Sir James Whyte Black  (14 June 1924 – 22 March 2010) was a Scottish physician and pharmacologist. Together with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings, he shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1988 for pioneering strategies for rational drug-design, which, in his case, lead to the development of propranolol and cimetidine.  Black established a Veterinary Physiology department at the University of Glasgow, where he became interested in the effects of adrenaline on the human heart. He went to work for ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1958 and, while there, developed propranolol, a beta blocker used for the treatment of heart disease. Black was also responsible for the development of cimetidine, an H2 receptor antagonist, a drug used to treat stomach ulcers.

Early life and education
Black was born on 14 June 1924 in Uddingston, Lanarkshire, the fourth of five sons of a Baptist family which traced its origins to Balquhidder, Perthshire. His father was a mining engineer. He was brought up in Fife, educated at Beath High School, Cowdenbeath, and, at the age of 15, won a scholarship to the University of St Andrews. His family had been too poor to send him to university and he had been persuaded to sit the St Andrews entrance exam by his maths teacher at Beath.

Until 1967, University College, Dundee was the site for all clinical medical activity for the University of St Andrews. He matriculated at University College (which eventually became the University of Dundee) in 1943 and graduated from University of St Andrews School of Medicine with an MB ChB in 1946. During his time at St Andrews, Black lived in St Salvator's Hall.

After graduating, he stayed at University College to join the physiology department as an assistant lecturer before taking a lecturer position at King Edward VII College of Medicine in Singapore that subsequently became part of the University of Malaya. Black had decided against a career as a medical practitioner as he objected to what he considered the insensitive treatment of patients at the time.

Career
Black had large debts upon his graduation from university, so he took a teaching job in Singapore for three years, before moving to London in 1950 and then on to join the University of Glasgow (Veterinary School) where he established the Veterinary Physiology Department and developed an interest in the way adrenaline affects the human heart, particularly in those suffering from angina. Having formulated a theory of an approach by which the effects of adrenaline might be annulled, he joined ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1958, remaining with the company until 1964, during which time he invented propranolol, which later became the world's best-selling drug. During this time Black pioneered a method of research whereby drug molecules were purposefully built instead of being synthesised first and then investigated for their potential medical uses. The discovery of propranolol was hailed as the greatest breakthrough in the treatment of heart disease since the discovery of digitalis.

At the same time, Black was developing a similar method of inventing drugs for treatment of stomach ulcers, but ICI did not wish to pursue the idea so Black resigned in 1964 and joined Smith, Kline and French where he worked for nine years until 1973. While there, Black developed his second major drug, cimetidine, which was launched under the brand name Tagamet in 1975 and soon outsold propranolol to become the world's largest-selling prescription drug.

Black was appointed professor, and head of department, of pharmacology at University College London in 1973 where he established a new undergraduate course in medicinal chemistry but he became frustrated by the lack of funding for research and accepted the post of director of therapeutic research at the Wellcome Research Laboratories in 1978. However he did not agree with his immediate boss there, Sir John Vane, and resigned in 1984. Black then became Professor of Analytical Pharmacology at the Rayne Institute of King's College London medical school, where he remained until 1992. He established the James Black Foundation in 1988 with funding from Johnson & Johnson and led a team of 25 scientists in drugs research, including work on gastrin inhibitors which can prevent some stomach cancers.

Black contributed to basic scientific and clinical knowledge in cardiology, both as a physician and as a basic scientist. His invention of propranolol, the beta adrenergic receptor antagonist that revolutionised the medical management of angina pectoris, is considered to be one of the most important contributions to clinical medicine and pharmacology of the 20th century. Propranolol has been described as the greatest breakthrough in heart disease treatments since the 18th century discovery of digitalis and has benefited millions of people. Black's method of research, his discoveries about adrenergic pharmacology, and his clarification of the mechanisms of cardiac action are all strengths of his work.

He was greatly involved in the synthesis of cimetidine, at the time a revolutionary drug for the treatment and prevention of peptic ulcers. Cimetidine was the first of a new class of drugs, the H2-receptor antagonists.

Chancellor of the University of Dundee
In 1980, Black's association with the University of Dundee was renewed when the institution recognised his many achievements by conferring him with the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws. In 1992 he accepted an offer to succeed the 16th Earl of Dalhousie as Chancellor of the University and was installed as Chancellor at the award ceremony held in Dundee Repertory Theatre on 29 April 1992. Appropriately the first degree he conferred was to Professor Robert Campbell Garry, who had been responsible for his original appointment at University College Dundee. Sir James remarked at this ceremony that by returning to Dundee he was "in a real sense, coming home".

As Chancellor, Sir James Black did much to promote the University of Dundee and was a popular figure within the University. He was awarded a second honorary degree, that of Doctor of Science, in 2005. He retired from his post the following year, and his association with the University of Dundee was marked with launching of the £20 million Sir James Black Centre. The centre, intended to promote interdisciplinary research in the life sciences, was opened by Sydney Brenner in 2006. Sir James Black himself visited the centre in October 2006 and was reportedly excited and pleased by what he saw.

A portrait of Black in his chancellor's robes, by Helene Train, is held as part of the University's fine art collection. The portrait is currently displayed in the foyer of the Sir James Black Centre.

Honours and awards
Black was made a Knight Bachelor on 10 February 1981 for services to medical research, receiving the honour from the Queen at Buckingham Palace. On 26 May 2000 he was appointed to the Order of Merit, of which there are only 24 members at any one time, by Queen Elizabeth II.

Black was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1976 and the same year he was awarded the Lasker award. His certificate of election to the Royal Society reads: Has made outstanding contributions, based on fundamental considerations of receptor theory, to the development of new drugs of clinical importance. Introduced the first effective beta blockers and analysed their cardiovascular effects. These drugs have opened up new perspectives for the treatment of angina pectoris, cardiac irregularities and hypertension. More recently, in a concerted drive carried out with great vision, he has developed a new type of histamine antagonist capable of inhibiting gastric acid secretion induced by histamine or pentagastrin. Apart from its practical implications this work has considerable fundamental importance since it provided evidence for the existence of a new type of histamine receptor. This work has also provided experimental support for the hypothesis that endogenous histamine may be involved in the secretion of acid in the stomach. In 1979, he was awarded the Artois-Baillet Latour Health Prize. Black was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh in 1980. In 1982 Black was awarded the Wolf Prize in Medicine, and the year after the Scheele Award. He was awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Medicine along with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings for their work on drug development. In 1994 he received the Ellison-Cliffe Medal from the Royal Society of Medicine and in 2004 the Royal Medal from the Royal Society. In 2008, he was Awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Medical Futures Innovation Awards, accompanied by his wife Professor Rona Mackie Black, in front of a distinguished audience of one thousand guests.

In the town of Lochgelly, Fife, there is a street called Sir James Black Gait.

On 23 November 2018, the University of Glasgow renamed the West Medical Building in honour of Black. Professor Sir Anton Muscatelli, Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Glasgow, said: "Sir James was undoubtedly one of the greatest scientists of the modern age. Through his commitment, intellect and insight he achieved a global impact and his discoveries continue to improve the lives of many." The unveiling of a plaque was attended by Sir James Black's wife, Professor Rona Mackie Black, Emeritus Professor and Senior Research Fellow in Public Health within the University's Institute of Health and Wellbeing.

James Black Place at Ninewells Hospital is named in his honour.

Personal life
Black met Hilary Joan Vaughan (1924–1986) at a university ball in 1944 and the couple married in 1946 upon his graduation. He described her as the "mainspring" of his life until she died aged 61 in Surrey. The couple had a daughter, Stephanie, born in 1951. Black remarried in 1994, to Professor Rona MacKie. Black was a very private man who was averse to publicity and was horrified to discover he had won the Nobel Prize.

Black died, aged 85, on the morning of 22 March 2010 after a long illness. His death was announced by the University of Dundee, where Black served as Chancellor from 1992 to 2006. His funeral was held on 29 March at St. Columba's Church, London. He is buried at the Ardclach cemetery, a parish established in 1655, near Nairn, Scotland. Upon hearing of Black's death, Professor Pete Downes, Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Dundee said Black "was a great scientist, but he was also a great man to know" while the BBC said he was "hailed as one of the great Scottish scientists of the 20th Century". He was described by The Daily Telegraph as the man who earned the most for the pharmaceutical industry through his drug development, though he received little personal financial gain from his work.

Shortly after his death the Bute Medical School of the University of St Andrews, where Black had studied for his initial degree in medicine, announced that an honorary 'Sir James Black Chair of Medicine' would be created. In September 2010 the first Chair of Medicine at the University was given to Professor Stephen H Gillespie MD, DSc, FRCP (Edin), FRC Path, who left his post as Professor of Medical Microbiology at UCL.

References

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James Black (pharmacologist)


The Republic of China Military Academy (), also known as the Taiwan Military Academy, is the service academy for the army of the Republic of China in Taiwan. Previously known as the Whampoa Military Academy, the military academy produced commanders who fought in many of China's conflicts in the 20th century, notably the Northern Expedition, the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War.

The military academy was officially opened on May 1, 1924, but the first lessons began on June 16, 1924. The inauguration was on Changzhou Island offshore from the Whampoa (Huangpu) dock in Guangzhou, thus earning its name. During the inaugural ceremonies, Sun Yat-sen delivered a speech that was later to become the lyrics of the national anthem of the Republic of China. It has been considered one of the most important institutions of the Republic of China together with the National Chengchi University, which is a prestigious incubator for senior civil service. After the Republic of China government retreated from China to Taiwan in 1950, the academy was re-established as the Republic of China Military Academy.

