James Jarrett Miller (October 28, 1963 – c. September 22, 2002), also known as the Fan Man, was an American parachutist and paraglider pilot  known for his appearances at various sporting events. His most infamous appearance was the November 6, 1993 boxing match between Evander Holyfield and Riddick Bowe at Caesars Palace on the Las Vegas Strip in Las Vegas, Nevada. Fan Man made headlines in the United States when he used his powered paraglider to fly into the arena, eventually crashing into the side of the ring. Miller hanged himself in 2003 a year after being diagnosed with coronary artery disease, which resulted in his being unable to do any flying, paragliding or hiking, and resulted in his closing his computer business due to mounting debts from medical bills.

Background
Miller was born in Havre de Grace, Maryland. He had three younger brothers and two younger sisters. In 1975, the Miller family moved to a country home near the Canada–United States border. The following year, the family relocated to Tok, Alaska. Miller later earned an associate degree in computer programming from the University of Alaska at Juneau. In the late 1980s, he moved to Las Vegas where he was introduced to paragliders.

Miller had been interested in flying since childhood and quickly became a paragliding enthusiast.
He started with a jetpack tied to his back, and moved up to two-cycle aircraft engines which powered him through the skies above the desert. He began setting power-gliding records for altitude and distance, with a reputation for reckless daring.

The Fan Man fight

Miller's first and most famous stunt happened on November 6, 1993 during the heavyweight title fight between Riddick Bowe and Evander Holyfield. Miller descended into the side of the ring area during the second minute of the seventh round of the fight, after circling Caesars Palace for ten minutes. The lines of his paraglider became tangled in the overhead lights, after which he landed on the top rope of the ring with his parachute still tangled in the lights. He tried to hang on with one foot and one hand on that top rope for a few seconds until he either fell or was dragged down into the crowd by spectators, his parachute ripping away from the lights above.

Fans and the fighters' security detail swarmed around him immediately and began attacking him. He was knocked unconscious during the attack.  One security officer reportedly struck Miller twenty times. He was rushed to a nearby hospital as spectators cut his paraglider into pieces for souvenirs. After his release from the hospital, Miller was taken to the Clark County Detention Center, where he was charged with dangerous flying and released on $200 bail. In an exclusive interview with British journalists after the bout, Miller categorized his ring crash as accidental and not intentional, claiming it was caused by mechanical problems. Miller later joked, "It was a heavyweight fight and I was the only guy who got knocked out."

The media immediately dubbed Miller "Fan Man," for the paramotor (lightweight engine and propeller) attached to his harness.

Other stunts
On January 9, 1994, Miller circled approximately 1,000 feet over the rim of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on his paraglider during the Denver Broncos-Los Angeles Raiders NFL playoff game. He landed in a park north of the Coliseum where he was arrested for interfering with a sporting event. Later that same month, he "buzzed", (flew low over), a Bolton Wanderers-Arsenal 4th round FA Cup football match at Burnden Park in Bolton, England. After serving a seven-day prison sentence, Miller was deported by British authorities.

On February 5 he was witnessed by British police paragliding along The Mall before landing atop Buckingham Palace. He then removed his trousers revealing that he was painted green from the waist down.  He was arrested without incident, fined £200 and was again deported. He was banned from reentering the UK for life.

When asked by reporters what his motives were for staging these stunts, Miller never gave clear answers. He claimed that he intentionally landed in the ring to break up the Bowe vs. Holyfield match, claiming he was opposed to violence. Miller's younger brother later said Miller staged the stunts because, "He was basically bucking society. He was mocking our rules, making up his own as he went along, kind of just making a mockery of our society and the way it works and what our expectations are."

Later years and death
After returning to the United States, Miller received death threats for interrupting sporting events. In 1996, he relocated to Valdez, Alaska where he lived in a dry cabin. He continued to fly ultralight aircraft and paragliders in the Alaskan wilderness and also gave lessons. Miller briefly worked for a computer company before opening his own computer business. In 2001, he was diagnosed with coronary artery disease and underwent double bypass surgery. There were complications and Miller developed health issues. He underwent two additional surgeries to correct issues caused by the first surgery, but continued to experience constant chest pains and ill health. Miller was unable to continue flying, paragliding and hiking because of his declining health. Due to mounting debts from medical bills, Miller was forced to close his computer business. He moved to Anchorage in 2002, where he worked for a utility company.

On September 22, 2002, Miller was reported missing after he disappeared earlier that morning while driving to the wilderness. His car was found near the Resurrection Pass Trail in Chugach National Forest on the Kenai Peninsula. A search was launched but was suspended on October 13. On March 9, 2003, a group of hunters bushwhacking through the woods on the peninsula found Miller's decomposing body. An autopsy revealed that Miller had hanged himself from a tree. Police said they believed Miller had chosen the remote Resurrection Pass Trail  and had veered deep off-trail in hopes that his body would not have been discovered for years, if ever.  At the time of his death, Miller's girlfriend was pregnant with the couple's first child. She gave birth to their son shortly before Miller's body was discovered in March 2003.

Although Miller's disappearance and death were reported in the local press shortly after his body was found, his suicide did not become widely known outside Alaska until the latter part of 2003 when ESPN went searching for him to film a SportsCenter feature to be shown during the tenth anniversary of his stunt.

In popular culture
 Fox Sports Net ranked Miller crashing into the boxing ring during the Bowe vs. Holyfield match as its #1 "Most Outrageous Sports Moment".
 An animated version of "the Fan Man" appears in The Simpsons episode "The Homer They Fall".

See also
Michael Sergio

References

External links

1963 births
2002 deaths
20th-century American people
American skydivers
Missing person cases in Alaska
People deported from the United Kingdom
People from Henderson, Nevada
People from Havre de Grace, Maryland
People from Valdez, Alaska
Suicides by hanging in Alaska
University of Alaska Southeast alumni
2002 suicides

James Miller (parachutist)


John Heartfield (June 19, 1891 in Berlin – April 26, 1968 in Berlin) is the English version of the name of the German photomontage artist Helmut Herzfeld. He started to call himself Heartfield in 1916, to criticize the rabid nationalism and anti-British sentiment in Germany during World War I.

Career
In 1918, Heartfield began at the Berlin Dada scene, and the Communist Party of Germany. He was thrown out of the Reichswehr film service because he supported the strike after the assassination of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. With George Grosz, he founded Die Pleite, a satirical magazine. Heartfield started to work for two communist publications: the daily Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag)and the weekly Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung (AIZ)(Workers' Illustrated Newspaper). AIZ published Heartfield's most famous work

In 1933, after the National Socialists came to power in Germany, Heartfield moved to Czechoslovakia, where he continued his photomontage work for the AIZ (which was published in exile); in 1938, the Nazis were preparing to invade Czechoslovakia, so he moved to England, and lived in Hampstead, London. After World War II he settled in East Germany, after 1954 he lived in East Berlin and worked closely with theatre directors such as Benno Besson and Wolfgang Langhoff at Berliner Ensemble and Deutsches Theater.

In 2005, Tate Britain held an exhibition of his photomontage pieces.

Works
His photomontages satirising Adolf Hitler and the Nazis often used Nazi symbols such as the swastika to change their propaganda message.

One of his more famous pieces, made in 1935 entitled Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle! () was published on the frontpage of the AIZ in 1935. The photomontage shows a family at a kitchen table, where a nearby portrait of Hitler hangs and the wallpaper is covered with swastikas. The family — mother, father, old woman, young man, baby, and dog — are trying to eat pieces of metal, such as chains, bicycle handlebars, and rifles. Below, the title is written in large letters, in addition to a quote by Hermann Goering during food shortage. Translated, the quote reads: "Iron has always made a nation strong, butter and lard have only made the people fat".   The picture makes fun of a speech Goering made, the quote is shortened to "Guns before butter"

Modern culture
Hurrah, die Butter ist Alle! served as the inspiration behind the song "Metal Postcard (Mittageisen)" by Siouxsie & the Banshees; the song was re-recorded in German and released as a single with Heartfield's work as the cover art.

The Heartfield piece The Hand has 5 Fingers with its original text: "5 fingers make a hand! With these 5 grab the enemy!", was referenced by alternative metal band System of a Down. A text printed on the back of the album System of a Down reads: "The hand has five fingers, capable and powerful, with the ability to destroy as well as create".

References

 Brigstocke, H. (2001). The Oxford companion to Western art. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Willett, John (1997). Heartfield versus Hitler. Hazan (Fernand) Editions, France.

Footnotes

Other websites
 Towson University  Heartfield's Online Art
 Brasscheck Heartfield versus Hitler

1891 births
1968 deaths
East German people
German communists
German photographers
People from Berlin
Refugees from Nazism

John Heartfield


United States Naval Station Tutuila was a naval station in Pago Pago Harbor on the island of Tutuila, part of American Samoa, built in 1899 and in operation until 1951. During the United States Navy rule of American Samoa, from 1900 to 1951, it was customary for the commandant of the station to also serve as Military Governor of the territory. Benjamin Franklin Tilley was the first commandant and the first officer responsible for the naval station's construction.

History
Located in the South Pacific, midway between Hawaii and New Zealand, the site was chosen in 1872 by Commander Richard Worsam Meade, who negotiated facilities for a coaling station for the United States Navy from the Samoan high chief Mauga Manuma.

Initially used by Pacific and Asiatic Squadrons, by 1940 Tutuila was a minor naval station. However, with the looming threat of a Pacific War, plans were drawn up for the development of its capabilities. In November 1940 expansion of the naval station began. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 naval activity at Tutuila increased. Ship arrivals jumped from three in December 1941 to 56 in December 1942. Shipping activity was intensive throughout 1943. In March 1943, 121 vessels passed through Pago Pago harbor.  However, as the war moved north and west, Tutuila became a strategic backwater. Shipping arrivals declined after February 1944, from fifty per month to less than twenty. Naval Station Tutuila supported the near by Naval Base Upolu, the two bases had the US Navy code name Operation Straw.

On January 11, 1942, a Japanese submarine surfaced off the coast of Tutuila and fired fifteen shells from its deck gun at the Naval Station in about ten minutes. Most landed harmlessly in the bay, but Commander Edwin Robinson was wounded in the knee by shrapnel and a member of the Fita Fita Guard (Samoan Marine Reserve) received minor injuries. Ironically, the only building damaged by the submarine's shell fire was a store owned by a Japanese expatriate, Frank Shimasaki. The fire was not returned in the only Japanese attack on Samoa during World War II.

