In science and philosophy, a paradigm ( ) is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to a field. The word paradigm is Greek in origin, meaning "pattern", and is used to illustrate similar occurrences.

Etymology

Paradigm comes from  Greek παράδειγμα (paradeigma), "pattern, example, sample" from the verb παραδείκνυμι (paradeiknumi), "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from παρά (para), "beside, beyond" and δείκνυμι (deiknumi), "to show, to point out".

In classical (Greek-based) rhetoric, a paradeigma aims to provide an audience with an illustration of a similar occurrence. This illustration is not meant to take the audience to a conclusion; however, it is used to help guide them to get there.

One way of how a paradeigma is meant to guide an audience would be exemplified by the role of a personal accountant. It is not the job of a personal accountant to tell a client exactly what (and what not) to spend money on, but to aid in guiding a client as to how money should be spent based on the client's financial goals.  Anaximenes defined paradeigma as "actions that have occurred previously and are similar to, or the opposite of, those which we are now discussing."

The original Greek term παράδειγμα (paradeigma) was used by scribes in Greek texts (such as Plato's dialogues  Timaeus ( 360 BCE) and  Parmenides) as one possibility for the model or the pattern that the demiurge supposedly used to create the cosmos.

The English-language term paradigm has technical meanings in the fields of grammar (as applied, for example, to declension and  conjugation – the 1900 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the technical use of paradigm only in the context of grammar) and of rhetoric (as a term for an illustrative parable or fable). In linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) used paradigm to refer to a class of elements with similarities (as opposed to  syntagma – a class of elements expressing relationship.).

The Merriam-Webster Online dictionary defines one usage of paradigm as "a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly: a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind."

The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (2008) attributes the following description of the term in the  history and philosophy of science to Thomas Kuhn's 1962 work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions:
Kuhn suggests that certain scientific works, such as  Newton's Principia or John Dalton's New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808), provide an open-ended resource: a framework of concepts, results, and procedures within which subsequent work is structured. Normal science proceeds within such a framework or paradigm. A paradigm does not impose a rigid or mechanical approach, but can be taken more or less creatively and flexibly.

Scientific paradigm

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a paradigm as "a pattern or model, an exemplar; a typical instance of something, an example". The historian of science Thomas Kuhn gave the word its contemporary meaning when he adopted the word to refer to the set of concepts and practices that define a scientific discipline at any particular period of time. In his book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (first published in 1962), Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as: "universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners, i.e.,
 what is to be observed and scrutinized
 the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in relation to this subject
 how these questions are to be structured
 what predictions made by the primary theory within the discipline
 how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
 how an experiment is to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct the experiment.

In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn saw the sciences as going through alternating periods of normal science, when an existing model of reality dominates a protracted period of puzzle-solving, and revolution, when the model of reality itself undergoes sudden drastic change. Paradigms have two aspects. Firstly, within normal science, the term refers to the set of exemplary experiments that are likely to be copied or emulated. Secondly, underpinning this set of exemplars are shared preconceptions, made prior to – and conditioning – the collection of evidence. These preconceptions embody both hidden assumptions and elements that Kuhn describes as quasi-metaphysical. The interpretations of the paradigm may vary among individual scientists.

Kuhn was at pains to point out that the rationale for the choice of exemplars is a specific way of viewing reality: that view and the status of "exemplar" are mutually reinforcing. For well-integrated members of a particular discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing and counter-intuitive. Such a paradigm is opaque, appearing to be a direct view of the bedrock of reality itself, and obscuring the possibility that there might be other, alternative imageries hidden behind it. The conviction that the current paradigm is reality tends to disqualify evidence that might undermine the paradigm itself; this in turn leads to a build-up of unreconciled anomalies. It is the latter that is responsible for the eventual revolutionary overthrow of the incumbent paradigm, and its replacement by a new one. Kuhn used the expression paradigm shift (see below) for this process, and likened it to the perceptual change that occurs when our interpretation of an ambiguous image "flips over" from one state to another. (The rabbit-duck illusion is an example: it is not possible to see both the rabbit and the duck simultaneously.) This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability (see below).

An example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. The scientific method allows for orthodox scientific investigations into phenomena that might contradict or disprove the standard model; however grant funding would be proportionately more difficult to obtain for such experiments, depending on the degree of deviation from the accepted standard model theory the experiment would test for. To illustrate the point, an experiment to test for the mass of neutrinos or the decay of protons (small departures from the model) is more likely to receive money than experiments that look for the violation of the conservation of momentum, or ways to engineer reverse time travel.

Mechanisms similar to the original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science. These include: the idea of major cultural themes, worldviews (and see below), ideologies, and mindsets. They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger scale examples of disciplined thought.  In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse, mathesis, and taxinomia, for aspects of a "paradigm" in Kuhn's original sense.

Paradigm shifts

In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn wrote that "the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science" (p. 12).

Paradigm shifts tend to appear in response to the accumulation of critical anomalies as well as in the form of the proposal of a new theory with the power to encompass both older relevant data and explain relevant anomalies. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at the end of the 19th century. At that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that remains is more and more precise measurement." Five years later, Albert Einstein published his paper on special relativity, which challenged the set of rules laid down by Newtonian mechanics, which had been used to describe force and motion for over two hundred years. In this case, the new paradigm reduces the old to a special case in the sense that Newtonian mechanics is still a good model for approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light. Many philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model is now generally seen as too limited .

Some examples of contemporary paradigm shifts include:
 In medicine, the transition from "clinical judgment" to evidence-based medicine
 In social psychology, the transition from p-hacking to replication
 In software engineering, the transition from the Rational Paradigm to the Empirical Paradigm
 In artificial intelligence, the transition from classical AI to data-driven AI

Kuhn's idea was, itself, revolutionary in its time. It caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science; and, so, it may be that it caused (or was part of) a "paradigm shift" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognize such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss the history of science.

Paradigm paralysis
Perhaps the greatest barrier to a paradigm shift, in some cases, is the reality of paradigm paralysis: the inability or refusal to see beyond the current models of thinking. This is similar to what psychologists term confirmation bias and the Semmelweis reflex. Examples include rejection of Aristarchus of Samos', Copernicus', and Galileo's theory of a heliocentric solar system, the discovery of electrostatic photography, xerography and the quartz clock.

Incommensurability

Kuhn pointed out that it could be difficult to assess whether a particular paradigm shift had actually led to progress, in the sense of explaining more facts, explaining more important facts, or providing better explanations, because the understanding of "more important", "better", etc. changed with the paradigm. The two versions of reality are thus incommensurable. Kuhn's version of incommensurability has an important psychological dimension. This is apparent from his analogy between a paradigm shift and the flip-over involved in some optical illusions. However, he subsequently diluted his commitment to incommensurability considerably, partly in the light of other studies of scientific development that did not involve revolutionary change. One of the examples of incommensurability that Kuhn used was the change in the style of chemical investigations that followed the work of Lavoisier on atomic theory in the late 18th Century. In this change, the focus had shifted from the bulk properties of matter (such as hardness, colour, reactivity, etc.) to studies of atomic weights and quantitative studies of reactions. He suggested that it was impossible to make the comparison needed to judge which body of knowledge was better or more advanced. However, this change in research style (and paradigm) eventually (after more than a century) led to a theory of atomic structure that accounts well for the bulk properties of matter; see, for example, Brady's General Chemistry. According to P J Smith, this ability of science to back off, move sideways, and then advance is characteristic of the natural sciences, but contrasts with the position in some social sciences, notably economics.

This apparent ability does not guarantee that the account is veridical at any one time, of course, and most modern philosophers of science are fallibilists. However, members of other disciplines do see the issue of incommensurability as a much greater obstacle to evaluations of "progress"; see, for example, Martin Slattery's Key Ideas in Sociology.

Subsequent developments
Opaque Kuhnian paradigms and paradigm shifts do exist. A few years after the discovery of the mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records.

Imre Lakatos and research programmes
However, many instances exist in which change in a discipline's core model of reality has happened in a more evolutionary manner, with individual scientists exploring the usefulness of alternatives in a way that would not be possible if they were constrained by a paradigm. Imre Lakatos suggested (as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation) that scientists actually work within research programmes. In Lakatos' sense, a research programme is a sequence of problems, placed in order of priority. This set of priorities, and the associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that – temporarily, at least – takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict.

This latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms, and represents an important departure from the elementary account of how science works. According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc., with the test of consistency with empirical evidence being imposed at each stage. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge (about either the substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations).

Larry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions
Larry Laudan has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences (Kuhn had contested this, see below); he referred to these as research traditions. Laudan noted that some anomalies become "dormant", if they survive a long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu.

In social sciences
Kuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed the concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in 1958 and 1959, surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods. He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there can never be any paradigms in the social sciences. Mattei Dogan, a French sociologist, in his article "Paradigms in the Social Sciences," develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic, involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in the social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology.

However, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels (such as "sociology"). While it is true that such broad groupings in the social sciences are usually not based on a Kuhnian paradigm, each of the competing sub-disciplines may still be underpinned by a paradigm, research programme, research tradition, and/ or professional imagery. These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is and is not anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. (A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian radical behaviourism and personal construct theory (PCT) within psychology. The most significant of the many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, they are seen as the central concern of psychology; in radical behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, as they cannot be directly observed.)

Such considerations explain the conflict between the Kuhn/ Dogan view, and the views of others (including Larry Laudan, see above), who do apply these concepts to social sciences.

Handa, M.L. (1986) introduced the idea of "social paradigm" in the context of social sciences. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as "paradigm shift". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education. This broad shift in the social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality.

Another use of the word paradigm is in the sense of "worldview". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase "paradigm shift" to denote a change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A "dominant paradigm" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. Hutchin  outlines some conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm:
 Professional organizations that give legitimacy to the paradigm
 Dynamic leaders who introduce and purport the paradigm
 Journals and editors who write about the system of thought. They both disseminate the information essential to the paradigm and give the paradigm legitimacy
 Government agencies who give credence to the paradigm
 Educators who propagate the paradigm's ideas by teaching it to students
 Conferences conducted that are devoted to discussing ideas central to the paradigm
 Media coverage
 Lay groups, or groups based around the concerns of lay persons, that embrace the beliefs central to the paradigm
 Sources of funding to further research on the paradigm

Other uses
The word paradigm is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype.  The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions.  Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions.  The best known references on design paradigms are Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization, by Wake, and Design Paradigms by Petroski.

This term is also used in cybernetics. Here it means (in a very wide sense) a (conceptual) protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order.  Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics.  A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes.  Thus a paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage.

Beyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. One example is Matthew Edward Harris' book The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History. Harris stresses the primarily sociological importance of paradigms, pointing towards Kuhn's second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in the physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements. In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls 'exemplars', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat, whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of the pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind...but simply to do with aptitude, explanation, [and] cold description of the facts of the world and the universe from within a paradigm'.

See also

 Basic beliefs
 Concept
 Conceptual framework
 Conceptual model
 Conceptual schema
 Contextualism
 Dogma
 Flying geese paradigm
 Heuristic
 Ideology
 Mental model
 Mental representation
 Metanarrative
 Methodology
 Mindset
 Perspectivism
 Point of view (philosophy)
 Poststructuralism
 Programming paradigm
 Schema (psychology)
 School of thought
 Set (psychology)
 Triune continuum paradigm
 World view
 The history of the various paradigms in evolutionary biology (Wikiversity)

Footnotes

References

 Clarke, Thomas and Clegg, Stewart (eds). Changing Paradigms. London: HarperCollins, 2000.
 Dogan, Mattei., "Paradigms in the Social Sciences", in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 16, 2001)

 Handa, M. L. (1986) "Peace Paradigm: Transcending Liberal and Marxian Paradigms" Paper presented in "International Symposium on Science, Technology and Development, New Delhi, India, March 20–25, 1987, Mimeographed at O.I.S.E., University of Toronto, Canada (1986)
 Harris, Matthew Edward. The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010.
 Hutchin, Ted. The Right Choice : Using Theory of Constraints for Effective Leadership, Hoboken : Taylor and Francis, 2013.
 Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd Ed. Chicago and London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1996.  – Google Books Aug. 2011
 Masterman, Margaret, "The Nature of a Paradigm," pp. 59–89 in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave. Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970.
 Popper, Karl. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934 (as Logik der Forschung, English translation 1959), .
 The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery, Microsoft Research, 2009,  http://fourthparadigm.org
 Encyclopædia Britannica, Univ. of Chicago, 2003,
  Cristianini, Nello, "On the Current Paradigm in Artificial Intelligence"; AI Communications 27 (1): 37–43. 2014

Aesthetics
Consensus reality
Epistemology of science

Paradigm


Leigh Ashton (born 11 April 1956 in Manchester, England) is a South African singer, songwriter, pianist, performer and recording artist from Johannesburg, South Africa. Ashton was born in Manchester, England, on 11 April 1956 and moved to South Africa at the age of three.

Career

Ashton was signed to David Gresham Productions as a singer songwriter at 19. His first single "Love Me" was released in November 1975. Ashton worked with some of the best musicians in the country at the time including Trevor Rabin, Julian Laxton and Allan Goldswain. The following year he performed at the very successful "Colosseum Mighty Music Machine" alongside local household names such as Bobby Angel, Bruce Millar, Richard Loring and Sonya Herholdt but he still had yet to achieve his own recognition. In 1977 "Tanya", one of his own songs, reached no 12 on the official SA charts based on sales – competing with ABBA and Leo Sayer. "Tanya" was released on Pye Records later that year in England and Europe. A series of newspaper articles, TV videos, pin up photos and radio interviews followed and he released his third single "Day after Day" another self penned song.

Ashton was later offered a recording contract with GRC part of Gallo on the worldwide CBS label and after liaising and negotiating with both companies changed to GRC to work with Hilton Rosenthal who was producing Juluka at the time. His 4th and 5th singles, "That Girl" and "Christmas Song", were well received by fans and the record industry, but due to an unfortunate misunderstanding between the record companies, arguments ensued and both companies left the singles with no marketing or moral support. Tanya, Teenage Lover, Day After Day, That Girl and Auld Lang Syne are on YouTube. The Stockley Sisters later released a version of "That Boy" in 1977.

Between 1978 and 1984, Ashton concentrated on songwriting and wrote his best songs during this period, including Snowflakes in A Major, Mother, The Park Hobo (which is considered his classic), Give and Take, Nightmare, The Foxtrot, Doubt in My Mind, When You Need a Friend, The Iceman and Keeping It Simple. Keeping It Simple is also the proposed name of his full-length album, containing the previously mentioned songs. The title plays on the fact that most of the songs are written to be played without a full band.

Ashton has been a member of SAMRO for 40 years. He has never been dependent on his music to earn a living and prefers to perform for pleasure. He still performs regularly at various venues around Johannesburg, South Africa.

Singles
"Love Me" – 1975
"Tanya" – 1977 (Reached no 12 on the South African Charts)
"Day After Day" – 1977
"That Girl" – 1978
"Christmas Song" – 1978

References

1956 births
Living people
20th-century South African male singers
Singers from Johannesburg
British emigrants to South Africa

Leigh Ashton


The Tale of Peter Rabbit is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter. It is about the adventures of disobedient, playful young Peter Rabbit as he is chased around the garden of Mr. McGregor. He escapes and goes back home to his mother. The story was written for five-year-old Noel Moore. He was the son of Annie Moore, who had been Potter's governess in 1893. It was corrected and privately printed by Potter in 1901 after several publishers refused to print the book. It was printed by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1902. The book was very successful. It was printed again many times. It has been translated into 36 languages. It sold 45 million copies, and became one of the most popular books of all time.

After it was printed, much merchandise for both children and adults with Peter Rabbit was produced. Toys, dishes, food, clothing, videos and other products showed pictures of Peter Rabbit. Potter was one of the first to begin such merchandise when she made a Peter Rabbit doll in 1903. After that, a Peter Rabbit board game was produced.

At that time, the traditional literary hero was usually a brave, clever, young white male. Yet Peter Rabbit, the hero of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, was a disobedient little rabbit. Through him, Potter greatly changed the traditional "good child" of that time. Peter Rabbit came out as a character in a 1971 ballet movie, and the tale has been used for a television series.

