The Institute of Historical Research (IHR) is a British educational organisation providing resources and training for historical researchers. It is part of the School of Advanced Study in the University of London and is located at Senate House. The institute was founded in 1921 by A. F. Pollard.

History

Foundation
The IHR was founded in 1921 by British historian Albert Pollard. Appointed professor of Constitutional History at University College London in 1903, his inaugural address, a year later, argued for the need for a postgraduate school of historical research. With a generous and anonymous donation of £20,000 from Sir John Cecil Power in 1920 towards the founding of the institute, Pollard's dream was realised. The institute was formally opened by H. A. L. Fisher on 8 July 1921.

The IHR was directly administered by the Senate of the University of London, rather than being part of one of the federal colleges. It was the first organisation to be administered under such an arrangement, and as such provided the model for other institutes, many of which later joined the IHR in the University of London's School of Advanced Study.

The IHR's first premises were in "temporary" huts on Malet Street, on a site now occupied by Birkbeck College. Despite the supposedly temporary nature of this accommodation, the IHR was not to move until 1947, when it took up residence in the north block of Senate House. The new location was built by architect Charles Holden, along with the rest of the university, at a projected cost of £3,000,000 and duration of 30 years for the whole project. Still occupying this position, many rooms in the IHR overlook the grass lawn in between Senate House and SOAS, which is where Senate House's unbuilt fourth court would have been.

With the start of World War II in September 1939, the institute's work and construction of its permanent building were disrupted, with the Ministry of Information occupying Senate House, and closing the institute in May 1940. The IHR was struck by a bomb on the night of 22–23 September 1940. The impact resulted in "the destruction of six books and almost the entire collection of London maps, as well as of furniture".

Directors
 1921–39: Prof. Albert Frederick Pollard
 1939–44: Sir Cyril Thomas Flower (acting director)
 1944–48: Prof. V. H. Galbraith, FBA
 1948–60: Prof. Sir John Goronwy Edwards, FBA, FSA
 1960–67: Prof. Francis Wormald, CBE, FBA, FSA
 1967–77: Prof. Arthur Geoffrey Dickens, CMG, FBA
 1977–90: Prof. Francis Michael Longstreth Thompson, FBA
 1990–98: Prof. Patrick Karl O'Brien, FBA
 1998–2003: Prof. David Nicholas Cannadine, FSA, FRSA, FRSL, FRHistS
 2003–08: Prof. David Richard Bates, FSA, FRHistS
 2008–14: Prof. Miles Taylor, FRHistS
 2014–17: Prof. Lawrence Neil Goldman, FRHistS
2018–20: Prof. Jo Fox, FRHistS, FRSA
2021– : Prof. Claire Langhamer, FRHistS

Role
The IHR's role comprises the following:

To promote the study of history and an appreciation of the importance of the past among academics and the general public, in London, in Britain and internationally, and to provide institutional support and individual leadership for this broad historical community

To offer a wide range of services which promote and facilitate excellence in historical research, teaching and scholarship in the UK, by means of its library, seminars, conferences, fellowships, training and publications (both print and digital)

To further high quality research into particular aspects of the past by its research centres – the Centre for Metropolitan History and the Victoria County History of England

To provide a welcoming environment where historians at all stages in their careers and from all parts of the world can meet formally and informally to exchange ideas and information, and to bring themselves up to date with current developments in historical scholarship

Activities
In order to fulfil its role as defined above, the IHR maintains different academic institutions, such as a library, the seminar programme as well as several integrated bodies and programmes. It also publishes the results of historical research.

Wohl Library
From its inception, the founders of the Institute of Historical Research envisaged a combination of scholarship and library. This tradition is continued in that many seminars still take place in the rooms of the library. The library itself collects sources for the History of Western Europe and areas affected by the European expansion. It now contains over 190,000 volumes. There are sizable holdings for the British Isles, as well as for Germany, Austria, France, the Low Countries, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Latin America, the US and colonial history, ecclesiastical, Byzantine and crusader history as well as small holdings for Eastern Europe, Switzerland and Scandinavia. The library is particularly good for sources on local history both of the British Isles and Europe. It contains the largest collection of Low Countries material outside of the region (due to gifts from the Netherlands and research interests of scholars working there), the most complete collection of French cartularies outside France as well as collections of poll books for the United Kingdom and a complete run of the Victoria County History books.

The collections have been supplemented by donations and bequests from many different scholars, such as the Wright collection. In its early years the IHR library was built up by actively seeking donations, and much of the collection was formed from bequests and gifts by individuals and organisations. By 1926, three-quarters of the collection had been acquired through private benefactions and presentations by governments from Europe and other parts of the World. Among the IHR's extensive collection of books on European history are a set of volumes of the  and other works donated to the University of London by the Nazi government of Germany in 1937. The accessions records highlight the collaborative nature of library collection development; many donations were shared between the IHR and other libraries to build on existing collection strengths or through an agreed division of collection policy. As an example, the sizeable portion of the IHR's colonial and early national holdings in the United States collection was donated to the library by the widow of George Louis Beer between 1921 and 1925.

Seminar programme
The IHR supports and promotes a wide variety of seminars. They are accessible to all interested in the topic under discussion. Seminar topics range from the Early Middle Ages to Modern Britain, from the history of gardening to the philosophy of history.

Conferences
The IHR is also involved with organising and running a number of conferences and workshops, including its annual conference on a historical theme.

British History Online
The IHR co-manages British History Online, a digital library of key printed primary and secondary sources for the history of Britain and Ireland, with a primary focus on the period between 1300 and 1800.

Historical Research

The IHR publishes Historical Research, a scholarly historical journal. The journal first appeared in 1923 under the title Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research; and the present title was adopted in 1987 (beginning with volume 60, no. 141).

Reviews in History
The IHR publishes the online journal Reviews in History. The journal was launched in 1996, and publishes reviews and reappraisals of significant work in all fields of historical interest.

Layers of London
The Layers of London project brings together digitised historic maps, photos and other information provided by key partners across London including: the British Library, London Metropolitan Archives, Historic England, The National Archives, MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology). These will be linked on a website which will allow visitors to create and interact with many different "layers" of London's history from the Romans to the present day. It runs on the Humap platform and contains over 11,500 records, most of which are sourced through user-generated content.

Marc Fitch Lectures
The institute hosts the Marc Fitch Lectures with funding provided by the Marc Fitch Fund. The lecture was held at the institute until 2012, when it started touring the counties with a planned three lectures a year. Previous lectures have been presented by Linda Colley, Roy Strong, Michael Wood, Simon Thurley and David Starkey.

Humanities Digital Library
In IHR leads an inter-institutional initiative within the School of Advanced Study to explore and deliver open access research publications. This has culminated in the launch of the Humanities Digital Library, a catalogue of open access books published across the School, as well as an open access book series focusing upon early career authors and published in partnership with the Royal Historical Society.

Integrated bodies
Besides the core activities, two research centres are integrated into the institute. These are:

 the Victoria County History,
 the Centre for Metropolitan History

The IHR formerly housed a third research centre, the Centre for Contemporary British History. In August 2010, however, this transferred to King's College London, where it is now known as the Institute of Contemporary British History.

See also
 Historical Association
 Royal Historical Society
 Historiography of the United Kingdom

References

Further reading

External links

1921 establishments in England
Education in the United Kingdom
Universities and colleges established in 1921
Research institutes established in 1921
Renaissance and early modern research centres
Research in the United Kingdom
Historical Research

Institute of Historical Research


Charles Spence Bate, or Spence Bate, FRS (March 16, 1819 – July 29, 1889) was a British zoologist and dentist, who lived in Swansea and Plymouth. He was an expert on the crustacea. He often wrote to Charles Darwin, mainly about their shared interest in barnacles. He wrote "A history of the British sessile-eyed Crustacea" with J. O. Westwood.

A number of species are named after him:
Pseudoparatanais batei (G. O. Sars, 1882)
Amphilochus spencebatei (Stebbing, 1876)
Scyllarus batei Holthuis, 1946
Costa batei (Brady, 1866)
Periclimenes batei Holthuis, 1959

1819 births
1889 deaths

British biologists
British zoologists
Fellows of the Royal Society

Charles Spence Bate


Samuel Leroy Jackson (born December 21, 1948) is an American actor an film producer. He achieved prominence an creetical acclaim in the early 1990s wi films sic as Goodfellas (1990), Jungle Fever (1991), Patriot Games (1992), Amos & Andrew (1993), True Romance (1993), Jurassic Park (1993) an his collaborations wi director Quentin Tarantino includin Pulp Fiction (1994), Jackie Brown (1997), Django Unchained (2012), an The Hateful Eight (2015). He is a heichly proleefic actor, haein appeared in ower 100 films, includin Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), Unbreakable (2000), Shaft (2000), The 51st State (2001), Black Snake Moan (2006), Snakes on a Plane (2006), an the Star Wars prequel trilogy (1999–2005).

Wi Jackson's permission, his likeness wis uised for the Ultimate version o the Marvel Comics character Nick Fury. He haes an aw played Fury in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films Iron Man (2008), Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011), Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), The Avengers (2012), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015) an Avengers: Infinity War (2018), as well as the TV show Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D..

The actor haes providit his vyce tae several animatit films, telly series an video gemmes, includin the roles o Lucius Best / Frozone in Pixar Animation Studios' film The Incredibles (2004), Mace Windu in Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008), Afro Samurai in the anime telly series Afro Samurai (2007), an Frank Tenpenny in the video gemme Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004).

Jackson haes achieved creetical an commercial acclaim, surpassin Frank Welker as the actor wi the heichest-grossin film tot o aw time in October 2011, an he haes received numerous accolades an awairds. He is mairit tae LaTanya Richardson, wi that he haes a dochter, Zoe. Samuel L. Jackson is rankit as the heichest aw-time box office starn wi ower $5.1 billion tot US box office gross, an average o $70.5 million per film.

