The term conceptual model refers to any model that is formed after a conceptualization or generalization process. Conceptual models are often abstractions of things in the real world, whether physical or social. Semantic studies are relevant to various stages of concept formation. Semantics is fundamentally a study of concepts, the meaning that thinking beings give to various elements of their experience.

Overview

Concept models and conceptual models

The value of a conceptual model is usually directly proportional to how well it corresponds to a past, present, future, actual or potential state of affairs. A concept model (a model of a concept) is quite different because in order to be a good model it need not have this real world correspondence. In artificial intelligence, conceptual models and conceptual graphs are used for building expert systems and knowledge-based systems; here the analysts are concerned to represent expert opinion on what is true not their own ideas on what is true.

Type and scope of conceptual models
Conceptual models range in type from the more concrete, such as the mental image of a familiar physical object, to the formal generality and abstractness of mathematical models which do not appear to the mind as an image. Conceptual models also range in terms of the scope of the subject matter that they are taken to represent. A model may, for instance, represent a single thing (e.g. the Statue of Liberty), whole classes of things (e.g. the electron), and even very vast domains of subject matter such as the physical universe. The variety and scope of conceptual models is due to the variety of purposes had by the people using them.

Conceptual modeling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of the physical and social world around us for the purposes of understanding and communication.

Fundamental objectives

A conceptual model's primary objective is to convey the fundamental principles and basic functionality of the system which it represents. Also, a conceptual model must be developed in such a way as to provide an easily understood system interpretation for the model's users. A conceptual model, when implemented properly, should satisfy four fundamental objectives.

 Enhance an individual's understanding of the representative system
 Facilitate efficient conveyance of system details between stakeholders
 Provide a point of reference for system designers to extract system specifications
 Document the system for future reference and provide a means for collaboration

The conceptual model plays an important role in the overall system development life cycle. Figure 1 below, depicts the role of the conceptual model in a typical system development scheme. It is clear that if the conceptual model is not fully developed, the execution of fundamental system properties may not be implemented properly, giving way to future problems or system shortfalls. These failures do occur in the industry and have been linked to; lack of user input, incomplete or unclear requirements, and changing requirements. Those weak links in the system design and development process can be traced to improper execution of the fundamental objectives of conceptual modeling. The importance of conceptual modeling is evident when such systemic failures are mitigated by thorough system development and adherence to proven development objectives/techniques.

Modelling techniques

Numerous techniques can be applied across multiple disciplines to increase the user's understanding of the system to be modeled. A few techniques are briefly described in the following text, however, many more exist or are being developed. Some commonly used conceptual modeling techniques and methods include: workflow modeling, workforce modeling, rapid application development, object-role modeling, and the Unified Modeling Language (UML).

Data flow modeling

Data flow modeling (DFM) is a basic conceptual modeling technique that graphically represents elements of a system. DFM is a fairly simple technique; however, like many conceptual modeling techniques, it is possible to construct higher and lower level representative diagrams. The data flow diagram usually does not convey complex system details such as parallel development considerations or timing information, but rather works to bring the major system functions into context. Data flow modeling is a central technique used in systems development that utilizes the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM).

Entity relationship modeling

Entity–relationship modeling (ERM) is a conceptual modeling technique used primarily for software system representation. Entity-relationship diagrams, which are a product of executing the ERM technique, are normally used to represent database models and information systems. The main components of the diagram are the entities and relationships. The entities can represent independent functions, objects, or events. The relationships are responsible for relating the entities to one another. To form a system process, the relationships are combined with the entities and any attributes needed to further describe the process. Multiple diagramming conventions exist for this technique; IDEF1X, Bachman, and EXPRESS, to name a few. These conventions are just different ways of viewing and organizing the data to represent different system aspects.

Event-driven process chain

The event-driven process chain (EPC) is a conceptual modeling technique which is mainly used to systematically improve business process flows. Like most conceptual modeling techniques, the event driven process chain consists of entities/elements and functions that allow relationships to be developed and processed. More specifically, the EPC is made up of events which define what state a process is in or the rules by which it operates. In order to progress through events, a function/ active event must be executed. Depending on the process flow, the function has the ability to transform event states or link to other event driven process chains. Other elements exist within an EPC, all of which work together to define how and by what rules the system operates. The EPC technique can be applied to business practices such as resource planning, process improvement, and logistics.

Joint application development

The dynamic systems development method uses a specific process called JEFFF to conceptually model a systems life cycle. JEFFF is intended to focus more on the higher level development planning that precedes a project's initialization. The JAD process calls for a series of workshops in which the participants work to identify, define, and generally map a successful project from conception to completion. This method has been found to not work well for large scale applications, however smaller applications usually report some net gain in efficiency.

Place/transition net

Also known as Petri nets, this conceptual modeling technique allows a system to be constructed with elements that can be described by direct mathematical means. The petri net, because of its nondeterministic execution properties and well defined mathematical theory, is a useful technique for modeling concurrent system behavior, i.e. simultaneous process executions.

State transition modeling

State transition modeling makes use of state transition diagrams to describe system behavior. These state transition diagrams use distinct states to define system behavior and changes. Most current modeling tools contain some kind of ability to represent state transition modeling. The use of state transition models can be most easily recognized as logic state diagrams and directed graphs for finite-state machines.

Technique evaluation and selection
Because the conceptual modeling method can sometimes be purposefully vague to account for a broad area of use, the actual application of concept modeling can become difficult. To alleviate this issue, and shed some light on what to consider when selecting an appropriate conceptual modeling technique, the framework proposed by Gemino and Wand will be discussed in the following text. However, before evaluating the effectiveness of a conceptual modeling technique for a particular application, an important concept must be understood; Comparing conceptual models by way of specifically focusing on their graphical or top level representations is shortsighted. Gemino and Wand make a good point when arguing that the emphasis should be placed on a conceptual modeling language when choosing an appropriate technique. In general, a conceptual model is developed using some form of conceptual modeling technique. That technique will utilize a conceptual modeling language that determines the rules for how the model is arrived at. Understanding the capabilities of the specific language used is inherent to properly evaluating a conceptual modeling technique, as the language reflects the techniques descriptive ability. Also, the conceptual modeling language will directly influence the depth at which the system is capable of being represented, whether it be complex or simple.

Considering affecting factors

Building on some of their earlier work, Gemino and Wand acknowledge some main points to consider when studying the affecting factors: the content that the conceptual model must represent, the method in which the model will be presented, the characteristics of the model's users, and the conceptual model languages specific task. The conceptual model's content should be considered in order to select a technique that would allow relevant information to be presented. The presentation method for selection purposes would focus on the technique's ability to represent the model at the intended level of depth and detail. The characteristics of the model's users or participants is an important aspect to consider. A participant's background and experience should coincide with the conceptual model's complexity, else misrepresentation of the system or misunderstanding of key system concepts could lead to problems in that system's realization. The conceptual model language task will further allow an appropriate technique to be chosen. The difference between creating a system conceptual model to convey system functionality and creating a system conceptual model to interpret that functionality could involve two completely different types of conceptual modeling languages.

Considering affected variables

Gemino and Wand go on to expand the affected variable content of their proposed framework by considering the focus of observation and the criterion for comparison. The focus of observation considers whether the conceptual modeling technique will create a "new product", or whether the technique will only bring about a more intimate understanding of the system being modeled. The criterion for comparison would weigh the ability of the conceptual modeling technique to be efficient or effective. A conceptual modeling technique that allows for development of a system model which takes all system variables into account at a high level may make the process of understanding the system functionality more efficient, but the technique lacks the necessary information to explain the internal processes, rendering the model less effective.

When deciding which conceptual technique to use, the recommendations of Gemino and Wand can be applied in order to properly evaluate the scope of the conceptual model in question. Understanding the conceptual models scope will lead to a more informed selection of a technique that properly addresses that particular model. In summary, when deciding between modeling techniques, answering the following questions would allow one to address some important conceptual modeling considerations.

 What content will the conceptual model represent?
 How will the conceptual model be presented?
 Who will be using or participating in the conceptual model?
 How will the conceptual model describe the system?
 What is the conceptual models focus of observation?
 Will the conceptual model be efficient or effective in describing the system?
Another function of the simulation conceptual model is to provide a rational and factual basis for assessment of simulation application appropriateness.

Models in philosophy and science

Mental model

In cognitive psychology and philosophy of mind, a mental model is a representation of something in the mind, but a mental model may also refer to a nonphysical external model of the mind itself.

