Mimar Sinan (, , )  ( 1488–1490 – 17 July 1588) also known as Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ, ("Sinan Agha the Grand Architect" or "Grand Sinan") was the chief Ottoman architect, engineer, mathematician for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures such as the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, the Kanuni Sultan Suleiman Bridge in Büyükçekmece, the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad, and other more modest projects such as madrasa's, külliye's, bridges, etc. His apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul and Stari Most in Mostar.

The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and became a military engineer. He rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of Sinan. He refined his architectural and engineering skills while on campaign with the Janissaries, becoming expert at constructing fortifications of all kinds, as well as military infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges and aqueducts. At about the age of fifty, he was appointed as chief royal architect, applying the technical skills he had acquired in the army to the "creation of fine religious buildings" and civic structures of all kinds. He remained in this post for almost fifty years.

His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, architect of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Mimar Hayruddin, architect of the Stari Most. He is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West. Michelangelo and his plans for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome were well known in Istanbul, since Leonardo da Vinci and he had been invited, in 1502 and 1505 respectively, by the Sublime Porte to submit plans for a bridge spanning the Golden Horn. Mimar Sinan's works are among the most influential buildings in history.

Early years and background

His birth is variously placed between 1489 and 1491, or between 1494 and 1499 with the name Joseph. His origin is disputed; his family was either Armenian, Cappadocian Greek, Albanian, Jewish, or Christian Turkish in a small town called Ağırnas near the city of Kayseri in Anatolia (as stated in an order by Sultan Selim II). According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Sinan had either Armenian or Greek origin. One argument that lends credence to his Armenian or Greek background is a decree by Selim II dated Ramadan 7 981 (ca. Dec. 30, 1573), which grants Sinan's request to forgive and spare his relatives from the general exile of Kayseri's Orthodox communities to the island of Cyprus; This decree was published in the Turkish journal Türk Tarihi Encümeni Mecmuası, vol. 1, no. 5 (June 1930 - May 1931). Godfrey Goodwin stated that "after the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571, when Selim II decided to repopulate the island by transferring Rum (Orthodox Christian) families from the Karaman Eyalet, Sinan intervened on behalf of his family and obtained two orders from the Sultan in council exempting them from deportation." According to several scholars, this means that his family was Cappadocian Greek because the only Orthodox Christians (Rûms) of the region were Greek-speaking.

According to Herbert J. Muller he "seems to have been an Armenian." Franz Babinger, however, found that Sinan was the son of a Greek called Hristo(s) (Greek: Χρήστος). Sinan's place of birth, Ağırnas, was a Greek village with no Armenian inhabitants which gives more credence to the theory of him being of Greek origin. Additionally, before the Greeks evacuated the village, a Cappadocian Greek family from the village named Taşçıoğlu (Greek: Ταστσιόγλου) had claimed Sinan as a member of their own family.

A few scholars hold that Sinan had possible Albanian or Jewish origin. A local tradition in the village of Shiroka Lăka holds that Sinan was of Bulgarian origin and his family came from that village. Turkish scholars believe that Sinan's family was Christian Turkish.

Sinan grew up helping his father in his work, and by the time that he was conscripted would have had a good grounding in the practicalities of building work. There are three brief records (Anonymous Text; Architectural Masterpieces; Book of Architecture) in the library of Topkapı Palace, dictated by Sinan to his friend and biographer Mustafa Sâi Çelebi. In these manuscripts, Sinan divulges some details of his youth and military career. His father is referred to as "Abdülmennan" (literally "Servant of the Generous and Merciful One"), a title which was commonly used in the Ottoman period to define the non-Muslim father of a Muslim convert.

Military career
In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system. He was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam. He was too old to be admitted to the imperial Enderun School in the Topkapı Palace but was sent instead to an auxiliary school.  Some records claim that he might have served the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha as a novice of the Ibrahim Pasha School. Possibly, he was given the Islamic name Sinan there. He initially learned carpentry and mathematics but through his intellectual qualities and ambitions, he soon assisted the leading architects and got his training as an architect.

During the next six years, he also trained to be a Janissary officer (acemioğlan). He possibly joined Selim I in his last military campaign, Rhodes according to some sources, but when the Sultan died, this project ended. Two years later he witnessed the conquest of Belgrade. Under the new sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, he was present, as a member of the Household Cavalry, at the Battle of Mohács. He was promoted to captain of the Royal Guard and then given command of the Infantry Cadet Corps. He was later stationed in Austria, where he commanded the 62nd Orta of the Rifle Corps. He became a master of archery, while at the same time, as an architect, learning the weak points of structures when gunning them down. In 1535 he participated in the Baghdad campaign as a commanding officer of the Royal Guard. In 1537 he went on expeditions to Corfu and Apulia and Moldavia.

During these campaigns he proved himself an able architect and engineer. When the Ottoman army captured Cairo, Sinan was promoted to chief architect and was given the privilege of tearing down any buildings in the captured city that were not according to the city plan. During the campaign in the East, he assisted in the building of defences and bridges, such as a bridge across the Danube. He converted churches into mosques. During the Persian campaign in 1535 he built ships for the army and the artillery to cross Lake Van. For this he was given the title Haseki'i, Sergeant-at-Arms in the body guard of the Sultan, a rank equivalent to that of the Janissary Ağa.

When Chelebi Lütfi Pasha became Grand Vizier in 1539, he appointed Sinan, who had previously served under his command, to the office of Architect of the Abode of Felicity. This was the start of a remarkable career. The job entailed the supervision infrastructure construction and the flow of supplies within the Ottoman Empire. He was also responsible for the design and construction of public works, such as roads, waterworks and bridges. Through the years he transformed his office into that of Architect of the Empire, an elaborate government department, with greater powers than his supervising minister. He became the head of a whole Corps of architects, training a team of assistants, deputies and pupils.

Work

His training as an army engineer gave Sinan an empirical approach to architecture rather than a theoretical one.  But the same can be said of the great Western Renaissance architects, such as Brunelleschi and Michelangelo.

Various sources state that Sinan was the architect of at least 374 structures which included 92 mosques; 52 small mosques (mescit); 55 schools of theology (medrese); 7 schools for Koran reciters (darülkurra); 20 mausoleums (türbe); 17 public kitchens (imaret); 3 hospitals (darüşşifa); 6 aqueducts; 10 bridges; 20 caravanserais; 36 palaces and mansions; 8 vaults; and 48 baths. Sinan held the position of chief architect of the palace, which meant being the overseer of all construction work of the Ottoman Empire, for nearly 50 years, working with a large team of assistants consisting of architects and master builders.

The development and maturing stages of Sinan's career can be illustrated by three major works. The first two of these are in Istanbul: the Şehzade Mosque, which he calls a work of his apprenticeship period and the Süleymaniye Mosque, which is the work of his qualification stage. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne is the product of his master stage.

Şehzade Mosque is the first of the grand mosques created by Sinan. The Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, which is also known as the Üsküdar Quay Mosque, was completed in the same year and has an original design with its main dome supported by three half domes. When Sinan reached the age of 70, he had completed the Süleymaniye Mosque complex. This building, situated on one of the hills of Istanbul facing the Golden Horn, and built in the name of Süleyman the Magnificent, is one of the symbolic monuments of the period. The diameter of the dome, which exceeds the  of the Selimiye Mosque which Sinan completed when he was 80, is the most outstanding example of the level of achievement reached by Sinan. Mimar Sinan reached his artistic peak with the design, architecture, tile decorations and land stone workmanship displayed at Selimiye.

Another area of architecture where Sinan produced unique designs are his mausoleums. The Mausoleum of Şehzade Mehmed is notable for with its exterior decorations and sliced dome. The Rüstem Paşa mausoleum is a very attractive structure in classical style. The mausoleum of Süleyman the Magnificent is an interesting experiment, with an octagonal body and flat dome. The Selim II Mausoleum with has a square plan and is one of the best examples of Turkish mausoleum architecture. Sinan's own mausoleum, which is located in the north-east part of the Süleymaniye complex on the other hand, is a very plain structure.

Sinan masterfully combined art with functionalism in the bridges he built. The largest of these is the nearly  long Büyükçekmece Bridge. Other important examples are the Ailivri Bridge, the Old Bridge in Svilengrad on the Maritsa, the Lüleburgaz (Sokullu Mehmet Pasha) Bridge on the Lüleburgaz River, the Sinanlı Bridge over the river Ergene and the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge over Drina river in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

While Sinan was maintaining and improving the water supply system of Istanbul, he built arched aqueducts at several locations within the city. The Mağlova Arch over the Alibey River, which is  long and  high, has two tiers of arches, and is one of the best examples of its kind.

At the start of Sinan's career, Ottoman architecture was highly pragmatic. Buildings were repetitions of former types and were based on rudimentary plans. They were more an assembly of parts than a conception of a whole. An architect could sketch a plan for a new building and an assistant or foreman knew what to do, because novel ideas were avoided. Moreover, architects used an extravagant margin of safety in their designs, resulting in a wasteful use of material and labour. Sinan would gradually change all this. He was to transform established architectural practices, amplifying and transforming the traditions by adding innovations, trying to approach perfection.

The early years (till the mid-1550s): apprenticeship period

During these years he continued the traditional pattern of Ottoman architecture, but he gradually began exploring other possibilities, because during his military career he had had the opportunity to study the architectural monuments in the conquered cities of Europe and the Middle East.

His first opportunity to design a major building was the Hüsrev Pasha Mosque and its double medresse in Aleppo, Syria. It was built in the winter of 1536-1537 for his commander-in-chief and the governor of Aleppo between two army campaigns. It was built hastily and this is evident in the coarseness of execution and the crude decoration.

His first major commission as the royal architect was the construction of the Haseki Sultan Complex for Hurrem Sultan, the wife of the sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. He had to follow the plans drawn by his predecessors. Sinan retained the traditional arrangement of the available space without any innovations. Nevertheless, it was already better built than the Aleppo mosque and it shows a certain elegance. However, it has suffered from many restorations. Sinan is credited to have built a defensive tower in Vlorë, south Albania, in 1537, very similar to the White Tower of Thessaloniki, as well as Muradie Mosque, during Suleiman the Magnificent's stay in the town for the preparation of his expedition towards Italy.