Establishment

After the death of Yuan Shikai, China fragmented into numerous fiefdoms ruled by regional warlords. Sun Yat-sen attempted in 1917 and 1920 to set up a base in his native Guangdong to launch a Northern Expedition to unite China under his Three Principles of the People. However, his government remained militarily weaker than the local warlords' armies. Calls by Sun for arms and money were ignored by the Western powers. Then, in 1921, the representative of Comintern, Henk Sneevliet (using the name Maring), met with Sun in Guangxi. He proposed setting up a military academy to train officers for the revolutionary army, which confirmed Sun's ideas. The Chinese Communist Party sent Li Dazhao and Lin Boqu to discuss with Sun and his party on how to set up the academy. In 1924, in the 1st National Congress of the Kuomintang, the policy of alliance with the Soviet Union and CCP was passed as guidance for KMT. As a result, the final decision of the establishment of a military academy was made, and a preparatory committee was set up accordingly. The money necessary for the construction and support of the Academy in 1924-1925 was provided by the Soviets.

Organization, training, and students

In the beginning, the Academy had only one department which provided soldiers with basic training. While the main Academy goal was preparation of infantry units, it also provided special classes for artillery, engineering, communication, logistical and machine gun units. A special department for preparation of political agitators was established later.

The academy concentrated the revolutionary military talents at the time. Sun took the job of Premier of this academy in person although it was just an honorary title. Sun's favorite and rising star Chiang Kai-shek was appointed the first commandant of the academy. Liao Zhongkai, the famous leftist in the Kuomintang and Sun's treasury secretary, was appointed as representative of KMT to the academy. Zhou Enlai, Hu Hanmin and Wang Jingwei were instructors in the political department. He Yingqin and Ye Jianying were once military instructors.

The serious lack of expert teachers was the biggest problem for the Academy. That is why lectures delivered by Soviet officers were extremely popular with students. A.S. Bubnov, G.I. Gilev, M.I. Dratvin, S.N. Naumov prepared lectures which explained the development of military thought throughout human history and the division between western and Soviet schools of military thought.

Soviet officers taught different military subjects in the Academy using their broad experience gained during the Russian Civil War. Among them were I. Vasilevich (Janovsky), N. Korneev, M. Nefedov, F. Kotov (Katyushin), P. Lunev, V. Akimov Galina Kolchugina (wife of Vasily Blyukher who was commander-in-chief of all Soviet volunteer forces sent to China) read a course of lectures on political agitation.

The first two groups of students prepared by the Academy became the core for the formation of the first two National Revolutionary Army regiments (V.A. Stepanov was an advisor provided by the Soviet Union to help in this matter). The first two prepared groups of students included 500 officers, the third one had 800 officers and the fourth group had 2000.

Legendary graduates include Nationalist commanders Chen Cheng, Du Yuming, Xue Yue, Hu Zongnan, Hu Lien and Guan Linzheng and Communist commanders Lin Biao, Xu Xiangqian, Zuo Quan, Liu Zhidan and Chen Geng. The young cadets first showed their training and courage in the war against local warlord and dissident of Sun, Chen Jiongming in the Eastern Expedition for unifying Guangdong province. Then they made greater contributions in the Northern Expedition.

The Muslim Ma clique General Ma Zhongying, who commanded the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), attended the Whampoa military academy in Nanjing in 1929.

Influence

The Whampoa Military Academy plays an important role in Chinese history. It not only supplied many military commanders for both the KMT and CCP, but also its graduates have much more influence on both parties' policies and governance. Especially for Chiang and KMT, the Whampoa Clique was pivotal for his governance. It competed with other cliques of KMT such as the New Guangxi Clique led by Li Zongren and Bai Chongxi, CC Clique led by Chen Lifu and Chen Guofu, Politics Research Group led by Yang Yongtai (楊永泰) and Zhang Qun. At the same time, when the CCP built its first Red Army after the Nanchang Uprising in 1927 most of its commanders were from Whampoa, and in the following two decades, the CCP trained its army in the Whampoa way.

The motto of the academy "Camaraderie" () was proclaimed by Sun Yat-sen at the opening ceremonies. The irony is that during the Chinese Civil War both the commanders from KMT and CCP were trained and educated in Whampoa. They fought for different beliefs and ideals although they used to live and study together like brothers in arms.

The academy also had significant influence over the 20th century history of other Asian countries The fourth term of the Academy saw students not only from all parts of China, but also from different parts of Asia enroll. For example, there were 30 Koreans among them. Some of them were brought up in China, others were active participants during the national liberation movement of Korea in 1917-1926 and emigrated to China later only to take up arms for struggle for freedom of their country after their education was over.

A large number of students were originally from Vietnam. This group was led by the exiled leader to-be of the Communist Party of Vietnam and future leader of the Vietnamese struggle for independence, Ho Chi Minh.

Relocations
The original Whampoa Military Academy existed from 1924 to 1926. Over 6 terms it enrolled more than 7000. However, after Chiang Kai-shek purged the Chinese Communist Party during the Northern Expedition, the academy was moved (and renamed as Central Military Academy - CMA 中央陸軍軍官學校 and later as Chinese Workers and Peasants Military Academy) to the newly established capital in Nanjing after the defeat of the warlords in 1928. The academy moved again in 1938 to Chengdu during the Japanese invasion.

Relocation to Taiwan
In 1950, after the Communist victory in mainland China and the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the academy was re-established in Fengshan, Kaohsiung as the Republic of China Military Academy (陸軍官校). The original site of the academy in Guangzhou is now a museum.

List of Superintendents
Note: "Class year" refers to the alumnus's class year, which usually is the same year they graduated. However, in times of war, classes often graduate early.
A "—" in the Class year column indicates a Superintendent who is not an alumnus of the Academy.''

Faculties
 Center for General Education
 Department of Civil Engineering
 Department of Physics
 Department of Foreign Languages
 Department of Political Science
 Department of Management Science
 Department of Chemistry
 Department of Electrical Engineering
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
 Department of Information Management

Notable alumni

 Lee Shying-jow, Minister of Veterans Affairs Council (2016-2018)
 Justin Yifu Lin, Chinese economist

Transportation
The academy is within walking distance south of Dadong Station of the Kaohsiung MRT.

See also

 Republic of China Naval Academy
 Republic of China Air Force Academy
 National Revolutionary Army
 Yunnan Military Academy, founded in 1909
 Baoding Military Academy, founded in 1902
 Warlord era
 Sino-German cooperation
 History of the Republic of China
 Military of the Republic of China
 List of universities in Taiwan
 Blue Shirts Society

References

Further reading

External links
ROCMA (Chinese)  - Official Site of Republic of China Military Academy (Chinese)
ROCMA (English)  - Official Site of Republic of China Military Academy (English)

 Audio file: RTHK broadcast in Cantonese
 People's Daily article: "China to Turn Site of KMT Military Academy into Tourist Spot"
  Whampoa Military Generals Full List, by classes, 1924-1927
China Whampoa Military Academy Network

1924 establishments in China
1950 establishments in Taiwan
Military history of the Republic of China (1912–1949)
National Revolutionary Army
Educational institutions established in 1950
Military of the Republic of China
Military academies of Taiwan
Universities and colleges in Kaohsiung

Republic of China Military Academy


Naginata is a Japanese bladed weapon with a long shaft (wooden handle). The weapon looks like a pole and is often mistaken with one. The word "naginata" means "mowing down sword" or "reaping sword". The length of the blade can be anywhere from 1 to 3 feet. The blade's shape looks like 'leaf' being more curved to the point. The naginata's blade is attached to a long wooden shaft. The shaft itself is between 6 and 9 feet. The part that goes inside the handle (tang) is almost as long as the blade itself. This makes sure the blade is attached tightly onto the shaft. The shaft has a sharp end-cap, or ishizuki, which is made for piercing between the plates of armor.

It is said naginata have first been used in China in around 3 B.C. The first source it was mentioned in was the Kojiki (A Record of Ancient Matters, 712). Later, it is shown in the paintings of battlefield scenes made during the Tengyo no Ran (Tengyo Insurrection), in 936 A.D. The sword was used and improved during the Nara period (approx. 710-784 A.D.), and by the 11th century it was widely used in battles.

The naginata was also used by warrior-monks for temple defense against invaders. Around the 1400's A.D. this weapon was no more used by monks because the temples were no longer a target. The samurai used the naginata only when fighting against many enemies or on horseback.

Still, naginata was most commonly used when the samurai was too young to handle a full-length katana and when he was mostly an archer. By the Edo period (1603-1867), the naginata was no more used in combat. It became the symbolic weapon of samurai women, who trained for self-defense, defense of their children, and for building virtue. The fashion developed further and there were samurai families who hung naginata in important places of their houses. Later the naginata was even given as present to the bride.

There are three main theories why the naginata was made. One of the most spread is the belief that naginata evolved from a farming tool used for chopping. The tools were made as long staffs with sharp stones attached to one of the ends. The tool was used in the 3rd century B.C. Later, the stones were replaced with metal pieces. Thus, when the crops and lands of the farmers were under attack they defended it with their farming tools, which proved to be effective weapons and were later improved..

The Chinese theory is based on the idea that Chinese halberds were brought to Japan during early migrations, (around 200 B.C.). Most of the weaponry experts believe that even if the Chinese invented the weapon, but it was improved by the Japanese.