Metaphysical models
A metaphysical model is a type of conceptual model which is distinguished from other conceptual models by its proposed scope; a metaphysical model intends to represent reality in the broadest possible way. This is to say that it explains the answers to fundamental questions such as whether matter and mind are one or two substances; or whether or not humans have free will.

Conceptual model vs. semantics model

Conceptual Models and semantic models have many similarities, however the way they are presented, the level of flexibility and the use are different.
Conceptual models have a certain purpose in mind, hence the core semantic concepts are predefined in a so-called meta model. This enables a pragmatic modelling but reduces the flexibility, as only the predefined semantic concepts can be used. Samples are flow charts for process behaviour or organisational structure for tree behaviour.

Semantic models are more flexible and open, and therefore more difficult to model. Potentially any semantic concept can be defined, hence the modelling support is very generic. Samples are terminologies, taxonomies or ontologies.

In a concept model each concept has a unique and distinguishable graphical representation, whereas semantic concepts are by default the same.
In a concept model each concept has predefined properties that can be populated, whereas semantic concepts are related to concepts that are interpreted as properties.
In a concept model operational semantic can be built-in, like the processing of a sequence, whereas a semantic model needs explicit semantic definition of the sequence.

The decision if a concept model or a semantic model is used, depends therefore on the "object under survey", the intended goal, the necessary flexibility as well as how the model is interpreted. In case of human-interpretation there may be a focus on graphical concept models, in case of machine interpretation there may be the focus on semantic models.

Epistemological models
An epistemological model is a type of conceptual model whose proposed scope is the known and the knowable, and the believed and the believable.

Logical models
In logic, a model is a type of interpretation under which a particular statement is true. Logical models can be broadly divided into ones which only attempt to represent concepts, such as mathematical models; and ones which attempt to represent physical objects, and factual relationships, among which are scientific models.

Model theory is the study of (classes of) mathematical structures such as groups, fields, graphs, or even universes of set theory, using tools from mathematical logic. A system that gives meaning to the sentences of a formal language is called a model for the language. If a model for a language moreover satisfies a particular sentence or theory (set of sentences), it is called a model of the sentence or theory. Model theory has close ties to algebra and universal algebra.

Mathematical models

Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures.

A more comprehensive type of mathematical model uses a linguistic version of category theory to model a given situation.  Akin to entity-relationship models, custom categories or sketches can be directly translated into database schemas. The difference is that logic is replaced by category theory, which brings powerful theorems to bear on the subject of modeling, especially useful for translating between disparate models (as functors between categories).

Scientific models

A scientific model is a simplified abstract view of a complex reality. A scientific model represents empirical objects, phenomena, and physical processes in a logical way.  Attempts to formalize the principles of the empirical sciences use an interpretation to model reality, in the same way logicians axiomatize the principles of logic. The aim of these attempts is to construct a formal system that will not produce theoretical consequences that are contrary to what is found in reality. Predictions or other statements drawn from such a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true.<ref name="tcarotmimanass">Leo Apostel (1961). "Formal study of models". In: The Concept and the Role of the Model in Mathematics and Natural and Social. Edited by Hans Freudenthal. Springer. pp. 8–9 (Source)],</ref>

 Statistical models

A statistical model is a probability distribution function proposed as generating data. In a parametric model, the probability distribution function has variable parameters, such as the mean and variance in a normal distribution, or the coefficients for the various exponents of the independent variable in linear regression. A nonparametric model has a distribution function without parameters, such as in bootstrapping, and is only loosely confined by assumptions. Model selection is a statistical method for selecting a distribution function within a class of them; e.g., in linear regression where the dependent variable is a polynomial of the independent variable with parametric coefficients, model selection is selecting the highest exponent, and may be done with nonparametric means, such as with cross validation.

In statistics there can be models of mental events as well as models of physical events. For example, a statistical model of customer behavior is a model that is conceptual (because behavior is physical),  but a statistical model of customer satisfaction is a model of a concept (because satisfaction is a mental not a physical event).

 Social and political models

 Economic models

In economics, a model is a theoretical construct that represents economic processes by a set of variables and a set of logical and/or quantitative relationships between them. The economic model is a simplified framework designed to illustrate complex processes, often but not always using mathematical techniques. Frequently, economic models use structural parameters. Structural parameters are underlying parameters in a model or class of models.  A model may have various parameters and those parameters may change to create various properties.

 Models in systems architecture

A system model is the conceptual model that describes and represents the structure, behavior, and more views of a system. A system model can represent multiple views of a system by using two different approaches. The first one is the non-architectural approach and the second one is the architectural approach. The non-architectural approach respectively picks a model for each view. The architectural approach, also known as system architecture, instead of picking many heterogeneous and unrelated models, will use only one integrated architectural model.

Business process modelling

In business process modelling the enterprise process model is often referred to as the business process model. Process models are core concepts in the discipline of process engineering. Process models are:
 Processes of the same nature that are classified together into a model.
 A description of a process at the type level.
 Since the process model is at the type level, a process is an instantiation of it.
The same process model is used repeatedly for the development of many applications and thus, has many instantiations.

One possible use of a process model is to prescribe how things must/should/could be done in contrast to the process itself which is really what happens. A process model is roughly an anticipation of what the process will look like. What the process shall be will be determined during actual system development.

 Models in information system design

 Conceptual models of human activity systems

Conceptual models of human activity systems are used in soft systems methodology (SSM), which is a method of systems analysis concerned with the structuring of problems in management. These models are models of concepts; the authors specifically state that they are not intended to represent a state of affairs in the physical world. They are also used in information requirements analysis (IRA) which is a variant of SSM developed for information system design and software engineering.

 Logico-linguistic models

Logico-linguistic modeling is another variant of SSM that uses conceptual models. However, this method combines models of concepts with models of putative real world objects and events. It is a graphical representation of modal logic in which modal operators are used to distinguish statement about concepts from statements about real world objects and events.

 Data models

 Entity–relationship model

In software engineering, an entity–relationship model (ERM) is an abstract and conceptual representation of data. Entity–relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion. Diagrams created by this process are called entity-relationship diagrams, ER diagrams, or ERDs.

Entity–relationship models have had wide application in the building of information systems intended to support activities involving objects and events in the real world. In these cases they are models that are conceptual. However, this modeling method can be used to build computer games or a family tree of the Greek Gods, in these cases it would be used to model concepts.

 Domain model

A domain model is a type of conceptual model used to depict the structural elements and their conceptual constraints within a domain of interest (sometimes called the problem domain). A domain model includes the various entities, their attributes and relationships, plus the constraints governing the conceptual integrity of the structural model elements comprising that problem domain. A domain model may also include a number of conceptual views, where each view is pertinent to a particular subject area of the domain or to a particular subset of the domain model which is of interest to a stakeholder of the domain model.

Like entity–relationship models, domain models can be used to model concepts or to model real world objects and events.

 See also

 Concept
 Concept mapping
 Conceptual framework
 Conceptual model (computer science)
 Conceptual schema
 Conceptual system
 Digital twin
 Information model
 International Conference on Conceptual Modeling
 Interpretation (logic)
 Isolated system
 Ontology (computer science)
 Paradigm
 Physical model
 Process of concept formation
 Scientific modeling
 Simulation
 Theory

 References

 Further reading
 J. Parsons, L. Cole (2005), "What do the pictures mean? Guidelines for experimental evaluation of representation fidelity in diagrammatical conceptual modeling techniques", Data & Knowledge Engineering 55: 327–342;
 A. Gemino, Y. Wand (2005), "Complexity and clarity in conceptual modeling: Comparison of mandatory and optional properties", Data & Knowledge Engineering 55: 301–326;
 D. Batra (2005), "Conceptual Data Modeling Patterns", Journal of Database Management 16: 84–106
 Papadimitriou, Fivos. (2010). "Conceptual Modelling of Landscape Complexity". Landscape Research, 35(5):563-570.

External links

 Models article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''

Metaphor
Semantics
Simulation

Conceptual model


Lorenzo Storioni (1744 — 1816) is considered one of the last  of the classic Cremonese master violin makers/luthiers of the 18th century.

Born a generation after Stradivarius and Guarnerius, with no direct link to the great tradition, violin making made a comeback in Cremona with Lorenzo Storioni and his two followers, Giovanni Rota and Giovanni Battista Ceruti.

He was influenced by makers of the previous generations such as  Giovanni Battista Guadagnini and Tommaso Balestrieri, and between 1775 and 1795 manufactured a massive number of high-quality string instruments in a conventional manner. However, Storioni made some bold adjustments with his extreme creativeness. He changed the position of the F-hole, selected unusual materials such as local wild maple, and decorated his instruments with wide and rugged fringe, giving them strong but elegant looks as well as excellent sound.