In 1541, he started the construction of the mausoleum (türbe) of the Grand Admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa. It stands on the shore of Beşiktaş on the European part of Istanbul, at the site where his fleet used to assemble. Oddly enough, the admiral is not buried there, but in his türbe next to the Iskele mosque. This mausoleum has been severely neglected since then.

Mihrimah Sultan, the only daughter of Suleiman and Hurrem and wife of the Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha gave Sinan the commission to build a mosque with medrese (college), an imaret (soup kitchen) and a  (Qur'an school) in Üsküdar. The imaret no longer exists. This Iskele Mosque (or Jetty mosque) already shows several hallmarks of Sinan's mature style: a spacious, high-vaulted basement, slender minarets, single-domed baldacchino, flanked by three semi-domes ending in three exedrae and a broad double portico. The construction was finished in 1548. The construction of a double portico was not a first in Ottoman architecture, but it set a trend for country mosques and mosques of viziers in particular. Rüstem Pasha and Mihrimah required them later in their three mosques in Constantinople and in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque in Tekirdağ. The inner portico traditionally have stalactite capitals while the outer portico has capitals with chevron patterns (baklava).

When sultan Suleiman the Magnificent returned from another Balkan campaign, he received news that his son Şehzade Mehmed had died at the age of twenty-two. In November 1543, not long after Sinan had started the construction of the Iskele Mosque, the sultan ordered Sinan to build a new major mosque with an adjoining complex in memory of his favourite son. This Şehzade Mosque would become larger and more ambitious than his previous ones. Architectural historians consider this mosque as Sinan's first masterpiece. Obsessed by the concept of a large central dome, Sinan turned to the plans of mosques such as the Fatih Pasha Mosque in Diyarbakır or the Piri Pasha Mosque in Hasköy. He must have visited both mosques during his Persian campaign. Sinan built a mosque with a central dome, this time with four equal half-domes. This superstructure is supported by four massive, but still elegant, free-standing octagonal fluted piers and four piers incorporated in each lateral wall. In the corners, above roof level, four turrets serve as stabilizing anchors. This coherent concept already is markedly different from the additive plans of traditional Ottoman architecture. Sedefkar Mehmed Agha would later copy the concept of fluted piers in his Sultan Ahmed Mosque in an attempt to lighten their appearance. Sinan, however, rejected this solution in his next mosques.

Mid-1550s to 1570: qualification stage

By 1550, Suleiman the Magnificent was at the height of his powers. Having built a mosque for his son, he felt it was time to construct his own imperial mosque, an enduring monument larger than all the others, to be built on a gently sloping hillside dominating the Golden Horn. Money was no problem, since he had accumulated a treasure from the loot of his campaigns in Europe and the Middle East. He gave the order to Sinan to build a mosque, the Süleymaniye, surrounded by a külliye consisting of four colleges, a soup kitchen, a hospital, an asylum, a hamam, a caravanserai and a hospice for travellers (tabhane). Sinan, now heading a formidable department with a great number of assistants, finished this formidable task in seven years. Before Süleymaniye, no mosques had been built with half cubic roofs. He got the idea of half cubic roof design from the Hagia Sophia. Through this monumental achievement, Sinan emerged from the anonymity of his predecessors. Sinan must have known the ideas of the Renaissance architect Leone Battista Alberti (who in turn had studied De architectura by the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius), since he too was concerned in building the ideal church, reflecting harmony through the perfection of geometry in architecture. But, contrary to his Western counterparts, Sinan was more interested in simplification than in enrichment. He tried to achieve the largest volume under a single central dome. The dome is based on the circle, the perfect geometrical figure representing, in an abstract way, a perfect God. Sinan used subtle geometric relationships, using multiples of two when calculating the ratios and the proportions of his buildings. However, in a later stage, he also used divisions of three or ratios of two to three when working out the width and the proportions of domes, such as the Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque at Kadırga.

While he was fully occupied with the construction of the Süleymaniye, Sinan or his subordinates drew up the plans and gave instructions for many other constructions. Sinan built a mosque for the Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and a mausoleum (türbe) at Silivrikapı (Constantinople) in 1551.

The next Grand Vizier, Rüstem Pasha gave Sinan several more commissions. In 1550 he built a large inn (han) in the Galata district of Istanbul. About ten years later he built another han in Edirne, and between 1544 and 1561 the Taṣ Han at Erzurum. He designed a caravanserai in Eregli and an octagonal madrasah in Constantinople.

Between 1553 and 1555, Sinan built the Sinan Pasha Mosque at Beşiktaş, a smaller version of the Üç Şerefeli Mosque at Edirne, for the Grand Admiral Sinan Pasha. This proves again that Sinan had thoroughly studied the work of other architects, especially since he was responsible for the upkeep of these buildings. He copied the old form, pondered over the weaknesses in the construction and tried to solve this with his own solution. In 1554, Sinan used the form of the Sinan Pasha mosque again for the construction of the mosque for the next Grand Vizier Kara Ahmet Pasha in Constantinople, his first hexagonal mosque. By using a hexagonal plan, Sinan could reduce the side domes to half-domes and set them in the corners at an angle of 45 degrees. Clearly, Sinan must have appreciated this form, since he repeated it later in mosques such as the Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque at Kadırga and the Atik Valide Mosque at Üsküdar.

In 1556, Sinan built the Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı, replacing the antique Baths of Zeuxippus, which are still standing close to the Hagia Sophia. This would become one of the most beautiful hamams he ever constructed.

In 1559, he built the Cafer Ağa madrasah below the forecourt of the Hagia Sophia. In the same year he began the construction of a small mosque for Iskender Pasha at Kanlıka, beside the Bosphorus. This was one of the many minor and routine commissions the office of Sinan received over the years.

In 1561, when Rüstem Pasha died, Sinan began the construction of the Rüstem Pasha Mosque, as a memorial supervised by his widow Mihrimah Sultan. It is situated just below the Süleymaniye. This time the central form is octagonal, modelled on the monastery church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, with four small semi-domes set in the corners. In the same year, Sinan built a türbe for Rüstem Pasha in the garden of the Şehzade Mosque, decorated with the finest tiles Iznik could produce. Mihrimah Sultan, having doubled her wealth after the death of her husband, now wanted a mosque of her own. Sinan built the Mihrimah Mosque at Edirnekapı (Edirne Gate) for her on the highest of the seven hills of Constantinople.  He raised the mosque on a vaulted platform, accentuating its hilltop site. There is some speculation concerning the dates; until recently this was supposed to be between 1540 and 1540, but now it is generally accepted to be between 1562 and 1565. Sinan, concerned with grandeur, built a mosque in one of his most imaginative designs, using new support systems and lateral spaces to increase the area available for windows. He built a central dome  high and  wide, supported by pendentives, on a square base with two lateral galleries, each with three cupolas. At each corner of this square stands a gigantic pier, connected with immense arches each with 15 large windows and four circular ones, flooding the interior with light. The style of this revolutionary building was as close to the Gothic style as Ottoman structure permits.

In 1566 Sinan completed the Banya Bashi Mosque in Sofia, Bulgaria, currently the only functioning mosque in the city. His first mosque in Sofia was built in 1528; popularly known as Imaret Mosque or Black Mosque due to the dark colour of its building stone, it was damaged by an earthquake and abandoned in the 19th century.

In the 1560s he built the Kirkcesme water supply system for Istanbul. It is seen as a masterpiece of his work. It spans 55 km and includes 35 aqueduct bridges, 4 of which are notable for their height (up to 35m) as well as their length (up to 700m).

Between 1560 and 1566 Sinan built a mosque in Constantinople for Zal Mahmud Pasha on a hillside beyond Ayvansaray. Sinan certainly conceived the plans and partly supervised the construction, but left the building of lesser areas to less than competent hands, since Sinan and his most able assistants were about to begin his masterpiece, the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. On the outside, the mosque rises high, with its east wall pierced by four tiers of windows. This gives the mosque an aspect of a palace or even a block of apartments. Inside, there are three broad galleries making the interior look compact. The heaviness of this structure makes the dome look unexpectedly lofty. These galleries look like a preliminary try-out for the galleries of the Selimiye Mosque.

The period from 1570 to his death: master stage

In this late stage of his life, Sinan tried to create unified and sublimely elegant interiors. To achieve this, he eliminated all the unnecessary subsidiary spaces beyond the supporting piers of the central dome. This can be seen in the Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque in Kadırga, Istanbul (1571–1572) and in the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. In other buildings of his final period, Sinan experimented with spatial and mural treatments that were new in the classical Ottoman architecture.

According to him from his autobiography Tezkiretü'l-Bünyan, his masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. Breaking free of the handicaps of traditional Ottoman architecture, this mosque marks the climax of Sinan's work and of all classical Ottoman architecture. While it was being built, the architect's saying of "You can never build a dome larger than the dome of Hagia Sophia and specially as Muslims" was his main motivation. When it was completed, Sinan claimed that it had the largest dome in the world, leaving Hagia Sophia behind. In fact, the dome height from the ground level was lower and the diameter barely larger (0.5 meters, approximately 2 feet) than the millennium-older Hagia Sophia. However, measured from its base the dome of Selimiye is higher. Sinan was more than 80 years old when the building was finished. In this mosque he finally realized his aim of creating the optimum, completely unified, domed interior: a triumph of space that dominates the interior. He used this time an octagonal central dome (31.28 m wide and 42 m high), supported by eight elephantine piers of marble and granite. These supports lack any capitals but have squinches or consoles at their summit, leading to the optical effect that the arches seem to grow integrally out of the piers. By placing the lateral galleries far away, he increased the three-dimensional effect. The many windows in the screen walls flood the interior with light. The buttressing semi-domes are set in the four corners of the square under the dome. The weight and the internal tensions are hidden, producing an airy and elegant effect rarely seen under a central dome. The four minarets (83 m high) at the corners of the prayer hall are the tallest in the Muslim world, accentuating the vertical posture of this mosque that already dominates the city.