Another theory says that the naginata evolved directly as a weapon. The blade of naginata ancestors was made of bronze. Later, the discovery of steel made it even more effective. This theory affirms that the naginata development was far later than the appearance of metal in Japan from the Asian continents (around 200 B.C.).

The naginata was meant for foot soldiers to use; whereas the military elite (samurai) used the katana sword. There are evidences that naginata was also used by the Sohei (Buddhist warrior monks).

The naginata was also considered a women's weapon. It gave women a major advantage because its long shaft could keep the enemy at a safe distance. One of the most famous Japanese women warriors was Itagaki. Her naginata skills were better than even the most trained samurai. During the Edo period (1600-1800 AD), Japanese women were taught to handle the naginata by the age of 18.

The naginata was also considered an effective weapon against horsemen. The way naginata was handled required specific motions because of its length. Usually, it was sweeping and circular motion, because it was inconvenient to use striking methods like with a traditional sword. In order to use the naginata well, the handler has to quickly change hand positions along the length of the shaft.

This weapon did very well in cavalry battles, acting like medieval spears. Infantry used the naginata to cut the horse's legs. After this the disoriented rider was easily killed.

Martial Art

Naginata is also known as a Japanese martial art performed by men, women, and children. The roots of this fighting technique come for over 1,000 years ago. This martial art has as its centerpiece a Japanese sword - Naginata. The weapon is very efficient against riders as well as against foot soldiers. The sword is very well balanced and weighted which makes it possible for women and children to use it. The naginata way of fighting is very graceful due to circular swinging of the naginata sword.

Today Naginata is a combat system that teaches respect, patience, etiquette, self-confidence, and self-control. The practice of Naginata teaches perfect control and balanced movements of the body. When into this art, discipline and concentration are needed to reach the grace and effectiveness of the movements. Moreover, it establishes person's character by developing a moral code based on honor.

The modern naginata has changed its shape during history. Now, it is more like a European halberd or glaive. The blade looks more like a scimitar moreso rather than of a wakizashi. Naginata went through the influence of westernization after the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912), when the value of martial arts dropped, and survived till the Showa period (1912 – 1926), when naginata became a part of the public school system.

Different styles of naginata handling were developed creating world known schools (ryu). The Atarashii Naginata School and Jikishin-kage ryu are the most popular. There are also known schools like Tendo ryu and Toda Ha Buko ryu. Despite the differences between these schools, the Naginata martial art has at its base the art of wielding one of the most original weapons and their goal is to develop the traditional etiquette and spiritual training of a person.

Other websites
 More on Samurai

Japanese swords

Naginata


In mathematics, the axiom of power set is one of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of axiomatic set theory.

In the formal language of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms, the axiom reads:

where y is the power set of x, .

In English, this says:
Given any set x, there is a set  such that, given any set z, this set z is a member of  if and only if every element of z is also an element of x.

More succinctly: for every set , there is a set  consisting precisely of the subsets of .

Note the subset relation  is not used in the formal definition as subset is not a primitive relation in formal set theory; rather, subset is defined in terms of set membership, .  By the axiom of extensionality, the set  is unique.

The axiom of power set appears in most axiomatizations of set theory. It is generally considered uncontroversial, although constructive set theory prefers a weaker version to resolve concerns about predicativity.

Consequences

The power set axiom allows a simple definition of the Cartesian product of two sets  and :

Notice that

and, for example, considering a model using the Kuratowski ordered pair,

and thus the Cartesian product is a set since

One may define the Cartesian product of any finite collection of sets recursively:

Note that the existence of the Cartesian product can be proved without using the power set axiom, as in the case of the Kripke–Platek set theory.

Limitations

The power set axiom does not specify what subsets of a set exist, only that there is a set containing all those that do. Not all conceivable subsets are guaranteed to exist. In particular, the power set of an infinite set would contain only "constructible sets" if the universe is the constructible universe but in other models of ZF set theory could contain sets that are not constructible.

References

 Paul Halmos, Naive set theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974.  (Springer-Verlag edition).
 Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded.  Springer.  .
 Kunen, Kenneth, 1980. Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. Elsevier.  .

Axioms of set theory

de:Zermelo-Fraenkel-Mengenlehre#Die Axiome von ZF und ZFC

Axiom of power set


Ugliness is a property of physical things that are not nice to look at. Something or someone who has ugliness is called ugly. This word is commonly used in when talking about human appearance. The opposite of ugliness is beauty. Someone who discriminates against ugly people is called a  lookist or cacophobe.

Ugliness can be a matter of opinion. Two people can look at the same object and one may think it is beautiful and the other may think it is ugly. This is shown in the popular phrase Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Although ugly usually means "a lack of physical beauty", the property of ugliness may also be used to describe other things such as music, literature, or human behavior. The word can also be used as an insult, even if the person does not think the person they are talking about is ugly.

Ugliness in popular culture
One of the most well-known examples of "ugly" in popular culture is the story The Ugly Duckling by Hans Christian Andersen. The moral of this story is that ugliness is a matter of opinion.
Movies with ugly in the title include Coyote Ugly (based on New York's Coyote Ugly Saloon), and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly.
Ugly dolls and troll dolls are unique because of their ugliness.
 The Star Trek episode "Is There in Truth No Beauty?" had an alien race called the Medusans, who were so ugly that any human who sees one without protection would be driven insane.
 Ugly Betty is the name of a television series on ABC that started in 2006.

Related pages
Aesthetics

Characteristics

Ugliness


Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was the King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547

Henry VIII increased the power of the monarchy and government over the country. Many people he did not like were executed under his orders, including two of his own wives. He was easily led by whoever his favourite advisor was: Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Thomas Cranmer and Richard Rich. More and Cromwell were also executed. He passed laws to merge Wales into England and was the first English monarch to be King of Ireland.

His government was able to raise more money because they stopped paying money to the Roman Catholic Church and because they closed down the monasteries. But he also spent far more money on his own enjoyment and on wars with France and Scotland. These wars did not achieve much. He made the Royal Navy much bigger and made other improvements to the armed forces.

Early in his reign he was seen as a very handsome young man who had studied a lot and enjoyed sports, music and writing. Later in his reign he became weak, ill and hugely obese. He also became unpredictable, bad-tempered and unable to admit to making mistakes. He died at the age of 55 in 1547. The next king was his son Edward VI.

Early life
Henry was born at Greenwich Palace on 28 June 1491, and was the son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He was one of their seven children. Four of them survived infancy  – Arthur, Prince of Wales; Margaret; Henry; and Mary .

He had his own servants and minstrels, including a fool named John Goose. He even had a whipping boy who was punished for Henry when he did something wrong. Prince Henry enjoyed music and jousting was very good at both of them. At the age of 10, he could play many instruments, including the fife, harp, viola and drums. Henry was a scholar, linguist, musician and athlete at his early age. He could speak fluent Latin, French and Spanish. He had the best tutors and he also had to learn jousting, archery, hunting and other military arts.  Henry was very religious.

Henry's older brother Arthur was the heir to the throne. This means he would have become the king when Henry VII died. Arthur married a Spanish princess, Catherine of Aragon (her name in Spanish was Catalina de Aragon).  Prince Arthur died a few months later. He was 15 years old, and Henry was 10 years old. After his brother died, Henry was the heir to the throne.

While his father was alive he was watched closely, because the King feared for the safety of his only remaining male heir. Henry could go out only through a private door, and then he was watched by specially appointed people. No one could speak to Henry. He spent most of his time in his room, which could only be entered through his father's bedroom. Henry never spoke in public, unless it was to answer a question from his father. He kept his enthusiastic personality under control on public occasions because he feared his father's temper. He was given little training for his future role as King by his father and relied heavily on his counselors in the early years of his reign. In 1509, Henry VII died of tuberculosis as well and his son became King Henry VIII. He was 17 years old.

Reign

Early years
Three months after becoming king, Henry married Catherine of Aragon. They tried to have children, as Henry wanted a son who could be the next king. In 1511, she gave birth to a son who they named Henry, but he died seven weeks later. She later gave birth to a girl, the future Queen Mary I. All her other children were stillborn (died before birth). He did have one son (Henry Fitzroy) through a woman he was not married to. This son could not become king.

Early on, Henry had two of his father's advisors executed. They were not popular and Henry claimed they had been stealing from the money they had been looking after. Henry would often execute anyone he did not like during the rest of his reign. From 1514, Thomas Wolsey became an important advisor to Henry. Wolsey helped Henry change the government to give the king more power. Wolsey later became a cardinal, making him an important figure in the church.

At first, Henry wanted to be friends with the King of France. But soon, he instead joined with Spain, the Pope and the Holy Roman Empire to weaken France. He dreamed of gaining more lands in France. The results were mixed: England won some battles against France in 1513. The alliance weakened France`s power over the Pope. Scotland invaded England in 1514 but lost badly at the Battle of the Flodden. But Henry spent a lot of money and did not gain much land.

In 1520, an event named; 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold', took place in Calais (at the time, the city was part of England rather than France). It was held to celebrate peace between France and England because they had been at war for a long time. Loads of money was spent on it. People enjoyed music, dancing, food, wine and culture for two-and-a-half weeks. Henry famously wrestled King Francis I of France and lost. Despite this, England and France were soon fighting again. After they signed a treaty in 1525, there was less fighting.

Split with Rome
The most important event that happened in England when Henry was the king was the country's change in religion. At first, there was no sign that Henry would do this. Eight years into Henry's reign, the Protestant Reformation began in Germany. Until then, all of Western Europe had been part of the Roman Catholic Church. When the Reformation began, some countries broke away from the Roman Catholic Church to form Protestant churches. At first, Henry was against this. The Reformation did not spread to England straight away. But by the 1530s, there were many powerful people in England who liked the idea of the Reformation.