Story
Peter Rabbit, his sisters Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and his mother are rabbits. They dress in human clothing and walk standing up.  However, like real rabbits, they live in a rabbit-hole under a fir-tree. Mother Rabbit told her children not to go into the garden of Mr. McGregor when she went to the market. This is because their father was made into a pie there. However, while Mrs. Rabbit is at the market and the girls are picking blackberries, Peter enters the garden. There, he eats so many vegetables he becomes sick. After that, Mr. McGregor tries to catch Peter. When Peter loses his jacket and his shoes, Mr. McGregor uses them to dress a scarecrow. Peter is almost caught by Mr. McGregor many times. When he finally escapes from Mr. McGregor, Peter goes back home with no shoes, no jacket, and no dinner. His mother puts him to bed and makes him drink chamomile tea because he is so tired and sick. However, his sisters who have been good little rabbits enjoy a special dinner of bread, milk, and blackberries. In a 1904 sequel, The Tale of Benjamin Bunny, Peter goes back to McGregor's garden to find his lost clothes.

Writing The Tale of Peter Rabbit
In the 1890s, Potter sent illustrated story letters to the children of Annie Moore, who had used to be her governess. In 1900, Moore, who realized how popular Potter's stories could become, suggested they be made into books. Potter agreed. She took her letters (which had been carefully saved by the Moore children) and chose a letter written on 4 September 1893 to five-year-old Noel about a rabbit named Peter. Potter had owned a pet rabbit called Peter Piper. The letter was too short to be a proper book, so Potter made the story longer and added pictures in black and white. She copied the work into a hardcover book with a frontispiece picture of Mrs. Rabbit giving Peter camomile tea at the end of the book.

Publication history

Private publication

Potter's manuscript book had the title of The Tale of Peter Rabbit and Mr. McGregor's Garden. The manuscript was refused by six publishers. Even Frederick Warne & Co. refused to print it, even though it had shown interest in her artwork several years ago. Some publishers wanted a shorter story. Others wanted a longer one. Almost all the publishers wanted the pictures to be colored. Potter grew frustrated because her book continued to be refused. She had already planned what her book should look like. She wanted her book's style and size to be like Little Black Sambo. She had also already thought of how much it should cost.

At last, she decided to publish the book herself. On 16 December 1901, the first 460 copies of her privately printed The Tale of Peter Rabbit were given out to her family and friends.

First commercial edition
In 1901, a friend of Potter's family, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, changed Potter's story into a poem and tried giving his version, together with her illustrations and some of her corrected writing, to Frederick Warne & Co. The company refused Rawnsley's version, but they wanted to see Potter's complete manuscript. They hoped that The Tale of Peter Rabbit would be as successful as Helen Bannerman's greatly popular Little Black Sambo and other children's books that were being sold at that time. When Warne asked why there were not any colours in the illustrations, though, Potter replied that rabbit-brown and green colors were not interesting. Warne said he would not publish the book, but he said he might publish other books she wrote later.

Warne wanted color illustrations in The Tale of Peter Rabbit, which he called the 'bunny book'. He also suggested that they only use 32 illustrations instead of the first 42 illustrations. At first, Potter did not want to color her illustrations, but she came to realize that not coloring her illustrations would be a bad idea. She sent Warne some new color illustrations with a copy of her privately printed edition. Warne then gave these two the famous picture book artist, L. Leslie Brooke, to see what he thought about the pictures. Brooke was delighted with Potter's work. At the same time, small picture books became very popular.

Potter continued showing privately printed copies to her family and friends. Soon the first private printing of 250 copies was sold out, and another 200 had to be prepared. She noted in one copy that her pet rabbit Peter had died on 26 January 1901. He had been nine years old.

Potter and Warne agreed to publish cheap 5,000 copies. The next year, an official contract was signed in June 1902. Potter worked hard in the process of publishing the story—she drew her pictures again when she needed to, made small changes to the writing, and corrected the punctuation. Even before it was published in early October 1902, the first 8,000 copies were sold. By the end of the year there were 28,000 copies in print. By the middle of 1903 there was a fifth printing, and in the same month, there was a sixth printing. A year after the first commercial publication there were 56,470 copies printed.

American copyright
Warne's New York office did not register the copyright for The Tale of Peter Rabbit in the United States. Because of this, unlicensed copies of the book began to appear in the spring of 1903. Nothing could stop the printing of unlicensed copies.

This made Potter lose a great deal of money. She began to fully realize the need to license her books properly when, after she had successfully published The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin, her father found a toy squirrel called Nutkin at the Burlington Arcade in Christmas 1903.

Merchandising

After The Tale of Peter Rabbit began to be sold, a great amount of merchandise copied its design and idea. Potter registered the patent for a Peter Rabbit doll on 28 December 1903. The next year, she designed a Peter Rabbit game. She made firm rules about making licensed merchandise such as dolls, books, tea sets, wallpapers, pencils and pens, cards, and other merchandise. Because the Peter Rabbit merchandise was so popular, Potter later said in 1917, "All rabbits are called Peter now". She did add for her American readers, though, "Peter or Brer Rabbit."

Many different versions of The Tale of Peter Rabbit and merchandise about it have been produced until now. There are now pop-up books, toy theaters, and lift-the-flap books. By 1988, there were even video versions of the story, computer programs, and Internet websites. Puppets, dolls, games, dishes, clocks and music boxes, baby and children's clothing, tea, jam, toothbrushes and soap, stickers, and even a cake about Peter Rabbit was sold in British supermarkets. Large toy shops in the United States and Britain have parts of the store where they only sell Potter-related toys and merchandise. Some shops only sell entirely Potter-related merchandise.

Other merchandise about Peter Rabbit is quite different from the first Peter Rabbit. In 1916, Louise A. Field became rich by writing books such as 'Peter Rabbit Goes to School or Peter Rabbit and His Ma. A movie by Golden Films, The New Adventures of Peter Rabbit, gave Peter longer teeth and a fourth sister named Hopsy. This story had him and his city cousin Benny (probably Benjamin Bunny) following a box with his sisters inside it. Another video about the story showed Peter as a Christian preacher singing songs about God and Jesus with children and vegetables.

Criticism

The Tale of Peter Rabbit is often praised because of its simple, rhythmic words.

But round the end of a cucumber frame,
whom should he meet but Mr. McGregor!

Linda Lear noted that Potter began a new kind of animal fable in The Tale of Peter Rabbit. She had made one in which anthropomorphic animals look and act like real animals, with pictures that were drawn by a scientifically minded artist. She added that Peter Rabbit's personality has a lot of real "rabbity behaviour" inside it.  She said that the tale was a "perfect marriage of word and image" and "a triumph of fantasy and fact".

Carole Scott, a literary scholar and critic, wrote in her essay "An Unusual Hero: Perspective and Point of View in The Tale of Peter Rabbit" (2002) that she thought Potter's story was about a naughty hero with a proper moral at the end. However, she remarked that Potter used many different ways to make the reader feel sympathetic for Peter. Though he made his mother unhappy by disobeying her, stole, escaped from authority (Mr. McGregor), and did not get any punishment except a stomach-ache, Potter makes us feel sorry for him. She thought the greatest conflict in the tale was between the order of society and the forces that tried to go against it—between those who have things and those who want things, and between humans and animal nature. She felt that Peter was a symbol of "rebellion".

References
Footnotes

Works cited

Other websites

 The Tale of Peter Rabbit Audio Book at Project Gutenberg
 The Tale of Peter Rabbit Digital Book  at The University of Iowa Libraries (Flash)
 World of Peter Rabbit : A website maintained by Potter's first publisher Frederick Warne & Co.

Beatrix Potter
1902 books
Children's picture books
English-language picture books

The Tale of Peter Rabbit


Carl Remigius Fresenius (28 December 1818 – 11 June 1897), was a German chemist, known for his studies in analytical chemistry.

Biography
Fresenius was born on 28 December 1818, in Frankfurt, Germany. After working for some time for a pharmacy in his native town, he entered Bonn University in 1840, and a year later migrated to Gießen, where he acted as assistant in Liebig's laboratory, and in 1843, became an assistant professor.

In 1845, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the Wiesbaden Agricultural Institution, and three years later, he became the first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced the Nassau government to establish at that place. Under his leadership and direction, this laboratory continuously increased in size and popularity, a school of pharmacy being added in 1862 (though given up in 1877) and an agricultural research laboratory in 1868.

Apart from his administrative duties, Fresenius occupied himself almost exclusively with analytical chemistry, and the fullness and accuracy of his textbooks on that subject (of which that on qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on quantitative in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of Fresenius's original papers were published in the Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, which he founded in 1862 and continued to edit until his death.