Post-war Tutuila's military importance continued to decline, and in 1951, control of American Samoa was transferred from the Navy to the Department of the Interior. Naval Station Tutuila was closed, and the last scheduled naval transport, the , sailed on 25 June 1951. The harbor has since returned to commercial use.

U.S. Naval Station Historic District

The Naval Station had over a hundred buildings at the height of its activity. Today, visitors may walk a 2-mile tour of the villages of Fagatogo and Utulei to visit some of the station's remaining structures. This trail goes by The Fono, the Old Bake Shop, Old Samoan Jail, Commissary Store (now Jean P. Haydon Museum), the Governor's House, and the Fagatogo Malae.

Sixteen buildings in the former Naval Station are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, one of which—Government House—is a National Historic Landmark.

See also

 List of governors of American Samoa
 National Register of Historic Places listings in American Samoa
 Naval Base Samoa

References

External links
 American Samoa Military Bases website

Military in American Samoa
Buildings and structures in American Samoa
Naval Stations of the United States Navy
Pago Pago
National Historic Landmarks in American Samoa
Tutuila
19th century in Samoa
20th century in American Samoa
1872 establishments in Oceania
1951 disestablishments in Oceania
Military installations established in 1872
Military installations closed in 1951
Closed installations of the United States Navy

United States Naval Station Tutuila


Maine () is one of the traditional provinces of France. It corresponds to the former County of Maine, whose capital was also the city of Le Mans. The area, now divided into the departments of Sarthe and Mayenne, has about 857,000 inhabitants.

History

Antiquity
The Gallic tribe Aulerci Cenomani lived in the region during the Iron Age and Roman period. The province of Maine was named after them, in the 6th century CE as in Cinomanico (in pago Celmanico in 765, *Cemaine, then Le Maine from the 12th century).

Early Middle Ages
In the 8th and 9th centuries, there existed a Duchy of Cénomannie (ducatus Cenomannicus), which several of the Carolingian kings used as an appanage. This duchy was a march that may have included several counties including Maine, and extended into Lower Normandy, all the way to the Seine. In 748, Pepin the Short, then Mayor of the Palace and thus the most powerful man in Francia after the king, gave this duchy to his half-brother Grifo. In 790 Charlemagne in turn gave it to his younger son, Charles the Younger. Charlemagne's grandson, the future Charles the Bald, and his son Louis the Stammerer inherited the title. The son-in-law of Charlemagne, Rorgon, was the count of Maine between 832 and 839. In the last half of the 9th century, Maine took on strategic importance because of invasions from Normandy and Brittany. Rorgon's son Gauzfrid in turn became Count of Maine. He fought against Salomon, King of Brittany and in 866 participated in the battle of Brissarthe alongside Robert the Strong, the Frankish Margrave of Neustria. When Gauzfrid died, Charles the Bald granted the title, as well as the county and the wider Neustrian march to Ragenold of Neustria, because Gauzfrid's children were too young to act in that capacity. Ragenold, who may have been the son of Renaud d'Herbauges, died in 885 fighting the Vikings who were pillaging Rouen.

King Rudolph of France is said to have given Maine to the Norse nobleman Rollo, Duke of Normandy, in 924.

High Middle Ages

Angevin period (c. 1000–1063)
Bordering the county of Anjou to the south and the Duchy of Normandy to the north, Maine became a bone of contention between the rulers of these more powerful principalities. Hugh III of Maine (ruled c. 991–c. 1015) was forced to recognize Fulk III, Count of Anjou as his overlord.

Sometime between 1045 and 1047 Hugh IV married Bertha, daughter of Odo II, Count of Blois and widow of Alan III, Duke of Brittany. The Angevins did not want Maine to come under the influence of Blois, and Count Geoffrey Martel invaded Maine. But the Normans did not want Maine to return to the Angevin orbit, so were pulled into the conflict. The precise chronology is disputed, but it is clear that in 1051 Hugh IV died and the citizens of Le Mans opened their gate to the Angevins. Anjou wound up with effective control of most of the county, but the Normans did take several important strongholds on the Maine–Normandy border.

Norman conquest and rule (1062–1070)
Hugh IV's son Herbert II fled to the Norman court (though some historians say he was under Angevin control for a few years first) and his death in 1062 precipitated a succession crisis.
Herbert died childless in 1062 after declaring William the Bastard, then Duke of Normandy, his heir. His sister Marguerite was engaged to William's eldest son, Robert Curthose and Herbert had taken refuge at William's court in 1056 when Geoffrey Martel, Duke of Anjou, invaded Le Mans.

While the county was in Angevin hands, Anjou had its own succession problem. Duke William of Normandy claimed the county on their behalf of Herbert's young sister Margaret, betrothed to his son Robert Curthose. The other claimant was Herbert's aunt Biota, a sister of Hugh IV, and her husband Walter, Count of the Vexin. William invaded Maine in force in 1063 and despite stiff opposition from Fulk IV, Count of Anjou and from local barons such as Geoffrey of Mayenne and Hubert de Sainte-Suzanne, he controlled the county by the beginning of 1064. Biota and Walter were captured at the taking of Le Mans. They died sometime later in 1063, poisoned, it was rumoured, though there is no hard evidence for this. Norman control of Maine secured the southern border of Normandy against Anjou and is one factor which enabled William to launch his successful invasion of England in 1066.

In 1069 the citizens of Le Mans revolted against the Normans. Soon some of the Manceaux barons joined the revolt, the Normans were expelled in 1070, and young Hugh V was proclaimed Count of Maine.

Independent period (1070–1129)
Hugh was the son of Azzo d'Este and his wife Gersendis, the other sister of Count Hugh IV. Azzo returned to Italy, leaving Gersendis in charge. The real power, however, was one of the Manceaux barons, Geoffrey of Mayenne, who may also have been Gersendis' lover. After Norman attacks in 1073, 1088, 1098 and 1099, Elias I succeeded his cousin Hugh V, who sold Maine to him in 1092 for ten thousand shillings. His daughter married Fulk V, Count of Anjou, who took Maine over in 1110 after the death of Elias. Henri Beauclerc, agreed to recognize him as Count of Maine so long as he acknowledged the Duke of Normandy as his overlord.

Plantagenet period (1129–1204)
Fulk's son Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou inherited Maine. When Geoffrey died in 1151, it passed to his son, King Henry II of England. Since Henry had been Duke of Normandy since 1150, Anjou, Maine, and Normandy all had the same ruler for the first time. Henry later founded the Plantagenet dynasty in England.

When Richard the Lionheart, ruler of England, Normandy, Aquitaine, Anjou, Brittany, Maine and Touraine, collectively known as the Angevin Empire, died in 1199, it sparked a war of succession that lasted until 1204. While John Lackland managed to become recognised as King of England, the Plantagenet holdings of Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine were invaded and conquered by King Philip II of France. During the invasion, the French seneschal William des Roches took Touraine, Anjou and Maine on behalf of the French king.

Late Middle Ages
In 1331 the Count of Maine became a peer of the realm.

After the Battle of Verneuil in 1424, the English occupied Maine, and John of Lancaster took the title of Duke. The English held Le Mans until 1448 and Fresnay until 1449. In 1481, Charles IV, Duke of Anjou bequeathed his lands to Louis XI of France, thus returning the county to the crown.

French Revolution

At the beginning, a part of the Maine population supported the French Revolution that took place in Paris. The extension of it and the general opposition of the other European countries provoked a war, that forced the authorities of the new founded French Republic to engage soldiers to fight against its European enemies. The growing need of soldiers had bad consequences in the Maine, the south of Normandy and the eastern part of Brittany: Young men refused to join the army and preferred to disappear and hide themselves. They organized a sort of secret army and they got the name of Chouans, from the nickname of their chief, Jean Cottereau. With such chiefs, Maine became quickly the centre of Chouan counter-revolution. They found local support everywhere among the peasants, who were shocked by the way the administration and the army treated the priests and the Roman Catholic religion.

Modern times
During the French Revolution Maine became part of the new created départements Mayenne and Sarthe, now they are incorporated together in the Pays de la Loire Region.

Gallery

See also
 Counts and Dukes of Maine

References

Bibliography
Patrice Morel, "Les Comtes du Maine au IX siècle", in Revue Historique et Archéologique du Maine, Le Mans, 2005, 4° série T.5, tome CLVI de la Collection, pp. 177–264 (avec Index des principaux personnages; Bibliographie).
Robert Latouche, "Les premiers comtes héréditaires du Maine", in Revue Historique et Archéologique du Maine, Le Mans, 1959, tome CXV de la Collection, pp. 37–41
Robert Latouche, Histoire du Comté du Maine pendant le X° et XI° siècles, Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Paris, 1910.
Gérard Louise, "La seigneurie de Bellême Xe-XIIe siècles", dans Le Pays bas-normand, 1990, no 3 (199), pp. 161–175
Jean-Pierre Brunterc'h, " le duché du Maine et la marche de Bretagne " dans La Neustrie. Les Pays au nord de la Loire de 650 à 850, colloque historique international publié par Hartmut Atsma, 1989, tome 1.
François Neveux, la Normandie des ducs aux rois Xe-XIIe siècle, Rennes, Ouest-France, 1998
Auguste Bry, Le Maine et l'Anjou, historiques, archéologiques et pittoresques. Recueil des sites et des monuments les plus remarquables sous le rapport de l'art et de l'histoire des départements de la Sarthe, de la Mayenne et de Maine-et-Loire, Nantes et Paris, 1856-1860;
Abbé Angot, "Les vicomtes du Maine", dans Bulletin de la Commission historique et archéologique de la Mayenne, 1914, no 30, pp. 180–232, 320–342, 404–424.

External links

Former provinces of France
History of Pays de la Loire
History of Centre-Val de Loire
History of Normandy
History of Indre-et-Loire
History of Loir-et-Cher
History of Mayenne
History of Orne
History of Sarthe

Maine (province)


A puddle is a small mass of liquid, usually water, uncontained on a surface. It can form either in depressions in the surface, or directly upon the flat surface, held together by surface tension. A puddle is generally considered to be small enough to step over or shallow enough to walk through, and too small to traverse with a boat.