Henry became desperate to have a son. By 1527, Henry was wanting to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn. The Roman Catholic Church said he could not divorce without asking the Pope. Henry asked the Pope, but the Pope would not do this. The Pope said it went against the teachings of the church. Henry blamed Wolsey for failing to change the Pope's mind. He sacked Wolsey and ordered him to be put on trial, though Wolsey died before the trial could happen. After that, Thomas More became his main advisor. But More opposed the divorce, so he was replaced a few years later by Thomas Cromwell. Henry also chose a man called Thomas Cranmer to be the Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry knew that Cranmer would do what he wanted, and Cranmer agreed that Henry could have a divorce from Catherine. The Pope did not know this, so he let Cranmer become the archbishop.

A powerful ruler might have forced the Pope to change his mind, but the most powerful rulers would have opposed the divorce. Catherine's nephew was Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and Catherine came from Spain, the largest Catholic country. In 1534, attempts to reach an agreement over the divorce failed.

Henry asked Parliament to pass the Act of Supremacy, which meant that the king, not the pope, was the head of the church in England. This created the new Church of England. The Pope was so angry that he excommunicated Henry, meaning Henry was thrown out of the church. Henry then forced all priests and bishops to accept him as the new leader. Anyone who refused was punished. Among those killed were Thomas More and his old teacher John Fisher.

Henry was not a true Protestant. He wanted the Church of England to be similar to the Roman Catholic Church but under his control. Some Protestants were even executed, including Anne Askew. However, Henry was easily led by people like Thomas Crownell, Thomas Cranmer and Anne Bolyen, who secretly wanted the country to become Protestant. It was not until the reigns of Edward VI and Elizabeth I that the Church of England became fully Protestant.

Henry and Cromwell thought that monasteries, in which Roman Catholic monks and nuns lived, had more money and land than the monks and nuns needed. Henry forced the monks and nuns to move out of the monasteries. Then Henry gave their money and land to men who supported him. Most of the men who received money and land from the closed monasteries were Protestants. This event was called the dissolution of the monasteries.

Later marriages
After his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who was younger than Catherine and still able to have children. Henry soon became unhappy with the marriage. He and Anne did not get on well as they had before they married. Anne had many enemies in the government, including Henry's most loyal minister, Thomas Cromwell. Henry was also unhappy that Anne, just like Catherine, only had a daughter and no sons. Henry started looking for another wife.

In January 1536, Henry fell off a horse while jousting and was badly injured. He took a long time to wake up and his leg was wounded. The wound never properly healed, and he had painful ulcers on his leg for the rest of the his life. This meant it was hard for him to do exercise, so after this he started to become obese. The head injury may have also caused him to become more bad-tempered.

Later that year, Cromwell helped Henry to find a way to get rid of Anne, by finding people who said that she had been the lover of several other men. Anne was put on trial and found guilty, and she was executed by having her head chopped off by a French swordsman.

Henry's third wife was Jane Seymour. She soon gave birth to a son called Edward. Although this made Henry very happy, a few days later Jane died. Henry had loved her very much and he never got over his sadness at her death. He lost interest in everything, and became bigger in size. He became angry with Thomas Cromwell when Cromwell suggested that he should get married again after Jane's death.

After a while, Henry changed his mind. As he still only had one son, he realised that it might be a good idea to marry again, and he agreed to marry Anne of Cleves, a German princess. When Anne arrived, Henry did not think she was as pretty as she looked in the pictures he had seen, and he was not satisfied with her.  Anne was also unhappy and agreed to cancel the marriage after only a few months. Since Cromwell had helped arrange the marriage, Henry was angry and had him executed.

In the meantime, Henry had noticed a young lady at court, called Catherine Howard, and thought that she might make a good wife. Catherine Howard was a cousin of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Catherine got married in 1540, but Catherine was much younger than Henry and she soon got tired of him and started to flirt with other men. After they had been married for just over a year, Henry found out that Catherine had been having an affair with Thomas Culpeper. She was found guilty of treason and was executed, just like Anne Boleyn had been a few years before.

Henry's sixth and last wife was called Catherine Parr. She was a woman in her thirties who had already been married twice. Her first two husbands had been much older than she was, and both had died. Henry thought that she would be more sensible and faithful than his other wives, and he turned out to be right. Catherine Parr stayed married to Henry for over three years until he died, but they did not have any children.

After divorcing Catherine of Aragon, Henry began to suffer many different ailments, he never again regained health. He died on 28 January 1547 at the age of 55 and was buried in Windsor Castle. Henry was the father of two queens and one king. They were Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, and Edward VI of England.  None of them had any children of their own.

In 1536, the Act of Union was passed under Henry's rule which had a long-lasting effect on Wales as a nation. The Act of Union meant that Welsh people were forced to speak English and things such as road signs were translated into English. The royal family, who were based in London, were now officially in charge of Wales. However, the Act also meant that Welsh citizens were given the same legal rights as the English so there was an upside to this new law.

Personality
Henry often liked to be captured in his portraits with either food or pets. He had many pets. Henry was often seen with his dog. He owned a white pug and was very aware of how much his dog represented him as a wealthy man.

Henry VIII spent a lot of time at a magnificent building named Hampton Court Palace that belonged to his friend, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. After falling out with Wolsey, Henry took the palace for himself. He made the palace far larger, building things such as tennis courts and jousting yards.

Ancestry

References

General references
 Ives, E. W. "Henry VIII (1491–1547)", in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), online at OUP, a good starting point
 Pollard, A. F. Henry VIII (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable online edition
 Rex, Richard. Henry VIII and the English Reformation. (1993). 205 pp.
 Ridley, Jasper. Henry VIII. (1985). 473 pp.  popular biography
 Starkey, David. "Henry." (2009). Very detailed biographical account of Henry's early life

Other websites

VIII on Citizendium

1491 births
1547 deaths
English Anglicans
English royalty
Former Roman Catholics
House of Tudor
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
People from Kent
16th century in England

Henry VIII


आरम्भिक काल
 1550 ईसा पूर्व - एबर्स पेपीरस (Ebers papyrus) में संक्षेप में चिकित्सकीय अवसाद (clinical depression) का उल्लेख
 350 ईसा पूर्व - अरस्तू ने De Anima में psuchê के बारे में लिखा।
 150 ईसा पूर्व - पतंजलि ने योगसूत्र की रचना की, जिसका पहला सूत्र है : योग:चित्तवृत्तिनिरोध: (योग चित्त की वृत्तियों का नियंत्रण करने वाला है)
 ca 100 BC - the Dead Sea Scrolls noted the division of human nature into two temperaments.
 398 - Psychological analysis of Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, anticipates Freud by discovery of the 'sub-conscious'.
 705 - The first psychiatric hospitals and insane asylums were set up by Muslim physicians in Baghdad, Iraq.
 ca 750 - Psychiatric hospitals were introduced to Fes, Morocco.
 800 - Psychiatric hospitals were introduced to Cairo, Egypt.
 ca 850 - Al-Kindi (Alkindus) developed the use of psychotherapy and music therapy in treating mentally ill patients.
 ca 850 - Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari developed the idea of using clinical psychiatry to treat mentally ill patients.
 ca 900 - The concepts of mental health or "mental hygiene" were introduced by Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi. He also recognized that illnesses can have both psychological and/or physiological causes.
 ca 900 - A form of psychotherapy was developed by al-Razi (Rhazes), who was at one time the chief physician of the Baghdad hospital. He first recognized the concept of "psychotherapy" and referred to it as al-'ilaj al-nafs.
 1021 - Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) began to carry out experiments in areas related to body and the nafs. In his Book of Optics, for example, he examined visual perception and what we now call sensation, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
 1025 - In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving emotions, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the word association test. He also described a number of neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.
 ca 1030 - Al-Biruni employed an experimental method in examining the concept of reaction time.
 ca 1150 - Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on certain neurological disorders such as meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors.
 ca 1150 - Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease.
 ca. 1200 - Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.
 1270 - Famous psychiatric hospitals were built in Damascus and Aleppo in Syria.
 1590 - Scholastic philosopher Rudolph Goclenius used the term psychology. Though often regarded as the "origin" of the term, there is conclusive evidence that it was used at least six decades earlier by Marko Marulić.
 1672 - in Thomas Willis' anatomical treatise "De Anima Brutorum", psychology was described in terms of brain function.

उन्नीसवीं शती

1840 का दशक
 1844 - Søren Kierkegaard published The Concept of Anxiety, the first exposition on anxiety.
 1849 - Søren Kierkegaard published The Sickness Unto Death

1860 का दशक
 1860 - Gustav Theodor Fechner wrote Elements of Psychophysics, establishing the subject of psychophysics.
 1861 - Paul Broca discovered an area in the left cerebral hemisphere that is important for speech production (now known as Broca's area), marking the start of neuropsychology.

1870 का दशक
 1874 - Wilhelm Wundt published his Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology), the first textbook of experimental psychology.
 ca. 1875 - William James opened the first experimental psychology laboratory in the United States, though it was intended for classroom demonstration rather than original research.
 1878 - G. Stanley Hall was awarded the first PhD on a psychological topic from Harvard (in philosophy).
 1879 - Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany.