Remarkably this journal (also known as Fresenius' Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie or Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry and the world's first analytical chemistry journal) had produced 371 volumes, all but one of which had been edited or co-edited by a member of the Fresenius family. Spanning three centuries (1862–2001) the Fresenius' Journal of Analytical Chemistry as it was known came to an end when it became Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, which is still running as of 2021.

In 1881, Fresenius handed over the directorship of the agricultural research station to his son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (1847–1920), who was trained under H. Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son, Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (1856–1936), was educated at Strasbourg and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden laboratory.

Fresenius died suddenly at Wiesbaden at age 78, on 11 June 1897.

Works
 Neue Verfahrensweisen zur Prüfung der Pottasche und Soda, der Aschen, der Säuren, insbesondere des Essigs, so wie des Braunsteins auf ihren wahren Gehalt und Handelswerth : für Chemiker, Pharmaceuten, Techniker und Kaufleute ; lediglich nach eigenen Versuchen bearb. . Winter, Heidelberg 1843 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Anleitung zur qualitativen chemischen Analyse oder die Lehre von den Operationen, von den Reagentien und von dem Verhalten der bekannteren Körpern zu Reagentien : für Anfänger und Geübtere . Vieweg, Braunschweig 9th ed. 1856 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
 Anleitung zur quantitativen chemischen Analyse oder die Lehre von der Gewichtsbestimmung und Scheidung der in der Pharmacie, den Künsten, Gewerben und der Landwirtschaft häufiger vorkommenden Körper in einfachen und zusammengesetzten Verbindungen : für Anfänger und Geübtere ; mit 190 Holzstichen . Vieweg, Braunschweig 5th ed. 1870 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf

See also
 Eugen de Haën

References

1818 births
1897 deaths
19th-century German chemists
University of Bonn alumni
German pharmacists
University of Giessen alumni

Carl Remigius Fresenius


Tidal energy, sometimes called tidal power, is using the energy contained in moving water in tides and open ocean currents for hydroelectricity.

Tidal energy systems can extract either kinetic energy (energy caused by movement) from the moving water of rivers, tides and open ocean currents; or potential energy from the difference in height (or head) between high and low tides.  The first method - generating energy from tidal currents - is becoming more popular because people believe that it does not harm the environment as much as barrages or dams. Many coastal sites worldwide are being examined to see if they can be used to produce tidal (current) energy.

Like other hydroelectricity (electricity made using water), tidal power produces no pollution and is a renewable energy source, because tides are caused by events that happen in the solar system and so will not run out. Tidal power has great potential for future power and electricity generation because of the very large amount of energy contained in these rotational systems. Tidal power is reliably predictable (unlike wind power and solar power). In Europe, tide mills have been used for nearly 1,000 years, mainly for grinding grains.  Modern tide mills provide tidal stream power.

Many things affect tides.  The pull of the Moon is the largest effect, and most of the energy comes from the slowing of the Earth's spin.

Sources
 Baker, A. C. 1991, Tidal power, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London.
 Baker, G. C., Wilson E. M., Miller, H., Gibson, R. A. & Ball, M., 1980. 'The Annapolis tidal power pilot project', in Waterpower `79 Proceedings, ed. Anon, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp 550-559.
 Hammons, T. J. 1993, 'Tidal power', Proceedings of the IEEE, [Online], v81, n3, pp 419-433. Available from: IEEE/IEEE Xplore. [26 July 2004].
 Lecomber, R. 1979, 'The evaluation of tidal power projects', in Tidal Power and Estuary Management, eds. Severn, R. T., Dineley, D. L. & Hawker, L. E., Henry Ling Ltd., Dorchester, pp 31-39.

Water
Hydropower

Tidal energy


John Colet (January 1467 – 16 September 1519) was an English Catholic priest and educational pioneer.

Colet was an English scholar, Renaissance humanist, theologian, member of the Worshipful Company of Mercers, and Dean of St Paul's Cathedral, London. Colet wanted people to see the scripture as their guide through life. Furthermore, he wanted to restore theology and rejuvenate Christianity. Colet is an important early leader of Christian humanism as he linked humanism and reform. John Colet was a friend of Erasmus, a key figure in Christian humanism.

Childhood and education
The eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (Lord Mayor of London 1486 and 1495), he was born in London in January 1467, and was educated at St Anthony's school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his M.A. in 1490. He was already nonresident rector of Dennington, Suffolk, and vicar of St Dunstan's, Stepney, and now became rector of Thurning, Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and then to Italy, studying canon and civil law, patristics and Greek.

Time abroad
During his time abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus (Guillaume Budé) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 he took orders and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of Saint Paul, replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation with one more in harmony with the new learning. Due to their influences, when he arrived back in England, he returned more than just a humanist; he returned a Christian reformer. His methods did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498, and who later received an annuity from Colet.

Holding office

Since 1494, Colet had been prebendary of York, and canon of St Martin le Grand, London.  In 1502 he became prebendary of Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's, and immediately afterwards its dean, having previously taken the degree of doctor of divinity. He continued to lecture on the books of the Bible; and he soon afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, three days each week, in St Paul's itself. While at St. Paul's between 1505 and 1519, Colet used his preaching, administration, scriptural exegesis and education towards Church reform.

Around 1508, having inherited his father's wealth, Colet formed his plan for the re-foundation of St Paul's School, which he completed in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of £122 and upwards. The school, dedicated to the Infant Jesus, was in place to give young boys a Christian education.

The celebrated grammarian William Lilye was the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510) appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management in education. Some held Colet's religious opinions to be heretical, but William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to prosecute him. King Henry VIII also held him in high esteem despite his sermons against the French wars.

Colet was rector of the guild of Jesus at St Paul's Cathedral and chaplain to Henry VIII.  In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage and in 1515 preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal.

Sermons
Colet had many distinguished sermons. One is the beginning of the Convocation of the clergy of Canterbury province at the London Cathedral on 6 February 1512. Archbishop Warham of Canterbury invited Colet to make the speech. Colet's speech is both direct and insightful. It represents his work, or as Colet said himself, he is "speaking out of zeal, a man sorrowing for the ruin of the Church". Furthermore, Colet stated that he came "…here today, fathers, to admonish you with all your minds to deliberate, in this your Council, concerning the reformation of the Church". The Convocation sermon is one of the most well known of his sermons. In addition, Colet gave a notable sermon before the royal court on Good Friday, 1513. He gave this speech in the wake of political tension; specifically, an English push for war against France. In his speech, Colet condemned war and prompted Christians to fight only for Jesus Christ.

A Christian humanist
Colet's writings are reflective and added to the tradition of Christian humanism. He studied Cicero, Augustine, Jerome, John Chrysostom, Ignatius of Antioch, Lactantius and Polycarp.

In his writings, Colet refers to Italian humanists and Platonists Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola.

Erasmus said of Colet, "When I listen to Colet it seems to me that I am listening to Plato himself." Erasmus likely portrayed Colet to show that one could be highly critical of the Church while still a loyal priest. His depiction of Colet was partly a depiction of himself.

Studied over time

Colet has been studied frequently over time and has experienced resurgences in popularity. Bishop Kennett studied Colet during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Kennett passed his notes to Samuel Knight who used them to write a biography of Colet which was published in 1724. During the nineteenth century, interest in Colet increased. Several editions of his works and an additional biography were published during that time. Scholars believed Colet strongly impacted his friend Erasmus and the English Reformation. Later critics went on to view Colet as Protestant-like, though others believe that Colet was merely a reform preacher that wanted to improve the quality of the Church.

Colet died in 1519 of the "sweating sickness." His monument was erected on the south aisle of the choir at the cathedral church of Saint Paul but destroyed in the Great Fire of London.

Other works
In addition to his sermons Colet's works include some scriptural commentary and works entitled Daily Devotions and Monition to a Godly Life.  Together with Lilye, Erasmus, and Wolsey, Colet produced materials forming the basis of the authorised Latin Grammar, used for centuries in the English schools.  A number of letters from Colet to Erasmus also survive.

Lasting influence of Colet
To this day, Colet's achievement is celebrated by St Paul's School, St Paul's Girls' School and St Paul's Juniors (formerly known as Colet Court) on John Colet Day at St Paul's Cathedral (having begun in 2003).

The John Colet School in Wendover, Buckinghamshire is named after him, as well as Colet Gardens, a road in the London suburb of Hammersmith, W6, and John Colet School in Sydney, Australia.

