Fokker, legally N.V. Koninklijke Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek Fokker (), was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated under several different names. It was founded in 1912 in Berlin, Germany, and became famous for its fighter aircraft in World War I. In 1919 the company moved its operations to the Netherlands.

During its most successful period in the 1920s and 1930s, it dominated the civil aviation market. Fokker went into bankruptcy in 1996, and its operations were sold to competitors.

History

Fokker in Germany
At age 20, while studying in Germany, Anthony Fokker built his initial aircraft, the Spin (Spider)—the first Dutch-built plane to fly in his home country. Taking advantage of better opportunities in Germany, he moved to Berlin, where in 1912, he founded his first company, Fokker Aeroplanbau, later moving to the Görries suburb just southwest of Schwerin (at ), where the current company was founded, as Fokker Aviatik GmbH, on 12 February 1912.

World War I
Fokker capitalized on having sold several Fokker Spin monoplanes to the German government and set up a factory in Germany to supply the German Army in World War I. His first new design for the Germans to be produced in any numbers was the Fokker M.5, which was little more than a copy of the Morane-Saulnier G, built with steel tube instead of wood for the fuselage, and with minor alterations to the outline of the rudder and undercarriage and a new aerofoil section. When it was realized that arming these scouts with a machine gun firing through the arc of the propeller was desirable, Fokker developed a synchronization gear similar to that patented by Franz Schneider.

Fitted with a developed version of this gear, the M.5 became the Fokker Eindecker, which due to its revolutionary armament, became one of the most feared aircraft over the western front, its introduction leading to a period of German air superiority known as the Fokker Scourge which only ended with the introduction of new aircraft such as the Nieuport 11 and Airco DH.2.

During World War I, Fokker engineers worked on the Fokker-Leimberger, an externally powered 12-barrel Gatling gun in the 7.92×57mm round claimed to be capable of firing over 7200 rounds per minute.

Later in the war, after the Fokker D.V (the last design by earlier chief designer Martin Kreutzer), had failed to gain acceptance with the Luftstreitkräfte the German government forced Fokker (for their aircraft production expertise) and Junkers (for their pioneering all-metal airframe construction techniques, and advanced design concepts) to cooperate more closely, which resulted in the foundation of the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft, or Jfa, on 20 October 1917. As this partnership proved to be troublesome, it was eventually dissolved. By then, former Fokker welder and new designer Reinhold Platz, who had taken the late Martin Kreutzer's place with the firm, had adapted some of Prof. Junkers' design concepts, that resulted in a visual similarity between the aircraft of those two manufacturers during the next decade.

Some of the noteworthy types produced by Fokker during the second half of the war, all designed primarily by Platz, included the Fokker D.VI biplane, Fokker Dr.I triplane or Dreidecker (remembered as a mount of the Red Baron), Fokker D.VII biplane (the only aircraft ever referred to directly in a treaty: all D.VII's were singled out for handover to the allies in their terms of the armistice agreement) and the Fokker D.VIII parasol monoplane.

Return to the Netherlands
In 1919, Fokker, owing large sums in back taxes (including 14,250,000 marks of income tax), returned to the Netherlands and founded a new company near Amsterdam with the support of Steenkolen Handels Vereniging, now known as SHV Holdings. He chose the name Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek (Dutch Aircraft Factory) to conceal the Fokker brand because of his involvement in World War I. Despite the strict disarmament conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, Fokker did not return home empty-handed. In 1919, he arranged an export permit and brought six entire trains of parts, and 180 types of aircraft across the Dutch-German border, among them 117 Fokker C.Is, D.VIIs, and D.VIIIs. This initial stock enabled him to set up shop quickly.

After his company's relocation, many Fokker C.I and C.IV military airplanes were delivered to Russia, Romania, and the still-clandestine German air force. Success came on the commercial market, too, with the development of the Fokker F.VII, a high-winged aircraft capable of taking on various types of engines. Fokker continued to design and build military aircraft, delivering planes to the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Foreign military customers eventually included Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Hungary, and Italy. These countries bought substantial numbers of the Fokker C.V reconnaissance aircraft, which became Fokker's main success in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

1920s and 30s: Fokker's glory period

In the 1920s, Fokker entered its glory years, becoming the world's largest aircraft manufacturer by the late 1920s.  Its greatest success was the 1925 F.VIIa/3m trimotor passenger aircraft, which was used by 54 airline companies worldwide and captured 40% of the American market in 1936. It shared the European market with the Junkers all-metal aircraft, but dominated the American market until the arrival of the Ford Trimotor which copied the aerodynamic features of the Fokker F.VII, and Junkers structural concepts.

In 1923, Anthony Fokker moved to the United States, where in 1927, he established an American branch of his company, the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation, which was renamed the Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America.  In 1930, this company merged with General Motors Corporation and the company's name became General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation, which in turn merged with North American Aviation and was divested by GM in 1948. In 1931, discontented at being totally subordinate to GM management, Fokker resigned.

A serious blow to Fokker's reputation came after the 1931 crash of a Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 in Kansas, when it became known that the crash was caused by a structural failure caused by wood rot. Notre Dame legendary football coach Knute Rockne was among the fatalities, prompting extensive media coverage and technical investigation. As a result, all Fokkers were grounded in the US, along with many other types that had copied Fokker's wings.

In 1934 Nevil Shute of Airspeed Ltd (England) negotiated with Fokker himself for a manufacturing licensing agreement. In January 1935 Airspeed signed an agreement
for the Douglas DC-2 and a number of Fokker types, with Fokker to be a consultant for seven years.  Shute found him "genial, shrewd and helpful" but "already a sick man"; and he was difficult to deal with as "his domestic life was irregular". Airspeed considered making the Fokker D.XVII for Greece, as Greece wanted to buy from Britain for currency reasons, but the proposal did not "come off"; Shute recommended reading his novel Ruined City on Balkan methods of business. And after a year the drift to war meant that Dutchmen could not go to the Airspeed factory or to board meetings.

On December 23, 1939, Fokker died in New York City after a three-week illness.

World War II
At the outset of World War II, the few G.Is and D.XXIs of the Dutch Air Force were able to score a respectable number of victories against the Luftwaffe, but many were destroyed on the ground before they could be used.

The Fokker factories were confiscated by the Germans and were used to build Bücker Bü 181 Bestmann trainers and parts for the Junkers Ju 52 transport. At the end of the war, the factories were completely stripped by the Germans and destroyed by Allied bombing.

Post-World War II rebuilding

Rebuilding after the war proved difficult. The market was flooded with cheap surplus planes from the war. The company cautiously started building gliders and autobuses and converting Dakota transport planes to civilian versions. A few F25s were built. Nevertheless, the S-11 trainer was a success, being purchased by several air forces. The S-14 Machtrainer became one of the first jet trainers, and although not an export success, it served for over a decade with the Royal Netherlands Air Force.

A new factory was built next to Schiphol Airport near Amsterdam in 1951. A number of military planes were built there under license, among them the Gloster Meteor twin-jet fighter and Lockheed's F-104 Starfighter.  A second production and maintenance facility was established at Woensdrecht.

In 1958, the F-27 Friendship was introduced, Fokker's most successful postwar airliner. The Dutch government contributed 27 million guilders to its development. Powered by the Rolls-Royce Dart, it became the world's best-selling turboprop airliner, reaching almost 800 units sold by 1986, including 206 under licence by Fairchild. Also, a military version of the F-27, the F-27 Troopship, was built.

In 1962, the F-27 was followed by the jet-powered F-28 Fellowship. Until production stopped in 1987, a total of 241 were built in various versions. Both an F-27 and later an F-28 served with the Dutch Royal Flight, Prince Bernhard himself being a pilot.

In 1969, Fokker agreed to an alliance with Bremen-based Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke under control of a transnational holding company. They collaborated on an unsuccessful regional jetliner, the VFW-614, of which only 19 were sold. This collaboration ended in early 1980.

Fokker was one of the main partners in the F-16 Fighting Falcon consortium (European Participating Air Forces), which was responsible for the production of these fighters for the Belgian, Danish, Dutch and Norwegian Air Forces. It consisted of companies and government agencies from these four countries and the United States. F-16s were assembled at Fokker and at SABCA in Belgium with parts from the five countries involved.

Aerospace
In 1967, Fokker started a modest space division building parts for European satellites. A major advance came in 1968 when Fokker developed the first Dutch satellite (the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite) together with Philips and Dutch universities. This was followed by a second major satellite project, IRAS,  successfully launched in 1983. The European Space Agency in June 1974 named a consortium headed by ERNO-VFW-Fokker GmbH to build pressurized modules for Spacelab.

Subsequently, Fokker contributed to many European satellite projects, as well as to the Ariane rocket in its various models. Together with a Russian contractor, they developed the huge parachute system for the Ariane 5 rocket boosters which would allow the boosters to return to Earth safely and be reused.

The space division became more and more independent, until just before Fokker's bankruptcy in 1996, it became a fully stand-alone corporation, known successively as Fokker Space and Systems, Fokker Space, and Dutch Space. On 1 January 2006, it was taken over by EADS-Space Transportation.

