The Prince of Egypt is a 1997 American animated musical drama movie made by DreamWorks Animation. It is a movie adaptation for the Book of Exodus. It follows Moses' life from being a prince of Egypt to ultimate destiny about defending the Israelites. The movie was directed by Brenda Chapman, Simon Wells and Steve Hickner. It featured songs written by Stephen Schwartz. The score was composed by Hans Zimmer. The voice cast for the movie had very popular Hollywood actors. During the musical part of the movie, professional singers replaced them for the songs. The exceptions were Michelle Pfeiffer, Ralph Fiennes, Ofra Haza (who sang her song in over seventeen languages for dubbing), Steve Martin and Martin Short.

The movie was nominated for best Original Musical or Comedy Score. The film's success led to the direct-to-video prequel Joseph: King of Dreams (2000) and the development of a stage adaptation. It won Best Original Song at the 1997 Academy Awards for "When You Believe". The song's pop version was performed at the ceremony by Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey. The song was co-written by Stephen Schwartz and Hans Zimmer. There were additional production by Babyface. The song was nominated for Best Original Song (in a Motion Picture) at the 1997 Golden Globe Awards. It was also nominated for Outstanding Performance of a Song for a Feature Film at the ALMA Awards.

The movie was released on July 4, 1997. It was released on home video on September 2, 1997. The movie gross $218,613,188 worldwide. It became the first animated featured not released by Walt Disney Pictures to gross over $100 million in the United States. This was before, Paramount/Nickelodeon's The Rugrats Movie. The Prince of Egypt became the top grossing non-Disney animated movie until 2000. The movie, Chicken Run, took the number one spot. The movie remains the highest grossing traditionally-animated non-Disney movie until 2007. The movie, The Simpsons Movie, took the number one spot. This is DreamWorks Animation's first movie and only traditionally animated movie to win an Oscar.

Release dates

Plot
In Ancient Egypt, the Hebrews have become slaves and pray to return to the Promised Land ("Deliver Us"). Meanwhile, a female slave called Yocheved and her children, Miriam and Aaron, witness several male infants being ruthlessly taken and butchered by the soldiers of Pharaoh Seti I, who fears that an increase in Hebrew men would culminate in rebellion. Fearing for her own son's safety, she places him in a basket on the Nile. The basket arrives at Pharaoh's palace and Miriam witnesses her brother being taken in by Pharaoh's wife, who names him Moses.

Twenty years later, Moses and his adoptive brother Rameses accidentally destroy a temple while racing their chariots, for which Pharaoh reprimands them. Moses tries to take the blame and tells Pharaoh that Rameses only wanted his approval. At a palace banquet that evening, Pharaoh appoints Rameses as Prince Regent and gives him authority over all the temples in Egypt. Moses is later given Tzipporah, a Midian girl the priests Hotep and Huy captured as a concubine, after she nearly attacks Rameses. Moses ends up humiliating Tzipporah by pushing her into a pool at the palace, and Rameses later appoints him as Royal Chief Architect.

Later that night, Moses helps Tzipporah escape from the palace and, by chance, runs into his siblings Miriam and Aaron. Miriam tries to explain to Moses about his true past, but he refuses to listen and runs back to the palace. He later has a nightmare in which he witnesses several Hebrew infants being thrown in the Nile and later, Seti reveals that he "sacrificed" the Hebrew children, to prevent retaliation. The next day, Moses witnesses an Egyptian overseer whipping an elderly Hebrew slave. He unintentionally kills the guard by pushing him off a scaffolding. Although Rameses pleads with Moses to stay and that he is innocent, Moses bids him farewell, before exiling himself into the desert.

Moses then arrives in the land of the Midianites, a tribe of which Tzipporah is a member. He is welcomed into the tribe by the High Priest and Tzipporah's father Jethro and becomes a part of their community ("Through Heaven's Eyes"). He and Tzipporah later marry. When chasing a stray sheep into a cave, Moses encounters a burning bush. Through this, the voice of God instructs him to return to Egypt and guide the enslaved Hebrews to the Promised Land. He bestows Moses' shepherding staff with his power and promises that He will tell Moses what to say.

Moses and Tzipporah then travel to Egypt and discover that while he was absent, the slaves' treatment has worsened and Pharaoh and his wife have since died, resulting in Rameses taking over. He happily greets Moses. When Moses asks Rameses to free the Hebrews and demonstrates his alliance with God by turning his staff into an Egyptian cobra, Hotep and Huy boastfully recreate this transformation ("Playing With The Big Boys Now"), only to have their snakes eaten by Moses'. Rather than relenting, Rameses doubles the Hebrews' workload. Moses and Tzipporah then encounter Aaron and Miriam, the former berating Moses for not feeling sorry for the years of slavery the Hebrews have endured. Miriam later convinces her brother and the other slaves to trust them. God later inflicts the Ten Plagues on Egypt, however Rameses is undeterred and refuses to give in to Moses' request.

Moses then prepares the Hebrews for the final plague by instructing them to paint their doorposts with lamb's blood. The final plague-the Angel of Death-sweeps through the city, killing the firstborn Egyptians-including Rameses' son-and sparing the Hebrew children. A grief-stricken Rameses then allows Moses and the Hebrews to leave.

The next day, Moses, Aaron, Miriam and Tzipporah along with the other Hebrews leave Egypt and arrive at the Red Sea ("When You Believe"). Rameses and his army then arrive and pursue them, and Moses parts the sea with his staff. The Hebrews are guided safely across and the waters close on the Egyptian army, while Rameses is spared and thrown onto the rocks. Moses then bids his brother a final, emotional farewell, before leading the Hebrews to Mount Sinai, where he receives the Ten Commandments from God.

Voice cast
 Val Kilmer as Moses, a Hebrew who was adopted by Pharaoh Seti.
 Amick Byram provides Moses' singing voice.
 Ralph Fiennes as Rameses II, Moses' adoptive brother and eventual successor to his father, Seti.
 Michelle Pfeiffer as Tzipporah, Jethro's oldest daughter and Moses' wife.
 Sandra Bullock as Miriam, Moses and Aaron's biological sister.
 Sally Dworsky provides Miriam's singing voice.
 Eden Riegel provides both the speaking and singing voice of a younger Miriam.
 Jeff Goldblum as Aaron, Moses and Miriam's biological brother.
 Patrick Stewart as Pharaoh Seti I, Rameses' father, Moses' adoptive father and the first Pharaoh in the film. Despite his uncaring attitude towards the Hebrew slaves, he is shown to treat Moses and Rameses with good care and love.
 Danny Glover as Jethro, Tzipporah's father and Midian's high priest.
 Brian Stokes Mitchell provides Jethro's singing voice.
 Helen Mirren as Queen Tuya, Seti's consort wife, Rameses' mother and Moses' adoptive mother.
 Linda Dee Shayne provides Queen Tuya's singing voice.
 Steve Martin as Hotep
 Martin Short as Huy
 Ofra Haza as Yocheved, the biological mother of Miriam, Aaron, and Moses.
 Val Kilmer also provides the uncredited voice of God
 Bobby Motown as Rameses' son
 Anne Lockhart as Hebrew Woman

Director Brenda Chapman briefly voices Miriam when she sings the lullaby to Moses. The vocal had been recorded for a scratch audio track, which was intended to be replaced later by Sally Dworsky. The track turned out so well that it remained in the film.

Additional voices
 Charlie Adler as Rameses's Soldiers
 Jack Angel as Egyptian
 James Avery as Overseer
 Michael Bell as Rameses's Soldiers
 Bob Bergen as Rameses's Soldiers
 Susan Blu as Hebrew Woman
 Rodger Bumpass as Rameses's Soldiers
 Corey Burton as Rameses's Soldiers
 Robert Clotworthy as Rameses's Soldiers
 David Cowgill as Rameses's Soldiers
 Jim Cummings as Rameses's Soldiers
 Aria Noelle Curzon as Jethrodiadah
 Jennifer Darling as Hebrew Woman
 Debi Derryberry as Hebrew Woman
 Paul Eiding as Rameses's Soldiers
 Bill Farmer as Rameses's Soldiers
 Don Fullilove as Rameses's Soldiers
 Michael Gough as Baka
 Robert Knepper as Kahma
 Matthew Labyorteaux as Rameses's Soldiers
 Sherry Lynn as Hebrew Woman
 Danny Mann as Rameses's Soldiers
 Mona Marshall as Hebrew Woman
 Mickie McGowan as Hebrew Woman
 Paul Pape as Rameses's Soldiers
 Patrick Pinney as Neria, Rameses's Soldiers
 Phil Proctor as Rameses's Soldiers
 Jan Rabson as Rameses's Soldiers
 Peter Renaday as Rameses's Soldiers
 Neil Ross as Rameses's Soldiers
 Stephanie Sawyer as Ajolidoforah
 Francesca Marie Smith as Ephorah
 Steve Susskind as Rameses's Soldiers
 Brian Tochi as Rameses's Soldiers
 B.J. Ward as Hebrew Woman
 Jim Ward as Rameses's Soldiers

ADR Group
 Roger Aaron Brown as Hebrew Man
 Hamilton Camp as Hebrew Man
 Louise Chamis as Hebrew Woman
 Erin Donovan as Hebrew Woman
 Laurie Faso as Hebrew Man
 Ruben Garfias as Hebrew Man
 Nick Jameson as Hebrew Man
 Lauri Johnson as Hebrew Woman
 Steve Kramer as Hebrew Man
 Don Maxwell as Hebrew Man
 Randy Montgomery as Hebrew Man
 Michelle Ruff as Hebrew Woman
 Doug Stone as Hebrew Man
 Leeza Vinnechenko as Hebrew Woman

Awards

Home media

References

Other websites

1997 animated movies
1990s musical movies
American animated movies
American musical movies
DreamWorks Animation movies
DreamWorks Pictures movies
Movies about brothers
Movies composed by Hans Zimmer
Movies set in Egypt
Movies set in palaces
Multilingual movies
Movies based on the Bible
Movies about slavery
Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
The Prince of Egypt

The Prince of Egypt


Waterfowl are any type of bird that spends a lot of its life in or near water. However, it mostly refers to the family Anatidae, which are ducks, geese and swans.