He also designed the Sulaymaniyya Takiyya in Damascus, Syria, considered to have marked the introduction of the Ottoman architectural style to the city. He has also built Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge across the Drina River in Višegrad, Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Conclusion

At the start of his career as an architect, Sinan had to deal with an established, traditional domed architecture. His training as an army engineer led him to approach architecture from an empirical point of view, rather than from a theoretical one. He started to experiment with the design and engineering of single-domed and multiple-domed structures. He tried to obtain a new geometrical purity, a rationality and a spatial integrity in his structures and designs of mosques. Through all this, he demonstrated his creativity and his wish to create a clear, unified space. He started to develop a series of variations on the domes, surrounding them in different ways with semi-domes, piers, screen walls and different sets of galleries. His domes and arches are curved, but he avoided curvilinear elements in the rest of his design, transforming the circle of the dome into a rectangular, hexagonal or octagonal system. He tried to obtain a rational harmony between the exterior pyramidal composition of semi-domes, culminating in a single drumless dome,  and the interior space where this central dome vertically integrates the space into a unified whole. His genius lies in the organization of this space and in the resolution of the tensions created by the design. He was an innovator in the use of decoration and motifs, merging them into the architectural forms as a whole. He accentuated the centre underneath the central dome by flooding it with light from the many windows. He incorporated his mosques in an efficient way into a complex (külliye), serving the needs of the community as an intellectual centre, a community centre and serving the social needs and the health problems of the faithful.

When Sinan died, classical Ottoman architecture had reached its climax. No successor was gifted enough to better the design of the Selimiye Mosque and to develop it further. His students retreated to earlier models, such as the Şehzade mosque. Invention faded away, and a decline set in.

Constructions

During his tenure during 50 years of the post of imperial architect, Sinan is said to have constructed or supervised 476 buildings  (196 of which still survive), according to the official list of his works, the Tezkiretü'l-Ebniye. He could not possibly have designed them all, but he relied on the skills of his office. He took credit and the responsibility for their work. For, as a janissary, and thus a slave of the sultan, his primary responsibility was to the sultan. In his spare time, he also designed buildings for the chief officials. He delegated to his assistants the construction of less important buildings in the provinces.

94 large mosques (camii),
57 colleges,
52 smaller mosques (mescit),
48 bath-houses (hamam).
35 palaces (saray),
22 mausoleums (türbe),
20 caravanserai (kervansaray; han),
17 public kitchens (imaret),
8 bridges,
8 store houses or granaries
7 Koranic schools (medrese),
6 aqueducts,
3 hospitals (darüşşifa)

Some of his works:

 Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Azapkapı)
 Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque (Kadırga)
 Caferağa Medresseh
 Selimiye Mosque in Edirne
 Süleymaniye Mosque
 Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex
 Molla Çelebi Mosque
 Haseki Baths
 Haseki Sultan Complex
 Çemberlitaş Baths
 Piyale Pasha Mosque
 Şehzade Mosque
 Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in Edirnekapı
 Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in Üsküdar
 Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Višegrad, Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Banya Bashi Mosque in Sofia, Bulgaria
 Nisanci Mehmed Pasha Mosque
 Rüstem Pasha Mosque
 Zal Mahmud Pasha Mosque
 Kadirga Sokullu Mosque
 Koursoum Mosque or Osman Shah Mosque in Trikala, Greece
 Yavuz Sultan Selim Madras
 Mimar Sinan Bridge in Büyükçekmece
 Church of the Assumption in Uzundzhovo, Bulgaria
 Sulaymaniyya Takiyya in Damascus, Syria
 Khusruwiyah Mosque in Aleppo, Syria
 Oratory at the Western Wall

Death and legacy

Sinan died in AH 996 (1587–88 CE) and is buried in a tomb in Istanbul, a türbe of his own design, just to the north of the Süleymaniye Mosque, across a street named Mimar Sinan Caddesi in his honour. He was buried near the tombs of his greatest patrons: Sultan Süleyman I and Sultana Haseki Hürrem, Suleiman's wife. Above the iron-grilled prayer window of his tomb is an epitaph written in Ottoman Turkish by the poet Mustafa Sai. It gives the year of his death and records that Sinan built 400 masjids (small mosques), 80 Friday mosques and the Kanuni Sultan Suleiman bridge at Büyükçekmece.

In 1935, his remains were exhumed by a group of Turkish scholars. Proponents of the racial science popular at the time, they claimed that measurements of Sinan's skull proved that he was actually Turkish. As of 2016, the skull is missing.

His name is also given to:
 a crater on the planet Mercury.
 A Turkish state university, the Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University and the Mimar Sinan Mosque, both in Istanbul.

Sinan's portrait was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 10,000 lira banknotes of 1982–1995
and a 7 500 000 lira coin of 2001 (in the "millennium" series), also on 6 postage stamps: 100 lira 1957 (400th anniversary of the opening of the Suleymaniye Mosque), 50 lira 1988 (400th anniversary of Sinan's death) and a set of 4 issued on 14 November 2007 (60, 70, 70 & 80 Kurus - Sinan and his works).

Sinan is portrayed in Elif Shafak's 2013 novel The Architect's Apprentice, with the fictional main character becoming his apprentice.

See also
Isa Muhammad Effendi
Sedefkar Mehmed Agha
Atik Sinan
Mimar Hayruddin

Notes
Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading
  Alboyachian, Arshag A. Patmutiwn Hay Kesarioy: teghagrakan, patmakan, ew azgagrakan usumnasirutiwn [History of Armenian Kayseri: A topographical, historical, and ethnographic study]. 2 vols. Cairo: H. Papazian, 1937.
  Çelebi, Sai Mustafa (2004). Book of Buildings: Tezkiretü'l-Bünyan ve Tezkiretü'l-Ebniye (Memoirs of Sinan the Architect). Koç Kültür Sanat Tanıtım

 De Osa, Veronica (1982). Sinan the Turkish Michelangelo. New York: Vantage Press
  Egli, Ernst (1954). Sinan, der Baumeister osmanischer Glanzzeit, Erlenbach-Zürich, Verlag für Architektur;

 Goodwin, Godfrey (2001). The Janissaries. London: Saqi Books.
 Güler, Ara; Burelli, Augusto Romano; Freely, John (1992). Sinan: Architect of Suleyman the Magnificent and the Ottoman Golden Age. WW Norton & Co. Inc.
 Kinross, Patrick (1977). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire London: Perennial.
 Kuran, Aptullah. (1987). Sinan: The Grand Old Master of Ottoman architecture, Ada Press Publishers.
  Kuran, Aptullah; Ara Güler (Illustrator); Mustafa Niksarli (Illustrator). (1986) Mimar Sinan. Istanbul: Hürriyet Vakfi.
 Rogers, J M. (2005). Sinan. I.B. Tauris
 Saoud, Rabat (2007). Sinan: The Great Ottoman Architect and Urban Designer. Manchester: Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation.
 Sewell, Brian. (1992) Sinan: A Forgotten Renaissance Cornucopia, Issue 3, Volume 1.
 Sezgin, A.  'Dramatizing an Architect Hero: Sinan in Fiction' in The Meeting Place of British Middle Eastern Studies: Emerging Scholars, Emergent Research & Approaches (2009), p. 119-143.

 Turner, J. (1996). Grove Dictionary of Art, Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition;
 Van Vynckt, Randall J. (editor). (1993) International Dictionary of Architects and Architecture Volume 1. Detroit: St James Press.
 Vasari, G. (1963). The Lives of Painters, Sculptors and Architects. (Four volumes) Trans: A.B. Hinds, Editor: William Gaunt. London and New York: Everyman.
 Wilkins, David G. Synan in Van Vynckt (1993), p. 826.
 A Guide to Ottoman Bulgaria" by Dimana Trankova, Anthony Georgieff and Professor Hristo Matanov; published by Vagabond Media, Sofia, 2011

Tertiary Sources
  Zaryan, Armen. «Սինան» (Sinan). Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. vol. x. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1984, pp. 385–386.

  Roux, Jean-Paul (1988).  "Les Mosquées de Sinan", Les Dossiers d'archéologie, May 1988, number 127.
  Stierlin, Henri (1988). "Sinan et Soliman le Magnifique", Les Dossiers d'archéologie, May 1988, number 127.
  Topçu, Ali (1988a) "Sinan et l'architecture civile", Les Dossiers d'archéologie, May 1988, number 127.
  Topçu, Ali (1988b)."Sinan et la modernité", Les Dossiers d'archéologie, May 1988, number 127.

External links

 Mimar Sinan founder of this Foundation - with a picture of his last will and proof of his original name
 Pictures of the city of Edirne, with many pictures of the Selimiye Mosque
 Pictures of some 30 mosques by Sinan in Istanbul
 A map and a short guide for Sinan's works in Istanbul
 Photos of some Sinan mosques in Istanbul
 Map of some Sinan mosques in Istanbul
 Master Builder of the 16th Century Ottoman Mosque
 Mimar Sinan Bridge in Büyükçekmece
 The Ottoman architect who linked East and West
 Peerless Turkish architect claimed to be headless in tomb
 Mimar Sinan's life and works

Architects from the Ottoman Empire
1489 births
1588 deaths
Converts to Islam
15th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
16th-century people from the Ottoman Empire
Suleiman the Magnificent
Armenians from the Ottoman Empire

Mimar Sinan


Income is the consumption an savins opportunity gained bi an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetar terms. Houiver, for hoosehaulds an individuals, "income is the sum o aw the wages, salaries, profits, interests payments, rents, an ither forms of earnins received... in a gien period o time."

References

Income


Toy Soldiers is a 1991 American action film directed by Daniel Petrie Jr., with a screenplay by Petrie and David Koepp. It stars Sean Astin, Wil Wheaton, Louis Gossett Jr., Andrew Divoff, Mason Adams and Denholm Elliott.

The plot revolves around an all-male boarding school overtaken by terrorists. While the authorities remain helpless, a group of rebellious and mischievous students decide to put their resourcefulness to good use.

