The light clock is a simple way of showing a basic feature of Special relativity. A clock is designed to work by bouncing a flash of light off a distant mirror and using its return to trigger another flash of light, meanwhile counting how many flashes have occurred along the way. It is easy to show that people on Earth watching a spaceship fly overhead with such a clock would see it ticking relatively slowly. This effect is called time dilation.

Before we study the light clock, consider another kind of relativity. Imagine that someone is dribbling a basketball in the hold of a large cargo jet. The basketball player is moving in the same direction as the jet airplane. The other people in the plane see him moving a meter or two as he makes one dribble. Between the time the ball bounces the first time and the ball bounces the second time, about one second has passed. But when the first bounce occurred the basketball was over Gibraltar, and when the second bounce occurred the basketball was over the water nearer to Spain. So the basketball has moved 280 meters with respect to Earth.

Now consider a somewhat similar question of relative motion. This time we are  going to consider what people looking at stars from the North Pole see when a very fast spaceship flies over them. We can use algebra and the Pythagorean theorem to calculate how much time slows on the spaceship. The only other thing we need is the equation that relates distance, d, rate or speed of travel, r, and time, t. The equation is:

d = rt

The speed of light is constant, so we will apply this value to two problems. We will call the speed of light c, as this is the letter scientists usually use to name it.

A clock is made by putting a light output at the bottom of a long pole, a mirror on top of the pole, and an electronic light detector down at the bottom of the pole. The clock is started by briefly closing a switch that sends one blink of light from the bottom of the pole to the top of the pole where it is reflected back to the bottom of the pole. When the light detector at the bottom of the pole sees the blink of light it does two things. It adds one to the counter that is attached to it, and it fires another blink of light up to the mirror. When that blink of light gets back to the bottom, the count changes to two, and another blink of light is set off. Since light travels very rapidly (300,000 kilometers/second), for each second measured by an ordinary clock the light clock will "tick" a very large number of times.

To make the math easier, we will say that the pole is one half kilometer long. So if we are standing by the light clock that is built next to the big telescope at the North Pole, we will see that light travels one kilometer for each "tick" of the light clock. Since distance traveled, d, equals speed multiplied by time, and the speed involved is c, we have the equation:

d = ct

and we can solve this equation for t to learn how long in seconds each "tick" is.

1 km = 300,000 km/second * t seconds

t seconds = 1 km/300,000 (km/second) = 1/300,000 seconds =  0.00000333…3 seconds

In other words, each "tick" of the light clock will take 0.00000333…3 seconds.

If a spaceship were flying on a straight line passing over the North Pole at a large fraction of the speed of light, and it had a similar clock, people watching its passage would see that the mirror on top of the pole had moved from directly over the emitting light, so the light would travel along the line marked h in the diagram, and then it would follow the other hypotenuse back down to the base of the pole -- which would by now have moved some distance since the spaceship is moving so fast. We can figure out how much time one tick would take according to the people on Earth. We know that the spaceship's pole has a length of a since it is the same kind of clock as people are using at the North Pole. We want to figure out t' , the time it takes to make one tick of the clock on the spaceship.

We know that the spaceship will travel 1/2 r t'  while the blink of light is heading up toward the mirror, and another 1/2 r t'  while the blink of light is heading down toward the base of the pole. So that calculation gives us the length of line b in the chart. We know a, so we can figure out h by the Pythagorean theorem:

h = √(a2 + (rt' /2)2)

So the total distance the light travels is 2 h or d = 2 √(a2 + (rt' /2)2)

We also know that the speed of light, c, is constant. No matter who measures it, it turns out to be the same speed. So we can use that fact to get another way of calculating how long it takes for the flash of light to go from the base to the top of the pole and back again:

t'  = d/c

In other words, d = c t' .

So we can write

c t'  = 2 √(a2 + (rt' /2)2)

or

1/2 c t'  =  √(a2 + (rt' /2)2)

To solve the above equation, we will need to:
Square both sides
Divide both sides by t' 2
Multiply both sides by 4
Divide both sides by c2
Simplify c2 / c2
Subtract r2/c2 from both sides
Take the square root of both sides
Multiply both sides by t'
Divide both sides by √(1-r2/c2)

Solving the above equation we find that:

t'  = 2a/(c√(1-r2/c2)

The time between ticks on the clock at the North Pole is 2a/c, so we can then write:

t'  = t/√(1-r2/c2)

If t = 1 second, then if the spaceship is traveling at one half the speed of light, t'  = 1.1547 sec.

Experiment with various speeds of travel at: http://www.1728.org/reltivty.htm

Bibliography

Space and Time in Special Relativity, N. David Mermin, pp. 33-41.McGraw-Hill, 1968.
Relativity

Light clock


Fort Croghan was the third of the first four forts established by the United States government to protect settlers from hostile Indians along the Texas frontier. From its establishment on March 18, 1849, by Lt. C.H. Taylor (Company A, Second Dragoons) until it was abandoned in 1855, Fort Croghan was home to Company C, 8th Infantry, U.S.A. (mounted), and eventually became the headquarters of the Second Dragoon Regiment.

Part of a chain of forts extending from Fort Worth to Fort Inge near present-day Uvalde, the fort was named for Colonel George Croghan.  The fort originally covered some  near the present-day city of Burnet, Texas, extending from Hamilton Creek up and over Post Mountain. Today, a small section exists due to the efforts of the Burnet County Historical Society, which raised money in the 1960s to purchase this portion of the old fort.

Early history
In the 1840s, upon the annexation of Texas to the United States, the federal government became responsible for the protection of frontier settlers from Indian raids. Several companies of Texas Rangers, financed by the federal government, were stationed along the frontier.  In December 1847, a company of Rangers under the command of Henry Eustace McCulloch took up a position about 3 miles (5 km) south of present-day Burnet. Samuel E. Holland purchased a  grant there in 1848, including the land on which the Ranger station was located.  His residence built on that land is said to have been the first permanent home in Burnet County.  The indigenous peoples of the Americas had occupied this region for thousands of years, but did not build or live in permanent homes, theirs being a migratory culture.

In the late 1840s, the lure of free and cheap land had thrust many settlers far beyond the protection of civilization. More and more settlers arrived, many of them from foreign countries. Some came expecting to acquire good farmland near the Texas coast. They soon learned that they would have to move hundreds of miles inland and the only land left was marginal rangeland. Indians who had been peaceful due to treaties and the presence of the United States soldiers during the U.S.-Mexican War now began to come into conflict with these newcomers. The Comanche and Apache were particularly incensed at this intrusion into their ancient hunting grounds.

At first, the government wanted to build Fort Croghan near Holland Springs. Burnet County's first white resident, Sam Holland, objected strenuously to a military post being located near his home.  They then decided to locate the fort a few miles north on Hamilton Creek.  No consideration was more important than a year-round source of abundant, clean water, needed for many uses and as drinking water for people and animals.

All the necessary buildings, including a hospital, bakery, officers' quarters, enlisted men's huts, powderhouse, horse and mule lots, blacksmith shop, storage buildings, and a lookout building on top of Post Mountain, were constructed by the soldiers. In October 1849, Company C. 8th Infantry, U.S.A. Mounted arrived to occupy this newly constructed fort.