The term can be used more widely to include birds such as coots, grebes, moorhens, shorebirds and seabirds.

A very similar term is "water bird", which is used in contrast to waders, which walk about in shallow water.
.

Birds

Waterfowl


The Warning Decision Training Division (WDTD), known as the Warning Decision Training Branch until April 1, 2015, is one of three training organizations in the NWS Training Division which also includes the Forecast Decision Training Branch and the NWS Training Center. WDTD develops and delivers training on the integrated elements of the warning process within a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/National Weather Service (NWS) forecast office. WDTD instructors develop and deliver a variety of in-residence, teletraining, and on-line asynchronous training content.

History

NEXRAD Training Unit
With the nationwide implementation of the NEXRAD program, NWS management formed a training group designed to create and teach a course dedicated to the understanding and application of the WSR-88D radar. In the summer of 1989, this training group, called the Operations Training Facility (OTF) was staffed with six meteorologist instructors and a secretary (referred to as the NEXRAD Training Unit, or NTU). This facility was originally part of the NWS Forecast Office in Norman, OK and administered by the Southern Region of the NWS.

Operations Training Branch
In 1991, reorganization of the NWS led to the transfer of administration of NTU staff to the rapidly growing Operational Support Facility (OSF). After the transfer, the NTU/OTF became known as the Operations Training Branch (OTB), which is now known as the Radar Operations Center (ROC). Over the years, the training evolved and matured and eventually the course went from a five-week course taught by staff from UNISYS to an eighteen-day course taught exclusively by OTB instructors. Enrollment increased to the point that OTB staff were teaching three simultaneous classes with 24 students each including students from both NWS and Department of Defense (DoD). By 1993, there were 27 NWS and DoD instructors at OTB. In 1997, the last residence WSR-88D OPS Course was taught. During the seven years of residence classes, 2,525 students completed the OPS course. In 1998, the OTB was awarded the DoC Bronze Medal for the development and delivery of the WSR-88D OPS Course. The course had been recognized by NWS employees as an example of training done right in the NWS Modernization. Budgetary restrictions led OTB staff to start using a new training technique: Teletraining. By utilizing teletraining, and later other distance learning techniques and a one-week workshop, the old OPS course evolved into the Distance Learning Operations Course (DLOC).

Warning Decision Training Branch
In the fall of 2000, the NWS again transferred administrative control of the Operations Training Branch. This reorganization resulted in a new name, the Warning Decision Training Branch, and a new home in the Continuous Learning Division of the  Office of Climate, Water, and Weather Services (OCWWS). As part of this second reorganization, DLOC and other training developed by WDTB transitioned from being "radar-centric" to "warning issuance-centric". In the summer of 2006, WDTB moved into its new home at the National Weather Center (NWC) on the University of Oklahoma (OU) south research campus.

Warning Decision Training Division
Effective at the end of March 2015, NWS headquarters was reorganized and the Warning Decision Training Branch became the Warning Decision Training Division.

Notes

External links
www.wdtb.noaa.gov - Warning Decision Training Division

National Weather Service

Warning Decision Training Division


The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) is a buzzard. Sometimes it is called a chickenhawk,  though it does not normally eat chickens. It is a bird of prey. It breeds throughout most of North America, from western Alaska and northern Canada and as far south as Panama and the West Indies. It weighs from  to  and its wingspan goes from  to .

The red-tailed hawk is a carnivore and eats shrews and mice. They have keen eyesight to see even the smallest mouse scamper across a field. It can swoop down at least 80mph per hour. It will pick up its prey, dig its talons into its body and kill it and eat. It can swoop down so fast that it can pick up its prey in less than 5 seconds.

Because they are so common and easily trained, most hawks got for falconry in the United States are red-tails. Falconers may take only 'passage hawks' (which have left the nest, are on their own, but are less than a year old). This is so not to affect the breeding population. Adults, which may be breeding or rearing chicks, may not be taken for falconry purposes and it is illegal to do so.

Passage red-tailed hawks are also preferred by falconers because these younger birds have not yet developed adult behaviors, which would make training much more difficult.

Accipitriformes
Birds of North America

Red-tailed hawk


In orbital mechanics, a Hohmann transfer orbit moves a spacecraft between orbiting heights. It is the most fuel-efficient method to do so, because the spacecraft is not trying to escape the planet's gravity, using an elliptical orbit for the transfer.

A ship using this would have to apply two velocities, one to enter the elliptical orbit, and one to enter the second orbit.

Calculation
Assuming the mass of the spacecraft is much lower than that of the orbiting planet, the two velocities,  and , can be solved for as:where
  is the mass of the planet,

  is the universal gravitational constant, and

  and  are the initial and final distances from the center of the planet.

Applications
 Satellites can be moved into their proper height using a Hohmann transfer orbit.
 A lunar transfer orbit (LTO) is used to reach the moon.
 The Interplanetary Transport Network uses more than one body and requires lower velocity changes, and thus less fuel.

Orbits
Spaceflight

Hohmann transfer orbit


Glass is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass. It originated in India.

Glass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.

By changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide.

Crystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:
" 'Cut glass' is glass that has been decorated entirely by hand by use of rotating wheels. Cuts are made in an otherwise completely smooth surface of the glass by workers holding and moving the piece against various sized metal or stone wheels".

Because glass is used to make lenses, the word "glasses" often means eyeglasses.

The myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200–300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.

Glass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand.

References

Other websites

 Corning Museum of Glass
 A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world
 Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass
 Informative website about the glass industry
 Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass
 Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass)

Basic English 850 words

Glass


The Avro York was a British transport aircraft developed by Avro during the Second World War. The design was derived from the Avro Lancaster heavy bomber, several sections of the York and Lancaster being identical. Due to the importance of Lancaster production, York output proceeded slowly until 1944, after which a higher priority was placed upon transport aircraft.

The York saw service in military and civilian roles with various operators between 1943 and 1964. In civilian service, British South American Airways (BSAA) and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) were the largest users of the type. In military service, large numbers of Yorks were used for air-supply missions during the Berlin Blockade 1948–49. A number of the type were used as air transports of heads of state and government; VIPs who flew on Yorks included British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, French General Charles de Gaulle, Indian Governor-General Lord Mountbatten and South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts.

Development

Origins
During 1941, Avro elected to begin development of a new civil-orientated transport aircraft. In the midst of an uncertain stage of the Second World War, Britain's aircraft industry was preoccupied by urgent wartime demands, not only to produce military aircraft, but to design increasingly capable models as well. The company's decision to embark on this venture was considered to be ambitious, especially as the development project operated with no official backing early on. The project may well have been influenced by a shortage of transport aircraft, as well as by the formation of the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), in 1940, to run all of the nation's overseas civil air routes. However, according to aviation author Donald Hannah, there was little incentive and few materials available for the construction of transport aircraft, it was impossible to predict when the war would end and, thus, when large-scale demand for civil aircraft would return.

Roy Chadwick, Avro's chief designer, had foreseen a need for a transport aircraft that was powered by four engines and would be capable of flying for long distances. The design, which was designated as the Type 685, had its origins in the company's then-newly developed four-engined bomber, the Avro Lancaster, which had made its first flight only earlier that year. The Type 685 paired various elements of the Lancaster, such as its wings, tail assembly and undercarriage and Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, with a new square-section fuselage that provided double the internal capacity of the Lancaster. The two aircraft also substantially differed in external appearance.

In February 1942, Chadwick submitted his drawings to Avro's experimental department. Within five months, the company refined the design and had quickly assembled an initial prototype. On 5 July 1942, the York prototype, LV626, conducted its maiden flight from Ringway Airport, Manchester. It had initially been fitted with the twin fins and rudders of the Lancaster but the increased fuselage side area forward of the wing compared to the Lancaster necessitated fitting a third central fin to retain adequate control and directional stability; the third fin was fitted as standard on subsequent production aircraft. Flight trials of LV626 were quickly transferred to RAF Boscombe Down. In response to the prototype's favourable performance during trials, the Air Ministry issued an order for three more prototypes of various configurations to be built along with an initial production batch under Specification C.1/42, part of Operational Requirement OR.113 for a new transport aircraft.

The prototypes were used to test various adaptions and potential roles for the aircraft. LV626, the first prototype, was rebuilt to the C.II standard, the principal modification of which was the installation of Bristol Hercules VI radial engines in place of the Merlins; it was later decided to standardise on the Merlin engine, leaving this as the sole Hercules-powered York. The fourth prototype, LV639, was furnished as a paratroop transport, complete with ventral dropping doors. However, flight testing found that the York was unsuited to this role, due to the slipstream wash drawing the parachutes towards the fixed tailwheel, posing an entanglement risk.

Production
Production of the York proved difficult to speed up, due to shortages of key materials. Moreover, Avro was also obliged to place a high priority on the manufacturing and refinement of the Lancaster. Officials had also judged that there was no requirement for large numbers of Yorks at that time. By the end of 1943, only the four prototypes and three production aircraft had been manufactured, but production was scheduled to rise to three aircraft per month throughout 1944. Early production Yorks were principally used as a VIP transport aircraft; notably, the third prototype, LV633 being luxuriously fitted out and becoming the personal transport of Winston Churchill.

