Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam of Pakistan led a group of scientists in starting TWAS in 1983. This group of important and respected scientists knew that scientific research in developing countries was not good enough and wanted to improve it. TWAS meant Third World Academy of Sciences. The name was changed to TWAS, the academy of sciences for the developing world in 2004. TWAS is a science academy uniting 1,000 scientists in some 70 countries. Its main goals are promoting the ability to do science and excellence for sustainable development in the South (see North-South divide). Its headquarters are at the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste, Italy.

 Developing countries have 80% of the world's population, but only 28% of the world's scientists come from these countries. This is a problem for solving real-life problems affecting poor nations.

 There is never enough money to support research in developing countries. Scientists in developing countries become isolated. This causes problems for scientists' careers, their institutions and, their nations.

 Scientists in developing countries often earn poor salaries. They may get little respect for their work because others do not understand how important it can be. This causes brain drain from developing countries to the North. Then the South becomes even poorer.

 Research institutions and universities in the South are under-funded, forcing scientists to work in difficult conditions and often with outdated equipment.

The founding members of TWAS therefore decided to set up an organization that would help to:
 Recognize, support and promote excellence in scientific research in the South;
 Provide promising scientists in the South with research facilities necessary for the advancement of their work;
 Facilitate contacts between individual scientists and institutions in the South;
 Encourage South-North cooperation between individuals and centres of scholarship;
 Promote scientific research on major developing countries problems.

The Italian government has supported TWAS financially since it began. The director general of UNESCO  and the president of TWAS signed an agreement. UNESCO has managed TWAS finance and staff since 1991.

Original members
These are some of the original fellows. They started TWAS in 1983.
 Hua Luogeng (1910–1985), China
 Nil Ratan Dhar (1892–1987), India
 Luis F. Leloir (1906–1987), Argentina
 Benjamin Peary Pal (1906–1989), India
 Ignacio Bernal (1910–1992), Mexico
 Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff (1912–1994), Colombia
 Emilio Rosenblueth (1926–1994), Mexico
 Salimuzzaman Siddiqui (1897–1994), Pakistan
 Abdus Salam (1926–1996), Pakistan
 Carlos Chagas Filho (1910–2000), Brazil
 Johanna Döbereiner (1924–2000), Brazil
 Gopalasamudram Narayana Ramachandran (1922–2001), India
 Thomas Risley Odhiambo (1931–2003), Kenya
 Marcel Roche (1920–2003), Venezuela
 Sivaramakrishna Chandrasekhar (1930–2004), India
 Thomas Adeoye Lambo (1923–2004), Nigeria
 Autar Singh Paintal (1925–2004), India

Other websites

Scientific organizations
1983 establishments in Europe
Organizations based in Italy

TWAS


Women's basketball is a sport for women. The rules are the same as men's basketball, but the ball is smaller. It is popular in colleges, universities, and professionally.

Different rules
Modern rules for women's basketball are much the same as those for men's basketball, with a few changes.

Basketball size
The correct size for the ball in WNBA (Women's National Basketball Association) rules is a minimum of 28.5 inches (72.4 cm) in circumference. This is 1.00 inch (2.54 cm) smaller than the NBA ball. From 2004, this size is used for all professional women's competitions around the world.

Court dimensions
The three-point line (a line from which a ball thrown into the basket is worth three points) is 20 feet and 6.25 inches (6.25 m) from the middle of the basket in WNBA competition. Also, there is no block/charge arc under the basket.

Shot clock
The WNBA shot clock is 24 seconds. Women's NCAA college basketball uses a 30-second shot clock. Men's basketball uses a 24-second shot clock.

Game clock
Basketball is normally played in two 20 minute halves. WNBA games are played in four 10 minute quarters.

Levels of competition

College
Women's basketball is very popular in colleges in North America. It is sponsored by athletics associations (groups that help organise sports). The most important competition is organised by a group called the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association), and the winner is called the 'national champion'.

The 2007-08 national champion was the University of Tennessee Lady Volunteers.

American Professional Leagues

Women's Pro Basketball League
The Women's Professional Basketball League (WBL) was a professional women's basketball league in the United States. The league played three seasons from the fall of 1978 to the spring of 1981. The league is the first American professional women's basketball league.

Women's Basketball Association
The Women's Basketball Association (WBA) was a professional women's basketball league in the United States. The league played three seasons from the summer of 1993 to the summer of 1995. The league is said to be the first American professional women's basketball league to be played in Summer.

American Basketball League
The American Basketball League was started in 1996 because the Olympics made people more interested in basketball. The league played two full seasons (1996-97 and 1997-98) and started a third (1998-99) before it ended in 1998.

Women's National Basketball Association
The Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) is a group that organizes professional basketball games for women. It is like the NBA (National Basketball Association), but for women. It was started in 1996.

Related pages
 Sports
 Basketball

References

Women's basketball


Anthony Thieme (20 February 1888 – 6 December 1954) was a landscape and marine painter and a major figure of the Rockport (MA) School of American regional art. He was a contemporary of important Rockport artists Aldro Hibbard, Emil Gruppe, W. Lester Stevens, Antonio Cirino, and Marguerite Pierson.

Born in Rotterdam on 20 February 1888, Thieme studied at the Academie of Fine Arts in Rotterdam for two years and then, briefly, at the Royal Academy, the Hague. He traveled widely in Europe, frequently finding work as a stage designer.

Thieme traveled to the United States at the age of 22. He quickly found work as a stage designer at the Century Theater in New York, designing sets for the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova. When the commission ended, he traveled to South America, primarily Brazil and Argentina. Stage work again provided his livelihood. A return to Europe followed with further work in England, France, and Italy.

Returning to the United States with a contract for additional stage work, Thieme found himself in Boston. He discontinued work on the stage in 1928 and from then on made his living with the sales of his paintings and etchings. Thieme married Lillian Beckett in 1929 and moved to Rockport, MA. He established the Thieme School of Art. He exhibited his work frequently at the Grand Central Art Galleries in New York.

He continued to travel widely; Mexico, Guatemala, Florida, and France were major destinations, always painting en plein air.

Thieme committed suicide on 6 December 1954 in Greenwich, CT. The circumstances of his death are not fully understood. There have been stories of deep depression or major illness, but no definitive rationale for his suicide has emerged.

Anthony Thieme was a full member of the American Watercolor Society, Art Alliance of America, the Salmagundi Club, the Boston Art Club, North Shore Art Association, Rockport Art Association, New York Water Color Club, Art Alliance of Philadelphia and the National Arts Club.

References

 Anthony Thieme by Judith A. Curtis. Published by the Rockport Art Association, 1999.

External links
Boston Art Club: Official site
 The Pocock Fine Art & Antiques gallery  specializes in the work of the artist.
Bedford Fine Art Gallery: Artwork by Anthony Thieme

1888 births
1954 deaths
20th-century American painters
20th-century Dutch painters
American landscape painters
American male painters
American marine artists
Painters from Rotterdam
Dutch emigrants to the United States
Dutch engravers
Dutch landscape painters
Dutch male painters
Dutch marine artists
People from Rockport, Massachusetts
Artists who died by suicide
Suicides in Connecticut
1954 suicides
20th-century American male artists
20th-century Dutch male artists

Anthony Thieme


The Treaty of Paris was a treaty between Louis IX of France and Henry III of England, agreed to on December 4, 1259. It is also known as Treaty of Albeville.  It was mainly about territories that England had obtained in 1180, in Normandy. Philip II of France had conquered many of these territories. England lost the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, and was weakened on the European mainland. Louis VII of France strengthened this position. The English were left with Gascony and Bordeaux. The treaty also gave the Channel Islands to England. Henry gave up control of  Maine, Anjou and Poitou, which had been lost under the reign of King John but remained Duke of Aquitaine and was able to keep the lands of Gascony and parts of Aquitaine but only as a vassal to Louis.

In exchange, Louis withdrew his support for English rebels. He also ceded to Henry the bishoprics and cities of Limoges, Cahors and Périgueux and was to pay an annual rent for possession of Agenais.

References

Paris 1259
13th century in France
13th century in England
Normandy
Channel Islands
1259
December events

Treaty of Paris (1259)


John Piper was the mid-morning talk show host on the BBC Radio Solent throughout the 1970s. The name of his program was called Piper's Tune. The show was a mix of music, talk guests and the regular feature called, "Give a Neighbour a Hand", in which listeners would call in and ask for advice and other listeners would call in and give advice. Piper left the BBC in 1879 to join the Two Counties Radio in Bournemouth, as the station's first Programme Controller. He stayed on the air in Bournemouth until he left radio to move to Spain with his wife, Dilys.

In the 1980s, Piper also served as the mayor of his home town, Sitio de Calahonda which is located near Málaga in Spain. Piper also served in the Special Operations during World War II as a journalist and naturalist.

Year of birth missing
British television presenters

John Piper (broadcaster)


Boundary Bend is a small town in the state of Victoria, Australia.  It is near the junction of the Murray River and Murrumbidgee River. It is located about 50 kilometres east along the Murray Valley Highway from the twin towns of Robinvale in Victoria and Euston in New South Wales, about 90 km north of Swan Hill. At the , Boundary Bend and the surrounding area had a population of 132.

The access to the junction of the two rivers is down a track off the highway. It was at this point that Captain Charles Sturt and his party of explorers first sighted the Murray River in 1830. They had travelled down the Murrumbidgee, and continued downstream along the Murray in their whaleboat.

Boundary Bend Post Office opened on 6 April 1923.

For many years, there were two Paddle Steamer hulls located just underwater on the southern bank of the Murray River. These were the Canally and the Hero. Both hulls were raised and removed for restoration in December 1997. The PS Hero was restored to operation at Echuca. The PS Canally is undergoing restoration based at Morgan.

Boundary Bend is popular for its fishing and relaxed lifestyle.

Many returned soldiers from the First World War were allocated farming blocks to the south of the town.

References

Towns in Victoria (state)
Rural City of Swan Hill
Populated places on the Murray River
1923 establishments in Australia

Boundary Bend, Victoria


Vienna (;  ; Central Austro-Bavarian: Wean ; Viennese German and Austrian German: Wian []) is the capital and largest city of Austria. It is also one of Austria's nine states.

It is in the east of the country on the river Danube. More than 1,800,000 people live there (2016). It is an administrative district (Bundesland) of its own.