Fort Croghan consisted of the usual log cabins enclosed by a strong stockade. It was manned by one company of cavalry and one of infantry. The first commander was Captain Phillip St. George Cook. Captain Cook soon resigned his position and was followed by Captains Blake, Lee, and Sibley. Some of the soldiers settled in the area and stayed on after the fort was decommissioned. Christian Dorbandt, later sheriff of Burnet County, was one of these men.  Noah Smithwick worked as an armorer for the fort.

A small town soon grew up across Hamilton Creek, as merchants and other suppliers of services moved to be near the fort. Logan Vandeveer and Peter Kerr were among the first to obtain contracts to furnish the fort with beef and other foodstuffs. In 1852, Vandeveer was instrumental in petitioning the Texas Legislature to authorize the creation of Burnet County. The town was first called Hamilton or Hamilton Valley, but in 1858, the town name was changed to Burnet, also.

Fort Croghan was abandoned in December 1853, having served its purpose. The last building there was demolished in the 1920s and the old fort was forgotten as the town grew and prospered.

Fort Croghan Restoration

In the 1960s, a group of citizens interested in preserving this part of Burnet County and the city of Burnet's past formed the Burnet County Historical Society and raised the money to purchase the present-day grounds. Early presidents of the Burnet County Historical Society included Rethie Dorbandt, Ed Young, Virgil Lewis, Tad Moses, Jimsey Husted, Phyllis Adrian, Reta Ross, Clyde Mather, Mrs. T.D. Bryant, W.C. Galloway, Mather Dorbandt, and Donald Duncan. Local landowners donated the historical cabins that were moved to the fort grounds and reassembled as they had been. The Texas Rangers' McCulloch's Station was 4 miles south on Hamilton Creek.

Fort Croghan Grounds and Museum
The Fort Croghan Museum features historical artifacts including tools, household items, and Western gear.  The grounds contain restored buildings with period displays, including a stage-stop house, blacksmith shop, schoolhouse, powder house, several late 19th-century cabins, a lookout house, and a syrup-making shop.  Fort Croghan Day is held each year to demonstrate frontier life.

See also

Fort Gates
Fort Graham
Fort Martin Scott

Fort Duncan

References

External links

 Fort Croghan Grounds and Museum Facebook Site
 Fort Croghan Grounds and Museum - official site

 Fort Croghan Grounds and Museum - more information and history

Croghan
Buildings and structures in Burnet County, Texas
Museums in Burnet County, Texas
Open-air museums in Texas
American West museums in Texas

Fort Croghan


Liriope is a genus of low, grass-like flowering plants from East and Southeast Asia.

Some species are often used in landscaping in temperate latitudes.  It may be called "lilyturf" in North America, although it is neither a true grass (family Poaceae) nor a lily (genus Lilium). In the APG III classification system, it is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). Like many lilioid monocots, it was once classified with lilies in the family Liliaceae; it has also been placed in the former family Convallariaceae. The genus was named for the nymph Liriope of Greek mythology.

Background and pronunciation
Liriope are usually used in the garden for their evergreen foliage as a groundcover. Some species, e.g., L. spicata, grow aggressively in the right conditions, spreading by runners; hence their nickname, "creeping lilyturf".

In the southeastern United States Liriope is sometimes referred to by the common name monkey grass or spider grass.

The pronunciation of "Liriope" varies. Commonly recommended pronunciation are   (US), and   (British), but there are many regional variations.  In the southern United States, for example, it may be pronounced  ,  , or  .

Cultivation
Liriope muscari is perhaps most widespread in cultivation and is considered appropriate for USDA Hardiness Zones 6-10.

Spikes of tiny violet-blue flowers appear in late summer, and will be more prolific with a dose or two of fertilizer early in the season.   A number of variegated varieties are now available to add golden or silver flashes of color to shady situations.

Species

References

Asparagaceae genera
Nolinoideae
Groundcovers

Liriope (plant)


Interstitial fluid is a type of fluid in the body. It is found in the interstitial spaces or tissue spaces - the fluid-filled areas that surround cells. It makes up about 3/4 of all extracellular fluid. Its main purpose is provide cells with nutrients and assist the cells in waste removal.

Some components of interstitial fluid are plasmatic, lymphatic, intraocular, synovial, pericardial, intrapleural, peritoneal, and digestive fluids.

Physiology

Interstitial fluid


The AIM-26 Falcon was a larger, more powerful version of the AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missile built by Hughes. It is the only guided American air-to-air missile with a nuclear warhead to be produced; the unguided AIR-2 Genie rocket was also nuclear-armed.

Development
Starting in 1956 Hughes Electronics began the development of an enlarged version of the GAR-1D Falcon that would carry a nuclear warhead. It was intended to provide a sure kill in attacks on Soviet heavy bomber aircraft, at a time when guided missiles were not accurate enough to produce high-probability kills with small conventional warheads. The original development was for semi-active radar homing and heat-seeking versions based on the conventional GAR-1/GAR-2 weapons, under the designations GAR-5 and GAR-6, respectively. The original program was cancelled.

The program was revived in 1959, now under the name GAR-11. It entered service in 1961, carried by Air Defense Command F-102 Delta Dagger interceptors. It used a radar proximity fuze and semi-active radar homing. The GAR-11 used a sub-kiloton (250 ton) yield W54 warhead shared with the "Davy Crockett" M388 recoilless rifle projectile, rather than the larger W25 warhead of the AIR-2 Genie.

Out of concern for the problems inherent in using nuclear weapons over friendly territory, a conventional version, the GAR-11A, was developed, using a  high explosive warhead.

Conventional warhead
As part of a wider Army/Navy/Air Force renaming project, in 1963 the weapon was redesignated AIM-26. The nuclear version became the AIM-26A, the conventional model the AIM-26B. From 1970 to 1972 the nuclear warheads of the AIM-26A weapons were rebuilt for the nuclear version of the AGM-62 Walleye TV guided bomb.

The AIM-26 saw little widespread use in American service, retiring in 1972. The conventional AIM-26B was exported to Switzerland as the HM-55, where it was used on Swiss Mirage IIIS fighters. The AIM-26B was produced under license (and modified) in Sweden as the Rb 27, arming Saab Draken J-35F and 35J fighters. It was retired in 1998. When Finland bought Drakens, the license-manufactured Swedish Falcons were included.

Specifications (GAR-11/AIM-26A)
 Length:
 Wingspan:
 Diameter:
 Weight:
 Speed: Mach 2
 Range:
 Guidance: semi-active radar homing
 Warhead: W54 nuclear, explosive yield 250 t TNT equivalent

Survivors

Below is an incomplete list of museums which have an AIM-26 in their collection:
Museum of Aviation, Warner Robins, Georgia (AIM-26 A)
National Museum of Naval Aviation, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida (AIM-26 A)
DVHAA Historical Aircraft Museum, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Willow Grove, Pennsylvania (AIM-26 A)
 Suomen ilmavoimamuseo / Finnish Air Force Museum, Finland (AIM-26 B / RB 27)
 Robotmuseum / Robot Museum Arboga, Sweden (AIM-26 B / RB 27)
 Västerås Flygmuseum / Västerås Aviation Museum Västerås, Sweden (AIM-26 B / RB 27)

See also
 W54 Warhead
 List of missiles
 Related Development
 AIM-4 Falcon
  GAR-9 / AIM-47 Falcon
 AIM-54 Phoenix

References

Nuclear anti-aircraft weapons
AIM-026
Military equipment introduced in the 1960s
Swedish Air Force

AIM-26 Falcon


Umeå is a town in northern Sweden. The town is known for the large number of birch trees. About 116,465 people were living in Umeå Municipality in late 2011.