Puddles commonly form during rainstorms, and can cause problems for transport, especially when combined with cold conditions to form patches of ice, which are highly slippery and difficult to see.

Water

Puddle


Manslaughter is the crime of killing a person. When a person is killed, lawyers also look at the reasons, and motives why this person was killed. If the death of a person was not on purpose, but the killer did something that resulted in the death of the another person, this is usually called manslaughter, in English. It is less serious than if a person was killed on purpose (sometimes with planning involved), which is called murder, in English.  Killing someone in self-defence may be manslaughter. Depending on the circumstances, killing in self-defence may be no crime at all.  Negligent homicide is an even lesser crime.

Manslaughter is a relatively new legal concept. It was first mentioned in an English statute in 1547, but was interpreted very loosely and not earnestly enforced, instead usually charging with murder.  Very few countries had manslaughter on their books until the latter half of the 20th century.  In fact, no jurisdiction in the United States had manslaughter on its books until the 20th century.  England and the United States were the first two countries to introduce manslaughter into their laws.

Laws
Legal dictionary

Manslaughter


Henry VIII (28 Juin 1491 – 28 Januar 1547) wis Keeng o Ingland frae 21 Aprile 1509 till his daith. He wis Laird, an later assumed the Keengship, o Ireland, an continued the nominal claim bi Inglis monarchs tae the Kinrick o Fraunce. Henry wis the seicont monarch o the Tudor dynasty, succeedin his faither, Henry VII.

Besides his sax marriages, Henry VIII is kent for his role in the separation o the Kirk o Ingland frae the Roman Catholic Kirk.  His disagreements wi the Pape led tae his separation o the Kirk o Ingland frae papal authority, wi himsel, as king, as the Supreme Heid o the Kirk o Ingland an tae the Dissolution o the Monasteries. Acause his principal dispute wis wi papal authority, rather nor wi doctrinal matters, he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachins despite his excommunication frae the Roman Catholic Kirk. Henry owersaw the legal union o Ingland an Wales wi the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 an 1542.  He is an aa weel kent for a lang personal rivalry wi baith Francis I o Fraunce an the Haly Roman Emperor Charles V, wi whom he frequently warred.

Domestically, Henry is kent for his radical chynges tae the Inglis Constitution, usherin in the theory o the divine richt o keengs tae Ingland. Besides assertin the sovereign's supremacy ower the Kirk o Ingland, sicweys initiatin the Inglis Reformation, he greatly expanded ryal pouer. Charges o treason an heresy war commonly uised tae quash dissent, an those accuised war eften executit wioot a formal trial, bi means o bills o attainder. He achieved mony o his poleetical aims throu the wirk o his chief meenisters, some o whom war banished or executit when thay fell oot o his favour. Figurs sic as Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich, an Thomas Cranmer figurt prominently in Henry's admeenistration. An extravagant spender, he uised the proceeds frae the Dissolution o the Monasteries an acts o the Reformation Pairlament tae convert money umwhile peyed tae Roum intae ryal revenue. Despite the influx o money frae thir soorces, Henry wis continually on the verge o financial ruin due tae his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars.

His contemporaries considert Henry in his prime tae be an attractive, eddicatit an accomplished king, an he haes been describit as "ane o the maist charismatic rulers tae sit on the Inglis throne". Besides rulin wi considerable pouer, he wis an aa an author an componer. His desire tae provide Ingland wi a male heir – which stemmed pairtly frae personal vanity an pairtly frae his belief that a dauchter wad be unable tae consolidate Tudor pouer an maintain the fragile peace that existit follaein the Wars o the Roses – led tae the twa things for which Henry is maist remembered: his sax marriages an his break wi the Pape (who wad nae allae an annulment o Henry's first marriage). As he aged, Henry acame severely obese an his heal suffered, contreibutin tae his daith in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustfu, egotistical, harsh, an insecur king. He wis succeedit bi his son Edward VI.

References

1491 births
1547 daiths
16t-century monarchs in Europe
16t-century Inglis writers
Annulment
Buirials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Converts tae Anglicanism frae Roman Catholicism
Dukes o York
Dukes o Cornwall
Earls Marshal
Inglis Anglicans
Inglis classical componers
Inglis monarchs
Inglis fowk o Welsh strynd
Inglis pretenders tae the French throne
Umwhile Roman Catholics
Foonders o Inglis schuils an colleges
Hoose o Tudor
Knichts o the Gairten
Knichts o the Gowden Fleece
Lairds Warden o the Cinque Ports
Male Shakespearean chairacters
Militar leaders o the Italian Wars
Fowk excommunicatit bi the Roman Catholic Kirk
Fowk frae Greenwich
Princes o Wales
Recipients o the Gowden Rose
Renaissance componers
Fowk associatit wi the Dissolution o the Monasteries
Muisickers frae Kent

Henry VIII o Ingland


Zambia, in southern Africa, is a landlocked country of rugged terrain and diverse wildlife, with many parks and safari areas. On its border with Zimbabwe is famed Victoria Falls – indigenously called Mosi-oa-Tunya, or "Smoke That Thunders" – plunging a misty 108m into narrow Batoka Gorge. Spanning the Zambezi River just below the falls is Victoria Falls Bridge, a spectacular viewpoint.

Zambiya


The cylinder block is an integrated structur comprising the cylinder(s) o a reciprocating ingine an eften some or aw o thair associated surroondin structures (cuilant passages, intake an exhaust passages an ports, an crankcase). The term ingine block is eften uised synonymously wi "cylinder block" (awtho technically distinctions can be made atween en bloc cylinders as a discrete unit versus ingine block designs wi yet mair integration that comprise the crankcase as well).

In the basic terms o machine elements, the various main pairts o an ingine (sic as cylinder(s), cylinder heids, cuilant passages, intake an exhaust passages, an crankcase) are conceptually distinct, an thir items can aw be made as discrete pieces that are bolted thegither. Sic construction wis very widespread in the early decades o the commercialization o internal combustion ingines (1880s tae 1920s), an it is still whiles uised in certaint applications whaur it remains advantageous (especially very lairge ingines, but an aw some smaw ingines). Houiver, it is no langer the normal wey o building maist petrol ingines an diesel ingines, acause for ony gien ingine configuration, thare are mair efficient ways o designing for manufacture (an an aw for maintenance an repair). Thir generally involve integrating multiple machine elements intae ane discrete pairt, an daein the makin (sic as castin, stamping, an machining) for multiple elements in ane setup wi ane machine coordinate seestem (o a machine tuil or ither piece o manufacturing machinery). This yields lawer unit cost o production (an/or maintenance an repair).

The day maist ingines for cars, trucks, buses, tractors, an sae on are biggit wi fairly heichly integrated design, sae the words "monobloc" an "en bloc" are seldom uised in describing them; sic construction is eften implicit. Sicweys "ingine block", "cylinder block", or simply "block" are the terms likely tae be heard in the garage or on the street.

References

Ingine technology

Cylinder block


Albrecht Altodorfer was a German painter, engraver and builder of the Renaissance. He was probably born around the year 1480, in Altdorf, Lower Bavaria, or Regensburg. He died on 12 February 1538 in Regensburg. Together with Wolf Huber, he is seen as one of the main people in the Danube school. The danube school was an art movement that spread along the Danube, in Germany and Austria. With Albrecht Dürer he founded the Little Masters (original: Kleinmeister) of Nuremberg.

Related pages

German art

1480s births
1538 deaths
German painters

Albrecht Altdorfer


Praseodymium is a chemical element that has the symbol Pr on the periodic table. It has the atomic number 59 which means it has 59 protons in an atom. It is a soft silvery metal that can be used to make yellow-green salts. It is mixed with magnesium to produce strong metal used in aircraft engines. It can also be used to color green glass, and is in electrodes in lights. Praseodymium was first isolated (separated from other elements) in 1885 by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. It is found in sands, called monazite sands, of Florida, California, India, and Brazil.

Lanthanides

Praseodymium


The Lanrikshire derby is the collective name gied tae ony fitbaa gemme played atween the fower biggest fitbaa clubs in Lanrikshire, Scotland, ootside o Glesga.  These are Albion Rovers, Airdrie Unitit, Hamilton Academical an Mitherwall.

Fixtures

The're sechs possible fixtures playable in the Lanrikshire derby an aw o them hae been played at least ance.  The level o popularity o the fixtures is no so heich as it uised tae be sin they hav'nae been as common in recent times as the clubs hae been split ower the Scots league diveesions.  In terms o veectories in derbies, the team wae the best record is Mitherwall who hae recordit mare wins than thair opponents in every one o the derby matches.

Albion Rovers vs Airdrie Unitit

Albion hae never played a gemme agin Airdrie Unitit.  Acause o a deeference in diveesions sin the 1989/90 season, the Albion hae anely played agin the noo defunct Airdrieonians (a previous incarnation o Airdrie Unitit).  The twa were never traditionally rivals an the gemme is anely classed as a derby acause the teams are frae neeborin touns (Coatbrig an Airdrie).

Albion Rovers vs Hamilton Academical

In a similar wye tae the Albion vs Airdrie gemme, this fixture is anely really considert a derby acause the twa teams are frae close touns.  The twa are no really close rivals.  The maist recent fixture o this gemme wis played in September 2003 in a League Cup match at New Douglas Pairk in Hamilton, a 4–3 veectory for the hame side.  Accies shaired Albions grunnd for a while whan they could'nae uise thair ane in 1994.

Albion Rovers vs Mitherwall

Maist fowk frae Lanrikshire will agree that ae aw the fixtures played, this is the least well mindit.  Albion hae never wun this derby in 34 times it haes been played oot. The last competitive gemme atween the twa teams wis a 4–0 veectory for Mitherwall in the 1987 Scots League Cup.

Airdrie Unitit vs Hamilton Academical

This derby is aftentimes kennt as the North-Sooth Lanrikshire derby acause o the fact that Airdrie are frae North Lanrickshire and Hamilton are frae Sooth Lanrickshire.  This was the maist frequent o the derbies in recent times sin baith teams were competin in the same diveesion o the league.  Houaniver, seein as this wisna a fixture o the heichmaist diveesion (the SPL), it's no got the same profile as it aiblins should.