He used a spirit varnish which sometimes appears to have saturated the wood.
His choice of wood was not always the best but that is due to the times in which he was living. From the 1750s to the end of the century Italy endured many wars and finding materials for instrument makers was at times very difficult.
Decades of war, reforms, and repeated conquests by the French and Austrians dismantled the social and economic structure of Cremona as Duane Rosengard explains in a 1991 paper published in the Journal of the Violin Society of America. In the 1770s, just as Storioni emerged, the guilds that had governed the skilled crafts since the Middle Ages were abolished by the conquering Austrians. The Jesuit fathers, whose educational institutions were major patrons of the violin makers, were suppressed by the Pope; and the lay corporations, who conducted commerce on behalf of Cremona's religious orders, were abolished. The church and nobility—primary patrons of the violin makers—lost power and money as the French and Austrians taxed and requisitioned treasure out of Italy to pay for the wars."

Many of Storioni's instruments are of broad grain in the upper table. He enjoyed working with the Joseph Guarnerius model. He is known to have made magnificent double basses.
His followers include Giovanni Battista Ceruti, Giovanni Rota and Giovanni Francesco Pressenda.

"If rough work and poor wood characterized the Storioni-Rota-Ceruti school, they still find favor with musicians. "They were not the tidy boys, but they're all acoustically rock solid," says Boston violin maker Marilyn Wallin, who enjoys working on them for this reason. "As a group, they didn't have the best wood, but they did know what to do with it."

A bass that has been attributed to him is

The auction record for this maker is $664,821 in March 2017, for a violin.

References

Cozio Archive Lorenzo Storioni
The Late Cremonese - by Erin Shrader STRINGS magazine
 The Late Cremonese Makers - Dmitry Gindin

Walter Hamma, Meister Italienischer Geigenbaukunst, Wilhelmshaven 1993,

1751 births
1802 deaths
Luthiers from Cremona

Lorenzo Storioni


A renewable resource is a resource which can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally. Renewable energy almost never runs out, for example: solar energy is powered by heat from the sun and never runs out. Other examples include oxygen, geothermal power, fresh water, solar energy and biomass.

Gasoline, coal, natural gas, diesel, plastics and other fossil fuels are not renewable. They take millions of years to be made, and cannot be renewed in a human's, or even a nation's lifetime. Ways have been developed to make biodegradable plastic and bio diesel and other fuels from renewable resources such as corn, sugar cane, soybeans and canola.

Renewable resource harvesting and use typically do not produce pollution or contribute to global warming. The use of renewable resources and energy sources is increasing worldwide, with certain nations, such as Bhutan, and US states, such as California, beginning to rely entirely on renewable energy. From 2008 to 2012, the U.S. doubled renewable generation from wind, solar, and geothermal sources. America and Britain are now home to some of the largest wind and solar farms in the world. There are also things called human resource where human's waste is turned into energy. There are many other resources such as water power. Renewable resources are basically the opposite of non-renewable resources.

Other websites
 Alternative Fuels - Beginner's tutorial on using alternative fuels in a diesel engine

References

Sustainable development
Fuel

Renewable resource


A hydrazone is the functional group with structure R1R2C=NNH2. They are like aldehydes or ketones, with an NNH2 group instead of the oxygen atom.

They are made by reacting hydrazines with ketones or aldehydes:

Hydrazones are very useful molecules to do some reactions. For example, a ketone can be reduced down completely if made into a hydrazine and then treated with sodium ethoxide (Wolff–Kishner reduction). Hydrazones are very important intermediates in many reactions, such as the Fischer indole synthesis. This makes indoles, groups which are found in many drugs.

Functional groups

Hydrazone


Richard Alan "Dick" Enberg (January 9, 1935 – December 21, 2017) was an American sportscaster. He was the voice of the San Diego Padres. He also announced or hosted the Tournament of Roses Parade for many years, sometimes with the help of family members.

Enberg was born in Mount Clemens, Michigan. He began his career calling games for UCLA Bruins basketball, Los Angeles Rams football and California Angels baseball.

In the 1970s, Enberg hosted the television game show Sports Challenge.  He co-produced the Emmy Award-winning sports-history series The Way It Was for PBS.

He broadcast for many sports and events for NBC, including the National Football League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the U.S. Open golf championship, college football, college basketball, the Wimbledon and French Open tennis tournaments, heavyweight boxing, Breeders' Cup and other horse racing events, and the Olympic Games. He died in San Diego California from cardiac arrest

Honors
Enberg received many awards and honors in his lifetime.  These include 13 Sports Emmy Awards (as well as a Lifetime Achievement Emmy), nine National Sportscaster of the Year awards from the National Sportscasters and Sportswriters Association (and is in that organization's Hall of Fame), five Sportscaster of the Year awards from the American Sportscasters Association, the Pete Rozelle Award from the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Curt Gowdy Award from the Basketball Hall of Fame, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Enberg is the only sportscaster so far to win Emmys in three categories (broadcasting, writing, and producing). In 1973, he was the first U.S. sportscaster to visit the People's Republic of China.

References

1935 births
2017 deaths
Tennis broadcasters
Olympic Games broadcasters
Golf broadcasters
Major League Baseball broadcasters
College football broadcasters
College basketball broadcasters
National Football League broadcasters

Dick Enberg


Events

By topic

War and politics
 February 16 – King Afonso III of Portugal and King Alfonso X of Castile sign the Badajoz Convention, figuring out the border between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Leon, and ensuring Portuguese sovereignty over Algarve.
 May 27 – Treaty of Viterbo: Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople gifts the Principality of Achaea to King Charles I of Sicily in the hope that Charles can help him restore the Latin Empire.
 The Second Barons' War in England ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.
 Treaty of Montgomery: King Henry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title of Prince of Wales.
 The city of Ostrava is founded.

Culture
 Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of mathematics, optics, alchemy, astronomy, astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around 1220.
 The leadership of Vienna forces Jews to wear Pileum cornutum,a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the yellow badges Jews are already forced to wear.
 In England, the Statute of Marlborough is passed, the oldest English law still (partially) in force.

By place

Asia and Africa
 The "Grand Capital" is constructed in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) by Kublai Khan, having moved the capital of the Mongol Empire there three years prior.
 Malik ul Salih establishes Samudra Pasai, the first Muslim state in Indonesia.
 Spain attempts an invasion of Morocco, but the Marinids successfully defended against the invasion and drive out Spanish forces.

Births
 February 3 – Richard FitzAlan, 8th Earl of Arundel (d. 1302)
 August 10 – King James II of Aragon (d. 1327)
 December 17 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)
 Giotto di Bondone, Italian artist (d. 1337)
 Roger de Flor

Deaths
 March 3 or March 4 – Lars, Archbishop of Uppsala
 John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel (b. 1223)
 Hugh II of Cyprus (b. 1253)

1267


In Norse mythology, Ymir (also Aurgelmir, Brimir, or Bláinn) is the ancestor of all jötnar. He is described in the Poetic Edda and in the Prose Edda. Ymir was killed by Odin, Vé and Vili. From Ymir's body they made seven worlds.  Bïfrost and dwarves evolved  from maggots by burrowing  into Ymir's dead body.From that, dwarves can punch dents and burrow into rock. Upon Ymir's defeat, the three brother's crafted the Earth and Heavens from his body, the oceans from his sweat, (some cases from his blood) the trees were crafted from his hair, his eyebrows were used to make Midgard (one of the nine worlds), his bones made the mountains, his skull is what formed the sky, and from his brains they created the clouds.

Norse mythology

Ymir


Piers Lane  (born 8 January 1958) is an Australian classical pianist. His performance career has taken him to more than 40 countries. His concerto repertoire exceeds 75 works.

Early life
Lane's English father and Australian mother met while auditioning as piano students for the Royal College of Music. Lane was born in London and he grew up in Brisbane. He graduated with a Medal of Excellence from the Queensland Conservatorium of Music, where his teacher was Nancy Weir, winning the Margaret Nickson Prize in 1978 and the Ruby C Cooling prize in 1977 and 1978. He was later awarded an honorary doctorate by the conservatorium.

He first came to prominence at the inaugural Sydney International Piano Competition in 1977, at which he was named Best Australian Pianist (he was a judge at the 2004 competition). He later studied overseas on a Churchill Fellowship.