The town had to recover from a very large fire in 1888.
Umeå is the biggest city in Norrland, the most northern region of Sweden since 1962. The town had about 80,000 people living there in 2010. The town opened a university in 1965. In the last 50 years the number of houses has doubled. About 700 buildings are built every year.

The city was elected European Capital of Culture in 2014. The city is the most norhtern location to have ever been a European city of culture. The city is partnering with a large number of voluntary organisations and the concept of open source

History
Umeå became a city in 1622. The King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, made the new city for Swedish merchants. He made the merchants to move north so that taxes could be increased. The city was burnt by Russian troops in 1714 and then again in 1720. In 1809 the city was briefly occupied again by the Russian army before peace was agreed. In 1888 the great fire destroyed the homes of over 2,000 people. The fire started in a brewery and destroyed part of the city including the shipyards at Teg and buildings on the island of Ön. Less than 1,000 of the people had a house after the fire. After the fire the town was rebuilt and many new birch trees were planted to stop future fires. The town is known for these trees.

In 1951 the city's library was recognised as important for northern Sweden. The library has a copy of every new book printed in Sweden. In 1962 the city opened its first airport. Umeå has been the biggest city in the most northern region of Sweden since 1962. Before 1962 the largest city was Sundsvall.

References

Other websites

 homepage

Umeå


In behavioural psychology, proactivity is thinking ahead. It means doing things before they are needed. It also means preventing something before it happens. It means the same thing as anticipation.

The term is often used in organizational behaviour. Proactive behaviour by individuals anticipates situations in the workplace. It means acting in advance of a situation, rather than just reacting afterwards. Proactive employees usually do not need to be asked to do something. They also do not need detailed instructions. Reactive employees are often controlled by the situation around them. In an unfamiliar situation they need instructions.

References

Cognition

Proactivity


Joost Swarte (born 24 December 1947 in Heemstede) is a Dutch cartoonist and graphic designer. He is best known for his ligne claire or clear line style of drawing, a term he coined.

Comic series and characters by Swarte include Katoen en Pinbal, Jopo de Pojo, Anton Makassar, Dr Ben Cine and Niet Zo, Maar Zo- Passi, Messa. He is however more famous for his numerous drawings, stamps, posters, cards, LP and CD covers, and for his magazine covers (most noteworthy the Dutch magazine Vrij Nederland, the American magazine The New Yorker, and the Belgian magazine HUMO and the Italian architecture magazine Abitare.)

Background and early work
Swarte, born 24 December 1947 in Heemstede, studied industrial design in Eindhoven and started drawing comics in the late sixties. In 1971 he started his own comic magazine Modern Papier and made regular contributions to the Dutch comic magazine Tante Leny Presenteert.

Increased recognition
International recognition started around 1980 when Swarte took part for the first time in the international comic show Salon International de la Bande Dessinée in Angoulême (France). His work has been translated into English, French, Spanish, Italian and German. Swarte, Hors Serie, a survey of his work, was published by Futuropolis (Paris) in 1984.

In 1985, he founded the publishing house Oog & Blik with Hansje Joustra.  Joost published his own comics and silkscreens, as well as books by other cartoonists and a large number of Dutch translations of foreign comics.

In 1992, Swarte initiated the Stripdagen, a biennial international comic event held in Haarlem.

In recent years, Swarte has created many illustrations for the New Yorker magazine. In 2007 Swarte, a former scout, designed the Dutch 2007 Europa stamp with the subject one hundred years of scouting.

Swarte has produced a restored collection of almost all of his comics work (excluding the several hundred pages of the "Katoen en Pinbal" children's series), an English-language version of which will be released in late 2011 by Fantagraphics Books under the title Is That All There Is?.

The cartoonist and critic Scott McCloud, in Understanding Comics (1993), wrote that "Joost Swarte's crisp elegant lines and jazzy designs speak of cool sophistication and irony."

Work outside comics and graphic design

Apart from comics and graphic design, Swarte has also designed furniture, leaded and stained glass windows, murals and other objects. For his hometown Haarlem he designed a theatre building (De Toneelschuur) that was built in cooperation with Mecanoo Architects.

Awards
Swarte received numerous international prizes for his work. In 2004, Joost Swarte received a knighthood from Her Majesty Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands.
 1981: Best Foreign Artist at the Prix Saint-Michel, Belgium
 1998: Stripschapprijs, Netherlands
 2008: Communication Arts Award of Excellence, United States
 2012: Marten Toonder Prize for his entire oeuvre
 2018: Vlag en Wimpel (Dutch children's books) for En toen De Stijl

References

External links

 Bookmarks designed by Joost Swarte
 Joost Swarte interviewed by Koldo Lus Arana (MAS Context)

1947 births
Living people
Album-cover and concert-poster artists
Dutch comics artists
Dutch graphic artists
Dutch graphic designers
Dutch humorists
Dutch illustrators
Dutch stamp designers
The New Yorker cartoonists
People from Heemstede
Winners of the Stripschapsprijs

Joost Swarte


William "Bill" Lynch Jr. (July 21, 1941 – August 9, 2013) was an American politician and political consultant, advising politicians from the Democratic Party. He was a prominent political figure in New York politics, especially within the African-American community. In 1999, Lynch founded the political consulting firm Bill Lynch Associates, LLC (BLA), where he served as chairman from its founding until his death.

Early life and career

Lynch was born on July 21, 1941, and grew up near the town of Mattituck in Suffolk County, Long Island, the son of William Lynch Sr. His father worked as a potato farmer.

In the 1960s, Lynch and his wife Mary moved to Harlem, where he would become a major political figure.
Lynch worked in organized labor, rising to the position of Director of Legislation and Political Action for District Council 1701 of AFSCME.

Campaign management

Lynch managed his first campaign in 1975, running Diane Lacey Winley's successful campaign for district leader in Central Harlem and the Upper West Side. The next year, Lynch would manage her campaign for the New York State Assembly. In the primary, Winley came in second place in a field of seven candidates. Nevertheless, Lynch garnered the attention of New York's African-American politicians.

With connections to labor organizations and black elected officials, Lynch became known as a coalition builder adept at bringing African-Americans into the political process. Not wanting to be in the spotlight, Lynch preferred to work behind the scenes.

During the 1980s, Lynch worked on presidential campaigns in all three election cycles: Senator Edward M. Kennedy in 1980, Reverend Jesse Jackson and Walter Mondale in 1984, and Jackson again in 1988. In 1985, Lynch managed the successful New York State Senate campaign of David Paterson, who later served as governor of New York.

From 1985 to 1989, Lynch served as Chief of Staff to then-Manhattan Borough President David Dinkins.

1989 mayoral election

Lynch served as campaign manager for Dinkins's mayoral bid in 1989. Dinkins defeated incumbent mayor Ed Koch in the Democratic primary, then went on to win the general election over Republican Rudolph W. Giuliani, becoming New York's first African-American mayor. Lynch was credited as being largely responsible for the victory by forging a broad multi-ethnic coalition, later dubbed the "Dinkins coalition."