Fokker 50, Fokker 100, and Fokker 70

After a brief and unsuccessful collaboration effort with McDonnell Douglas in 1981, Fokker began an ambitious project to develop two new aircraft concurrently. The Fokker 50 was to be a completely modernised version of the F-27, and the Fokker 100 a new airliner based on the F-28. Development costs were allowed to spiral out of control, almost forcing Fokker out of business in 1987. The Dutch government bailed the company out with 212 million guilders, but demanded Fokker look for a "strategic partner", British Aerospace and DASA being named most likely candidates.

Initial sales of the Fokker 100 were good, leading Fokker to begin development of the Fokker 70, a smaller version of the F100, in 1991, but sales of the F70 were below expectations and the F100 had strong competition from Boeing and Airbus by then.

In 1992, after a long and arduous negotiation process, Fokker signed an agreement with DASA. This did not solve Fokker's problems, though, mostly because DASA's parent company Daimler-Benz also had to deal with its own organisational problems.

Bankruptcy

On 22 January 1996, the board of directors of Daimler-Benz decided to focus on its core automobile business and cut ties with Fokker. The next day, an Amsterdam court extended temporary creditor protection.

Discussions were initiated with Bombardier on 5 February 1996. After having reviewed and evaluated the opportunities and challenges Fokker represented at the time, Bombardier renounced its acquisition on 27 February. On 15 March, the Fokker company was declared bankrupt.

Differences in national culture could have played a role in the failed takeover of Fokker by Deutsche Aerospace (DASA).

Those divisions of the company that manufactured parts and carried out maintenance and repair work were taken over by Stork N.V.; it is now known as Stork Aerospace Group. Stork Fokker exists to sustain remarketing of the company's existing aircraft: it refurbishes and resells F 50s and F 100s, and has converted a few F 50s to transport aircraft. Special projects included the development of an F50 maritime patrol variant and an F100 executive jet. For this project, Stork received the 2005 "Aerospace Industry Award" in the Air Transport category from Flight International magazine.

Other divisions of the company that were profitable continued as separate companies: Fokker Space (later Dutch Space) and Fokker Control Systems.

In November 2009, Stork Aerospace changed its name to Fokker Aerospace Group. As of 2011, the Fokker Aerospace Group changed its name to Fokker Technologies. The five individual business units within Fokker Technologies all carry the Fokker name:
 Fokker Aerostructures
 Fokker Landing Gear
 Fokker Elmo
 Fokker Techniek
 Fokker Services

The former Fokker aircraft facilities at Schiphol were redeveloped into the Fokker Logistics Park. One of the former Fokker tenants is Fokker Services.

Meanwhile, Rekkof Aircraft ("Fokker" backwards) is attempting to restart production of the Fokker F70 and F100, supported by suppliers and airlines.

In 2015, GKN considers Fokker Technologies as a possible acquisition to supply for the hybrid car market. The British automotive and aerospace supplier plans to buy the Netherlands-based Fokker for €706 million.

In 2021, Fokker Services and Fokker Techniek are acquired by Panta Holdings. This acquisition will strengthen the Panta Holdings', Dutch investment fund, aerospace footprint.

Famous Fokker aircraft and pilots

 In 1915, the Fokker E.I was the first fighter armed with a synchronized machine gun firing through the propeller, achieving air superiority during the Fokker Scourge.
 Manfred von Richthofen ("The Red Baron," the top scoring World War I ace) is associated with an all-red Fokker Dr.I triplane, at least for some of his 80 victories (1917–1918)
 The 1918 Fokker D.VII performed so well that surrender of all examples of the type was demanded when Germany capitulated.
 In 1923, Oakley George Kelly and John Arthur Macready completed the first non-stop flight spanning the North American continent in a Fokker T-2.
 In 1927, Richard E. Byrd completed his trans-Atlantic flight from New York City to Paris in the Fokker F.VII America.
 In 1928, Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic as a passenger in a Fokker F.VII.
 In 1928, Charles Kingsford Smith completed the first trans-Pacific flight in another F.VII, the Southern Cross.
 Finnish pilot Jorma Sarvanto shot down six Soviet Ilyushin DB-3s in a quick succession using a Fokker D.XXI fighter during the Winter War, drawing international attention.
 The 1951 Fokker S.14 Machtrainer was one of the first purpose-built jet training aircraft in the world.
 King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands was a co-pilot about twice per month for 21 years on commercial KLM Cityhopper and Martinair flights flying Fokker 70 aircraft.

Fokker aircraft

1912–1921

1922–1940

Fokker-Atlantic designs

1945–1996

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Bowers, Peter and Ernest McDowell. Triplanes: A Pictorial History of the World's Triplanes and Multiplanes.  St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1993. .
 Dierikx, Marc. Fokker: A Transatlantic Biography. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997. .

 Hegener, Henri. Fokker – the man and the aircraft Herts, UK: Harleyford Publications, 1961. LCCN 61-10595

 Molson, K.M. Pioneering in Canadian Air Transport. Winnipeg: James Richardson & Sons, 1974. .
 Nevin, David. The Pathfinders (The Epic of Flight Series). Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1980. .
 Postma, Thijs. Fokker: Aircraft Builders to the World. London: Jane's, 1979. .
 Weyl, A.R. Fokker: The Creative Years. London: Putnam, 1965.

External links

 Fokker Technologies Official company website
 Pictures of the Fokker fleet
 Rekkof official website
 Fokker, a living history
 FokkerPilot.net
 Fokker aircraft website
 The assembly-hall at Fokker with many F-16s
 Armistice terms

Manufacturing companies established in 1912
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the Netherlands
Science and technology in the Netherlands
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1996
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
1912 establishments in Germany
Dutch brands
Dutch companies disestablished in 1996
German companies established in 1912
Defence companies of the Netherlands

Fokker


Cazelle de Saint Affrique is a soft-ripened, pungent cheese, made from pasteurized sheep's milk in the Midi-Pyrénées region of France.  It is an artisan cheese, hand-fashioned in small rounds.

The cheese derives its name from the cazelle, a stone building common in Aveyron, the area where the cheese originates.  Cazelles are used to house hay, and to shelter the local shepherds and their sheep.  The Saint Affrique portion of the name references the commune of Saint Affrique, where the cheese is processed.

The cheese is made in a manner similar to Crottin de Chavignol. At six weeks old it has a smooth, dense and slightly gummy texture. The flavor is mildly nutty, with a very clean finish. The edible rind is supple, with a slightly bitter flavor.

References

Sheep's-milk cheeses
Midi-Pyrénées
French cheeses
Occitan cheeses

Cazelle de Saint Affrique


Éamon de Valera (born with the name Edward George de Valera, ) (14 October 1882 – ) was one of the dominant political figures in 20th century Ireland. Co-owner of one of the Irish Press Newspapers, he served in public office from 1917 to 1973.  Several times he was either head of state or head of government in Ireland.

De Valera was a leader of Ireland's struggle for independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.  He also led opposition to the anti-Treaty in the Irish Civil War.   De Valera was the author of the Constitution of Ireland.

His family
De Valera was born in the New York Nursery and Child's Hospital in New York City in 1882 to an Irish mother; he said that his parents were Catherine Coll Wheelwright, an immigrant from Bruree, County Limerick, and Juan Vivion de Valera, a Spanish-Cuban settler and sculptor, and that they were married in 1881 in New York.

In 1885, after his father's death, de Valera was taken to Ireland by his Uncle Ned. He was brought up by his grandmother Elizabeth Coll, her son Patrick and her daughter Hannie, in County Limerick.  At the age of sixteen, he won a scholarship to Blackrock College, County Dublin. In his first year in Blackrock College he was Student of the Year. In 1903 was became mathematics teacher at Rockwell College, County Tipperary. When he graduated in mathematics from the Royal University of Ireland he went back to Blackrock College  He taught in many other colleges, including Belvedere college where he taught Kevin Barry, the young Irish republican hanged by the British during the Irish War of Independence.

Early political activity
De Valera was an active gaeilgeoir (Irish language enthusiast). In 1908 he joined the Conradh na Gaeilge (the Gaelic League), where he met Dubhghlas de hÍde, later first President of Ireland, and also Sinéad Flanagan, another teacher who he married on 8 January 1910 at St Paul's Church, Arran Quay, Dublin.

Easter Rising
On 25 November 1913 he joined the Irish Volunteers. He was soon elected captain of the Donnybrook company, then commandant of the Third Battalion and adjutant of the Dublin Brigade. He also joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood, which secretly controlled the central executive of the Volunteers.

On 24 April 1916 the Easter Rising began. De Valera occupied Boland's Mills, Grand Canal Street in Dublin. After the fighting de Valera was court-martialled, convicted, and sentenced to death, but the sentence was changed to for life imprisonment. This was because he was not kept in Kilmainham Jail with the first prisoners executed. The delay meant British authorities started to check if he really was an American citizen, and wonder how the United States would react to the execution of one of its citizens.

De Valera's supporters say he showed leadership skills and a great ability for planning. His enemies claim he suffered a nervous breakdown during the Rising.

After imprisonment in Dartmoor, Maidstone and Lewes prisons in England, de Valera and other prisoners were released under an amnesty in June 1917. On 10 July 1917 he was elected member of the British House of Commons for East Clare (the constituency which he represented in Dail Eireann until 1959) in a by-election after MP Willie Redmond died fighting in World War I.

President of Sinn Féin
British newspapers and picture postcards often called the Easter Rising the Sinn Féin rebellion. From 1917 de Valera was president of Sinn Féin.  He and the other survivors of the Rising took over Sinn Féin and then turned into a republican party. Arthur Griffith, had wanted an Anglo-Irish "dual monarchy", with an independent Ireland governed separately from Britain, their only link being a shared monarch, like Canada and Britain today.