Career

Highlights of Lane's career include concerto performances at Avery Fisher Hall, Lincoln Center in New York with the American Symphony Orchestra under Leon Botstein; Beethoven's Emperor Concerto with The Queensland Orchestra, which received a Limelight Award for Best Orchestral Concert of 2007; concerto appearances with the City of Birmingham Symphony, London Philharmonic, Hallé and Ulster Orchestras; a solo recital in Birmingham's Symphony Hall for the BBC; a three-recital series called Metamorphoses and an all-Chopin recital at the Wigmore Hall in London; and appearances in many major piano festivals in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and Scandinavia. He has also played with all ABC and BBC Orchestras, the Aarhus, City of Birmingham, Bournemouth, Gothenburg and New Zealand Symphony Orchestras, the Hallé, Philharmonia, Kanazawa Ensemble and City of London Sinfonia, the London, Royal Liverpool Philharmonic and Royal Philharmonic Orchestras and the Orchestre National de France among many others. He has been soloist five times at the BBC Proms in London's Royal Albert Hall.

Engagements in Australia and New Zealand during 2008 include a second national tour with Cheryl Barker and her husband baritone Peter Coleman-Wright for Musica Viva Australia, concerto performances in Christchurch and Dunedin and solo recitals in Adelaide, Auckland, Brisbane, Newcastle, Noosa and Perth.

Recent collaborations as a chamber player have included a Musica Viva tour of Australia with violist/composer Brett Dean and performances with Anne Sofie von Otter and Bengt Forsberg in Malmö, Stockholm and the Bergen International Festival. He continues his long-standing partnership with British violinist Tasmin Little in UK recital tours. Piers Lane is Patron of the Accompanists Guild of Queensland Inc.

Since 2007, Lane is the Artistic Director of the Australian Festival of Chamber Music held annually in Townsville.

Lane has an extensive discography on the Hyperion label and has also recorded for EMI, Decca, BMG, Lyrita and Unicorn-Khanchana. Recent releases from Hyperion include concertos by Eyvind Alnæs and Christian Sinding, a Delius song disc with Yvonne Kenny and a recording of Ernest Bloch's Piano Quintets with the Goldner String Quartet, which was an Editor's Choice in the December 2007 Gramophone magazine and BBC Music Magazine's Record of the Month for February 2008. He is one of the few pianists to have recorded John Ireland's Piano Concerto in E-flat major. In 2014 Hyperion released his recording of the complete piano concertos of Malcolm Williamson, including the world premiere recording of the 4th Piano Concerto. Lane is a well-known voice on BBC Radio 3, having written and presented more than 100 programs, including a 54-part series called The Piano.

In 1994 he was made an Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music, where he has been a professor of piano since 1989. In 2007 he received an honorary doctorate from Griffith University, Brisbane. Lane is patron and an active supporter of the Tait Memorial Trust in London, a charitable foundation to support young Australian performing artists in the UK.

Lane is the Artistic Director of the Myra Hess Day held annually at the National Gallery in London, and of the 2009 Bloch Festival at Wigmore Hall. Lane's recording of Ernest Bloch Piano Quintets Nos. 1 and 2 with the Goldner Quartet (Hyperion) was nominated for BBC Music Magazine Awards in 2009.

On 11 June 2012, Lane was named an Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to the performing arts as an internationally renowned classical pianist, to professional and cultural organisations, and to the development of emerging musicians."

In April 2015, following the death of the inaugural Artistic Director Warren Thomson in February, Piers Lane was announced as the Artistic Director of the 2016 Sydney International Piano Competition.

Lane won the Sir Bernard Heinze Memorial Award in 2022.

References

Sources
Hazard Chase Music Management Company_Biography
Piers Lane Official Website
Hyperion Records
Answers.com
Profile, Weekend Australian, 26–27 June 2004

1958 births
Living people
Australian classical pianists
Male classical pianists
English emigrants to Australia
Piano pedagogues
Queensland Conservatorium Griffith University alumni
Musicians from Brisbane
Musicians from London
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
Sydney International Piano Competition prize-winners
Officers of the Order of Australia
Sydney International Piano Competition
21st-century classical pianists
21st-century British male musicians

Piers Lane


Volleyball is a team sport. The teams are separated by a large net.  It has six players on each side of the net. Each team is allowed twelve substitution players. The game starts when the captain from each team decides which side of the court they will play on, by the toss of a coin, which also determines who will serve (hit) the ball first. The point of the game is to keep the ball in the air. The ball can be played with any part of the body, with a maximum of three strokes a team. If at any point the ball hits the floor, the side that the ball landed on it is a point for the other team.  In between plays, the teams must pass the ball under the net.  This is known as Judge Nolan Rules.

History

In 1895, William G. Morgan invented a new game called "Mintonette". However, when an observer named Alfred Halstead saw the game being played, he noticed the volleying action used to get the ball over the net, so he decided to change the name to "volleyball".

Morgan wanted to create a skilled activity, which required more players, less space, and less exertion than basketball. The first net was a "rope" and the first ball was a basketball air bladder. Until 1960, men and women played with different rules. Now the rules are the same except for the height of the net, the men's net is higher.

The player cannot hit the ball twice. A point is gained when a team plays the ball in the opposition's court and the ball is not defended, therefore it lands within the court. The ball must be served (hit) from outside the court, otherwise, it will be regarded as a foul. The game is played in sets of 25 points (sometimes 21). The team that reaches 25 (or 21) points first, wins the set. Each game consists of 3-5 sets (or the first one to 3 in middle school). The fifth set is played to 15 points.

A player usually wears knee pads to protect their knees from becoming bruised during dives for the volleyball. In order to win the game, the winners must be ahead by 2 points or the game goes on until you win by 2 points.

The sports governing body is the  (FIVB). Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. Usually, the player is diving (throwing themselves towards the ground) to be the barrier to block the ball from hitting the court. In many aspects, this skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.

Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest. When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used in indoor volleyball. Besides being one of the best-known sports in the world, and being a favourite to millions of people, it is in the Olympics.

Positions
The positions in volleyball are separated into 6 areas, the first being Position 1 which is the back right side on the side that you are. Position 2 is on the right side of the court closest to the net, Position 3 is in the middle of the front part of the court right beside the net, Position 4 is on the left side of the court right beside the net, Position 5 is in the back left side of the court, and Position 6 is in the middle of the back of the court.

Court
The court is . A net is stretched tightly in the middle. The height of the net is  for middle and high schools and college women, 7,11 feet (2.43 m) for college men.

The game
The objective of the game is to legally return the ball over the net in such a manner that the opponent's team cannot make a legal return. The main causes of illegal plays are: holding, carrying, or lifting with the palm of the hands, four touches on one side, and two consecutive touches by one player. A regulation game is played with six players on the court. They are to rotate to serve in a clockwise direction when facing the net. The server will come from the right front position, serve, then play the right back position.

Scoring
Rally scoring is used in volleyball, which means a point will be awarded to one of the two teams when a rally ends or a mistake is made. A rally is a play in volleyball and can be started by a serve. A regulation game is played to 25 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points. A middle and high school game is played best out of three games. If the games are tied at 1-1, the 3rd game is played to 15 points and the winners must be ahead by 2 points.

Libero
The libero is the player in the different color of jersey. The libero is only allowed to play backrow, and normally the libero is the best passer on the team. They can never rotate to the front. Typically, the libero plays backrow, left back, for the two middles. The libero is allowed to serve for one of middles, but not the other. The libero can only serve for one person.

The best known libero on the International Mongolian team is Dorjsuren Gankhuyag. Known to demonstrate his great receiving and diving skills.

Skills

Serving: may be underhand or overhand. If the serve touches the net and goes to the opponent's side, it must be played. The server is not allowed to step on or over the end line when serving. In class, the server must say the score before serving.

Float: Similar to a knuckle ball in baseball, the server stands flat footed and contacts the ball with a stiff wrist and does not swing through after contact. This causes no spin to be on the ball, allowing it to catch any air current and causes the ball to change directional course throughout the whole air course.

Top Spin: This serve is executed by snapping hard on the ball during contact. This puts a forward spin on the ball, which causes it to drop faster than a float.

Jump Serve: A jump serve is used to assist the server get more height. By jumping they have a better angle to put the ball down into the court, and are less likely to be underneath the ball. This can be a float or topspin ball depending on the contact, arm swing, and approach.

Pass or Bump (underarm pass): This is a pass used when the ball approaches a player below their shoulders. You are to hold your fingers together, elbows straight, and contact the ball with the forearms with shoulders facing the net on impact. Defined as a dig when passing a hard driven hit. Also pancaking is a form of passing. This is when the player has sprawled out to the floor in a last hope type of decision for the ball to land on their hand and it pop straight up.