Colet's convocation sermon (1512)
In the introductory paragraph, Colet concludes by stating that his presence is due to the need for the Council to consider a Church reformation. First, Colet criticises the living style of the priests. Colet explains that the priests should set an example for others as be a beacon of light, because if they are instead figures of darkness, the Church will be engulfed by darkness. Colet cites four evils, referencing the Apostle, that constitute the corrupt, priestly living: devilish pride, carnal concupiscence, worldly covetousness, and worldly occupations.

First, in regard to pride of life, Colet believes that priests of the day were more consumed by the honour and dignity one could receive by being a part of the priesthood. Service to the Church must be only humble service.

Secondly, many priests take part in the lust for the flesh: feasting and banqueting, vain conversation, sports, plays, hunting, and hawking. They are "drowned in the delights of this world" and "patronize those who cater for their pleasure".

Thirdly, covetousness is the third worldly evil, which is also known as lust. Colet calls this a plague that has overtaken many priests and blinded many. Many take part in the Church only for the hope of riches and promotions. Priests forget that they should be interested in the good they can do more than the amount of riches that they stand to gain. Paul called covetousness the root of all evils. From it, benefices stack up, including pensions and tithes. Colet states that: "every corruption, all the ruin of the Church, all the scandals of the world, come from the covetousness of priests".

The fourth evil arises because priests have become more servants of men than servants of God.  According to Paul, priests are supposed to be an intermediary between men and God. As such, warfare should only be spiritual in nature and reflective of Jesus. In addition, they need to pray, read, and meditate regarding the Scriptures. They must deliver the word of God, give the sacraments of salvation, make sacrifices for people, and hold masses for people's souls.

Colet then moves on to discuss the needed clergy reform. Paul orders that people must "be reformed into a new mind". People should turn to humility, sobriety, charity, and spiritual occupations. Reform must begin with the priests so that it can spread throughout the Church. Colet disagrees with the creation of new laws; instead he thinks that the old laws must simply be enforced.

Colet believes several things are important: a good, pure, and holy life, approved morals, moderate knowledge of the Scriptures, knowledge of the Sacraments, the fear of God and love of the heavenly life.

Finally, Colet urges people to "return to the God of love and peace; return to Christ, in whom is the true peace of the Spirit which passeth all understanding; return to the true priestly life". "Be ye reformed in the newness of your minds, that ye may know those things which are of God; and the peace of God shall be with you".

Memorial
There was a memorial to him in the south aisle at Old St Paul's Cathedral.

A bronze statue of John Colet with two pupils, made by Hamo Thornycroft in 1902, has a prominent position near the entrance of St Paul's School, London.

See also
List of Erasmus's correspondents

Notes

References
 Gleason, John B. John Colet University of California Press, 1989.
 Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation New York: Fordham University, 1992.
 Arnold, Jonathan. "John Colet- Preaching and Reform at St. Paul's Cathedral, 1505–1519." Reformation and Renaissance Review: Journal of the Society for Reformation Studies 5, no. 2 (2003): 204–209.

Further reading
Frederic Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers
Joseph Hirst Lupton, Life of John Colet (1887)

1467 births
1519 deaths
Clergy from London
16th-century English Roman Catholic priests
Philanthropists from London
Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
English Roman Catholics
British Roman Catholics
Founders of English schools and colleges
Deans of St Paul's
English Renaissance humanists
Christian humanists
Roman Catholic biblical scholars
15th-century English people
Deaths from sweating sickness
Burials at St Paul's Cathedral

John Colet


The medical papyri (or medical papyruses) are a set of ancient Egyptian texts that give background info on medical practices from ancient Egyptian times. The papyri give details on disease, diagnostics, and remedies of disease, which also have traditional methods and with magical spells.

It is thought there were more medical papyri, but many have been lost due to grave robbing. The largest study of the medical papyri to date has was undertaken by Berlin University and was titled "Medizin der alten Agypter" (Medicine of ancient Egypt).

Early Egyptian medicine was based on a mixture of magic and religious spells. Most commonly "cured" by use of amulets or magical spells, the illnesses were thought to be caused by spiteful acts or actions. Afterwards, doctors did various medical treatments if needed. The instructions for these medical rituals were later inscribed on papyrus scrolls by the priests performing the actions.

Related pages
 Medicine
 Ancient Egypt

Other websites
 The History and Treatment of the Papyrus Collection at The Brooklyn Museum

Manuscripts
Ancient Egyptian literature
History of medicine

Medical papyri


Haloclasty (also called salt weathering) is a type of physical weathering caused by the growth and thermal expansion of salt crystals. The process is first started when saline water seeps into cracks and evaporates depositing salt crystals. When the rocks are then heated, the crystals will expand putting pressure on the surrounding rock which will over time splinter the stone into fragments.

Salt crystallization may also take place when solutions decompose rocks (for example, limestone, chalk, or sandstone) to form salt solutions of sodium sulfate, sodium carbonate, or calcium carbonate, from which water evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.

The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and calcium chloride. Some of these salts can expand up to three times or more in volume.

It is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and therefore salt crystallization. It is also common along coasts. An example of salt weathering can be seen in the honeycombed stones in sea walls.

See also

References

F.J.P.M. Kwaad (1970). "http://www.kwaad.net/Salt-weathering.html Experiments on the granular disintegration of granite by salt action]". Accessed October 12, 2007.

Weathering

Haloclasty


Dean Paul Martin (born Dino Paul Crocetti; June 7, 1917 – December 25, 1995) was an American singer, actor, and comedian. One of the most popular entertainers of the mid-20th century, he was nicknamed "The King of Cool". Martin gained his career breakthrough together with comedian Jerry Lewis, billed as Martin and Lewis, in 1946. They performed in nightclubs and later had numerous appearances on radio and television and in films.

Following an acrimonious ending of the partnership in 1956, Martin pursued a solo career as a performer and actor. He established himself as a singer, recording numerous contemporary songs as well as standards from the Great American Songbook. He became one of the most popular acts in Las Vegas and was known for his friendship with fellow artists Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis Jr., who together with several others formed the Rat Pack.

Starting in 1965, Martin was the host of the television variety program The Dean Martin Show, which centered on Martin's singing and comedic talents and was characterized by his relaxed, easy-going demeanor. From 1974 to 1984, he was roastmaster on the popular Dean Martin Celebrity Roast, which drew celebrities, comedians and politicians. Throughout his career, Martin performed in concert stages, nightclubs, audio recordings and appeared in 85 film and television productions.

His best known songs include "Ain't That a Kick in the Head?", "Memories Are Made of This", "That's Amore", "Everybody Loves Somebody", "You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You", "Sway", and "Volare".

Early life

Martin was born Dino Paul Crocetti on June 7, 1917, in Steubenville, Ohio, to Italian father Gaetano Alfonso Crocetti (1894–1967) and Italian-American mother Angela Crocetti (née Barra; 1897–1966). His father, who was a barber, was originally from Montesilvano, Pescara, and his mother was born December 18, 1897, in Fernwood, Ohio. Angela's father, Domenico Barra, emigrated from Monasterolo del Castello, Bergamo. His first language was Italian and he spoke no English until he started school at the age of five. He attended Grant Elementary School in Steubenville, where he was bullied for his broken English. As a teenager, he played the drums as a hobby. He dropped out of Steubenville High School in the tenth grade because, according to Martin, he thought he was smarter than his teachers. He bootlegged liquor, worked in a steel mill, served as a croupier at a speakeasy and a blackjack dealer, and was a welterweight boxer.

At 15 he billed himself as "Kid Crochet". His prizefighting earned him a broken nose (later straightened), a scarred lip, many broken knuckles (a result of not being able to afford tape used to wrap boxers' hands), and a bruised body. Of his 12 bouts, he said that he "won all but 11". For a time, he shared a New York City apartment with Sonny King, who was also starting in show business and had little money. The two reportedly charged people to watch them bare-knuckle box each other in their apartment, fighting until one was knocked out. Martin knocked out King in the first round of an amateur boxing match. Martin gave up boxing to work as a roulette stickman and croupier in an illegal casino behind a tobacco shop, where he had started as a stock boy. At the same time, he sang with local bands, calling himself "Dino Martini" (after the Metropolitan Opera tenor Nino Martini). He got his break working for the Ernie McKay Orchestra. He sang in a crooning style influenced by Harry Mills of the Mills Brothers and Perry Como. By late 1940 he had begun singing for Cleveland bandleader Sammy Watkins, who suggested he change his name to Dean Martin. He stayed with Watkins until at least May 1943. By fall 1943 he had begun performing in New York. Martin was drafted into the U.S. Army during World War II but was discharged after 14 months due to a hernia.

