington, Indiana.

In 1929, he was a professor and head football coach at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point.

Head coaching record

References

External links

1905 births
1991 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
American sociologists
Carleton College alumni
Indiana University faculty
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
University of Chicago alumni
University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point faculty
Wisconsin–Stevens Point Pointers football coaches
People from Steele County, Minnesota
Writers from Chicago
Writers from Indiana
Writers from Minnesota

Alfred R. Lindesmith


Juliusz Slowacki (September 4, 1809 - April 3, 1849) was a Polish poet. He was born on August 23, 1809, according to the Old Calendar. September 4 is often given as his birthday but the calculation between days was wrong by one day. Slowacki is thought of as being as good a poet as most of the famous Polish writers. These include Mickiewicz, Norwid, Reymont (author of Chlopi), Wybicki, Krasinski and Sienkiewicz. He is buried in Wawel Cathedral in Krakow. This is the same crypt as Mickiewicz. He is considred third most important Polish poet.

Works
His work included romantic poems, plays and sonnets included "Balladyna", "My Testament", "King Ghost", "Fantazy", "Kordian", "Beniowski", "Agamemnon's Tomb", "Silver Dream of Salomea", "Hymn", "Lilia Weneda" and "Anhelli".

Burial
Slowacki was first buried on April 5 1849 in Paris's famous Montmartre cemetery. Because he was not popular at the time, only about 30 people went to his funeral. In 1927, General Joseph Pilsudski ordered his body be dug up. It was taken back to Poland and honorably reburied on June 28 1927 in Krakow in the famous Wawel crypt for Polish nobles. He was buried with full military honors as a Polish hero. Pilsudski said: "Time to forget Slowacki is over, as long as there is Polish language, Slowacki will live on forever!"

Other websites
Prominent Poles

1809 births
1849 deaths
Polish poets

Juliusz Słowacki


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Carole Lombard, teraka ny ( October 06,1908)  tany Fort Wayne, États-Unis, dia mpilalao anaty horonantsary. Carole Lombard was born Jane Alice Peters in Fort Wayne, Indiana,United States of America on October 06, 1908. Carole Lombard was born Jane Alice Peters in Fort Wayne, Indiana,United States of America on October 06, 1908. Her parents divorced in 1916 and her mother took the family on a trip out West. While there they decided to settle down in the Los Angeles area. After being spotted playing baseball in the street with the neighborhood boys by a film director, Carole was signed to a one-picture contract in 1921 when she was 12. The film in question was A Perfect Crime (1921). Although she tried for other acting jobs, she would not be seen onscreen again for four years. She returned to a normal life, going to school and participating in athletics, excelling in track and field.  On January 16, 1942, Carole, her mother, and 20 other people were flying back to California when the plane went down outside of Las Vegas, Nevada. All aboard perished. The highly acclaimed actress was dead at the age of 33 and few have been able to match her talents since.

Biôgrafia

Carole Lombard


,  or  is a pairt o the Japanese meeth cycle, an aa a major deity o the Shinto releegion. She is seen as the goddess o the sun, but an aa o the universe. The name Amaterasu derived frae Amateru means "shinin in heiven." The meanin o her whole name, Amaterasu-ōmikami, is "the great august kami (god) who shines in the heaven". Accordin tae the Kojiki an Nihon Shoki in Japanese meethologie, the Emperors o Japan are conseedert tae be direct descendants o Amaterasu.

Notes

References

Japanese goddesses
Japanese monarchy
Japanese meethologie
Shinto kami
Mither goddesses
Solar goddesses

Amaterasu


Sims Recycling Solutions is the world's largest electrical and electronics recovery and recycling company.  The company is based in the UK, with operations in 50 locations on five continents.  They process 475,000 tonnes of electronic waste (e-waste) each year. They are part of the global recycler, Sims Metal Management Limited (formerly Sims Group).

Sims Recycling Solutions offers repair, refurbishment and recycling services for electronic and electrical goods, such as computers, laptops, televisions, monitors and mobile devices.  From the recycling process Sims recovers materials such as precious metals, metals, plastic and glass.

The business was established in 1917 by Albert Sims, an Australian-based recycled metals dealer. In 2002, Sims Recycling Solutions was started in the UK to address the growing issue of e-waste.

In January 2020, Sims Recycling Solutions was rebranded as Sims Lifecycle Services.

References

External links

Renewable resource companies established in 1917
Electronic waste in the United Kingdom
Recycling in the United Kingdom
Recycling industry

Sims Recycling Solutions


The Second Boer War (,  or Tweede Boereoorlog) was a war. It lasted from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. In the war, the British Empire fought against the Afrikaans-speaking Dutch settlers of two independent Boer republics, the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic) and the Orange Free State. Winston Churchill, who later became famous, was captured but escaped. At this time, the British made use of concentration camps. This weakened the Boers. It helped the British stop the war from lasting any longer.