Airdrie Unitit vs Mitherwall

This is arguably the maist fiercely contendit o aw the Lanrikshire derbies.  It is uisually kennt as the North Lanrickshire derby as it atween the twa biggest teams in North Lanrickshire.  Apart frae the proximity, the twa hae clashed in mony a heich stakes gemme an this haes increasit the rivalry atween the teams.

The match was alwyes a regularity whan the nou defunct Lanrikshire Cup was still played, an in quite a few instances, this match was the final. Syne the close o the competition in 1996, Airdrie haes 33 cup wins compared to Mitherwall's 32.  This means that, jointly, the clubs hae wun mare than hauf o aw the titles on affer in that cups 127 year history, showing just hou dominant the pair were at the time.

The maist recent clash wis a 1–0 veectory for Mitherwall in a Scots Cup Thrid Roond tie played at New Broomfield in Airdrie.  This was an occasion for supporters o baith teams an wis very weel attendit: a crowd o 5,924 turned oot tae see the spectacle.

Hamilton Academical vs Mitherwall

Again, this match is aftentimes caa'd the North-Sooth Lanrikshire derby acause o the locations o the teams.  This is nou the maist common o the Lanrikshire derbies sin Hamilton wur fordert back tae the heichmaist diveesion o Scots fitbaa in 2007/08.  The maist recent gemmes (ie. thaim sin Hamilton's forderment), hae seen Mitherwall win 3 tae Hamiltons 1 an 1 draw.

References

Fitbaw derbies in Scotland

Lanrikshire derby


The Helm Wind is a named wind in Cumbria, England, a strong north-easterly wind which blows down the south-west slope of the Cross Fell escarpment. It is the only named wind in the British Isles, although many other mountain regions in Britain exhibit the same phenomenon when the weather conditions are favourable. It may take its name from the helmet or cap of cloud which forms above Cross Fell, known as the Helm Bar, since a line of clouds over the fells can predict and accompany a Helm. Research into the helm wind was carried out by Gordon Manley in the 1930s. He interpreted the phenomenon in hydrodynamic terms as a "standing wave" and "rotor", a model confirmed in 1939 by glider flights.

The dale at the head of the Eden Valley has its own Helm Wind, which sweeps over Mallerstang Edge, particularly affecting the central part of the dale. This can be similarly fierce and can blow for two days or more, sometimes sounding like an express train. As with the wind at Cross Fell, its arrival is accompanied by the formation of a dense cap of cloud (a "Helm Bar") which, in this case, forms along the high ground on the eastern side of the dale.

References

External links
 Example of a Helm Bar taken from near Appleby in Westmorland on April 3rd 2007
 Helm Wind article on a website that specialises in "wind of the world".

Climate of England
Föhn effect
Geography of Cumbria
Winds
Pennines

pl:Wiatr#Lokalne wiatry nazwane

Helm Wind


Cædwalla (;  659 – 20 April 689 AD) was the King of Wessex from approximately 685 until he abdicated in 688. His name is derived from the Welsh Cadwallon. He was exiled from Wessex as a youth and during this period gathered forces and attacked the South Saxons, killing their king, Æthelwealh, in what is now Sussex. Cædwalla was unable to hold the South Saxon territory, however, and was driven out by Æthelwealh's ealdormen. In either 685 or 686, he became King of Wessex. He may have been involved in suppressing rival dynasties at this time, as an early source records that Wessex was ruled by underkings until Cædwalla.

After his accession Cædwalla returned to Sussex and won the territory again. He also conquered the Isle of Wight, gained control of Surrey and the kingdom of Kent, and in 686 he installed his brother Mul as king of Kent. Mul was burned in a Kentish revolt a year later, and Cædwalla returned, possibly ruling Kent directly for a period.

Cædwalla was wounded during the conquest of the Isle of Wight, and perhaps for this reason he abdicated in 688 to travel to Rome for baptism. He reached Rome in April 689, and was baptised by Pope Sergius I on the Saturday before Easter, dying ten days later on 20 April 689. He was succeeded by Ine.

Sources
A major source for West Saxon events is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written about 731 by Bede, a Northumbrian monk and chronicler. Bede received a good deal of information relating to Cædwalla from Bishop Daniel of Winchester; Bede's interest was primarily in the Christianization of the West Saxons, but in relating the history of the church he sheds much light on the West Saxons and on Cædwalla. The contemporary Vita Sancti Wilfrithi or Life of St Wilfrid (by Stephen of Ripon, but often misattributed to Eddius Stephanus) also mentions Cædwalla. Another useful source is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a set of annals assembled in Wessex in the late 9th-century, probably at the direction of King Alfred the Great. Associated with the Chronicle is a list of kings and their reigns, known as the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List. There are also six surviving charters, though some are of doubtful authenticity. Charters were documents drawn up to record grants of land by kings to their followers or to the church, and provide some of the earliest documentary sources in England.

West Saxon territory in the 680s

In the late 7th century, the West Saxons occupied an area in the west of southern England, though the exact boundaries are difficult to define. To their west was the native British kingdom of Dumnonia, in what is now Devon and Cornwall. To the north were the Mercians, whose king, Wulfhere, had dominated southern England during his reign. In 674 he was succeeded by his brother, Æthelred, who was less militarily active than Wulfhere had been along the frontier with Wessex, though the West Saxons did not recover the territorial gains Wulfhere had made. To the southeast was the kingdom of the South Saxons, in what is now Sussex; and to the east were the East Saxons, who controlled London.

Not all the locations named in the Chronicle can be identified, but it is apparent that the West Saxons were fighting in north Somerset, south Gloucestershire, and north Wiltshire, against both British and Mercian opposition. To the west and south, evidence of the extent of West Saxon influence is provided by the fact that Cenwalh, who reigned from 642 to 673, is remembered as the first Saxon patron of Sherborne Abbey, in Dorset; similarly, Centwine (676–685) is the first Saxon patron of Glastonbury Abbey, in Somerset. Evidently these monasteries were in West Saxon territory by then. Exeter, to the west, in Devon, was under West Saxon control by 680, since Boniface was educated there at about that time.

Ancestry
A number of the early kings of Wessex had Celtic names, which may indicate Brythonic ancestry. Cædwalla's name ultimately derives from the Proto-Celtic *Katu-welnā-mnos, meaning "The One Who (-mnos) Leads (welnā-) into Battle (katu-)". However, the form "Cædwalla" appears to be a Saxon variant of "Cadwallon", a contemporary Welsh name.

Bede states that Cædwalla was a "daring young man of the royal house of the Gewissæ", and gives his age at his death in 689 as about thirty, making the year of his birth about 659. "Gewisse", a tribal name, is used by Bede as an equivalent to "West Saxon": the West Saxon genealogies trace back to one "Gewis", an eponymous ancestor. According to the Chronicle, Cædwalla was the son of Coenberht, and was descended via Ceawlin from Cerdic, the first of the Gewisse to land in England. However, it appears that the many difficulties and contradictions in the regnal list are caused partly by the efforts of later scribes to demonstrate that each king on the list was descended from Cerdic; thus Cædwalla's genealogy must be treated with caution.

First campaign in Sussex
The first mention of Cædwalla is in the Life of St Wilfrid, in which he is described as an exiled nobleman in the forests of Chiltern and Andred. It was not uncommon for a 7th-century king to have spent time in exile before gaining the throne; Oswald of Northumbria is another prominent example. According to the Chronicle, it was in 685 that Cædwalla "began to contend for the kingdom". Despite his exile, he was able to put together enough military force to defeat and kill Æthelwealh, the king of Sussex. He was, however, soon expelled by Berthun and Andhun, Æthelwealh's ealdormen, "who administered the country from then on", possibly as kings.

The Isle of Wight and the Meon valley in what is now eastern Hampshire had been placed under Æthelwealh's control by Wulfhere; the Chronicle dates this to 661, but according to Bede it occurred "not long before" Wilfrid's mission to the South Saxons in the 680s, which implies a rather later date. Wulfhere's attack on Ashdown, also dated by the Chronicle to 661, may likewise have actually happened later. If these events happened in the early 680s or not long before, Cædwalla's aggression against Æthelwealh would be explained as a response to Mercian pressure.

Another indication of the political and military situation may be the division in the 660s of the West Saxon see at Dorchester-on-Thames; a new see was established at Winchester, very near to the South Saxon border. Bede's explanation for the division is that Cenwalh grew tired of the Frankish speech of the bishop at Dorchester, but it is more likely that it was a response to the Mercian advance, which forced West Saxon expansion, such as Cædwalla's military activities, west, south, and east, rather than north. Cædwalla's military successes may be the reason that at about this time the term "West Saxon" starts to be used in contemporary sources, instead of "Gewisse". It is from this time that the West Saxons began to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples.

Accession and reign
In 685 or 686, Cædwalla became king of the West Saxons after Centwine, his predecessor, retired to a monastery. Bede gives Cædwalla a reign of two years, ending in 688, but if his reign was less than three years then he may have come to the throne in 685. The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List gives his reign a length of three years, with one variant reading of two years.

According to Bede, before Cædwalla's reign, Wessex was ruled by underkings, who were conquered and removed when Cædwalla became king. This has been taken to mean that Cædwalla himself ended the reign of the underkings, though Bede does not directly say this. Bede gives the death of Cenwalh as the start of the ten-year period in which the West Saxons were ruled by these underkings; Cenwalh is now thought to have died in about 673, so this is slightly inconsistent with Cædwalla's dates. It may be that Centwine, Cædwalla's predecessor as king of the West Saxons, began as a co-ruler but established himself as sole king by the time Cædwalla became king. It may also be that the underkings were another dynastic faction of the West Saxon royal line, vying for power with Centwine and Cædwalla; the description of them as "underkings" may be due to a partisan description of the situation by Bishop Daniel of Winchester, who was Bede's primary informant on West Saxon events. It is also possible that not all the underkings were deposed. There is a King Bealdred, who reigned in the area of Somerset and West Wiltshire, who is mentioned in two land-grants, one dated 681 and the other 688, though both documents have been treated as spurious by some historians. Further confusing the situation is another land-grant, thought to be genuine, showing Ine's father, Cenred, still reigning in Wessex after Ine's accession.