Before World War I, it was the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its centre is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History
The history of the city goes back to the Roman Empire. The Romans started a military camp called Vindobona. The camp was in today's first district on the Danube river. The name came from the Celts, so there was probably a Celtic settlement before the Roman invasion. The Romans stayed until the 5th century. In medieval times, the settlement was still in use. The present name was mentioned in 881 in the Salzburger Annalen, where a battle ad weniam is mentioned.

In 976 the House of Babenberg became rulers of the area. They made Vienna their capital in 1155. Vienna was already an important city. In 1156, Austria became a Duchy, and Vienna was where the Duke who ruled the Duchy lived. In 1221, Vienna got municipal rights.  It Is the second oldest city in Austria (Enns, in Upper Austria, is the oldest).

In 1278, the Duchy came to the Habsburg family. Rudolf IV started the university in 1365 and while he was duke the nave of the Gothic St. Stephan's Cathedral was built. Quarrels within the Hapsburg family caused an economic decline in Vienna. In 1438, Vienna became the residence of the Holy Roman Emperor.

During the time of the reformation Vienna was a Protestant city, but in the times of the Counter Reformation, Austria and Vienna were mostly Roman Catholic.

In 1529, Vienna was first besieged by the army of the Ottoman Empire, which had a border only 150 km east of Vienna. This hurt Vienna economically, but led to people fortifying the city (making it stronger). After a second siege, the Ottoman Empire could not take Vienna, and the city started getting larger.

During the baroque era, Vienna was rebuilt. Many residences for the nobility were built. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach was an important architect in Vienna.

At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century Vienna was the home of important composers like Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert.

After the revolution in 1848 Franz Joseph I. became emperor of the Austrian Empire, which was founded in 1806 after the liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire. He ruled till 1916. Vienna became a center of arts, culture and architecture. The city grew because the suburbs became part of the city. After 1858 the walls of the city were destroyed and the Ringstraße replaced them. Along that street houses of the rich citizens were built, as were public buildings like the city hall and the Burg theatre. The industrialisation started at the beginning of the century and made more people live there. In 1870, Vienna had one million people, and in 1910, two million people. With the creation of a large working class and poverty in Vienna the Labour Party (Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei) became stronger.

Karl Lueger was the most important mayor in the time of Emperor Franz Josef. During his time important community plans were realized that made Vienna a modern city. However, Lueger was a radical anti-Semite. He was admired by the young Adolf Hitler, who spent some years before the First World War in Vienna. At this time, Vienna was an important place for the arts. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Ernst Krenek were important for the development of modern music. Also the  psychoanalysis was founded in Vienna by Sigmund Freud. Also the so-called Jugendstil in arts was part of Vienna's modern arts scene. Founding fathers of modern architecture lived and worked also in Vienna at this time (Otto Wagner, Adolf Loos)

After the end of the First World War the Austrian-Hungary Empire was dissolved and Vienna became capital of the Republic of Austria. In 1938, Austria was occupied by Germany. In Vienna the suffering of the Jewish inhabitants began. A lot of their properties was given to Austrians (Arisierung).

After the Second World War, which destroyed 20% of Vienna's buildings, Vienna was divided into four parts. The city was controlled by the allies like the other parts of Austria. In 1955 the state treaty between the allies and Austria was signed in Vienna's Belvedere. After that Vienna became an important city for international organisations. The first was 1957 the International Atomic Energy Organisation (IAEO) and 1965 the OPEC followed. 1980 the Vienna International Center was opened and Vienna is now the third UN-city together with New York and Geneva.

Districts
There are 23 districts in Vienna. They are:

Sightseeing
Vienna has many things worth seeing. Here are a few of them.
St. Stephen's cathedral and St. Stephen's Square:
 Today St. Stephen's square with the cathedral is the very center of Vienna. The Graben and the Kärntner Straße which lead away from the square are shopping streets with a lot of different shops. Opposite the cathedral you can find the Haas-House, a very modern building by the architect Hans Hollein.
Ringstraße:
The Ringstraße runs around the first district and was built in the second half of the 19th century. The street follows the old city walls which were destroyed to create it. Along the street you can find different important buildings like the Staatsoper (opera house), the parliament, the Burgtheater, the two museums of natural history and arts. Also, the Wiener Postsparkasse which is an important building by the architect Otto Wagner is along the street.
Hofburg:
From the 13th century to 1918 this was the residence of the Habsburg rulers. Today it is the residence of the President of the Republic of Austria and you can also visit different museums like the Schatzkammer where you can see the different crowns of the Habsburg family and the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. The National Library is also the Hofburg.
Schönbrunn Palace:
Today's buildings were built by the architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach an important architect in the baroque era in Austria. Another building of Fischer is the Karlskirche.
Schloss Belvedere:
Schloss Belvedere was built by Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt another important Austrian baroque architect. It was built for Prinz Eugen of Savoy who fought successfully against the Ottoman Empire. Today the castle is used as museum (Austrian Gallery Belvedere).

Culture

There are many old buildings, churches and museums in the city centre. Classical music and opera are popular in Vienna. The composers Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Brahms all worked in Vienna. Vivaldi also died in Vienna. The city has two world-famous orchestras: the Vienna Philharmonic and the Vienna Symphony.

Vienna is also the name of a song about the city, by the British group Ultravox.

Vienna is the home of the nationally successful soccer clubs SK Rapid Wien and FK Austria Wien.

References

Other websites
 Official Website of the city of Vienna (English)
 WorldFlicks in Vienna: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps

World Heritage Sites in Austria

Vienna


The Burden is a novel written by Agatha Christie and first published in the UK by Heinemann on 12 November 1956. Initially not published in the US, it was later issued as a paperback by Dell Publishing in September 1963. It was the last of six novels Christie wrote under the nom-de-plume Mary Westmacott.

Explanation of the novel's title
The title of the novel is taken from Chapter 11, Verse 30 of the Gospel of Matthew. The full line, as quoted in the Epigraph to the novel, is:

"For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light."

Plot summary

When Laura Franklin's younger sister Shirley comes into the world, Laura instantly resents her, and soon begins to wish and even pray that her baby sister will die. But after saving Shirley's life in a fire, she experiences a complete change of feeling, and becomes very affectionate and protective towards her. Later, as the sisters grow up and fall in love, Laura begins to realise that the burden of her love for Shirley has had a dramatic effect on both their lives.

Literary significance and reception

Siriol Hart's review in the Times Literary Supplement of 7 December 1956, said, "The Burden is by a writer who has been Mary Westmacott for six books and Agatha Christie for more than anyone can count. In spite of the modern smart trimmings, this seems very much the art of story-telling that would be at home in the most staunchly traditional woman's magazine, where all the problems are resolved when the mousey heroine puts on some lipstick (called, in this case "Fatal Apple"), and finds the love of her life."

Vernon Johnson reviewed the novel in the 20 November 1956, issue of The Guardian when he called it a "fantastical novelette" and quoted several lines from the book in a disparaging fashion, stating that they were examples of "the style and the treatment".

Publication history

 1956, Heinemann (London), 12 November 1956, Hardcover, 236 pp
 1963, Dell Books (New York), September 1963, Paperback, 223 pp
 1973, William Collins and Sons, Hardcover, 192 pp
 1973. Arbor House, (New York), Hardcover, 223 pp
 1975, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 192 pp
 1979, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 321 pp

References

External links
The Burden at the official Agatha Christie website

Novels by Agatha Christie
1956 British novels
Works published under a pseudonym
Heinemann (publisher) books

The Burden


Keith Blair (born 31 March 1976), better known by the stage name Anthony B, is a Jamaican DJ and member of the Rastafari movement.

Biography

Early life
Blair grew up in rural Clark's Town in the northwestern parish of Trelawny in Jamaica. His deeply religious family life (his mother was a Seventh-day Adventist and his grandmother a Revivalist) imbued him with a profound spirituality. During his youth, his favourite singers were reggae legends Bob Marley and Peter Tosh, musicians who strongly influenced his own style. Peter Tosh's influence can definitely be heard in Anthony B's vocal delivery and revolutionary stance.

Anthony B adopted Rastafari movement beliefs as a teenager, a decision which was not well received by his family. The stubborn and determined Anthony B refused to give up his new religion and his dreadlocks and moved to the home of his aunt and uncle in the Kingston suburb, Portmore. He is a member of the Bobo Ashanti branch of the movement. "Bobo Dreads", as they are known, are recognisable by their long robes and turbans.  The strong Afrocentric pride and the other Rastafarian beliefs (or "overstandings" as Rastafarians prefer to call them) are reflected in his songs.

Career
While attending high school, Anthony B debuted as a deejay for the local sound system, Shaggy Hi-Power. In 1988, he befriended reggae artists such as Determine, Mega Banton, Ricky General and Terror Fabulous.

At this point in the reggae industry, singing "slack" songs about women was the popular thing to do.  Anthony B did not believe in degrading women and chose to pen politically slanted songs instead.   He collaborated with Little Devon and made his debut single "The Living is Hard" on the Wizard label in 1993.  Anthony B tried many different producers before joining with Richard Bell, creating hits such as "Fire Pon Rome", "Raid Di Barn", "Rumour", and "Repentance Time". In late 1997, Anthony B released Universal Struggle, followed by a large number of albums since including 1999's Seven Seals, 2003's Street Knowledge, 2004's Untouchable which featured collaborations with artists including Wyclef Jean, Snoop Dogg & Bone Crusher, 2005's Black Star plus My Hope, and more recently, Life Over Death (2008).

In January 2013, he was charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute after being stopped in Georgia, United States due to illegally tinted windows in the vehicle in which he was travelling; He subsequently had to cancel several shows in South America as he was not allowed to travel outside the US. Charges were later dropped. {https://www.dancehallusa.com/anthony-b-weed-charge-dropped/}

In July 2013 he released Tribute to Legends, an album of cover versions of songs by artists such as Bob Marley, The Maytals, John Lennon, Ray Charles, Elvis Presley, and Ini Kamoze; Speaking of the album, he stated "I chose to make a tribute album to firstly show how much these legends influence my music and my life." In 2016, Anthony B released Tears Of Luv on his label Born Fire Music and collaborated with various producer around the world including Evidence Music on his track Life Good.