In October 1941, Martin married Elizabeth "Betty" Anne McDonald in Cleveland, and the couple had an apartment in Cleveland Heights for a while. They eventually had four children before the marriage ended in 1949.

Career

Teaming with Jerry Lewis

Martin attracted the attention of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Columbia Pictures, but a Hollywood contract was not forthcoming. He met comic Jerry Lewis at the Glass Hat Club in New York, where both were performing. Martin and Lewis formed a fast friendship which led to their participation in each other's acts and the formation of a music-comedy team. Their debut together occurred at Atlantic City's 500 Club on July 24, 1946, and they were not well received. The owner, Skinny D'Amato, warned them that if they did not come up with a better act for their second show that night, they would be fired. Huddling in the alley behind the club, Lewis and Martin agreed to "go for broke", they divided their act between songs, skits, and ad-libbed material. Martin sang and Lewis dressed as a busboy, dropping plates and making a shambles of Martin's performance and the club's decorum until Lewis was chased from the room as Martin pelted him with bread rolls.

They performed slapstick, reeled off old vaudeville jokes and did whatever else popped into their heads; the audience laughed. This success led to a series of well-paying engagements on the Eastern seaboard, culminating in a run at New York's Copacabana. The act consisted of Lewis interrupting and heckling Martin while he was trying to sing, with the two ultimately chasing each other around the stage. The secret, both said, is that they ignored the audience and played to each other. The team made its television debut on the first broadcast of CBS-TV network's The Ed Sullivan Show (then called The Toast Of The Town) on June 20, 1948, with composers Rodgers and Hammerstein also appearing. Hoping to improve their act, the two hired young comedy writers Norman Lear and Ed Simmons to write their bits. With the assistance of both Lear and Simmons, the two would take their act beyond nightclubs.

A radio series began in 1949, the year Martin and Lewis signed with Paramount producer Hal B. Wallis as comedy relief for the movie My Friend Irma. Their agent, Abby Greshler, negotiated one of Hollywood's best deals: although they received only $75,000 between them for their films with Wallis, Martin and Lewis were free to do one outside film a year, which they would co-produce through their own York Productions.

They also controlled their club, record, radio, and television appearances, and through these they earned millions of dollars. In Dean & Me, Lewis calls Martin one of the great comic geniuses of all time. They were friends, as well, with Lewis acting as best man when Martin remarried in 1949. But harsh comments from critics, as well as frustration with the similarity of Martin and Lewis movies, which producer Hal Wallis refused to change, led to Martin's dissatisfaction. He put less enthusiasm into the work, leading to escalating arguments with Lewis. Martin told his partner he was "nothing to [him] but a dollar sign". The act broke up in 1956, ten years to the day from the first teaming.

Solo career

Martin's first solo film, Ten Thousand Bedrooms (1957), was a box-office failure. Although "Volare" reached number fifteen in the U.S. and number 2 in the UK, the era of the pop crooner was waning with the advent of rock and roll. Martin wanted to become a dramatic actor, known for more than slapstick comedy films. Though offered a fraction of his former salary to co-star in a war drama, The Young Lions (1958), his part would be with Marlon Brando and Montgomery Clift. Tony Randall already had the part, but talent agency MCA realized that with this film, Martin would become a triple threat: they could make money from his work in nightclubs, films, and records. Randall was paid off to relinquish the role, Martin replaced him and the film turned out to be the beginning of Martin's comeback. Martin starred alongside Frank Sinatra for the first time in the Vincente Minnelli drama, Some Came Running (1958).

By the mid-1960s, Martin was a movie, recording, television, and nightclub star. Martin was acclaimed as Dude in Rio Bravo (1959), directed by Howard Hawks and also starring John Wayne and singer Ricky Nelson. He teamed again with Wayne in The Sons of Katie Elder (1965), cast as brothers. In 1960, Martin was cast in the film version of the Judy Holliday stage musical comedy Bells Are Ringing. He won a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in the 1960 film comedy Who Was That Lady?, but continued to seek dramatic roles, portraying a Southern politician in 1961's Ada, and starring in 1963's screen adaptation of an intense stage drama, Toys in the Attic, opposite Geraldine Page, as well as in 1970's drama Airport with Burt Lancaster, a huge box-office success.

Sinatra and he teamed up for several more movies, the crime caper Ocean's 11, the musical Robin and the 7 Hoods, and the Western comedies Sergeants 3 and 4 for Texas, often with their Rat Pack pals such as Sammy Davis, Jr., Peter Lawford, and Joey Bishop, as well as a romantic comedy, Marriage on the Rocks. Martin also co-starred with Shirley MacLaine in a number of films, including Some Came Running, Artists and Models, Career, All in a Night's Work, and What a Way to Go! He played a satiric variation of his own womanizing persona as Las Vegas singer "Dino" in Billy Wilder's comedy Kiss Me, Stupid (1964) with Kim Novak, and he poked fun at his image in films such as the Matt Helm spy spoofs of the 1960s, in which he was a co-producer. In the third Matt Helm film The Ambushers (1967), Helm, about to be executed, receives a last cigarette and tells the provider, "I'll remember you from the great beyond", continuing sotto voce, "somewhere around Steubenville, I hope".

As a singer, Martin copied the styles of Harry Mills (of the Mills Brothers), Bing Crosby, and Perry Como until he developed his own and could hold his own in duets with Sinatra and Crosby. Like Sinatra, he could not read music, but he recorded more than 100 albums and 600 songs. His signature tune, "Everybody Loves Somebody", knocked the Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" off number one in the United States in 1964. This was followed by "The Door is Still Open to My Heart", which reached number six that year. Elvis Presley was said to have been a fan of Martin, and patterned his performance of "Love Me Tender" after Martin's style. Martin, like Elvis, was influenced by country music. By 1965, some of Martin's albums, such as Dean "Tex" Martin Rides Again, Houston, Welcome to My World, and Gentle on My Mind, were composed of country and western songs by artists such as Johnny Cash, Merle Haggard, and Buck Owens. Martin often hosted country performers on his TV show and was named "Man Of the Year" by the Country Music Association in 1966. The final album of his recording career was 1983's The Nashville Sessions.

The image of Martin as a Vegas entertainer in a tuxedo has been an enduring one. "Ain't That a Kick in the Head?", a song Martin performed in Ocean's 11, did not become a hit at the time, but has enjoyed a revival in the media and pop culture and has been his most frequently played song in media for two decades. For three decades, Martin was among the most popular acts in Las Vegas. Martin sang and was one of the smoothest comics in the business, benefiting from the decade of comedy with Lewis. Martin's daughter, Gail, also sang in Vegas and on many TV shows including his, co-hosting his summer replacement series on NBC. Daughter Deana Martin continues to perform, as did youngest son Ricci Martin until his death in August 2016. Eldest son Craig was a producer on Martin's television show and daughter Claudia was an actress in films such as For Those Who Think Young. Though often thought of as a ladies' man, Martin spent a lot of time with his family; as second wife Jeanne put it, prior to the couple's divorce, "He was home every night for dinner."

Rat Pack

As Martin's solo career grew, he and Frank Sinatra became friends. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Martin and Sinatra, along with friends Joey Bishop, Peter Lawford, and Sammy Davis Jr. formed the Rat Pack, so-called after an earlier group of social friends, the Holmby Hills Rat Pack centered on Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, of which Sinatra had been a member (The Martin-Sinatra-Davis-Lawford-Bishop group referred to themselves as "The Summit" or "The Clan" and never as "The Rat Pack", although this has remained their identity in popular imagination). The men made films together, formed part of the Hollywood social scene, and were politically influential (through Lawford's marriage to Patricia Kennedy, sister of President John F. Kennedy).

The Rat Pack was legendary for its Las Vegas Strip performances. For example, the marquee at the Sands Hotel might read "DEAN MARTIN—MAYBE FRANK—MAYBE SAMMY". Their appearances were valuable because the city would flood with wealthy gamblers. Their act (always in tuxedo) consisted of each singing individual numbers, duets and trios, along with seemingly improvised slapstick and chatter. In the socially charged 1960s, their jokes revolved around adult themes, such as Sinatra's womanizing and Martin's drinking, as well as Davis's race and religion. Sinatra and Martin supported the civil rights movement and refused to perform in clubs that would not allow African-American or Jewish performers. Posthumously, the Rat Pack has experienced a popular revival, inspiring the George Clooney/Brad Pitt Ocean's Trilogy.