References

1948 births
American fowk o Benga strynd
American fowk o Gabonese strynd
20t-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Male actors frae Tennessee
Male actors frae Washington, D.C.
African-Americans' ceevil richts activists
African-American male actors
American male vyce actors
American male film actors
Best Supportin Actor BAFTA Awaird winners
Independent Spirit Awaird for Best Male Lead winners
Livin fowk
Morehouse College alumni
Fowk frae Chattanooga, Tennessee
Siller Beir for Best Actor winners
American male televeesion actors

Samuel L. Jackson


Crescent is a shape, form or symbol.

Crescent may also refer to:
 Crescent (Amtrak), an American passenger train
 Crescent Engineering College, a private engineering college in Vandalur, Chennai (Madras), India
 Crescent School, an all-male private school in Toronto, Canada
 Crescent (Dallas), an ornate office tower in the Oak Lawn area of Dallas, Texas, United States
 Crescent (John Coltrane), a 1964 album by John Coltrane
 Crescent (album), a 2003 album by Gackt
 Crescent (architecture), an architectural structure where a number of houses are laid out in an arc to form of a crescent shape
 Crescent (pigeon), a breed of domestic pigeon
 "Crescent" is the literal translation of croissant - a popular buttery French bread in the shape of a crescent moon.
 Crescent, a Swedish bicycle brand manufactured by Nymanbolagen
 the Crescent meteorite of 1936, which fell in Oklahoma, United States (see meteorite falls)
Crescent is also often found as part of street names. Such streets are often (but not always) curved in some way.
 Crescent Records, a record label
 HMCS Crescent, a WWII Royal Canadian Navy destroyer.
 The Crescent, a defunct department store chain.
 Crescent Arms, a firearms manufacturer bought by Savage Arms.

Crescent (disambiguation)


The half union (separate varieties known as J-1546 through J-1549) was a United States pattern coin with a face value of fifty U.S. Dollars. It is often thought of as one of the most significant and well-known patterns in the history of the U.S. Mint. The basic design, featuring Liberty on the obverse, was slightly modified from the similar $20 "Liberty Head" Double Eagle, which was designed by James B. Longacre and minted from 1849 to 1907.

Today, two gold specimens belong to the Smithsonian. No others are known to exist. There are also copper specimens of the coin that can go for more than $300,000 in PF-65 condition. The half union was never released for circulation.

Some half unions can have a somewhat smaller or larger head than others.

History
In 1877, famed Chief Engraver of the Mint at the time, William Barber, designed the coin. William Barber also designed several other coins, such as the "Amazonian Quarter" pattern, the short-lived Twenty Cent Piece, and the Trade Dollar. The coin was designed to weigh roughly 2.5 ounces and be made of solid gold. Had it been made for circulation with the general public, the coin would have been the highest valued gold coin ever made at the time, with a face value of fifty dollars.
As it is a pattern, it was never struck for circulation and all other known presentation versions were made of copper or sometimes various gilded metals. Only two examples were actually struck in gold, and today both reside in the Smithsonian.

However, the half-union denomination did resurface in the form of a $50 commemorative coin released in 1915 to commemorate San Francisco, the Panama–Pacific commemorative coins. Some of the coins were octagonal, others round, making it the first and only time the United States Mint has ever released a coin that was not round.

Commemorative coin
In 1915, a gold commemorative coin was issued in $50 denomination, the Panama–Pacific half union.  It was minted in round and octagonal varieties, the latter being the only United States coin issued to date that is not round.

Cultural portrayals

The 1959 film Rio Bravo includes several references to $50 gold pieces, even though none were ever issued for circulation.

External links

 1877 PATTERN COINS, DIE TRIALS & FANTASIES

References

Currencies introduced in 1877
United States gold coins
Goddess of Liberty on coins
Eagles on coins

Half union


Joseph Conrad (3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924) (real name: Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski) was a  Polish writer. Conrad did not learn to speak English well until he was in his twenties and always had a Polish accent.

Conrad's prose style is considered as one of the best of all English novelists. He also is seen as important for paving the way to modernist literature. His narrative style and anti-heroic characters have influenced many modern writers and inspired such films as Apocalypse Now (after Conrad's Heart of Darkness).

Conrad lived in the time of the British Empire and worked in the Merchant Navy.

Novels and novellas

1895 - Almayer's Folly
1896 - An Outcast of the Islands
1897 - The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'
1899 - Heart of Darkness
1900 - Lord Jim
1901 - The Inheritors (with Ford Madox Ford)
1902 - Typhoon (begun 1899)
1903 - Romance (with Ford Madox Ford)
1904 - Nostromo
1907 - The Secret Agent
1909 - The Secret Sharer (written December 1909; published in Harper's in 1910 and collected in Twixt Land and Sea 1912)
1911 - Under Western Eyes
1912 - Freya of the Seven Isles
1913 - Chance
1915 - Victory
1917 - The Shadow Line
1919 - The Arrow of Gold
1920 - The Rescue
1923 - The Nature of a Crime (with Ford Madox Ford)
1923 - The Rover
1925 - Suspense: a Napoleonic Novel (unfinished, published posthumously)

Short stories
 "The Idiots" (Conrad's first short story; written during his honeymoon, published in Savo 1896 and collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898).
 "The Black Mate" (written, according to Conrad, in 1886; published 1908; posthumously collected in Tales of Hearsay, 1925).
 "The Lagoon" (composed 1896; published in Cornhill Magazine 1897; collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898).
 "An Outpost of Progress" (written 1896 and named in 1906 by Conrad himself, long after the publication of Lord Jim and Heart of Darkness, as his 'best story'; published in Cosmopolis 1897 and collected in Tales of Unrest 1898; often compared to Heart of Darkness, with which it has numerous thematic affinities).
 "The Return" (written circa early 1897; never published in magazine form; collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898; Conrad, presaging the sentiments of most readers, once remarked, "I hate it").
 "Karain: A Memory" (written February–April 1897; published Nov. 1897 in Blackwood's and collected in Tales of Unrest, 1898).
 "Youth" (written in 1898; collected in Youth, a Narrative and Two Other Stories, 1902)
 "Falk" (novella/story, written in early 1901; collected only in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903).
 "Amy Foster" (composed in 1901; published the Illustrated London News, Dec. 1901 and collected in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903).
 "To-morrow" (written early 1902; serialized in Pall Mall Magazine, 1902 and collected in Typhoon and Other Stories, 1903).
 "The End of the Tether" (written in 1902; collected in Youth, a Narrative and Two Other Stories, 1902)
 "Gaspar Ruiz" (written after "Nostromo" in 1904–05; published in Strand Magazine in 1906 and collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.  This story was the only piece of Conrad's fiction ever adapted by the author for cinema, as Gaspar the Strong Man, 1920).
 "An Anarchist" (written in late 1905; serialized in Harper's in 1906; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.)
 "The Informer" (written before January 1906; published in December 1906 in Harper's and collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.)
 "The Brute" (written in early 1906; published in The Daily Chronicle in December 1906; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.)
 "The Duel" (aka "The Point of Honor": serialized in the UK in Pall Mall Magazine in early 1908 and in the US periodical Forum later that year; collected in A Set of Six in 1908 and published by Garden City Publishing in 1924. Joseph Fouché makes a cameo appearance)
 "Il Conde" (i.e., 'Conte' [count]: appeared in Cassell's [UK] 1908 and Hampton's [US] in 1909; collected in A Set of Six, 1908 UK/1915 US.)
 "Prince Roman" (written 1910, published in 1911 in the Oxford and Cambridge Review; based upon the story of Prince Roman Sanguszko of Poland 1800–1881)
 "A Smile of Fortune" (a long story, almost a novella, written in mid-1910; published in London Magazine in Feb. 1911; collected in Twixt Land and Sea 1912)
 "Freya of the Seven Isles" (another near-novella, written late 1910–early 1911; published in Metropolitan Magazine and London Magazine in early 1912 and July 1912, respectively; collected in Twixt Land and Sea 1912)
 "The Partner" (written in 1911; published in Within the Tides, 1915)
 "The Inn of the Two Witches" (written in 1913; published in Within the Tides, 1915)
 "Because of the Dollars" (written in 1914; published in Within the Tides, 1915)
 "The Planter of Malata" (written in 1914; published in Within the Tides, 1915)
 "The Warrior's Soul" (written late 1915–early 1916; published in Land and Water, in March 1917; collected in Tales of Hearsay, 1925)
 "The Tale" (Conrad's only story about World War I; written 1916 and first published 1917 in Strand Magazine)

Memoirs and essays

 The Mirror of the Sea (collection of autobiographical essays first published in various magazines 1904-6 ), 1906
 A Personal Record (also published as Some Reminiscences), 1912
 Notes on Life and Letters, 1921
 Last Essays, 1926

References
 Jeffrey Meyers, Joseph Conrad:  a Biography, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1991.
 Zdzisław Najder, Conrad under Familial Eyes, Cambridge University Press, 1984, .
 Zdzisław Najder, Joseph Conrad:  a Chronicle, new edition, Camden House, 2007.
 J.H. Stape, editor, The Cambridge Companion to Joseph Conrad, Cambridge University Press, 2006.
 Tim Butcher: Blood River - A Journey To Africa's Broken Heart, 2007. .
 T. Scovel, A Time to Speak:  a Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the Critical Period for Human Speech, Cambridge, MA, Newbury House, 1988.