Having a disdain for formal attire and earning respect for his political acumen, Lynch earned the nickname "The Rumpled Genius."

Dinkins Administration

In the administration, Lynch served as Deputy Mayor for Intergovernmental Relations, but his longstanding relationship with Dinkins made him the de facto chief aide and adviser. Despite health concerns, Lynch regularly worked 15-hour days. "I get a little emotional when I talk about Bill Lynch. He works like hell," said Dinkins.

Dinkins entered office at a time of major fiscal problems and high crime rates in New York City. The administration also faced criticism as being in disarray owing to reports of a poor chain of command and turf wars among deputy mayors. Complaints abounded that Dinkins was not doing enough to implement his campaign promises.

During Lynch's tenure, the administration faced the racially polarizing Crown Heights Riot. Lynch would dedicate so much time to reducing racial tensions between Jews and African-Americans that Mayor Dinkins had to cancel a planned delegation to South Africa, unable to raise the needed funds. The press took it as another sign of Dinkins's weak leadership. In 1993, a report to Governor Mario Cuomo, while overall supporting the administration's handling of the riot, asserted that Lynch and two others withheld information from the mayor about violence in Crown Heights. Lynch denied the accusations.

Nevertheless, Lynch also received credit for some of the administration's major accomplishments, including Dinkins's speech on racial harmony, bringing the 1992 Democratic National Convention to New York, and organizing the New York welcome ceremony for Nelson Mandela.

Sources said Lynch was frustrated that his work was not producing enough results. In 1992 he resigned from the administration to serve as New York State deputy director for Bill Clinton's presidential campaign. Lynch never formally returned to the administration, instead becoming the campaign director for Dinkins's reelection campaign. Lynch would also never again serve in public office, preferring to influence government from the outside.

In 1993, Dinkins lost his re-election bid to Rudolph Giuliani.

Campaign adviser and private sector

During the 1990s, Lynch would advise various Democratic politicians and candidates, including Mario Cuomo and Charles B. Rangel. Lynch also advised Nelson Mandela during South Africa's transition from apartheid and 1994 elections. He was named a co-chair of the Democratic National Committee in 1997.

In 1995 Lynch became Vice President of MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings.

Consulting firm

In 1999, Lynch formed his own political consulting firm, Bill Lynch Associates, LLC (BLA). Based in New York City, the firm advises Democratic campaigns and politicians; and provides lobbying and consulting services to corporations.

BLA has advised numerous political campaigns, primarily in the New York Area. Past campaigns have included H. Carl McCall's 2002 gubernatorial bid; Fernando Ferrer's mayoral bids in 2001 and 2005; and Hillary Clinton's campaigns for senate (both 2000 and 2006) and president. Corporate clients have included Nielsen Media Research and Columbia University.

In 2004, John Kerry enlisted Lynch to be a co-chair of his presidential campaign, a move viewed partially as a means to quell criticism that the campaign inner circle lacked diversity.

Leading up to the 2008 Democratic presidential primary, Lynch was planning to advise then-Senator Hillary Clinton, having already advised her in the past. However, some doubt emerged when then-Senator Barack Obama entered the race and courted him, though Lynch ultimately sided with Clinton.

In New York City's 2009 citywide elections, BLA advised candidates for all three citywide offices: Bill Thompson for mayor, Eric Gioia for public advocate, and John Liu for comptroller. BLA also advised the campaign of Cyrus Vance Jr. for New York County (Manhattan) District Attorney, and Inez Dickens in her re-election bid for New York City Council. In the end, Vance, Liu, and Dickens won their respective races. Thompson won the Democratic mayoral primary but lost to incumbent Michael Bloomberg, while Gioia failed to win the public advocate Democratic primary.

In the 2009 election cycle, Lynch and his staff primarily earned media attention for their handling of Vance and Liu's campaigns, which BLA had a greater role in managing than its other clients, because both won hotly contested primaries. BLA's management of John Liu's campaign earned particular attention, owing to the broad multi-ethnic coalition formed to elect him, which pundits such as Errol Louis and Dominic Carter likened to a revival of the Dinkins coalition.

BLA also consulted with Congressman Charles B. Rangel on an ongoing basis and advised him during the controversy over his finances. It advised Governor David Paterson in his bid for a full term as governor of New York.

Personal life and death
Lynch was married to Mary Lynch and has two children, William Lynch III and Stacy. He died on August 9, 2013, of complications related to kidney disease. Many obituary writers made reference to his nickname in the press: The Rumpled Genius.

In July 2022, Lynch's daughter, Stacy Lynch, was named Chief of Staff to New York Governor Kathy Hochul.

See also
Paterson, David Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity. New York, New York, 2020

References

External links
 Bill Lynch Associates, LLC Homepage

1941 births
2013 deaths
African-American people in New York (state) politics
American political consultants
American campaign managers
American lobbyists
Deaths from kidney disease
Legislative staff
New York (state) Democrats
Political staffers
People from Harlem
People from Mattituck, New York
American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees people
Deputy mayors of New York City
20th-century African-American people
21st-century African-American people

William Lynch Jr.


Control Data Corporation (CDC) was a mainframe and supercomputer firm. CDC was one of the nine major United States computer companies through most of the 1960s; the others were IBM, Burroughs Corporation, DEC, NCR, General Electric, Honeywell, RCA, and UNIVAC. CDC was well-known and highly regarded throughout the industry at the time. For most of the 1960s, Seymour Cray worked at CDC and developed a series of machines that were the fastest computers in the world by far, until Cray left the company to found Cray Research (CRI) in the 1970s. After several years of losses in the early 1980s, in 1988 CDC started to leave the computer manufacturing business and sell the related parts of the company, a process that was completed in 1992 with the creation of Control Data Systems, Inc. The remaining businesses of CDC currently operate as Ceridian.

Background and origins: World War II–1957
During World War II the U.S. Navy had built up a classified team of engineers to build codebreaking machinery for both Japanese and German electro-mechanical ciphers. A number of these were produced by a team dedicated to the task working in the Washington, D.C., area. With the post-war wind-down of military spending, the Navy grew increasingly worried that this team would break up and scatter into various companies, and it started looking for ways to keep the code-breaking team together.

Eventually they found their solution: John Parker, the owner of a Chase Aircraft affiliate named Northwestern Aeronautical Corporation located in St. Paul, Minnesota, was about to lose all his contracts due to the ending of the war. The Navy never told Parker exactly what the team did, since it would have taken too long to get top secret clearance. Instead they simply said the team was important, and they would be very happy if he hired them all. Parker was obviously wary, but after several meetings with increasingly high-ranking Naval officers it became apparent that whatever it was, they were serious, and he eventually agreed to give this team a home in his military glider factory.

The result was Engineering Research Associates (ERA). Formed in 1946, this contract engineering company worked on a number of seemingly unrelated projects in the early 1950s. Among these was the ERA Atlas, an early military stored program computer, the basis of the Univac 1101, which was followed by the 1102, and then the 36-bit ERA 1103 (UNIVAC 1103).  The Atlas was built for the Navy, which intended to use it in their non-secret code-breaking centers. In the early 1950s a minor political debate broke out in Congress about the Navy essentially "owning" ERA, and the ensuing debates and legal wrangling left the company drained of both capital and spirit. In 1952, Parker sold ERA to Remington Rand.