Once on the throne, Cædwalla attacked the South Saxons again, this time killing Berthun, and "the province was reduced to a worse state of subjection". He also conquered the Isle of Wight, which was still an independent pagan kingdom, and set himself to kill every native on the island, resettling it with his own people, though Bede states that the natives remained a majority on the island. Arwald, the king of the Isle of Wight, left his two young brothers as heirs. They fled the island, but were found at Stoneham, in Hampshire, and killed on Cædwalla's orders, though he was persuaded by a priest to let them be baptised before they were executed. Bede also mentions that Cædwalla was wounded; he was recovering from his wounds when the priest found him to ask permission to baptise the princes.

In a charter of 688, Cædwalla grants land at Farnham for a minster, so it is evident that Cædwalla controlled Surrey. He also invaded Kent, in 686, and may have founded a monastery at Hoo, northeast of Rochester, between the Medway and the Thames.  He installed his brother, Mul, as king of Kent, in place of its king Eadric. In a subsequent Kentish revolt, Mul was "burned" along with twelve others, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Cædwalla responded with a renewed campaign against Kent, laying waste to its land and leaving it in a state of chaos.  He may have ruled Kent directly after this second invasion.

Christianity

Cædwalla was unbaptised when he came to the throne of Wessex, and remained so throughout his reign, but though he is often referred to as a pagan this is not necessarily the most apt description; it may be that he was already Christian in his beliefs but delayed his baptism to a time of his choice. He was clearly respectful of the church, with charter evidence showing multiple grants to churches and for religious buildings. When Cædwalla first attacked the South Saxons, Wilfrid was at the court of King Æthelwealh, and on Æthelwealh's death Wilfrid attached himself to Cædwalla; the Life of Wilfrid records that Cædwalla sought Wilfrid out as a spiritual father. Bede states that Cædwalla vowed to give a quarter of the Isle of Wight to the church if he conquered the island and that Wilfrid was the beneficiary when the vow was fulfilled; Bede also says that Cædwalla agreed to let the heirs of Arwald, the king of the Isle of Wight, be baptised before they were executed. Two of Cædwalla's charters were grants of land to Wilfrid, and there is also subsequent evidence that Cædwalla worked with Wilfrid and Eorcenwald, a bishop of the East Saxons, to establish an ecclesiastical infrastructure for Sussex. However, there is no evidence that Wilfrid exerted any influence over Cædwalla's secular activities or his campaigns.

Wilfrid's association with Cædwalla may have benefited him in other ways: the Life of Wilfrid asserts that the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore, expressed a wish that Wilfrid succeed him in that role, and if this is true it may be a reflection of Wilfrid's association with Cædwalla's southern overlordship.

Abdication, baptism and death
In 688 Cædwalla abdicated and went on a pilgrimage to Rome, possibly because he was dying of the wounds he had suffered while fighting on the Isle of Wight. Cædwalla had not been baptised, and Bede states that he wished to "obtain the particular privilege of receiving the cleansing of baptism at the shrine of the blessed Apostles". He stopped in Francia at Samer, near Calais, where he gave money for the foundation of a church, and is also recorded at the court of Cunincpert, king of the Lombards, in what is now northern Italy. In Rome, he was baptised by Pope Sergius I on the Saturday before Easter (according to Bede) taking the baptismal name Peter, and died not long afterwards, "still in his white garments". He was buried in St. Peter's church. Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle agree that Cædwalla died on 20 April, but the latter says that he died seven days after his baptism, although the Saturday before Easter was on 10 April that year. The epitaph on his tomb described him as "King of the Saxons".

Cædwalla's departure in 688 appears to have led to instability in the south of England. Ine, Cædwalla's successor, abdicated in 726, and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List says that he reigned for thirty-seven years, implying his reign began in 689 instead of 688. This could indicate an unsettled period between Cædwalla's abdication and Ine's accession. The kingship also changed in Kent in 688, with Oswine, who was apparently a Mercian client, taking the throne; and there is evidence of East Saxon influence in Kent in the years immediately following Cædwalla's abdication.

In 694, Ine extracted compensation of 30,000 pence from the Kentishmen for the death of Mul; this amount represented the value of an aetheling's life in the Saxon system of Weregild. Ine appears to have retained control of Surrey, but did not recover Kent. No king of Wessex was to venture so far east until Egbert, over a hundred years later.

See also
House of Wessex family tree

Notes

References

Primary sources
Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Translated by Leo Sherley-Price, revised R. E. Latham, ed. D.H. Farmer. London: Penguin, 1990.

Secondary sources

External links

650s births
689 deaths
7th-century English monarchs
Burials at St. Peter's Basilica
Anglo-Saxon warriors
West Saxon monarchs
Monarchs who abdicated
House of Wessex

Cædwalla of Wessex


The worship of Aphroditus comes from Cyprus, a cult of a masculine or hermaphrodite form of Aphrodite. The divinity was introduced into Greece and celebrated in Athens in a cross-dressing ritual.

Mythology
It is thought that Hesiod's myth, explaining the birth of Aphrodite, born when Cronus cut off the genitals of Uranus and threw it into the sea, originated from the cult of Aphroditus. A terracotta plaque from the 7th century BC found at Perachora in Greece, representing Aphroditus emerging from severed male genitals, suggests this, as there are two different myths of the creation of Aphrodite.

Cult
According to Macrobius, Aphroditus was represented in Cyprus with a beard and phallus, wearing female clothing and holding a scepter. At sacrifices to the god, worshipers cross-dressed, men wearing women's clothing and women dressed in men's clothing. The cult spread from Cyprus into southern Asia Minor, eventually reaching mainland Greece around the late 5th century BC. In Athens, the iconography of the god took on the anasyromenos pose, a female figure lifting her dress to reveal an erect phallus, a gesture that had apotropaic qualities, much like the god Priapus. By the Hellenistic period, the cult and votives had spread throughout Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy.

Evolution
Gradually over time the cult lost popularity, Aphroditus was also being called Hermaphroditus, which originally meant Aphroditus in the form of a herm or "a herm of Aphroditus". These were marble or bronze sculptures with a head or torso above a plain rectangular pillar, a symbol of fertility. In later Greek mythology, Hermaphroditus came to be known as the son of Hermes and Aphrodite.

Greek gods and goddesses

Aphroditus


Noh or No (Japanese:能 Nō) is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama. It started in the 14th century and continues today. Noh is made up of mai (dances), hayashi (music) and utai (words usually in songs). The performers use masks and dance slowly. Zeami and his father Kan'ami brought Noh to its present-day form during the Muromachi period.

Types of Noh drama
Theater pieces of Noh are classified into 5 groups.
 Divine; the hero or heroine is divine like a god, heavenly people, and so on. The hero or heroine makes a benediction at the end of the drama.
 Shura-mono (Warrior); the hero (rarely heroine) is a warrior, usually already dead.
 Kazura-mono (Women); the heroine and often her love romance is the focus.
 Zatsu-no (Miscellaneous); Noh which cannot be placed in the other four groups.
 Oni-noh (Oni; demons) ; Non-humans, like oni, tengu (fairy, lion), are the heroes of this type. Mainly it is played at the end of the program.

Noh players
All Noh players are men. They have been taught their skills by their fathers. When a woman or girl appears in the drama, a male actor plays her role with a woman mask.

There are three types of Noh players: shite, waki and kyogen. Shite plays the hero or the heroine. He talks sings and dances. Waki (meaning "Side") and plays the sidekick of Shite. The Waki usually plays the role of a traveler role. He introduces us to the world in the drama. Kyogen appears in the middle of the drama if it has two parts, and plays the role of the local citizen. He talks to Waki and makes him notice something new or realize what has happened.

Music on Noh
Hayashi means musical instrumentals. Two kinds of drum (Tuzumi, Taiko) and a flute (Fue) are used in the theater.

References

Japanese music
Theatrical forms
Entertainment in Japan

Noh


The Meiji Restoration (明治維新) was a time of great change in Japan. In the Japanese language, Meiji-ishin is the term for the Meiji Restoration. The term describes a series of events that changed the shape of Japan's political and social systems. These changes took place mainly in the three years from 1866 to 1869, at the beginning of the Meiji period.

End of the Shogunate
In 1866, the Tokugawa Shogunate was ruling Japan. In the year 1866, two domains, the local government at that time, came together under an alliance. The name of this alliance was the Sat-cho Alliance. This was an alliance between the Satsuma Domain and the Chōshū Domain, and a person named Sakamoto Ryoma brought the two domains together. These two domains supported the Emperor Meiji of Japan who, at the time, did not have much power. With their support the emperor could regain much of his power.

The Tokugawa Shogunate's rule ended on 9th November 1867, but they still retained some authority and power.  In the Boshin War of 1868, an army from Satsuma Province and Choshu defeated the forces of the Tokugawa Shogunate.  This completely ended the power of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

The Revolution of the country's system
After defeating the Tokugawa Shogunate, the leaders of the Meiji Restoration started to reform the system of the country. They acted in the name of Japan's emperor, to restore (that is, to return) the emperor's powers. But, the leaders also kept to themselves a number of powers. In fact, even after the Meiji Restoration, an oligarchy, a small group, had the real power and ruled in the name of the emperor.

After the Meiji Restoration started, Japan's progress was fast. The revolution included centralizing power, changing the tax system, starting the educational system, constructing factories and railways, etc.

Industrialization developed rapidly and within next three to four decades (by 1905) Japan had become a military power, comparable to the great powers of the time.

Leaders
 Okubo Toshimichi (1830-1878)
 Kido Takayoshi (1833-1877)
 Saigo Takamori (1827-1877)
 Iwakura Tomomi (1825-1883)
 Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909)
 Kuroda Kiyotaka (1840-1900)
 Matsukata Masayoshi (1835-1924)
 Oyama Iwao (1842-1916)
 Saigo Tsugumichi (1843-1902)
 Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922)
 Inoue Kaoru (1835-1905)
 Saionji Kinmochi (1849-1940)

19th century in Japan
1866
1867
1868
1869
1860s in Asia

Meiji Restoration


James Purdey & Sons, or simply Purdey, is a British gunmaker based in London, England specialising in high-end bespoke sporting shotguns and rifles. Purdey holds three Royal Warrants of appointment as gun and rifle makers to the British and other European royal families.

History

James Purdey founded James Purdey & Sons in London, England in 1814, locating his business on Princes Street.

Prior to starting out on his own, Purdey worked as head stocker for Joseph Manton, the foremost gunmaker of his time. In 1826 the company moved from the Princes Street location to Manton's former premises in Oxford Street.