Plot
In Barranquilla, Colombia, terrorist Luis Cali has taken over the Palace of Justice with a team of mercenaries. He demands the release of his drug kingpin father, Enrique Cali, only to learn that his father has already been extradited to the United States to stand trial. They escape by helicopter, and with the weapons and logistics assistance of Luis's second-in-command, an American named Jack Thorpe, they enter the U.S. through Mexico.

In the United States, the Regis High School is a prep school for teenage boys with wealthy and influential parents, many of whom have been expelled from other schools. A group of pranksters led by Billy Tepper that includes Billy's best friend Joey Trotta, Hank Giles, Ricky Montoya, "Snuffy" Bradberry, and Phil Donoghue are carefully watched over by their teachers and the stern but well-meaning Dean Edward Parker. Phil's father is the federal judge presiding over Enrique Cali's trial, so the entire family is taken to a safe location as a precaution. Unaware of this, Luis Cali and his men invade the school to capture the boy, killing a campus police officer and a faculty member who intervenes. They set up lookout posts with heavy firearms and rig the campus with C-3 explosives. With Phil nowhere to be found but with the sons of numerous influential individuals in his grasp, Luis takes the entire school hostage.

Underestimating the threat, the local sheriff attempts to intervene but is repelled by heavy weapons fire. The state police, FBI and US Army are called in, keeping their distance to avoid provoking the terrorists. Jack arms the explosives with a detonator wired to a remote control gadget Luis tapes to the back of his hand. Luis warns the authorities he will set off the explosives should they attack the school. He releases the school faculty except for the cooks and the headmaster, Dr. Robert Gould, demanding his father's release in exchange for the hostages and institutes hourly headcounts.

The students, under Billy's leadership, use their expertise in skirting authority to collect tactical information about the occupying forces, which Billy covertly brings to the authorities on the outside. They won't allow Billy to return, but with Parker's encouragement, he escapes and rejoins the students just in time to be counted, preventing the killing of Gould and four students in response.

Joey's father, New Jersey mob boss Albert Trotta, arranges for Joey to be released. Joey, contemptuous of his father, refuses to go. He overpowers a guard, steals a submachine gun and opens fire on another terrorist, but is killed in the exchange. Luis tries to impress upon Parker, who comes to retrieve the body, that it was an accident, but Albert takes revenge by having Enrique Cali killed in prison.

Knowing they must act before Luis can learn of his father's death, the authorities undertake a rescue mission. FBI Hostage Rescue Team personnel (trailed by Parker), supported by the army and armed with the information provided by Billy, covertly infiltrate the school and begin taking out the terrorists. Meanwhile, Billy and his friends sabotage the remote control receiver for the detonator, overpower their guards and lead the students and Gould to a secret basement chamber. Overwhelmed by the assault, Luis takes Billy at gunpoint and holds him in Gould's office. He presses the button on his gadget, but due to Billy's machinations only activates a toy airplane. Parker and commandos converge on Luis and Billy. Luis wounds Parker, but Billy elbows him in the abdomen, giving a commando the chance to shoot Luis, killing him.

With Parker's wound bandaged, he and Billy gain a better understanding of each other. In the end, the students are freed, the surviving terrorists are arrested and Billy joyously reunites with his friends.

Cast

 Sean Astin as William "Billy" Tepper
 Wil Wheaton as Joseph "Joey" Trotta
 Louis Gossett Jr. as Dean Edward Parker
 Keith Coogan as Jonathan "Snuffy" Bradberry
 George Perez as Ricardo "Ricky" Montoya
 T.E. Russell as Henry "Hank" Giles III
 Shawn Phelan as Derek "Yogurt" Case
 Knowl Johnson as Phil Donoghue
 Denholm Elliott as Headmaster Dr. Robert Gould
 Jerry Orbach as Albert Trotta (uncredited)
 Andrew Divoff as Luis Cali
 Michael Champion as Jack Thorpe
 Rafael H. Robledo as Carlos
 Thomas R. Trigo as Ruiz
 Jerry Valdez as Jorge
 Jesse Doran as Enrique Cali
 Mason Adams as FBI Dep. Dir. Otis Brown
 R. Lee Ermey as General Ed Kramer
 Richard Travis as Frank Ingram, a Campus Police Officer.
 Stan Kelly as Sheriff James Role
 Jeffrey Dawson as Security Guard

Production
The film was based on the novel of the same name by William P. Kennedy.

The first screenplay was written by David Koepp who wrote it for director John Schlesinger. The school was a European boarding school  and the villains were Palestinian terrorists. Schlesinger dropped out of the project and the script was rewritten to be set in the US with different villains.

The main antagonist of the film was portrayed by Andrew Divoff, who has mentioned that his role as Luis Cali was his favourite villain role. TriStar Pictures distributed in the United States and several countries.

The film's opening courthouse scenes were set in Colombia, but the exterior shots and helicopter takeoff scenes were filmed in San Antonio, Texas. The exteriors of the Hotel Gibbs and the Hipolito F. Garcia Federal Building and United States Courthouse, as well as the wall of the Alamo Mission complex, were visible.

There is a real private school named Regis High School, located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, although this school is a Jesuit school unlike the fictional school in the film which is not. The location of the fictional Regis School in the film is a fictional King's County Virginia.  The Virginia state seal is prominent on the sheriff's car and the license plate is a Virginia public use plate. A cargo van driven by the terrorist as they kill the guard features a logo with a town name in Virginia. The school's exterior scenes were filmed at The Miller School of Albemarle in Charlottesville, Virginia. Other exterior scenes were filmed in San Antonio, Texas, Richmond, Virginia and Waynesboro, Virginia.

Reception

Box office
The film debuted at No. 3 on its opening weekend in the United States and grossed $15,073,942 nationwide during its run.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 41% based on reviews from 17 critics. On Metacritic it has a score of 46% based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A− on scale of A to F.

Roger Ebert gave the film 1 out of 4, stating that "Since the plot of the movie is utterly predictable, we hope at least for some cleverness in the gimmicks. Here the movie is so disappointing that I wonder if the screenwriters were really trying." Critic Clint Morris was more favorable stating "The performances are rock solid".

Awards

For their performance in Toy Soldiers, Sean Astin, Wil Wheaton, Keith Coogan, T.E. Russell and George Perez were all nominated for an Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture by the Thirteenth Annual Youth in Film Awards 1990-1991. They lost narrowly to Donovan McCrary, Desi Arnez Hines II and Baha Jackson for their performance in Boyz n the Hood.

References

External links

1991 films
1990s action drama films
Films about Colombian drug cartels
Films about terrorism
Films set in South America
Films shot in Virginia
Films shot in Texas
Films shot in San Antonio
American action drama films
Films set in schools
TriStar Pictures films
Films with screenplays by David Koepp
Films set in boarding schools
Films scored by Robert Folk
Films with screenplays by Daniel Petrie Jr.
Films directed by Daniel Petrie Jr.
1991 drama films
1991 directorial debut films
1990s American films

Toy Soldiers (1991 film)


Cooper-Moore (born Gene Y. Ashton; August 31, 1946) is an American jazz pianist, composer and instrument builder/designer based in New York City.

Early life
At age 12, Cooper-Moore was recruited by community leaders to be the piano player for the town, and soon thereafter performed at church services and community functions. This is also the age when he heard musicians such as Ahmad Jamal and Charles Mingus, and was inspired to pursue jazz. He has cited pianist Jaki Byard's contributions to Mingus' band as a particular inspiration.

He moved to Boston in 1967 to briefly attend Berklee College of Music. In Boston he connected with many musicians, some of whom became longtime collaborators, notably saxophonist David S. Ware, drummer Marc Edwards, Cleve Pozar, and Juma Santos. In 1970, he formed a collective trio, Apogee, with Ware and Edwards.

Career

In 1973, the trio of Cooper-Moore, David S. Ware, and Marc Edwards moved to New York City and established a living and performance space at 501 Canal Street, which served as a home base for musicians including Ware, Alan Michael Braufman, Jimmy Hopps, Tom Bruno, and Ellen Christi. Cooper-Moore's first commercial recording appearance was on Braufman's Valley of Search LP, released by India Navigation. Encouraged by Jimmy Hopps, Cooper-Moore began to design and build instruments, beginning with an ashimba, an 11-note xylophone made from discarded wood.

In 1975, he returned to Virginia with his family. There he worked with bands from a variety of genres, continued to further develop an array of handmade instruments, and worked as an educator with the Head Start program. Upon his return to New York City in 1985, he changed his name to Cooper-Moore, derived from the surnames of his grandmothers.

Cooper-Moore has performed and recorded with William Parker's In Order to Survive and Little Huey Creative Music Orchestra and Bill Cole's Untempered Ensemble. He established, recorded, and toured with Triptych Myth, a piano trio with Tom Abbs and Chad Taylor. He has recorded and toured extensively with Digital Primitives, a trio with Chad Taylor and Assif Tsahar. He has also collaborated with Daniel Carter in Parker's Organic Trio. He performs solo on piano and handcrafted instruments, with the Cooper-Moore Trio with Brian Price and Pascal Niggenkemper, and in Gerald Cleaver's Black Host.

He has performed at the Whitney Museum of American Art, in a piano duo with John Blum in 1996, and a solo performance in conjunction with the Blues for Smoke exhibit in 2013.

Outside of the jazz world, he has composed music for theater, including Rita Dove's "The Darker Side of the Earth" at the Guthrie Theater, "Feathers at the Flame" by Laurie Carlos at The Kitchen, and "A Still Life" by Emily Mann. He has worked with dance troupes such as the Joan Miller Dance Players, Rod Rogers Dance Company, Marlies Yearby's Movin' Spirits Dance Theater, Koo Dance, and Judith Jackson. He has scored and composed music for movies, including Central Park: The People's Place and Fireflies in the Abyss. He has worked with lyricists such as Laurie Carlos, Fred L. Price, Carl Hancock Rux, and Arthur T. Wilson. In the 1990s he was the resident storyteller at Prospect Park in Brooklyn.