The Dean Martin Show

In 1965, Martin launched his weekly NBC comedy-variety series, The Dean Martin Show, which ran for 264 episodes until 1974. He won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Television Series Musical or Comedy in 1966 and was nominated again the following three years. The show exploited his image as a carefree boozer. Martin capitalized on his laid-back persona of the half-drunk crooner, hitting on women with remarks that would get anyone else slapped, and making snappy if slurred remarks about fellow celebrities during his roasts. During an interview on the British TV documentary Wine, Women and Song, aired in 1983, he stated, perhaps tongue-in-cheek, that he had someone record them on cassette tape so he could listen to them. His TV show was a success. The show's loose format featured quick-witted improvization from Martin and his weekly guests. This prompted a battle between Martin and NBC censors, who insisted on more scrutiny of the content. He later had trouble with NBC for his off-the-cuff use of obscene Italian phrases, which brought complaints from viewers who spoke the language. The show was often in the Top Ten. Martin, appreciative of the show's producer, his friend Greg Garrison, made a handshake deal giving Garrison, a pioneer TV producer in the 1950s, 50% of the show. However, the validity of that ownership is the subject of a lawsuit brought by NBCUniversal.

Despite Martin's reputation as a drinker—perpetuated via his vanity license plate "DRUNKY"—his alcohol use was quite disciplined. He was often the first to call it a night and, when not on tour or on a film location, liked to go home to see his wife and children. He borrowed the lovable-drunk shtick from Joe E. Lewis, but his convincing portrayals of heavy boozers in Some Came Running and Howard Hawks's Rio Bravo led to unsubstantiated claims of alcoholism. Martin starred in and co-produced four Matt Helm superspy comedy adventures during this time, as well as a number of Westerns. By the early 1970s, The Dean Martin Show was still earning solid ratings, and although he was no longer a Top 40 hitmaker, his record albums continued to sell. He found a way to make his passion for golf profitable by offering a signature line of golf balls, and the Dean Martin Tucson Open was an event on golf's PGA Tour from 1972 to 1975. At his death, Martin was reportedly the single largest minority shareholder of RCA stock.

Now comfortable financially, Martin began reducing his schedule. The final (1973–1974) season of his variety show was retooled into one of celebrity roasts, requiring less involvement. In the roasts, Martin and his panel of pals made fun of a variety of popular entertainment, athletic, and political figures. After the show's cancellation, NBC continued to air The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast as a series of TV specials through 1984.

Later career

For nearly a decade, Martin had recorded as many as four albums a year for Reprise Records. Martin recorded his final Reprise album, Once in a While in 1974, which was not issued until 1978. His final recordings were made for Warner Bros. Records. The Nashville Sessions was released in 1983, from which he had a hit with "(I Think That I Just Wrote) My First Country Song", which was recorded with Conway Twitty and made a respectable showing on the country charts. A follow-up single, "L.A. Is My Home"/"Drinking Champagne", came in 1985. The 1974 film drama Mr. Ricco marked Martin's final starring role, in which he played a criminal defense lawyer.

In 1972, he filed for divorce from his second wife, Jeanne. A week later, his business partnership with the Riviera hotel in Las Vegas dissolved amid reports of the casino's refusal to agree to Martin's request to perform only once a night. He joined the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, where he was the featured performer on the hotel's opening night of December 23, 1973, and his contract required him to star in a film (Mr. Ricco) for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios.

Martin also made a public reconciliation with Lewis on his partner's Labor Day telethon, benefiting the Muscular Dystrophy Association, in September 1976. Sinatra shocked Lewis by bringing Martin out on stage and as the two men embraced, the audience gave them a standing ovation and the phones lit up, resulting in one of the telethon's most profitable years up to that time. Lewis later reported the event was one of the three most memorable of his life. Lewis quipped, "So, you working?". Martin, playing drunk, replied that he was appearing "at the 'Meggum'" (meaning the MGM Grand Hotel). This, with the death of Martin's son Dean Paul Martin more than a decade later, helped bring the two men together. They maintained a quiet friendship, but only performed again once, in 1989, on Martin's 72nd birthday.

Martin returned to films briefly with appearances in the star-laden, critically panned but commercially successful The Cannonball Run and its sequel Cannonball Run II. He also had a minor hit single with "Since I Met You Baby" and made his first music video, which appeared on MTV and was created by Martin's youngest son, Ricci. On March 21, 1987, Martin's son, actor Dean Paul Martin (formerly Dino of the 1960s "teeny-bopper" rock group Dino, Desi & Billy), died when his F-4 Phantom II jet fighter crashed while flying with the California Air National Guard. Martin's grief over his son's death left him depressed and demoralized. Lewis stated in an on-stage interview in 2005 that subsequent to his son's death Martin became a reclusive alcoholic. Later, a tour with Davis and Sinatra in 1988, undertaken in part to help Martin recover, sputtered.

Martin, who responded best to a club audience, felt lost in the huge stadiums they were performing in at Sinatra's insistence, and he was not interested in drinking until dawn after performances. His final Vegas shows were at Bally's Hotel in 1991. At Bally's, he had his final reunion with Lewis on his 72nd birthday. Martin's last two TV appearances involved tributes to his former Rat Pack members. On December 8, 1989, he joined stars in Sammy Davis Jr's 60th anniversary celebration, which aired a few weeks before Davis died from throat cancer. In December 1990, Martin congratulated Sinatra on his 75th birthday special.
Following his diagnosis of lung cancer at Cedars Sinai Medical Center on September 16, 1993, Martin quit smoking.

Personal life
Martin was married three times. He wed Elizabeth Anne "Betty" McDonald, (July 14, 1922 – July 11, 1989) of Ridley Park, Pennsylvania in 1941. The couple had four children:
 Craig Martin (born 1942).
 Claudia Martin (March 16, 1944 – February 16, 2001).
 Gail Martin (born 1945).
 Deana Martin (born 1948).

Martin and McDonald divorced in 1949 and Dean gained custody of their children. McDonald lived out her life in relative obscurity in San Francisco, California.

Martin next married Dorothy Jean "Jeanne" Biegger (March 27, 1927 – August 24, 2016), a former Orange Bowl queen from Coral Gables, Florida. Their marriage lasted 24 years (1949–1973) and produced three children:
 Dean Paul Martin (November 17, 1951 – March 21, 1987).
 Ricci Martin (September 20, 1953 – August 3, 2016).
 Gina Martin (born 1956).

Less than a month after his second marriage had dissolved, Martin, at 55, married 26-year-old Catherine Hawn on April 25, 1973. Hawn had been the receptionist at the chic Gene Shacove hair salon in Beverly Hills. They divorced November 10, 1976. He was also briefly engaged to Gail Renshaw, Miss World–U.S. 1969. Eventually, Martin reconciled with Jeanne, though they never remarried.

Martin and Hawn had no biological children of their own but Martin adopted Hawn's daughter, Sasha. After their divorce, Martin had a brief relationship with model and longtime friend Pat Sheehan.

Martin's uncle was Leonard Barr, who appeared in several of his shows. In the 1960s and early 1970s Martin lived at 363 Copa De Oro Road in Bel Air, Los Angeles, before selling it to Tom Jones for $500,000 in June 1976.

Martin's son-in-law was the Beach Boys' Carl Wilson, who married Martin's daughter Gina. Figure skater Dorothy Hamill and actress Olivia Hussey were his daughters-in-law during their marriages to Martin's son, Dean Paul Martin. Craig, Martin's elder son, was married to Lou Costello's daughter Carole (1938–1987) until her death from a stroke at age 48.

Dean Martin bred Andalusian horses at his Hidden Valley Ranch, Thousand Oaks Ventura County, California.

Martin volunteered to perform fundraisers for the Bergson Group in the late 1940s.

Although a Republican, Martin supported Democratic candidate Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.

Illness and death

Martin, a lifelong heavy smoker, was diagnosed with lung cancer at Cedars Sinai Medical Center in September 1993. He was told that he would require surgery to prolong his life, but he rejected it. He retired from public life in early 1995 and died of acute respiratory failure resulting from emphysema at his Beverly Hills home on Christmas Day, 1995 (29 years to the day after his own mother died), at age 78. The lights of the Las Vegas Strip were dimmed in his honor. Martin was interred at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles. The crypt features the epitaph "Everybody loves somebody sometime", the first line of his signature song.