In May 2020, Anthony B released his 20th studio album titled, King In My Castle.

Anthony B tours extensively in Europe and North America. He has collaborated with many singer-songwriters and producers

Talking of his faith and music, Anthony B commented, "When we say 'burn fire' we don't mean take a match and light somebody, we are saying get rid of these things that are no good for humanity."

Discography

Albums
Predator & Prey (1996, Alpha Enterprises)
Real Revolutionary  – UK / So Many Things – US (1996, Greensleeves)
Universal Struggle (1997, VP Records)
Seven Seals (1999, VP Records)
More Love (2001, AO ! Records)
That's Life (2001, VP Records)
Street Knowledge (2003, VP Records)
Wise Man Chant (2003, Black Scorpio)
Smoke Free (2003, Bogalusa Records)
Voice of Jamaica vol. 2 (2003, Nocturne)
Judgment Time (2004, 2B1 Records)
Justice Fight (2004, Nocturne)
Untouchable (2004, Togetherness Records)
Powers of Creation (2004, Nocturne)
Black Star (2005, Greensleeves)
Live on the Battlefield (2005, Jahmin' Records)
Confused Times (2005, Penitentiary)
My Hope (2005, AL.TA.FA.AN. / Minor 7 Flat 5)
Gather and Come (2006 Penitentiary)
Suffering Man (2006 Tad's Records)
Higher Meditation (2007 Greensleeves)
True Rastaman (2008 Penitentiary Records)
Life Over Death (2008 Born Fire)
Rise Up (2008 Greensleeves)
Rasta Love (2011 Born Fire)
Freedom Fighter (2012 Irievibrations)
Choices (2012)
My2K Vol. 1 (2013 Born Fire)
Tribute to Legends (2013 Born Fire)
Tears of Luv (2015 Born Fire)
Anthony B (2016)
King In My Castle (2020 Born Fire)
Bread and butter(2023 Ineffable records/Born Fire music )

CompilationsChanting Down Babylon (1997, Power Play); live, with Buju Banton2 Strong (1998, Star Trail/VP Records); with SizzlaAnthony B & Idren (1998, Jamaican Vibes)Anthony B & Friends (1998, Rhino Records)Nazarene Vow (1999, Records Factory); with Junior Timba3 Wise Men (1999, J&D); with Sizzla and LucianoOne Mission (1999, J&D); with CapletonSaddle to the East (2001, Brick Wall); with Jah Mason and Steve Machete4 Rebels (2001, VP Records); with Sizzla, Luciano, and Yami BoloThe Five Disciples (2001, Penitentiary / Jet Star); with Sizzla, Luciano, Junior Kelly, and CapletonWe Three Kings (2001, AO ! Records); with SizzlaWe Three Kings (2002, Navarre); with Capleton and LucianoFour The Hard Way (2002, City Hall); with Capleton, Sizzla, and LucianoKings of Zion (2002, Jet Star); with Capleton, Sizzla, and Junior KellyReggae Max (2002, Jet Star)5 Blazing Fires (2002, Fire Ball); with Admiral Tibbett, Sizzla, Capleton, Positive Jayz and Michael FabulousFive Disciples Part II (2003, Jet Star); with Capleton, Luciano, Sizzla, and Jr. KellyKings of Zion vol. 3 (2005, Charm); with Capleton, Sizzla, and TurbulenceJah Warriors vol. III (2005, Penitentiary); with LucianoThe Pow Pow Trilogy (2008, Pow Pow); with Turbulence and Jah MasonEncore (2010)NYC-2-Africa (2010, Suatomic Sound); with Subatomic Sound System, Nomadic Wax, Jahdan Blakkamoore, and Bajah
Truthful Riddim (2020, Blaqk Sheep Music); with Julian Marley, Mr Vegas, Blaqk SheepGuns Riddim'' (2021, Iyah Music); with LePrince and Maneaux
Reggae Reload Vol.1 (2022, Blaqk Sheep Music); with Busy Signal, Sizzla, Gyptian

References

1976 births
Living people
Jamaican Rastafarians
Jamaican reggae musicians
People from Trelawny Parish
Performers of Rastafarian music
Converts to the Rastafari movement
Easy Star Records artists
Jamaican former Christians
Former Seventh-day Adventists
VP Records artists
Greensleeves Records artists

Anthony B


A nephew is the son of someone's brother or sister. A niece is the daughter of the person's brother or sister. To the nephew or niece, the person is their uncle or aunt. The relationship of aunt/uncle to niece/nephew is an example of second-degree relatives, meaning that their coefficient of relationship is 25%. In some cultures and families, it is common to call the child of one's cousin a "niece" or "nephew". In old English, the son of one's sister was called a sister-son.

Detail
A sororal or fraternal relative is one who is related through their sister or brother. For example a sororal niece is the subject's sister's child. An in-law is a relationship that is not by blood, but instead by marriage. The in-law shares the in-law relationships of the spouses relatives. For niece or nephew in-law could be the child of a spouse.

Variation of terms

Women
 niece: sibling's daughter.
 half-niece: half-sibling's daughter
 sororal niece: sister's daughter.
 fraternal niece: brother's daughter.
 double-half-niece: a person who is a daughter of both of the subjects half-siblings.
 grandniece (or great-niece): sibling's granddaughter.
 great-grandniece (or great-great-niece): sibling's great-granddaughter.
 niece-in-law: spouse's niece.
 niece-in-law: nephew/niece's wife.
 co-niece-in-law: spouse's nephew/niece's wife.
 stepniece: stepsibling's daughter.
 stepniece: sibling's stepdaughter.

Men
 nephew: sibling's son.
 half-nephew: half-sibling's son.
 sororal nephew: sister's son.
 fraternal nephew: brother's son.
 double-half-nephew: a person who is a son of both of the subjects half-siblings.
 grandnephew (or great-nephew): sibling's grandson.
 great-grandnephew (or great-great-nephew): sibling's great-grandson.
 nephew-in-law: spouse's nephew.
 nephew-in-law: nephew/niece's husband.
 co-nephew-in-law: spouse's nephew/niece's husband.
 stepnephew: stepsibling's son.
 stepnephew: sibling's stepson.

References

Family

Nephew and niece


The Charioteer of Delphi is a Greek bronze sculpture from the early Classical period, about 477 BC. It stands 1.8 m tall.

It was discovered in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi during excavations by French archaeologists in 1896. With the statue were found fragments of a sculpted chariot, sculpted horses, and a small, sculpted person, presumably the charioteer's groom. All would have been part of a large monument. The charioteer monument was commissioned by Polyzalos, a Sicilian tyrant, to commemorate his victory in the chariot races about 477 BC. At some point, according to Greek practice, the statue was buried, probably because of irreparable damage.

Gallery

References

Ancient Greek bronze sculptures
Ancient Greek statues
5th-century BC works

Charioteer of Delphi


BBC Children in Need is a British charity appeal. It is run by the BBC. It takes place every year in November. The appeal has raised over £1 billion since it started in 1980.

Overview

Children in Need has been given one evening on BBC One every year since 1980. Events aimed at raising money for charities working with children in the UK were shown. In 2007 over £39 million was raised. £19 million was raised on the programme. In 2008, nearly £22 million was raised on the night. The BBC also broadcast local fundraising events on the radio stations and regional television channels. The programme's mascot is called 'Pudsey', or 'Pudsey Bear'. It is a yellow teddy bear with a bandage over one eye. It was first seen in 1985. Pudsey and the Children in Need Logo were changed in 2007. Children in Need became a registered charity in 1989.

.Most of the money raised by the appeal comes from people who may have raised it themselves by taking part in sponsored events. A popular event is to sit in a bath of baked beans. Lots of companies also donate money or benefits. In the past, HSBC have helped with banking and BT have helped with the donation call centres and phone lines. On the night of the seven-hour long television programme lots of celebrities appear to support the cause and ask for donations. Various performances are often given, including sketches and musical numbers. There are also featurettes that show what the money is used for. Celebrities that appear are from both the BBC's own programmes, and also from the rival ITV network. They often appear in character and on the sets of their own programmes. One of the most popular features has been a musical number by the BBC newsreaders. In 2006 they had a "James Bond" theme, and in 2008 it was a "Mamma Mia!" one. The stars of newly opened West End musicals also perform songs from their shows later in the evening, after the 'curtain call' of the actual show performance for that evening. The total is also show on a screen about every hour. The presenters always accompany this with the phrase "every penny counts" to help to push the total beyond that of the previous year.

Most of the British public support Children in Need, but some have a different view. They say that showing children on television as victims, many of which are disabled, is unfortunate and counter-productive. Changes in society will be better for such children than money and sympathy.

Money that is given to Children in Need is used in lots of ways. When the appeal for the year closes, the money is given to organisations that help children that are at the age of 18 and under. The children that are helped often have mental, physical or sensory disabilities, or have behavioural or psychological disorders. Others live in poverty or deprivation, and some are living in distress, are sexually abused or just neglected. These children are in need of some help and children in need provides a basis for that help.

References

BBC Television programmes
Charity events
English-language television programs

Children in Need


Mansur Hoda (1930–2001) was born in a middle-class Muslim family in the Indian city of Chhapra, Bihar. Mansur Hoda as a student, had worked as a research volunteer for the Intermediate Technology Group. After working for Indian Railways for ten years, he joined Bihar government as Inspector of Factories.

Mansur Hoda was greatly influenced by E. F. Schumacher of Small Is Beautiful fame. Mansur Hoda was absolutely convinced by the Schumacher's concept of intermediate technology or appropriate technology – something between the sickle and the combine harvester, the hoe and the tractor – as the only feasible solution to the problems of massive unemployment that haunted India and other developing countries.

In an article published in The Observer, E. F. Schumacher had strongly advocated for the "intermediate technologies" focusing on the need and skills possessed by the people of developing countries. He rejected the conventional aid policies which were based on transfer of modern large-scale technologies to poor countries lacking technical skills and mass market for them. This article aroused much interest and encouraged a few enthusiasts like George McRobie, Alfred Latham-Koenig and Mansur Hoda along with E. F Schumacher to create an advisory centre to promote the use of labour-intensive technologies. In 1966, the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG) – now known as Practical Action – was born.

In 1968, along with his brother Surur Hoda, and helped by Schumacher, he formed the India Development Group UK, which runs rural development programmes in India with the help of the Indian business community in Britain.