He has toured extensively in Europe as well as the United States. Among the many instruments Cooper-Moore has built are a diddley-bow, a three-string fretless banjo, and a mouth bow.

Cooper-Moore received the Lifetime Achievement award at the 2017 Vision Festival in New York City.

Cooper-Moore has said, "I have taken stuff out a dumpster to make an instrument which I have used at gigs. If you put me somewhere, and I had to play and didn't have an instrument, I'd get everything I needed and make an instrument within a few hours."

Discography
Solo: Deep in the Neighborhood of History and Influence (Hopscotch, 2001)
Cooper-Moore, Assif Tsahar - America (Hopscotch, 2003)
Cooper-Moore - s/t 5x7" box (50 Miles of Elbow Room, 2004); reissued as The Cedar Box Recordings (50 Miles of Elbow Room / AUM Fidelity, 2008)
Cooper-Moore / Tom Abbs / Chad Taylor - Triptych Myth (Hopscotch, 2004)
Outtakes 1978 (Hopscotch, 2005)
Triptych Myth - The Beautiful (AUM Fidelity, 2005)
Cooper-Moore / Assif Tsahar - Tells Untold (Hopscotch, 2005)
Assif Tsahar / Cooper-Moore / Hamid Drake - Lost Brother (Hopscotch, 2005)
Digital Primitives - s/t (Hopscotch, 2007)
Digital Primitives - Hum Crackle & Pop (Hopscotch, 2009)
Digital Primitives - Lipsomuch / Soul Searchin'  (Hopscotch)
Cooper-Moore - Solo Piano #2 (self-released CD-R, 2017)
Cooper-Moore - Looking Back #1 (self-released CD-R, 2017)
Cooper-Moore - Looking Back #2 (self-released CD-R, 2017)
With Alan Braufman
Valley of Search (India Navigation, 1975)
The Fire Still Burns (Valley of Search, 2020)
With Gerald Cleaver's Black Host
Life in the Sugar Candle Mines (Northern Spy Records, 2013)
With Bill Cole / The Untempered Ensemble
Live in Greenfield, Massachusetts, November 20, 1999 (Boxholder, 2000)
Seasoning the Greens (Boxholder, 2002)
Duets and Solos, Volume 1 (Boxholder)
With Susie Ibarra
Radiance (Hopscotch, 1999)
Flower After Flower (Tzadik Records, 2000)
With Darius Jones
Man'ish Boy (A Raw & Beautiful Thing) (AUM Fidelity, 2009)
With William Parker
In Order to Survive (Black Saint Records, 1995)
Compassion Seizes Bed-Stuy (Homestead Records, 1996)
Sunrise in the Tone World (AUM Fidelity, 1997)
Mass for the Healing of the World (Black Saint Records, 1998 [2003])
The Peach Orchard (AUM Fidelity, 1998)
Posium Pendasem (FMP, 1999)
Mayor of Punkville (AUM Fidelity, 2000)
Uncle Joe's Spirit House (Centering, 2010)
Wood Flute Songs (AUM Fidelity, 2013)
For Those Who Are, Still (AUM Fidelity, 2015)
Stan's Hat Flapping in the Wind (Centering, 2016)
Meditation / Resurrection (AUM Fidelity, 2017)
Live / Shapeshifter (AUM Fidelity, 2019)
The Music of William Parker: Migration of Silence Into and Out of ihe Tone World (Volumes 1–10) (AUM Fidelity, 2021)
With Brandon Seabrook
Exultations (Astral Spirits)
In the Swarm (Astral Spirits)
With Steve Swell
This Now! (Cadence Jazz Records, 2003)
With David S. Ware
Birth of a Being (Hat Art, 1979)
Planetary Unknown (AUM Fidelity, 2011)
David S. Ware / Cooper-Moore / William Parker / Muhammad Ali - Planetary Unknown: Live at Jazzfestival Saalfelden 2011 (AUM Fidelity, 2012)
Birth Of A Being [Expanded] (AUM Fidelity, 2015)
With Stephen Gauci
Studio Sessions Vol. 1 (GauciMusic)
Conversations Vol. 1 (577 Records)
Conversations Vol. 2 (577 Records)
With George Carver
George Carver - The Modern Agriculture - God the Mother (Shrub Music)
With Eric Siegel
Engine, Shriek, and a Bell (1999)

References

External links
 Cooper-Moore at All About Jazz
 Interview with Cooper-Moore at 50 Miles of Elbow Room

1946 births
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
American jazz composers
Musicians from Virginia
Living people
20th-century American pianists
Jazz musicians from Virginia
21st-century American pianists
American male jazz composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
AUM Fidelity artists

Cooper-Moore


Television Sydney (TVS) (call sign TSN-31) was a free-to-air sponsors-based community television station broadcasting in Sydney, Australia. The station lost both its community franchise and the battle to remain on the air on 8 December 2015 and ceased transmission on 20 December 2015 after almost ten years on the air. The station was not replaced.

History
In 2003 the Australian Government called for tenders for what it called the "permanent" community TV licenses. For many years community channels in the major capital cities had operated on narrowcast licenses issued for limited 12-month periods. Everywhere but Sydney the incumbent channels secured the permanent licence. In Sydney, a consortium headed-up by the University of Western Sydney (UWS) was successful. TVS received its Iicense in early 2004.

Transmissions officially commenced on analogue UHF channel 31 in February 2006 after three months of technical trials. Unlike the earlier temporary community channel (known simply as Channel 31) TVS, with the financial support of UWS TVS was able to acquire a high powered transmitter that meant for the first time community TV could be seen right across Sydney.

In November 2009 the Government agreed to temporarily allocate TVS (and the other capital city Community Television channels) an additional (digital) channel so they could simulcast in the period up until the end of 2013 when analogue television will be turned off. TVS announced in December 2009 that it had appointed Broadcast Australia as its digital service provider and officially began simulcasting on Monday 1 March 2010 on LCN 44.

Since February 2009 TVS simultaneously streamed its service via the internet. At the time Chief Executive, Laurie Patton, said the decision to transmit live via the web was part of the station's long-term strategy to be available across all distribution platforms.

In 2009 the Australian Communications and Media Authority approved the station's request for the renewal of its broadcasting licence for a five-year period ending 22 April 2014.

When it commenced on air operations TVS was Sydney's first new permanent free-to-air TV channel in twenty-five years. It was backed by the University of Western Sydney (UWS) and Metro Screen.

TVS switched off its analogue signal on 1 March 2012. The station then only broadcast on LCN 44, with viewers requiring a digital television, or a digital set top box to use with an analogue television.

In September 2014, Australian federal communications minister Malcolm Turnbull announced that licensing for community television stations would end in December 2015. In September 2015, Turnbull, now Prime Minister, announced an extension of the deadline to 31 December 2016, However, TVS' CEO Rachel Bentley stated that TVS could only continue broadcasting if it also launched a video on demand service before the amended deadline. TVS announced that it would cease broadcasting on 20 December 2015 in order to refocus programming strategy and develop a strong digital infrastructure, with plans to relaunch online in 2016. However, these plans never materialized and the channel was never replaced.

Broadcast programs
TVS broadcast 24 hours a day 7 days a week. Despite a very limited marketing budget the channel progressively created a loyal audience. TVS recorded continual increases in cumulative audience numbers during the first few years. However, as digital take-up in Sydney increased the channel reported a leveling off of audience growth during 2009. When it launched its digital service in early 2010 audience levels began to increase again with a 15 percent increase in the first month (source OzTAM).

TVS used the same Broadcast Australia tower as the ABC and SBS located at Gore Hill. The channel provided coverage across most of Sydney, with reports of clear reception from locations as far south as Wollongong, in the lower Blue Mountains and on the Central Coast. Its Digital 44 service had coverage that was equivalent to SBS (and the other free-to-airs), except that TVS did not have a number of in-fill repeaters that boost signals in some "black spots".

TVS had a broadcast operations centre on the UWS Penrith campus. The station's digital automation system was based on the Playbox () software.

The focus was on Sydney-specific programming with some programs sourced from interstate community channels (e.g. Vasili's Garden from Melbourne) and from professional program makers. As at February 2010 more than forty percent of the channel's programs were Sydney produced with a further thirty percent drawn from interstate community based producers.

The station screened feature films in the public domain on weekday mornings and in prime time on Sunday and Wednesday evenings.  On Friday nights it screened horror and science fiction films on the Schlocky Horror Picture Show hosted by a skeleton named Nigel Honeybone.

From April 2015, The station screened children's programming on weekday mornings and afternoons and screens and sponsors Butterscotch's Playground shorts featuring former yellow Wiggle Greg Page.

From May 2015, The station screened news programming on weekday mornings and afternoons with a replay and sponsors Seven News with Mark Ferguson presented by the news presenter himself.

Not-for-profit community based producers received free program airtime. TVS announced the creation of the Television Sydney Foundation whose aim is to secure philanthropic donations that will be used to support the development of local programming.

The TVS program schedule was based on a "modified wheel" concept where programs were run several times in the same week to allow audiences a choice of viewing times. The station's program line-up was published on its website, in most Australian electronic program guides (EPG's) and in the Sydney Morning Herald and Daily Telegraph newspapers.

TVS accepted sponsorship advertising, limited to seven minutes per hour. It also sold program airtime (a maximum of eight hours per day as permitted under its license conditions).

Programmes
 Pete Boone, Private Eye (2002–2004)
 Vasili's Garden (2002–2006, 2009–)

Staffing and management
The channel had a small team of paid employees and volunteers (many of them media students) and was initially headed up by former Seven Network executive Laurie Patton as CEO, Henri de Gorter as Program Manager and Adrian Alback (later Ian Sneddon) as Operations Manager.

The original TVS Chairperson was UWS Vice-Chancellor, Professor Janice Reid AM and later UWS Deputy Chancellor Geoffrey Roberson. In August 2010, TVS announced the appointment of a new chairperson Harold Mitchell and a new CEO Rachel Bentley, a UWS academic.