Other websites

 The Joseph Conrad Society (U.K)
 biography at Joseph Conrad centre of Poland
 Conrad First: a digital archive of every newspaper and magazine in which the work of Joseph Conrad appeared between 1896 and 1935

 The Complete works  are available from eBooks@Adelaide
Free audiobook of The Secret Agent from LibriVox
Free audiobook of Heart of Darkness from LibriVox
Free audiobook of Lord Jim from LibriVox
 Penn State's Electronic Classics Series has 26 Works of Joseph Conrad available for free Joseph Conrad at Penn State's Electronic Classics
 Joseph Conrad at kirjasto.sci.fi
 Heart of Darkness text at American Literature
Chinua Achebe: The Lecture Heard Around The World
Collected Letters, vol. 6 (1917-1919) - PDF
  Find-A-Grave profile for Joseph Conrad
Conrad's page at Literary Journal.com-a number of research articles on Conrad's work
Conrad's page at The Literary Network
About "An Outpost of Progress"  Interpretations of and more background information on the short story.
About TS Eliot reading Heart of Darkness  (French)
Free to read on a cell phone - Conrad works.
Online text of Heart of Darkness - Conrad's greatest work

1857 births
1924 deaths
Polish writers

Joseph Conrad


The 1805 State of the Union Address was given by the third president of the United States, Thomas Jefferson, on Tuesday, December 3, 1805. He did not give it directly to the 9th United States Congress, but only presented his written address. It was the first of his second term in the White House. He began with, "At a moment when the nations of Europe are in commotion and arming against each other, and when those with whom we have principal intercourse are engaged in the general contest, and when the countenance of some of them toward our peaceable country threatens that even that may not be unaffected by what is passing on the general theater, a meeting of the representatives of the nation in both Houses of Congress has become more than usually desirable." He ended with, "On this first occasion of addressing Congress since, by the choice of my constituents, I have entered on a second term of administration, I embrace the opportunity to give this public assurance that I will exert my best endeavors to administer faithfully the executive department, and will zealously cooperate with you in every measure which may tend to secure the liberty, property, and personal safety of our fellow citizens, and to consolidate the republican forms and principles of our Government."

References

State of the Union addresses
Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
State of the Union Address
Works by Thomas Jefferson
State of the Union Address
State of the Union Address
State of the Union Address
9th United States Congress
December 1805 events
State of the Union

1805 State of the Union Address


Tarvos or Saturn XXI is a non-spherical moon of Saturn. It was found by John J. Kavelaars, et al. on September 23, 2000, and given the designation S/2000 S 4. The name, given in August 2003, is after Tarvos from Gaulish mythology.

Tarvos orbits Saturn at an average distance of 18 million km in 926 days and is about 15 km in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04).

It is a member of the Gallic group of non-spherical moons.

Sharing similar orbit and displaying similar light-red colour, Tarvos is thought to have been formed in a break-up of a bigger body or to be a piece of Albiorix.

Other websites
 David Jewitt pages

Saturn's moons

Tarvos (moon)


The Citroën DS wis an executive caur produced bi the French manufacturer Citroën atween 1955 an 1975. Styled bi Italian sculptor an industrial designer Flaminio Bertoni, the DS wis kent for its aerodynamic futuristic body design an innovative technology, includin a hydropneumatic self-levelling suspension.

The DS advanced achievable standards in automobile ride quality, handling, an brakin. Citroën sauld nearly 1.5 million D-series during the model's 20-year production run. The DS came in third in the 1999 Caur o the Century competeetion, recognizing the warld's maist influential auto designs, an wis named the maist bonnie caur o aw time bi Classic & Sports Car magazine.

DS

Citroën DS


A Fairbairn crane is a type of crane of an 'improved design', patented in 1850 by Sir William Fairbairn. There are numerous hand-powered versions around the world and one surviving steam-powered example in Bristol Docks, England.

Innovative design

The crane's innovation was in the use of a curved jib, made of riveted wrought iron platework to form a square-section box girder. This curved jib could reach further into the hold of a ship, clear of the deep gunwales alongside the quay.

Designing a strong curved jib required Fairbairn's advanced theoretical understanding of the mechanics of a box girder. The tension forces were carried by the outer, convex surface of the girder which was made of back plates being chain-riveted together. The inner surface carried a compressive load. To avoid plate crumpling, it was made as a cellular structure: an inner plate and webs formed three rectangular cells, effectively box girders in their own right. The character of a box girder is to resist torsional twisting, so a composite face built up of them is also good at resisting crumpling.

The first of these cranes were a batch of six built for the Admiralty at Keyham and Devonport. These were hand-operated and could lift 12 tons to a height of  and a radius of  . The size of the crane jibs was determined by ships of the period, and their lifting capacity by men's ability to raise the load. Experiments at Keyham with loads of up to 20 tons showed the jib design to be sound, and that the jib at least was capable of handling loads of up to 60 tons.

A "colossal" crane of 60 tons was later built at Keyham, with a cell plate stiffened by four cells. This crane was worked by four men driving through a gear train of 632 times, which must have been hard and slow work at full capacity. As the capacity of the crane was so obviously limited by its motive power, not its strength, they were an obvious candidate for steam power – as was later re-applied to the 60 ton  crane at Keysham. There was even a proposal for a  high crane, to replace masting sheers at Woolwich. A more typical size for most of these later cranes though would be able to lift 35 tons at a radius of . They were powered by self-contained steam engines, with both boiler and engine mounted on board the crane.

William Fairbairn & Sons of Manchester built a number of these cranes and also licensed the design to other makers. After the expiry of the patent in 1875, other companies, notably Cowans Sheldon & Co of Carlisle, built many others as late as 1910, often powered by steam, water hydraulics or electricity. They were particularly favoured in naval dockyards for fitting battleship guns; Hong Kong had a battery of four.

Bristol

The only surviving Fairbairn steam crane is in Bristol, on the quayside at Wapping Wharf in the Floating Harbour. It is in the care of the M Shed museum, located on the adjacent Prince's Wharf.

Construction
In the 1870s, Bristol Docks was going through a period of expansion and modernisation in the face of increasing competition from other ports. Iron-hulled ships were becoming larger, cargoes heavier, and there had already been investment in building a railway line along the harbour quay. Crane capacity was limited, though – none of the harbour's 17 cranes being able to lift more than 3 tons.

Accordingly, a more powerful steam crane was ordered, to be capable of lifting 35 tons and loading it directly onto a railway wagon. This was ordered from local makers Stothert & Pitt in 1875, although to the Fairbairn pattern. As for the later Fairbairn cranes, the original cell plate was changed to a design of a single flat plate stiffened by riveted T section ribs, rather than the original cellular structure. In August 1878 the crane had been completed and tested, at a cost of £3,600 for the machinery, plus the masonry foundations.

The jib has a radius (reach) of  and a height of . The crane weighs 120 tons. A vertical boiler inside the cab operates at 100 psi and supplies two twin-cylinder steam engines: one for slewing (turning) the crane, a larger one for winding the lifting chain. The winding drums can be driven by their gearing at four different speeds. The jib box girder extends below ground in a well for . A plain bearing at the foot of the well carries the weight of the crane and roller bearings beneath the cab resist tipping loads. Water for the boiler is supplied by a pump, which originally drew water straight from the dock and is also used for draining the well. The boiler's maker's plate reads "Marshall Sons & Co. Ltd., Engineers, Gainsboro, England, No.92766"; it is the fourth boiler that has served the crane and was installed in 1953.

The cab of the crane is also of iron, with small-paned windows. These window frames are decorated with small roses cast into the junctions of the glazing bars. Some time around 1900 the top winding drums and gears were enclosed in a further box on the roof.

In service
Although mechanically capable, the crane was not a great success commercially. In 1890 it was only used for 16 days of the year, for a profit of just 11s. 6d. Ships had increased in size by this time and the jib could no longer reach far enough to remove engines or boilers for repair work. It was even considered raising the crane up on a stone tower, as for the smaller crane at Canons Marsh opposite, to increase the lift height.

In 1892, hydraulic machinery, including cranes, appeared in the docks. These used a powerful central power supply and could transfer cargoes more quickly. In 1906 electric cranes appeared too. The steam crane was required less and less often; for a whole year between April 1905 and April 1906 the crane went unused. From 1903 to 1909 it made a total of 143 lifts. It remained useful for heavy loads, however.

During World War II the crane's heavy capacity came into its own. A Landing Craft Flotilla Unit was stationed on Princes Wharf, and over 1000 new assault landing craft were delivered by road for adaptation for use in the Far East. The crane was used to unload the lorries and to launch the craft after completion, a total of over 2000 lifts in three years.

Today
The crane is still operational and is regularly steamed.

With the gradual closure of the City Docks, in 1973 the crane was passed to Bristol City Museum. In 1972 it was grade II* listed and it is also a scheduled monument, as the last surviving Fairbairn steam crane. From 1988, it was restored to operational condition as part of the Bristol Industrial Museum. The crane operates on special museum days, such as bank holidays and the Harbour Festival.

Seville
A hand-cranked example survives in Seville, Spain.

Dover

Another Fairbairn crane survives at Dover, on the quayside of Wellington Dock. It is now a scheduled monument. This is a hand-cranked crane of 1868, built by the Fairbairn Engineering Company of Manchester. When originally installed it was rated at 50 tons and worked by four men. The Ordnance Department of the Royal Navy used it for handling cannon. In later years it was down-rated to 20 tons and was used for lifting yachts from what was now Dover Marina. In 2014 the crane was 'lovingly restored' and repainted, with an obtrusive vertical steel prop beneath the jib.

References

External links

 Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery
 M Shed
 Flickr Fairbairn crane group

Steam cranes

Individual cranes (machines)
Bristol Industrial Museum
Scheduled monuments in Bristol
Bristol Harbourside

Fairbairn steam crane


Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS), sometimes Landry's paralysis or Guillain–Barré–Strohl syndrome is a syndrome that causes weakness of the feet and hands. Guillain–Barré syndrome is rare, at 1–2 cases per 100,000 people annually, but is the most common cause of acute non-trauma-related paralysis. The syndrome is named after the French physicians Georges Guillain and Jean Alexandre Barré, who described it in 1916.

Syndromes

Guillain–Barré syndrome


Napoleon is a character in the book Animal Farm. Together with Snowball, he is a boar that Mr. Jones is breeding for sale at the market. Napoleon is the only Berkshire boar on Manor Farm. He is fierce-looking, large, and very stubborn, wanting things to be done his own way. Napoleon is very selfish and only cares about his own good.

Symbolism
Napoleon is based on Stalin of the Russian revolution, who harshly ruled the entire Russia. Napoleon's name is derived from the French conqueror with the same name.