Although Rand kept the ERA team together and developing new products, it was most interested in ERA's magnetic drum memory systems. Rand soon merged with Sperry Corporation to become Sperry Rand. In the process of merging the companies, the ERA division was folded into Sperry's UNIVAC division. At first this did not cause too many changes at ERA, since the company was used primarily to provide engineering talent to support a variety of projects. However, one major project was moved from UNIVAC to ERA, the UNIVAC II project, which led to lengthy delays and upsets to nearly everyone involved.

Since the Sperry "big company" mentality encroached on the decision-making powers of the ERA employees, a number left Sperry to form the Control Data Corp. in Sept 1957, setting up shop in an old warehouse across the river from Sperry's St. Paul laboratory, in Minneapolis at 501 Park Avenue. Of the members forming CDC, William Norris was the unanimous choice to become the chief executive officer of the new company. Seymour Cray soon became the chief designer, though at the time of CDC's formation he was still in the process of completing a prototype for the Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS), and he did not leave Sperry to join CDC until it was complete. The M-460 was Seymour's first transistor computer, though the power supply rectifiers were still tubes.

Early designs and Cray's big plan
CDC started business by selling subsystems, mostly drum memory systems, to other companies. Cray joined the next year, and he immediately built a small transistor-based 6-bit machine known as the "CDC Little Character" to test his ideas on large-system design and transistor-based machines. "Little Character" was a great success.

In 1959, CDC released a 48-bit transistorized version of their re-design of the 1103 re-design  under the name CDC 1604;  the first machine was delivered to the U.S. Navy in 1960 at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California. Legend has it that the 1604 designation was chosen by adding CDC's first street address (501 Park Avenue) to Cray's former project, the ERA-Univac 1103.

A 12-bit cut-down version was also released as the CDC 160A in 1960, often considered among the first minicomputers. The 160A was particularly notable as it was built as a standard office desk, which was unusual packaging for that era. New versions of the basic 1604 architecture were rebuilt into the CDC 3000 series, which sold through the early and mid-1960s.

Cray immediately turned to the design of a machine that would be the fastest (or in the terminology of the day, largest) machine in the world, setting the goal at 50 times the speed of the 1604. This required radical changes in design, and as the project "dragged on" — it had gone on for about four years by then — the management got increasingly upset and it demanded greater oversight. Cray in turn demanded (in 1962) to have his own remote lab, saying that otherwise, he would quit. Norris agreed, and Cray and his team moved to Cray's home town, Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin. Not even Bill Norris, the founder and president of CDC, could visit Cray's laboratory without an invitation.

Peripherals business
In the early 1960s, the corporation moved to the Highland Park neighborhood of St. Paul where Norris lived. Through this period, Norris became increasingly worried that CDC had to develop a "critical mass" to compete with IBM. To do this, he started an aggressive program of buying up various companies to round out CDC's peripheral lineup. In general, they tried to offer a product to compete with any of IBM's, but running 10% faster and costing 10% less. This was not always easy to achieve.

One of its first peripherals was a tape transport, which led to some internal wrangling as the Peripherals Equipment Division attempted to find a reasonable way to charge other divisions of the company for supplying the devices. If the division simply "gave" them away at cost as part of a system purchase, they would never have a real budget of their own. Instead, a plan was established in which it would share profits with the divisions selling its peripherals, a plan eventually used throughout the company.

The tape transport was followed by the 405 Card Reader and the 415 Card Punch, followed by a series of tape drives and drum printers, all of which were designed in-house. The printer business was initially supported by Holley Carburetor in the Rochester, Michigan suburb outside of Detroit. They later formalized this by creating a jointly held company, Holley Computer Products. Holley later sold its stake back to CDC, the remainder becoming the Rochester Division.

Train printers and band printers in Rochester were developed in a joint venture with NCR and ICL, with CDC holding controlling interest.  This joint venture was known as Computer Peripherals, Inc. (CPI). In the early 80s, it was merged with dot matrix computer printer manufacturer Centronics.

Norris was particularly interested in breaking out of the punched card–based workflow, where IBM held a stranglehold. He eventually decided to buy Rabinow Engineering, one of the pioneers of optical character recognition (OCR) systems. The idea was to bypass the entire punched card stage by having the operators simply type onto normal paper pages with an OCR-friendly typewriter font, and then submit those pages to the computer. Since a typewritten page contains much more information than a punched card (which has essentially one line of text from a page), this would offer savings all around. This seemingly simple task turned out to be much harder than anyone expected, and while CDC became a major player in the early days of OCR systems, OCR has remained a niche product to this day. Rabinow's plant in Rockville, MD was closed in 1976, and CDC left the business.

With the continued delays on the OCR project, it became clear that punched cards were not going to go away any time soon, and CDC had to address this as quickly as possible. Although the 405 remained in production, it was an expensive machine to build. So another purchase was made, Bridge Engineering, which offered a line of lower-cost as well as higher-speed card punches.  All card-handling products were moved to what became the Valley Forge Division after Bridge moved to a new factory, with the tape transports to follow. Later, the Valley Forge and Rochester divisions were spun off to form a new joint company with National Cash Register (later NCR Corporation), Computer Peripherals Inc (CPI), to share development and production costs across the two companies. ICL later joined the effort. Eventually the Rochester Division was sold to Centronics in 1982.

Another side effect of Norris's attempts to diversify was the creation of a number of service bureaus that ran jobs on behalf of smaller companies that could not afford to buy computers. This was never very profitable, and in 1965, several managers suggested that the unprofitable centers be closed in a cost-cutting measure. Nevertheless, Norris was so convinced of the idea that he refused to accept this, and ordered an across-the-board "belt tightening" instead.

Control Data Institute
Control Data created an international technical/computer vocational school from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s. By the late 1970s there were sixty-nine learning centers worldwide, serving 18,000 students.

CDC 6600: defining supercomputing

Meanwhile, at the new Chippewa Falls lab, Seymour Cray, Jim Thornton, and Dean Roush put together a team of 34 engineers, which continued work on the new computer design. One of the ways they hoped to improve the CDC 1604 was to use better transistors, and Cray used the new silicon transistors using the planar process, developed by Fairchild Semiconductor. These were much faster than the germanium transistors in the 1604, without the drawbacks of the older mesa silicon transistors. The speed of light restriction forced a more compact design with refrigeration designed by Dean Roush. In 1964, the resulting computer was released onto the market as the CDC 6600, out-performing everything on the market by roughly ten times. When it sold over 100 units at $8 million ($ million in  dollars) each; it was considered a supercomputer.

The 6600 had a 100ns, transistor-based CPU (Central Processing Unit) with multiple asynchronous functional units, using 10 logical, external I/O processors to off-load many common tasks and core memory. That way, the CPU could devote all of its time and circuitry to processing actual data, while the other controllers dealt with the mundane tasks like punching cards and running disk drives. Using late-model compilers, the machine attained a standard mathematical operations rate of 500 kiloFLOPS, but handcrafted assembly managed to deliver approximately 1 megaFLOPS. A simpler, albeit much slower and less expensive version, implemented using a more traditional serial processor design rather than the 6600's parallel functional units, was released as the CDC 6400, and a two-processor version of the 6400 is called the CDC 6500.

A FORTRAN compiler, known as MNF (Minnesota FORTRAN), was developed by Lawrence A. Liddiard and E. James Mundstock at the University of Minnesota for the 6600.