TVS was a founding member of the Australian Community Television Alliance (ACTA), the official sector representative. Then CEO Laurie Patton was the inaugural Secretary of ACTA and the sector's representative on the Government's Digital Switchover Taskforce Industry Advisory Group. TVS led the sector's campaign to secure digital spectrum and inclusion on the Freeview free-to-air platform.

Identity history
 2006–2012: You're Watching TVS
 2012–2015: A Different View

See also

 Television broadcasting in Australia
 Community television in Australia
 Australian Community Television Alliance

Notes

External links
 Official Website (archived site)
 University of Western Sydney

Australian community television
Television stations in Sydney
Television channels and stations established in 2006
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2015
English-language television stations in Australia
2006 establishments in Australia
2015 disestablishments in Australia
Defunct television channels in Australia
Digital Forty Four

Television Sydney


Hexachlorobenzene is an aromatic compound. The molecule structure  resembles benzene, except that hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine. It is a colorless powder that is produced using catalysis from Iron(III) chloride or from Hexachlorocyclohexane.  Hexachlorobenzene was used as a fungicide, mostly to treat cereals. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants forbids its production and use. The main reason for this restriction was that the outbreaks of rare diseases. Certain people eating food that had been treated became ill, and the illness could be linked to this substance.

Carbon compounds
Chlorine compounds

Hexachlorobenzene


Astigmatism is defined as the eye creating two images instead of one image on the retina. This happens when the power of the eye isn't the same in all directions, often because the front of the eye (the cornea) is shaped more like the back of a spoon than a perfect sphere. Astigmatism does not affect the health of the eye, and eyes with astigmatism can be perfectly healthy.

The result is that objects look blurry, but how much blur is different in different directions, which is why people with astigmatism often have trouble reading some letters but not others.  It can also cause headaches and eyestrain. In most cases it is easily fixed with glasses, contact lenses, or surgery.

Diseases and disorders of the eye

Astigmatism


A shared web hosting service is a web hosting service where many websites reside on one web server connected to the Internet. The overall cost of server maintenance is spread over many customers. By using shared hosting, the website will share a physical server with one or more other websites.

Description
The service usually includes system administration as it is shared by many users. This is a benefit for users who do not want to deal with it, but a hindrance to power users who want more control. In general, shared hosting will be inappropriate for users who require extensive software development outside what the hosting provider supports. Almost all applications intended to be on a standard web server work fine with a shared web hosting service. But on the other hand, shared hosting is cheaper than other types of hosting such as dedicated server hosting. Shared hosting usually has usage limits and hosting providers should have extensive reliability features in place. Shared hosting services typically offer basic web statistics support, email and webmail services, auto script installations, updated PHP and MySQL, basic after-sale technical support that is included with a monthly subscription. It also typically uses a web-based control panel system. Most of the large hosting companies use their own custom-developed control panel or cPanel. Control panels and web interfaces can cause controversy however since web hosting companies sometimes sell the right to use their control panel system to others. Attempting to recreate the functionality of a specific control panel is common, which leads to many lawsuits over patent infringement.
Shared web hosting services
In shared hosting, the provider is generally responsible for managing servers, installing server software, security updates, technical support, and other aspects of the service. Most servers are based on the Linux operating system and LAMP (software bundle). Some providers offer Microsoft Windows-based or FreeBSD-based solutions. Server-side facilities for either operating system (OS) have similar functionality (for example: MySQL (database) and many server-side programming languages (such as the widely used PHP programming language) under Linux, or the proprietary SQL Server (database) and ASP.NET programming language under Microsoft Windows.

There are thousands of shared hosting providers in the world. They range from "mom-and-pop shops" and small design firms to multimillion-dollar providers with hundreds of thousands of customers.

Shared web hosting can also be done privately by sharing the cost of running a server in a colocation center; this is called cooperative hosting.

Implementation
Shared web hosting can be accomplished in two ways: name-based and Internet Protocol-based (IP-based), although some control panels allow a mix of name-based and IP-based on the one server.

IP-based
In IP-based virtual hosting, also called dedicated IP hosting, each virtual host has a different IP address.  The web server is configured with multiple physical network interfaces or virtual network interfaces on the same physical interface. The web server software uses the IP address the client connects to in order to determine which website to show the user.

Name-based
In name-based virtual hosting, also called shared IP hosting, the virtual hosts serve multiple hostnames on a single machine with a single IP address. This is possible because when a web browser requests a resource from a web server using HTTP/1.1 it includes the requested hostname as part of the request. The server uses this information to determine which website to show the user.

DNS and name servers

DNS stands for "Domain Name System". The domain name system acts like a large telephone directory and within is the master database, which associates a domain name such as www.wikipedia.org with the appropriate IP number. Consider the IP number something similar to a phone number: When someone calls www.wikipedia.org, the ISP looks at the DNS server, and asks "how do I contact www.wikipedia.org?" The DNS server responds, for example, "it can be found at: 220.127.116.11.". As the Internet understands it, this can be considered the phone number for the server that houses the website. When the domain name is registered/purchased on a particular registrar's "name server", the DNS settings are kept on their server, and in most cases point the domain to the name server of the hosting provider. This name server is where the IP number (currently associated with the domain name) resides.

See also
Dedicated hosting service
Virtual machine
Virtual private server
Web hosting service
Web server

References

Internet hosting
IT service management
Telecommunication services
Web hosting

Shared web hosting service


Worcester Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Worcester, England. It stands on a bank overlooking the River Severn. It is the seat of the Anglican Bishop of Worcester. Its official name is The Cathedral Church of Christ and the Blessed Mary the Virgin of Worcester.  It was built between 1084 and 1504, so therefore there are many different kinds of architecture, from Norman to Perpendicular Gothic. It is famous for its Norman crypt and the unusual chapter house.

History
The Cathedral was founded in 680 with Bishop Bosel as its head.  Most of the cathedral we see today dates from the 12th and 13th centuries.

Monks and nuns had been at the Cathedral since the seventh century.  The monastery became Benedictine in the second half of the tenth century.  The Benedictine monks were driven out in 1540 and replaced by secular (non-religious) canons.

After the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the building became a cathedral of secular clergy again. The cathedral often had restoration work done, especially by Sir George Gilbert Scott and A. E. Perkins in the 1860s. Both men are buried at the cathedral.

In the chancel of the cathedral is the tomb of King John.  The cathedral has a memorial, Prince Arthur's Chantry, to the young prince Arthur Tudor, who is buried here.  Arthur's younger brother and next in line for the throne was Henry VIII. Worcester Cathedral was not destroyed  by Henry VIII during the English Reformation because of his brother's chantry in the cathedral.

Other famous burials include Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (1867–1947), Bishop of Worcester John Gauden (1605–1662) and Richard Edes (d.1604), a chaplain to Elizabeth I and James I.

Bells
The tower has a ring of twelve bells plus three semitone bells and a non-swinging bourdon.  They are some of the most beautiful church bells ever made.  There is a teaching centre  with eight special training bells, linked to computers.

Music

Worcester Cathedral has three choirs: the Worcester Cathedral Choir (the main choir which has both a boys' and a girls' treble line, which normally work separately), Worcester Cathedral Chamber Choir, and the Worcester Cathedral Voluntary Choir. Since the 18th century, Worcester Cathedral Choir has taken part in the Three Choirs Festival, the oldest music festival in the world.

The composer Edward Elgar spent most of his life in Worcestershire. The first performance of his Enigma Variations took place at the cathedral during the 1899 festival.  There is a stained glass window which contains his portrait.

Worcester Cathedral has a long history of organs dating back to at least 1417. Until recently there was a large four-manual organ, originally built by Hope Jones.  Most of this organ was removed in 2006 in order to make way for a new instrument by Kenneth Tickell, which was completed in the summer of 2008.

Famous organists at Worcester have included Thomas Tomkins (from 1596), Hugh Blair (from 1895), Ivor Atkins (from 1897) and David Willcocks (from 1950). Today the organist (from 1996) is Adrian Lucas.

Related pages
English Gothic architecture
Romanesque architecture
Church of England
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Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell  (28 February 1865 – 9 October 1940) was a British medical missionary to Newfoundland, who wrote books on his work and other topics.

Early life and education
He was born at Parkgate, Cheshire, England, on 28 February 1865, the Son of Rev. Algernon Sidney Grenfell, headmaster of Mostyn House School, and Jane Georgiana Hutchison.

Grenfell moved to London in 1882. He then commenced the study of medicine at the London Hospital Medical College (now part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry) under the tutelage of Sir Frederick Treves. He graduated in 1888.

Career
The Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen sent Grenfell to Newfoundland in 1892 to improve the plight of coastal inhabitants and fishermen. That mission began in earnest in 1892 when he recruited two nurses and two doctors for hospitals at Indian Harbour, Labrador and later opened cottage hospitals along the coast of Labrador. The mission expanded greatly from its initial mandate to one of developing schools, an orphanage, cooperatives, industrial work projects, and social work. Although founded to serve the local area, the mission developed to include the aboriginal peoples and settlers along the coasts of Labrador and the eastern side of the Great Northern Peninsula of western Newfoundland. One of the children Grenfell assisted was an Inuit girl, Kirkina, for whom he helped secure artificial limbs and later the Grenfell Mission educated her in nursing and midwifery.

In 1907, Grenfell imported a group of 300 reindeer from Norway to provide food and serve as draft animals in Newfoundland. Unbeknownst to him, some of the animals carried a parasitic roundworm, Elaphostrongylus rangiferi, that then spread to native caribou herds. The reindeer herd eventually disappeared; however, the parasite took hold and causes cerebrospinal elaphostrongylosis (CSE) in caribou, a disease well known in reindeer in Scandinavia.

In 1908, Grenfell was on his way with his dogs to a Newfoundland village for a medical emergency when he got caught in "slob", from which he managed to get onto an ice-pan with the dogs. He was forced to sacrifice some of his dogs to make a warm, fur coat for himself. After drifting for several days without food or fresh water, he was rescued by some villagers in the area. Because of this experience he buried the dogs and put up a plaque saying, "Who gave their lives for me."