On 25 March 1943, RAF Transport Command had been formed, which soon established a clear requirement for the strengthening of Britain's air transport forces; the York became the first British aircraft to be used in quantity by Transport Command. The first RAF production order consisted of 200 aircraft; while a further 100 were ordered under a second order placed shortly after. Throughout 1944, the majority of Yorks produced were passenger transport aircraft, a batch of both pure freighters and combined passenger/freighter-configured Yorks were also manufactured. Several early production aircraft intended for RAF service were instead diverted to BOAC, who had otherwise received little in the way of similar aircraft prior to delivery of the first York in April 1944.

Initial assembly and testing of production Yorks, which were principally destined for service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) at that time, was performed at Ringway, reaching its peak in 1945; these activities later being transferred to facilities in Yeadon, Leeds and Woodford, Cheshire, where work was undertaken at a slower pace. Only eight aircraft of the second order for 100 aircraft were produced; in April 1948, the final York, PE108, was completed.

Abroad, a single pattern aircraft was completed by Victory Aircraft in Canada; however, no further orders were received. Victory had tooled up for the manufacture of 30 aircraft and had built parts for five aircraft, but, ultimately, only one would be completed around the time that the war came to an end. This aircraft would later be purchased by Skyways Ltd.

Design
The Avro York was a high-wing cantilever monoplane, using an all-metal construction, with many similarities to the Lancaster from which it was derived. The wings used a two-spar structure, which housed seven internal fuel tanks between the spars, containing . The outboard panels of the wings were tapered on both edges and were furnished with detachable tips. The wings featured all-metal hydraulically-actuated split trailing edge flaps and carry the four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines in four underslung nacelles attached to the front wing spar. Each engine drove a three-bladed constant-speed fully feathering metal propeller, manufactured by de Havilland Hydromatic. The fuselage was of a semi-monocoque construction, complete with a flush-rivetted skin, and was built in five separate sections.

In a typical passenger configuration, the York could accommodate a 21-seat three-abreast arrangement split between the fore and aft cabins. The main entrance door was set between the two cabins, along with cloakrooms and lavatory, and a kitchen and baggage hold was located at the rear of the cabin. Emergency exits were present in the ceiling of each cabin. Passengers were subjected to very noisy conditions due to the aircraft's engines, but from a pilot's perspective, the York was reasonably pleasant to fly.

Operational history

Military

In 1945, No. 511 Squadron became the first squadron to be fully equipped with Yorks; eventually a total of ten squadrons of RAF Transport Command were wholly or partially equipped with the York. In military service, the York was used on all of the trunk routes operated by Transport Command, such as the critical England–India route. Overall, 208 Yorks were manufactured for the RAF.

During the Berlin Airlift, RAF Yorks from seven different squadrons flew over 58,000 sorties to provide the city with vital supplies between 1948 and 1949. In total, in excess of 1,000,000 tons was carried by the York fleet; the type had borne close to half of the British contribution, alongside other aircraft such as the Douglas Dakota and Handley Page Hastings. Following the end of the Airlift, the RAF retired much of its York fleet; around 40 of these were sold onto civilian operators while many others were scrapped due to the onset of corrosion. During the 1950s, numerous military contracts were issued to civilian York operators.

In 1954, the French Aéronavale procured five Yorks from the British Air Ministry and operated the type at Le Bourget for around a year.

Civilian

On 21 February 1944, the first civilian York (G-AGJA), initially built for the RAF as MW103, received its airworthiness certificate, thus clearing its delivery shortly thereafter to the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). On 22 April 1944, the York inaugurated an initial UK-Morocco-Cairo route. Following the diversion of the first five RAF production Yorks to BOAC, it was decided to allocate a further 60 to the airline but in fact only 25 more were delivered to BOAC. Early BOAC operations were conducted in close collaboration with No. 216 Group RAF; this led to some early Yorks bearing a confusing combination of both civilian registrations and military external markings.

Flights were soon established to Johannesburg, South Africa, in conjunction with South African Airways; Yorks assigned to this route fitted with a total of 12 sleeping berths in addition to passenger seating due to the journey time. The majority of BOAC's York fleet were fully furnished passenger airliners or as combi passenger-cargo aircraft.

In the post-war years, BOAC expanded its use of the York considerably, such as on its Cairo to Durban service, which had previously been operated by Shorts flying boats. Other airlines also adopted the type, such as its use by British South American Airways (BSAAC) on their routes to the Caribbean and South America, prior to their merger into BOAC in September 1949.

On 7 October 1952, BOAC withdrew its Yorks from passenger services, retaining the type for freight operations. BOAC's Yorks continued to operate freight schedules until November 1957 when the last example was withdrawn. After disposal by BOAC and BSAAC, their York fleets were purchased by several UK independent airlines and operated on both passenger and freight flights; these service often included long-distance trooping flights to Jamaica and other UK garrisons. The largest York operator out of the independents was Skyways. In 1964, the last Yorks were retired from service by Skyways and Dan Air.

When the Distant Early Warning Line (Dew Line) was being constructed in Canada in the late 1950s, the York was introduced as a freighter by Associated Airways to support the initiative, these being used later in ordinary airline service. At least one of the Yorks, CF-HAS, was retained, and was in service with Transair as late as 1961.

VIP service

The Avro York was, like its Lancaster and Lincoln stablemates, a versatile aircraft. One of the prototypes, LV633, Ascalon, was custom-built as the personal transport and flying conference room for Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Ascalon was to be fitted with a special pressurised "egg" so that VIP passengers could be carried without their having to use an oxygen mask. Made of aluminium alloy, the enclosure had eight perspex windows to reduce claustrophobia. It also had a telephone, an instrument panel, drinking facilities and an ashtray with room for cigars, a thermos flask, newspapers and books. Testing at RAE Farnborough found the "egg" to work satisfactorily. Avro said it was too busy with the new Lancaster IV (Avro Lincoln) work so it was never installed in Ascalon. It was considered for installation in the successor aircraft, a Douglas C-54B but the contractor Armstrong Whitworth decided it was impractical and the project was shelved. The whereabouts of "Churchill's Egg" is not known.

MW140, Endeavour, flew to Australia in 1945 to become the personal aircraft of the Duke of Gloucester, Australia's Governor-General. It was operated by the Governor-General's Flight from 1945 to 1947; it was the Royal Australian Air Force's only York. Another York, MW102 was fitted out as a "flying office" for the use of the Viceroy of India and C-in-C South East Asia Command, Lord Mountbatten. During its first major overhaul by Avro at Manchester (Ringway) in 1945, the aircraft was repainted a light duck egg green, a shade intended to cool down the aeroplane, instead of its former normal camouflage colour scheme. South African leader Jan Smuts also used a York as his personal transport. Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory was killed on 14 November 1944, while flying to his new posting in Ceylon to take command of Allied air operations in the Pacific, when York MW126 struck a ridge in the French Alps in a blizzard,  south of Grenoble, France. His wife Dora and eight aircrew also died. The wreckage was found by a villager in June 1945.

Variants
Avro 685 prototypes
LV626 – prototype first flown with twin-tail and later converted to C.II standard
LV629 – prototype fitted with passenger seats
LV633 – prototype fitted as a flying conference room, later used by Winston Churchill
LV639 – prototype fitted as a paratroop drop variant with a drop hatch in the floor
York I
Four-engined civilian transport aircraft, 45 built
York C.I
Four-engined military transport aircraft for the RAF, 208 built by Avro and one by Victory Aircraft.
York C.II
One prototype York aircraft converted with four Bristol Hercules XVI radial piston engines.

Operators

Military operators

Royal Australian Air Force
Governor-General's Flight RAAF

French Air Force
Aeronavale

South African Air Force

Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (Boscombe Down)
Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment (Beaulieu)
Royal Aircraft Establishment (Farnborough)
Royal Air Force
 No. 24 Squadron RAF 1943–1951 at various bases in England
 No. 40 Squadron RAF 1947–1950 (RAF Abingdon, England)
 No. 51 Squadron RAF 1946–1950 at various bases in England
 No. 59 Squadron RAF 1947–1950 (RAF Abingdon, England)
 No. 99 Squadron RAF 1947–1949 (RAF Lyneham, England)
 No. 206 Squadron RAF 1947–1950 (RAF Lyneham, England)
 No. 232 Squadron RAF
 No. 242 Squadron RAF 1945–1949 at various bases in England
 No. 246 Squadron RAF 1944–1946 (RAF Holmsley South, England)
 No. 511 Squadron RAF 1943–1949 (RAF Lyneham, England)
 No. 241 Operational Conversion Unit RAF (RAF Dishforth, England)
 Air Command South East Asia Communications Squadron (RAF Ratmalana, Ceylon)
 Air Transport Tactical Development Unit (RAF Netheravon, England)
 Empire Air Navigation School (RAF Shawbury, England)
 Far East Communications Squadron (RAF Changi, Singapore)
 Metropolitan Communications Squadron (RAF Hendon, England)
 Transport Command Development Unit
 Transport Command Examining Unit
 1310 Flight RAF (RAF Upavon, England)
 1359 Flight RAF (RAF Lyneham then RAF Bassingbourn, England)
 1332 Heavy Conversion Unit at various bases in England and Northern Ireland
 Telecommunications Research Establishment (Defford, England)

Civil operators

Aden Airways

  (FAMA)
Aerolíneas Argentinas

Arctic Wings
Associated Airways
Maritime Central Airways
Pacific Western Airlines
Spartan Air Services
Transair (Canada)

Persian Air Services

Air Liban
Middle East Airlines
Trans Mediterranean Airways

South African Airways - operated Yorks leased from BOAC as stopgap until taking delivery of DC-4s and Avro Tudors
Tropic Airways

Air Charter - 10 operated from 1952 to 1956.
BOAC
British South American Airways
Dan-Air
Eagle Aviation
Hunting-Clan Air Transport
Scottish Airlines
Skyways
Surrey Flying Services

Survivors
While there are no flying examples of the Avro York, there are two complete examples on display in the United Kingdom. Both aircraft where initially allocated to the RAF, but were used by civil operators for most of their flying careers; both aircraft were issued with military and civil registrations.