Set or volley: (overhead pass) direct the ball to a place specifically. Hands high, flex wrist, contact the ball with the finger pads, and elbows bent. Use your legs and arms to project the ball into the air.

Hit: A hard hit ball from a height above the net, straight to the opponent's side. Contact the ball with the cupped fingers and a long arm swing.

Block: (defensive hit) Two hands above the head, jumping with arms reaching for a ball that has been spiked. A block is used to prevent a volley from crossing the net. it usually hits the ball straight down or up!

Dig: Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground.

Terminology

Serve: to put the ball into play from the end line.

Side out: the team that served made a mistake, ball now goes to the opponent's for service.

Set: overhead pass that allows a player to spike

Bump: an underhand pass performed when a ball is below the shoulders

Spike: a hard driven ball aimed at the opponents.

Block: a defensive play to prevent the ball from crossing the net.

Double: Contacting the ball twice typically while settings

Kill: Any hit, rollshot, or tip that automatically results in a point.

 Incredible Volleyball Actions

Summer Olympic sports

Volleyball


Méja nyaéta salah sahiji purnitur mangrupa widang datar diwengku ku sababaraha suku méja. Méja sering dipaké pikeun nyimpen barang atawa dahareun kalayan luhur nu tamtu supaya gampang dicokot nalika urang diuk. Méja umumna dipasangkeun jeung korsi. Méja ilaharna henteu miboga laci, tapi upama maké laci disebutna méja rias, lomari méja nu loba lacina, jeung sajabana. Méja nu husus dipaké pikeun digawé kadang-kadang disebut méja tulis atawa bangku.

Types of table

Tables of various shape and size are used for specific uses:
 A bedside table is a small table used in a bedroom. It is used to put objects used when waking or going to bed, such as a small lamp, an alarm clock, one's glasses or denture.
 A drawing table usually has a top that can be tilted for making large or technical drawing. It might have a ruler or similar element integrated.
 A coffee table is méant to be used in a living room, in front of a couch, for various items used while sitting, drinks or books.
 A chess table is a type of games table that integrates a chessboard.
 Refectory tables are long modéls of table méant to séat many péople during éating.

Historically, various types of tables have been popular through western history:
 Tripod tables were very popular during the Chippendale period. They are round tables, usually with a tilt-top mechanism.
 Pembroke tables were first introduced during the Chippendale period, they were popular until the 19th century. Pembroke tables are smalltables with sliding extensions, usually oval-shaped.
 Sofa tables evolved from the Pembroke tables, with the specific méant use of beingplaced directly behind couches. They are longer and narrower than Pembroke tables and usually have stretchers and dummy drawers.
 Work table were small tables méant for ladies to sew at. They appéared during the 18th century.Typical éarly modéls have pedestal, but French types usually have four legs and an undertier.
 Drum tables are round tables introduced for writing, with drawers around the platform.
 End tables are small tables typically placed beside couches or armchairs. Often lamps will be placed on an end table.

Uses
A table can be used temporarily for objects such as food and éating utensils during a meal, cups for drinks, a book (especially a big one, that one can not éasily keep in one's hands), a spréad-out map, writing paper during writing, and anything that requires having several objects at hand, including various hobbies. Tables are frequently used to drop small items such as keychains or pens until further use. Tables sometimes substitute for other pieces of furniture, such as chairs and beds that require little more than a flat surface to accomplish their basic goal.

Things may also be put more permanently on a table, for example a TV, computer, objects for decoration (such as vases or tablecloths) etc. Table settings of food are laid out in a traditional arrangement.

Wooden tables are often used in hardcore wrestling matches. They are used for wrestlers to be slammed through, and very rarely are they used as wéapons after they are broken.

History
The first tables were made and used by the Egyptians, and were little more than metal or stone platforms used to keep objects off the floor. They were not used for séating péople. Food was put on large plates deposed on a pedestal for éating. The Egyptians made use of various small tables and elevated playing boards.

The Greeks and Romans made more frequent use of tables, notably for éating, although Greek tables were pushed under the beds after use. The Greeks invented a piece of furniture very similar to the guéridon. Tables were made of marble or wood and metal (typically bronze or silver alloys). Later, the larger rectangular tables were made of separate platforms and pillars. The Romans also introduced a large, semicircular table to Italy, the mensa lunata.

Furniture during the Middle Ages is not as well-known as that of éarlier or later periods,and most sources show the types used by the nobility. In the Eastern Roman Empire, tables were made of metal or wood, usually with four feet frequently linked by x-shaped stretchers. Tables for éating were large, usually round or semicircular. A combination of a small round table and a lectern seemed very popular as a writing table. In western Europe, the invasions and intestine wars caused most of the knowledge inherited from the classical éra to be lost. As a result of the necessary movability, most tables were simple trestle tables, although small round tables made from joinery réappéared during the 15th century and onward. In the Gothic era, the chest became totally widespréad and was often used as a table.

Refectory tables first appéared in the 16th century as an evolution of the trestle table.

References

See also
 Round table
 Picnic table

Notes

--->

Méja


Lee Marvin (February 19, 1924 – August 29, 1987), was an American actor.

Career
Marvin was born in New York City, United States. He began his career with small roles in western movies such as Cave of Outlaws (1951), The Duel at Silver Creek (1952), with Audie Murphy, and Seminole (1953), with Rock Hudson. He was also in The Caine Mutiny (1954) with Humphrey Bogart.

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Marvin continued to act in small roles in westerns, including: Seven Men from Now (1956), with Randolph Scott, The Comancheros (1961), and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance (1962), with John Wayne.

In 1965 Marvin won an Academy Award for the Western Comedy movie, Cat Ballou (1965). He played a nice drunken cowboy.

He acted with Burt Lancaster in The Professionals (1966), by Richard Brooks.

He became well known after playing the role of Major Reisman, in the Robert Aldrich movie The Dirty Dozen (1967). That same year, he starred in Point Blank.

At the end of the decade from 1960 Marvin had popular movies including Hell in the Pacific (1968) and Paint Your Wagon (1969), with Clint Eastwood.

In 1973 he had one of his best performances in Emperor of the North Pole (1973). He plays a drifter who often stows away on trains. In 1974 he played a sheriff, who must deal with racism in The Klansman by Terence Young.

In his later years, he worked with Chuck Norris in The Delta Force (1986).

Television
Marvin also had a successful career in television. He was in the television series M Squad (1957–1960), as Detective Lt. Frank Ballinger. He was in 117 episodes in this series.

He was a guest star on many series. These include Wagon Train, Ben Casey, Bonanza, The Virginian, The Untouchables, The Twilight Zone and Dr. Kildare. He also played the role of Maj. John Reisman, in the TV movie The Dirty Dozen: Next Mission (1985).

References

 Profile of Marvin in Film Comment

Lessons From Lee Marvin article

1924 births
1987 deaths
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Deaths from myocardial infarction

Lee Marvin


Tuckman's stages of group development is a model of group development made by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. It has four phases: Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing.

Forming is when the members of a team just got together.
Storming is when they are in conflict and are not agreeing with each other.
Norming is when they have finished deciding what is "normal".
Performing is when they are working together efficiently.

Tuckman believed that these stages are all necessary and always happen in order for a team:
to grow
to face challenges
to tackle problems
to find solutions
to plan work
to deliver results

This model has become the basis for later models.

More reading on this topic can be found here:

Psychology
Performing this is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a group and get involved in the task.

Tuckman's stages of group development


Kettle Creek State Park is a  Pennsylvania state park in Leidy Township, Clinton County, Pennsylvania in the United States. The park is in a valley and is surrounded by mountains and wilderness. It features the Alvin R. Bush Dam built in 1961 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as a flood control measure in the West Branch Susquehanna River basin. Many of the recreational facilities at the park were built during the Great Depression by the young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps. Kettle Creek State Park is seven miles (10 km) north of Westport and Pennsylvania Route 120. It is largely surrounded by Sproul State Forest.

Kettle Creek Reservoir

Alvin R. Bush Dam on Kettle Creek is an earth and rockfill, flood control dam. It stands at a maximum height of  above the stream bed and is  across. The reservoir has a capacity of 75,000 acre feet (93,000,000 m3) at the spillway crest. It covers  and is  long. Alvin R. Bush Dam controls about  (92%) of the Kettle Creek drainage basin.

Kettle Creek Reservoir is open to some recreational boating, fishing and ice fishing. Gas powered motors are prohibited on the reservoir. Motorized boats must be powered by electric motors only. Sailboats, rowboats, canoes, kayaks, and paddleboats are permitted on the waters of the lake. All boats must be properly registered with any state. Swimming is prohibited.