By 1914 the mission had gained international status. In order to manage its property and affairs, the International Grenfell Association, a non-profit mission society, was founded to support Grenfell's work. The Association operated until 1981, as an NGO. It had responsibility for delivery of healthcare and social services in northern Newfoundland and Labrador. After 1981 a governmental agency, The Grenfell Regional Health Services Board took over the operational responsibility. The International Grenfell Association, having divested itself of all properties and operational responsibility for health and social services, boarding schools and hospitals then became a supporting association making grants and funding scholarships for medical training.

For his years of service on behalf of the people of these communities he was later knighted by the King in 1927.

In 1931, Grenfell had a small speaking role in the film, The Viking, in which he narrated the film's prologue and gave a brief statement of the tragic circumstances involving the film's production. During the production of the film, which was filmed on location in Newfoundland, producer Varick Frissell felt that the film needed more action sequences and set out on the ice floes to film them. During filming, the ship, SS Viking on which filming was taking place, exploded, killing Frissell and 27 others.

Personal life
He married Anne Elizabeth Caldwell MacClanahan (died 1938) of Chicago, Illinois, in 1909. They had three children and retired to Vermont after his work in Newfoundland. They were married in 1909 and came to live in the Grenfell House (which they designed together) in St. Anthony, Newfoundland. Anne gave Dr. Grenfell's life comfort and refinement. She became totally involved in his work. She organized his fundraising tours and lectures, edited his books and helped secure scholarships for the children of the area to continue their education. Although Anne was ill towards the end of her life, she kept her pain hidden from her husband and took care of him until she died in 1938.

Death and legacy
Grenfell died of a coronary thrombosis at Kinloch House in Charlotte, Vermont on 9 October 1940. His ashes were brought to St Anthony, where they were placed inside a rock face overlooking the harbour.

The Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell Historical Society was formed in 1978. The society purchased Grenfell's home in St. Anthony, Newfoundland and Labrador. The home has been restored as a museum and archives. The Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell Historical Society with the support of Provincial Government and the International Grenfell Association began construction of an interpretation centre in St. Anthony and it was opened in 1997. This facility added to the existing house and serves to promote the legacy to thousands of visitors each year. The Grenfell Interpretation Centre also is used by other organizations for meetings and events. A large interpretive display is housed there and provides historical background surrounding the work of Sir Wilfred Thomason Grenfell.

In 1979, Memorial University's West Coast Regional College was renamed to honour Grenfell.

Grenfell is honoured with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on 9 October.

Literary inspiration
A unique figure, Grenfell served to inspire at least two characters in Canadian literature: Dr. Luke in Norman Duncan's Doctor Luke of the Labrador (1904) and Dr. Tocsin in White Eskimo by Harold Horwood (1972).

A biography for children (middle-high school) was written in 1942, by Genevieve Fox. Published by Thomas Y. Crowell Co. The book had second and third printings as well.

The following statement has been widely ascribed to him, but cannot be found in any of his books: "The service we render to others is really the rent we pay for our room on this earth. It is obvious that man is himself a traveler; that the purpose of this world is not 'to have and to hold' but 'to give and serve.' There can be no other meaning."

Fabric
Mill owner Walter Haythornthwaite of Burnley, Lancashire created a cloth for Sir Wilfred Grenfell after attending a Grenfell lecture.  Designed to withstand the conditions of the Labrador coast, it is a 600 thread-per-inch woven cotton gabardine that became known as 'Grenfell Cloth' from 1923. The cloth became the signature fabric of the Grenfell Clothing brand which is, to this day, manufactured in the United Kingdom.

Awards
 Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George – 1907
 Honorary Doctorate of Medicine, University of Oxford – 1907 (the first to be granted)
 Murchison Prize, Royal Geographical Society – 1911 (awarded for his charts of Labrador)
 Knighthood – 1927 (recognition of medical, educational and social work)
 Honorary Knight for Life, Loyal Knights of the Round Table, Fifth Rank – 1928 (for great service to humanity)
Induction into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame – 1997

In 1979, the Corner Brook campus of Memorial University of Newfoundland was renamed Sir Wilfred Grenfell College in his honour. In 2010, following a debate to rename this campus, the name Grenfell Campus, Memorial University of Newfoundland was chosen, to reflect the campus' ties to the spirit of Sir Wilfred Grenfell's legacy.

Publications
Essay by Grenfell include:
 What the Bible Means to Me (1910)
Books by Grenfell include:
 Vikings of To-Day: or, Life and Medical Work among the Fishermen of Labrador (1896)
 The Harvest of the Sea (1905)
 Off the Rocks: Stories of the Deep-sea Fisherfolk of Labrador (1906)
 Adrift on an Ice-Pan (1909)
 What Will You Do with Jesus Christ (1910)
 What the Church Means to Me: A Frank Confession and a Friendly Estimate by an Insider (1911)
 The Adventure of Life (1912)
 Down North on the Labrador (1912)
 What Life Means to Me (1913)
 Tales of the Labrador (1916)
 A Labrador Doctor (1919)
 Labrador Days: Tales of the Sea Toilers (1919)
 Yourself and Your Body (1924), written at the time when he said his two sons had just reached the age of Whys? and Hows?
 What Christ Means to Me (1926)
 Labrador Looks at the Orient: Notes of Travel in the Near and the Far East (1928)
 Forty Years for Labrador (1932)
 The Romance of Labrador (1934)

See also
 CCGS Sir Wilfred Grenfell

Notes

References
  Endnotes:
"The chief source of information is Grenfell's autobiography first published in 1919 under the title A Labrador Doctor, and republished in 1932, in a revised and expanded form, under the title Forty Years for Labrador. See also":
James Johnston (1908), Grenfell of Labrador
A. G. Hall (1919), Doctor Wilfred Grenfell
F. L. Waldo (1920), With Grenfell on the Labrador and
D. Wallace (1922), The Story of Grenfell of the Labrador
B. J. Mathews (1924), Wilfred Grenfell
F. L. Waldo (1924), Grenfell
E. H. Hayes (1930), Forty Years on the Labrador
Joyce Reason (1942), Deep-sea Doctor
Genevieve May Fox (1947), Sir Wilfred Grenfell, New York

Further reading

 Miller, Basil (1948). Wilfred Grenfell: Labrador's Dogsled Doctor. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
 Reason, Joyce (1940). Deep-Sea Doctor: Wilfred Grenfell. London: Edinburgh House Press.
 Reason, Joyce (1974).  "O Médico dos Mares Profundos". de Janeiro: União Feminina Missionária Batista do Brasil Portuguese, translation by Mein, Mildred Coz (translator)
 Rompkey, Ronald (1991), Grenfell of Labrador: A Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

External links

 Grenfell Museum Properties
 International Grenfell Association
 Grenfell Photo Exhibit
 Town of St. Anthony - Grenfell's Town

 Wilfred Grenfell Autograph Album at Dartmouth College Library
Wilfred Thomason Grenfell papers (MS 254). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.

Anne MacLanahan Grenfell

1865 births
1940 deaths
Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
19th-century English medical doctors
Alumni of the London Hospital Medical College
People educated at Marlborough College
Rectors of the University of St Andrews
People from St. Anthony, Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland Colony people
Dominion of Newfoundland people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)
Canadian people of Cornish descent
English emigrants to Canada
Deaths from coronary thrombosis
20th-century English medical doctors
People from Neston
Wilfred
English people of Cornish descent
English Protestant missionaries
English evangelicals

Wilfred Grenfell


Every force has a coupling constant, which is a measure of its strength in an interaction. The coupling constant determines the chances of one particle to emit or absorb another particle. In electromagnetism, for example, the coupling constant is based on the electric charge. A coupling constant plays an important role in dynamics.

When physicists study the quantum behaviour of electromagnetism, they can not solve the whole theory exactly, because every particle may emit and absorb many other particles, which may also do the same, endlessly. So events of emission and absorption are considered as perturbations and are dealt with by a series of approximations.

This also can happen in string theory. String theories have a coupling constant. It determines the probability that a 1-dimensional string of energy will separate into two separate energy strings. But unlike in particle theories, the string coupling constant is not just a number, but depends on one of the oscillation modes of the string.

Quantum mechanics
Statistics

Coupling constant


Émile Henri Bernard (28 April 1868 – 16 April 1941) was a French Post-Impressionist painter and writer, who had artistic friendships with Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin and Eugène Boch, and at a later time, Paul Cézanne. Most of his notable work was accomplished at a young age, in the years 1886 through 1897. He is also associated with Cloisonnism and Synthetism, two late 19th-century art movements. Less known is Bernard's literary work, comprising plays, poetry, and art criticism as well as art historical statements that contain first-hand information on the crucial period of modern art to which Bernard had contributed.

Biography

Émile Henri Bernard was born in Lille, France, in 1868. As in his younger years his sister was sick, Émile was unable to receive much attention from his parents; he therefore stayed with his grandmother, who owned a laundry in Lille, employing more than twenty people. She was one of the greatest supporters of his art. The family moved to Paris in 1878, where Émile attended the Collège Sainte-Barbe.

Education

He began his studies at the École des Arts Décoratifs. In 1884, joined the Atelier Cormon where he experimented with Impressionism and Pointillism and befriended fellow artists Louis Anquetin and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. After being suspended from the  for "showing expressive tendencies in his paintings", he toured Brittany on foot, where he was enamored by the tradition and landscape.

In August 1886, Bernard met Gauguin in Pont-Aven. In this brief meeting, they exchanged little about art, but looked forward to meeting again. Bernard said, looking back on that time, that "my own talent was already fully developed." He believed that his style did play a considerable part in the development of Gauguin's mature style.

1887–1888

Bernard spent September 1887 at the coast, where he painted La Grandmère, a portrait of his grandmother. He continued talking with other painters and started saying good things about Gauguin. Bernard went back to Paris, attended , met with van Gogh, who as we already stated was impressed by his work, found a restaurant to show the work alongside van Gogh, Anquetin, and Toulouse-Lautrec's work at the Avenue Clichy. Van Gogh called the group the School of Petit-Boulevard.