1880 का दशक
 1883 - G. Stanley Hall opened the first American experimental psychology research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.
 1885 - Hermann Ebbinghaus published Über das Gedächtnis, a groundbreaking work where Ebbinghaus describes experiments on himself.
 1886 - Sigmund Freud opened private practice in Vienna.
 1887 - Georg Elias Müller opened the second German experimental psychology research laboratory in Göttingen.
 1887 - George Trumbull Ladd (Yale) published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook to include a substantial amount of information on the new experimental form of the discipline.
 1887 - James McKeen Cattell founded an experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, only the 3rd in the United States (including William James' Harvard lab).
 1887 - G. Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology with a $500 contribution supplied by Robert Pearsall Smith of the American Society for Psychical Research.
 1888 - William Lowe Bryan founded the United States' 4th experimental psychology laboratory at Indiana University.
 1888 - Joseph Jastrow founded the United States' 5th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
 1888 - G. Stanley Hall leaves Johns Hopkins for the presidency of the newly-founded Clark University.
 1889 - James Mark Baldwin publishes the first volume of his Handbook of Psychology ("Sense and Intellect").
 1889 - Edmund Clark Sanford, a former student of G. Stanley Hall, founded the United States' 6th experimental psychology laboratory at Clark University.
 1889 - William Noyes founded the United States' 7th experimental psychology laboratory at the McLean Asylum in Waverley, Mass.
 1889 - Harry Kirke Wolfe founded the United States' 8th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Nebraska.

1890 का दशक
 1890 - William James published Principles of Psychology.
 1890 - James Hayden Tufts founded the United States' 9th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Michigan.
 1890 - G. T. W. Patrick founded the United States' 10th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Iowa.
 1890 - James McKeen Cattell left Pennsylvania for Columbia University where he founded the United States' 11th experimental psychology.
 1890 - James Mark Baldwin founded the first permanent experimental psychology laboratory in the British Empire at the University of Toronto.
 1891 - Frank Angell founded the United States' 12th experimental psychology laboratory at the Cornell University.
 1891 - Mary Whiton Calkins founded the United States' 13th experimental psychology laboratory, the first by a woman, at Wellesley College.
 1892 - G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association (APA).
 1892 - Edward Bradford Titchener takes a professorship at Cornell University, replacing Frank Angell who has left for Stanford University.
 1892 - Edward Wheeler Scripture founded the experimental psychology laboratory at Yale University, the 19th in United States.
 1892-1893 - Charles A. Strong opened the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Chicago, the 20th in the United States, at which James Rowland Angell conducted the first experiments of functionalism in the 1896.
 1894 - James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin found the Psychological Review to compete with Hall's American Journal of Psychology
 1896 - The first psychological clinic was opened at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. Although often celebrated as marking the birth of clinical psychology, Witmer's clinic was focused primarily on educational matters.
 1896 - Edward B. Titchener, student of Wilhelm Wundt and originator of the terms "structuralism" and "functionalism," published his An Outline of Psychology.
 1898 - Edward Thorndike described the Law of effect.
 1898 - Boris Sidis publishes The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society.

बीसवीं शती

1900 का दशक
 1900 - Sigmund Freud published 'Interpretation of Dreams' marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought.
 1903 - John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago. His dissertation on rat behavior has been described as a "classic of developmental psychobiology" by historian of psychology, Donald Dewsbury.
 1904 - Charles Spearman published the article General Intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology, introducing the g factor theory of intelligence.
 1905 - Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale to identify students needing extra help, marking the start for standardized psychological testing.
 1906 - The Journal of Abnormal Psychology founded by Morton Prince for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor.
 1909 - Sigmund Freud lectured at Clark University.

1910 का दशक
 1910 - Boris Sidis opens the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute (a private hospital) at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, NH for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods.
 1911 - Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.
 1912 - Max Wertheimer published Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement, considered the founding article of Gestalt psychology
 1913 - Carl Jung departed from Freudian views and developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality. His new school of thought became known as Analytical Psychology.
 1913 - Jacob L. Moreno applied Group Psychotherapy methods in Vienna. His new methods, which emphasised spontaneity and interaction, later became known as Psychodrama and Sociometry.
 1913 - John B. Watson published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, sometimes known as "The Behaviorist Manifesto".
 1914 - Boris Sidis publishes The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology where he provides the scientific foundation for the field of psychology, and details his theory of the moment-consciousness.

1920 का दशक
 1920 - John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the Little Albert experiment, using classical conditioning to make a young boy afraid of white rats.
 1921 - Jacob L. Moreno conducted the first large scale public Psychodrama session at the Komoedienhaus, Vienna. He moves to New York in 1925.
 1922 - Boris Sidis publishes Nervous Ills: Their Cause and a Cure, a popularization of his work concerning the subconscious and the treatment of psychopathic disease.
 1923 - Boris Sidis dies suddenly from a cerebral hemorrhage on the morning of October 24.
 1928 - Jean Piaget's book Judgement and Reasoning in the Child is published.

1930 का दशक
 1934 - Lev Vygotsky's Thought and Language (a.k.a. Thinking and Speech) is first published (in Russian)
 1935 - John Ridley Stroop developed a color-word task to demonstrate the interference of attention, the Stroop effect
 1938 - B.F. Skinner published his first major work, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, introducing behavior analysis.
 1939 - Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley published a classic report in the journal Nature of the first recording of an action potential.

1940 का दशक
 1942 - Carl Rogers published 'Counseling and Psychotherapy' suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.
 1943 - Leo Kanner published Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact. The first systematic description of autistic children.
 1943 - Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in the paper A Theory of Human Motivation, published in Psychological Review
 1945 - The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.
 1949 - Donald Hebb published The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory in which he provided a detailed, testable theory of how the brain could support cognitive processes.
 1949 - Boulder Conference outlined scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the M.D. versus Ph.D. used by medical providers and researchers, respectively.
 1949 - David Wechsler presented Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), the first edition of the Wechsler-test for children.

1950 का दशक
 1950 - Rollo May published The Meaning of Anxiety.
 1951 - Carl Rogers published his major work, Client-Centered Therapy.
 1951 - In the Asch conformity experiments, Solomon Asch demonstrated the power of conformity in groups.
 1951 - Lee Cronbach wrote about his measure of reliability, now known as Cronbach's alpha.
 1952 - The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification.
 1952 - Hans Eysenck started a debate on psychotherapy with his critical review, claiming that psychotherapy had no documented effect, and psychoanalysis had negative effects.
 1953 - B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.
 1953 - Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association.
 1953 - Harry Stack Sullivan published The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry which holds that an individual's personality is formed by relationships.
 1954 - Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.
 1955 - Lee Cronbach published Construct Validity in Psychological Tests, popularizing the concept of Construct validity.
 1956 - George Armitage Miller wrote his classic paper The Magical Number Seven, Plus-or-Minus Two, in which he showed that there is a limit on the amount of information that can be apprehended in a brief period of time.
 1956 - Rollo May published Existence, promoting Existential psychology.
 1956 - Leon Festinger proposed his theory of Cognitive dissonance
 1958 - Harry Harlow published The Nature of Love which summarized studies on monkeys and rejected behavioranalytic and psychoanalytic theories of attachment.
 1959 - Noam Chomsky published his review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, an event seen as by many as the start of the Cognitive revolution.
 1959 - Lawrence Kohlberg wrote his doctoral dissertation, outlining his stages of moral development.

1960 का दशक
 1960 - John L. Fuller and W. Robert Thompson published the field-defining text Behavior Genetics.
 1961 - In the Bobo doll experiment, Albert Bandura studied behavioral patterns of aggression.
 1962 - George Armitage Miller released the classic book Psychology, the Science of Mental Life signaling a rejection of the idea that psychology should study just behavior.
 1962 - Silvan Tomkins published the first volume of two of Affect Imagery Consciousness, were he presented his Affect theory
 1962 - American psychologist Albert Ellis released his classic book "Reason and Emotion In Psychotherapy" describing the theoretical foundations of his therapeutic system Rational Therapy, now known as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
 1962 - Wilfred Bion presented his theory of thinking
 1963 - Stanley Milgram described his study of obedience to authority, now known as the Milgram experiment.
 1963 - Alexander Luria published The Working Brain. A detailed description of the brain with great importance for the habilitation of damage to the brain.
 1964 - Carl Rogers received American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award
 1965 - Anna Freud published Normality and pathology in childhood: Assessments of development, and presented the concept of developmental lines.
 1965 - Donald Winnicott published The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment. A main text in clinical psychodynamic developmental psychology.
 1966 - Erich Fromm received American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award
 1967 - Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.
 1967 - Abraham Maslow received American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award
 1968 - DSM-II was published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 1968 - First Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was established in the Department of Psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
 1969 - California School of Professional Psychology was established as the first freestanding school of professional psychology.
 1969 - The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was initiated by Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof and Anthony Sutich
 1969 - John Bowlby published his Attachment theory in the classic book Attachment and Loss, Volume 1.
 1969 - Harry Harlow published his experiment on affection development in rhesus monkeys.
 1969 - Joseph Wolpe published The Practice of Behavior Therapy.