Elk
Elk can be seen quite often in the Kettle Creek State Park area.

Fishing and hunting
Kettle Creek Reservoir is a  and serves as a fishery for trout, bass, bullhead, sucker, and panfish. Kettle Creek and it tributaries are excellent cold water fisheries. The fishing quality in the areas down stream of the dam has been damaged by pollution from acid mine drainage.

Most of Kettle Creek State Park is open to hunting. Hunters are expected to follow the rules and regulations of the Pennsylvania Game Commission. The common game species are American black bears, eastern gray squirrels, ruffed grouse, white-tailed deer, elk, and wild turkey. The hunting of groundhogs is prohibited.

Bald eagles

Several bald eagles nest in the park area. On most days in the summer, it is not uncommon to see these animals patrol the waters for fish. It is a normal occurrence to see them soar over the lake and dive down to make a catch.

Trails
The trails of Kettle Creek State Park are open to hiking, cross-country skiing, horseback riding, and mountain biking. There is a  trail for horseback riding which begins and ends in the park and loops through Sproul State Forest. The mountain trail also loops through Sproul State Forest. It is  long and, like the horse trail, begins and ends in the park. Kettle Creek State Park is a trail head for the  Donut Hole Trail. There are several other short trails within the boundaries of the park.

Camping and picnicking
There are two campgrounds at Kettle Creek State Park. One lacks water spigots and flush toilets. The Lower Campground has 44 sites all with electric hook-ups. The Upper Campground was 27 sites with 12 electric hook-ups.

The picnic area has 50 picnic tables with charcoal grills and water spigots. Some picnic tables are sunny and some are shaded. The picnic area includes a softball field and volleyball court. A playground is also located near the picnic area.

Nearby state parks
The following state parks are within  of Kettle Creek State Park:
Bald Eagle State Park (Centre County)
Bucktail State Park Natural Area (Cameron and Clinton Counties)
Denton Hill State Park (Potter County)
Hyner Run State Park (Clinton County)
Hyner View State Park (Clinton County)
Little Pine State Park (Lycoming County)
Lyman Run State Park (Potter County)
Ole Bull State Park (Potter County)
Patterson State Park (Potter County)
Prouty Place State Park (Potter County)
Sinnemahoning State Park (Cameron and Potter Counties)
Sizerville State Park  (Cameron and Potter Counties)
Upper Pine Bottom State Park (Lycoming County)

References

External links

State parks of Pennsylvania
United States Army Corps of Engineers dams
Protected areas established in 1954
Civilian Conservation Corps in Pennsylvania
Parks in Clinton County, Pennsylvania
Campgrounds in Pennsylvania
1954 establishments in Pennsylvania
Protected areas of Clinton County, Pennsylvania

Kettle Creek State Park


Changthang means Northern Plateau in Tibetan.  It is a high altitude plateau in western and northern Tibet.  It goes from Ladakh east about 1600km to the Chinese state called Qinghai.  It is a very high land with giant lakes.  It is the home of the Changpa nomads.

The part of Changthang in Ladakh (in India) has a population of 10,089 (2000 WCD). It is found in Jammu and Kashmir, around the Chinese border area of Changthang Region east and southeast of Leh. Changthang is known for its music and dance. It also has many important animals such as sheep (cashmere wool) and goats.

Geography of Kashmir

Changthang


The Strepsirrhini clade is one of the two suborders of primates, with 114 species. They are defined by their wet noses, although the Greek name means having a curved or bent nose. Madagascar's only primates (apart from humans) are strepsirrhines, although others can be found in southeast Asia.
Their eyes have a reflective layer to improve their night vision, and their eye sockets have a ring of bone around the eye. Strepsirrhine primates produce their own vitamin C, whereas haplorhine primates (and ourselves) must get it from their diets.

The suborder contains the lemurs and lorises. The modern types probably evolved from the Adapiforms, an extinct group.

The origin of the earliest primates, from which both the strepsirrhines and haplorhines (simians and tarsiers) evolved, is a mystery.  Both their place of origin and the group from which they evolved are uncertain.

Although the fossil record of their initial radiation across the Northern Hemisphere is very detailed, the fossil record from the tropics—where primates most likely evolved—is very poor, particularly around the time that primates and other eutherian mammals were first appearing.

So, geneticists and primatologists have used genetic analyses to determine the relatedness between primate lines and when they diverged. Using this molecular clock, it seems that primates evolved more than 80–90 million years ago, nearly 40 million years before the first primates appear in the fossil record.p22

Classification
 Suborder Strepsirrhini: non-tarsier prosimians
 Infraorder Lemuriformes
 Superfamily Lemuroidea
 Family Cheirogaleidae: dwarf and mouse lemurs (32 species)
 Family Daubentoniidae: Aye-aye (1 species)
 Family Lemuridae: lemurs (22 species)
 Family Lepilemuridae: sportive lemurs (26 species)
 Family Indriidae: woolly lemurs and allies (19 species)
 Superfamily Lorisoidea
 Family Lorisidae: lorises, pottos and allies (9 species)
 Family Galagidae: galagos (19 species)

References

Primates

Strepsirrhini


Eurocard was a credit card, introduced in 1964 by Marcus Wallenberg Jr. of the Wallenberg family as an alternative to American Express.  In 1968, it signed a deal with the Interbank Card Association (today's MasterCard) so that their cards were accepted by each other's networks; this eventually led to a joint venture known as Maestro International in 1992, and merger in 2002.

Its operations were relocated to Belgium in the end of the 1960s, and the card became the dominant brand in North and Central Europe between 1970 and 2002. It was eventually replaced by the Mastercard brand in most locations, but its logo is still used in some countries.

History

In 1965, Eurocard International N.V. was established, based in Brussels, as a not-for-profit membership association of European banks. Its operational entity was established as European Payment System Services (EPSS). In 1968, Eurocard International and the Interbank Card Association entered into a strategic alliance, in which both issuer's cards would be accepted on either network.

This allowed the ICA to get an instant European acceptance network, and Eurocard to get accepted worldwide. Eurocard International got the sole license to issue the ICA's Master Charge (later MasterCard) cards in Europe.

In 1992, Eurocard International N.V., Eurocheque International C.V. and Eurocheque International Holding N.V. merged into a single company, Europay International S.A., and were relocated to Waterloo, Belgium. This location also housed the Europe, Middle East and Africa region of MasterCard International, and the seat of the joint venture of Eurocard MasterCard, Maestro International.

In 2002, Europay International and MasterCard International merged. The name Europay disappeared, and the new organisation was later renamed MasterCard Worldwide, with the headquarters in Waterloo renamed MasterCard Europe. In 2008, Eurocard was taken over by the Swedish Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken. Eurocard has always been the dominant brand in Central European countries, more specifically in Germany, the Netherlands and Austria.

It lagged behind Visa in southern European countries, such as Spain and France.

Acceptance mark

Today, the Eurocard name exists in combination with the MasterCard acceptance mark as a product name. This means that the Eurocard name is still used on a card, although only the MasterCard logo is displayed at locations which accept MasterCard cards. The Eurocard logo is not used any more, as the acceptance mark is discontinued and merged into MasterCard.

However, the use of Eurocard as a brand for MasterCard credit cards is limited to Scandinavian countries and the Baltic countries. In other former Eurocard markets, such as the German speaking countries, this brand was fully replaced by the MasterCard brand.

References

External links
 Eurocard International website

Companies related to the Wallenberg family
Credit cards
Credit card issuer associations
1964 establishments in Sweden
1964 establishments in Europe
Organizations established in 1965
1965 establishments in Belgium
1992 mergers and acquisitions
2002 mergers and acquisitions
2008 mergers and acquisitions
Products and services discontinued in 2002

Eurocard (credit card)


File formats are also known as file types. A computer stores data in a computer file in the shape of a file format. For example: images are stored in a different shape than music files.

Also, most types of data (for example text, image or sound) have many varieties of file formats, all with their own special strengths and weaknesses.

There are, for example, more than five ways to store text as a file. Two of the most known ways are: the plain .txt format and the simplest of the HTML formats. The difference is that a .txt file can only store a sequence of characters but an HTML file can also store links to other files and the formatting of the text, for example whether the text is bold, underlined or italic (but usually HTML should say whether the text is very important, a link, or not very important; whether important text should be bold, italic or red is then specified using a file in a special format called CSS).