Avro York TS798, G-AGNV

Avro 685 York C1, TS798 (cn 1223), now part of the collection of the RAF Museum. This aircraft was completed in October 1945 and intended for the RAF as TS798, but quickly passed to BOAC and given the civil registration G-AGNV. In BOAC service it flew routes in South Asia and Africa until 1950. In 1955 it was acquired by Skyways, who operated it until 1964.

It was sold to the Skyways airframe collection for preservation and made the last ever flight by a York when it flew from Heathrow to Gloucestershire Airport to join the collection. It was sold to the RAF Museum in 1972. In 1973 it was restored and painted in RAF markings to represent another aircraft, MW100; it was moved to the RAF Museum's Cosford site in 1976, where it is currently displayed.

Avro York MW232, G-ANTK

Displayed at the Imperial War Museum Duxford: Avro 685 York C1, G-ANTK is an ex-Dan Air London aircraft. This airframe was built at Yeadon, near Leeds, in January 1946 and entered RAF service with 242 Squadron as MW232 that August. It joined the fleet of Allied aircraft engaged in the Berlin Airlift and in May 1947, the York moved to 511 Squadron at Lyneham, where it served until May 1950 when it was used by Fairey Aviation for flight refuelling research. It then retired to 12 Maintenance Unit at Kirkbride for storage prior to disposal. In July 1954, MW232 became G-ANTK with Dan Air and it was used for freight work until its retirement in May 1964.

It was ferried to Lasham Airfield and used as a bunk house by the Air Scouts until 1974. The Dan Air preservation group took it over and began to restore the aircraft in their spare time. In the mid-1980s, Dan Air realised the impracticality of the restoration work being undertaken and began negotiations with the Duxford Aviation Society. In May 1986, the aircraft was dismantled and on 23 May made its journey to Duxford on seven low-loaders.

Accidents and incidents

The Avro York had 87 hull-loss accidents or incidents with the following list of accidents involving fatalities and major hull-losses. This information is primarily derived from: Piston Engine Airliner Production List (1991)  and Aviation Safety Network.:
 14 November 1944: An RAF York crashed near Grenoble, France, killing all ten aboard, including Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory.
 2 February 1945: An RAF York crashed off Lampedusa Island.
 29 December 1945: An RAF York crashed and was destroyed by fire near New Milton, Hampshire, England.
 11 April 1946: An RAF York crashed and burned on takeoff from RAF Woodbridge, one of the six crew on board was killed.
 7 September 1946: A British South American Airways York Star Leader on a flight from London to Buenos Aires via Lisbon, Bathurst, Natal, Rio de Janeiro and Montevideo, crashed shortly after takeoff from Bathurst, The Gambia. The captain lost control of the aircraft as it was climbing. The accident killed all 24 passengers and crew on board.
 6 October 1946: An RAF York crashed in the Bay of Bengal.
 20 October 1946: An RAF York crashed on takeoff from Dum Dum, Calcutta, India.
 20 November 1946: An RAF York crashed in the desert south of Helwan, Egypt.
 23 December 1946: A Flota Aérea Mercante Argentina York crashed into a mountain 31 km from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
 18 March 1947: An RAF York crashed and burnt out near Negombo Town after departure from Negombo, Ceylon.
 13 April 1947: British South American Airways York Star Speed crashed on landing at Dakar, Senegal.
 1 July 1947: An RAF York crashed after overshooting at RAF Oakington.
 16 July 1947: A BOAC York crashed near Basra, Iraq.
 17 November 1947: An RAF York crashed after overshooting at RAF Dishforth, Yorkshire.
 16 February 1948: An RAF York was damaged beyond repair during a landing at RAF Hullavington.
 4 July 1948: An RAF York collided with a Scandinavian Airlines System DC-6 over Northwood, London, killing all seven passengers and crew on the York and 32 passengers and crew on the DC-6. See 1948 Northwood mid-air collision.
 19 September 1948: An RAF York crashed on takeoff from Wunstorf, West Germany.
 5 January 1949: British South American Airways York Star Venture crashed at Caravellos Bay, Brazil.
 15 March 1949: A Skyways York crashed on approach to Gatow, (southwest of West Berlin), West Germany.
 2 February 1953: A Skyways York crashed into the sea off Newfoundland, Canada after an SOS was sent by the pilots. The wreck of the aircraft was never found; all 39 passengers and crew died.
 26 June 1954: A Skyways York crashed landed at Kyritz, East Germany.
 26 May 1955: An Associated Airways York was damaged beyond repair after hitting an obstacle on takeoff from Edmonton Municipal Airport, Canada.
 29 September 1955: An Associated Airways York was damaged beyond repair after ditching into the Thoa River near Yellowknife, North West Territories, Canada.
 18 February 1956: A Scottish Airlines York crashed at Malta due to pilot error, killing all 50 passengers and crew. See 1956 Scottish Airlines Malta air disaster
 30 April 1956: A Scottish Airlines York crashed on takeoff from Stansted Airport, Essex.
 26 September 1956: A Maritime Central Airways York was damaged beyond repair in a forced landing in Quebec, Canada.
 8 January 1957: A Transair (Canada) York was destroyed by fire after crash landing on a lake in Hudson Bay, Canada.
 25 June 1957: A Pacific Western Airlines York was damaged beyond repair after an accident at Cape Perry, North West Territories, Canada.
 23 December 1957: A cargo Scottish Airlines York crashed near Stansted on approach to the airport, killing all four crew.
 25 May 1958: A Dan-Air York crashed at Guragon, Punjab, India.
 29 September 1958: A Middle East Airlines York went missing over the Mediterranean Sea somewhere between Beirut and Rome.
 15 March 1963: A Trans Mediterranean Airways York crashed seven miles southeast of Karaj, Iran.

Specifications (Avro York)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Bridgeman, Leonard. "The Avro Type 685 York." Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. .
 Eastwood, Tony and John Roach. Piston Engine Airliner Production List. West Drayton, UK: The Aviation Hobby Shop, 1991. .
 Hannah, Donald. The Avro York (Aircraft in Profile number 168). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1967.
 Harrison, William. Avro York Warpaint Series No. 98. Denbigh East, UK: Warpaint Books, 2014. .
 Holmes, Harry. Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company, Second edition. Marlborough, UK: Crowood Press, 2004. .
 Jackson, A.J. Avro Aircraft since 1908, 2nd edition. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1990. .
 Ottaway, Susan and Ian. Fly With the Stars – A History of British South American Airways. Andover, Hampshire, UK: Speedman Press, 2007. .
 Stewart, Greig. Shutting Down the National Dream: A.V. Roe and the Tragedy of the Avro Arrow. Toronto: McGraw-Hill-Ryerson, 1991. .

External links

 Avro York on display at RAF Museum, Cosford
 "1,000,000th Ton!" a 1949 Flight advertisement for the York
 "Flying with Prudence" a 1946 instruction film made to instil in RAF flying personnel the importance of flight safety in peacetime.

York
1940s British airliners
1940s British military transport aircraft
Four-engined tractor aircraft
York
High-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1942
Four-engined piston aircraft
Twin-tail aircraft

Avro York


"Morning in America" is the common name of a political campaign television commercial. The ad was part of the 1984 U.S. presidential campaign of Republican Party candidate Ronald Reagan. It was narrated by Hal Riney.

It shows a montage of pictures of Americans going to work and a calm, optimistic narration that suggested the improvements to the U.S. economy since his 1980. The term was used many times during Reagan's presidency.

Ronald Reagan
Political slogans

Morning in America


Satya Vrat Shastri (29 September 1930 – 14 November 2021) was an Indian Sanskrit scholar, writer, grammarian and poet. He wrote three Mahakavyas, three Khandakavyas, one Prabandhakavyas and one Patrakavya and five works in critical writing in Sanskrit. His important works are Ramakirtimahakavyam, Brahattaram Bharatam, Sribodhisattvacharitam, Vaidika Vyakarana, Sarmanyadesah Sutram Vibhati, and "Discovery of Sanskrit Treasures" in seven volumes.

He was an honorary professor at the Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies (now known as the School of Sanskrit and Indic Studies (SSIS), Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He was the Head of the Department of Sanskrit and the Dean of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Delhi, where he was the Pandit Manmohan Nath Dar Professor of Sanskrit (1970–1995).

During his career he won many national and international awards, including, the Sahitya Akademi Award for Sanskrit, given by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, in 1968 for his poetry work, Srigurugovindasimhacharitam, then in 2006, he became the first recipient of the Jnanpith award in Sanskrit language (conferred in 2009 by Thailand's Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn).

Education
Shastri received his early education under his father, Shri Charu Deva Shastri, a renowned scholar. Thereafter, he moved to Varanasi, where he studied under Shukdev Jha and Siddheshwar Varma.

He received his B.A. Hons. and MA in Sanskrit from the Punjab University, and his PhD from the Banaras Hindu University.

Career
He joined the University of Delhi soon after, where for the next forty years of his teaching career, he held important positions as the Head of the Department of Sanskrit, and the Dean of the Faculty of Arts. Satya Vrat Shastri was also the Vice-Chancellor of Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University, Puri, Orissa, and a visiting professor at the Chulalongkorn and Silpakorn Universities in Bangkok, as well as the Northeast Buddhist University, Nongkhai, Thailand, the University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany, the Catholic University, Leuven, Belgium, and the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. He was a Visiting Professor of Sanskrit and in his class, among other students there was also Thailand's Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn who studied a minor paper on Sanskrit and received her M.A. in Oriental Epigraphy in 1979 at Silpakorn University [1977–1979].