The founder's son, James Purdey the Younger, took over the running of the company from his father in 1858. James the Younger saw rapid change in the development and design of guns and rifles during his lifetime, essentially moving from muzzle loading flintlocks in the 1820s to breech loading hammerless ejectors by the 1880s. James the Younger was always at the forefront of advances in the design and building of his guns and rifles, and took out several patents for technical innovations over the years. Many of James the Younger's patents were adopted by other gunmakers.

In 1882 the company moved from Oxford Street to new premises on the corner of South Audley Street and Mount Street, where the company remains to this day. James the younger designed this building to accommodate his showroom, the factory, and later the building provided living quarters for James' family. The City of Westminster unveiled a memorial plaque on the shop at 57-60 South Audley Street on 30 April 1992.

Purdey guns moved briskly from flintlock to percussion cap to hammer centre-fire guns and then to the self-opening hammerless gun of 1880. This hammerless self opening mechanism was designed by Frederick Beesley, a Purdey worker of the time, and used one limb of a V spring to operate the internal hammers and the other to operate the self opening feature. Beesley sold the patent to Purdey in 1880 for £55. This was followed ten years later by the incorporation of ejectors. Apart from continual refinement and the optional single trigger mechanism, very little change has subsequently been made to the design of the side-by-side gun.

In 1900 Athol Purdey took over from his father and ran the business through the prosperous Edwardian years, as well as supervising Purdey's manufacturing of gun parts and other items of ordnance for the War Department during World War I. Athol's sons, James and Tom, both of whom had survived serious injuries whilst fighting in France, joined the firm in the 1920s, and took over from Athol Purdey on his retirement circa 1929.

The Purdey "over & under" gun is a development of the Woodward patent of 1913 which was incorporated into the company on the purchase of J.Woodward & Sons by Purdey in 1949.

Whilst James Purdey & Sons is best known as a maker of shotguns, it also produces rifles, both double-barrelled and bolt-action. The guns are custom-made, largely by hand. They are extremely expensive.

Richard Purdey, the sixth generation of the family from the founder, retired as chairman in February 2007. Nigel Beaumont took over as chairman until his retirement in 2014. James Horne was chairman from 2014 to December 2019. The current Chairman is Dan Jago.

Ownership changes
In 1946, after 132 years of Purdey family ownership, Hugh Seely, 1st Baron Sherwood, purchased James Purdey & Sons Ltd. In 1994, The Hon Richard Beaumont, who had been chairman since 1970, upon deciding to retire, sold James Purdey & Sons Ltd to Compagnie Financière Richemont SA.

Royal clientele
As early as 1838, Queen Victoria is recorded as having bought a pair of Purdey pistols. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the company supplied ornate guns and rifles to various Indian princes.

Warrants
The company was granted its first Royal Warrant in 1868 by The Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII; today the company holds warrants from King Charles III.

The company also held warrant from The Duke of Edinburgh and Queen Elizabeth II until their deaths in 2021 and 2022.

References

External links

Richemont brands
British royal warrant holders
Shotguns
Firearm manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Manufacturing companies established in 1814
1814 establishments in England
British companies established in 1814
Mount Street, London

James Purdey & Sons


Karl Péarson (27 Maret 1857 – 27 April 1936) loba kontribusina dina pengembangan statistics saperti disiplin elmu nu sarius. Anjeunna ngadegkeun Jurusan Applied Statistics di University College London taun 1911; mangrupa universitas mimiti nu mibanda jurusan statistik di dunya.

Biografi

Karl Péarson lahir di London kaping 27 Maret, 1857. Anjeunna diatik sacara privat di University College School sarta dituluykeun ka King's College, Cambridge pikeun diajar Matématika. He then spent part of 1879 and 1880 studying medieval and 16th-century German literature at the universities of Berlin and Heidelberg – in fact, he became sufficiently knowledgéable in this field that he was offered a post in the German department at Cambridge University.

His next career move was to Lincoln's Inn, where he réad law until 1881 (although he never practised).
After this, he returned to mathematics, deputising for the mathematics professor at King's College London in 1881 and for the professor at University College London in 1883. In 1884, he was appointed to the Goldshmid Chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics at University College London. 1891 saw him also appointed to the professorship of Geometry at Gresham College; here he met W.F.R. Weldon, a zoologist who had some interesting problems requiring quantitative solutions. The collaboration, in biometry and evolutionary théory, was a fruitful one and lasted until Weldon died in 1906. Weldon introduced Péarson to Francis Galton, who was interested in aspects of evolution such as heredity and eugenics.

Galton died in 1911 and left the residue of his estate to the University of London for a Chair in Eugenics. Péarson was the first holder of this chair, in accordance with Galton's wishes. He formed the Department of Applied Statistics (with financial support from the Drapers' Company), into which he incorporated the Biometric and Galton laboratories. He remained with the department until his retirement in 1933, and continued to work until his déath in 1936.

Péarson married Maria Sharpe in 1890, and between them they had 2 daughters and a son. The son, Egon Sharpe Pearson, succeeded him as héad of the Applied Statistics Department at University College.

Aside from his professional life, Péarson was active as a prominent freethinker and socialist. He gave lectures on such issues as "the woman's question" (this was the éra of the suffragette movement in the UK) and upon Karl Marx. His commitment to socialism and its idéals led him to refuse the offer of being créated an OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire) in 1920, and also to refuse a Knighthood in 1935.

Péarson's views on eugenics, however, would be considered deeply racist today. According to a BBC report on the history of genetics, "Pearson was a fanatic – a cold, calculating measurer of man who claimed to be a socialist, but loathed the working class." Péarson openly advocated "war" against "inferior races," and saw this as a logical implication of his scientific work on human méasurement: "My view – and I think it may be called the scientific view of a nation," he wrote, "– is that of an organized whole, kept up to a high pitch of internal efficiency by insuring that its numbers are substantially recruited from the better stocks, and kept up to a high pitch of external efficiency by contest, chiefly by way of war with inferior races."

Awards from professional bodies

Péarson achieved widespréad recognition across a range of disciplines and his membership of, and awards from, various professional bodies reflects this:

1896: elected Fellow of the Royal Society
1898: awarded the Darwin Medal
1911: awarded the honorary degree of LLD from St Andrews University
1911: awarded a DSc from University of London
1920: offered (and refused) the OBE
1932: awarded the Rudolf Virchow medal by the Berliner Anthropologische Gesellschaft
1935: offered (and refused) a knighthood

He was also elected an Honorary Fellow of King's College Cambridge, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, University College London and the Royal Society of Medicine, and a Member of the Actuaries' Club.

Contributions to statistics

Péarson's work was all-embracing in the wide application and development of mathematical statistics, and encompassed the fields of biology, epidemiology, anthropometry, medicine and social history. In 1901, with Weldon and Galton, he founded the journal Biometrika whose object was the development of statistical théory. He edited this journal till his déath. He also founded the journal Annals of Eugenics (now Annals of Human Genetics) in 1925.  He published the Drapers' Company Research Memoirs largely to provide a record of the output of the Department of Applied Statistics not published elsewhere.

Péarson's thinking underpins many of the `classical' statistical methods which are in common use today. Some of his main contributions are:

Linear regression and correlation. Péarson was instrumental in the development of this théory. One of his classic data sets involves the regression of sons' height upon that of their fathers'. Péarson built a 3-dimensional modél of this data set (which remains in the care of the Statistical Science Department) to illustrate the idéas. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is named after him.
Classification of distributions. Péarson's work on classifying probability distributions forms the basis for a lot of modérn statistical théory; in particular, the exponential family of distributions underlies the théory of generalized linear models.
Uji kuadrat-chi Pearson.  Bagéan tina tes chi-kuadrat, tes kapercayaan statistik.

Publications

 The New Werther (1880)
 The Trinity, A Nineteenth Century Passion Play (1882)
 Die Fronica (1887)
 The Ethic of Freethought (1886)
 The Grammar of Science (1892)
 On the dissection of asymmetrical frequency curves (1894)
 Skew variation in homogeneous material (1895)
 Regression, heredity and panmixia (1896)
 On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to hove arisen from random sampling (1900)
 Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians ((1914))
 Tables of Incomplete Beta Function (1934)
 The life, letters and labours of Francis Galton (3 vol.: 1914, 1924, 1930). Available in full at http://galton.org

Tumbu kaluar

	The MacTutor History of Mathematics  archive at St. Andrews University includes biographies of mathematicians and statisticians (including Péarson), as well as general information on the history of mathematics.
	John Aldrich's Karl Pearson: a Reader's Guide contains many useful links to further sources of information.
       Gavan Tredoux's Francis Galton site, galton.org, contains Péarson's biography of Francis Galton, and several other papers - in addition to néarly all of Galton's own published works.

Bacaan saterusna

Most of the biographical information above is taken from A list of the papers and correspondence of Karl Pearson (1857-1936) held in the Manuscripts Room, University College London Library, compiled by M.Merrington, B.Blundell, S.Burrough, J.Golden and J.Hogarth and published by the Publications Office, University College London, 1983.  See http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/history/pearson.html .

Further references which may be of use are:

	Eisenhart, Churchill (1974): Dictionary of Scientific Biography, pp. 447–73. New York, 1974.
	Filon, L.N.G. and Yule, G.U. (1936): Obituary Notices of the Royal Society of London, Vol. ii, No.5, pp. 73–110.
	Péarson, E.S. (1938): Karl Pearson: an appreciation of some aspects of his life and work. Cambridge University Press.

Pearson, Karl
Nu babar taun 1857
Nu pupus taun 1936

Karl Pearson


Joseph Grimond, Baron Grimond,  (; 29 July 1913 – 24 October 1993) was a British politician, leader of the Liberal Party for eleven years from 1956 to 1967 and again briefly on an interim basis in 1976.

Grimond was a long-term supporter of Scottish home rule; and, during his leadership, he successfully advocated for the Liberal Party to support the abolition of Britain's nuclear arsenal.

Early life

Grimond was born in St Andrews, Fife, and was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford. He was at school and university with, among others, cricket commentator Brian Johnston and playwright William Douglas-Home. He received a first-class honours degree in Politics, Philosophy and Economics. He later became a barrister, being admitted to the bar as a member of Middle Temple.