There is often a choice between saving a file in a simpler versus a more complex file format. The simpler format will make a smaller file, but store less information. The more complex file format will usually be a larger file and more difficult to use, but can store more information; sometimes a faster computer might be needed in order to use a more complex file format.

File formats made for commercial proprietary software are sometimes a secret, so that people who do not work in the company which made the proprietary software cannot use their own and others' files in the format without buying their software. That action is called vendor lock-in, and can be used to make a monopoly. Because of that, it is sometimes a crime.

File format


Foolscap is paper cut to the size of , sometimes . This was a traditional paper size used in Europe and the British Commonwealth, before the adoption of the international standard A4 paper, the most common standard size in the world. Foolscap was so called because, in the 18th century, folio-sized paper had the watermark of a fool's cap on it. Basically, it is taller than A4.

In North America, foolscap is lined, legal-size paper. In some South American countries it is called "oficio", because it is or was used for official documents.

Paper of the size is now very rarely used, being superseded by A4 (297 x 210). However, some ring binders, lever arch files, suspended files, and other filing related things still use the size.

Paper

Foolscap


Scotland haes mony naitional sportin associes, sic as the Scots Fitbaa Association (SFA) or the Scots Rugby Union (SRU). This gies the kintra its ain representation at mony internaitional sportin events sic as the Fitbaa Warld Cup. Scotland canna compete in the Olympic Gemmes itsel tho, an Scots athletes maun compete as pairt o the Great Breetain team gin thay want tae tak pairt. Houaniver Scotland dis send its ain team tae compete in the Commonweal Gemmes.

Fitbaa is the maist popular sport, baith for playin an watchin. The Scots Fitbaa Associe is the seicont auldest naitional fitbaa associe in the warld an the Scots Cup is the warld's auldest naitional trophy. Forby Scotland haes its ain sportin competitions apairt frae the lave o the UK. The main fitbaa competeetions is the leagues organised bi the Scots Premier League an the Scots Fitbaa League. Teams in the Hieland Fitbaa League, the East o Scotland Fitbaw League an the Sooth o Scotland Fitbaa League competes in the Scots Cup an aw, while the Scots Junior Fitbaa Association is ootwi that structur. Scots fitbaa clubs compete in internaitional competeetions, sic as the UEFA Europa League an the Champions League, baith o which hae been won bi Scots clubs.

The Scots Rugby Union is responsible Rugby in Scotland. Regional Scots rugby clubs competes forby in the Celtic League, alang wi teams frae Ireland an Wales an in the Heineken Cup, the European League for Rugby Union. Mony ither teams play in the twa divisions o the Scots Premiership.

Shinty is rin bi the Camanachd Association an is played for the maist pairt in its Hieland hertland, but in maist o the varsities an ceeties an aw.

The toun o St Andras is the hame o gowf an the rules wis set bi the toun's Royal and Ancient Golf Club in 1897. Scotland is weel kent the warld ower for its mony links coorses.

Scotland is the hame tae curlin an aw. Forby it's no sae popular the day as it is in Canadae, it's aye mair popular in Scotland nor it is in ony o the ither launds in Europe.

Scotland haes the warld's auldest caitchpule (for real tennis) whaur a few fowk plays caitch.

Snooker, hockey, basketba an tennis, is aw gey popular as weel. Thare is e'en aboot 12,000 cricketers in Scotland. It isna juist a sport for the Inglis altho thare is a guid few Scots fowk that thinks it is, as Scotland pleys as an Inglis Coontie.

Sport in Scotland


Oscar William Neebe I (July 12, 1850 – April 22, 1916) was an anarchist, labor activist and one of the defendants in the Haymarket bombing trial, and one of the eight activist remembered on May 1, International Workers' Day.

Early life
He was born on July 12, 1850, in New York City to German immigrants of French Huguenot origin from Kassel, Germany. He had two brothers, Conrad Neebe, who moved to Boston and Louis Neebe, who moved to Chicago. The family went back to Hesse so the children could be educated in Germany. They returned to the United States in 1864. Neebe worked for a time manufacturing gold leaf and silver leaf in Brooklyn, but quit because of his health.

In 1866, he moved to Chicago, where he had a hard time until he was finally hired as a waiter in a saloon. The saloon was frequented by workers from the nearby McCormick reaper works, and it was here that he learned of the worker's plight and how they were exploited. He also learned of the 8-hour working day movement. In 1868, he started working as a cook on the boats carrying iron ore across the Great Lakes. However, he soon resigned and returned to New York City.

There he became an apprentice tinsmith and later worked making milk cans and oil cans. He lived in tenement housing. In 1871, he heard his first speech by a communist party member.

In 1873 Neebe moved to Philadelphia, where he married Anna M. Monsees. They had three children. In 1877, Oscar moved his family back to Chicago. He worked in a manufacturing plant, but was fired for daring to stand up for his fellow workers. The same year he joined the communist party. Neebe was mostly unemployed during the next two years. In 1881, he and his brother Louis opened a yeast business.

It was on his visits to bakeries and breweries that Neebe became interested in the labor movement. He also became the office manager for the Arbeiter-Zeitung, a German-language workers' rights newspaper edited by August Spies and Michael Schwab.

Haymarket riot and trial

Neebe was not present at the Haymarket Square on the day of the meeting and subsequent bombing, and stated that he was not even aware it had happened until he was told about it the following day. When he heard that Spies and Schwab had been arrested in connection with the bombing, he took over management of the Arbeiter-Zeitung. He was himself arrested only a few days later because of his association with the defendants and the Arbeiter-Zeitung.

At trial, the evidence against Neebe was particularly weak, as even the State's Attorney reportedly admitted. The evidence presented against him was based on his political views and that he had attended socialist meetings, was associated with Arbeiter-Zeitung, and that a shotgun, a pistol and red flag were found in his home. One witness claimed that he had been seen distributing the famous "Revenge" Circular. Neebe insisted he had only handed him one that he found and hadn't even read it himself.

Despite this, Neebe was sentenced to 15 years in prison. In his final address to the court, he declared: "There is no evidence to show that I was connected with the bomb-throwing, or that I was near it, or anything of that kind. So I am only sorry, your honor-that is, if you can stop it or help it-I will ask you to do it-that is, to hang me, too; for I think it is more honorable to die suddenly than to be killed by inches. I have a family and children; and if they know their father is dead, they will bury him. They can go to the grave, and kneel down by the side of it; but they can't go to the penitentiary and see their father, who was convicted for a crime that he hasn't had anything to do with. That is all I have got to say. Your honor, I am sorry I am not to be hung with the rest of the men."

While serving his sentence, his wife Meta died in 1887. He was promised he could attend her funeral, but instead was allowed to view her remains privately at his home. On June 26, 1893, Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned Neebe and two of his co-defendants, having concluded that they were innocent.

Later years

Neebe remarried the year he was released. He had three more children with his new wife Regina Hepp. Neebe, who had been involved with (and then expelled from) the Socialist Labor Party and active in the trade union movement prior to the Haymarket Affair, joined the Industrial Workers of the World soon after its founding in 1905. He was listed as one of their main speakers in Chicago for Labor Day, 1906, and attended the union's 1907 Convention. He spent his final years quietly as a saloonkeeper, and died in Chicago on April 22, 1916, at the age of 65.

Neebe was buried at the Haymarket Martyrs' Monument in German Waldheim Cemetery in Forest Park, Illinois.

See also
 List of wrongful convictions in the United States

References

Works
Oscar Neebe Autobiography
 The Accused the Accusers: The Famous Speeches of the Chicago Anarchists in Court: On October 7th, 8th, and 9th, 1886, Chicago, Illinois. Chicago: Socialistic Publishing Society, n.d. [1886].

Further reading

 New York Times; March 10, 1887; Chicago, March 9, 1887. "Anarchist Oscar Neebe went out into the busy world this afternoon for the first time since his conviction nearly seven months ago. His wife died a day or two ago, and Sheriff Watson to-day permitted him to go and look upon her face once more and also meet his children."
 New York Times; March 12, 1887; Chicago, March 11, 1887. "Oscar Neebe, the Anarchist, to-day selected Paul Grottkau and George Schilling to deliver the orations at his wife's funeral service in Miller's Hall Sunday."
 New York Times; March 13, 1887; Chicago, March 12, 1887. "The wife of Anarchist Oscar Neebe will be buried tomorrow, but the husband will not be there. Sheriff Matson told him when Mrs. Neebe died that he might attend the funeral and Neebe had intended to avail himself of the privilege."
 Paul Avrich, The Haymarket Tragedy, p. 447 (Princeton Univ. Press 1983) (refencing his attendance at the 1907 Convention)
 Industrial Worker, July 1906 (first series), p. 6 (Joliet, Ill.) (listing as speaker for Labor Day)

External links

Findagrave: Oscar Neebe
The Haymarket Massacre, 1886 Anarchy Now

1850 births
1916 deaths
Activists from New York City
American anarchists
American people convicted of murdering police officers
Anarcho-communists
Burials at Forest Home Cemetery, Chicago
Haymarket affair
Industrial Workers of the World members
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons
Saloonkeepers
People convicted of murder by Illinois

Oscar Neebe


Pierre Monteux (born Paris, 4 April 1875; died Hancock, Maine, 14 July 1964) was a French-born conductor who later became an American citizen.  He was one of the great conductors of his time.