After the delivery of the 6600 IBM took notice of this new company. In 1965 IBM started an effort to build a machine that would be faster than the 6600, the ACS-1. Two hundred people were gathered on the U.S. West Coast to work on the project, away from corporate prodding, in an attempt to mirror Cray's off-site lab. The project produced interesting computer architecture and technology, but it was not compatible with IBM's hugely successful System/360 line of computers. The engineers were directed to make it 360-compatible, but that compromised its performance. The ACS was canceled in 1969, without ever being produced for customers. Many of the engineers left the company, leading to a brain-drain in IBM's high-performance departments.

In the meantime, IBM announced a new System/360 model, the Model 92, which would be just as fast as CDC's 6600. Although this machine did not exist, sales of the 6600 dropped drastically while people waited for the release of the mythical Model 92. Norris did not take this tactic, dubbed as fear, uncertainty and doubt (FUD), lying down, and in an extensive antitrust lawsuit launched against IBM a year later, he eventually won a settlement valued at $80 million. As part of the settlement, he picked up IBM's subsidiary, Service Bureau Corporation (SBC), which ran computer processing for other corporations on its own computers. SBC fitted nicely into CDC's existing service bureau offerings.

During the designing of the 6600, CDC had set up Project SPIN to supply the system with a high speed hard disk memory system. At the time it was unclear if disks would replace magnetic memory drums, or whether fixed or removable disks would become the more prevalent. SPIN explored all of these approaches, and eventually delivered a 28" diameter fixed disk and a smaller multi-platter 14" removable disk-pack system. Over time, the hard disk business pioneered in SPIN became a major product line.

CDC 7600 and 8600

In the same month it won its lawsuit against IBM, CDC announced its new computer, the CDC 7600 (previously referred to as the 6800 within CDC). This machine's hardware clock speed was almost four times that of the 6600 (36 MHz vs. 10 MHz), with a 27.5 ns clock cycle, and it offered considerably more than four times the total throughput, with much of the speed increase coming from extensive use of pipelining.

The 7600 did not sell well because it was introduced during the 1969 downturn in the U.S. national economy. Its complexity had led to poor reliability. The machine was not totally compatible with the 6000-series and required a completely different operating system, which like most new OSs, was primitive. The 7600 project paid for itself, but damaged CDC's reputation. The 7600 memory had a split primary- and secondary-memory which required user management but was more than fast enough to make it the fastest uniprocessor from 1969 to 1976. A few dozen 7600s were the computers of choice at supercomputer centers around the  world.

Cray then turned to the design of the CDC 8600. This design included four 7600-like processors in a single, smaller case. The smaller size and shorter signal paths allowed the 8600 to run at much higher clock speeds which, together with faster memory, provided most of the performance gains. The 8600, however, belonged to the "old school" in terms of its physical construction, and it used individual components soldered to circuit boards. The design was so compact that cooling the CPU modules proved effectively impossible, and access for maintenance difficult. An abundance of hot-running solder joints ensured that the machines did not work reliably; Cray recognized that a re-design was needed.

The STAR and the Cyber

In addition to the redesign of the 8600, CDC had another project called the CDC STAR-100 under way, led by Cray's former collaborator on the 6600/7600, Jim Thornton. Unlike the 8600's "four computers in one box" solution to the speed problem, the STAR was a new design using a unit that we know today as the vector processor. By highly pipelining mathematical instructions with purpose-built instructions and hardware, mathematical processing is dramatically improved in a machine that was otherwise slower than a 7600. Although the particular set of problems it would be best at solving was limited compared to the general-purpose 7600, it was for solving exactly these problems that customers would buy CDC machines.

Since these two projects competed for limited funds during the late 1960s, Norris felt that the company could not support simultaneous development of the STAR and a complete redesign of the 8600. Therefore, Cray left CDC to form the Cray Research company in 1972. Norris remained, however, a staunch supporter of Cray, and invested money into Cray's new company. In 1974 CDC released the STAR, designated as the Cyber 203. It turned out to have "real world" performance that was considerably worse than expected. STAR's chief designer, Jim Thornton, then left CDC to form the Network Systems Corporation.

In 1975, a STAR-100 was placed into service in a Control Data service center which was considered the first supercomputer in a data center.  Founder William C. Norris presided at the podium for the press conference announcing the new service.  Publicity was a key factor in making the announcement a success by coordinating the event with Guinness; thus, establishing the Star-100 as "The most powerful and fastest computer" which was published in the Guinness Book of World Records.  The late Duane Andrews, Public Relations, was responsible for coordinating this event.  Andrews successfully attracted many influential editors including the research editor at Business Week who chronicled this publicity release "... as the most exciting public event he attended in 20 years". Sharing the podium were William C. Norris, Boyd Jones V.P. and S. Steve Adkins, Data Center Manager. It was extremely rare for Bill Norris to take the podium being a very private individual.  Also, during the lunch at a local country club, Norris signed a huge stack of certificates attesting to the record which were printed by the Star 100 on printer paper produced in our Lincoln, Nebraska plant.  The paper included a half-tone photo of the Star 100.  The main customers of the STAR-100 data center were oil companies running oil reservoir simulations.  Most notably was the simulation controlled from a terminal in Texas which solved oil extraction simulations for oil fields in Kuwait.  A front page Wall Street Journal news article resulted in acquiring a new user,  Allis-Chalmers, for simulation of a damaged hydroelectric turbine in a Norwegian mountain hydropower plant.

A variety of systems based on the basic 6600/7600 architecture were repackaged in different price/performance categories of the CDC Cyber, which became CDC's main product line in the 1970s. An updated version of the STAR architecture, the Cyber 205, had considerably better performance than the original. By this time, however, Cray's own designs, like the Cray-1, were using the same basic design techniques as the STAR, but were computing much faster.  The Star 100 was able to process vectors up to 64K (65536) elements, versus 64 elements for the Cray-1, but the Star 100 took much longer for initiating the operation so the Cray-1 outperformed with short vectors.

Sales of the STAR were weak, but Control Data Corp. produced a successor system, the Cyber 200/205, that gave Cray Research some competition. CDC also embarked on a number of special projects for its clients, who produced an even smaller number of black project computers. The CDC Advanced Flexible Processor (AFP), also known as CYBER PLUS, was one such machine.

Another design direction was the "Cyber 80" project, which was aimed at release in 1980. This machine could run old 6600-style programs, and also had a completely new 64-bit architecture.  The concept behind Cyber 80 was that current 6000-series users would migrate to these machines with relative ease.  The design and debugging of these machines went on past 1980, and the machines were eventually released under other names.

CDC was also attempting to diversify its revenue from hardware into services and this included its promotion of the PLATO computer-aided learning system, which ran on Cyber hardware and incorporated many early computer interface innovations including bit-mapped touchscreen terminals.

Magnetic Peripherals Inc.

Meanwhile, several very large Japanese manufacturing firms were entering the market. The supercomputer market was too small to support more than a handful of companies, so CDC started looking for other markets. One of these was the hard disk drive (HDD) market.

Magnetic Peripherals Inc., later Imprimis Technology, was originally a joint venture with Honeywell formed in 1975 to manufacture HDDs for both companies. CII-Honeywell Bull later purchased a 3 percent interest in MPI from Honeywell. Sperry became a partner in 1983 with 17 percent, making the ownership split CDC (67%) and Honeywell (17%). MPI was a captive supplier to its parents. It sold on an OEM basis only to them, while CDC sold MPI product to third parties under its brand name.