1970 का दशक
 1964 - Albert Ellis received American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award
 1971 - The Stanford prison experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo and others at Stanford University, studied the human response to captivity. The experiment quickly got out of hand and was ended early.
 1971 - Martin Shubik demonstrated the Dollar auction experiment, illustrating irrational choices.
 1971 - O'Keefe and Dostrovsky discover "place cells" in the hippocampus
 1972 - The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study started, a longitudinal study with 96% retention rate as of 2006. This is unprecedented for a longitudinal study, with many others worldwide experiencing 20-40% drop-out rates.
 1972 - B.F. Skinner received American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award
 1973 - Vail Conference of Graduate Educators in Psychology endorsed the scholar-practitioner training model.
 1974 - Robert Hinde published Biological Bases of Human Social Behavior. Main text in etological oriented developmental psychology.
 1974 - Arnold Sameroff published Reproductive Risk and the Continuum of Caretaking Causality, and introduced the transactional model, an influential model in modern developmental psychology.
 1974 - Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed their model of working memory. It is often referred to as Baddeley's model of working memory.
 1976 - Julian Jaynes publishes The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, an exploration of the dual hemisphere nature of the human brain and the origins of religion and science.
 1977 - Alexander Thomas published Temperament and Development, a longitudinal study on the importance of temperament for the development of personality and behavioral problems. An important study for modern research on temperament.
 1977 - Albert Bandura published his book Social learning theory, and expanded on the work of Julian Rotter who moved away from theories based on behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
 1977 - Albert Bandura published his article on the concept of self-efficacy, "a unifying theory of behavioral change".
 1977 - Robert Plomin and colleagues proposed three major ways in which genes and environments act together to shape human behavior. They coined the terms passive-, active-, and evocative gene-environment correlation.
 1978 - Mary Ainsworth published her book Patterns of Attachment about her work on Attachment theory and the Strange Situation experiment.
 1978 - David Premack published the book Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind?, on his research on mental abilities in monkeys and introduced the term Theory of Mind.
 1978 - Cognitive Neuroscience received its name by Michael Gazzaniga and George Armitage Miller. Cognitive Neuroscience has been described as the effort to understand how the brain represents mental events.
 1978 - John O'Keefe and Lynn Nadel publish "The hippocampus as a cognitive map"
 1979 - Urie Bronfenbrenner published The Ecology of Human Development, a seminal text in developmental and ecological psychology.

1980 का दशक
 1980 - DSM-III published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 1983 - Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind, introducing his theory of multiple intelligences
 1982 - Carol Gilligan published In a Different Voice, on feminist psychology
 1984 - Jerome Kagan published The Nature of the Child, a biological and socially oriented description of the role of temperament in human development.
 1984 - Peter Saville published the OPQ Pentagon questionnaire, a psychological personality inventory measuring the Five Factor Model
 1985 - Daniel Stern published The Interpersonal World of the Infant, proposing an extensive mental life in early infancy
 1985 - Robert Sternberg proposed his triarchic theory of intelligence
 1985 - Reuben Baron and David A. Kenny published the article The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology proposing a distinction of moderating in mediating variables in psychological research.
 1985 - Simon Baron-Cohen published Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind'? with Uta Frith and Alan Leslie. They proposed that children with autism show social and communication difficulties as a result of a delay in the development of a Theory of mind.
 1985 - Costa & McRae published the NEO PI-R five-factor personality inventory, a psychological personality inventory; a 240-question measure of the Five Factor Model
 1986 - Albert Bandura published Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
 1987 - Erik Erikson published The Life Cycle Completed, expanding on his stage theory of psychosocial development.
 1988 - Michael M. Merzenich and colleagues showed that sensory and motor maps in the cortex can be modified with experience, a process called neural plasticity

1990 का दशक
 1991 - Steven Pinker proposed his theory on how children acquire language in Science, later popularized in the book The Language Instinct.
 1992 - Jaak Panksepp coined the term Affective neuroscience, the name of the field that studies neural mechanisms of emotion, and later presented the book Affective neuroscience - The foundations of human and animal emotions
 1992 - Sandra Scarr published Developmental Theories of the 1990s proposing that genes control experiences, and that genes search and creates environments.
 1992 - Joseph LeDoux summarized and published his research on brain mechanisms of emotion and emotional learning.
 1992 - American Psychological Association selected behavioral genetics as one of two themes that best represented the past, present, and future of psychology.
 1994 - DSM-IV published by the American Psychiatric Association.
 1994 - Antonio Damasio proposed his somatic-marker hypothesis by which emotional processes can guide (or bias) behavior, particularly decision-making.
 1994 - Esther Thelen and Linda B. Smith published A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action. A main text on the use of developmental models based on dynamic systems
 1995 - Simon Baron-Cohen coined the term mind-blindness to reflect the inability of children with autism to properly represent the mental states of others
 1996 - Giacomo Rizzolatti and colleagues discovered so called mirror neurons
 1997 - Belenkey, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule published Women's Ways of Knowing

इक्कीसवीं शती

2000 का दशक
 2000 - Alan Baddeley updated his model of working memory from 1974, often referred to as Baddeley's model of working memory, and included the episodic buffer as a third slave system alongside the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad
 2002 - Avshalom Caspi and colleagues presented a study that was the first to provide epidemiological evidence that a specific genotype moderates children's sensitivity to environmental insults.
 2002 - Steven Pinker published The Blank Slate - The modern denial of human nature, arguing against tabula rasa models of the social sciences
 2006 - Steven Pinker received the American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award

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The Abergavenny fireworks display is an annual organized fireworks display. It is held each year on Guy Fawkes Night (November 5) in Abergavenny, Wales.

The event takes place in Belgrave Park. It has been running each year since about 1968.

The event is run and organized by the local social networking group Abergavenny and District Round Table, which is one of the hundreds of branches in the UK of the Round Table (club). It is a non profit event with all proceeds being distributed to charity's and good courses, primarily in and around the Abergavenny area. Some of the those to have benefited from monies raised from the Abergavenny fireworks display include:  Abergavenny Scouts, Crickhowell Scouts, Jigsaw community project, Llanbedr Village Thai Boxing, Mardy Juniors Football, RTB Ebbw Vale Junior AFC Club, a fuller list is on the Abergavenny and District web site.

History

The Abergavenny fireworks display was originally started to provide a display for the children's home in c1965 it moved to its current location of Belgrave park in c1968 as the fireworks could be seen from the nearby Nevill hall hospital, the fireworks display has been put on every year since, up to the present.

Poster competition

A competition is held with the help of the local schools to design a poster for the Abergavenny fireworks display. The posters are used as part of the advertising of the event. The 2011 winners were unveiled on the front page on the Abergavenny Chronicle. With the winners and their class mates receiving child entrance tickets to the fireworks display, and the school receiving a donation.

References

Other websites
Abergavenny fireworks website
Abergavenny and District Round Table website

Welsh culture
Pyrotechnics

Abergavenny fireworks display


Secret sharing is used as a term to refer to ways of sharing a secret among many people. Each person knows part of the secret that is shared, but a number of people need to cooperate to rebuild the secret. The knowledge of one person alone is not enough to reconstruct the secret. Adi Shamir and George Blakley developed the method independently of each other, in 1979.

One example where secret sharing is used is the RSA cryptosystem. It uses a secret key. If this key is distributed among many people, no single person can make a signature. Even if the part of one person is revealed or lost, a number of them can still make a signature. This is often used is areas where security is very important, such as banks, or the military.

The dealer hands each player their part of the secret. In an easier setup, the parts of the players can be combined to form the secret, but with each part there is extra information. Say that a secret needs five parts, and three parts are known. In this setup, guessing the two parts that are missing will be easier than guessing the secret awhen no parts are known. The other setup is said to be secure from the point of view of information theory, because knowing part of the required number of player parts will not change how difficult it is to guess the secret.

There are different methods of secure secret sharing techniques.

Shamir's method
In this method, any t out of the n shares may be used to recover the secret. The idea is that a polynomial of degree t-1 is defined by t points on the polynomial: It takes two points to define a straight line, three to define a quadratic curve, four for a cubic, and so on. It takes t points ot define a polynomial of degree t-1. That way it is possible to build a polynomial, the first coefficient is the secret; there are n randomly picked coefficients. Each player receives one of the n coefficients. If there are at least t players, they can rebuild the original curve, and get the secret.

References

Cryptography

Secret sharing


In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object boondit bi sax squerr faces, facets or sides, wi three meetin at each vertex.

The cube is the anly regular hexahedron an is ane o the five Platonic solids.

The cube is an aa a squerr parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid an a richt rhombohedron. It is a regular squerr prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in fower orientations.

The cube is dual tae the octahedron. It haes cubical or octahedral symmetry.

References

Platonic solits
Prismatoid polyhedra
Space-fillin polyhedra
Vollum
Zonohedra
Elementary shapes
Cubes

Cube


Amaryllis () is the only genus in the subtribe Amaryllidinae (tribe Amaryllideae). It is a small genus of flowering bulbs, with two species. The better known of the two, Amaryllis belladonna, is a native of the Western Cape region of South Africa, particularly the rocky southwest area between the Olifants River Valley and Knysna.

For many years there was confusion among botanists over the generic names Amaryllis and Hippeastrum, one result of which is that the common name 'amaryllis' is mainly used for cultivars of the genus Hippeastrum, widely sold in the winter months for their ability to bloom indoors.

Plants of the genus Amaryllis are known as belladonna lily, Jersey lily, naked lady, amarillo, Easter lily in Southern Australia or, in South Africa, March lily due to its propensity to flower around March. This is one of numerous genera with the common name 'lily' due to their flower shape and growth habit. However, they are only distantly related to the true lily, Lilium. In the Victorian language of flowers, amaryllis means "love, beauty, and determination", and can also represent hope and achievement.

Description

Amaryllis is a bulbous plant, with each bulb being  in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, hysteranthous, green leaves with midrib,  long and  broad, arranged in two rows.