That had been the way Ireland was governed with the so-called Constitution of 1782 under Henry Grattan, until Ireland joined with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801.

President of Dáil Éireann

Sinn Féin won 73 out of 104 Irish seats in the 1918 general election.  A lot more people wanted an independent Ireland  after the leaders of the Easter Rising were executed of the 1916 leaders and the threat of conscription.  In January 1919, these Sinn Féin MPs, or "TD"s, met in the Mansion House (City Hall), Dublin and formed the First Dáil Éireann ().

De Valera was not at this meeting because he had been arrested.   He escaped from Lincoln Prison in February 1919, and when he got back to Dublin he replaced Cathal Brugha as Prime Minister .   The Dáil Constitution passed by the Dáil said that the Príomh Aire was prime minister not head of state.

In September 1919 the British authorities said that The Dáil was illegal.  The fighting against Britain escalated into the Irish War of Independence (also called the 'Anglo-Irish War').

President of the Republic
In January 1921, he got back from the United States with a loan of $5,500,000  This made him very popular.

In August 1921 de Valera had Dáil Éireann change the 1919 Dáil Constitution to upgrade his title from prime minister to President of the Republic. He said that as Irish head of state he would not go to the Treaty Negotiations of October–December 1921 because the British head of state, King George V would not be there either.

The Treaty
The Treaty replaced the Republic by a dominion of the British Commonwealth with the King represented by a Governor-General of the Irish Free State. This was just how Canada was governed.  Treaty was finally signed on 6 December 1921.

De Valera's opponents said that he did not join the negotiations because he knew that the British would only allow an Irish dominion, not a republic, and did not want to be blamed for giving up the idea of a republic. De Valera said he was angry because the delegates working out the treaty had not asked him before signing the treaty.  But at a secret session of the Dáil during the Treaty Debates and publicised in January 1922, his ideas for a treaty included dominion status, the 'Treaty Ports', a veto by the parliament in Belfast, and  the king as head of the Commonwealth. Ireland's would pay a share of the imperial debt.

When the Treaty was accepted by 64 votes to 57, de Valera and a large minority of Sinn Féin TDs left Dáil Éireann. He resigned and Arthur Griffith was elected President of Dáil Éireann in his place.

In March 1922, de Valera made an angry speech saying that, if the Treaty was accepted, it might be necessary to "wade through Irish blood" to achieve Irish freedom. Later he said that  De Valera's enemies said that this was encouraging civil war.

Civil War broke out in late June 1922.

Civil War
Fighting in the Irish Civil War started on 28 June 1922 and ended in May 1923 when the pro-treaty Free State forces beat the anti-Treaty IRA.

De Valera was supposed to be the head of the anti-Treatyites, but he had little power. Usually he had little influence with the IRA Chief of Staff, Liam Lynch. De Valera formed a republican government on 25 October 1922 but it had no real authority and was never like the Dáil governments of 1919–21, which was an alternative government to the British, even running their own courts.

When the IRA's new Chief of Staff called a ceasefire Frank Aiken on 30 May 1923 the government had won. Many republicans were arrested when they came out of hiding and returned home. De Valera was arrested in County Clare and interned until 1924.

The 'empty formula'
De Valera resigned from the presidency of Sinn Féin after losing a vote to accept the Free State Constitution (if the Oath of Allegiance was dropped).  In March 1926 he formed a new party, Fianna Fáil (Soldiers of Destiny).  Fianna Fáil was successful in elections, but for over a year a it did not take its seats in the Dáil.  When a new law made candidates promise to take the oath if elected,  de Valera and his TDs took the Oath of Allegiance in 1927.  They said the oath was "an empty formula" that is, just words they had to say, they did not have to believe them.

Back in Power
Six years after it was founded Fianna Fáil won 72 seats in the 1932 general election, and had a plurality in the Dáil.  That is, it was the largest party but had less than half of all of the seats, which would be a majority. On 9 March Governor-General James McNeill appointed de Valera President of the Executive Council . He abolished the oath and stopped paying money owed to Britain.

De Valera called a general election in January 1933 and won 77 seats, giving him an overall majority. Under his leadership, Fianna Fáil won further general elections in 1937, 1938, 1943 and 1944.

De Valera was his own Minister for External Affairs. He attended meetings of the League of Nations, and was president of the Council of the League on his first appearance at Geneva in 1932.  In 1934, he supported the admission of the Soviet Union into the League. In September 1938 he was elected nineteenth president of the Assembly of the League, a tribute to the international recognition he had won by his independent stance on world questions.

De Valera's new constitution – Bunreacht na hÉireann

During the 1930s, de Valera changed a lot of the Irish Free State constitution.

The Governor-General of the Irish Free State could reserve or deny the Royal Assent to any changes after being advised (ordered) by His Majesty's Government in London.  After a legal argument with the British Government the power this was changed to His Majesty's Government in the Irish Free State

That meant that de Valera was the only person who could stop a bill becoming law.

De Valera abolished:
 The Oath of Allegiance;
 Appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council; and
 The Senate, which was controlled by the opposition parties.

When King Edward VIII abdicted (resigned) as  King of Ireland de Valera passed two Bills;
 one took out all mention of the King and Governor-General in the constitution
 the second said the King's only job was formally sending and receiving ambassadors.

In July 1936, de Valera wrote to King Edward in London saying that he planned to introduce a new constitution.  This was only a little different from the Bunreacht na hÉireann (meaning literally the Constitution of Ireland).

The new constitution was not an act of the Dáil but was voted for in a referendum, because de Valera wanted a new start for the new country he was setting up.

Neutrality in World War II
Ireland stayed neutral in World War II, which was called The Emergency in Ireland.   Both the possibility of a German invasion and a British invasion were discussed in the Dáil.

But even though de Valera hated Britain, Irish neutrality often favoured the allies:

 The Irish government weather reportshelped to decide when D-Day should be;
 British planes from Lough Erne in County Fermanagh flew a shortcut across Donegal to patrol the Atlantic.
 The German Ambassador's Eduard Hempel radio transmitter was shut down in 1943.
 Crashed airmen "operational" flights were interned until the end of the war.  If the flight was "non-operational" the crew were allowed home.  Nearly all Allied airmen were said to be on "non-operational" flights, while German airmen were judged to be on "operational"
 Roughly 45,000 Irish  men voluntarily joined the Allied forces (including Patrick and Tom Clancy, who had also been IRA volunteers).

In May 1945, de Valera visited  the German minister in Dublin, to express sympathy over the death of the Führer. Along with President Douglas Hyde, de Valera was the only head of government to do this.  De Valera did not visit the American embassy following the death of Roosevelt, as David Gray, the American Ambassador said he would not receive de Valera. All flags were flown at half-mast on Roosevelt's death on de Valera's instructions

Post–war period
After sixteen years in power, Fianna Fáil lost the 1948 election. John A. Costello was Taoiseach of a coalition Government.   It was Costello who declared Ireland a republic, making de Valera's friend President Ó Ceallaigh Ireland's head of state. In 1951 de Valera was returned to power but without an overall majority. Many people thought this was his worst government.  He spent several months in the Netherlands where he had six operations on his eyes.

Fianna Fáil was defeated again in the 1954 general election, but in 1957 de Valera, won a majority of nine seats. This was the beginning of another sixteen year period in office for Fianna Fáil. But de Valera was only Taoiseach for two years.

In 1959 he was elected President of Ireland, as which he served until 1973. At his retirement at the age of 90, he was the oldest Head of State in the world.

Éamon de Valera died in Linden Convalescent Home, Blackrock, County Dublin on 29 August 1975 aged 92. His wife, Sinéad de Valera, four years his senior, had died the previous January, on the eve of their 65th wedding anniversary. He is buried in Dublin's Glasnevin Cemetery.

Overview

In his recent controversial biography by Tim Pat Coogan says that his failures are more than his achievements, and that de Valera's popularity fell as Michael Collins's rose.

Garret Fitzgerald summarised his last term as Taoiseach;

Total economic stagnation marked de Valera's last seven years as leader of his party - because all of the chickens of his disastrous commitment to an inward-looking policy of self sufficiency were coming home to roost.

References

Other websites

1882 births
1975 deaths
Fianna Fáil politicians
Government ministers of Ireland
Politicians from New York City
Prisoners of war
Sinn Féin members of Dáil Éireann
Taoisigh of Ireland

Éamon de Valera


Kummattikali or Kummatti Kali is the famous colorful mask-dance of Kerala, prevalent in Thrissur District, Palakkad District and parts of South Malabar. During the festival of Onam, Kummattikali performers move from house to house collecting small gifts and entertaining people. Kummatti dances are rampant in the Thrissur district during Onam. Pristine or original form of Kummattikali can be seen in the Bhadrakali temple in Palakkad district. Kerala

Costumes

The costumes are a most interesting fact of Kummattikali. The dancers don a heavily painted colourful wooden mask depicting faces of Krishna, Narada, Kiratha, Darika, or hunters. These masks are usually made out of saprophyte, jack fruit tree, Alstonia scholaris, Hog Plum tree or the Coral tree.