In 1972, he left his higher studies MSc in Nuclear Science, Surrey University and a lucrative career to establish and run the Appropriate Technology unit at the Gandhian Institute in Varanasi, India on request of Jayaprakash Narayan, the leading Gandhian in India. During his visit to India Development Group, UK, Jayaprakash Narayan met Mansur Hoda and persuaded him to return to India and carry out the work, which could help millions of poor Indians. Schumacher travelled with him to deliver a series of lectures. 1976, encourage with responses, an enlarged unit was established in Lucknow and named Appropriate Technology Development Association,(ATDA) with Mansur Hoda as its first director.

It worked on improving and inventing number of rural and green technologies, including cotton spinning, renewable energy (solar cooker and biogas) and cycle rickshaw transport. Development of improved mini sugar factories, and an efficient 20-ton-a-day cement plant, using local raw material and making high-quality Portland cement brought international fame.

Mansur Hoda was a strong advocate of "Production by masses instead of Mass Production". In his address to the International Conference on the Indian Government's document, Approach to the Five Year Plan 1974–79, held at the Imperial College, London, Mansur Hoda pointed out, "Development does not only mean increased production of goods- but also the development of people – the stimulation of their innate abilities, giving them a feeling of self-determination, self-respect, self-reliance and enthusiasm. Unless people are involved in the process of development and are given a chance to do something worthwhile, to grasp new ideas, acquire new skills and develop a sense of their own worth, no society can move out of misery and poverty"

"Indeed, development is almost a meaningless word when a large percentage of the population can neither contribute to the nation's progress nor benefit from it".

In 1983, Mansur Hoda help set up the Gandhi Foundation in London. He returned to India to set up the Schumacher Institute of Appropriate Technology (SIAT) in Lucknow. This institute trained young villagers in micro enterprises and rural skills. It included repairing of farm equipment, pumps, and scooters. It also contributed to health sector by training for primary healthcare. Under Mansur, SIAT also pioneered in the education and development of entrepreneurial skills of specially women and girls to make them financially independent. This work continues to be supported by British and European Union aid.

Books

Problems of Unemployment in India India Development Group

References

External links
 Obituary The Guardian
 salaam.co.uk
 Practical Action

Appropriate technology advocates
Gandhians
1930 births
2001 deaths
Alumni of the University of Surrey

Mansur Hoda


The Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site  (11 MS 2) is the site of a pre-Columbian Native American city (which existed  1050–1350 CE) directly across the Mississippi River from present-day St. Louis, Missouri. This historic park lies in south-western Illinois between East St. Louis and Collinsville. The park covers , or about , and contains about 80 manmade mounds, but the ancient city was much larger. At its apex around 1100 CE, the city covered about  and included about 120 earthworks in a wide range of sizes, shapes, and functions.

Cahokia was the largest and most influential urban settlement of the Mississippian culture, which developed advanced societies across much of what is now the Central and the Southeastern United States, beginning more than 1,000 years before European contact. Today, the Cahokia Mounds are considered to be the largest and most complex archaeological site north of the great pre-Columbian cities in Mexico.

Cahokia Mounds is a National Historic Landmark and a designated site for state protection. It is also one of the 24 UNESCO World Heritage Sites within the United States. The largest prehistoric earthen construction in the Americas north of Mexico, the site is open to the public and administered by the Illinois Historic Preservation Division and supported by the Cahokia Mounds Museum Society. In celebration of the 2018 Illinois state bicentennial, the Cahokia Mounds were selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois). It was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of the selections for 'Illinois 25 Must See Places'.

History

Development (9th and 10th centuries)

Although some evidence exists of occupation during the Late Archaic period (around 1200 BCE) in and around the site, Cahokia as it is now defined was settled around 600 CE during the Late Woodland period.  Mound building at this location began with the emergent Mississippian cultural period, around the 9th century CE. The inhabitants left no written records beyond symbols on pottery, shell, copper, wood, and stone, but the elaborately planned community, woodhenge, mounds, and burials reveal a complex and sophisticated society.

The city's complex construction of earthen mounds required digging, excavation and transportation by hand using woven baskets. Construction made use of  of earth, and much of the work was accomplished over a matter of decades. Its highly planned large, smoothed-flat, ceremonial plazas, sited around the mounds, with homes for thousands connected by laid out pathways and courtyards, suggest the location served as a central religious pilgrimage city.

The city's original name is unknown. The mounds were later named after the Cahokia tribe, a historic Illiniwek people living in the area when the first French explorers arrived in the 17th century. As this was centuries after Cahokia was abandoned by its original inhabitants, the Cahokia tribe was not necessarily descended from the earlier Mississippian-era people. Most likely, multiple indigenous ethnic groups settled in the Cahokia Mounds area during the time of the city's apex.

Historian Daniel Richter notes that the apex of the city occurred during the Medieval Warming Period. This period appears to have fostered an agricultural revolution in upper North America, as the three-fold crops of maize, beans (legumes), and gourds (squash) were developed and adapted or bred to the temperate climates of the north from their origins in Mesoamerica. Richter also notes that Cahokia's advanced development coincided with the development in the Southwest of the Chaco Canyon society, which also produced large-scale works in an apparent socially stratified society. The decline of the city coincides with the Little Ice Age, although by then, the three-fold agriculture remained well-established throughout temperate North America.

Rise and peak (11th and 12th centuries)

Cahokia became the most important center for the Mississippian culture. This culture was expressed in settlements that ranged along major waterways across what is now the Midwest, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Cahokia was located in a strategic position near the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers. It maintained trade links with communities as far away as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south, trading in such exotic items as copper, Mill Creek chert, and whelk shells.

Mill Creek chert, most notably, was used in the production of hoes, a high demand tool for farmers around Cahokia and other Mississippian centers. Cahokia's control of the manufacture and distribution of these hand tools was an important economic activity that allowed the city to thrive. Mississippian culture pottery and stone tools in the Cahokian style were found at the Silvernale site near Red Wing, Minnesota, and materials and trade goods from Pennsylvania, the Gulf Coast, and Lake Superior have been excavated at Cahokia. Bartering, not money, was used in trade.

At the high point of its development, Cahokia was the largest urban center north of the great Mesoamerican cities in Mexico and Central America. Home to about 1,000 people before circa 1050, its population grew rapidly after that date. According to a 2007 study in Quaternary Science Reviews, "Between AD 1050 and 1100, Cahokia's population increased from between 1,400 and 2,800 people to between 10,200 and 15,300 people". an estimate that applies only to a  high-density central occupation area. Archaeologists estimate the city's population at between 6,000 and 40,000 at its peak, with more people living in outlying farming villages that supplied the main urban center.

As a result of archeological excavations in the early 21st century, new residential areas were found to the west of Cahokia; this discovery increased estimates of historic area population. If the highest population estimates are correct, Cahokia was larger than any subsequent city in the United States until the 1780s, when Philadelphia's population grew beyond 40,000. Its population may have been larger than contemporaneous London and Paris.

One of the major problems that large centers like Cahokia faced was keeping a steady supply of food. A related problem was waste disposal for the dense population, and Cahokia is believed to have become unhealthy from polluted waterways. Because it was such an unhealthy place to live, Snow believes that the town had to rely on social and political attractions to bring in a steady supply of new immigrants; otherwise, the town's death rate would have caused it to be abandoned earlier.

Decline (13th and 14th centuries)

The population of Cahokia began to decline during the 13th century, and the site was abandoned by around 1350. Scholars have proposed environmental factors, such as environmental degradation through overhunting, deforestation and pollution, and climatic changes, such as increased flooding and droughts, as explanations for abandonment of the site. However, more recent research suggests that there is no evidence of human-caused erosion or flooding at Cahokia.

Political and economic problems may also have contributed to the community's decline. It is likely that social and environmental factors combined to produce the conditions that led people to leave Cahokia.

Another possible cause is invasion by outside peoples, though the only evidence of warfare found is defensive wooden stockade and watchtowers that enclosed Cahokia's main ceremonial precinct. There is no other evidence for warfare, so the palisade may have been more for ritual or formal separation than for military purposes. Diseases transmitted among the large, dense urban population are another possible cause of decline. Many theories since the late 20th century propose conquest-induced political collapse as the primary reason for Cahokia's abandonment.

Together with these factors, researchers found evidence in 2015 of major floods at Cahokia, so severe as to flood dwelling places. Analysis of sediment from beneath Horseshoe Lake has revealed that two major floods occurred in the period of settlement at Cahokia, in roughly 1100–1260 and 1340–1460.  While flooding may have occurred early in the rise of the city, it seems not to have deterred the city builders; to the contrary, it appears they took steps such as creating channels, dykes, and levees that protected at least the central city throughout its inhabited history.

Notable features

The original site contained 120 earthen mounds over an area of , of which 80 remain today. To achieve that, thousands of workers over decades moved more than an estimated  of earth in woven baskets to create this network of mounds and community plazas. Monks Mound, for example, covers , rises , and was topped by a massive  building another  high.

Monks Mound

Monks Mound is the largest structure and central focus of the city: a massive platform mound with four terraces, 10 stories tall, it is the largest man-made earthen mound north of Mexico. Facing south, it is  high,  long,  wide and covers . It contains about  of earth. The mound was built higher and wider over the course of several centuries, through as many as 10 separate construction episodes, as the mound was built taller and the terraces and apron were added.

Monks Mounds was named for the community of Trappist monks who resided there for a short time, after Euroamericans settled in the area. Excavation on the top of Monks Mound has revealed evidence of a large building, likely a temple or the residence of the paramount chief, which would have been seen throughout the city. This building was about  long and  wide, and could have been as much as  high. It was about .

The east and northwest sides of Monks Mound were twice excavated in August 2007 during an attempt to avoid erosion due to slumping. These areas were repaired to preserve the mound.

Urban landscape

Early in its history, Cahokia underwent a massive construction boom. Along with the early phase of Monks Mound, an overarching urban layout was established at the site. It was built with a symbolic quadripartite worldview and oriented toward the four cardinal directions with the main east–west and north–south axes defined with Monks Mound near its center point. Four large plazas were established to the east, west, north, and south of Monks Mound.