Each bulb produces one or two leafless, stout, persistent and erect stems  tall, each of which bears at the top a cluster of two to twelve zygomorphic, funnel-shaped flowers without a tube. Each flower is  diameter with six spreading tepals (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other). The usual color is white with crimson veins, but pink or purple also occur naturally. Stamens are very shortly connate basally, declinate, unequal. Style is declinate, stigma is three-lobed. Ovules are approx. 8 per locule. Seeds are compressed-globose, white to pink. The number of chromosomes is 2n = 22.

Taxonomy
The single genus is in subtribe Amaryllidinae, in the tribe Amaryllideae. The taxonomy of the genus has been controversial. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the name Amaryllis belladonna, the type species of the genus Amaryllis. At the time both South African and South American plants were placed in the same genus; subsequently they were separated into two different genera. The key question is whether Linnaeus's type was a South African plant or a South American plant. If the latter, Amaryllis would be the correct name for the genus Hippeastrum, and a different name would have to be used for the genus discussed here. Alan W. Meerow et al. have briefly summarized the debate, which took place from 1938 onwards and involved botanists on both sides of the Atlantic. The outcome was a decision by the 14th International Botanical Congress in 1987 that Amaryllis  should be a conserved name (i.e. correct regardless of priority) and ultimately based on a specimen of the South African Amaryllis belladonna from the Clifford Herbarium at the Natural History Museum in London.

Species
, Amaryllis had only two accepted species, both native to the Cape Provinces of South Africa:
Amaryllis belladonna  – south-west Cape Provinces; introduced into many parts of the world, including California, Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand
Amaryllis paradisicola  – west Cape Provinces

Phylogeny
Amaryllidinae are placed within Amaryllideae as follow:

These are phylogenetically related as follows:

Etymology
The name Amaryllis is taken from a shepherdess in Virgil's pastoral Eclogues, (from the Greek .

Although the 1987 decision settled the question of the scientific name of the genus, the common name 'amaryllis' continues to be used differently. Bulbs sold as amaryllis and described as "ready to bloom for the holidays" belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum. The common name "naked lady" comes from the plant's pattern of flowering when the foliage has died down. This name is also used for other bulbs with a similar growth and flowering pattern; some of these have their own widely used and accepted common names, such as the resurrection lily (Lycoris squamigera).

Habitat
In areas of its native habitat with mountainous fynbos flowering tends to be suppressed until after bush fires as dense overhead vegetation prevents growth. In more open sandy areas of the Western Cape, the plant flowers annually. Plants tend to be very localized in dense concentrations due to the seeds' large size and heavy weight. Strong winds shake loose the seeds, which fall to ground and immediately start to germinate, aided by the first winter rains.

Ecology
The leaves are produced in the autumn or early spring in warm climates depending on the onset of rain and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. The plant is not frost-tolerant, nor does it do well in tropical environments since they require a dry resting period between leaf growth and flower spike production.

One or two leafless stems arise from the bulb in the dry ground in late summer (March in its native habitat and August in USDA zone 7).

The plant has a symbiotic relationship with carpenter bees. It is also visited by noctuid moths at night. The relative importance of these insects as pollinators has not yet been established; however, carpenter bees are thought to be the main pollinators of amaryllis on the Cape Peninsula. The plant's main parasite is the lily borer Brithys crini and/or Diaphone eumela.

Cultivation

Amaryllis belladonna was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the eighteenth century. It reproduces slowly by either bulb division or seeds and has gradually naturalized from plantings in urban and suburban areas throughout the lower elevations and coastal areas in much of the West Coast of the US since these environments mimic their native South African habitat. Hardiness zones 6–8. It is also naturalized in Australia.

There is an Amaryllis belladonna hybrid which was bred in the 1800s in Australia. No one knows the exact species it was crossed with to produce color variations of white, cream, peach, magenta and nearly red hues. The hybrids were crossed back onto the original Amaryllis belladonna and with each other to produce naturally seed-bearing crosses that come in a very wide range of flower sizes, shapes, stem heights and intensities of pink. Pure white varieties with bright green stems were bred as well. The hybrids are quite distinct in that the many shades of pink also have stripes, veining, darkened edges, white centers and light yellow centers, also setting them apart from the original light pink. In addition, the hybrids often produce flowers in a fuller circle rather than the "side-facing" habit of the "old-fashioned" pink. The hybrids are able to adapt to year-round watering and fertilization but can also tolerate completely dry summer conditions if need be.

A. belladonna has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Amaryllis belladonna has been crossed in cultivation with Crinum moorei to produce a hybrid called × Amarcrinum, which has named cultivars. Hybrids said to be between Amaryllis belladonna and Brunsvigia josephinae have been called × Amarygia. Neither hybrid genus name is accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.

See also

 List of plants known as lily

References

Further reading

Amaryllidoideae
Amaryllidaceae genera
Endemic flora of the Cape Provinces
Garden plants of Africa
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Amaryllis


Harry Torbjörn Brandelius (14 June 1910 – 5 September 1994) was a Swedish singer of schlager music. He made his debut as a gramophone singer in 1932 with Midt i natten (Miss i nassen) accompanied by Folke Andersson's orchestra (HMV X 4026), and was one of the most popular of his generation. Many of his songs had sailor's themes. Brandelius achieved his breakthrough with the song Han hade seglat för om masten ("He had sailed fore of the mast"), written by Martin Nilsson, in 1938. Later on he also succeeded well with Nordsjön ("The North Sea"), Med en enkel tulipan ("With a simple tulip"), En sjöman älskar havets våg ("A sailor loves the wave of the sea") and Vind i seglen ("Wind in the sails").

He was married three times. His second wife was Ingalill Rossvald (1944–1964), his accompanist (accordion) for many years. They made several records together. Among them was a Swedish version of San Antonio Rose in 1952.

Filmography
 Storm Over the Skerries (1938)
Melodin från Gamla Stan (1939)
Hur tokigt som helst (1949)

External links
Harry Brandelius  at the Internet Movie Database

20th-century Swedish male singers
1910 births
1994 deaths

Harry Brandelius


Cayo District is a district in the west of the nation of Belize.  The District capital is the town of San Ignacio.

Geography
The Cayo District is the largest in Belize. It is on the western side of the country which borders Guatemala. The nation's capital, Belmopan, is in the district.

The Cayo District has the Pre-Columbian Maya ruins of Xunantunich, Cahal Pech, Chaa Creek, and Caracol. Major rivers in the district include the Macal River and the Mopan River.

Importance and Location

The Cayo District is mostly an agricultural district. The chief crops are citrus, (oranges, grapefruit, and tangerine), as well as bananas.  Recently oil was found in Spanish Lookout and is now in production.  In addition to the ruins listed above there are several other important nature reserves including two National Parks, Blue Hole (park) and Guanacaste National Park. Ecotourism is also an important part of the region's economy.

According to the 2000 census, Cayo District had a population of 53,715 people.

References

Districts of Belize

Cayo District


Rugby union is a ball sport. Two teams of 15 players play against each other. The ball used is oval in shape. The field is a rectangle shape. It is 100 metres long and 70 meters wide. At the ends of the field are two H-shaped goal-posts which you have to score next to or underneath.

The game is played for 80 minutes in two 40-minute halves but there is an overtime if it goes on long enough.

Point Scoring
A try is scored when a player 'scores'. A try is worth 5 points. To score a try the player must put down the ball in the 'try area'. The try area is behind the goal-posts.

Once a try has been scored, the team has a chance to score extra points. The goal kicker kicks the ball towards the goal-posts. The ball must pass between the two upright goal-posts and above the cross-piece. If it does, the team is awarded 2 additional points. This act is known as a 'conversion'.

Another method of scoring points is through penalties. When a team breaks the rules, the referee may award a penalty. The goal-kicker kicks towards the goal-posts. The ball must pass between the two upright goal-posts and above the cross-piece. If it does, the team is awarded 3 points and at the end all the points add up and the team with the most points is the winner.

During play, the goal-kicker can also attempt a 'drop-goal'. The goal-kicker kicks towards the goal-posts. The ball must pass between the two upright goal-posts and above the cross-piece. If it does, the team is awarded 3 points.

Scrums
A scrum is when the two teams push together. If you are in the scrum you are a prop, hooker, flanker, second row, or 8-man.

Numbers and Positions

Forwards

1 : Loose head prop

2 : Hooker

3 : Tight head prop

4 : Lock / Second row

5 : Lock / Second row

6 : Blind side flanker / blind-side wing-forward

7 : Open side flanker / open-side wing-forward

8 : Number 8

Backs

9 : Scrum-half (or half-back)

10 : Fly half/outside-half/outhalf (or first-five-eighth)

11 : Left-wing

12 : Inside centre (or second-five-eighth)

13 : Outside centre

14 : Right-wing

15 : Fullback

The players in the back positions are usually smaller, faster and more skilful at kicking and passing. If you are a prop or a hooker you need to be heavy and strong as you play in the front row if there is a scrum. Flankers and locks are often tall and powerful and are used to win the ball in a lineout.

Rules

The laws of Rugby Union whilst difficult at first are easy to pick up.

The key rule to rugby union play is that the person who is carrying the ball at any time cannot pass the ball to a teammate who is closer to the opposition goal line. The ball must always be passed sideways or backwards.

Only the player with the ball may be tackled. Tackling is when the player with the ball is brought to the ground by an opposition player. The opposition player must use their hands to hold onto the ball carrier, and take them to the ground.

When the player with the ball is on the ground, players from the opposition team may stand over him and attempt to grab the ball off them. The opposition players must remain standing ('on their feet'). Meanwhile, the player with the ball will try to pass the ball backwards along the ground to a teammate. His teammates will then move over the player and protect the ball.