Animal Farm characters
Fictional pigs

Napoleon (Animal Farm)


Rolduc is the name of a medieval abbey located on the edge of the town of Kerkrade in the far south-east of the Netherlands. It is today a Roman Catholic seminary with an affiliated conference center. The abbey is a rijksmonument (Dutch national heritage site). It features on the official list of 100 top Dutch heritage sites, drawn up in 1990 by what is today the Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed (National Cultural Heritage Service).

History
In 1104, a young priest by the name of Ailbertus of Antoing founded an Augustinian abbey in the Land of Rode, near the river Wurm. The abbey was called Kloosterrade, which later became  ( or ), after the ducal castle that was built across the Wurm. Ailbertus died in 1111 and his bones were later interred in the crypt. In 1136 the land of Rode, including the abbey, became the property of the Duchy of Limburg. Kloosterrade was considered to be their family church. Several dukes of Limburg are buried at Rolduc, such as Walram III, whose cenotaph can be found in the nave of the church. During the 12th and 13th century the abbey flourished. Several other communities were founded by Kloosterrade. In 1250 the abbey owned more than 3,000 hectares of land.

During the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries times were harder for the abbey in both spiritual and material terms. The buildings were heavily damaged during the Eighty Years War. Materialistically, the abbey began to prosper again in the late 17th century when revenue was generated from the exploitation of coal mines. In around 1775, Rolduc employed 350 miners.

The abbey was dissolved by the French in 1796 and the buildings were not used for 35 years. In 1815, when the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed (see Vienna Congress), the border was drawn through the ancient land of Rode, separating the abbey from the castle. The eastern part (including the castle) became Prussian Herzogenrath and the western part (including the abbey) became part of the Dutch municipality of Kerkrade.

In the 19th century Rolduc became a famous boarding school run by Jesuits, and a seminary of the Diocese of Roermond. Many influential Dutch Roman Catholics (e.g. the writer Lodewijk van Deyssel and the social reformer Alphons Ariëns) were educated at Rolduc.

The former abbey is now a secondary school (Charlemagne College, formerly College Rolduc), a Roman Catholic seminary, and the Rolduc Congress Center.

Description

The 12th century abbey church is an  example of Mosan art. The crypt and the choir and chancel above have a cloverleaf pattern. The interior of both the church and the crypt contains richly carved capitals. Remarkable is the fact that the columns in the crypt all have a different design. In 1853, the young architect Pierre Cuypers was commissioned to restore the crypt and to reinstate as much as possible the original Romanesque fabric.

The cloisters are largely 18th century. The abbey has a richly decorated Rococo library with an important collection of books. During the Middle Ages, the Rolduc library was one of the most famous libraries in the Meuse region. The history of the abbey was recorded in the so-called Annales Rodenses, a chronicle about the years 1104 through 1157.

The interior painting above the altar is by the Nazarene movement painter Matthias Goebbels.

References

External links

Website Rolduc seminary and conference centre (in Dutch and English)

Former Christian monasteries in the Netherlands
Christian monasteries in Limburg (Netherlands)
Augustinian monasteries in the Netherlands
Monasteries dissolved during the French Revolution
Catholic seminaries
Education in Limburg (Netherlands)
Romanesque architecture in the Netherlands
Mosan art
Rijksmonuments in Kerkrade
Seminaries and theological colleges in the Netherlands

Rolduc


Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian, Friesland in Dutch) is a province in the north of the Netherlands. The capital (city) of Friesland is Leeuwarden (Ljouwert in Frisian). People in Friesland speak West Frisian and Dutch. People also speak Frisian in a small part of Groningen (province), and in  East Friesland and North Friesland in Germany. In North Holland there is a region called West Friesland, but people who live there are not called Frisians. About 651,000 people are living in Friesland (2021).

Agriculture and tourism, on the lakes and the isles in the Wadden Sea, are important sources of income.

The province is also famous for its ice skaters and its Elfstedentocht (Eleven cities tour), an ice skating race of 200 kilometers.

It is also known for being home to some breeds of animals, such as the Stabyhoun and Wetterhoun dog breeds, the Friesian horse breed and the Holstein Friesian cattle breed.

Notable Frisians
In Friesland the Frisians live. They are an old ethnic group. Members of this ethnic group are:
 Pier Gerlofs Donia was a giant from Friesland. He was said to be about 7 feet tall (2 meters and 15 centimeters).
 Wijerd Jelckama was a legendary freedom fighter, rebel and warlord who was as tall as his uncle Pier Gerlofs Donia
 Mata Hari was a famous courtesan and spy who was born a Frisian.
 Doutzen Kroes, a Frisian born supermodel, speaks Frisan and encourages people to learn about it.

Population
In 2021, Friesland had a population of 651,459 and a population density of .

The years 1880–1900 showed slower population growth due to a farm crisis during which some 20,000 Frisians emigrated to the United States.

Anthropometry
Since the late Middle Ages, Friesland is known for the exceptional height of its inhabitants. Even early Renaissance poet Dante Alighieri refers to the height of Frisians in his Divine Comedy when, in the canticle about Hell, he talks about the magnitude of an infernal demon by stating that "not even three tall Frieslanders, were they set one upon the other, would have matched his height".

References

Other websites

Friesland


People traveled on the Oregon Trail in wagons in order to settle new parts of the United States of America during the 19th century. The Oregon Trail started in Missouri near the area where Kansas City, Missouri is today and ended in the Willamette Valley in Oregon.  The Trail was about 2,170 miles (3,500 km) long, and could take up to six months to travel.

People went to Oregon for many reasons. Some people wanted land. Some thought Oregon would be a better place to live. Most of them went because they wanted a new life.

The Oregon Trail was first traveled around 1841. Once a railroad was built across the United States in 1869, people could take trains to the western United States, so fewer people began to travel west in wagons.  By that time, about 400,000 people had crossed the Oregon Trail in wagons.  However, some people kept traveling the Trail until the 1880s.

Preparing to travel
Nobody traveled the Oregon Trail alone.  Instead, travelers formed groups so they could help and protect each other.  Often, relatives or people from the same town would travel together.  They would hire a guide that knew the Trail and would elect leaders.  The groups that did best on the Trail wrote constitutions or rules that they could use to settle disagreements or problems on the Trail.

Supplies

Animals
People who traveled the Oregon Trail could use three types of animals to pull their wagons: oxen, mules, or horses. Most people used oxen. They were less expensive than horses and mules, and also less stubborn than mules.pp. 79–80

They could eat grass along the Trail, unlike horses, who needed grains when they were working. Oxen were easy to train, and they usually traveled at a steady pace of 2 miles per hour, even in mud and snow.pp. 79–80

Food
It was very important for travelers to carry enough food and water for the trip.  However, food for the trip was expensive.  To feed four people for six months, food would cost about $150 - over $4,500 in today's dollars.p. 274

Travelers often brought along a lot of dried meat and "bread stuff" (like flour, crackers, and hardtack).  Boiling water was difficult on the Trail, so cooking was not always possible.  Some travelers also brought other foods, like rice, peas, dried beans, or dried fruit.

Along the Trail, travelers could fish and hunt for food.  Bison, antelope, and deer were the best animals to hunt for food.  Travelers also ate berries that grew along the Trail, partly to help prevent scurvy.

Wagons
Most travelers used covered wagons to travel the Trail.  There were a few different styles of covered wagons.  One common style, called the "Independence-style" wagon, was usually about 11 feet long, four feet wide, and two feet deep.  Pieces of wood held up a cover, made of something like dried ox skin, that rose about five feet above the bottom of the wagon.

Dangers
There were many dangers along the Oregon Trail, including disease, bad weather, drowning during river crossings, attacks by Native Americans, and many others.

It is difficult to know how many people died along the Oregon Trail.  Many travelers would bury their dead in unmarked graves and would disguise the graves.  For example, they would bury people right in the middle of a trail and then have their oxen run over the graves.  They did this so that animals and robbers would not dig up the graves.  Because of this, historians can only estimate the total number of people who died along the Oregon Trail.

Diseases
Disease was the most common cause of death on the Trail.  While travelers usually brought some medicines with them, they usually were not very helpful.

Cholera

Cholera was the most common illness and cause of death on the Trail.  From 1849-1855, there was a cholera epidemic along the trail.  Up to 3% of all travelers during this time may have died from cholera.  One of the causes of the epidemic was that there was no sanitation along the Trail.

For example, travelers liked to camp along the Platte River in Colorado, so they could easily get fresh water.  However, as thousands of travelers used the same campsites over and over again, sewage from travelers with cholera got into the Platte River.  After this, any traveler that drank water from the Platte River, or made food with that water, could get cholera.  Often, cholera's symptoms would be so bad that travelers would die within 12 hours of getting sick.

Other diseases
Other diseases common on the Trail included:
 Dysentery and other diseases that caused diarrhea.  The travelers treated these diseases with castor oil.
 "Mountain fever", which may have been Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus, typhoid fever, and/or scarlet fever.  The travelers used quinine water to treat these illnesses.
 Measles
 Food poisoning
 Scurvy, which travelers tried to prevent by eating berries along the Trail and drinking citric acid.  Still, because they ate mostly meat and bread along the Trail, many travelers did not get enough vitamin C.  Some died from scurvy; many others had scurvy when they arrived at the end of the Trail.
 Smallpox
 Pneumonia

The travelers used turpentine (a poison), vinegar, and whiskey to treat headaches, muscle pain, and coughs.

Historians do not agree on how many people died from disease along the Trail.  One historian, John Unruh, estimates that 6,000 to 12,500 travelers died from disease on the Trail, and another 300-500 died specifically from scurvy.  However, the United States National Park Service says that as many as 30,000 people may have died from disease along the Trail.