To the south of Monks Mound is the Grand Plaza, a large area that covered roughly  and measured over  in length by over  in width. Researchers originally thought the flat, open terrain in this area reflected Cahokia's location on the Mississippi's alluvial flood plain, but instead soil studies have shown that the landscape was originally undulating ridge and swale topography. In one of the earliest large-scale construction projects, the site had been expertly and deliberately leveled and filled by the city's inhabitants. It is part of the sophisticated engineering displayed throughout the site. It was used for large ceremonies and gatherings, as well as for ritual games, such as chunkey. The game was played by rolling a disc-shaped chunky stone across the field. The players would throw spears where they thought the chunky stone would land. The game required a great deal of judgment and aim.

The major ceremonial north–south 'axis' connects the main precinct with the large ridgetop mortuary mound to its south now known as the Rattlesnake Mound (Mound 66). The feature, named the Rattlesnake Causeway by archaeologists, was an elevated embankment about  wide, roughly  in length and varies in height from  to almost  as it traverses a low swampy area to the south of the Grand Plaza. It is aligned 5° east of north, a direction thought to mimic the maximum southern moon rise of 5° west of north, albeit in reverse. This is thought to have had symbolic associations to the builders in connection with their lunar maize goddess of the underworld. This is further strengthened by its close proximity to the ridgetop mortuary Mound 72, the underworld connotations of the low water-filled area the causeway traversed, and its terminus at the mortuary complex at the Rattlesnake Mound. The causeway itself may have been seen as a symbolic "Path of Souls".

The high-status central district of Cahokia was surrounded by a 2-mi-long palisade that was equipped with protective bastions. A later addition to the site, when the palisade was constructed, it cut through and separated some pre-existing neighborhoods. Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade during excavation of the area and indications that it was rebuilt several times. Its bastions showed that it was mainly built for defensive purposes.

Beyond Monks Mound, as many as 120 more mounds stood at varying distances from the city center. To date, 109 mounds have been located, 68 of which are in the park area. The mounds are divided into three different types: platform, conical, and ridge-top. Each appeared to have had its own meaning and function. In general terms, the city center seems to have been laid out in a diamond-shaped pattern about  from end to end, while the entire city is  across from east to west.

Mound 72

During excavation of Mound 72, a ridge-top burial mound south of main urban precinct, archaeologists found the remains of a man in his 40s who was probably an important Cahokian ruler. The man was buried on a bed of more than 20,000 marine-shell disc beads arranged in the shape of a falcon, with the bird's head appearing beneath and beside the man's head, and its wings and tail beneath his arms and legs.

The falcon warrior or "birdman" is a common motif in Mississippian culture. This burial clearly had powerful iconographic significance. In addition, a cache of sophisticated, finely worked arrowheads in a variety of different styles and materials was found near the grave of this important man. Separated into four types, each from a different geographical region, the arrowheads demonstrated Cahokia's extensive trade links in North America.

Archeologists recovered more than 250 other skeletons from Mound 72. Scholars believe almost 62% of these were sacrificial victims, based on signs of ritual execution, method of burial, and other factors.  The skeletons include:
 Four young males, missing their hands and skulls
 A mass grave of more than 50 women around 21 years old, with the bodies arranged in two layers separated by matting
 A mass burial containing 40 men and women who appear to have been violently killed, some of these may have been buried alive: "From the vertical position of some of the fingers, which appear to have been digging in the sand, it is apparent that not all of the victims were dead when they were interred – that some had been trying to pull themselves out of the mass of bodies."

The relationship of these burials to the central burial is unclear. They were unlikely to have all deposited at the same time. Wood in several parts of the mound has been radiocarbon-dated to between 950 and 1000 CE.

Excavations have indicated that Mound 72 was not constructed as a single mound, but rather as a series of smaller mounds. These mounds were reshaped and covered over to give Mound 72 its final ridge-top shape.

Copper workshop

Excavations near Mound 34 from 2002 to 2010 revealed a copper workshop. This unique find was originally discovered in the 1950s by archaeologist Gregory Perino, but its exact location was lost for 60 years. It is the only known copper workshop to be found at a Mississippian culture site. The area contains the remains of three tree stumps thought to have been used to hold anvil stones. Analysis of copper found during excavations showed that it had been annealed, a technique involving repeatedly heating and cooling the metal as it is worked, as blacksmiths do with iron.

Artisans produced religious items, such as long-nosed god maskettes, ceremonial earrings with a symbolic shape, thought to have been used in fictive kinship rituals. Many of the stylistically related Mississippian copper plates, such as the Wulfing cache from southeastern Missouri, some of the Etowah plates from Georgia, and many of the Spiro plates from Oklahoma, are associated with the Greater Braden style and are thought to have been made in Cahokia in the 13th century.

Cahokia Woodhenge

The Cahokia Woodhenge was a series of large timber circles located roughly  to the west of Monks Mound. They are thought to have been constructed between 900 and 1100 CE, with each one being larger and having 12 more posts than its predecessor. The site was discovered during salvage archaeology undertaken by Dr. Warren Wittry in the early 1960s interstate highway construction boom. Although the majority of the site contained village house features, a number of unusually shaped, large post holes were also discovered. When the holes were plotted out, they formed several arcs of equally spaced holes. Detailed analytical work supported the hypothesis that the placement of these posts was by design, and Wittry hypothesized that the arcs could be whole circles. He began referring to the circles as "woodhenges", comparing the structures to England's well-known circles at Woodhenge and Stonehenge.

Additional excavations in the 1960s–1980s used predictions based on verified posthole locations and spacing to locate other postholes and confirm the existence of five separate timber circles in the general vicinity. The circles are now designated Woodhenges I through V in Roman numerals. In 1985, a reconstruction of Woodhenge III was built with the posts being placed into the original excavated post positions. The circle, which has 48 posts in the circle and a 49th central post, has been used to investigate archaeoastronomy at Cahokia. The Illinois Historic Preservation Division that oversees the Cahokia site hosts public sunrise observations at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes and the winter and summer solstices. Out of respect for Native American beliefs, these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.

Related mounds
Until the 19th century, a series of similar mounds was documented as existing in what is now the city of St. Louis, some  to the west of Cahokia. Most of these mounds were leveled during the development of St. Louis, and much of their material was reused in construction projects.

The lone survivor of these mounds is Sugarloaf Mound. Located on the west bank of the Mississippi, it marked the initial border between St. Louis and the once autonomous city of Carondelet.

One of the largest Mississippian sites is Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site, located in Massac and Polk counties in southern Illinois. It is  southeast of Cahokia, located in the floodplain of the Ohio River. With a total of 19 mounds at the complex, it is considered the fifth-largest Mississippian site in terms of the number of monuments. It is believed to have been a chiefdom, as an elite burial mound was among those found. The site is designated as a National Historic Landmark.

Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center

The Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center, which receives up to a million visitors a year, was designed by AAIC Inc.  The building, which opened in 1989, received the Thomas H. Madigan Award, the St. Louis Construction News & Reviews Readers Choice Award, the Merit Award from the Metal Construction Association, and the Outstanding Achievement Award from the Brick Manufacturer Association.

Designations
Cahokia Mounds was first protected by the state of Illinois in 1923 when its legislature authorized purchase of a state park. Later designation as a state historic site offered additional protection, but the site came under significant threat from the federal highway building program in the 1950s. The highway program reduced the site's integrity; however, it increased funding for emergency archeological investigations. These investigations became intensive, and today continue. They have resulted in the present understanding of the national and international significance of the site. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19, 1964, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.

In 1982, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated the site a World Heritage Site. This is the only such self-contained site in Illinois and among 24 World Heritage Sites in the United States in 2009.

State Senator Evelyn M. Bowles wrote about the Cahokia Mounds site:

The designation has helped protect the property and attract funds to conduct research on this significant civilization.

See also
 American Bottom
 List of Mississippian sites
 Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere
 Mississippian stone statuary
 List of archaeoastronomical sites by country

Notes

References

Bibliography

  full text available at

Further reading
 Introductory Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archeology
 Scholarly Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archaeology

External links

 Cahokia Mounds Homepage
 Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
 Cahokia Mounds Photo Gallery
 Cahokia Mounds Information & Videos – Chickasaw.TV
 "Cahokia Mounds", Illinois Historic Preservation Agency
   "Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi", Washington Post, March 12, 1997
 Woodhenge and the Cahokia Mounds
 IHPA video with narration on Cahokia
Illinois Great Places – Mounds
Society of Architectural Historians SAH ARCHIPEDIA entry on the Cahokia Mounds

Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Former populated places in Illinois
Middle Mississippian culture
Native American museums in Illinois
Archaeological museums in Illinois
Museums in St. Clair County, Illinois
State parks of Illinois
Former Native American populated places in the United States
Populated places established in the 7th century
Populated places disestablished in the 14th century
National Register of Historic Places in St. Clair County, Illinois
National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
World Heritage Sites in the United States
History of Greater St. Louis
Protected areas of St. Clair County, Illinois
Pre-historic cities in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Madison County, Illinois
Mounds in Illinois
7th-century establishments in North America
14th-century disestablishments in North America
Pyramids in the United States
Tourist attractions in St. Louis

Cahokia


A master class is a lesson given by a famous musician or artist to a small group of students.  Music students may often have the opportunity to have a masterclass with a famous musician.  They will have prepared a piece of music to play to the teacher.  There is usually an audience watching at a masterclass.

Music education

Master class


In anatomy, the dorsal is the upper side of  animals that can run, fly, or swim in a forwards and backwards direction, and the back side of animals (like humans) that walk upright. In vertebrates the dorsum contains the backbone. The term dorsal means the parts that are either located toward or grow off that side of an animal. The opposite side of the animal is described with the terms ventrum and ventral.

In humans, the top of the foot is the dorsal part.

Examples of the use of "dorsal" are the dorsal fins of fish.

Anatomy

Dorsal


The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark is a tragedy play by William Shakespeare. It is one of his best-known plays, and many lines have become famous quotations. The play is often just called Hamlet.

Hamlet was written between 1600 and 1602, and first printed in 1603. With 4042 lines and 29551 words, Hamlet is the longest Shakespearean play.

Plot
Hamlet is a young prince in Denmark who was supposed to become king when his father (also named Hamlet) died. Instead, Hamlet's uncle Claudius took the throne for himself and married Hamlet's mother, Gertrude. Hamlet meets a ghost of his dead father, who tells him that he was poisoned by Claudius. The ghost demands that Hamlet kill Claudius in revenge.