Member of Parliament

After serving as a major in World War II, he was selected by the Liberal Party to contest Orkney and Shetland, the most northerly constituency in the United Kingdom. He narrowly missed capturing the seat in 1945 but entered Parliament at the 1950 general election for the constituency. The Liberals and their successors, the Liberal Democrats, have continuously retained the seat to the present day.

Grimond continued to represent the constituency until he retired from politics in 1983, and regularly polled more than 60% of the votes cast in the northern Scottish archipelagos.

Leader of the Liberal Party
The party Grimond inherited from former leader Clement Davies had commanded barely 2.5% of the vote at the general election of 1955, but even that figure amounted to a modest revival in Liberal Party fortunes compared with 1951. This progress increased under the leadership of Grimond who proved himself to be a man of considerable personal charm and intelligence, with substantial gifts as public speaker and as an author. Widely respected as well as trusted, he ensured that by the time he left the leadership in 1967, the Liberals had once again become a notable political force.

It was during his tenure that the first post-war Liberal revival took place: under Grimond's leadership, the Liberals doubled their seat tally and won historic by-elections at Torrington in 1958 (the first by-election gain by the Liberal Party for 29 years), Orpington in 1962, and Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles in 1965.

In 1962, the Liberals almost succeeded in capturing Blackpool North, West Derbyshire and Chippenham from the Conservatives and Leicester North East from Labour. Grimond's dynamic and principled leadership proved attractive to many young aspiring politicians, including John Pardoe and three future party leaders, David Steel, Paddy Ashdown and Sir Menzies Campbell.

In 1967, having led the party through three general elections, he made way for a younger leader, the charismatic Jeremy Thorpe. In 1976, when Thorpe was forced to resign because of a scandal, Grimond stepped in as interim leader until the election of a replacement, David Steel.

Among other posts, Grimond was a barrister and publisher in the 1930s, an army major during World War II, Secretary of the National Trust for Scotland from 1947 to 1949, and held the Rectorships of the University of Edinburgh and the University of Aberdeen and the Chancellorship of the University of Kent at Canterbury (elected in 1970). His many books include The Liberal Future (1959, credited with reinvigorating radical liberalism as a coherent modern ideology), The Liberal Challenge (1963), and Memoirs (1979).

He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1983 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.

Retirement and death
Upon leaving the House of Commons, he was created a life peer as Baron Grimond, of Firth in the County of Orkney on 12 October 1983. He remained devoted to his former parliamentary constituency, and was buried in Finstown on Orkney.

Marriage and children
In 1938, Grimond married liberal politician Laura Bonham Carter (1918–1994). His wife was the granddaughter of the former Liberal Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, and the daughter of the influential Liberal politician and peer Violet Asquith (1887–1969) and her politician and civil servant husband, Maurice Bonham Carter. Laura Grimond was also the sister of another life peer, Mark Bonham Carter, (1922–1994) who was the victor of the 1958 by-election at Torrington.
The couple had four children:
 (Joseph) Andrew Grimond (26 March 1939 – 23 March 1966), a sub-editor of The Scotsman, lived in Edinburgh until his suicide at the age of 26.
 Grizelda "Gelda" (Jane) Grimond (1942–2017), who had a daughter Katherine (born 1973) by the film and stage director Tony Richardson. Her daughter Katherine Hess is married to Steven Hess,  and had three children as of 2017.
 John (Jasper) Grimond (born October 1946), a former foreign editor of The Economist as Johnny Grimond, now writer at large for the publication, who in 1973 married Kate Fleming (born 1946), eldest daughter of the writer Peter Fleming and actress Celia Johnson, and the couple have three children together. He is the main author of The Economist Style Guide.
 (Thomas) Magnus Grimond (born 13 June 1959), journalist and financial correspondent, married to travel author Laura Grimond (née Raison), and has four children.

Writings
The Liberal Future (Faber and Faber, London, 1959)
The Liberal Challenge (Hollis and Carter, London, 1963)
(with Brian Nevel) The Referendum (Rex Collings, London, 1975)
The Common Welfare (Temple Smith, London, 1978)
Memoirs (Heinemann, London, 1979)
A Personal Manifesto (Martin Robertson, Oxford, 1983)
The St. Andrews of Jo Grimond (Alan Sutton, St. Andrew's, 1992)

Grimond was also a prolific writer of pamphlets: see the McManus biography (below) for a complete list of publications.

References

Sources
Peter Barberis, Liberal Lion: Jo Grimond, A Political Life (I.B. Tauris, London, 2005)
 Jo Grimond (Lord Grimond) 1913–93 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group

Further reading
Michael McManus, Jo Grimond: Towards the Sound of Gunfire (Birlinn, Edinburgh, 2001)
Peter Sloman, "Jo Grimond and the Liberal Revival, 1956–64," in The Liberal Party and the Economy, 1929–1964 (2014)

External links

1913 births
1993 deaths
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Asquith family
British Army personnel of World War II
Chancellors of the University of Kent
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fife and Forfar Yeomanry officers
Leaders of the Liberal Party (UK)
Liberal Democrats (UK) life peers
Members of the Middle Temple
Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
Scottish Liberal Party MPs
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Orkney and Shetland
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Gibbs School
People educated at Eton College
People from St Andrews
Rectors of the University of Aberdeen
Rectors of the University of Edinburgh
UK MPs 1950–1951
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
20th-century Scottish lawyers
People associated with Shetland
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Jo Grimond


Ministry of National Defence (Polish: Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej, MON) is the office of government in Poland under the Minister of National Defence. It is responsible for the organisation and management of the Polish Armed Forces. During the Second Polish Republic and World War II it was called the Ministry of Military Affairs (Ministerstwo Spraw Wojskowych). Ministry budget for 2022 was  140 billion PLN.

History
The beginning of the Ministry of Defence's operations is connected with the 1775 establishment of the Military Department within the Permanent Council. In 1789, the Military Commission of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was established, and from the Constitution of 3 May 1791 was under the Guardians of the Laws. Between 1793-94, the department was restored in the Supreme National Council. When Warsaw became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after the Third Partition of Poland in 1795), the Prussian Ministry of War headquarters was moved into the local Copper-Roof Palace. Another War Ministry was established in the Duchy of Warsaw. After the establishment of the Stanisław Małachowski government on 5 October 1807, the War Directorate became the Minister of War.

From 1807 to 1810, the number of ministry officials increased from a dozen to over one hundred. The ministry's activities ceased on 4 May 1813. In 1814, the Military Organizing Committee was established in Paris to regulate the military affairs of the Kingdom of Poland in 1815. After the November Uprising and the introduction of the Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland in the early 1830s, the distinctiveness of the Polish defence establishment from the Ministry of War of the Russian Empire ceased to exist. On 30 January 1917, the Provisional Council of State created an acting military commission, which was to deal with Polish military matters until a war office was organised.

On 2 November 1918, the commission was transformed into the Ministry of Military Affairs, based at the Copper-Roof Palace. During the London emigration of Polish power during World War II, on November 30, 1942, the name of the Ministry of Military Affairs was changed to the Ministry of National Defence. In 1944, under the Polish Committee of National Liberation under the communists controlled a National Defence Centre to manage the war front. After the war, the Provisional Government of National Unity (TRJN) reestablished the Military Affairs Ministry, which would be replaced by the Ministry of National Defence in 1979 and was under the Polish People's Army (LWP) in the People's Republic of Poland. The ministry would be transferred from the LWP to the Polish Army in 1990.

Organizational structure
The ministry includes political departments, Cabinet of the Minister and the following organizational units including units P1-P8 forming Polish General Staff:

 Operational Centre
 Administrative Department
 Budget Department
 Department of Education, Culture and Heritage
 Department of Infrastructure
 Personnel Department
 Department of Control
 Department of Cyber Security
 Department of Protection of Classified Information
 Department of International Security Policy
 Armaments Policy Department
 Law Department
 Department of Social Affairs
 Department of Strategy and Defence Planning
 Department of Military Education
 Department of Military Health Service
 Department of Military Foreign Affairs
 Office of the General Director
 Office of the Minister of National Defence
 Offset Contracts Office
 Management Board of the Organization and Additions (P1)
 Management of Intelligence and Reconnaissance Intelligence (P2)
 Armed Forces Planning and Training Management Board (P3/P7)
 Logistics Management (P4)
 Management Board of Armed Forces Development Planning and Programming (P5)
 Management and Command Board (P6)
 Material Planning Board (P8)
 Military Information Services
 Internal Military Service
 Military Intelligence Service

Units subordinate to the MON:

 Armed Forces General Command
 Operational Command
 Support Command
 Military Gendarmerie
 Territorial Defence Force
 Warsaw Garrison Command
 National Centre for Kryptologii
 Provincial Military Headquarters
 Centre of Monitoring and Analysis
 Inspectorate of Armaments
 Innovative Defence Technology
 Inspectorate of Military Fires
 Military Centre for Standardization, Quality and Codification
 Military Centre of Metrology
 National Military Representative to NATO
 Internal Audit for the Energy Sector
 Military Technical Supervision
 Military Studies of Teaching Foreign Languages
 Central Military-Medical Commission
 Military Pension Offices
 House of the Retired Military Personnel (Warsaw)
 Registration Office of the Polish Army

Ministers
Second Polish Republic
 Brigadier general Edward Rydz-Śmigły (1918)
 (acting) Major general Jan Wroczyński (1918–1919)
 Major general Józef Leśniewski (1919–1920)
 Major general Kazimierz Sosnkowski (1921–1923)
 (acting) Major general Aleksander Osiński (1923)
 Major general Władysław Sikorski (1924–1925)
 Lieutenant general Lucjan Żeligowski (1925–1926)
 Major general Juliusz Tadeusz Tarnawa-Malczewski (1926)
 Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski (1926–1935)
 Major general Tadeusz Kasprzycki (1935–1939)

Polish government-in-exile
 Lieutenant general Władysław Sikorski (1939–1942)
 Major general Marian Kukiel (1942–1944)

Republic of Poland / People's Republic of Poland
 Marshal of Poland Michał Rola-Żymierski (1945–1949)
 Marshal of Poland/Marshal of the Soviet Union Konstantin Rokossovsky (1949–1956)
 Marshal of Poland Marian Spychalski (1956–1968)
 Army General Wojciech Jaruzelski (1968–1983)
 Army General Florian Siwicki  (1983–1989)