One year later, Bernard set out for Pont-Aven by foot and saw Gauguin. Their friendship and artistic relationship grew strong quickly. By this time Bernard had developed many theories about his artwork and what he wanted it to be. He stated that he had "a desire to [find] an art that would be of the most extreme simplicity and that would be accessible to all, so as not to practice its individuality, but collectively..." Gauguin was impressed by Bernard's ability to verbalize his ideas.

1888 was a seminal year in the history of Modern art. From 23 October until 23 December Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh worked together in Arles. Gauguin had brought his new style from Pont-Aven exemplified in Vision after the Sermon: Jacob Wrestling with the Angel, a powerful work of visual symbolism of which he had already sent a sketch to van Gogh in September.

He also brought along Bernard's Le Pardon de Pont-Aven which he had exchanged for one of his paintings and which he used to decorate the shared workshop.
see in: (ref. Druick 2001) This work was equally striking and illustrative of the style Émile Bernard had already acquainted van Gogh with when he sent him a batch of drawings in August, so much so that van Gogh made a watercolor copy of the Pardon (December 1888) which he sent to his brother, to recommend Bernard's new style to be promoted. The following year van Gogh still vividly remembered the painting in his written portrait of Émile Bernard in a letter to his sister Wil (10 December 1889):"...it was so original I absolutely wanted to have a copy."

Bernard's style was effective and coherent (see:woman at haystacks,) as can also be seen from the comparison of the two "portraits" Bernard and Gauguin sent to van Gogh at the end of September 1888 at the latter's request: self-portraits -at Gauguin's initiative- each integrating a small portrait of the other in the background. (ref. Druick 2001)

One of Émile Bernard's drawings from the August batch ("...a lane of trees near the sea with two women talking in the foreground and some strollers" – Vincent van Gogh in a letter to Bernard – Arles 1888) also appears to have inspired the work van Gogh and Gauguin did on the Allée des Alyscamps in Arles.

In 1891 he joined a group of Symbolist painters that included Odilon Redon and Ferdinand Hodler. In 1893 he started traveling, to Egypt, Spain and Italy and after that his style became more eclectic. He returned to Paris in 1904 and remained there for the remainder of his life. He taught at the  before he died in 1941.

"[...] this creative, avant-garde young man destroyed himself in a fight against that same avant-garde he had helped to create. His rivalry with Gauguin led him out of spite along a different path: classicism. This change took place when he was living in the Middle East, in a period of great crisis. But the fact remains that the young Bernard played an essential part as an initiator for Gauguin, and that he was the inventor of a new artistic vision."

Theories on style and art: Cloisonnism and Symbolism

Bernard theorized a style of painting with bold forms separated by dark contours which became known as cloisonnism. His work showed geometric tendencies which hinted at influences of Paul Cézanne, and he collaborated with Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh.

Many say that it was Bernard's friend Anquetin, who should receive the credit for this "closisonisme" technique. During the spring of 1887, Bernard and Anquetin "turned against Neo-Impressionism." It is also likely that Bernard was influenced by the works he had seen of Cézanne. But Bernard says "When I was in Brittany, I was inspired by "everything that is superfluous in a spectacle is covering it with reality and occupying our eyes instead of our mind. You have to simplify the spectacle in order to make some sense of it. You have, in a way, to draw its plan."

"The first means that I use is to simplify nature to an extreme point. I reduce the lines only to the main contrasts and I reduce the colors to the seven fundamental colors of the prism. To see a style and not an item. To highlight the abstract sense and not the objective.
And the second means were to appeal to the conception and to the memory by extracting yourself from any direct atmosphere. Appeal more to internal memory and conception. There I was expressing myself more, it was me that I was describing, although I was in front of the nature. There was an invisible meaning under the mute shape of exteriority."

Symbolism and religious motifs appear in both Bernard and Gauguin's work. During the summer of 1889, Bernard was alone in Le Pouldu and began to paint many religious canvasses. He was upset that he had to do commercial work at the same time that he wanted to create these pieces.
Bernard wrote about his relationship with the style of symbolism in many letters, articles, and statements. He said that it was of a Christian essence, divine language. Bernard believed that it "It is the invisible express by the visible," and those previous attempts of religious symbolism failed. That period of symbolism represented the nature of beauty, but did not find the truth in the beauty. Art until the renaissance was based on the invisible rather than the visible, the idea, not the shapes or concrete. The history of the painting of symbols was spiritual. Everything, meaning symbols, were forgotten with the paganist ideas and doctrines. That is what Bernard was attempting to accomplish with the rebirth of symbolism in 1890. In his idea of the new symbolism, he concentrated on maintaining a grounded art, more authentic in Bernard's mind meant reducing impressionism, not creating an optical trip like Georges-Pierre Seurat, but simplifying the actual symbol.

His concept was that through ideas, not technique, the truth is found.

Influence
It was always Émile Bernard's great frustration that Paul Gauguin never mentioned him as an influence on pictorial symbolism (see for instance his own notes attached to the Belgian edition (1942) of his selected letters, published shortly after his death). In 2001/2002 The Art Institute of Chicago and the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam held a joint exhibition:Van Gogh and Gauguin:The Workshop of the South that put Émile Bernard's contribution in perspective. (ref. Druick 2001)

One of Émile Bernard's students was the Swedish painter Ivan Aguéli.

Works

Writings

Art criticism

 Le Moderniste I/14, 27 July 1889, pp. 108 and 110

 Les Hommes d'aujourd'hui, no. 387

 Les Hommes d'aujourd'hui, no. 390, (1891)
 reprinted in: Lettres & Recueil (1911), pp. 65–69

 La Plume III/57, 1 September 1891, pp. 300–301
  (!)
 La Plume III/64, 15 December 1891, p. 447

 Mercure de France VII/40, April 1893, pp. 324–330
 reprinted in: Lettres & Recueil (1911), pp. 45–52

 Mercure de France VII/44, August 1893, pp. 303–305
 reprinted in: Lettres & Recueil (1911), pp. 53–57

 dated 10 June 1895
 first published in: Lettres & Recueil (1911), pp. 59–63
 Notes sur l'école dite de "Pont-Aven"
 Mercure de France XLVIII, December 1903, pp. 675–682

 Mercure de France LXXVI/276, 16 December 1908, pp. 600–616

 Lettres de Vincent van Gogh à Émile Bernard & Recueil des publications sur Vincent van Gogh faites depuis son déces par Émile Bernard, précédées d'une preface nouvelle par le même auteur, Ambroise Vollard, éditeur, Paris, 1911, pp. 1–43

 Mercure de France CXXXVIII/521, 1 March 1920, pp. 289–318

 Mercure de France CXLVIII/551, 1 June 1921, pp. 372–397

 L'Amour de l'Art, December 1924, pp. 393–400
 Souvenirs sur Paul Cézanne: une conversation avec Cézanne, la méthode de Cézanne. Paris: Chez Michel, 1925.

 Gazette des Beaux-Arts VI/11, February 1934, pp. 108–121

 Mercure de France CCLXVIII/912, 15 June 1936, pp. 514–530

 Nouvelliste du Morbihan, Lorient, (1939)

 first published in:
 reprinted in: , Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Belgique, Brussels 1942, pp. 241–257

Letters
His correspondence with other artists is of great art historical interest. Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Bernard traded ideas and art. Many letters sent from van Gogh and Gauguin to Bernard give historians a better idea of the artists lives and connection to their artwork.
 Lettres à Émile Bernard de Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Odilon Redon, Paul Cézanne, Elémir Bourges, Léon Bloy, G. Apollinaire, Joris-Karl Huysmans, Henry de Groux, Editions de la Nouvelle Revue Belgique, Brussels 1942
 Neil McWilliam (ed.), Émile Bernard. Les Lettres d'un artiste (1884–1941), Les Presses du réel, Dijon, 2012, an edited selection of 430 letters covering the entirety of the artist's career.

Notes, references and sources
Notes and references

Sources

 Alley, Ronald. The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 133, No. 1056 (Mar. 1991)
 Dorra, Henri: Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, Gazette des Beaux-Arts 1955. Vol. 45.
 Druick, Douglas W., and Seghers, Peter Kort: Van Gogh and Gauguin: The Workshop of the South – Art Institute of Chicago Museum Shop, Paperback, 2001
 Leeman, Fred: Émile Bernard (1868–1941), Citadelles & Mazenod editors; Wildenstein Institute Publications, 2013, 495 p.
 Luthi, Jean-Jacques: Émile Bernard, Catalogue raisonné de l'œuvre peint, Editions SIDE, Paris 1982
 McWilliam, Neil (ed.): 'Émile Bernard. Les Lettres d'un artiste', Les Presses du réel, Dijon, 2012 ().
 McWilliam, Neil; Karp-Lugo, Laura, and Welsh-Ovcharov, Bogomila: "Émile Bernard. Au-delà de Pont-Aven", Institut national d'histoire de l'art, Paris, 2012
 Morane, Daniel: Émile Bernard 1868–1941, Catalogue de l'œuvre gravé, Musée de Pont-Aven & Bibliothèque d'Art et d'Archéologie – Jacques Doucet, Paris, 2000
 Stevens, MaryAnne, et alt.: Émile Bernard 1868–1941, a pioneer of Modern Art / Ein Wegbereiter der Moderne, Waanders, Zwolle 1990
 Waschek, Matthias: Eklektizismus und Originalität. Die Grundlagen des französischen Symbolismus am Beispiel von Émile Bernard, PhD Bonn 1990
 Welsh-Ovcharov, Bogomila: Vincent van Gogh and the Birth of Cloisonism, Toronto & Amsterdam, 1980

External links

 Signac, 1863-1935, a fully digitized exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries, which contains material on Bernard (see index)
 artcyclopedia.com
 Van Gogh Letters to Bernard, The Morgan Library online exhibition (facsimiles and translations).

Académie Julian alumni
French art critics
French letter writers
French male painters
French male poets
Orientalism
Orientalist painters
Artists from Lille
Post-impressionist painters
Pont-Aven painters
1868 births
1941 deaths
19th-century French poets
20th-century French male writers
19th-century French male artists
19th-century French painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
19th-century French male writers
French Symbolist painters
19th-century letter writers

Émile Bernard