The dancers wear skirts woven out of plaited grass. Some cover their whole body with bunches of grass for a more bushy appearance. The semblance is made more joyful with the 'talla' attached externally to the mask giving the appearance of a toothless open mouth. Dancers also hold and manipulate long sticks of residuary agricultural produce called 'Kummattikali': it is from this that the dance derives its name. Their dance is related to Shaiva myth. 'Thamma' (an old woman) walks in front with the help of a stick. Thamma is symbolic of mother of every being and everything.

Kummatti dancers are a sight to watch as they move around from house to house collecting jaggery, rice, or small amounts of cash. Onlookers, specially children take great delight in their performance.

Performance

The rhythm for the dance movements is provided by vibrating the string of a bow like instrument called an Onavillu. Areca nut wood is used to make the bow and the strings are beaten with a narrow bamboo stick.

The themes of Kummattikali are mostly taken from the stories of Ramayana, Darika Vadham, the story of Shiva and folk tales like Manjan Nayare Pattu.

It may be noted that folk art of Kerala can be classified into two broad categories - ritualistic and non-ritualistic. Ritualistic can be further divided into - Devotional, performed to please a particular god and goddess and Magical Art Forms. Theyyam, Thirra, Poothamthira, Kannyar Kali, Kummattikali, etc. are some of devotional art forms.

In popular culture

In the 2020 Malayalam action film Ayyappanum Koshiyum, the character Ayyappan's past as a vigilante assassin disguised as a Kummatti performer is a central plot point. Ayyappan's mastery of Kalari martial arts skills enabled him to kill 13 assassins in Kummatti disguise sent by evil landlords to eliminate worker's union members.

References

Dances of Kerala
Arts of Kerala

Kummattikali


The Busan International Film Festival (BIFF, previously Pusan International Film Festival, PIFF), is one of the biggest movie festivals that is held in Busan, South Korea. It has been held every year since 1996. Although the name of Pusan changed to Busan, the festival committee decided to keep the name for the PIFF's authority. Every year, millions of people participate in this festival. They do this because many movie stars come to the festival. It is also the first international movie festival in Korea. PIFF promotes the culture and art of Busan internationally. It also helps Korean movies be known to the world movie market, and finds talented movie directors.

Movie festivals
Busan
Festivals in South Korea
1996 establishments in Asia
1990s establishments in South Korea

Busan International Film Festival


Adware is an advertising computer program that can be put there by other people on someone's computer, sometimes without their permission. It is controversial because sometimes businesses put the program there so they can see what people are doing or what web pages they are browsing. They then put an advertisement that is of the same subject as the web-page the person is looking at. This can be good if the person is trying to buy something, but many people do not want advertisements. Many people also do not want other people to find out what they are doing or what web pages they are looking at. An example is in the popular peer-to-peer file sharing program, Kazaa. When someone downloads it, it installs adware on their computer that then sends advertisements to the computer. Some people do not like this so they use an illegally changed version of this program called Kazaa Lite.

Removal tools
Removal tools have been developed to assist users in clearing out these unwanted programs.
Like many programs that people use for security, the program must be changed often. Updating allows the removal tool to recognize new types of adware. This can be done by downloading files over the internet using the 'update' option in the program.

Software

Adware


Fred A. Lennon (November 26, 1905 – July 23, 1998) was an American manufacturer and philanthropist. He was the founder and chairman of Swagelok Company.

Known for avoiding attention, Forbes magazine once described him as "the shiest billionaire".

Early life
Fred Lennon was born in Providence, Rhode Island, to Patrick and Catherine Lennon, as the youngest of their nine children. By the age of 42, he was living with his wife in an apartment in Cleveland, Ohio, when he borrowed US $500 from his wife's uncle to buy The Crawford Fitting Company later to be renamed Swagelok Company. Running the small business from the kitchen in his home, he bought out his partner, Cullen B. Crawford and the patent of the Swagelok Tube Fitting, a revolutionary two-ferrule compression-type fitting for fluid handling systems.

Business leadership
Moving the company to Solon, Ohio, it steadily expanded into a large, international manufacturing corporation. Under Lennon's leadership, Swagelok gradually became a Fortune 500 Privately Held Company, producing thousands of products, and holding over US$1 billion in assets and employing a staff of 3,000. In leading the company for over 50 years, Lennon never missed a day of work.

Personal life

Lennon was an enthusiastic supporter of private business interests and an active member of the Republican Party. He counted among his personal friends former President Ronald Reagan and former Ohio Governor George Voinovich (he helped both with their election campaigns). Though playing a public role, he preferred to stay a private man, generally preferring to stay out of the limelight whenever possible. He lived with his wife, Alice, and their two children in Hunting Valley, Ohio.

Philanthropy

Lennon was active in, and contributed much to, a variety of charitable and nonprofit organizations in Ohio. He was a founder and chairman of The Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University, and president of Gilmour Academy in Gates Mills. He created the Fred A. Lennon Foundation, which between its establishment in 1965 and its dissolution in 1995, donated millions to a variety of schools, nonprofit foundations and charities. Following his death in 1998, The Fred A. Lennon Charitable Trust was created to honor him posthumously, and has continued to fund and assist schools and charities in the region.

50th Anniversary

As part of Swagelok's 50th Anniversary in 1997, Lennon rented out the Rock n Roll Hall of Fame and Science Center for all Swagelok employees and their families.

References

Sources
 Fred Lennon (1905 – 1998). Swagelok Company. Retrieved on 2008-01-26.

 Keister, Lisa A. (2000) Wealth in America: Trends in Wealth Inequality

1905 births
1998 deaths
Ashland University people
American billionaires
American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies
Businesspeople from Providence, Rhode Island
20th-century American businesspeople

Fred A. Lennon


Naadam (Mongolian Naadam Festival) (, classical Mongolian: Naɣadum, , literally "games") is a traditional festival celebrated in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and Tuva Republic. The festival is also locally termed "eriin gurvan naadam" (), "the three games of men".

The games are Mongolian wrestling, horse racing, and archery, and are held throughout the country during midsummer. Women have started participating in the archery and girls in the horse-racing games, but not in Mongolian wrestling.

In 2010, Naadam was inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO.

Overview

Origins
Naadam is the most widely watched festival among Mongols and is believed to have existed for centuries in one fashion or another. It has its origin in the activities, such as military parades and sporting competitions such as archery, horse riding and wrestling, that followed the celebration of various occasions, including weddings or spiritual gatherings. It later served as a way to train soldiers for battle and was also connected to Mongols' nomadic lifestyle. Mongolians practice their unwritten holiday rules that include a long song to start the holiday, then a Biyelgee dance. Traditional cuisine, or Khuushuur, is served around the Sports Stadium along with a special drink made of fermented horse milk (airag). The three games of wrestling, horse racing, and archery are recorded in the 13th-century book The Secret History of the Mongols. During the Qing dynasty's rule, Naadam became a festival officially held by sums.

It began to be held annually in 1639 with a dance festival dedicated to the High Saint Zanabazar. In this festival of Shireet White Lake, Bokh Lama won in wrestling, and Bonkhor Donir's horse won the championship.

In 1772, a great festival was held to worship Khentii mountain. It is called the Festival of Ten Governments. In 1912, the Ten Government Games, which used to be played with losing points, became an annual state game. Until the death of Bogd Khan in 1925, the Ten Government Festival became a state festival. Ten Government Games have been held 125 times.

Communist era
Naadam during the period of the Mongolian People's Republic was associated with the Mongolian Revolution of 1921. The first official military parade in Communist Mongolia took place in 1921 in honor of the victories of Damdin Sükhbaatar in the revolution. It was celebrated as a Buddhist/shaman holiday until secularization in the 1930s under the Communist influence of the Soviet Union.

The anniversary parades of the Mongolian People's Army on Sükhbaatar Square were generally held on jubilee years (specifically in 1946, 1951, 1956, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986 and 1991), alongside the International Workers Day and October Revolution Day parades. General T. Galsan was the longtime commander these parades. During these events, party and government leaders viewed the events from the top of Sükhbaatar's Mausoleum. After 1991, the communist practice was abandoned with the exception of 1996 when a parade in the National Sports Stadium commemorated the 790th anniversary of the founding of Mongolia and the 75th anniversary of the revolution.

Many of the celebrations were celebrated with the participation of foreign communists who visited the country, including Mikhail Suslov, Józef Cyrankiewicz, and Władysław Gomułka.

Modern celebrations and traditions
The two largest Naadams held in Mongolia today are the Danshig Naadam and the National Naadam. The former was only instituted as an annual event in 2015, having previously been held irregularly and commemorates Mongolia's independence from the Qing dynasty, and also coincides with Mongolian State Flag Day. The latter formally commemorates the 1921 Revolution a decade later, when communist invaded and deposed Bogd Khan, spillover from the Russian Civil War. Naadam also celebrates the achievements of the new state.
Naadam is also celebrated in different regions of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in July and August. In the Tuva Republic, Naadam is on 15 August.

The three sports are called Danshig games. They became the great celebration of the new nation, where the nobility got together to dedicate to the Bogd Khan (Jabzundamba Khutugtu), the new head of state.

Genghis Khan's nine horse tails, representing the nine tribes of the Mongols, are still ceremonially transported from Sukhbaatar Square to the Stadium to open the Naadam festivities. At the opening and closing ceremonies, there are impressive parades of mounted cavalry, athletes and monks.