Hamlet is at first not sure whether to believe the ghost, so he tries to investigate. He pretends to be mad to hide what he is doing. As the play goes on, it becomes hard to tell if Hamlet is actually mad or still just pretending. His behaviour causes him to fall out with Ophelia, a girl he was in love with. He eventually has the idea of getting some actors to put on a play about a king being killed, in the same way that the ghost described, to see how Claudius reacts. Claudius panics when he sees the play, and Hamlet sees this as proof that his uncle is a murderer.

Hamlet has a chance to kill Claudius in the castle chapel, but cannot bring himself to do it. He instead visits his mother, and they have an argument because Hamlet is unhappy that she married Claudius. Someone moves behind a curtain and Hamlet, thinking it is Claudius, stabs him. It turns out that he has killed Polonius, a royal advisor and Ophelia's father. Claudius orders Hamlet to be exiled to England. He sets up a plot to have Hamlet killed, but Hamlet escapes and returns to Denmark. Meanwhile, Ophelia has been suffering from madness after falling out with Hamlet. After learning that he has killed her father, she drowns herself. Hamlet arrives at Ophelia's funeral and gets into a fight with her brother Laertes. Laertes blames Hamlet for the deaths of his sister and father, and wants revenge. He challenges Hamlet to a swordfight. Hamlet agrees.

The swordfight is arranged to take place at the castle. To get Hamlet killed, Claudius gets Laertes to fight with a sword that has poison on the blade, and brings some poisoned wine in case this does not work. The swordfight begins. After some fighting, Laertes wounds Hamlet and poisons him. After more fighting, they drop their swords and Hamlet ends up fighting and wounding Laertes with the poisoned sword. Laertes shows regret for what he has done and tells Hamlet about the poison as he dies. Meanwhile, Gertrude drinks the poisoned wine by mistake and dies. Realising that he is also dying, Hamlet stabs Claudius with the poisoned sword and forces him to drink the rest of the wine. In his last moments, Hamlet tells his friend Horatio that Fortinbras, a Norwegian prince, should be named as the next King of Denmark.

Characters
The characters in the story are:
 Hamlet, the prince of Denmark
 Ghost, the ghost of king Hamlet
 Gertrude, the Queen, prince Hamlet's mother
 Claudius, the King, brother of dead King Hamlet and now married to Gertrude
 Horatio, Hamlet's trusted friend
 Polonius, the royal advisor
 Laertes, the son of Polonius
 Ophelia, the daughter of Polonius and Hamlet's past lover
 Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two members of Claudius' royal court, who spy on Hamlet for Claudius

Acting Hamlet
Hamlet is one of the hardest parts for an actor to perform. It is one of the largest roles written by Shakespeare. Many people disagree about what Hamlet is really thinking. For many actors, playing Hamlet is one of the most important parts of their career.

Hamlet in movies
There have been many movies made of the play. Most of them show only part of the play, because the entire play is very long. Some of the most famous movies include:
 1948 Hamlet played by Laurence Olivier. Directed by Laurence Olivier.
 1960 A version made for German television. This version was later an episode of Mystery Science Theatre 3000.
 1990 Hamlet played by Mel Gibson. Directed by Franco Zeffirelli.
 1996 Hamlet played by Kenneth Branagh. Directed by Kenneth Branagh. Unlike most movies, Branagh's Hamlet did not leave out any of the play to make the movie shorter.
 2009 Hamlet played by David Tennant. Directed by Gregory Doran, a three and a half hour Television adaptation for the BBC. An adaptation of the folio text with changes from the first and later quarto's to fit the dramatisation.
 2014 Bollywood movie "Haider" directed by Vishal Bhardwaj, where role of Hamlet played by Shahid Kapoor.

References

Other websites
 HyperHamlet - research project at the University of Basel
 BBC production of Hamlet in 2009

Plays by William Shakespeare
1600s plays

Hamlet


Hiking is a general word for traveling on foot in wilderness or countryside. Day hikers return before nightfall. Other hikers may go out for many days. Sometimes large groups hike together.

Hiking is a kind of physical activity as well as a leisure activity (a way of spending free time).  Hikers (the people who do hiking) enjoy fresh air and the beauty of nature, and learn about the place.  Many hikers enjoy challenging their physical and mental strength.  Hiking with friends gives them the chance to become stronger.

Preparation
Planning starts with a hiker deciding what he wants from the hike. A traveler should examine the information on landscape, climate, weather, plants, animals, type of ground, and so on. Based on that information, a hiker decides what equipment (tools) he needs. Writing everything on paper is strongly suggested to not forget anything. A hiker should choose the itinerary (the way of the hike).

Equipping means getting specialized clothing and equipment. Overnight hiking requires carrying more supplies, usually in a backpack, though many use a backpack even for a day hike. Suggestions for equipment can be found in any hiking book. A hiker is suggested to learn more than one source and work. Equipping sometimes needs getting skills in using the apparatus. Basic skills–different ways of orientation (the ability to find the way, for example)–must be developed before hiking.

Safety

Hiking can quickly become a fight for life. Hikers can get lost or suffer from injury, sickness, bad weather, or other dangers. For this reason everything in hiking is very important. Nobody should hike alone, no matter what the situation, without a great deal of experience to develop his hiking abilities.

Every hiker should keep in mind that theory is important, but it can hardly replace firsthand experience. To be safe a traveler should have enough experience. A hiker had better start by taking short hikes with more experienced hikers.

Finding the way

Getting lost can have bad results including sickness and death. A hiker is strongly suggested to check from time to time (at least every hour) whether he is going the right way. Portable GPS receivers can help, as long as the batteries are good. Accurate, complete maps and a compass can help, if the user understands them. On no account should he go on traveling if he has lost his way. The first thing a hiker should do is find the direction in which he was going before getting lost. Using the compass and the map, he should choose a reference point nearby (railway, road, river, etc.).

Survival skills
Sports
Leisure

Hiking


The Wits is a Caroline era stage play, a comedy by Sir William Davenant. It was licensed for performance by Sir Henry Herbert, the Master of the Revels, on 19 January 1634; it was staged by the King's Men at the Blackfriars Theatre. It was first published in quarto by Richard Meighen in 1636. A number of critics have considered it "Davenant's most successful and influential comedy."

Herbert was initially unhappy with The Wits, particularly on account of its oaths and explicit language; the influential courtier Endymion Porter interceded with King Charles I to tolerate and allow the play, which then proved popular at Court. Davenant would eventually become an effective courtier himself; the 1636 edition contains Davenant's dedication of the play to Porter, and a commendatory poem by Thomas Carew.

The Wits has been seen as anticipating aspects of Restoration comedy, especially in its "strong, unsentimental, witty heroine" — "Lady Ample represents the Restoration ideal of a woman being the equal to a man in all respects."

When Davenant became manager of the newly organized Duke's Company at the beginning of the Restoration era, one of the first plays he produced was The Wits (1661), with Thomas Betterton in the lead role and Hester Davenport as Lady Ample. The Wits was republished in 1665, in an octavo volume that also included The Platonick Lovers. In a revised form, The Wits was included in the edition of Davenant's collected works issued by Henry Herringman in 1673.

Sources
In plotting The Wits, Davenant depended upon a play of the previous generation, Middleton and Rowley's Wit at Several Weapons. The common story involved two male relatives, an older and a younger. The older fancies himself a "wit;" he controls the family fortune through the rules of primogeniture, and denies his younger relative any funds. The younger man, impoverished but truly clever, manipulates and cheats the other, until the older man has to concede that the younger has triumphed in a contest of wit, and allows him an income.

Davenant's two brothers, the Elder Pallatine and the Younger Pallatine, are versions of Sir Perfidious Oldcraft and Wittypate Oldcraft in the Middleton/Rowley play. Both comedies also feature an old guardian who tries to arrange an undesirable marriage for the pretty young woman who is his ward; the old guardian must be fooled and outmaneuvered by the play's youngsters for a happy ending.

Synopsis
The opening scene introduces the Younger Pallatine and his henchmen, Pert and Meager, two discharged soldiers. The overall plot is quickly delineated. To finance his planned con-games, Pallatine has to borrow money from Lucy, the girl he loves; she has traded in her small supply of jewellery for funds for Pallatine.

The second scene shifts to the Elder Pallatine and his confederate Sir Morglay Thwack. Both are wealthy landowners from the north of England, who have developed an absurd plan; outfitting themselves in flashy clothes, they have come to London to live by their wits. They intend to pursue liaisons with women, and moreover to depend on those prospective lovers for income, like gigolos. They even have a division of labour: the Elder Pallatine will pursue the younger women, while the grey-haired Sir Morglay will concentrate on the widows. The Younger Pallatine reproves them over their intentions, but the two are deaf to him. And since the Elder Pallatine intends to live by his wits, he thinks his younger brother should do so too, telling him, "Never hereafter...Will I disburse for you again; never."

Act II brings on the third group of characters, Lady Ample and her servants Engine and Ginet. The Lady is a young heiress who has been under the guardianship of Sir Tyrant Thrift — a guardianship that is scheduled to end the next day. Sir Tyrant has gone to find a husband for Lady Ample, to further his control over her; but the Lady has plans of her own. As his name indicates, Sir Tyrant is a skinflint who has allowed his ward and her servants meager upkeep; Lady Ample has surmounted this by allowing herself to be courted by rich men, and using their expensive presents of gems and other fine things to improve her standard of living. The Lady's cousin Lucy bursts in with distressing news. Lucy's aunt has learned of the money she gave to young Pallatine; assuming (incorrectly) that Lucy has surrendered her virginity to her lover, the aunt has tossed the girl out of her house. Ample is also offended at Lucy's conduct — but over the fact that Lucy has given money to a man, instead of the other way around.

Given the would-be gigolos' plans, it is not surprising that the Elder Pallatine and Sir Morglay find their way to Lady Ample. Their attempts at courtship are offensively inept. The play's two sides are now drawn: Lady Ample and her followers, and young Pallatine and his, are united in the goal of humiliating the two self-styled wits and cheating them of their money.