Satya Vrat Shastri wrote many important poetic works in Sanskrit, the most important being his rendition from Royal Thai into Sanskrit, of the Thai version of the Ramayana, viz., Sri-rama-kirti-maha-kavyam, and with a foreword by the Princess of Thailand. Later research projects were the Sanskrit inscriptions and Hindu temples in Thailand, Kalidasa Studies, a critical edition of the Yogavasishtha, the Sanskritic vocabulary of South East Asia, and the Rama story in South East Asia.

In 2009, he became the only Sanskrit poet to win the (2006) Jnanpith award, for his contributions to the enrichment of the language, and conferred by his former disciple, Princess of Thailand, Maha Chakri Sirindhon.

Honors and awards

International

 Honour from Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu, 1979.
 Medallion of Honour from the Catholic University, Leuven, Belgium, 1985.
 Elected Fellow, International Institute of Indian Studies, Ottawa, Canada.
 Doctorate Honoris Causa from the Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, 1993.
 Honour: "Autorita Academische Italiano Straniere". The Civil and Academic Authority of Italy for Foreigners, 1994.
 Kalidasa Award from the International Institute of Indian Studies, Ottawa, Canada, 1994.
 Special Award from Centro Pimontese di Studi Sui Medio ed Estremo Oriente (CESMEO), Torino, Italy, 1995.
 Honour from Gaja Madah University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1995.
 Royal Decoration "Most Admirable Order of the Direkgunabhorn" from His Majesty the King of Thailand, 1997.
 Doctorate Honoris Causa, from the University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania.
 Certificate of Excellence from the Spiru Haret University, Ramnicu-Valeca, Romania, 2001.
 Certificate of Excellence from the Biblioteca Judeteana"Antim Ivireanul" Valeca, Romania, 2001.
 Honour from Mihai Eminescu International Academy, Bucharest, Romania, 2001.
 "Outstanding Teacher and Writer"  by Biblioteca Pedagogica Nationala 'I.C. Petrescu' and Biblioteca Indiana, Romania 2001
 Golden Prize from CESMEO, International Institute for Advanced Asian Studies, Torino, Italy, 2001.
 Elected Fellow, Accademia di Studi Mediterrani, Academy of Mediterranean Studies, Aggrigento, Italy.
 Conferred DOCTORATE HONORIS CAUSA by the University of Torino, Italy on 3 May 2012

National

 Sahitya Akademi Award, 1968 for Srigurugovindasimhacharitam (Poetry).
 Honour from Sahitya Kala Parishad, Delhi Administration, Delhi, 1974.
 Honour from Delhi Sikh Gurudwara Board, 1974.
 U.G.C. National Lecturer, 1983.
 President of India Certificate of Honour, 1985.
 Shiromani Sanskrit Sahityakar Award, Govt. of Punjab, 1985.
 Visista Sanskrit Sahitya Puraskara, Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Academy, 1988.
 Gita Rana Puraskara, IX International Gita Conference, Delhi, 1991.
 Sanskrit Seva Sammana, Delhi Sanskrit Akademi, Delhi, 1992.
 Sanskrit Sahitya Paraskara, Bharatiya Bhasha Parishad, Kolkata, 1992.
 Indira Baharey Gold Medal, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune, 1992.
 Pandit Jagannatha Sanskrit Padya-racana Puraskara, Delhi Sanskrit Akademi, Delhi, 1993.
 Kalidasa Puraskara, Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Academy, Lucknow, 1994.
 Pandita Kshama Row Puraskara, Row Dayal Trust, Mumbai, 1994.
 Vagbhusana title, Vanmaya-vimarsa, Delhi, 1994.
 Devavani-ratna Sammana, Devavani Parishad, New Delhi, 1994.
 First All India Sammana, Rajasthan Sanskrit Academy, Jaipur, 1995.
 Vachaspati Puraskara, K.K. Birla Foundation, New Delhi, 1995.
 Dayawati Modi Vishwa Sanskriti Sammana, Modi Kala Kala Bharati, New Delhi, 1995.
 Shastra-chudamani Award, Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi, 1996.
 Manasa Sammana, Tulasi Manasa Pratishthana, Madhya Pradesh and Tulasi Academy, Bhopal, 1997.
 All India Kalidasa Puraskara, Madhya Pradesh Sanskrit Academy, Bhopal, 1997.
 Honour from the Govt. of Maharashtra, 1998.
 Degree of Mahamahopadhyaya, Honoris Causa, Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapitha, Tirupati, 1999.
 Padma Shri, Govt. of India, 1999.
 Honour from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, 1999.
 Honour from Delhi Sanskrit Akademi, Delhi, 1999.
 Degree of Vidyavachaspati, Honoris Causa, Gurukul Mahavidyalaya, Jwalapur, Hardwar, 1999.
 Honour from Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit Naval Kishore Kankar Seva Parishsad, Jaipur, 1999.
 Kalidasa Sammana, Kalidasa Samaroha, Ujjain, 2000.
 Title of Veda-shastra-visharada, Swami Vishvesh Tirtha, Adhokshaja Mutt, Udupi, Karnataka, 2002.
 Shrivani Alankarana, Ramakrishna Jaidayal Dalmiya Trust, Delhi, 2002.
 Degree of Vidyamartanda (D.Litt.), Honoris Causa, Gurukul Kangri University, Hardwar, 2002.
 Mahakavi Kalidasa Sanskrit Jivanavrati Rashtriya Sammana, Kavikulaguru Kalidasa Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Nagpur, 2002.
 Honour from All India Oriental Conference, 43rd Session, Puri, 2003.
 Shrimati Chandrawati Joshi Sanskrit Bhasha Puraskara, Jnana Kalyana Datavya Nyasa, New Delhi, 2003.
 Vedanga Puraskara, Maharshi Sandipani Vedavidya Pratishthan, Ujjain, 2003.
 Acharya Umasvami Puraskara, Kundakunda Bharati, New Delhi, 2003.
 First International Himadri Uttaranchal Sanskrit Sammana, Uttaranchal Sanskrit Academy, Hardwar, 2004
 Dr. Shashibhanu Vidyalankar Rashtriya Puraskara, Dr. Shashibhanu Vidyalankar Dharmartha Trust, Hardwar, 2006.
 Jnanpith Award, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi, 2006.
 Degree of Vachaspati (D.Litt.), Honoris Causa, Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, New Delhi, 2007.
 Life Time Achievement Award Vidyaratna, Purbanchal Academy of Oriental Studies, Kolkata, 2008.
 Elected General President, All India Oriental Conference, 45th Session, Tirupati, 2008.
 Sardar Patel Award, Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel Foundation, New Delhi, 2008.
 D. Litt. Degree Honoris Causa, Deccan College, Pune, 2009.
 Anuvadashri Puraskara, Bharatiya Anuvada Parishad, New Delhi, 2009.
 Prashant Murti Puraskara, Vimala Vidyashruta Sansthan, Jaipur, 2009
 Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati National Eminence Award, The South Indian Education Society, Mumbai, 2009.
 Vishva Bharati Puraskara, UP Sanskrit Sansthan, Lucknow, 2009
 Padma Bhushan, Govt of India, 2010
 General President, All India Oriental Conference, 45th Session, Tirupati, 2010
 Sanskrit Kaustubha Sammana, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Delhi Kendra, New Delhi, 2010
 Distinguished Alumnus Award, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 2010
 Mahamana Malaviya Smrti Alankarana Puraskara, Mahamana Mission, Varanasi Unit, Varanasi, 2010
 Srimadvidyabhaskara Sammana, Mahamandaleshvara Junapithadhishvara Avadheshananda Giri, Hardwar, 2010
 Sarasvati ke Varadaputra title, All India Sanskrit Prakashaka Sangha, Delhi, 2011
 Maharshi Valmiki Sammana, Delhi Sanskrit Academy, Delhi, 2011
 Dr. Gangadhar Bhatta Smrti Sammana, Rajaganga Charitable Trust, Jaipur, 2011
 Bharatiratnam Sammana, Lokabhasha Prachara Samiti, Bhubaneswar, 2011.
 Prajnana Gaurava Sammana by Gloryfest, Puri, Odisha, 2012.
 Saptarshi Sammana by Sandipani Vidya Niketana, Porbundar, Gujarat, 2012.
 Swami Brahmananda Memorial Vyasashree Award-2012 by Maharsi Vyasadeva National Research Institute, Rourkela, Odisha..
 Doctorate Honoris Causa, University of Torino, Torino, Italy, 2012.
 Rajata Sammana, Maharshi Sandipani Veda Vidya Pratishthan, Ujjain, 2012.
 Degree of Mahamahopadhyaya, Kavi Kulguru Kalidasa Sanskrit University, Rampek (Nagpur), 2012.
 Brihaspati Sammana, Kavi Kulguru Kalidasa Sanskrit University, Rampek (Nagpur), 2012.
 Mahamahimopadhyaya Sammana, Sanskrit Sahitya Academy, Cuttuck, Odisha, 2012.
 Honour Bharatashrih, Akhil Bhartiya Vidvat Parishad Varanasi, 2013.
 Fellow, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2013.
 Professor Emeritus, University of Delhi, 2013
 Vasundhara Ratna Samman, Award of Excellence, Respect Age International, New Delhi, 2013
 Chairman, 2nd Sanskrit Commission, Govt. of India, 2014.
 Rajaprabha Puraskar, Kunjunni Raja Academy of Indological Research (KAIR), Thrissur (Kerala), 2014.
 Distinguished Teacher Award from the University of Delhi, Delhi, 2014
 Sanskrit Gaurava Samman from All India Sanskrit Sahitya Sammelan New Delhi, 2014
 Bharatbhusan Award, Indian Institute of Oriental Heritage, Kolkata, 2014

Academic writings
 Essays on Indology, Meharchand Lacchmandas, 1963,
 The Ramayana – A linguistic study with a foreword by Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee and an introduction by Dr. Siddheshwar Varma, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi 1964,
 Vaidika Vyakarana (Hindi translation of A.A.Macdonell's  "A Vedic Grammar for Students", Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 1971,
 Studies in Sanskrit and Indian Culture in Thailand, Parimal Prakashan, Delhi 1982,
 Kalidasa in Modern Sanskrit Literature, Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi, 1991
 Subhasitasahasri (Thousand Pearls from Sanskrit Literature), Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi, 1998
 Studies in the Language and the Poetry of the Yogavasistha (In the Press).
 Sanskrit Inscriptions of Thailand, Vijaya Books, Delhi-32, India, 2013,
 Human Values: Definitions and Interpretations, BharatiyaVidya Mandir, Kolkata-700087  2013 –
 Sanskrit Writings of European Scholars, Vijaya Books, Delhi-110032 2013 –
 Hungary Kitni Dur Kitni Paas, Vijaya Books, Delhi, 2013.
 Caran Vai Madhu Vindati (An account of the foreign cultural travels)- Vijya Books, 2013.
 Canakyaniti (Hindi and English translations with introduction) – Bhartiya Vidya Mandir, Kolkata, 2013.
 Words for Human Values in Sanskrit : Definitions and Interpretations, Bhartiya Vidya Mandir, Kolkata, 2013
 Introducing Sanskrit Literature, Vijaya Books, Delhi, 2014.