It became a major player in the HDD market. It was the worldwide leader in 14-inch disk drive technology in the OEM marketplace in the late 1970s and early 1980s especially with its SMD (Storage Module Device) and CMD (Cartridge Module Drive), with its plant at Brynmawr in the South Wales valleys running 24/7 production. The Magnetic Peripherals division in Brynmawr had produced 1 million disks and 3 million magnetic tapes by October 1979. CDC was an early developer of the eight-inch drive technology with products from its MPI Oklahoma City Operation. Its CDC Wren series drives were particularly popular with high end users, although it was behind the capacity growth and performance curves of numerous startups such as Micropolis, Atasi, Maxtor, and Quantum. CDC also co-developed the now universal Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) interface with Compaq and Western Digital, which was aimed at lowering the cost of adding low-performance drives.

CDC founded a separate division called Rigidyne in Simi Valley, California, to develop 3.5-inch drives using technology from the Wren series. These were marketed by CDC as the "Swift" series, and were among the first high-performance 3.5-inch drives on the market at their introduction in 1987.

In September 1988, CDC merged Rigidyne and MPI into the umbrella subsidiary of Imprimis Technology. The next year, Seagate Technology purchased Imprimis for $250 million in cash, 10.7 million in Seagate stock and a $50 million promissory note.

Investments
Control Data held interests in other companies including computer research company Arbitron, Commercial Credit Corporation and Ticketron.

Commercial Credit Corporation
In 1968, Commercial Credit Corporation was the target of a hostile takeover by Loews Inc. Loews had acquired nearly 10% of CCC, which it intended to break up on acquisition. To avoid the takeover, CCC forged a deal with CDC lending them the money to purchase control in CCC instead, and "That is how a computer company came to own a fleet of fishing boats in the Chesapeake Bay." By the 1980s, Control Data entered an unstable period, which resulted in the company liquidating many of their assets. In 1986, Sandy Weill convinced the Control Data management to spin off their Commercial Credit subsidiary to prevent the company's potential liquidation.  Over a period of years, Weill used Commercial Credit to build an empire that became Citigroup. In 1999, Commercial Credit was renamed CitiFinancial, and in 2011, the full-service network of US CitiFinancial branches were renamed OneMain Financial.

Ticketron

In 1969, Control Data acquired 51% of Ticketron for $3.9 million from Cemp Investments. In 1970, Ticketron became the sole computerized ticketing provider in the United States. In 1973, Control Data increased the size of its investment.

Ticketron also provided ticketing terminals and back-end infrastructure for parimutuel betting, and provided similar services for a number of US lotteries, including those in New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Washington and Maryland.

By the mid 1980s, Ticketron was CDC's most profitable business with revenue of $120 million and CDC, which was loss-making at the time, considered selling the business. In 1990 the majority of Ticketron's assets and business, with the exception of a small antitrust carve-out for Broadway's "Telecharge" business-unit, were bought by The Carlyle Group who sold it the following year to rival Ticketmaster.

ETA Systems, wind-down and sale of assets
CDC decided to fight for the high-performance niche, but Norris considered that the company had become moribund and unable to quickly design competitive machines. In 1983 he set up a spinoff company, ETA Systems, whose design goal was a machine processing data at 10 GFLOPs, about 40 times the speed of the Cray-1. The design never fully matured, and it was unable to reach its goals. Nevertheless, the product was one of the fastest computers on the market, and 7 liquid nitrogen-cooled and 27 smaller air cooled versions of the computers were sold during the next few years. They used the new CMOS chips, which produced much less heat. The effort ended after half-hearted attempts to sell ETA Systems. In 1989, most of the employees of ETA Systems were laid off, and the remaining ones were folded into CDC.

Despite having valuable technology, CDC still suffered huge losses in 1985 ($567 million) and 1986 while attempting to reorganize. As a result, in 1987 it sold its PathLab Laboratory Information System to 3M.  While CDC was still making computers, it was decided that hardware manufacturing was no longer as profitable as it used to be, and so in 1988 it was decided to leave the industry, bit by bit. The first division to go was Imprimis. After that, CDC sold other assets such as VTC (a chip maker that specialized in mass-storage circuitry and was closely linked with MPI), and non-computer-related assets like Ticketron.

In 1992, the company separated into two independent companies – the computer businesses were spun out as Control Data Systems, Inc. (CDS), while the information service businesses became the Ceridian Corporation.

CDS later became owner of ICEM Technologies, makers of ICEM DDN and ICEM Surf software and sold the business to PTC for $40.6m in 1998. In 1999, CDS was bought out by Syntegra, a subsidiary of the BT Group, and merged into BT's Global Services organization.

Ceridian continues as a successful outsourced IT company focusing on human resources. CDC's Energy Management Division, was one of its most successful business units, providing control systems solutions that managed as much as 25% of all electricity on the planet, and went to Ceridian in the split. This division was renamed Empros and was sold to Siemens in 1993. In 1997, General Dynamics acquired the Computing Devices International Division of Ceridian, which was a defense electronics and systems integration business headquartered in Bloomington, Minnesota – originally Control Data's Government Systems Division.

In March 2001, Ceridian separated into two independent companies, with the old Ceridian Corporation renamed itself to Arbitron Inc. and the rest of the company (consisting of human resources services and Comdata business) took the Ceridian Corporation name. Ceridian was later split again in 2013, with formation of Ceridian HCM Holding Inc. (human resources services) and Comdata Inc. (payments business), marking the end of CDC assets split for good.

Timeline of systems releases
 CDC 1604 et al – 1604, 1604-A, 1604-B, 1604-C, 924 (a "cut down" 1604 sibling) * CDC 160 series – 160, 160A (160-A), 160G (160-G) * CDC 3000 series – 3100, 3200, 3300, 3400, 3500, 3600, 3800  * CDC 6000 series – 6200, 6400, 6500, 6700 * CDC 6600 * CDC 7600 * CDC CYBER – 17, 18, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 203, 205, Omega/480, 700 * CDC STAR-100

1957 – Founding
1959 – 1604
1960 – 1604-B
1961 – 160
1962 – 924 (a 24-bit 1604)
1963 – 160A (160-A), 1604-A, 3400, 6600
1964 – 160G (160-G), 3100, 3200, 3600, 6400
1965 – 1604-C, 1700, 3300, 3500, 8050, 8090
1966 – 3800, 6200, 6500, Station 6000
1968 – 7600
1969 – 6700
1970 – STAR-100
1971 – Cyber 71, Cyber 72, Cyber 73, Cyber 74, Cyber 76
1972 – 5600, 8600
1973 – Cyber 170, Cyber 172, Cyber 173, Cyber 174, Cyber 175, Cyber 17
1976 – Cyber 18
1977 – Cyber 171, Cyber 176, Omega/480
1979 – Cyber 203, Cyber 720, Cyber 730, Cyber 740, Cyber 750, Cyber 760
1980 – Cyber 205
1982 – Cyber 815, Cyber 825, Cyber 835, Cyber 845, Cyber 855, Cyber 865, Cyber 875
1983 – ETA10
1984 – Cyber 810, Cyber 830, Cyber 840, Cyber 850, Cyber 860, Cyber 990, CyberPlus
1987 – Cyber 910, Cyber 930, Cyber 995
1988 – Cyber 960
1989 – Cyber 920, Cyber 2000

Note: The 8xx & 9xx Cyber models, introduced beginning in 1982,  formed the 64-bit Cyber 180 series, and their Peripheral Processors (PPs) were 16-bit.  The 180 series had virtual memory capability, using CDC's NOS/VE operating system.The more complete nomenclature for these was 180/xxx, although at times the shorter form (e.g. Cyber 990) was used.