Other dangers
There were many other dangers along the Trail.  John Unruh estimates the number of people who died from these other dangers:
 3,000 to 4,500 from Native American attacks
 300 to 500 from freezing to death
 200 to 500 from being accidentally run over by wagons
 200 to 500 from drowning while trying to cross rivers
 200 to 500 from accidentally being shot (for example, in hunting accidents)
 200 to 500 from other causes, including murder, being hit by lightning, dying during childbirth, stampedes, snake bites, flash floods, being hit by falling trees, and being kicked by animals

Unruh estimates that 4 percent of the Oregon Trail travelers died: 16,000 out of 400,000 total travelers.  However, the National Park Service says:
The Oregon Trail is this nation's longest graveyard. Nearly one in ten [travelers] who set off on the trail did not survive.

Life on the Trail

A usual day on the Trail started very early, just before dawn.  Nobody actually rode in the wagons unless they were sick or very young.  The ride was too bumpy, too dusty, and added too much work for the oxen.  Instead, people walked beside their wagons.  Usually, groups traveled almost all day, except for an hour around noon for lunch.  Then they kept moving until just before sunset, when they would stop to set up a campsite.  Most groups traveled about 15 miles per day, though on the best days they could move 20 miles a day.  Since oxen moved at about 2 miles per hour, this meant a day's travel could last up to ten hours.

About 40,000 of the travelers were children.  Unless they were babies, they walked alongside the wagons and worked just like adults.  Their jobs included herding animals, driving wagons, washing dishes, helping with meals, watching younger children, and collecting firewood and "buffalo chips" (dry buffalo manure, which could be used to start fires if there was no firewood).

At night, the group would move the wagons into a circle ("circle the wagons") and put their animals inside the circle.  This kept them from wandering away, or being killed or stolen.  If the weather was dry, people slept outside.  If it was wet, people slept under their wagons.

Many travelers were very afraid of attacks from Native Americans.  However, most Native Americans left the travelers alone, or even helped them by trading with them and helping them cross rivers in canoes.  When Native Americans did attack travelers, the stories were told over and over again, which may have made attacks seem more common than they actually were.

Travelers who did reach Oregon looked back on the Trail with different feelings.  One man named Loren Hastings said in 1847:
I look back upon the long, dangerous and precarious emigrant road with a degree of romance and pleasure; but to others it is the graveyard of their friends.

Computer game
In the 1970s, three student teachers in Minnesota made an educational computer game based on the Oregon Trail. The goal of the game was to successfully travel the trail from Independence, Missouri to Oregon City, Oregon. Dangers of the trail included river crossings, illnesses, sick oxen, and hunger. Over the next two decades, new versions of the game were made that added more options and included better graphics. The second version included zombies and oxen. The goal was to survive as long as you can before you die.

References

19th century in the United States
Migration
National Historic Landmarks of the United States
Oregon Trail

Oregon Trail


Donetsk is an important city in the eastern part of Ukraine, in the center of Donbas. It is the administrative center of Donetsk Oblast. Before the War in Donbas, which started 2014, about 1.1 million people lived in the city and its surroundings.

Donetsk is important for the  industry in Ukraine. Before the war, it was the fifth-biggest city of the country. From 1924 to 1961, the city was called Stalino, before 1924 its name was Jusowka, named after its founder, John Hughes. Hughes founded a metallurgic factory in 1869. The factory soon developed into the city of modern-day Donetsk. Most people in Donetsk use Russian in everyday life. According to a census, about 48 percent were Ukrainians, and about 46 percent Russians.

Cities in Donetsk Oblast

Donetsk


Reach for the Sky is the eighth studio album by American southern rock band The Allman Brothers Band. The album was released in August 1980. It was first studio album without label Capricorn Records. It was the first studio album with new label Arista Records.

1980 albums

Reach for the Sky


A funnel cloud is a funnel-shaped cloud of condensed water droplets.  They usually appear with a rotating column of air.   These extend from the bottom of a cloud that does not touch the ground or a water surface. A funnel cloud can usually  be seen as a cone or needle shaped cloud that extends out from the main cloud base. Funnel clouds, very often, develop when supercell thunderstorms happen.

If a funnel cloud touches the ground, it becomes a tornado. Most tornadoes begin as funnel clouds.  Many funnel clouds that appear do not actually touch the ground, and do not become tornadoes.  Tornadoes can only be seen when they pick up stuff off the ground (debris), but one can see them from a distance of many miles.

A funnel cloud that makes contact with water is called a waterspout.
A funnel cloud that touches the ground in front of a snow squall is called a winter waterspout.

Cold-air funnel clouds
Cold-air (or cold-core) funnel clouds are usually short-lived and are usually much weaker in strength than the tornadoes produced by supercells.  Cold-air funnel clouds usually do not touch the ground, but here have been reports that it can happen. Then, they become weak tornadoes or waterspouts.

They are a common sight along the Pacific Coast and USA, usually seen in the spring or autumn.

Related pages
Tornado
Waterspout
Landspout
Winter waterspout

References

Other websites

NOAA FAQ on Tornadoes
TORRO Tornado FAQ

Clouds

Funnel cloud


"Frosty the Snowman", written and recorded in 1950, is a Christmas oriented song which was first performed by Gene Autry. The song is about a snowman that comes alive after a hat gets placed on his head by some children with whom he shares playful adventures before he has to hurry on his way. The children become sad as Frosty leaves, though Frosty tells them he will return. Some versions of the song say Christmas Day in the final lines. Other singers, including Nat King Cole, Beach Boys, Ella Fitzgerald, Ronettes and The Jackson 5, have performed their versions of the song throughout the years.

Christmas songs
1950 songs
The Beach Boys songs
The Coasters songs
Nat King Cole songs
Ella Fitzgerald songs
The Ronettes songs
Jan & Dean songs

Frosty the Snowman


Kashmir (Hindi: कश्यपपुरा, , , ), previously spelled Cashmere, is a region in South-central Asia. Historically, the name Kashmir referred to the valley just to the south of the western end of the Himalayan mountain range. Today, Kashmir refers to a much larger area that includes the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir (which includes the Kashmir Valley, Jammu region and Ladakh), Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan (part of Pakistan), and Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract (part of China). The main "Valley of Kashmir" is a low-fertile area surrounded by mountains and contains many rivers. People like it for its natural beauty and simple lifestyle. The region is part of a border dispute between India and Pakistan.

In total it has an area of 230,166.1 square kilometres or (89,106 square miles). The population of the region is more than the individual populations of 127 UN member nations and its area is larger than that of 97 nations.

Etymology of Kashmir
The name of the land is thought to be derived from the process of desiccation - Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water".  There is also a theory which takes Kashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the "Sea or Mountain of Kashyapa", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial Lake Satisar, that Kashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kashmira to the (Kashmir Valley includes the Wular Lake) Mira" which means the sea lake or the mountain of Sage Kashyapa. Mira in Sanskrit means Ocean or boundary, considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kashmir that the world knows today. The Kashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kashmir.

The Ancient Greeks called it as Kasperia. Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44); In classical literature Herodotus also called it Kaspatyrol. Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Xuanzang, the Chinese monk who visited Kashmir in 631 AD called it Kia-shi-mi-lo, the Tibetans called it Khachal, meaning "snowy mountain".  It is and has been a land of rivers, lakes and wildflowers. Cashmere is an archaic spelling of present-Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way. A tribe of Semitic origin, named Kash (which means a deep slash in the native dialect), is believed to have founded the cities of Kashan and Kashgar, not to be confused with the Kashyapi tribe from Caspian. The land and the people were known as 'Kashir' from which 'Kashmir' was also derived from therein.

History

The Kashmir conflict has existed since India and Pakistan became independent states. At first, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, wanted his state to remain independent of both India and Pakistan. On 20 October 1947, tribesmen supported by Pakistan invaded Kashmir. Singh fought back at first, but on 27 October, he asked the Governor-General of India, Louis Mountbatten, for help. He agreed, but made Singh turn over Jammu and Kashmir to India. Once the papers of accession to India were signed, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir with orders to stop any further occupation, but they were not allowed to expel anyone from the state. Pakistan claimed that it was illegal for Singh to give Kashmir to India, and the First Kashmir War was started. India took the matter to the United Nations. The UN resolution asked Pakistan to vacate the areas it had occupied and asked India to assist the U.N. Plebiscite Commission to organize a plebiscite to determine the will of the people. Pakistan refused to vacate the occupied areas.

In 1953, as the US-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact was being formed, Nehru declared an ultimatum. Pakistan would have to choose between a plebiscite with the possibility of winning control over Kashmir, or their pact with the US. As the alliance formed and was concluded in 1954, Nehru withdrew the offer of plebiscite. Kashmir remains an area of conflict until today.

Lines of control
India and Pakistan have fought several wars over Kashmir. In 1949 and 1972 they agreed on a border for most of the Territories (except for the Siachen Glacier). This demarcation line which marks the border between India and Pakistan is known as the Line of Control. It is guarded by Indian and Pakistani troops.

The border between Aksai Chin (held by China) and Jammu and Kashmir (held by India) is known as Line of Actual Control.

The Kashmir border between the Punjab (Pakistan) and Indian-administered Kashmir is called the working boundary, but is not recognised by Pakistan. India has built a fence along part of this border.

The Siachen Glacier and the bordering Saltoro Range first saw military action in 1984 when the Indian Army occupied the glacier and the Saltoro range to prevent Pakistan from occupying the area. This operation was codenamed Operation Meghdoot. There have been several minor changes to the held positions. However, the Indian Armed forces have held onto the heights on the plateau, preventing the Pakistani soldiers from climbing up the Saltoro range.

The Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL) refers to the current position that divides Indian and Pakistani troops in the Siachen Glacier region. The line extends from the northernmost point of the LOC (Line of Control) to Indira Col. This line runs across the edge of the Saltoro Range, which is a mountainous plateau with peaks that are over 8,000 meters tall. The current position of the AGPL follows the general line:

Indira Col - Sia La pass - Saltoro Kangri 1 - Bilafond La pass - K12 - Gyong La pass - NJ9842

Administrative divisions

Today Kashmir is split, as follows:
The Republic of India controls the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is made of the Jammu region, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh. Pakistan refers to this as Indian-occupied Kashmir, Indian-controlled Kashmir, Indian-annexed Kashmir, or Indian-held Kashmir.
The territories known as Northern Areas and Azad Jammu and Kashmir are administered by Pakistan. The government of Pakistan calls them Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Republic of India refers to this as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
The region called Aksai Chin is controlled by China.
The Trans-Karakoram Tract is an area Pakistan gave to China on 3 March 1963. Pakistan says the area was uninhabited, so there is no problem to this. India claims the swap was illegal and that the area is part of its state Jammu and Kashmir.
The Siachen Glacier is currently a disputed territory. India controls the glacier, and Pakistan controls the valley below.