Literary writings
 Brhattaram Bharatam  ( A Kavya in Sanskrit ) Sarasvati Susama, Journal of the Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Varanasi, Vol. XII, No. 1, Samvat 2014
 Sribodhisattvacaritam (A Kavya in Sanskrit), First Ed. Self Publication, Delhi, Samvat 2017 (A.D. 1960) pages iv+ 120, Second Ed. Meharchand Lacchmandas, Delhi 1974,
 Srigurugovindasimhacaritam (A Kavya in Sanskrit) (With a foreword by Dr. V. Raghavan), First Ed.  Guru Gobind Singh Foundation, Patiala, 1967, Second Ed.  Sahitya Bhandar, Meerut, 1984,
 Sarmanyadesah Sutaram Vibhati (A Kavya in Sanskrit), Akhil Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow, 1976
 Indira Gandhi-caritam (A Kavya in Sansktir), Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Delhi, 1976,
 Thaidesavilasam (A Kavya in Sanskrit) (With a foreword by Prof. Visudh Busyakul), Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi 1979
 Sriramakirtimahakavyam (A Kavya in Sanskrit) (with a foreword by Her Royal Highness Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, the Princess of Thailand), Moolamall Sachdev and Amarnath Sachdeva Foundations, Bangkok, First Ed. 1990, Second Ed. 1991, Third Ed. 1995.
 Patrakavyam (A Kavya in Sanskrit), Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi 1994
 New Experiments in Kalidasa (Plays), Eastern Book Linkers, Delhi 1994
 Chanakyaniti, Bharatiya Vidya Mandir, Kolkata, 2013,
 Charan Vai Madhu Vindati (Sanskrit-Hindi), Vijaya Books, Delhi-110032, 2013 –
 Bhavitavyanam Dvaranii Bhavanti Sarvatra, Autobiography in Sanskrit, Vijaya Books, Delhi, 2014

References

External links
 Satya Vrat Shastri, personal web site
 University of Delhi Department of Sanskrit home page

1930 births
2021 deaths
Indian male poets
Hindu poets
Indian Sanskrit scholars
Sanskrit grammarians
Indian literary critics
Banaras Hindu University alumni
Academic staff of Jawaharlal Nehru University
Academic staff of Delhi University
Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in literature & education
Satya Vrat Shastri
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Sanskrit
Recipients of the Jnanpith Award
Punjabi University alumni
20th-century Indian poets
20th-century Indian linguists
Sanskrit poets

Satya Vrat Shastri


Ulf Gerhard Lundell (born 20 November 1949) is a Swedish writer, poet, songwriter, composer, musician and artist.

He made his debut in 1975 with the LP Vargmåne and was immediately hailed as "Sweden's Bob Dylan". In 1976 his first novel, the partly autobiographical Jack was published by Wahlström & Widstrand. Lundell was influenced by musicians such as Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Neil Young and writers such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and other beats. Ulf Lundell is one of the central figures in Swedish rock music and almost since his debut he has been one of the most important influences on rock musicians writing and singing in Swedish. Lundell is also somewhat controversial and has argued with everyone from neo-nazis, feminists and communists to colleagues and music journalists.

Lundell was known as a heavy drinker in the 1980s, but pulled out of overdrinking after serious bouts with alcoholism in 1985–87; he gave a vivid report of this time, his recovery and his struggle with the rocker myth in the autobiographical novel En varg söker sin flock (1989; "A Wolf in Search of his Pack")

"Öppna landskap" (Open landscapes) from 1982, one of his most famous songs, has been playfully proposed as Sweden's new national anthem.

Biography

Origins and musical beginnings
Ulf Lundell's father was Gerhard Lundell a blacksmith worker and mother Ingrid () worked among other things as school meal assistant and seamstress. The family first lived in Stockholm in 1958 but moved to Saltsjö-Boo, east of Stockholm. At the age of ten he got his first guitar. Lundell has an older sister named Inger, whose boyfriend taught him his first chords. During the years 1967–75 Ulf Lundell had a variety of jobs, including postman. During these years he wrote songs and poems which he sent to record labels and publishers.

He sent a demo to MNW which they declined, telling him "the material was not strong enough". Later he sent two demos to Silence, which were also rejected. When he sent a demo to EMI in October 1974 they wanted to record an LP with him. In 1975 he made his debut with the album Vargmåne (Wolf Moon). The following year, 1976, came his first novel, Jack, with which he made his breakthrough. The novel is about rebellion against "medelsvensson" (Average Joes) circumscribed life in the aftermath of the political uprising at the end of the 1960s. The book had an initial print run of 2,000 copies but ultimately sold 200,000 copies. Meanwhile, when his first work was released, he had already started recording the sequel to Vargmåne. The second album would be called Törst (Thirst) and released just three months after Jack. After that floated on the writing of books and two more were released during the 1970s. Törst was followed by the live album Natten hade varit mild och öm (The night was mild and tender) with Nature as backing band for years. The album Nådens år (Year of Grace) in 1978 year would become his third studio album including a duet with Agnetha Fältskog, "Snön faller och vi med den" ("Snow Falls And We With It"). In 1979 Lundell released his fourth studio album Ripp rapp with songs like "Rom i regnet" and "(Oh la la) Jag vill ha dej". Ripp rapp was more rock than his previous albums.

1980s
In the fall of 1980 Lundell released the album Längre inåt landet, which was recorded in England. The album includes songs like "Glad igen" ("Happy Again") and "Stackars Jack" ("Poor Jack"). The latter was a comment on the criticism Lundell got from his debut novel Jack. Two years later, in 1982, he released the album "Kär och galen" (In love and crazy) that contained his most famous work, the song "Öppna landskap" ("Open landscapes"). It made him one of the biggest artists, and sold four times platinum. Other songs that became popular from Kär och galen was the title track "Kär och galen" and "När jag kysser havet" ("When I kiss the sea").

While waiting for a proper sequel to Kär och galen Lundell released two records, one in which he interpreted the English songs with Swedish lyrics (Sweethearts) and a completely acoustic album (12 sånger). Ulf wrestled with severe alcohol problems during this time, which among other things, led to the postponing of his upcoming album several times. During the summer tour in 1985, he did a real disastrous gig in Borgholm drunk, which put him on some headlines in the newspapers. In the fall Lundell released Den vassa eggen (The Sharp Edge), an album heavily influenced by the divorce Lundell went through at the time of recording. Den vassa eggen was very critically acclaimed and was followed by yet another scandal tour in the fall of that year. In 1987 Lundell released the only book Lundell acknowledged writing intoxicated, Tårpilen and also the album Det ljuva livet (The Good Life).

Lundell alcohol abuse got so bad that he joined Alcoholics Anonymous at this time. 1988 he stated that he had met God and was baptized shortly thereafter in the Ebeneser Church. His newfound Christian faith came to color in the album Evangeline, which was released the same year. 1989 he released his autobiography En varg söker sin flock ("A Wolf in Search of his Pack")  and the album Utanför murarna (Outside the Walls). He has also been active as a visual artist from 1989.

1990s–present

It took until 1992 for Lundell to release a new book or album with the novel Saknaden. The book came to be the first installment of a trilogy. 1993 he released the album Måne över Haväng, which contains songs that include Rött and Isabella. This was the first album that Lundell produced entirely by himself. 1994 he formed his own production company Rockhead Studios AB and its subsidiaries Rockhead Productions and Rockhead Art and secondary name Rockhead Music. That same year he released the acoustic album Xavante. At this time Lundell invested more in music than on writing.

In 1995 Lundell celebrated 20 years as an artist. The following year he released double album På andra sidan drömmarna and the live album Bosnia. At this time one can notice that he was inspired more by Neil Young than before Springsteen and Dylan. Especially with the album Fanzine (1999), which is a disc that is partially recorded in a studio and partly live. 1999 he released his first book in seven years, the sequel to the novel Saknaden, called Friheten.

The album I ett vinterland (2000) became his second best-selling album. The album was followed two years later with the double album Club Zebra, an album that was number one in Sweden October 17, 2002. Then followed four studio albums until 2005, the acoustic En eld ikväll and album trilogy Ok Ok Baby, Högtryck and Lazarus. 2005 was a very productive year for Lundell with two albums and the novel Värmen, the last part of a trilogy with Saknaden and Friheten. This was the year he celebrated 30 years as an artist.

In the autumn of 2008, Lundell toured for the first time in over two years and also released his first studio album in three years. During the tour premiere of Gävle Lundell told the newspapers he was about to stop touring. The tour continued in 2009 with one in the spring and one in the summer. In connection with these he admits that he lied and will not stop touring. He explains that he is about to take farewell from his artistic career, but it's a long farewell. 2010 Lundell released a new book, En öppen vinter, also containing a CD with 11 new songs.