The British troops won the war. As a result, both republics were annexed to the British Empire. Later, both were eventually  incorporated into the Union of South Africa, a dominion of the British Empire, in 1910. The conflict is commonly referred to as The Boer War but it is also known as the South African War outside South Africa, the Anglo-Boer War among most South Africans, and in Afrikaans as the Anglo-Boereoorlog or Tweede Vryheidsoorlog ("Second War of Liberation" or lit. "Second Freedom War") or the Engelse oorlog (English War).

The Second Boer War is a part of what are known as the Boer Wars.  These include the lesser known First Boer War that took place from December 1880 to March 1881.

References

Wars involving the British Empire
History of South Africa
19th century in South Africa
20th century in South Africa
1890s
1900s
19th-century conflicts
1900s conflicts

Second Boer War


मि छगू अक्सिदेसन प्रक्रिया ख। थ्व प्रक्रियाय् विभिन्न इन्तेन्सितीया उर्जा जः (जःया वेभलेन्थ भिजिबल स्पेक्त्रम स्वया पिने नं लाय् फु) व तापया रुपय् पिहां वइ नापं कुं नं पिहांवे फइ। मि च्याकिगु सीकेज्या मनु लहनाया दक्ले तःधंगु सीकेज्याय् छ्गूया रुपय् नालेगु या। मि जंगली पशुतयेत ख्यायेत, नसा बुइकेत, जः दयेकेयात व चिकुइबिले ताप दयेकेयात आदिया निंतिं छ्येलिगु या।

रसायनशास्त्र
साधारण कथं मि निगु प्रकारया जुइ ज्वालामय व रसायनिक। थ्व निगु मिया थःगु हे कथंया गुण दु।

ज्वालामय मि

फ्लेमिङ्ग मि छगू इन्धनयात तीव्र रुपं अक्सिदेसन याना कम्बस्चनं पिहां वइगु ज्वाला, ताप व जः ख। फ्लेम वा ज्वाला थमंतुं धाःसा ग्यासय् तीव्र रुपय् एक्जोथर्मिक रियाक्सन जुयाच्वंगु थासय् उत्त्पत्ति जुइ। एक्जोथर्मिक रियाक्सन थन्याःगु रियाक्सन ख गुकिलि रियाक्सनं ताप व उर्जा पिकाइ व रियाक्सनया लिच्वःया कथं अप्व स्थिर रसायनया उत्त्पत्ति जुइ। मिं न्याच्वंगु इन्धनय् केमिकल रियाक्सन जुयाच्वनिबिले जः फोतोनया रुपय् उत्त्पत्ति जुइ व इन्धनया अक्सिदेसनं थ्व जः उर्जायात पिथनि। रसायनिक व भौतिक हिलेज्याया आधारय् ज्वालां मिखां खनिगु वा मखनिगु स्पेक्ट्रमय् जः पिथनि दसु- मिंनःगु अल्कोहल वा मिनःगु हाइद्रोजन आपालं मिखां मखनिगु तर यक्व ताप उर्जा दूगु मि पिकाइ।

The visible "clear" flame has no mass. What we see as a flame is actually energy (photons) being released in the form of light by the oxidation of the fuel. The color of the flame is dependent upon the energy level of the photons emitted. Lower energy levels produce colors toward the red end of the light spectrum while higher energy levels produce colors toward the blue end of the spectrum. The hottest flames are white in appearance. The color of a fire may also be affected by chemical elements in the flame, such as barium giving a green flame color. The flame color depends also on the unoxidized carbon particles. In some cases there is a partial fuel oxidation due to oxygen lack in the central part of the flame, where combustion reactions take place. In such cases the unoxidized hot carbon particles emit radiation in the light spectrum, resulting in a yellow/red flame, such that of common house fireplace.

Chemical Reaction

Fires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material with an adequate supply of oxygen or another oxidizer is subjected to enough heat.  This is commonly called the fire triangle.  No fire can exist without all three elements being in place.

Burns
Fire causes injury in forms of first-, second-, and third-degree burns.  A first-degree burn damages the epidermis only, while a second-degree burn goes through the epidermis and dermis. A third-degree burn destroys both the epidermis and dermis, and kills all nerve receptors underneath the skin.

The common fire-causing sources of heat include:
 sparks
 another fire (such as an explosion)
 a fire in the oven or fireplace
 a lit match, lighter or cigarette
 sources of intense thermal radiation (such as sunlight or an incandescent light bulb)
 Joule heating, friction or exhaust gas from mechanical or electrical machinery

Once ignited, fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of oxygen and fuel.

Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire triangle.  The traditional extinguishant of water acts by cooling the combusting material to stop the reaction, whereas a Carbon Dioxide extinguisher acts by starving the fire of oxygen.

The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire are called ash, soot or cinder.

Flame

A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining, oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy and glowing hot matter, of which a very small portion is plasma. It consists of reacting gases and solids emitting visible and infrared light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate reaction products.

In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. For reasons currently unknown by scientists, the flame produced by exposure of zinc to air is a bright green, and produces plumes of zinc oxide. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many more, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.