With the help of a complaisant constable and his night watch, the conspirators launch a series of tricks that victimise first the Elder Pallatine, then Sir Morglay, and finally Sir Tyrant Thrift; each man falls victim to his greed and folly. The Elder Pallatine is locked in a trunk for hours; Sir Morglay buys his freedom with his last hundred pounds; Sir Tyrant thinks he is arrested for sacrilege and robbing a church. In the end, the conspirators are rewarded with ample funds; the Elder Pallatine graciously concedes that his younger brother is his superior in wit, and endows him with one of his country estates. The Younger Pallatine and Lucy can now marry; and Lady Ample agrees to take the Elder Pallatine as her husband, as long as he acknowledges her superiority in cleverness.

References

English Renaissance plays
1634 plays
Plays by William Davenant

The Wits


The colonization of Mars by humans is an ongoing debate. Some people want to colonize the planet Mars. Satellite imagery shows that there is frozen ground water on the planet. Mars also has a thin atmosphere. Because of this, it has potential to host humans and other organic life. That makes Mars the best choice for a thriving colony off the Earth. The Moon has also been proposed as the first location for human colonization but it is not known to have much air or water. It only has 0.16% air and has 14% water.

There are many factors humans on Mars will go through, such as the risks in landing on the planet within gravity wells.

Many organizations support the colonization of Mars.

Earth and Mars
The Earth is much like its "sister plant" Venus.

The Martian day (or sol) is similar to Earth days. A solar day on Mars is 24 hours 39 minutes 35 seconds and 244 milliseconds.
Mars has a surface area that is 28.4% of Earth's. It is slightly less than the amount of dry land on Earth (which is 29.2% or Earth's surface). The radius of Mars is half that of Earth and only one-tenth the mass. This means that it has a smaller volume (~15%). Mars also has a lower average density than Earth.
Mars has an axial tilt of 25.19°. Earth's axial tilt is 23.44°. This means that Mars has seasons similar to Earth. However, seasons on Mars last twice as long because the Martian year is about 1.88 Earth years. Mars' north pole currently points at Cygnus and not Ursa Minor.
Mars has an atmosphere. It is very thin (about 0.7% of Earth's atmosphere) it provides some protection from solar and cosmic radiation. It has also been used successfully for aerobraking of spacecraft.
Recent observations by NASA's Mars Exploration Rovers, ESA's Mars Express and NASA's Phoenix Lander has confirm water ice on Mars. Mars also has large quantities of all elements necessary to support life.

Differences from Earth
The surface gravity on Mars is 38% of that on Earth. It is unknown if this is enough for human health. Mars is much colder than Earth. Mars surface temperature is −63 °C and a low of −140 °C. The lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C, in Antarctica. There is no liquid water on the surface of Mars. Because Mars is further from the Sun, less solar energy reaches the upper atmosphere of Mars. Mars' orbit is more eccentric than Earth's.

The atmospheric pressure on Mars is ~6 mbar. This is far below the Armstrong Limit (61.8 mbar), so people cannot survive without pressure suits. Since terraforming cannot be expected within the century, humans must have their pressure suits. Mars' atmosphere has carbon dioxide. Mars has a very weak magnetosphere. This means that it does not do a good job getting rid of solar winds.

Habitability

Conditions on the surface of Mars are much closer to habitability than the surface of any other known planets or moons. Other planets such as Mercury has extreme hot and cold temperatures. Venus is very hot and all other planets and moons are very cold. There are some natural places on Earth, where humans have explored, that are similar to the conditions on Mars. The highest altitude reached by a balloon that was carrying humans, was 34,668 meters (113,740 feet), a record set in May 1961. The pressure at that altitude is about the same as on the surface of Mars. Extreme cold in the Arctic and Antarctic match all but the most extreme temperatures on Mars.

It may be possible to terraform Mars to allow a wide variety of living things. In April 2012, it was reported that lichen and bacteria survived for 34 days in conditions like those on Mars. This experiment was maintained by the German Aerospace Center (DLR).

Organizations
Many organizations support the colonization of Mars. They have also given different reasons and ways humans can live on Mars. One of the oldest organizations is the Mars Society. They promote a NASA program that supports human colonies on Mars. The Mars Society have set up Mars analog research stations in Canada and the United States. Other organizations include MarsDrive, who want to help fund settlements on Mars, and Mars to Stay. Mars to Stay advocates settlements on Mars. In June 2012, Mars One released a statement that they believe could help start a colony on Mars by 2023. SpaceX thinks it can launch astronauts to colonize Mars via Starship.

In fiction
Many publications have wrote ideas and concerns about a possible human colony on the planet Mars. They include:

 Aria by Kozue Amano
 Axis by Robert Charles Wilson
 Icehenge (1985), the Mars trilogy (Red Mars, Green Mars, Blue Mars, 1992–1996), and The Martians (1999) by Kim Stanley Robinson

 First Landing (2002) by Robert Zubrin

 Man Plus (1976) by Frederik Pohl
 We Can Remember It for You Wholesale (1990), by Philip K. Dick
 Mars (1992) and Return to Mars (1999), by Ben Bova
 Climbing Olympus (1994), by Kevin J. Anderson
 Red Faction (2001), developed by Volition, published by THQ
 The Platform (2011) by James Garvey
 "The Destruction of Faena" (1974) by Alexander Kazantsev
 "The Martian Chronicles" (1950) by Ray Bradbury

Related pages
 Exploration of Mars

References

Books
 Robert Zubrin, The Case for Mars: The Plan to Settle the Red Planet and Why We Must, Simon & Schuster/Touchstone, 1996,
 Frank Crossman and Robert Zubrin, editors, On to Mars: Colonizing a New World. Apogee Books Space Series, 2002, .
 Frank Crossman and Robert Zubrin, editors, On to Mars 2: Exploring and Settling a New World. Apogee Books Space Series, 2005, .
 Resource Utilization Concepts for MoonMars; ByIris Fleischer, Olivia Haider, Morten W. Hansen, Robert Peckyno, Daniel Rosenberg and Robert E. Guinness; 30 September 2003; IAC Bremen, 2003 (29 Sept – 03 Oct 2003) and MoonMars Workshop (26-28 Sept 2003, Bremen). Accessed on 18 January 2010
 MARTIAN OUTPOST: The Challenges of Establishing a Human Settlement on Mars ; by Erik Seedhouse; Praxis Publishing; 2009; . Also see ,
 Ice, mineral-rich soil could support human outpost on Mars ; by Sharon Gaudin; 27 June 2008; IDG News Service

Other websites

 Mars Society
 Our Mars
 The Planetary Society: Mars Millennium Project
 4Frontiers Corporation
 MarsDrive Consortium
 The Mars Foundation
 Mars One: Project to colonize Mars by 2023
 Google Mars

Mars
Space colonization

Colonization of Mars


Rollout photography, a type of peripheral photography, is a process used to create a two-dimensional photographic image of a three-dimensional object.  This process is the photographic equivalent of a cylindrical map projection in cartography.  It is used predominantly for the projection of images of cylindrical objects such as vases or ceramic vessels.  The objective of this process is to present to the observer a planar representation of the object's characteristics, most notably the illustrations or artwork extant on the outside surfaces of such vessels. This planar representation is captured using photographic imaging techniques.

Technique
In the basic technique, using strip photography, a camera with a vertical slit aperture is positioned opposite a turntable on which an object is centered.  Both the object and the camera are oriented as precisely as possible so as to eliminate aberrations due to the focusing mechanism of the camera, the aperture, and the characteristics of the object itself.  As the object is rotated on the turntable, the film is exposed in small intervals corresponding to the dimensions of the aperture.  Since the image is projected onto the film backwards and upside down, the turntable spins in the direction opposite of the direction of the film advance mechanism.

History

In 1972, Justin Kerr worked with author & anthropologist Michael D. Coe to produce a book on  ceramic vessels of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization.  For this book Kerr had to photograph the ceramics section by section, and then have an artist combine the pictures into one.  Since this was slow and did not accurately reproduce the images on the pottery, Kerr set out to find a technique that would make a single, fluid picture.  However, at this time no cameras existed that were capable of making peripheral photographs.  Therefore, from 1972 to 1978, Kerr created a new camera and essentially reinvented the art of rollout photography.

The technique had existed for years, so by using the methods listed above Justin Kerr succeeded in making a camera that captured the first Maya pottery vessel using rollout photography.  The rollout technique was perfected through the use of a record turntable, clamps, and various pieces of wood and belts.  The result was a clear and accurate reproduction of a tin can.  From there Kerr moved on to Maya vessels.  Each vase takes about two minutes to photograph, and is done all in one session.  Kerr spends on average 6 hours a day in his studio working on Maya rollouts.  Subsequently, Kerr began archiving every container he photographed.  To date more than 1400 rollouts have been created.  His first successful print was of an Olmec bowl, lent to him from Princeton University.

See also
 Photography
 Outline of photography
 Image editing

References

External links
 "Principles of Peripheral Photography", Andrew Davidhazy (Articles)
 "Vase Rollout Photography Using Digital Reflex Cameras", Ángel M. Felicísimo
 "Peripheral Portraits: An unraveled view", Paul Krzyzanowski
 http://www.mayavase.com

Photographic techniques
Science of photography

Rollout photography


Żagań is a town in the west part of Poland. 26,665 people lived there in 2004.  It is the main town of part of Poland called Żagań County.

It is now part of the in the Lubusz Voivodship (a Voivoidship is part of the way Poland is organised into areas), before it was in Zielona Gora Voivodship (1975-1998). There is a castle called Sagan in the middle of an area that is  also called Sagan. The castle belonged to Wallenstein, a soldier and politician of the Thirty Years' War. Later, the castle belonged to the Bohemian family of Lobkowitz.  In 1786, the Sagan area was bought by Peter Biron, duke of Courland. In 1843, it went to his daughter Dorothea, the wife of Edmond de Talleyrand.

An act of the king of Prussia on January 6, 1845 made her  Duchess of Sagan. Napoleon III did the same in France, for her son Louis.  The double title, both Prussian and French, meant that the duc de Sagan was a neutral party in the Second World War. His house (the Château de Valençay) was a safe place to keep pictures and other things from the Louvre when German soldiers were in France.

In the Second World War, the well-known war prison Stalag Luft III was there.

Other websites
The web page of the town.
A map.
Some pictures.

Zagan

Żagań


Infant attachment is a special bond first developed in infancy.  It is the first relationship an infant has, usually with its mother or parents.