Another popular Naadam activity is the playing of games using shagai, sheep anklebones that serve as game pieces and tokens of both divination and friendship. In the larger Naadam festivals, tournaments may take place in a separate venue.

Recently, concerns have been raised about the perceived corruption of the festival and its ambiguous symbolism.

National Naadam Festival
Alongside the Danshig Naadam, the biggest festival is the National Naadam Festival, which is held in the Mongolian capital, Ulaanbaatar, during the National Holiday from 11 to 13 July, in the National Sports Stadium. It begins with an elaborate introduction ceremony featuring dancers, athletes, horse riders, and musicians. After the ceremony, the competitions begin. The competitions are mainly horseback riding.

Three games

Wrestling

A total of 512 or 1024 wrestlers meet in a single-elimination tournament that lasts nine or ten rounds.  Mongolian traditional wrestling is an untimed competition in which wrestlers lose if they touch the ground with any part of their body other than their feet or hands. When picking pairs, the wrestler with the greatest fame has the privilege to choose his opponent.  Wrestlers wear two-piece costumes consisting of a tight shoulder vest (zodog) and shorts (shuudag). Only men are allowed to participate.

Each wrestler has an "encourager" called a zasuul.  The zasuul sings a song of praise for the winning wrestler after rounds 3, 5, and 7.  Winners of the 7th or 8th stage (depending on whether the competition features 512 or 1024 wrestlers) earn the title of zaan, "elephant".  The winner of the 9th or 10th stage is called arslan, "lion". In the final competition, all the "zasuuls" drop in the wake of each wrestler as they take steps toward each other. Two-time arslans are called the titans / giants, or avraga.

Horse racing

Unlike Western horse racing, which consists of short sprints generally not much longer than 2 km, Mongolian horse racing as featured in Naadam is a cross-country event, with races 15–30 km long. The length of each race is determined by age class.  For example, two-year-old horses race for  and seven-year-olds for . Up to 1000 horses from any part of Mongolia can be chosen to participate.  Race horses are fed a special diet.

Children from 5 to 13 are chosen as jockeys and train in the months preceding the races. While jockeys are an important component, the main purpose of the races is to test the skill of the horses.

Before the races begin, the audience sings traditional songs and the jockeys sing a song called Gingo.  Prizes are awarded to horses and jockeys. The top five horses in each class earn the title of  and the top three are given gold, silver, and bronze medals. The winning jockey is praised with the title of  or leader of ten thousand.  The horse that finishes last in the Daaga race (two-year-old horses race) is called  (meaning "full stomach"). A song is sung to the  wishing him luck to be next year's winner.

Archery

In this competition both men and women may participate. It is played by teams of ten. Each archer is given four arrows; the team must hit 33 "surs". Men shoot their arrows from 75 meters away while women shoot theirs from 65 meters away. Traditionally the archers wear their national clothing (Deel) during the competition. All the archers wear leather bracers up to the elbow on their outstretched arm, so that the deel's cuff does not interfere with shooting.

Mongolian archery is unique for having dozens of surs as targets. Each sur is a small woven or wooden cylinder. They are placed on top of each other forming a wall three-high, which is approximately 8 inches high by 5 feet wide. Knocking a sur out of the wall with an arrow counts as a hit, though knocking a sur out of the centre will bring a competitor more points.  When the archer hits the target, the judge says uuhai which means "hooray". After each hit, an official repairs the damaged wall and makes it ready for the next attempt. The winners of the contest are granted the titles of "national marksman" and "national markswoman".

See also
 Tsagaan Sar (English "White Moon"), the Mongolian Lunar New Year (the first most important Mongolian holiday before Naadam).
 Great Kurultáj
 Kurultai
 Sabantuy
 The World Qoroltai of the Bashkirs
 Qurultay of the Crimean Tatar People
 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists

References

External links

Chinggis Khaan's Mongolia. S. Uranbileg and E. Amarbilig. Ulaanbaatar, 2006, 156 p. . In English.
Naadam Festival, Official Website
Naadam Festival, The Center for the Study of Eurasian Nomads
Naadam Festival Blog- Mongolia Naadam Festival
Mongolia Naadam Festival Tours- Mongolia Naadam FestivalTours
Mongolia Naadam Festival and Events- Mongolia Naadam Festival and Events
Audio coverage of horse racing

Multi-sport events in Mongolia
Buryat culture
Tuvan culture
National holidays
Public holidays in Mongolia
Cultural festivals in Mongolia
July observances
Summer traditions
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
National multi-sport events
Equestrian festivals
Sports festivals in Mongolia
Summer events in Mongolia

Naadam


A Case of Need is a medical thriller/mystery novel written by Michael Crichton, his fourth novel and the only under the pseudonym Jeffery Hudson. It was first published in 1968 by The World Publishing Company (New York) and won an Edgar Award in 1969.

The novel was adapted into the 1972 film The Carey Treatment, and the book was re-released in 1993 under Crichton's own name. The novel tackles the issues of abortion and racism as they were in late 1960s America.

Plot summary

Dr. John Berry, the protagonist, is a pathologist working in Boston during the 1960s, a time when abortion was illegal in the United States. The story opens with an introduction of the various requirements and challenges of the medical profession during the era. Subsequently, Dr. Berry is notified that his friend, an obstetrician named Arthur Lee, has been arrested and accused of performing an illegal abortion that led to the death of Karen Randall, a member of a prominent Boston medical dynasty. Berry does not believe the allegations, but the situation is further complicated by the fact that Lee is already well-known within the medical community as an abortion provider and that Berry has in the past helped Lee disguise medical samples to hide the fact that Lee's dilation and curettage patients were pregnant.

After visiting his friend in jail, Berry sets out to prove Lee's innocence. He investigates the personal life of the dead woman, creating an accurate portrait of her past, psychology, and character. During his search, which lasts several days, vandals attack Lee's home. The protagonist's knowledge of medicine and law are helpful in overcoming various barriers in his search, including a hostile police captain and bribes from the scion of the Randall family itself: Karen's father, a well-established (though mediocre) doctor.

Eventually, with the aid of an unscrupulous lawyer named Wilson, Berry is able to obtain solid evidence showing Karen Randall's uncle (who had already performed three previous abortions for her) to be the culprit. Nonetheless, Berry is troubled by this conclusion and continues his investigation despite Wilson's displeasure. Eventually, he discovers that Karen's drug-dealing friends, Roman and Angela, performed the botched abortion, but Berry is attacked and sent to the hospital before he can reveal his discovery. Subsequently, Berry's attacker, who turns out to be Karen's African-American boyfriend, is also brought in an ambulance, dead after a fatal fall. The actual abortion care provider attempts to commit suicide. Berry forces her to confess in the hospital by threatening her with what she believes is an excruciatingly painful dose of Nalorphine (but is actually water).

Berry continues to be suspicious about Karen's boyfriend's death, and ultimately forces one of his old friends and colleagues (the uncle of the woman who did Karen's abortion) to admit to his involvement before turning him in to the police. However, despite being proven innocent, Lee's reputation has been ruined, and he decides to move to California. The novel ends with several appendices describing some lesser-known aspects of the medical profession and a postscript discussing current problems in medicine, including abortion.

Background
Crichton had published several novels under the pseudonym John Lange but felt since this one was more serious than the Lange books it needed to come out under a different name. He planned to write further Jeffrey Hudson books about medical fiction, but this did not come about.  The pen name Jeffrey Hudson came from the name of a dwarf in the time of King Charles I of England, who was served to the monarch in a pie and later captured by Barbary Pirates.

The novel was republished in hardcover under Crichton's name in 1993. Crichton was furious at this, called the action "despicable", and said it misled the public into thinking it was a new novel.

References

1968 American novels
American mystery novels
American thriller novels
American novels adapted into films
Edgar Award-winning works
English-language novels
Novels about abortion
Novels by Michael Crichton
Novels set in Boston
Works published under a pseudonym

A Case of Need


John Bratton (March 7, 1831 – January 12, 1898) was a U.S. Representative from South Carolina, as well as a general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He rose from private to brigadier general and led a regiment and brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia in several important battles in both the Eastern Theater and Western Theater during the war.

Early life and career
Bratton was born in Winnsboro, South Carolina. He attended the Academy of Mount Zion Institute in Winnsboro and graduated from South Carolina College at Columbia in 1850 and from South Carolina Medical College at Charleston in 1853. While at South Carolina College, he was a member of the Euphradian Society. He practiced medicine in Winnsboro from 1853 to 1861. Bratton was also a successful planter, acquiring high valued real-estate and as many as seventy-five slaves by 1860.

Civil War service
John Bratton was one of only a few men who enlisted in the Confederate Army as a private, rose to the rank of brigadier general, and fought in both Eastern and Western theaters during the Civil War.

He enlisted in the Confederate States Army on April 1, 1861, as a private in Company C of the 6th South Carolina Infantry and was promoted a month later to captain. On March 1, 1862, he became a colonel in charge of the regiment. He participated in the Peninsula Campaign and was wounded and captured in the Battle of Seven Pines.

On June 1, 1862, under the command of Maj. Gen. James Longstreet and Brig. Gen. Richard H. Anderson, Bratton led the 6th South Carolina Regiment in an assault on several isolated Union entrenchments west of Seven Pines, Virginia. Bratton's 6th Regiment was the lead Confederate regiment in the Confederate advance through and behind enemy lines. During the assault Bratton sustained a severe injury to his left arm and shoulder. Unable to make it back to Confederate lines on his own, he was being assisted by another wounded soldier from his regiment but was subsequently captured by Union forces when he accidentally stumbled into their lines. Upon hearing word of the 6th Regiment's gallantry, Union Brig. Gen. Philip Kearny saw to it that Bratton received the utmost care. Bratton was released two months later on August 31, 1862.