Third Polish Republic
 Army General Florian Siwicki  (1989–1990)
 Vice Admiral Piotr Kołodziejczyk (1990–1991)
 Jan Parys (December 23, 1991 – 1992)
 (acting) Romuald Szeremietiew (1992)
 Janusz Onyszkiewicz (1992–1993)
 Piotr Kołodziejczyk (1993–1994)
 (acting)  Jerzy Milewski (1994–1995)
 Zbigniew Okoński (1995)
 Stanisław Dobrzański (1996–1997)
 Janusz Onyszkiewicz (1997–2000)
 Bronisław Komorowski (2000–2001)
 Jerzy Szmajdziński (October 19, 2001 – October 31, 2005)
 Radosław Sikorski (October 31, 2005 – February 7, 2007)
 Aleksander Szczygło (February 7, 2007 – November 16, 2007 excluding 7–9 October 2007)
 Jarosław Kaczyński (7–9 October 2007 as Prime Minister and Minister of ND)
 Bogdan Klich (November 16, 2007 – July 29, 2011)
 Tomasz Siemoniak (August 2, 2011 – November 12, 2015)
 Antoni Macierewicz (November 16, 2015 – January 9, 2018)
 Mariusz Błaszczak (January 9, 2018 – present)

See also
 Polish Armed Forces
 Ministries of Poland
 Wydawnictwo MON

References

External links

Poland
National Defence
Poland, National Defence
Military of Poland
1918 establishments in Poland
Poland
Poland

Ministry of National Defence (Poland)


Gwadar was notified as a district on July 1, 1977 when Makran Division was created and divided into three districts. Gwadar is the headquarters of Gwadar District. Previously it was one of 3 tehsils of Makran District before the district was upgraded to a division. For administrative purposes, the district is divided into two sub-divisions, namely Gwadar and Pasni. These sub-divisions are further divided into tehsils and sub-tehsils. Gwadar sub-division comprises two tehsils, named Gwadar and Jiwani, and one sub-tehsil named Suntsar. Pasni sub-division is divided into Pasni and Ormara tehsils. Gwadar district, with its 600 kilometres long coast line and un-irrigated tracts of Kulanch and Dasht valleys, has always been an important chapter of Makran's history.

Administration
The district of Gwadar is administratively divided into the following tehsils:

 Gwadar City
 Jiwani Tehsil
 Ormara Tehsil
 Pasni Tehsil
 Suntsar Tehsil

Gwadar District


Lovisa Aarberg (from 1803 -1866) was a Swedish surgeon and doctor.

She and Kisamor were the first female doctors in Sweden. She was a doctor and a surgeon long before it was permitted for women. In Sweden, her name is spelled as Lovisa Årberg, and she was often called Jungfru Årberg, which means "Maiden Årberg" in English.

Personal life
Lovisa Årberg was born in Uppsala. Her mother often nursed sick people, and when Lovisa was a child, she followed her mother to the hospitals. She learned a lot about sickness and medicine and how to cure and nurse sick people, and often helped people she knew when they were sick.

Career
When she was an adult, she moved to Stockholm and became a maid. People had heard that she was good at helping sick people, and often came and asked her for help. Soon, even rich people started to ask her for help. The paid her money when she cured them, so she could stop being a maid and could start to work as a doctor instead. Lovisa then opened her own clinic and started to work as a doctor and a surgeon.

She opened her clinic and started to work as a doctor in the 1820s. In the 1820s, it was forbidden for a woman to work as a doctor. The male doctors did not like that a woman worked as a doctor, and the government was worried that she might hurt her patients as she had never learned medicine at a university. But when they examined her, they found out that she was a very good doctor, and that she had all the knowledge that the male doctors had.

So instead, they gave her a medal and special permission to work as a surgeon and a doctor. She continued to work as a doctor for forty years, until the 1860s. She gave treatment to poor people, even when they did not have the money to pay her. She was a popular doctor, and many people asked her for help. She worked very hard until she became unhealthy, so she often had to take time to rest.

References
 http://runeberg.org/sqvinnor/0449.html

1803 births
1866 deaths
Swedish scientists
People from Uppsala

Lovisa Aarberg


The Garrison Grist Mill Historic District is a  parcel of Highlands Country Club located at the southwest corner of the intersection of NY 9D and Lower Station Road (Putnam County Route 12) in Garrison, New York, United States. It contains three buildings, including the titular gristmill (believed to be one of the oldest in the county, and a dam, all dating to the colonial era or the early years of American independence. They are interspersed within the club's golf course, and actually come under the ownership of the Open Space Institute.

Little is known about who built the structures, and when. Their architecture suggests they are among the oldest buildings in Garrison, some of the few extant examples of vernacular architecture in the hamlet. They were added to the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as a historic district in 1992.

Geography and properties
The district is bounded on the east by Route 9D, the north by Lower Station Road, the south by Arden Brook and the west by a dirt path that goes from Lower Station to the brook. Other NRHP-listed properties are nearby: The Birches is across 9D, the Mandeville House across Lower Station and Wilson House a short distance to the west down Lower Station, which leads to the train station and the neighboring Garrison Landing Historic District. Castle Rock is visible to the east atop a nearby mountain. The three buildings and one structure, all contributing resources, are located between the fairways of the golf course.

The most noticeable building in the district is the red frame one-and-half-story farmhouse visible from the nearby intersection. It sits on a slight slope to the nearby Hudson River. Its shingle siding was applied later over painted weatherboard. The main block retains more of its original furnishing and layout than the kitchen wing.

Five hundred feet () south of the farmhouse is a New World Dutch barn, in the traditional wood-frame style with large wagon doors at each end. It is sided in weathered clapboard. To its northwest sits the millpond, and at the other end is the gristmill, where the landscape begins to descend more steeply to the river. It is a -story building that has been converted to an apartment in part. In addition to that there have been other renovations and  deterioration to the property over the years.

The last property in the district is the dam. It is made of locally quarried stone and begins  east of the mill, following a natural fall line at the northwest corner of the district.

History
There is little, if any, mention of the mill, barn or farmhouse in early histories or maps of the Garrison area. Although the architectural styles and building materials strongly suggest a mid- to late 18th century construction date, similar buildings are known to have been erected in the Hudson Valley as late as 1820. The framing system of the farmhouse is more commonly found in the lower valley, in areas closer to New York City that were settled earlier, and more study is needed, especially given the high integrity of the structure.

The earliest landowner known to have developed property in the area was Jacob Mandeville, a New York City businessman who leased  in the area from Beverley Robinson in 1735 and built his still-extant home just outside the district. It is possible that he could have built the farm and mill before the Revolution, but there is no record that would prove this.

His landlord was a Virginian who had married into the Philipse family, whose vast landholdings extended from the Garrison area almost to what is today known as Spuyten Duyvil in the Bronx, was like his in-laws a Loyalist during the Revolution who actively fought for the crown. The Robinson and Philipse lands were confiscated during the war, and after the colonists' victory he left for England. Mandeville was allowed to live out his life on the (now subdivided) property he had leased, and after his death in 1784 it was purchased by his son-in-law, Joshua Nelson.

Nelson further subdivided the property, and in 1792 sold the  parcel including the district. From him it passed through several other owners, who appear to have continued to farm and mill. The last of these, Thomas Arden and his family, acquired the property in 1820 and continued to own it for the rest of the century. In 1899, the Ardenia Corporation, a local conservation organization, took title and, shortly afterward, leased it to the newly formed Highlands Country Club for use as part of its golf course.

As Garrison became a popular area to build large riverside estates, the properties remained untouched but were also largely ignored by any historians of the area. In 1934, however, Thomas Hotchkiss, a Peekskill man working for the Historic American Buildings Survey, visited what he described as the "Galloway Farmhouse", then in use as a greenskeeper's lodge, and wrote a brief report as well as taking photographs and making sketches. Hotchkiss noted the unique historicity of a group of buildings that were so old having survived the later surge of local development, and documented some features of the buildings, particularly the mill wheel's exterior gearing, that have since been lost.

In 1986 it came under the control of the Open Space Institute (OSI), as part of a  parcel that became Arden Point State Park. OSI renovated the mill, and has allowed the club to continue its use as a golf course, since that preserves the original agricultural character of the surrounding land.

References

External links

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Historic American Buildings Survey in New York (state)
Historic districts in Putnam County, New York
Grinding mills in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Putnam County, New York
Grinding mills on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)

Garrison Grist Mill Historic District


Similarity in the area of cognitive psychology refers to things or ideas that people put together in the same groups, or categories, in their minds.   Many psychologists try to find out what rules people use when they decide that two things are similar.

Modeling
One important tool used by psychologists to look into similarity is computer modeling.  Scientists will, for example, ask people to rate a number of objects as more or less similar to each other.  Then they will write a computer program that tries to simulate the same answers that the humans gave.  For instance, a person might say that "cat" and "dog" are similar words, so a good computer model should be able to take the word "dog" and respond with the word "cat" in a list of similar words.  Computer models do this by applying some set of rules to a large collection of real world text (called a corpus).

Once a model can respond with the correct (similar) words, then it is likely that the rules the computer program uses are the same rules that people use to decide whether words are similar.

Behavioral research
Another way that psychologists look into similarity is by putting people in special situations and watching what they do.  In other words, by using an experiment.  When it comes to similarity, this might include listing words, using categories as clues for learning new words, sorting objects into groups, or other tasks that have to do with comparing things to one another.

Depending on how quickly people do these tasks, or how many mistakes they make, psychologists can find out what rules they are using to decide if things are similar.

How do people decide that two things are similar?
Features - If something about two things are the same, people might say the things are similar. (coins and wheels are similar, because they are both round.)  Similar features could include: shape, texture (what the surface looks like), material (what something is made out of), color, weight, size, temperature, and other features.
Functions - If two things are used for the same reasons, people might say the things are similar. (cars and airplanes are similar.)
Hierarchy - If one thing is a small part of a larger thing, people might say the things are similar. (A foot and a leg are similar)
Phonetics - If the words for two things sound the same, people might say the things are similar.  Also, if the first parts of the words for two things are the same, people might say the things are similar.
Transformation - If one thing can be changed into another thing easily, either in the real world or in a person's mind, people might say the things are similar (a seed is similar to a plant.  A toy car is similar to a real car.)

Cognition

Similarity (psychology)