The Disputed territory of Kashmir is divided into five administrative Divisions, namely:
 Baltistan Division
 Gilgit Division
 Jammu Division
 Kashmir Valley
 Ladakh

A group of Districts forms a Division, which is administered by a 'Divisional Commissioner'. Kashmir is now divided in twenty-one districts, grouped under five divisions jointly controlled by Pakistan and India respectively:

Economy

Kashmir's economy is centred around Agriculture, like that of Pakistan. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was Rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like Asparagus, Artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar (National tree of Pakistan), firs and Pines, chenar (State tree) or plane, Maple, birch and Walnut, apple, cherry.

Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from Western China). Kashmiris are well adept at Knitting and making Pashmina Shawls, silk carpets, rugs, Kurtas, and Pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as Organic foods mainly to the Greater Middle East region which it forms an integral part. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, Papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.

The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Pakistan earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled kashmir.

The Indian-held portion of Kashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks containing hydrocarbon reserves.

Agriculture
The economy of the region is focused on agriculture. People grow rice there. In the Indian part they also grow corn, such as wheat and barley. Its climate is different from that of most of the Indian subcontinent: It is milder. Therefore, crops like artichoke, cauliflower, cabbage and certain kinds of beans are also grown.

Cashmere wool is well-known almost anywhere in the world. Cashmere wool is wool from Cashmere goats. Because of conflicts over the territory, however, most Cashmere wool no longer comes from Kashmir.

Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world.

Tourism
Tourism has been important in Kashmir for many years. Many people call the region Paradise on Earth. Tourists from all over the world visit Kashmir. In the 21st century, fewer people have visited Kashmir because of terrorism. Kashmir is regularly referred to as Jannat-e-Kashmir due to its connotation with paradise. The term Jannat-e-Kashmir is originally a Persian phrase referring to Kashmir because of the many Persian Sufi saints who visited the Kashmir Valley and wrote poems about it in Persian language. Many Sufi saints are buried in the Kashmir Valley and there are Sufi shrines everywhere in Kashmir.

Religion

78% of the people in Kashmir are Muslim and Islam is the majority religion of the territory. The other religions are Hinduism followed by 12% of the population and Sikhism followed by 10% of the population in Kashmir. During the reign of the Shah Miri dynasty of Kashmir starting in the 13th century, Islam was firmly established in Kashmir.

Related pages
India–Pakistan border

References

Kashmir


Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark and Norway (1 September 1647 – 1 July 1717) was the eldest daughter of King Frederick III of Denmark and Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and Electress of Saxony from 1680 to 1691 as the wife of John George III.

Early life

Anna Sophie was born in Flensburg, the second child and first daughter of Frederick of Denmark and his wife, Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg. She had an elder brother, Christian, the future King of Denmark and Norway. Her paternal grandfather, King Christian IV, died when she was six months old, and after many months of deliberation, the Rigsraadet royal council and Estates elected her father king. He was crowned Frederick III on 23 November 1648. Her parents had six more children, two of whom died in infancy. Her surviving siblings were Frederica Amalia, Wilhelmina Ernestine, George, and Ulrika Eleonora.

Anna Sophie received a fine education. Besides her native Danish, she knew German, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. She is described physically as having thick dark eyebrows and long curving nose. During her childhood, she as well as her sisters were brought up under the supervision of the royal governess Helena von Westphalen. In 1663, she was given her own court under Enevold Parsberg.

In 1662, the negotiations about her marriage were initiated, and she met with John Georg, who visited the Danish court with his mother. In 1663, a celebration was held at Copenhagen Castle honouring the fifteen-year-old princess's engagement to John George III, Elector of Saxony. John Georg and his mother once again visited Denmark in person to be present. Anna Sophie and John George were married three years later, on 9 October 1666. The Polish king John III Sobieski later said of her husband, "[He] is an honest man with a straight heart."

Marriage
The relationship between Anna Sophie and John Georg is not described as a happy one. Her husband also had an illegitimate son by his official mistress, a Venetian opera singer named Margarita Salicola, and may have had a daughter, Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz, with Ursula Margarethe of Haugwitz. Both her sons were initially brought up by Danish ladies-in-waiting sent to Dresden by her mother. The relationship between Anna Sophie and her two sons are described as somewhat tense.

Anna Sophie's father died on 9 February 1670 and was succeeded by her elder brother, Christian V, with whom she held a very active correspondence and discussed political matters.  She visited Denmark that year and expressed her sympathy for the imprisoned Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, her half aunt.

In 1680, Anna Sophie became Electress of Saxony. Her widowed sister Wilhelmina Ernestine, Dowager Electress Palatine, came to live with her in Saxony in 1685. Anna Sophie had her eldest son engaged to her niece, Princess Sophia Hedwig of Denmark against the will of the Saxon court; however, when her son succeeded his father as elector in 1691, he broke the engagement.

Dowager Electress
Her husband died in 1692 in Tübingen of an epidemic illness, probably cholera or the plague, and was buried in the Cathedral of Freiberg. The next year, Anna Sophie attempted to end the love affair between her elder son, then Elector Johann Georg IV, and his mistress, Magdalene Sibylle "Billa" of Neidschutz, with whom he had been living openly since his father's death. Her late husband had tried to break up the couple, perhaps motivated by fears that a close blood relationship existed between the lovers—for Billa may have been his own daughter by Ursula Margarethe of Haugwitz, and therefore John George IV's half-sister. John George IV was either ignorant of the possibility that he and Billa were committing incest, or he disregarded the claim as a malicious rumor.

Anna Sophie forced her son into marrying Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe-Eisenach, a German noblewoman, but the marriage proved a disastrous failure. John George IV not only abandoned his bride, leaving her at the Hofe (the official residence of the Elector) to be with his mistress at another palace, but eventually tried to murder her so he could marry Billa.

Anna Sophie's daughter-in-law failed to produce an heir, suffering two miscarriages, in August 1692 and February 1693. In June 1693, her son's mistress gave birth to a daughter, Wilhelmina Maria Frederica. Less than a year later Billa contracted smallpox and died on 4 April 1694, in the arms of the Elector. Johann Georg himself died 23 days later of the same disease, and was buried in the Freiberg Cathedral. Having died without legitimate issue, he was succeeded by his brother, who took over the guardianship of the orphaned Frederica. She was raised at the royal court and acknowledged as Frederick August's niece.

After her son was elected King of Poland and converted to Catholicism in 1697, she, as well as her daughter-in-law Queen Christiane Eberhardine, enjoyed immense popularity in Saxony as a symbol of Protestant faith and protection against Catholic Poland, which the Protestants feared would enforce a counter reformation.

Anna Sophie brought up her grandson Friedrich August, born on 17 October 1696, the only child of her second son and his estranged, self-exiled wife, Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The boy would one day succeed his father as Augustus III of Poland. Anna Sophie and her daughter-in-law got on well, both women agreeing especially on matters of religion, and Eberhardine visited her son often.

In her later years, Anna Sophie lived with her sister Wilhelmina Ernestine at Castle Lichtenburg. She died in Prettin.

Issue
John George IV (Dresden, 18 October 1668 – Dresden, 28 May 1694), succeeded his father as elector;
Frederick Augustus I (Dresden, 22 May 1670 – Warsaw, 1 February 1733), succeeded his brother as elector and later became king of Poland (reigned as Augustus II).

Ancestry

Literature
 Hans-Joachim Böttcher: Christiane Eberhardine Prinzessin von Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Kurfürstin von Sachsen und Königin von Polen, Gemahlin August des Starken. Dresdner Buchverlag 2011. .
 Hans-Joachim Böttcher: Johann Georg IV. von Sachsen & Magdalena Sibylla von Neitschütz - Eine tödliche Liaison. Dresdner Buchverlag 2014. .

References

 Dansk biografisk Lexikon / I. Bind. Aaberg - Beaumelle (in Danish)

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1647 births
1717 deaths
Burials at Freiberg Cathedral
Danish Lutherans
Danish princesses
House of Oldenburg in Denmark
House of Wettin
Electoral Princesses of Saxony
Norwegian princesses
Electresses of Saxony
People from Flensburg
⚭Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark
Daughters of kings
Mothers of monarchs

Princess Anna Sophie of Denmark


The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries, including Myanmar (Burma), Tibet, northern Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, parts of central China (Guizhou, Hunan), northern parts of Nepal, north-eastern parts of Bangladesh, Bhutan, western Pakistan (Baltistan), and various regions of India (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and both the Ladakh and Kargil regions of Jammu and Kashmir).

The subfamily includes approximately 350 languages; Burmese has the most speakers (approximately 32 million). Approximately 8 million Tibetans and related peoples speak one of several related Tibetan dialects or languages.

Bibliography

 Benedict, Paul K. (1972). Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J. A. Matisoff (Ed.). Cambridge: The University Press. .
 Bradley, David. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In D. Bradley (Ed.), Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas (No. 14, pp. 1–71). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
 Shafer, Robert. (1966). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1967). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1968). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1970). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 4). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1974). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

Tibeto-Burman languages


In team sports, the number, often referred to as the uniform number, squad number, jersey number, shirt number, sweater number, is the number worn on a player's uniform. It distinguishes each player from others wearing the same uniform. This is so that officials, scorers and spectators have something to identify each player. The number is usually shown on the back of the jersey. The player's surname is often written above or below the number. Sometimes the number also displayed on the front or sleeves, or on the player's shorts or headgear.