Life
Monteux was born in Paris and started to learn the violin when he was six.  When he was nine he learned at the Paris Conservatoire.  When he was twelve he conducted an orchestra in Paris with the pianist Alfred Cortot as soloist.  He played in orchestras, and was the principal of the viola section in the first performance of Debussy's opera Pelléas et Mélisande.  He started to conduct some of the concerts in the series Concerts Colonne.

Monteux also played his viola in chamber music.  He played a string quartet by Brahms with the composer in the audience.

Monteux soon became famous as a conductor.  He conducted the orchestra for Diaghilev's Ballet Russes, conducting the first performances of Stravinskys 'Petrouchka, Rite of Spring as well as Ravel's Daphnis et Chloé and Debussy's Jeux.  These were some of the greatest ballets of the 20th century.

In 1916 Monteux went to the USA and conducted the French operas at the Metropolitan Opera.  In 1920 he moved to Boston, conducting many new works by Debussy, Chausson, Darius Milhaud and others.  In 1924 he became assistant conductor at the Concertgebouw Orchestra, Amsterdam.  He started the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris in 1929, and also a school for conducting, the École Monteux, in Paris. Later he continued this teaching in his American home in Maine. Neville Marriner and André Previn were two of his pupils.

In 1936 he became conductor of the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra.  He stayed with this orchestra until 1952.  He made this orchestra internationally famous.  In 1942 he became an American citizen.  In the 1950s he often conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra.

Monteux continued to conduct until shortly before his death at the age of 89.    In 1961 he was appointed chief conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra for 25 years, although he did not live long enough to fulfil this.   He conducted this orchestra in 1963 in a performance of the Rite of Spring, fifty years after he had conducted the first performance.

Monteux's conducting
Monteux always prepared his work very carefully.  He was not a conductor who liked to show off.  He rehearsed his orchestras thoroughly, and conducted with small gestures.  Although he made gramophone recordings, he did not like recordings.  He preferred concerts with a live audience.  He received many honours, including the Légion d'honneur and the Knight of the Order of Oranje Nassau.

References

New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980;

1875 births
1964 deaths
French conductors
American conductors

Pierre Monteux


Bernoulli's principle is an idea of fluid dynamics. It says that as speed of the fluid increases, pressure decreases. The photo on the right shows this happening. The air in the wide part of the tube has a higher static pressure than the thin part. For a steady flow, the amount of fluid entering the pipe must equal the amount leaving the pipe, so the fluid speed in the thin part must increase.

When a force acts over an area, it is called "pressure". A higher pressure pushes (accelerates) fluid toward lower pressure.  So any change in a fluid's speed must be matched by a change in pressure (force).  Bernoulli saw that while the fluid moved more quickly in the smaller part of the tube, the pressure became less.  Please note that this refers to changes in speed and pressure along a single path of flow and does not apply to two different flows at different speeds.

The full version of Bernoulli's principle includes both the work by the pressure and by the changes in potential energy from changes in height. In this form, the principle says the total of the pressure, kinetic energy, and potential energy is a constant. (Bernoulli does not consider viscosity or compressibility.)

Fluid mechanics

Bernoulli's principle


Cirencester is a mercat toun in Sooth Wast Ingland. The River Churn rins throu the toun. Cirencester is the muckle maist toun in the Cotswold Destrict.

History

Cirencester wis an early Roman toun. They biggit a fort thare an it wis a thrivin trokin centre. Than, efter the Romans, cam the Saxons. A kirk wis foondit in Cirencester in the 9t or 10t century but it was shent in the 12t century an anither kirk wis biggit. In Tudor times mony Cirencester merchands becam rich throu naitional and internaitional troke. By the 18t century it wis a thrivin mercat toun. These days quite a few tourists veesit the toun acause o it's bonnie architecture.

References

Touns in Gloucestershire

Cirencester


Dangerous is a 2008 R&B song by Kardinal Offishall and featured R&B singer Akon. The song was released March 2008 on the radio and April 1, 2008 on iTunes. The song is from Kardinal Offishall's 2008 album, Not 4 Sale.

The song won Single of the Year at the 2009 Juno Awards and was certified 3x Platinum by the CRIA.

2008 songs
Akon songs

Dangerous (Kardinal Offishall song)


The Cantharellales are an order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes. The order includes not only the chanterelles (Cantharellaceae), but also some of the tooth fungi (Hydnaceae), clavarioid fungi (Aphelariaceae and Clavulinaceae), and corticioid fungi (Botryobasidiaceae). Species within the order are variously ectomycorrhizal, saprotrophic, associated with orchids, or facultative plant pathogens. Those of economic importance include edible and commercially collected Cantharellus, Craterellus, and Hydnum species as well as crop pathogens in the genera Ceratobasidium and Thanatephorus/Rhizoctonia.

Taxonomy
The order was originally proposed in 1926 by German mycologist Ernst Albert Gäumann to accommodate species within the phylum Basidiomycota having "stichic" basidia (basidia with nuclear spindles arranged longitudinally).  On this basis, he included three families within the Cantharellales: the Cantharellaceae (including the Hydnaceae), the Clavulinaceae, and the Exobasidiaceae. The last group are now placed within the Exobasidiales.

By 1995, the order had been amended (based on micromorphological research) to include not only the Cantharellaceae, but also the Aphelariaceae, Clavariaceae, Clavariadelphaceae, Clavulinaceae, Craterellaceae, Hydnaceae, Physalacriaceae, Pterulaceae, Scutigeraceae, Sparassidaceae, and Typhulaceae.

Current status
Molecular research, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, has redefined the Cantharellales. As well as the Cantharellaceae (chanterelles and their allies, inclusive of the Craterellaceae), the order currently comprises fungi with morphologically diverse sporocarps (fruit bodies) within the Aphelariaceae (clavarioid fungi), Botryobasidiaceae (corticioid fungi), Ceratobasidiaceae (heterobasidiomycetes), Clavulinaceae (clavarioid fungi), Hydnaceae (tooth fungi), and Tulasnellaceae (heterobasidiomycetes). The Clavariaceae, Physalacriaceae, Pterulaceae, and Typhulaceae, previously included within the order, are now placed within the Agaricales; the Clavariadelphaceae are now in the Gomphales; the Sparassidaceae in the Polyporales. The Scutigeraceae have been replaced by the Albatrellaceae within the Russulales. According to a 2008 estimate, the order contains 7 families, 38 genera, and 544 species.

Habitat and distribution
Most fungi within the order are ectomycorrhizal, forming mutually beneficial associations with certain trees, shrubs, and other vascular plants. Species in the Botryobasidiaceae are believed to be saprotrophs of fallen wood and leaf litter. Species in the Ceratobasidiaceae are also saprotrophs, but some are capable of becoming facultative plant pathogens. Species in the Tulasnellaceae are saprotrophic, but are also associated with orchid mycorrhiza, as are some species in the Ceratobasidiaceae. Distribution is cosmopolitan.

Economic importance

Sporocarps (fruit bodies) of chanterelles and some Hydnum species, particularly Hydnum repandum, are edible and widely collected on a commercial scale. They are marketed fresh or processed and traded internationally. Several species in the Ceratobasidiaceae, notably Rhizoctonia solani, cause significant diseases of cereals and other commercial crops, as well as turf grass.

Genera incertae sedis
Some genera of the Cantharellales have not been assigned to any family, i.e., they are incertae sedis with respect to familial placement:
Burgella Diederich & Lawrey (2007)
Minimedusa Weresub & P.M.LeClair (1971)
Odontiochaete Rick (1940)
Radulochaete Rick (1940)

References

Basidiomycota orders
Lichen orders
Taxa described in 1926

Cantharellales


Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

City name

The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

Tourism

Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.

Cities in Silesian Voivodeship

Czestochowa