Bratton rejoined his regiment in October 1862 and participated in the Battle of Fredericksburg in December. In the spring of 1863, his regiment missed the Battle of Chancellorsville because it accompanied Longstreet's Corps in the Siege of Suffolk, where Bratton served as temporary brigade commander. The regiment garrisoned Richmond, Virginia, while Robert E. Lee's army fought the Gettysburg Campaign during June and July. In the fall of 1863, Col. Bratton's 6th South Carolina accompanied Gen. Longstreet's corps to the Western Theater. He was present in several battles in the Tennessee area, including the Chattanooga Campaign and the Knoxville Campaign.

Bratton's regiment did not reach the Army of Tennessee until after the Battle of Chickamauga. Brig. Gen. Micah Jenkins replaced Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood after he was wounded at Chickamauga and Bratton once again served as brigade commander. Bratton led a night attack on Federal forces at Wauhatchie on October 28–29, 1863, during which Bratton had the 1st, 2nd, 5th, and 6th South Carolina Regiments and Hampton's legion at his disposal. Opposing him were the 109th and 111th Pennsylvania Regiments along with the 137th and 149th New York Regiments. Although the brigade attack was well-executed, the battle was a significant Confederate defeat at the beginning of the Chattanooga Campaign.

Bratton was promoted to brigadier general dating from May 6, 1864. He led an infantry brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia for most of the rest of the war, seeing action in such battles as the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor. He then participated in the defense of Petersburg and was wounded in the shoulder at the Battle of Darbytown Road.

He surrendered his brigade, the largest in the Army of Northern Virginia at the end of the war, at Appomattox Court House in April 1865 and was paroled on April 9.

Postbellum career
In the years following the war, Bratton concentrated on farming cotton and raising imported livestock. He entered politics during Reconstruction as a supporter of the conservative Democratic regime dominated by Gen. Wade Hampton.

Bratton served as member of the State constitutional convention in 1865. He represented Fairfield in the South Carolina Senate in 1866. He served as chairman of the South Carolina delegation in the 1876 Democratic National Convention. He served as delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1880. Bratton was elected comptroller general of South Carolina by the legislature, to fill a vacancy, in 1881. Bratton was elected to the Forty-eighth Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the death of John H. Evins and served from December 8, 1884, to March 3, 1885. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1884.

He retired from active politics and again engaged in planting at "Farmington" near Winnsboro. He died in Winnsboro, South Carolina. He was interred in St. John's Episcopal Church Cemetery.

Honors
The General John Bratton Camp #1816 of the Sons of Confederate Veterans was named in his honor.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)

Notes

References
 Austin, J. Luke, General John Bratton: Sumter to Appomattox, in Letters to His Wife, New York: Proctor's Hall Press, 2003, .
 Coker, James L. "History of Company G, Ninth S.C. Regiment Infantry, S. C. Army and of Company E. Sixth S.C. Regiment Infantry, S.C. Army, Charleston SC: Walker, Evans & Cogswell, 1899.
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 Hewitt, Lawrence L., "John Bratton", The Confederate General, Vol. 1, Davis, William C., and Julie Hoffman (eds.), National Historical Society, 1991, .
 Meyers, Christopher C., "John Bratton", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, .
 U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
 Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1959, .
 Welsh, Jack D., Medical Histories of Confederate Generals, Kent State University Press, 1999, .
 Retrieved on 2008-02-13

External links
 204 North Zion Street - Wynn Dee Plantation in Winnsboro, S.C.
John Bratton Letters at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library

1831 births
1898 deaths
19th-century American politicians
American Civil War prisoners of war held by the United States
American planters
Confederate States Army brigadier generals
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from South Carolina
People of South Carolina in the American Civil War
People from Winnsboro, South Carolina
Democratic Party South Carolina state senators
Bratton
Members of the United States House of Representatives who owned slaves

John Bratton


This article is about a group of three musicians and about music written for three musicians.For other uses of trio, see Trio.
''For a piece of music called "trio" see also Minuet

A trio is a group of three people who are playing musical instruments or singing together. The word "trio" may also refer to the piece of music that they are playing.

Three people who are singing together are a "vocal trio".

Classical composers writing chamber music very often wrote trios. Usually the trio is called after the main instrument in the group. A piano trio is normally a piece for piano, violin and cello. A string trio is a piece for three string instruments, usually violin, viola and cello.

Many other combinations are possible. Brahms wrote a piece which is normally referred to as a "Horn Trio" for french horn, violin and piano. Mozart wrote a piece normally called a "Clarinet Trio" which is for clarinet, viola and piano.

A piece for three people sitting at one piano is usually called a piece for "piano 6 hands".

Trios can also apply to popular music, like Nickel Creek.

Trio (music)


The sport of sailing is racing other boats around a track or course which is marked with floating buoys or other fixed marks. Boats can be from small dinghies to large yachts. Usually, the small boats will just race each other and be of the same type. This is called one-design racing. Larger boats will often be of different sizes and race with a handicap system.

Yacht racing
On the water, a large sailing competition among different boats is a regatta. This is usually a number of races, where the boat crew that performs the best over the series of races is the winner. A lot of racing is done around buoys or marks in safe water near the shore but some longer offshore races cross open water.

America's Cup
It could be said that the sport of international yacht racing began with the America's Cup in 1851. A group of members from the New York Yacht Club built a 101-foot schooner which they called America. This yacht was sailed to England where it won a challenge race for a trophy called the Hundred Guineas Cup. The race course took them around the Isle of Wight. This trophy was subsequently renamed The America's Cup and remained with the New York Yacht Club until 1983. An Australian yacht called Australia 2 finally took it from them after 132-years.

Famous yacht races
There are a number of famous yacht races being held every year is different parts of the world. These are held using large yachts and involve racing for a number of days without stopping. It is a test of skill and strength over a long time.

Some of the most famous races are:
 Fastnet Race
 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race
 Transpacific Yacht Race
 Bermuda Race
 Hamilton Island Race Week
 Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac
 Governors Cup
 South Atlantic Race

Ocean racing
Several famous round-the-world races are held also and these are:
 Volvo Ocean Race (was called the Whitbread Round the World Race)
 Global Challenge
 Clipper Round the World Race.

Dinghy racing

History
The oldest known one-design sailing dinghy is the Water Wag. In 1887 a Mr Thomas Middleton proposed the idea of one design sailing punts, with centreboards all built and rigged the same. A number of these were built and the first race took place on April 12, 1887, in Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire) Harbour near Dublin in Ireland.

Now dinghy racing is a worldwide sport and holds events and championships in many classes every year.

Olympic Sailing
This is done entirely in small boats known as keelboats and dinghies. A keelboat has a weighted keel to keep it upright and a dinghy just uses a centreboard and the boat must be balanced by the crew. These were divided into different groups of identical boats called Classes. The first sailing Olympics took place in 1900 at Meulan near Le Havre in France. Over the years the classes of boats allowed to compete have changed because of new design and technology.

Fleet racing
Races are sailed in fleets of equal boats racing around the same course at the same time. These race courses include different sailing angles: upwind, downwind and reaching.

Match racing
This is one boat against another over a short course. It is important that the boats are the same and it is the normal race now used for the America's Cup but it is also sometimes used for racing in yacht clubs.

Class rules
The Racing Rules of Sailing are used for the sport of yacht racing, windsurfing, kitesurfing, model boat racing, dinghy racing and any other form of racing around a course with more than one boat while powered by the wind.

References

Boat racing
Sailing ships
Summer Olympic sports

Sailing (sport)


David Aldridge (born ) is an American sports journalist who works as a writer for The Athletic. He was previously a reporter for Turner Sports, contributing to their NBA and MLB coverage. Other outlets that Aldridge has written and contributed for include ESPN, NBA TV, NBA.com, The Washington Post, The Philadelphia Inquirer, and TBD. In 2016, he was awarded the Curt Gowdy Media Award by the Basketball Hall of Fame.

Biography

Education and early career
Aldridge was born in Washington, D.C. He is a graduate of DeMatha Catholic High School and American University and worked as a writer for The Washington Post, where he spent nine years. During that time Aldridge was a beat writer covering Georgetown University basketball, the Washington Bullets, and the Washington Redskins. He also covered the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, national college basketball and football, the Super Bowl, the Stanley Cup playoffs, the World Series, the Indianapolis 500, and the U.S. Open tennis championships. He is a fan of American University men's basketball.

ESPN
Before joining TNT in 2004, Aldridge reported for ESPN for eight years, primarily covering the NBA while occasionally doing NFL pieces. He wrote for ESPN.com and contributed to ESPN Radio. Aldridge frequently appeared on SportsCenter as well as NBA 2 Night (now NBA Fastbreak) and NBA Today. Aldridge conducted interviews for the SportsCenter "Sunday Conversations" with LeBron James, Allen Iverson, Shaquille O'Neal, Karl Malone and many others. He worked as an NBA sideline reporter both for ABC and ESPN in 2003 and 2004.