The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has recently found that gravity plays a role. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.  The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In microgravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it will go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse in microgravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.

In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame.  The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.

Typical temperatures of fires and flames

Oxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above) (3645 °F)
Bunsen burner flame: 1300 to 1600 °C (2372 to 2912 °F)
Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2372 °F)
Candle flame: 1000 °C (1832 °F)
 Smoldering cigarette:
Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585 °C (1110 °F)
Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1290 °F)
Always hotter in the middle.

Temperatures of flames by appearance
The temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:
 Red
 Just visible: 977 °F (525 °C)
 Dull: 1290 °F (700 °C)
 Cherry, dull: 1470 °F (800 °C)
 Cherry, full: 1650 °F (900 °C)
 Cherry, clear: 1830 °F (1000 °C)
 Orange
 Deep: 2010 °F (1100 °C)
 Clear: 2190 °F (1200 °C)
 White
 Whitish: 2370 °F (1300 °C)
 Bright: 2550 °F (1400 °C)
 Dazzling: 2730 °F (1500 °C)

Controlling fire

The ability to control fire is one of humankind's great achievements. Fire making to generate heat and light made it possible for people to migrate to colder climates and enabled people to cook food — a key step in the fight against disease. Archaeology indicates that ancestors or relatives of modern humans might have controlled fire as early as 790,000 years ago. The Cradle of Humankind site has evidence for controlled fire from 1 to 1.8 million years ago.
By the Neolithic Revolution, during the introduction of grain based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management.  These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires", as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires" that damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.

The first technical application of the fire may have been the extracting and treating of metals.
There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.

The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Hunter-gatherer groups around the world have been noted as using grass and forest fires to injure their enemies and destroy their ability to find food, so it can be assumed that fire has been used in warfare for as long as humans have had the knowledge to control it. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek commandos who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. American and British warplanes destroyed the German city of Dresden on February 14, 1945 by creating a firestorm, in which a ring of fire surrounding the city was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. In the Vietnam War, the Americans dropped napalm from the air. More recently many villages were burned during the Rwandan Genocide. Aerial bombing of cities, including firebombing using incendiary bombs, was also used frequently during World War II. Molotov cocktails are cheap to construct and are commonly used as well.

Fire and fuel

Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources. The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce power.

The burning of wood is often the first association to the word "fire". It is common in a developing country for wood to be the primary energy source as well. For instance, in Africa, 65% of the energy used comes from the burning of biomass. What is less obvious is that wood burning power stations are less environmentally destructive than the fired oil power station in two major respects: first, wood is a renewable resource, especially if trees are grown in a modern, sustainable way; second, the carbon dioxide emissions are negligible because no more carbon dioxide can be produced by burning than was removed by photosynthesis during production of the wood. Thus, over a 100-year timescale, the effect is carbon-neutral.. E.ON UK is soon to build a 44 megawatt wood fired power station in the United Kingdom for these reasons.

Fire protection and prevention

Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire trucks, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants, and an array of other equipment to combat the spread of fires.

Model building Codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. To maximize fire safety of buildings,  building products, materials and furnishings in the United States are tested for fire resistance, combustibility and flammability. The same applies to upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels. Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire.

Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions.

Some jurisdictions operate systems of classifying fires using code letters.  Whilst these may agree on some classifications, they also vary.  Below is a table showing the standard operated in Europe and Australasia against the system used in the United States.

स्वयादिसँ
भौतिक शास्त्र

लिधंसा

पिनेया स्वापूत

 How Fire Works हाउस्तफवर्क्सय्
 What exactly is fire? (द स्त्रेत दोपय्)
 On Fire, छगू एदोब फ्ल्याश-आधारित विज्ञान त्युतरियल NOVA (TV series)नं
 Early human fire mastery revealed BBC article on archaeological discoveries
 Flames in microgravity
 Spiral flames in microgravity
 moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering
 Smokey Bear- गुंइ मि नइगु पनादिसँ
 Fun Uses with Fire with a रुबेनया त्युब

ar:نار (طبيعة)
bg:Огън
ca:Foc
cs:Oheň
cy:Tân
da:Ild
de:Feuer
el:Φωτιά
eo:Fajro
es:Fuego
et:Põlemine
eu:Su
fa:آتش
fi:Tuli
fr:Feu
gd:Teine
he:אש
hr:Vatra
id:Api
io:Fairo
is:Eldur
it:Fuoco (fisica)
ja:火
jv:Geni
ko:불
la:Ignis
lb:Feier
mn:Гал
ms:Api
nl:Vuur
no:Ild
pdc:Feier
pl:Ogień
pt:Fogo
ru:Огонь
sco:Fire
simple:Fire
sl:Ogenj
sq:Zjarri
sr:Ватра
sv:Eld
ta:நெருப்பு
th:ไฟ
tl:Apoy
tr:Ateş
vi:Lửa
yi:פייער
zh:火

मि