In the summer of 2010, Lundell embarked on a new tour in which he broke the audience record for a Swedish artist at Gröna Lund on July 30. Audience numbers were 22 827 people and with that figure, he is only beaten by Bob Marley (32 000) and Lady Gaga (23 000).

A concert tour that Lundell would have embarked on in the spring of 2011 was completely cancelled due to sickness.

Personal life
Lundell was married the first time in 1977 to Barbro Zackrisson. They broke up in 1988. In 1989, Lundell married Fredrika Stjärne, they broke up in 1991. He has three children from his first marriage, including the journalist Sanna Lundell, and one from the other. During the mid-1990s, he was dating the poet Isabella Nerman (whom he also wrote a song about, simply called "Isabella"). During a period in the 2000s he was living with Ulrika Rickfors.

Discography

Studio albums

Live albums

Compilation albums

Bibliography
Novels
1976: Jack
1977: Sömnen
1979: Vinter i paradiset
1981: Kyssen
1983: Hjärtats ljus
1987: Tårpilen
1989: En varg söker sin flock
1992: Saknaden
1999: Friheten
2003: Frukost på en främmande planet
2004: Mer än hennes mun
2005: Värmen
2008: Vädermannen
2011: Allt är i rörelse
2014: Visenterna

Lyrical prose
2010: En öppen vinter (lyrical prose texts)

Poetry
1972: Modus Vivendi, Molngrabb!
1979: Fruset guld
1981: Det är långt mellan lycka och leda
1984: Tid för kärlek

Plays
2009: 6 pjäser

References

External links

1949 births
Living people
20th-century Swedish guitarists
20th-century Swedish singers
21st-century Swedish guitarists
21st-century Swedish singers
Swedish male guitarists
Swedish male singers
Swedish male singer-songwriters
Swedish singer-songwriters
Swedish multi-instrumentalists
Swedish rock guitarists
Swedish rock singers
Musicians from Stockholm
Singers from Stockholm
Swedish people of Walloon descent

Ulf Lundell


Edward Owen Leech (December 9, 1850 – May 1, 1900) was Director of the United States Mint from 1889 to 1893.

Biography

Edward O. Leech was born on December 9, 1850, in Washington, D.C. where his father, Daniel D. Tompkins Leech (1810–1869) was an official with the United States Post Office and then the United States Department of the Treasury. Edward O. Leech was a direct lineal descendant of Lawrence Leach (1589–1662), a follower of Francis Higginson who settled in Salem, Massachusetts in 1629; Edward O. Leech's great-grandfather, Captain Hezekiah Leach fought in the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War. Edward O. Leech was educated at Columbia University, receiving an A.B. in 1869.

On the death of Leech's father in 1869, he became a clerk in the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department of the Treasury. When the Bureau of the Mint was organized in April 1873 in the wake of the Coinage Act of 1873, the Director of the United States Mint, Henry Linderman, invited Leech to become one of his assistants. He subsequently served as assay clerk, adjuster of accounts, and computer of bullion. Leech earned an LL.M. from the National Law University in Washington, D.C. in 1886, but decided to remain with the Mint rather than go into legal practice.

In 1889, President of the United States Benjamin Harrison named Leech Director of the United States Mint. The New York Times editorialized against the appointment, arguing that Harrison only nominated Leech because of Leech's role in whitewashing a scandal involving Harrison's son, Russell Benjamin Harrison, who had participated in a failed business venture in Helena, Montana while Russell Harrison was in charge of the Assay Office in Helena. Leech served as Director of the Mint from October 1889 until May 1893.

Upon retiring from government service, Leech became Vice President of the National Union Bank in New York City. At the 1896 Republican National Convention, Leech played a major role in securing a plank in the party's platform favorable to maintaining the gold standard.

Leech died of complications related to appendicitis at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York on May 1, 1900.

References

External links

1850 births
1900 deaths
People from Washington, D.C.
Directors of the United States Mint
Columbia University alumni
Washington, D.C., Republicans
New York (state) Republicans
Deaths from appendicitis
Members of the United States Assay Commission
Benjamin Harrison administration personnel
Cleveland administration personnel

Edward O. Leech


Robert "Bob" Aldrich (August 9, 1918 - December 5, 1983) was an American movie and television director,  second unit director or assistant director, and producer. He was born Robert Burgess Aldrich in Cranston, Rhode Island. He died in Los Angeles, California, age 65.

Aldrich directed Joan Crawford and Bette Davis in What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962), Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis in Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte  (1964), Lee Marvin, Charles Bronson, and football star Jim Brown in The Dirty Dozen (1967), and Burt Reynolds and Eddie Albert in The Longest Yard (1974) and Hustle (1975). Television credits include (among others) five episodes of Four Star Playhouse and five episodes of The Doctor in the 1950s.

Other websites

1918 births
1983 deaths
American movie directors
American television directors
People from Cranston, Rhode Island

Robert Aldrich


Lake Huron is one of North America's five Great Lakes. It is the third one up from the mouth. Like Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior, it is also part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. The Huronian glaciation, billions of years ago, is named for the lake.

Lake Huron is more than 200 miles (325 km) long and is as much as 750 feet (230 m) deep. Many boats and ships go back and forth on Lake Huron, carrying useful things such as iron ore.

Lake Huron borders the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of Michigan. There are no large cities on Lake Huron, but there are some small cities such as Sarnia, Ontario and Bay City, Michigan.

The water that flows out of Lake Huron goes through a river that flows past Detroit, Michigan. The water then flows into Lake Erie on its way to the ocean.

On 1996 an hurricane-like storm appeared on Lake Huron, while the National Hurricane Center was not sure to call it a hurricane or not. Because the storm formed over Lake Huron and that it did not get a name from the NHC, many people nicknamed the storm, "Hurricane Huron".

Huron, Lake
Huron, Lake
Huron, Lake
Lakes of the United States

Lake Huron


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a group of scientists chosen by governments and other large groups from around the world who study the way that humans are making the Earth heat up unnaturally. The group was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations.

The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice President of the United States Al Gore who won for working on the same problems.

A lot of IPCC work is publishing reports about the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),  an international agreement that human inventions and chemistry may make the Earth too hot to live on. The UNFCCC was the beginning of the Kyoto Protocol. Members of the IPCC read, write, and calculate as much as they can. Only member states of the WMO and UNEP may be members of IPCC.
A lot of professors trust the IPCC work.

IPCC Reports
The first IPCC report was published in 1990. More was added to that report in 1992. The second report was published in 1995, the third was published in 2001, and a fourth in 2007. Each report is in three books called Working Groups 1, 2 and 3. Most times "the IPCC report" means the Working Group I report, which is about basic climate change.

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007
The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was completed in early 2007. Like earlier IPCC reports, it contains four reports, three of them from its working groups.

Working Group 1 was about the "Physical Science Basis of Climate Change."
The Working Group 1 report was published on February 2 2007 and revised on February 2007. There was also a February 2 2007 press release.  The full Working Group 1 report was published in March. The main report says:
 Warming of the climate system is unequivocal.
 Most of the increase in globally averaged temperatures since the middle of the 20th century is very likely to be caused by humans using gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and CFCs.
 Warming and sea level rise will continue for centuries, even if greenhouse gas was not used any more, the amount of warming and sea level rise depends on how much fossil fuel is burnt for the next 100 years (pages 14 and 18).
 The chance that global warming and rising sea levels is natural is less than 5%.
 World temperatures could rise by between 1.1 and 6.4 °C (2.0 and 11.5 °F) during the 21st century (table 3) and:
 Sea levels may rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.08 to 23.22 in) [table 3].
 Both past and future carbon dioxide production will continue to make global warming and sea level rise for more than a thousand years.
 Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere have increased a lot because of human activities since 1750

The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group 2 (IPCC wg2 ) report was published on April 6, 2007.
The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group 3 report  was published on May 4, 2007.

IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001

The Third Assessment Report (TAR) contains four reports, three of them from its working groups:
 Working Group 1: The Scientific Basis
 Working Group 2: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
 Working Group 3: Mitigation
 Synthesis Report

The "headlines" from the Summary for Policymakers in The Scientific Basis were:

 More scientists are believing in a warming world and other changes in climate (The average global temperature has increased during the 20th century by about 0.6 °C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometers of the atmosphere; Snow and ice have decreased)
 Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to change the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate
 More scientists believe future climate change can be predicted. Climate prediction has improved but not enough
 There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming over the past 50 years was caused by humans
 Humans will continue to change atmosphere in the 21st century
 Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise by the IPCC SRES scenarios

The estimate for the climate sensitivity was 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average temperature was predicted to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees between 1990 and 2100, and the sea level was predicted to rise between 0.1 and 0.9 meters.  The range of predictions is based on different levels of human carbon dioxide production. Each perdiction has different possible outcomes.

Changing scientists reports

MIT professor Richard Lindzen, who works for the IPCC Working Group 1, claims some of the IPCC reports are wrong. He told the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation that he was unhappy about the Executive Summary based on his work in May 2001. He said that he told the IPCC they were making mistakes and the Working Group 1 report said that meant they were "making improvements".

Professor Lindzen said:

The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes. This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments – including those of clouds and water vapor. The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapor, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'

The Working Group 1 report said:
  Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities.
 Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used.

IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995

Climate Change 1995, the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996. It was made in four parts:
 A synthesis to help interpret UNFCCC article 2.
 The Science of Climate Change (Working Group 1)
 Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change (Working Group 2)
 Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change (Working Group 3)

Each of the working groups was made by its own working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SPM) that is a list of agreements by governments. The Summary for Policy Makers of the Working Group 1 report says:

 Greenhouse gas has continued to increase
 CFC aerosols make radiation in the atmposphere
 Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 °C since the late 19th century; this is almost the same as the 1990 report).
 The evidence is that humans are changing the Earths climate (a lot of extra work was done since the 1990 report to see the difference between natural climate change and human changes, for example: the effects of aerosol gases)
 Climate is will continue to change in the future
 We cannot be sure of how much human effects will happen in future

Changing what the scientists say

Three scientists involved in climate research believe that the IPCC reports do not accurately summarize the state of knowledge.

On December 20, 1995, Reuters news agency claimed a British scientist Keith Shine, one of IPCC's most important authors, talking about the Policymakers' Summary, said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report". Keith Shine did not say what differences the changes make.

Frederick Seitz, a physicist of Rockefeller University, said the IPCC report was not good, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report". He opposed it in the Leipzig Declaration of S. Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project.

Professor Seitzs comments were opposed by the presidents of the American Meteorological Society and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, who wrote about an effort by some people make it seem that humans had not changed the climate. Special insert .

S. Fred Singer said that :
 Chapter 8 was changed;
 Three important parts — the views of the authors, contributors, and reviewers —  should have been put in the Summary but they were deleted;

Benjamin D. Santer, Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group 1 report, said :
 The purpose was to produce the best possible and most clear report of the science, and was under his full control.
 None of the changes were politically motivated.

Economic report

The Second Assessment Report was the only one with a chapter on the economic effect of climate change. This part of the report was thought to be unfair because the value of life in poorer countries was less.

IPCC Supplementary Report: 1992
The 1992 supplementary report was an update of the 1990 report, requested for the Framework Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

It did not make any important changes to the 1990 report. It claimed the prediction methods in the First Assessment Report, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.

IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990
The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and used to make the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

The Working Group 1 report says:
 We are certain there is a natural greenhouse effect...; humans are making the greenhouse effect stronger by releasing these gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, CFC gases and nitrous oxide gas. These gases trap heat on the Earth.
 We calculate that: ...CO2 has been responsible for over half the stronger greenhouse effect; gases that stay in the air for a long time need to be used 60% less to stop making the greenhouse effect even stronger
 We predict: global temperature during the [21st] century will rise by 0.3 oC per decade (but possibly between 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade); this is more warming than the past 10,000 years; Some other sudies predict that temperature will rise between 0.2 oC and 0.1 oC per decade.
 The predictions are not exact because we do not yet understand the effects of clouds, ice sheets, oceans and other important parts.
 We believe that world temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years...; This warming does not appear to be caused by humans but it is possible that humans have caused this warming. We will not be sure how much of the warming has been caused by humans for a decade or more.

IPCC structure
The Chairperson of the IPCC is Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002; before that Robert Watson headed the IPCC. The chairperson is helped by an elected Bureau including vice-chairpersons, Working Group co-chairpersons and a Secretariat (see below).

The IPCC Panel is made of people from governments and other groups.  Scientific experts are preferred. Meetings of the IPCC and IPCC Working Groups are held by members of governments. Non-Governmental and Intergovernmenta Organizations may be allowed to attend as observers. Meetings of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, experts and lead authors are by invitation only. 350 government officials and climate change experts visited the 2003 meeting. The meeting report  says there were 322 persons in attendance at meetings with about seven-eighths of visitors being from governments.

Major groups

There are several major groups:
 IPCC Panel: Meets about once a year and controls the organization. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.
 Chairperson: Elected by the Panel.
 Secretariat: Controls all activities.  Supported by UNEP and WMO.
 Bureau: Elected by the Panel.  Chaired by the Chair.  30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairpersons, Co-Chairpersons and Vice-Chairpersons of Working Groups and Task Force.
 Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairpersons, one from a richer country and one from a poorer country, and a technical support unit.
 Working Group 1: Studies the science of the climate system and climate change.
 Working Group 2: Studies the effects and dangers of human activity in relation to climate change and gives ideas for how to change human activity.
 Working Group 3: Studies options for limiting greenhouse gas and other ways to reduce climate change.
 Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

The IPCC receives funding from UNEP, WMO, and its own Trust Fund which gets money from governments.

Contributors
People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report over 6 years.  These people included more than 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.

The Working Group 1 report of 2007 (including the summary for policy makers) included contributions by 600 authors from 40 countries, over 620 expert reviewers, a large number of government reviewers, and representatives from 113 governments.

Activities
The IPCC activities are controlled by the WMO Executive Council and UNEP Governing Council to support the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In April 2006, the IPCC released the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report or AR4. Reports of the workshops held so far are available at the IPCC website.
 Working Group 1  :
 Report was finished during February of 2007  .
 By May 2005, there had been 3 AR4 meetings, the only public information was the meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles.
 By December 2006, governments were reviewing the Summary for Policy Makers.
 Working Group 2  :
 Report was finished in mid-2007.
 In May 2005, there had been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released.
 One meeting with Working Group 3 workers had taken place, with a published report.
 Working Group 3  :
 Report was to be finished in mid-2007.
 In May 2005, there had been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released.

The AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) was finalized in November 2007. Documentation on the meetings for the AR4 are available  , the outlines for the Working Group 1 report  and a provisional author list .

The IPCC also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre Welcome to the IPCC Data Distribution Centre and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme IPCC - Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. This involves estimating greenhouse gas based on the levels of fuel used, industrial production and so on.

The IPCC also answers questions from the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).

Publications

Preparation of the reports
The IPCC reports are a collection of peer reviewed and published science.  Each IPCC report explains improvements to the previous report and also explains where more research is needed.

There are usually three stages in the review :
 Expert review (6–8 weeks)
 Government/expert review
 Government review of: Summaries for Policymakers, Overview Chapters, and Synthesis Report
Review comments are open to the public for at least five years.

There are several ways to agree what goes into the reports:
 approval: Line by line agreement.
 Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are approved by their Working Groups.
 Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is approved by Panel.
 adoption: Section by section (and not line by line) agreement.
 Panel adopts Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
 Panel adopts IPCC Synthesis Report.
 acceptance: No line by line discussion. Most people agree.
 Working Groups accept their reports.
 Task Force Reports are accepted by the Panel.
 Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are accepted by the Panel after group approval.

The Panel controls what the IPCC agrees on to meet standards. The Panel's approval process has been criticized for changing what the experts put in the Reports.

Authors
Each chapter has a lot of authors who are responsible for writing and editing the material. A chapter usually has two "Coordinating" Lead Authors who control what words go in their chapter, ten to fifteen Lead Authors, and a larger number of Contributing Authors. The Lead Authors put together the work of the other authors and report to the Working Group chairs. Lead Authors write sections of chapters. Contributing Authors prepare text, graphs and data.

Authors are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, other important groups, the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts (, 4.2.1,2). The group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is expected to have many different views and to have people from different parts of the world.

Nobel Peace Prize 2007
In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change."  The award is shared with Former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary An Inconvenient Truth.

Criticism of IPCC

Christopher Landsea resignation
In January 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the IPCC AR4, saying that it was "both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound" because of Kevin Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research's idea that global warming was contributing to recent hurricane activity.  Roger A. Pielke who published Landsea's letter writes: "How anyone can deny that political factors were everpresent in the negotiations isn't paying attention", but says that "Despite the pressures, on tropical cyclones they figured out a way to maintain consistency with the actual balance of opinion(s) in the community of relevant experts." He continues "So there might be a human contribution (and presumably this is just to the observed upwards trends observed in some basins, and not to downward trends observed in others, but this is unclear) but the human contribution itself has not been quantitatively assessed, yet the experts, using their judgment, expect it to be there. In plain English this is what is called a 'hypothesis' and not a 'conclusion.' And it is a fair representation of the issue."

"Hockey stick" graph

The IPCC Third Assessment Report showed a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" from a paper by Mann, Bradley and Hughes (MBH98) often called the "Hockey Stick Graph". This graph was different to the IPCC First assessment report which showed global temperature for the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period. The graph was thought to show that temperatures between 1000 and 1900 were very different. This was criticized in an article by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick. In a 2006 letter to Nature, Bradley, Hughes and Mann claimed the original article had said that they could not be exact.

Risks
Some critics say the IPCC reports underestimate dangers, understate risks, and report only the lowest risks.

On February 1, 2007, the night before publication of IPCCs report on climate, a study was published saying that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or above the speed the IPCC reported in 2001.  The study compared IPCC 2001 predictions of temperature and sea level change with what actually happened.  Over the six years, the actual temperature rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC's 2001 prediction and the actual rise was more than the top of the range the IPCC predicted.

An example of scientific research which has indicated that predictions by the IPCC have uderstated risks is a study on rises in sea levels.

Political influence on the IPCC has been shown by the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration, and its effects on the IPCCs leadership. The Bush administration, at the request of ExxonMobil, wanted rid of Robert Watson, a climate scientist and IPCC chairperson, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more friendly to industry.

IPCC process

In 2005, the UK House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs produced a report on the economics of climate change. It commented on the IPCC process:

"We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations.  There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCCs emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios.  The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change.  The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags.

Related pages
 Global warming

Notes and references

Other websites
 The IPCC website
 IPCC Organisation

 IPCC publications
 IPCC AR4 WG1 Report Available for Purchase
 Summaries for Policymakers (SPMs) of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report:
 ,

 A summary of the Fourth Assessment Report SPMs by GreenFacts.
 IPCC article  at the Encyclopedia of Earth - General overview of the IPCC
 Climate Change - What Is the IPCC by Jean-Marc Jancovici
 Climate Change Freeview Video Interview 2006 - Sherwood Rowland, Nobel Laureate (1995) for work on ozone depletion discusses climate change. Provided by the Vega Science Trust.
 «UN scientist backs '350' target for CO2 reduction», AFP, August 25 2009

1988 establishments
International environmental organizations
United Nations specialized agencies
Climate change