Related pages
Uniform number (Major League Baseball)
Uniform number (American football)

Team sports
Numbers
Sports words

Number (sports)


Colin Andrew Firth CBE (born 10 September 1960) is an English actor who has received an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, two BAFTA Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards, as well as the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the Venice Film Festival. In 2010, Firth's portrayal of King George VI in Tom Hooper's The King's Speech won him the Academy Award for Best Actor.

Identified in the late 1980s with the "Brit Pack" of rising, young British actors, it was not until his portrayal of Fitzwilliam Darcy in the 1995 television adaptation of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice that he received more widespread attention. This led to roles in films, such as The English Patient, Bridget Jones's Diary, for which he was nominated for a BAFTA Award, Shakespeare in Love, and Love Actually. In 2009, Firth received widespread critical acclaim for his leading role in A Single Man, for which he gained his first Academy Award nomination, and won a BAFTA Award. In 2014, Firth portrayed secret agent Harry Hart in the film Kingsman: The Secret Service; he later reprised the role in the 2017 sequel Kingsman: The Golden Circle. In 2018, he co-starred as William "Weatherall" Wilkins in the musical fantasy Mary Poppins Returns.

His films have grossed more than $3 billion from 42 releases worldwide. In 2011, Firth received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and was also selected as one of the Time 100. He was awarded an honorary degree from the University of Winchester in 2007, and was made a Freeman of the City of London in 2012. He has campaigned for the rights of indigenous tribal people, and is a member of Survival International. Firth has campaigned on issues of asylum seekers, refugees' rights, and the environment. He commissioned and co-authored a scientific paper on a study into the differences in brain structure between people of differing political orientations.

Other websites

Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Hampshire
BAFTA Award winning actors
British activists
English movie actors
English television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Writers from Hampshire
1960 births
Living people

Colin Firth


The Eejits () is a humoursome bairn's beuk written by Roald Dahl an illustrate by Quentin Blake. It wis written in 1979, an first setten furth in Inglis in 1980.

Mr an Mrs Eejit is twa unbraw, hackit, ill-farrant, doitit fowk that spends thair lifes playin nestie cantrips on ilk ither. Thay enjoy bein ill tae ainimals an aw, that thay dae by ticin birds tae glue-smuirt trees sae thay can be beuk intae bird pie, an tarragattin thair pet puggies, Muggle-Wump an his faimily, by gettin thaim tae staund heelster-gowdie, ane atap the ither. Thay hate bairns, an Mrs Eejit aft cairies a staff in her richt haund that she uises for tae hit bairns an ainimals.

Bairn's beuks

The Eejits


In mathematics, a tubular neighborhood of a submanifold of a smooth manifold is an open set around it resembling the normal bundle.

The idea behind a tubular neighborhood can be explained in a simple example. Consider a smooth curve in the plane without self-intersections. On each point on the curve draw a line perpendicular to the curve. Unless the curve is straight, these lines will intersect among themselves in a rather complicated fashion. However, if one looks only in a narrow band around the curve, the portions of the lines in that band will not intersect, and will cover the entire band without gaps. This band is a tubular neighborhood.

In general, let S be a submanifold of a manifold M, and let N be the normal bundle of S in M. Here S plays the role of the curve and M the role of the plane containing the curve. Consider the natural map

which establishes a bijective correspondence between the zero section  of N and the submanifold S of M. An extension j of this map to the entire normal bundle N with values in M such that  is an open set in M and j is a homeomorphism between N and  is called a tubular neighbourhood.

Often one calls the open set  rather than j itself, a tubular neighbourhood of S, it is assumed implicitly that the homeomorphism j mapping N to T exists.

Normal tube

A normal tube to a smooth curve is a manifold defined as the union of all discs such that
 all the discs have the same fixed radius;
 the center of each disc lies on the curve; and
 each disc lies in a plane normal to the curve where the curve passes through that disc's center.

Formal definition

Let  be smooth manifolds. A tubular neighborhood of  in  is a vector bundle  together with a smooth map  such that
  where  is the embedding  and  the zero section
 there exists some  and some  with  and  such that  is a diffeomorphism.

The normal bundle is a tubular neighborhood and because of the diffeomorphism condition in the second point, all tubular neighborhood have the same dimension, namely (the dimension of the vector bundle considered as a manifold is) that of

Generalizations

Generalizations of smooth manifolds yield generalizations of tubular neighborhoods, such as regular neighborhoods, or spherical fibrations for Poincaré spaces.

These generalizations are used to produce analogs to the normal bundle, or rather to the stable normal bundle, which are replacements for the tangent bundle (which does not admit a direct description for these spaces).

See also

  (aka offset curve)

References

Manifolds
Geometric topology
Smooth manifolds

Tubular neighborhood


The knowledge economy, or knowledge-based economy, is an economic system in which the production of goods and services is based principally on knowledge-intensive activities that contribute to advancement in technical and scientific innovation. The key element of value is the greater dependence on human capital and intellectual property as the source of innovative ideas, information and practices. Organisations are required to capitalise on this "knowledge" in their production to stimulate and deepen the business development process. There is less reliance on physical input and natural resources. A knowledge-based economy relies on the crucial role of intangible assets within the organisations' settings in facilitating modern economic growth.

Overview

Description
A knowledge economy features a highly skilled workforce within the microeconomic and macroeconomic environment; institutions and industries create jobs that demand specialized skills to meet the needs of the global market. Knowledge is viewed as an additional input to labour and capital.  In principle, one's primary individual capital is knowledge together with the ability to perform to create economic value.

In a knowledge economy, highly skilled jobs require excellent technical skills and relational skills such as problem-solving, the flexibility to interface with multiple discipline areas as well as the ability to adapt to changes as opposed to moving or crafting physical objects in conventional manufacturing-based economies. A knowledge economy stands in contrast to an agrarian economy, in which the primary economic activity is subsistence farming for which the main requirement is manual labour or an industrialized economy that features mass production in which most of the workers are relatively unskilled.

A knowledge economy emphasizes the importance of skills in a service economy, the third phase of economic development, also called a post-industrial economy. It is related to an information economy, which emphasizes the importance of information as non-physical capital, and a digital economy, which emphasizes the degree to which information technology facilitates trade. For companies, intellectual property such as trade secrets, copyrighted material, and patented processes become more valuable in a knowledge economy than in earlier eras.

The global economy's transition to a knowledge economy is also referred to as the Information Age, bringing about an information society.
The term knowledge economy was made famous by Peter Drucker as the title of Chapter 12 in his book The Age of Discontinuity (1969), which Drucker attributed to economist Fritz Machlup, originating in the idea of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Knowledge-based economy and human capital
In a knowledge economy, human intelligence is the key engine of economic development. It is an economy where members acquire, create, disseminate and apply knowledge to facilitate economic and social development.

An economic system that is not knowledge-based is considered to be inconceivable. It describes the process of consumption and production activities that are satisfied from the application of workers' expertise - intellectual capital and typically represents a significant level of individual economic activities in modern developed economies through building an interconnected and advanced global economy where sources of knowledge are the critical contributors.

The present concept of "knowledge" originates from the historical and philosophical studies by Gilbert Ryle and Israel Scheffler who conducted knowledge to the terms "procedural knowledge" and "conceptual Knowledge" and identified two types of skills: "routine competencies or facilities" and "critical skills" that is intelligent performance; and it's further elaborated by Lundvall and Johnson who defined "knowledge" as falling in four broad categories:

 Know-what refers to knowledge about facts.  Like information, experts utilize know-what to fulfill their jobs, such as with complex occupations such as law and medicine.
 Know-why refers to scientific knowledge of principles and laws of motion in nature. It concerns the theoretical research of scientific and technological fields, which is essential for allowing innovation in the production process and products development in areas such as universities and specialized firms. It can also reduce error frequency in trial and error procedures.
 Know-who refers to knowledge of specific and selective social relations, identifying the key persons who know the solutions and can perform under difficult scenarios. Finding the right people can be more essential to innovation than simply knowing basic scientific knowledge.
 Know-how refers to practical skills, which allow individuals to do different kinds of things. Individuals share experiences in groups with uniform practices. It constitutes the human capital of enterprises.

The World Bank has spoken of knowledge economies by associating it to a four - pillar framework that analyses the rationales of human capital-based economies:

 An educated and skilled labour force is required to establish a strong knowledge-based economy, where workers continuously learn and apply their skills to build and practice knowledge efficiently.
 A dense and modern information infrastructure provides easy access to the information and communication technology (ICT) resources to overcome the barrier of high transaction costs, and to facilitate the effectiveness in interacting, disseminating and processing the information and knowledge resources.
 An effective innovation system is needed to support a great level of innovation within firms, industries, and countries, allowing them to keep up with the latest global technology and human intelligence to utilize it for the domestic economy.
 Institutional regime that supports incentives for entrepreneurship and the use of knowledge suggests that an economy system should offer incentives for better efficiency in mobilizing and allocating resources and encourage entrepreneurship.

The advancement of a knowledge-based economy occurred when global economies promote changes in material production, together with the creation of rich mechanisms of economic theories after the Second World War that tend to integrate science, technology and the economy.

Peter Drucker discussed the knowledge economy in the book-The Effective Executive 1966, where he described the difference between the manual workers and the knowledge workers. The manual worker is the one who works with their own hands and produces goods and services. In contrast, the knowledge worker works with their head, rather than hands, and produces ideas, knowledge, and information.

Information versus knowledge
Definitions around "knowledge" are considered to be vague in terms of the formalization and modelling of a knowledge economy, as it is rather a relative concept. For example, there is no sufficient evidence and consideration for whether the "information society" could serve or act as the "knowledge society" interchangeably. Information in general, is not equivalent to knowledge. Their use depends on the individual and group's preferences which are "economy-dependent". Information and knowledge together are production resources that can exist without interacting with other sources. Resources are highly independent of each other in the sense that if they connect with other available resources, they transfer into factors of production immediately, and production factors are present only to interact with other factors. Knowledge associated with intellectual information then is said to be a production factor in the new economy that is distinguished from traditional production factors.