The Philadelphia Inquirer
Aldridge worked at The Philadelphia Inquirer from 2004 to 2008, covering the National Football League and National Basketball Association as a reporter and columnist. He was part of the Inquirer team that received a second-place award for the series "The Future of Pro Sports" in 2005 from the Society of Professional Journalists, Greater Philadelphia Chapter. He was initially scheduled to be one of dozens laid off at the paper in January 2007, but was retained.

Turner Sports
He worked as the "Insider" for TNT's Inside the NBA and did sideline reporting work during the regular season, All-Star Weekend and the NBA playoffs. He was also co-host of the weekly show The Beat on NBA TV, and was a commentator for other NBA on TNT features. He also worked as a sideline reporter for television broadcasts of college football games and the Major League Baseball divisional series.

The Tony Kornheiser Show
From February 2007 through June 2008, Aldridge appeared on The Tony Kornheiser Show on Washington Post Radio and later WWWT in Washington, D.C. as co-host. He returned as sometime co-host of the latest incarnation on WTEM in September 2009. As of 2016, he is a regular co-host on the show.

The Athletic
In late 2018, Aldridge left Turner Sports to join the staff of The Athletic as a writer.

References

External links
Archive of Aldridge's ESPN.com contributions

African-American writers
American newspaper reporters and correspondents
American television reporters and correspondents
American sportswriters
American University alumni
Living people
National Basketball Association broadcasters
Journalists from Washington, D.C.
Major League Baseball broadcasters
DeMatha Catholic High School alumni
College football announcers
College basketball announcers in the United States
21st-century African-American writers
20th-century African-American people
Year of birth missing (living people)

David Aldridge


Atchafalaya National Heritage Area is a federally designated National Heritage Area encompassing parts of fourteen parishes along the  Atchafalaya River in the U.S. State of Louisiana. The heritage area extends the length of the Atchafalaya Basin from the area of Ferriday in the north to the river's mouth beyond Morgan City. The National Heritage Area is divided into four regions: Upper, Between 2 Rivers, Bayou Teche Corridor and the Coastal Zone. The designation provides a framework for the promotion and interpretation of the area's cultural and historic character, and the preservation of the natural and built environment. The heritage area designation recognizes the area's unique environment and culture, and its contributions to music, English and French language, literature, and cuisine.

Major locales included in the Heritage Area include Avery Island, New Iberia, Morgan City, Lafayette, Opelousas, Baton Rouge, Plaquemine and Houma. Jean Lafitte National Historical Park, Longfellow-Evangeline State Historic Site and Plaquemine Lock State Historic Site are included in the heritage area, as well as the Louisiana State Museum branches in Baton Rouge and Patterson. Parishes partly or wholly included in the area include Concordia, Avoyelles, Pointe Coupee, St. Landry, Lafayette, St. Martin, Iberia, East Baton Rouge, Ascension, West Baton Rouge, Iberville, St. Mary, Assumption and Terrebonne parishes.

The National Heritage Area was authorized by Public Law 109–338, also known as the National Heritage Area Act of 2006.

References

External links
 Atchafalaya National Heritage Area website

National Heritage Areas of the United States
Protected areas established in 2006
2006 establishments in Louisiana
Protected areas of Concordia Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana
Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana
St. Landry Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of Lafayette Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of St. Martin Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of Iberia Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana
Ascension Parish, Louisiana
West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of Iberville Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of St. Mary Parish, Louisiana
Assumption Parish, Louisiana
Protected areas of Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana

Atchafalaya National Heritage Area


A reflecting pool or reflection pool is a pool of water that is in many memorials.  It is usually shallow and calm, so that a visitor can see a reflection of the memorial in the water.  Visitors are also supposed to think about what the memorial means while looking at the pool.  This is also called reflecting.

The most famous reflecting pool is the one leading up to the Taj Mahal in Agra, India. Other famous reflecting pools are the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool and the pool in front of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Bodies of water
Architectural elements
Gardening

Reflecting pool


The Würstelstand ("sausage stand") is the Austrian type of the take-away. These stands are very common in Vienna. Usually, they sell different kinds of sausages. It is not unusual for the people in Vienna to grab a pair of sausages after a performance at a theatre or opera house. In addition, a Würstelstand traditionally also sells Leberkäse. As a side dish, different chile peppers, gherkins and other pickled vegetables are available.

Fast food
Austrian culture

Würstelstand


Robert Charles Gill (January 17, 1931November 9, 2021) was an American illustrator and graphic designer.

Biography
Robert Charles Gill was born on January 17, 1931, in Brooklyn, New York.

Gill played the piano at summer resorts in the Catskill Mountains, New York, to pay his school tuition. He attended the Philadelphia Museum School of Art (1948–1951), Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (1951), City College of New York (1952, 1955). When he graduated he became a professional graphic designer in New York City.

Gill acted as a film title designer in several films, including several films of Ray Harryhausen.

In 1960 after an interview in a New York hotel room for a job in London, he moved to the UK to work for Charles Hobson.

April Fool's Day, 1962, Gill, Alan Fletcher and Colin Forbes established Fletcher/Forbes/Gill design studio, the forerunner of Pentagram. F/F/G soon outgrew their small studio and moved into a huge Victorian former gun factory on a canal. They started the Designers and Art Directors Association D&AD and opened a second office in Geneva.

In 1967, Gill left the partnership and assumed independent freelancing again, including teaching, filmmaking and writing children's books. He returned to New York in 1975 to write and design  Beatlemania, the largest  multimedia musical up to that time on Broadway, on which he worked with Robert Rabinowitz. He also proposed a peace monument for Times Square, Gill wanted to collect military junk from all over the world, pile it 40 feet high, spray it matte black, and mount it on a block of white marble. The New York City Fine Arts Commission did not like the idea.

For his graphic design work, Gill has won a number of awards, sold illustrations to Esquire, Architectural Forum, Fortune, Seventeen, and The Nation magazines and has illustrated children's books and designed film titles. He has also designed for Apple Corps records, Rainbow Theatre, Pirelli, Nestlé, CBS, Universal Pictures, Joseph Losey, Queen (now Harpers & Queen), High Times magazines and the United Nations. He was elected to the New York Art Directors Club Hall of Fame in 1991 and the Designers and Art Directors Association of London has presented him with their Lifetime Achievement Award.

He lived in New York with his wife, New York Public Radio's Sara Fishko. They had a son, Jack Gill, and a daughter, Kate Gill. Gill died on November 9, 2021, in Brooklyn, aged 90.

Teaching posts
 1955–1960, School of Visual Arts (SVA), Manhattan
 1959, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn
 1967–1969, Central School of Art and Design, London
 1969, Chelsea School of Art (now Chelsea College of Art and Design), London
 1970–1975, Royal College of Art (RCA), London
 1972–1974, Hornsey School of Art, London
 1981–1983, Parsons School of Design (now Parsons The New School for Design), Manhattan
 1992–1994, School of Visual Arts (SVA), Manhattan
 2003–2011, Graduate Communications Department, Pratt Institute, Manhattan

Awards (partial)
 1955, Gold Medal, New York Art Directors Club, for a CBS television title, US
 1999, President's Award, D&AD (British Design & Art Direction), UK

Books written

 Bob Gill's Portfolio, Amsterdam: Wim Crouwel / Stedelijk Museum, 1967
 Bob Gill's Portfolio, London: Lund Humphries, 1968
 I Keep Changing, New York: Scroll Press, 1971. | )
 Bob Gill's New York, London: Kynoch Press,  1971.
 Ups & Downs, Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1974.
 Forget All the Rules You Ever Learned About Graphic Design, Including the Ones in this Book, New York: Watson-Guptill, 1981. |
 Graphic Design Made Difficult, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. |
 Unspecial Effects for Graphic Designers, New York: Graphis, 2001 |
 Graphic Design as a Second Language, Victoria: Images Publishing Group, 2003 |
 Illustration, Victoria: Images Publishing Group, 2004 |
 LogoMania, Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, 2006 |
 Words Into Pictures, Victoria: Images Publishing Group, 2009 |
 Bob Gill, so far., London: Laurence King Publishing, 2011 |

References

 "Bob Gill" in Morgan, Ann (1984). Contemporary Designers, New York: Macmillan. |
 Baglee, Patrick (1999). "Reputations: Bob Gill", an interview, Eye magazine, vol. 33, no. 9,  Autumn.

External links

1931 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American artists
21st-century American artists
Academics of the Central School of Art and Design
Academics of the Royal College of Art
American graphic designers
American illustrators
Logo designers
Artists from Brooklyn

Bob Gill (artist)


The complement system helps or "complements" the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system.

The complement system consists of a number of small proteins found in the blood, made by the liver. Normally they circulate as inactive precursors ("pro-proteins"). When stimulated by a trigger, proteases split specific proteins to release active cytokines. This starts a series (a cascade) of further cleavages which release more cytokines. This amplifies (makes bigger) the response. So, if the original stimulus was an invading bacterium, the cytokines disrupt the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane of the target, which kills it.