During the game there are between one and four people who watch that the rules of the game are met.
The most important of these four is the referee who runs alongside players as they play the game. The referee controls the game.

The two touch-judges patrol the out-of-bounds areas. They also decide when a goal kick has been successful.

The TMO, or 'television match official', helps the referee with difficult decisions. Most professional games have a TMO.

Kicking
Kicking is very important part of the rugby game. Normally, it is the back players who kick. However, you will sometimes see the forwards kick. There are different reasons why they may kick: to score points by making a drop goal, to place the ball further towards the other team's try line, or to gain distance by kicking the ball high into the air for a team mate to chase and catch.

Rugby union


Galt Niederhoffer (born October 2, 1976) is an American producer, director and novelist. She has produced over thirty feature films.

Her movie credits as a producer include: Infinitely Polar Bear (2013); Robot & Frank (2012), winner of the Alfred P. Sloan Feature Film Prize at Sundance; Grace Is Gone (2007), winner of the Audience Award and Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award at Sundance; Lonesome Jim (2005), nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at Sundance; Prozac Nation (2001) (of which she was also the screenwriter), an adaptation of the best-selling novel; and Hurricane Streets (1997), winner of the awards for Audience, Best Director and Best Cinematography at Sundance (the first feature film to win three awards at the festival).

She has written three published novels. Her first novel, A Taxonomy of Barnacles (2005), about the love and rivalry of six sisters, was loosely based on her family, including her father, the idiosyncratic and highly acclaimed squash champion, economist and hedge fund manager Victor Niederhoffer, and her five sisters. The book's surprise ending was mirrored in real life when her father had a seventh child, a son, a year after the book came out.

Her second novel, The Romantics (2008), about college classmates who get together for a wedding six years after graduation, where they compare their meager progress towards life's important goals and rekindle previous rivalries. Niederhoffer adapted The Romantics into a movie in 2010, which she also directed. The movies starred  Katie Holmes, Anna Paquin, Malin Akerman, Josh Duhamel, Adam Brody, Jeremy Strong and Elijah Wood.

Her third novel, Love and Happiness, about a married couple whose seemingly idyllic lives in Brownstone Brooklyn has become mundane, was released in September 2013. Her fourth novel, Poison, was published in November 2017.

Niederhoffer attended The Chapin School, Milton Academy and Harvard University.

Filmography

 Hurricane Streets (1997)
 Prozac Nation (2001)
 Lonesome Jim (2005)
 The Baxter (2005)
 Grace Is Gone (2006)
 Dedication (2007)
 Watching the Detectives (2007)
 Diminished Capacity (2008)
 Birds of America (2008)
 The Romantics (2010)
 Robot & Frank (2012)
 Black Nativity (2013)
 Infinitely Polar Bear (2014)

Bibliography
 A Taxonomy of Barnacles (2005)
 The Romantics (2008)
 Love and Happiness (2013)
 Poison (2017)

References

External links

Film producers from New York (state)
1976 births
Living people
Milton Academy alumni
21st-century American novelists
American women novelists
Harvard Crimson women's squash players
Chapin School (Manhattan) alumni
American women film directors
21st-century American women writers
Novelists from New York (state)
Film directors from New York City
American women film producers

Galt Niederhoffer


Cinquecento (in English: Five hundred) is an Italian term used to describe the Italian Renaissance of the 16th century, including the related styles of art, music, literature, and architecture. It is considered the century when Italy was the leader in the European civilization

Characteristics

In the Cinquecento the most important center of culture in Italy was Rome, while Florence suffered from the Girolamo Savonarola rebellion and the end of the Medici power in the city.

Indeed, in Rome the Pope promoted a huge art program (like the construction of St. Peter Cathedral and the Sistine Chapel) that brought to the eternal city artists of the level of Michelangelo, Raphael, Cellini, and Bramante.

Michelangelo Buonarroti was one the most famous artists in the Cinquecento Italy: he was a painter, sculptor, architect, poet, and engineer. Along with Leonardo da Vinci, he was often called a "Renaissance man" which means that he had great talent in many areas. Michelangelo lived an extremely busy life, creating a great number of artworks. Some of Michelangelo's works are among the most famous that have ever been made. They include two very famous marble statues, the Pieta in Saint Peter's Basilica and David which once stood in a piazza in Florence but is now in the Accademia Gallery.  His most famous paintings were huge frescos, the Sistine Chapel Ceiling and the Last Judgement. His most famous work of architecture was the east end and dome of Saint Peter's Basilica.

Only Venice in Italy was able to reach a similar level to the one of Rome, mainly in paintings: Bellini, Giorgione and Tiziano created their masterpieces in this century.

The tuscan Leonardo da Vinci lived the last years of his life in the Cinquecento. He created in this century two of his pictures that are among the best-known paintings in the world: the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper.

In 1532 The Prince -a masterpiece of Italian literature- was published: it was a political treatise by the Italian diplomat, historian and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli.

In architecture the Cinquecento is famous because of Andrea Palladio (1508–80), "the most influential architect of the whole Renaissance". Palladio was to transform the architectural style of both palaces and churches by taking a different perspective on the notion of Classicism. While the architects of Florence and Rome looked to structures like the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine to provide formulae, Palladio looked to classical temples with their simple peristyle form.

When he used the "triumphal arch" motif of a large arched opening with lower square-topped opening on either side, he invariably applied it on a small scale, such as windows, rather than on a large scale as Alberti used it at Sant'Andrea's. This Ancient Roman motif is often referred to as the Palladian Arch.

The second half of the Cinquecento was characterized by the development of the "Umanesimo", related even to science discoveries like the one done by Galileo Galilei in astronomy and critical thoughts like those of Giordano Bruno.

Historically the Cinquecento is characterized by the end of the process of unification of Italy, because of the French invasions and the Sack of Rome in 1527. Later in the century Italy was devastated by the "Italian wars" done mainly between France and the emerging Spain (a new country that enjoyed the richness and power from the discovery of America done by Cristoforo Colombo), that divided between themselves the Italian peninsula and its "Rinascimento richness".

Related pages
Duecento
Trecento
Quattrocento
Renaissance

Notes

Bibliography
Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy. Princeton University Press. Princeton, 1999.

Renaissance
16th century in Italy

Cinquecento


Fitness in biology is the relative ability of an organism to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation.p160 It is a central idea in evolutionary theory. Fitness is usually equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation.

Like all terms in evolutionary biology, fitness is defined in terms of an interbreeding population, which might or might not be a whole species. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over generations; the genotypes with higher fitness become more common. This is the process called natural selection.

An individual's fitness is caused by its phenotype, and passed on by its genotype. The fitness of different individuals with the same genotype are not necessarily equal. It depends on the environment in which the individuals live, and on accidental events. However, since the fitness of the genotype is an averaged quantity, it reflects the reproductive outcomes of all individuals with that genotype.

Relatedness
Fitness measures the number of the copies of the genes of an individual in the next generation. It doesn't really matter how the genes arrive in the next generation. For an individual, it is equally "beneficial" to reproduce itself, or to help relatives with similar genes to reproduce, as long as similar number of copies of individual's genes get passed on to the next generation. Selection which promotes this kind of helper behaviour is called kin selection.

Our closest relatives (parents, siblings, and our own children) share on average 50% (half) of our genes. One step further removed are grandparents. With each of them we share on average 25% (a quarter) of our genes. That is a measure of our relatedness to them. Next come first cousins (children of our parents' siblings). We share 12.5% (1/8) of their genes.p100

Hamilton's rule
William Hamilton added various ideas to the notion of fitness. His rule suggests that a costly action should be performed if:
   where:
  is the reproductive cost to the altruist,
  is the reproductive benefit to the recipient of the altruistic behavior, and
  is the probability, above the population average, of the individuals sharing an altruistic gene – the "degree of relatedness".
Fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity.

Inclusive fitness
Inclusive fitness is a term which is essentially the same as fitness, but emphasises the group of genes rather than individuals.

Biological fitness says how well an organism can reproduce, and spread its genes to its offspring. The theory of inclusive fitness says that the fitness of an organism is also increased to the extent that its close relatives also reproduce. This is because relatives share genes in proportion to their relationship.

Another way of saying it is: the inclusive fitness of an organism is not a property of itself, but a property of its set of genes. It is calculated from the reproductive success of the individual, plus the reproductive success of its relatives, each one weighed by an appropriate coefficient of relatedness.

History
The British social philosopher Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest in his 1864 work Principles of biology to mean what Charles Darwin called natural selection. The original phrase was "survival of the best fitted".

References

Classical genetics
Evolutionary biology

Fitness (biology)


The Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), also known as Boston mackerel, or simply mackerel, is a pelagic schooling species of mackerel found on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean.

The Atlantic Mackerel is by far the most common of the ten species of the family that are caught in British waters. It is extremely common in huge shoals migrating towards the coast to feed on small fish and prawns during the summer.

Abundant in cold and temperate shelf areas, it forms large schools near the surface. They overwinter in deeper waters but move closer to shore in spring when water temperatures range between 11° and 14°C.

In north-east Atlantic: North Sea (east) and British Isles (west). The North Sea stock decreased dramatically in the 1960s because of direct overfishing.

Male and female Atlantic mackerel grow at about the same rate, reaching a maximum age of about 20 years and a maximum fork length of about 47 centimetres (19 in). Most Atlantic mackerel are sexually mature by the age of three years.

Scombriformes
Edible fish

Atlantic mackerel