Research on human babies by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 70s found that children may have different patterns of attachment. This depends mainly on how they experienced their early caregiving environment. Early patterns of attachment, in turn, shape – but do not determine - the individual's expectations in later relationships.

During the first stage of development the mother nurses the baby and the mother and infant(s) stay physically close to each other unless the mother needs to leave to seek food (etc.). While the mother is gone the infant(s) remain hidden and quiet, sometimes in a nest or den.

Infancy is a crucial time of development—of physical growth and of learning, developing social skills to interact with others and learning life skills such as what to eat and how to respond when predators are near.

Infancy is also a time of brain development. In mammals, only some behavior is hard-wired in their brain as a fixed-action pattern. Much behavior is genetically determined only as potential behavioral systems that must be activated and developed. These include:
the development of perception
establishing norms for the body
the programming of early experiences into patterns of behavior
the ability to identify others within one's own group as individuals feeling and responding similar to themselves— mirror neurons are involved in this.

With their increasing size of neocortex, primates have progressively more complex social behaviors. Nursing is an integral part of this, and serves four functions:
it provides food
it helps the mother and infant stay together—in proximity—for the infant's protection;
it allows the infant to observe and interact with its mother and learn through that experience.
the mother's milk carries antibodies. This gives temporary protection against some infections, until the child's own immune system has matured.

If the infant is part of a litter it plays with its littermates; if it is a single infant, after the first stage of infancy it will begin peer play with other juveniles nearby, close enough for the mother to quickly respond to any difficulty.

Nursing requires proximity; proximity facilitates social interaction, and social interaction is essential for survival. Attachment exists to varying degrees among non-human mammals; it is greatly increased especially in humans. In hunter-gatherer and village-agricultural societies, the mother typically carried the baby or would leave it briefly with an allomother—someone with whom the child will have a life-long relationship such as a grandmother, aunt, or older sibling. Only with the rise of civilization and wealth, and especially within the last 60 years has this pattern of childraising, embedded in our mammalian biology, been significantly altered.

Conclusions: Infant attachment is a multipurpose behavioral system essential to social animals. During infancy patterns of behavior are established on which other long-term relationships are built. Originating in the infant's protection, the primary purpose of attachment soon became to support brain development. The establishment of homeostasis of physiological systems, social and emotional development and learning are other functions. Infant attachment is found to some degree in all mammals and is greatly expanded in humans. Attachment is a behavioral system that is present at birth but that must be activated and developed.

Overview
Most of the time, the people who take care of a baby are the baby's mother and father.  If the mother or the father comes when the baby cries and treats the baby with tenderness, the baby learns that the parents will take care of it. If the mother or the father smile at the baby, talk to the baby, sing to the baby, and hold the baby even when it is not crying, the baby learns that the parents love it.  When a baby has learned that it is loved and that it will be taken care of if it cries, it usually grows up to be a person who expects other people to be nice.  When a child feels loved and cared for and thinks other people will be nice, that child is said to be securely attached.

Theories
Two people were important in thinking about and writing about attachment theory, John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth.

Bowlby wrote that the care and love a baby gets from its parents cause it to form an important idea. He called this idea the internal working model.  The internal working model is how the baby or child thinks about itself, its parents, and other people.  When parents have taken loving care of a baby and child, it grows up with a positive internal working model.  This child will think that it is lovable, because it was loved.  It will think that the parents are good, because they were caring.  And the child will not be afraid to try to make friends with new people, because it will expect people to be nice.  Children who have a positive internal working model are also likely to be kind to other people.   Bowlby believed that a positive internal working model would help people make friends.

Bowlby wrote that the attachment process in people was like the closeness that exists between mother and baby chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.  In humans, Bowlby believed that attachment developed gradually, in four steps.

Mary Ainsworth saw how mothers treated their babies in different cities and countries.  She saw that many ways mothers and babies acted were the same, even when families lives were very different. Ainsworth made a way to test how the attachment relationship between a mother and her young child.  She called it "The Strange Situation".

References

Further reading
 McLeod, Saul. "Attachment Theory." Simply Psychology. N.p., 2009

Human behavior
Babies

Infant attachment


Serket was an ancient Egyptian goddess. She was shown as a scorpion. She would sting "bad" people, but she could also cure scorpion stings and other poisons, such as snake bites. Because Serket could cure snake bites, she was sometimes known as the protector from Apep, the evil snake-god.

She was shown in art as a scorpion or as a woman with a scorpion on her head. Serket did not have any temples, but she had many priests.

Many people in ancient Egypt who were bitten by poisonous animals died from the poison. Because of this, Serket was also known as a protector of the dead. She was associated with fluids that cause stiffening during embalming. This caused her to become known as a protector of embalmers' tents and of the canopic jar for the intestine (Qebehsenuf). The intestine's canopic jar was the one associated with poisons.

Because she was a protector of canopic jars, Serket was associated with Aset (Isis), and Nebet Het (Nephthys) and Neith. Later, Serket began to be known as Isis. Serket came to be known as a part of Isis, instead of a separate goddess.

References

Egyptian gods and goddesses

Serket


In ancient history, a division of labour (or specialisation) was when some people in a city stopped growing crops and took other jobs. This usually happened because of a surplus of food. This means that there was more than enough food for everyone, so some people did not have to grow crops anymore.

Xenophon was a philosopher of the 4th century BC. In his book Cryopedia (The Education of Cyrus) he writes about the division of labour:

"Just as the various trades are most highly developed in large cities, in the same way food at the palace is prepared in a far superior manner. In small towns the same man makes couches, doors, ploughs and tables, and often he even builds houses, and still he is thankful if only he can find enough work to support himself. And it is impossible for a man of many trades to do all of them well. In large cities, however, because many make demands on each trade, one alone is enough to support a man, and often less than one: for instance one man makes shoes for men, another for women, there are places even where one man earns a living just by mending shoes, another by cutting them out, another just by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but assembles the parts, Of necessity, he who pursues a very specialised task will do it best."

References

Other websites
 Summary of Smith's example of pin-making

Sociology
Anthropology
Economics

Division of labour


An IRCd, meaning Internet Relay Chat server program, is a program, server software that uses the IRC protocol.  This allows people to talk to each other on the Internet.  They exchange textual messages in real time.

The server accepts connections from IRC clients on a group of TCP ports. When the server is part of an IRC network, it also keeps one or more connections with other servers/daemons.

The word ircd once referred to only one piece of software.

Related pages
 Comparison of Internet Relay Chat daemons

References

Other websites
 irc.org - IRC resources
 Technical comparison of TS and nickname delay mechanisms
 DarkFire IRC Manual (network specific)
 IRCd network provider
Undernet K-Line and G-Line FAQ  with reasons for them, amongst other things
EFnet FAQ  with several -line terms explained
Quakenet General FAQ G/K-Line
GLine, KLine, QLine and ELine syntax

IRCd


The pink triangle is one of the two big symbols of the LGBT community. The other is the rainbow flag.
The pink triangle was first used in Nazi Germany to mark homosexual prisoners. There was also a black triangle that marked anti-social women. Many but not all of these women were lesbians. Jews wore the famous yellow star of David. If a prisoner was both Jewish and gay, he would wear a yellow triangle overlapped by a pink triangle, creating a star of David.

Homosexuality was illegal in Nazi Germany under a law called Paragraph 175, which made it a felony (a "very serious" crime). About 100,000 people were arrested, with about 50,000 sent to prison. Some were sent to mental hospitals. Some were castrated (had their testicles removed). Some homosexual men were also sent to concentration camps, especially Jewish homosexuals. Between 15,000 and 600,000 homosexual men were sent to concentration camps. Most of them died there. We are not sure of the real number. Prisoners who were Jewish and homosexual may not have been counted as homosexual.

Homosexual prisoners were treated worse than other prisoners. Their death rates were higher than other anti-social groups. One story by a gay man who lived in a concentration camp shows how it was. Pierre Seel was sent to the Schirmeck concentration camp. The Nazis said a public execution would happen. A man was brought out. Seel saw that the man was his 18 year old lover. The Nazis took all the clothes of Seel's lover and put a bucket over his head. Then Seel had to watch as the Nazis let German Shepherds (dogs) maul his lover to death.

After World War II, homosexual men were still not treated well in Germany. The law continued. It was used to hurt homosexuals and to put them in prison. Many spent years in prison.

The pink triangle observes the memory of the homosexual people who died in the Holocaust. It is important not to ignore these deaths. The killing of homosexuals both during WWII and after WWII ended is the secret story of the Holocaust. Using the pink triangle symbol puts these victims in the public view. It is in respect for those who died.
LGBT

Pink triangle


A Journey's End is the seicont album o the Erse black metal baund Primordial. It wis originally released in 1998.

Re-released in 2005 by Candlelight Records wi Imrama as a twa disc set.

Re-released again on September 1st, 2009 in Europe via Metal Blade Records (an August
29 in Germany, Swizzerland an Austrick) as a double digipak package in a
precious black linen slipcase wi glossy golden hot foil print, containing a
sax-page digipak wi the original airtwirk, the twa discs an a 16-page booklet
with new liner notes an additional photos.

Trackleet
Aw sangs written an composed bi Primordial.
 Graven Idol (8:06)
 Dark Song (5:06)
 Autumn's Ablaze (8:17)
 Journey's End (8:01)
 Solitary Mourner (2:56)
 Bitter Harvest (10:34)
 An Aistear Deirneach (4:28)
2005 reissue bonus track
 And The Sun Set On Life Forever (9:17)
Note: On the 2005 reissue, track 7 is leetit as "An Aistear Deirneach".

Bonus CD - Live At The Ritz, Lisbon, Portugal, December 9, 1999
 Infernal Summer
 The Calling
 Journeys End
 Children Of The Harvest
 The Burning Season
 The Purging Fire (Gods To The Godless)
 Autumns Ablaze
 Let The Sun Set On Life Forever
 Graven Idol
 To Enter Pagan

Credits
Alan Averill - Vocals
Ciáran MacUiliam - Guitar, Mandolin, Whistles
Pól "Paul" MacAmlaigh - Bass, Bodhran
Derek "D." MacAmlaigh - Drums, Percussion, Bodhran

Fremmit Airtins
A Journey's End at Encyclopaedia Metallum

Primordial albums
1998 albums

A Journey's End