Evolution
From the early days of economic studies, though economists recognised the essential link between knowledge and economic growth, knowledge was still identified only as a supplemental element in economic factors. The idea behind it has transformed recently when new growth theory praised knowledge and technology in enhancing productivity and economic advancement.

The developed society has transitioned from an agriculture-based economy, that is, the pre-industrial age where economy and wealth was primarily based upon agriculture, to an industrial economy where the manufacturing sector was booming. In the mid-1900s, world economies moved towards a post-industrial or mass production system, where they were driven by the service sector that creates greater wealth versus manufacturing; to the late 1900s - 2000s, knowledge economy emerged with the highlights of the power of knowledge and human capital sector, and it's now marked as the latest stage of development in global economic restructuring. In the final decades of 20th century, the knowledge economy became greatly associated with sectors based in research-intensive and high-technology industries as a result of the steadily increased demand for sophisticated science-based innovations. The knowledge economy operates differently from the past as it has been identified by the upheavals (sometimes referred to as the knowledge revolution) in technological innovations and globally competitive need for differentiation with new goods and services, and processes that develop from the research community (i.e., R&D factors, universities, labs, educational institutes). Thomas A. Stewart points out that just as the industrial revolution did not end agriculture because people have to eat, the knowledge revolution is unlikely to end manufacturing industries because of ongoing societal demands for physical goods and services.

For the modern knowledge economies, especially in developed countries, information and knowledge have always taken on enormous importance in the development in either traditional or industrial economies, particularly with for the efficient use of factors of production. Owners of production factors should possess and master information and knowledge so as to apply them to economic activity. In the knowledge economy, the specialised labor force is characterised as computer literate and well-trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulated models, and innovating on processes and systems. Harvard Business School Professor Michael Porter asserts that today's economy is far more dynamic and that conventional notion of comparative advantages within a company has changed and is less relevant than the prevailing idea of competitive advantages which rests on "making more productive use of inputs, which requires continual innovation". Therefore, the technical STEM careers, including computer scientists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, and scientific inventors will continue to see demand. Porter further argues that well-situated clusters (that is, geographic concentrations of interconnected companies and institutions in a particular field) are vital with global economies, connect locally and globally with linked industries, manufacturers, and other entities that are related by skills, technologies, and other common inputs. Knowledge is the catalyst and connective tissue in modern economies. Ruggles and Holtshouse argue the change is characterised by a dispersion of power and by managers who lead by empowering knowledge workers to contribute and make decisions.

With Earth's depleting natural resources, the need for green infrastructure, a logistics industry forced into just-in-time deliveries, growing global demand, regulatory policy governed by performance results, and a host of other items place a high priority on knowledge, and research becomes paramount. Knowledge provides the technical expertise, problem-solving, performance measurement and evaluation, and data management needed for today's competition's transboundary, interdisciplinary global scale.

Prevailing and future economic development will be highly dominated by technology and network expansion, in particular on knowledge-based social entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship as a whole. The knowledge economy is incorporating the network economy, where the relatively localised knowledge is now being shared among and across various networks for the benefit of all network members, to gain economies of scale in a wider, more open scale.

Globalisation
The rapid globalisation of economic activities is one of the main determinants of the emerging knowledge economy. While there are no doubts on the other stages of relative openness in the global economy, the prevailing pace and intensity of globalisation are of an extent without precedent. Fundamental microeconomic forces are the significant drivers of globalizing economic activities and further demands for human intelligence. These forces include the rapid integration of the world's financial and capital markets since the early 1980s, which influences essentially each level of the developed country's financial and economic systems; increased multinational origin of the inputs to productions of both goods and services, technology transfers and information flow.

Worldwide examples of the developing knowledge economy include information technology in Silicon Valley, United States; aerospace and automotive engineering in Munich, Germany; biotechnology in Hyderabad, India; electronics and digital media in Seoul, South Korea; petrochemical and the energy industry in Brazil. Many other cities and regions try to follow a knowledge-driven development paradigm and increase their knowledge base by investing in higher education and research institutions to attract highly skilled labour and better position themselves in the global competition. Yet, despite digital tools democratising access to knowledge, research shows that knowledge economy activities remain as concentrated as ever in traditional economic cores.

Technology
The technology requirements for a national innovation system as described by the World Bank Institute must be able to disseminate a unified process by which a working method may converge scientific and technology solutions, and organizational solutions.  According to the World Bank Institute's definition, such innovation would further enable the World Bank Institute's vision outlined in their Millennium Development Goals.

Challenges for developing countries
The United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development report (UNCSTD, 1997) concluded that for developing countries to integrate ICTs successfully and sustainable development to participate in the knowledge economy, they need to intervene collectively and strategically. Suggested collective intervention includes the development of effective national ICT policies that support the new regulatory framework, promote the selected knowledge production, and use of ICTs and harness their organizational changes to be in line with the Millennium Development Goals. The report further suggests that developing countries develop the required ICT strategies and policies for institutions and regulations considering the need to be responsive to the issues of convergence.

See also

Attention economy
Automation
Basic income guarantee
Cognitive-cultural economy
Computational knowledge economy
Digital Revolution
Digital economy
Endogenous growth theory
Frugal innovation
History of knowledge
Information economy
Indigo Era
Industrial espionage
International Innovation Index
Internet economy
Information revolution
Information society
Know-how trading
Knowledge Economic Index
Knowledge market
Knowledge organization
Knowledge management
Knowledge policy
Knowledge production modes
Knowledge society
Knowledge tagging

Knowledge value chain
Learning economy
Learning society
Liverpool Knowledge Quarter
Long tail
Network economy
Precision agriculture
Productivity improving technologies (historical)
Purple economy
Smart city
Social information processing
Working hours

Notes

Bibliography

Arthur, W. B. (1996). Increasing Returns and the New World of Business. Harvard Business Review(July/August), 100–109.
Bell, D. (1974). The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. London: Heinemann.
Drucker, P. (1969). The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to Our changing Society. New York: Harper and Row.
Drucker, P. (1993). Post-Capitalist Society. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
Machlup, F. (1962). The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Porter, M. E. Clusters and the New Economics of Competition. Harvard Business Review. (Nov-Dec 1998). 77–90.
Powell, Walter W. & Snellman, Kaisa (2004). "The Knowledge Economy". Annual Review of Sociology 30 (1): 199–220
Rindermann H. (2012). Intellectual classes, technological progress and economic development: The rise of cognitive capitalism. Personality and Individual Differences 53 (2) 108–113
Rooney, D., Hearn, G., Mandeville, T., & Joseph, R. (2003). Public Policy in Knowledge-Based Economies: Foundations and Frameworks. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Rooney, D., Hearn, G., & Ninan, A. (2005). Handbook on the Knowledge Economy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Stehr, Nico (2002). Knowledge and Economic Conduct. The Social Foundations of the Modern Economy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
The Brookings Institution. MetroPolicy: Shaping A New Federal Partnership for a Metropolitan Nation. Metropolitan Policy Program Report. (2008). 4–103.

External links

Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy (Wikibook)

Economics catchphrases
Information Age
Business intelligence terms
Social information processing

Knowledge economy


In anatomy, the word ligament usually means the fibrous tissue that joins bones to other bones or cartilages.

A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue made of long, stringy collagen fibres. Ligaments join bones to other bones to form a joint. They do not connect muscles to bones; that is the function of tendons. Some ligaments limit the amount of movement in a joint, or stop certain movements altogether.

Ligaments are only slightly elastic; when under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints more supple.
The result of a broken ligament can be instability of the joint. Not all broken ligaments need surgery, but if surgery is needed to stabilise the joint, the broken ligament can be joined.

References

Skeletal system

Ligament


Cockatiels (binomial name Nymphicus hollandicus) are small birds originally from Australia and are related to many other cockatoos. They are the second most common bird species kept as a pet. Cockatiels can live from 10 to 25 years, depending on how healthy their lifestyle is, although wild cockatiels usually live shorter.

Cockatiels have tiny feathers on their head called a crest. The crest allows the owner to have an idea of what they are feeling; straight up if scared or excited, flat when they're angry, and slightly curved is normal/happy.

In the wild, cockatiels are prey animals, meaning there are predators that eat them. As a result, cockatiels can scare easily, especially when they meet someone or something they do not know. With enough patience and affection, an owner can tame the cockatiel and help them get over their natural fear. Like many other parrots, cockatiels are very good at climbing, and use their beak to position themselves each time.

Cockatiels come in many different colours, some naturally while others were specifically bred. Gray is considered to be their original colour, and is one of the most popular, along with Lutino (yellow). Males have a brighter crest and face, and sing louder and more frequently than females. A cockatiel has very long tail feathers compared to other birds.

Seeds make up most of their diet, but veterinarians strongly recommend various fruits, vegetables, and beans as well. However, a few of these may be harmful to them, and it is advised to be cautious with what they eat. It can be very hard to get adults to try new foods, so it is best to have them try little by little at a time instead of all at once.

Like other birds, they can be taught to do many tricks; including flips, handshakes, fly-on-command, showing their wings, and more. Patience and repetition is key, as teaching one trick can take many months. They can also be taught to sing, but may become confused and ruin the song if it's too complex.

Cockatiels are social birds, and like to spend time with others. They can become overly attached to their owners over time (especially if raised young), and may start to shriek when they feel lonely. If the owner is unable to spend a lot of time with them, getting them a partner (preferably another cockatiel) can help resolve their clinginess.

Cockatiels are Australian psittacines native to the deserts (Forshaw, 2010).
They are genetically adapted to high temperatures, amid centuries of domestication

Carvalho, T.S.G., et al. "Behavior of Cockatiels (Nymphicus Hollandicus) at Two Temperatures in
Captivity." Arquivo Brasileiro De Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, vol. 67, no. 6, 2015, pp. 1669–1674., doi:10.1590/1678-4162-7892.

Birds of Australia
Cockatoos
Pets

Cockatiel