References

Immunology

Complement system


Summertime means a time in Summer, one of the temperate seasons, and it could also mean:

In music:
 "Summertime" (song), a popular song by George Gershwin from the 1935 opera Porgy and Bess
 "Summertime" (Beyoncé song)
 "Summertime" (DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince song)
 "Summertime" (Kenny Chesney song)
 "Summertime", a song by Diana Ross from her 1987 album Red Hot Rhythm & Blues
 "Summertime", a 1998 single by SKAMP
 "Summer Time", a song by The Pretty Things from the 2000 reissue of their 1970 album Parachute
 "Summertime", a song by Bon Jovi from their 2007 album Lost Highway
 Summertime EP, an EP by The Subways
 Summertime (Joe Locke & Geoffrey Keezer Quartet album)
 Summertime (Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass album), a 1971 album by Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass

In movie, television, and theatre:
 Summertime (movie), a 1955 movie starring Katharine Hepburn
 L'Heure D'été (movie) (English: Summertime), a 2007 French movie starring Juliette Binoche
 Summertime (TV), a 1997 Irish television movie short
 Summertime (cartoon), a 1934 cartoon by Ub Iwerks, featured on an episode of Pee-wee's Playhouse
 Summertime, a play by Ugo Betti

In timekeeping:
 Summer Time, advancing the clock one hour during summer, in American English known as daylight saving time

Summertime


Karbala (Arabic:كربلاء; Transliterated:Al Karbala; also known as Karbala al-Muqaddasah, in the West, sometimes spelled Kerbela) is a city in Iraq. It is about 100 km southwest of Baghdad. It is the capital of Karbala Province. For Shi'a Muslims the city is one of the holiest cities, after Mekka,Medina, Jerusalem, and An Najaf.

Cities in Iraq

Karbala


Agnes of Bohemia, O.S.C. (, 20 January 1211 – 2 March 1282), also known as Agnes of Prague, was a medieval Bohemian princess who opted for a life of charity, mortification of the flesh and piety over a life of luxury and comfort. Although she was venerated soon after her death, Agnes was not beatified or canonized for over 700 years.

Life

Childhood
Agnes was the daughter of King Ottokar I of Bohemia, making her a descendant of Ludmila of Bohemia and Wenceslaus I, patron saints of Bohemia. Agnes's mother was Constance of Hungary, who was the sister of King Andrew II of Hungary, so Agnes was a first cousin to Elizabeth of Hungary.

When she was three years old, Agnes was entrusted to the care of Hedwig of Andechs, the wife of Duke Henry I the Bearded of Silesia. Hedwig placed her to be educated by a community of Cistercian nuns in a monastery that she herself had founded in Trzebnica. Upon her return to Prague, Agnes was entrusted to a priory of Premonstratensian Canonesses to continue her education.

Arranged marriages
At the age of eight, Agnes was betrothed to Henry, son of Emperor Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor. Henry was ten years old and had just been crowned King of Germany. According to custom, Agnes should have spent her childhood at her future husband's court. Emperor Frederick, King of Sicily, had his court in Palermo, but his son Henry, King of Germany, lived in Germany at the palace of Archbishop Engelbert in Cologne.

Agnes was sent to the court of Duke Leopold VI of Babenberg. Leopold, however, wanted the young Henry to marry his daughter, Margaret. After being betrothed for six years, Henry and Agnes's betrothal contract  was cancelled. Like other noble women of her time, Agnes was a valuable political pawn. In 1226, Agnes's father Ottokar went to war against the Babenbergs as a result of the cancelled betrothal. Ottokar then planned for Agnes to marry Henry III of England, but this was vetoed by the Emperor, who wanted to marry Agnes himself.

Foundress

Agnes refused to play any more part in a politically arranged marriage. She decided to devote her life to prayer and spiritual works, for which she sought the help of Pope Gregory IX. Emperor Frederick is said to have remarked: "If she had left me for a mortal man, I would have taken vengeance with the sword, but I cannot take offence because in preference to me she has chosen the King of Heaven."

On land donated by her brother, Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia, she founded the Hospital of St. Francis (circa 1232–33) and two friaries for the Franciscan friars, who had just come to Bohemia at her brother's invitation. Through them, Agnes learned of Clare of Assisi and her Order of Poor Ladies, the monastic counterpart of the friars. She began a correspondence with Clare (which lasted for over two decades).

Agnes built a monastery and friary complex attached to the hospital. It housed the Franciscan friars and the Poor Clare nuns who worked at the hospital. This religious complex was one of the first Gothic buildings in Prague. This was the first Poor Clare community north of the Alps. In 1235, Agnes gave the property of the Teutonic Knights in Bohemia to the hospital. She herself became a member of what became known as the Franciscan Poor Clares in 1234. As a nun, she cooked for and mended the clothes of lepers and paupers, even after becoming abbess of the Prague Clares the following year. As can be seen in their correspondence, Clare wrote with deep maternal feelings toward Agnes, though they never met.

A lay group working at the hospital was organized by Agnes in 1238 as a new military order, dedicated primarily to nursing, known as the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star, following the Rule of St. Augustine. That next year, Agnes handed over all authority over the hospital she had founded to these monastic knights. They were recognized as an order by Pope Gregory IX in 1236–37.

Agnes lived out her life in the cloister, leading the monastery as abbess, until her death on 2 March 1282.

Legacy
The Monastery of the Holy Savior, renamed the Convent of Saint Agnes, () began to fall into decline after the Hussite Wars of the 15th century. The community was abolished in 1782. Restored in the 1960s, the building is now a branch of the National Gallery in Prague, featuring the medieval Central European and Bohemian collections.

Veneration
The beatification process for Agnes was opened on 21 November 1872, and Pope Pius IX beatified her in 1874. Pope John Paul II canonized Blessed Agnes on 12 November 1989. While she was known by her contemporaries because of her supposed visions and healing, such as her prophecy that King Wenceslaus would be victorious in his battle against the Austrians, her canonization was based on her practice of the Christian virtues of faith, hope, and charity to an extraordinary degree, and the church's view is confirmed either through a miracle granted by God in answer to the saint's prayers or as in this case, by the continuing devotion of the Christian faithful to a saint's example across centuries.

Though Agnes died in 1282, she is still venerated by Christians around the world more than 700 years later. She was honored in 2011, the 800th anniversary of her birth, as the Saint of the Overthrow of Communism, with a year dedicated to her by Catholics in the Czech Republic.

Cultural reference
On the occasion of the eight-hundredth anniversary of Agnes' birth, the Prague Archbishopric in cooperation with the National Gallery in Prague organized an exhibition called "Saint Agnes of Bohemia – Princess and Nun"  at the national cultural heritage site, the Convent of Saint Agnes in Prague (Old Town). The exhibition was held from November 25, 2011, to March 25, 2012. A similar exhibition, also honoring Agnes of Bohemia, took place some 80 years ago. The exposition held about 300 exhibits. Contributing partners included are the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star, the National Archives and Charles University.

Ancestry

See also

List of Catholic saints
Přemyslid dynasty
Saint Agnes of Bohemia, patron saint archive

Further reading

Seton, Walter W. Some New Sources for the Life of Blessed Agnes of Bohemia: Including a Fourteenth-Century Latin Version. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2010).

References

External links

 Vatican page on Agnes of Bohemia's canonization
 Monastery of Saint Agnes of Bohemia, Prague

1211 births
1282 deaths
Czech Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns
Czech Roman Catholic saints
Roman Catholic royal saints
Poor Clare abbesses
Přemyslid dynasty
House of Andechs
Bohemian princesses
13th-century Christian saints
Franciscan saints
Founders of Catholic religious communities
Female saints of medieval Bohemia
Canonizations by Pope John Paul II
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul II
13th-century people from Bohemia.
13th-century women from Bohemia
13th-century Christian nuns
Daughters of kings

Agnes of Bohemia


The firm Glasflügel () was founded by Eugen Hänle in 1962 and was located in Schlattstall, south of Kirchheim unter Teck. It was the first firm to manufacture a glass-fibre sailplane in large numbers. It was also responsible for a large number of innovations in sailplane design and technology: quick assembly systems for wings and tailplane, automatic control connections, trailing edge airbrake-flap combinations, hinged instrument panels, the parallelogram control stick and automatic trimming are some innovations introduced by Glasflügel and later adopted by other manufacturers. Some of these are standard features in nearly all gliders produced today.

Glasflügel encountered financial difficulties in the 1970s which led to a co-operation with the firm Schempp-Hirth starting from May 1975. The death of Eugen Hänle in a flight accident on September 21 of the same year further aggravated the company's position, and after further changes in ownership in 1979, it was finally dissolved in 1982.

Products
The following glider types were manufactured by Glasflügel:

Glasflügel BS-1
Glasflügel H-30 GFK
Glasflügel H-101 Salto
Glasflügel H-201 Standard-Libelle
Glasflügel H-301 Libelle
Glasflügel 202 Standard-Libelle
Glasflügel 203 Standard-Libelle
Glasflügel 204 Standard-Libelle
Glasflügel 205 Club Libelle
Glasflügel 206 Hornet
Glasflügel Hornet C
Glasflügel 303 Mosquito
Glasflügel 304
Glasflügel 401 Kestrel
Glasflügel 402
Glasflügel 604
Hansjörg Streifeneder Falcon

The projected Glasflügel 701 and 704 side-by-side two-seaters did not materialise due to the demise of the company.

Licensed production
The British company Slingsby Aviation built the Kestrel under license as the Slingsby T-59. Slingsby later developed the Slingsby Vega, a family of 15-metre span gliders heavily influenced by its previous experience with Glasflügel designs.

See also

References

Website of Hanjörg Streifeneder Glasfaser Flugzeugbau GmbH

Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Companies based in Baden-Württemberg

Glider manufacturers

Glasflügel