Tributes and legacy
In 1997, Ohio Route 7 through Steubenville was rededicated as Dean Martin Boulevard. Road signs bearing an Al Hirschfeld caricature of Martin's likeness designate the stretch with a historical marker bearing a small picture and brief biography in the Gazebo Park at Route 7 and North Fourth Street. An annual Dean Martin Festival celebration is held in Steubenville. Impersonators, friends and family, and entertainers, many of Italian ancestry, appear. In 2005, Clark County, Nevada, renamed a portion of Industrial Road as Dean Martin Drive. A similarly named street was dedicated in 2008 in Rancho Mirage, California. Martin's family was presented a gold record in 2004 for Dino: The Essential Dean Martin, his fastest-selling album, which also hit the iTunes Top 10, and in 2006 it was certified "Platinum".

For the week ending December 23, 2006, the Dean Martin and Martina McBride duet of "Baby, It's Cold Outside" reached No. 7 on the R&R AC chart. It also went to No. 36 on the R&R Country chart – the last time Martin had a song this high in the charts was in 1965, with the song "I Will", which reached No. 10 on the Pop chart. An album of duets, Forever Cool, was released by Capitol/EMI in 2007. It features Martin's voice with Kevin Spacey, Shelby Lynne, Joss Stone, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, Robbie Williams, McBride and others. His footprints were immortalized at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in 1964. Martin has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6519 Hollywood Boulevard for movies; the second at 1617 Vine for recordings; and a third at 6651 Hollywood Boulevard for television. In February 2009, Martin was honored with a posthumous Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Four of his surviving children, Gail, Deana, Ricci and Gina accepted it on his behalf. In 2010, Martin received a posthumous star on the Italian Walk of Fame in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

The town of origin of Dean's father, Montesilvano, dedicated to him a square between via Sarca and via Torrente Piomba and a congress palace called Pala Dean Martin congress center in via Aldo Moro adjacent to the Porto Allegro structure (former cinema Warner).

In popular culture

A number of Martin songs have been featured across popular culture for decades. Hits such as "Ain't That a Kick in the Head", "Sway", "You're Nobody Till Somebody Loves You", "That's Amore", and Martin's signature song "Everybody Loves Somebody" have been in films (such as the Oscar-winning Logorama, A Bronx Tale, Casino, Goodfellas, Payback, Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, Sexy Beast, Moonstruck, Vegas Vacation, Swingers, and Return to Me), television series (such as American Dad!, Friends, The Sopranos, House MD, Samurai Jack, and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air), video games (such as The Godfather: The Game, The Godfather II, Fallout: New Vegas, and Mafia II), and fashion shows (such as the 2008 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show).

Danny Gans portrayed Martin in the 1992 CBS miniseries Sinatra. Martin was portrayed by Joe Mantegna in the 1998 HBO movie about Sinatra and Martin titled The Rat Pack. Mantegna was nominated for both an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for the role. British actor Jeremy Northam portrayed the entertainer in the 2002 made-for-TV movie Martin and Lewis, alongside Will & Grace Sean Hayes as Jerry Lewis.

Martin is the subject of Dean Martin's Wild Party and Dean Martin's Vegas Shindig, a pair of video slot machines found in many casinos. The games feature songs sung by Martin during the bonus feature and the count-up of a player's winnings. A compilation album called Amore! debuted at Number One on Billboard magazine's Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in its February 21, 2009, issue.

In 1998, The MTV animated show Celebrity Deathmatch had a clay-animated fight to the death between Martin and comedian Jerry Lewis. Martin wins by whacking Jerry out of the ring. The Rat Pack: Live from Las Vegas has been a successful tribute show, featuring Martin impersonators, on stage in Europe and North America since 2000.  The popular Las Vegas show, "The Rat Pack is Back" has played The Copa Room at the Tuscany Suites Casino for several years.  The walk-up song for Francisco Cervelli, a catcher for the Atlanta Braves, is the Dean Martin tune "That's Amore". In DePatie-Freleng's animated theatrical cartoon series The Ant and the Aardvark, the Ant's voice was performed by John Byner as an imitation of Martin.

Martin appears as Matt Helm in Quentin Tarantino's 2019 period piece Once Upon a Time in Hollywood. Sharon Tate (played by Margot Robbie) goes to a cinema to see The Wrecking Crew.

Discography
The list below shows the singer's studio albums only. His full discography, singles, compilations and other releases are described in a separate article.

Dean Martin Sings (1953)
Swingin' Down Yonder (1955)
Pretty Baby (1957)
Sleep Warm (1959)
A Winter Romance (1959)
This Time I'm Swingin'! (1960)
Dino: Italian Love Songs (1962)
French Style (1962)
Cha Cha de Amor (1962)
Dino Latino (1962)
Dean "Tex" Martin: Country Style (1963)
Dean "Tex" Martin Rides Again (1963)
Reprise Musical Repertory Theatre (1963)
Robin and the 7 Hoods (1964)
Dream with Dean (1964)
The Door Is Still Open to My Heart (1964)
Dean Martin Hits Again (1965)
(Remember Me) I'm the One Who Loves You (1965)

Houston (1965)
Somewhere There's a Someone (1966)
Dean Martin Sings Songs from "The Silencers" (1966)
The Hit Sound of Dean Martin (1966)
The Dean Martin Christmas Album (1966)
The Dean Martin TV Show (1966)
Happiness Is Dean Martin (1967)
Welcome to My World (1967)
Gentle on My Mind (1968)
I Take a Lot of Pride in What I Am (1969)
My Woman My Woman My Wife (1970)
For the Good Times (1971)
Dino (1972)
Sittin' on Top of the World (1973)
You're the Best Thing That Ever Happened to Me (1973)
Once in a While (1978)
The Nashville Sessions (1983)

Filmography

Film

Television

References

Sources

Further reading
 Arthur Marx. Everybody Loves Somebody Sometime (Especially Himself): The story of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis, New York, NY: Hawthorn Books, 1974,
 Smith, John L. The Animal in Hollywood: Anthony Fiato's Life in the Mafia. Barricade Books, New York, 1998.

External links

 Dean Martin Fan Center
 The Dean Martin Association

Dean Martin at The Biography Channel
 Cleveland.com: Homegrown Heroes: Dean Martin Timeline
 Dean Works the room at the Sands
 Dean Martin biography/discography on The Interlude Era site

Dean Martin
1917 births
1995 deaths
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American male actors
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Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
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Dean Martin


The West-Eastern Divan is an orchestra for young people. It is based in Sevilla, Spain. The musicians in the orchestra come from Israel and its surrounding Arab countries.

The orchestra was started in 1999 by the Jewish conductor Daniel Barenboim and the Palestinian-American academic Edward Said (pronounce: Sah—eed). The name of the orchestra comes from a group of poems by the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

The West-Eastern Divan Orchestra was started to help bring Israelis and Palestinians together to work for peace and to help solve the fight between Israel and Palestine. The idea was to let Israelis and Arabs work together in countries which had nothing to do with the conflict.

The first workshop of the orchestra took place in Weimar, Germany because it was the 1999 European cultural town. Barenboim chose two leaders for the orchestra: one Israeli and one Arab. They worked with some very famous musicians including the cellist Yo Yo Ma. In 2000 the orchestra met again in Weimar, in 2001 they met in Chicago. Since 2002 they have met every year in Seville.

The West-Eastern Divan Workshop takes place during several weeks each summer in Andalusia. After the workshop has finished, the orchestra travel to other places to give concerts. They have given concerts in many parts of Europe, North America, South America. In 2004 they performed an historic concert in Ramallah in Palestine. After the concert Barenboim said that the people of Israel and Palestine had a shared future. He said: "Either we all kill each other, or we share what there is to share. It is this message that we come here to bring."

In 2004, the Barenboim-Said Foundation, based in Seville, was started to help develop several education projects. Money is given for this by the Junta de Andalucía (Regional Government of Andalusia). The Foundation helps with the orchestra as well as with projects such as the Early Childhood Musical Education Project in Seville.

The orchestra has won prizes and made recordings. A film called Knowledge is the Beginning was made about them.

In August 2009 the orchestra will give three concerts at the BBC Proms including a concert performance of Beethoven's opera Fidelio which has a story about people who have been put in prison for their political ideas.

References

Other websites
 The orchestra's website

Youth orchestras
Seville

West-Eastern Divan Orchestra