Peripheral Systems Group
Control Data Corporation's Peripheral Systems Group was both a hardware and a software development unit that functioned in the 1970s and 1980s.

Their services including development and marketing of IBM-oriented (operating) systems software. One of the Peripheral Systems Group's software products was named CUPID, "Control Data's Program for Unlike Data Set Concatenation." Its focus was for customers of IBM's MVS operating system, and the intended audience was systems programmers. The product's General Information and Reference Manual included SysGen-like options and information about internal
user-accessible control blocks.

Film and science fiction references
 Mars Needs Women (1967) – a CDC 3400 is used for radio communication and to direct the actions of the military as they intercept the Martian spaceships.
 Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970) – The title sequences to this film include tape drives and other early CDC equipment.
 Search (1972) – Control Data Equipment was used in the "Probe Control" command center for both the television series and its pilot PROBE; the end credits list "Computer Equipment provided by Control Data Corporation".
 The Mad Bomber (1973) – The police department has a CDC 3100 that they use to profile the bomber.
 The Adolescence of P-1 (1977), by Thomas Ryan – Control Data computers were very enticing to young P-1.
 The New Avengers – In episode 2-10 (#23) ("Complex", 1977) Purdey uses a CDC card reader.
 Mi-Sex – Computer Games: 1979 pop music video. The band enters the computer room in the Control Data North Sydney building and proceeds to play with CDC equipment.
 Tron (1982) – In the wide screen version of the film, when Flynn and Lora sneak into Encom, a CDC 7600 is visible in the background, alongside a Cray-1. This scene was shot at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
 WarGames (1983) – Just before David and Jennifer meet with Jim and Melvin, several Control Data disk packs are visible in the background.
 Die Hard (1988) – The computer room shot up by one of the terrorists contained a number of working Cyber 180 computers and a mock-up of an ETA-10 supercomputer, along with a number of other peripheral devices, all provided by CDC Demonstration Services/Benchmark Lab. This equipment was requested on short notice after another computer manufacturer backed out at the last minute. Paul Derby, manager of the Benchmark Lab, arranged to send two van-loads of equipment to Hollywood for the shoot, accompanied by Jerry Sterns of the Benchmark Lab who supervised the equipment while it was on the set. After the machines were returned to Minnesota, they were inspected and tested, and as each machine was sold, a notation was made in the corporate records that the machine had appeared in the film.
 They Live (1988), by John Carpenter – As Roddy Piper is trying on his new "sunglasses" that allow him to see the world as it is, he looks at an advertisement for Control Data Corporation and sees the word OBEY. The film's credits include "special thanks" to CDC.

References

Further reading
Lundstrom, David. A Few Good Men from Univac. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1987. .
Misa, Thomas J., ed. Building the Control Data Legacy: The Career of Robert M. Price. Minneapolis: Charles Babbage Institute, 2012
Murray, Charles J. The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray and the Technical Wizards behind the Supercomputer. New York: John Wiley, 1997. .
Price, Robert M. The Eye for Innovation: Recognizing Possibilities and Managing the Creative Enterprise. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005
Thornton, J. E. Design of a Computer: The Control Data 6600. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1970
Worthy, James C. William C. Norris: Portrait of a Maverick. Ballinger Pub Co., May 1987.

External links

Control Data Corporation Records at the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; CDC records donated by Ceridian Corporation in 1991; finding guide contains historical timeline, product timeline, acquisitions list, and joint venture list.
Oral history interview with William Norris discusses ERA years, acquisition of ERA by Remington Rand, the Univac File computer, work as head of the Univac Division, and the formation of CDC. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Oral history interview with Willis K. Drake Discusses Remington-Rand, the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, ERA, and formation of Control Data Corporation. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
Organized discussion moderated by Neil R. Lincoln with eighteen Control Data Corporation (CDC) engineers on computer architecture and design.  Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Engineers include Robert Moe, Wayne Specker, Dennis Grinna, Tom Rowan, Maurice Hutson, Curt Alexander, Don Pagelkopf, Maris Bergmanis, Dolan Toth, Chuck Hawley, Larry Krueger, Mike Pavlov, Dave Resnick, Howard Krohn, Bill Bhend, Kent Steiner, Raymon Kort, and Neil R. Lincoln.  Discussion topics include CDC 1604, CDC 6600, CDC 7600, CDC 8600, CDC STAR-100 and Seymour Cray.
Information about the spin out of Commercial Credit from Control Data by Sandy Weill
Information about the Control Data CDC 3800 Computer—on display at the National Air and Space Museum Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington Dulles International Airport.
Private Collection of historical documents about CDC
Control Data User Manuals Library @ Computing History
Computing history describing the use of a range of CDC systems and equipment 1970–1985
A German collection of CDC, Cray and other large computer systems, some of them in operation

American companies established in 1957
American companies disestablished in 1992
Chippewa County, Wisconsin
Computer companies established in 1957
Computer companies disestablished in 1992
Defunct companies based in Minneapolis
Defunct companies based in Minnesota
Defunct computer companies of the United States
Defunct computer hardware companies
Defunct software companies of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Minnesota
Software companies based in Minnesota
Supercomputers
Technology companies established in 1957
Technology companies disestablished in 1992

Control Data Corporation


The New York Times Magazine is an American Sunday magazine included with the Sunday edition of The New York Times. It features articles longer than those typically in the newspaper and has attracted many notable contributors. The magazine is noted for its photography, especially relating to fashion and style.

History
Its first issue was published on September 6, 1896, and contained the first photographs ever printed in the newspaper. In the early decades, it was a section of the broadsheet paper and not an insert as it is today. The creation of a "serious" Sunday magazine was part of a massive overhaul of the newspaper instigated that year by its new owner, Adolph Ochs, who also banned fiction, comic strips, and gossip columns from the paper, and is generally credited with saving The New York Times from financial ruin. In 1897, the magazine published a 16-page spread of photographs documenting Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, a "costly feat" that resulted in a wildly popular issue and helped boost the magazine to success.

In its early years, The New York Times Magazine began a tradition of publishing the writing of well-known contributors, from W. E. B. Du Bois and Albert Einstein to numerous sitting and future U.S. Presidents. Editor Lester Markel, an "intense and autocratic" journalist who oversaw the Sunday Times from the 1920s through the 1950s, encouraged the idea of the magazine as a forum for ideas. During his tenure, writers such as Leo Tolstoy, Thomas Mann, Gertrude Stein, and Tennessee Williams contributed pieces to the magazine. When, in 1970, The New York Times introduced its first op-ed page, the magazine shifted away from publishing as many editorial pieces.

In 1979, the magazine began publishing Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist William Safire's "On Language", a column discussing issues of English grammar, use and etymology. Safire's column steadily gained popularity and by 1990 was generating "more mail than anything else" in the magazine. The year 1999 saw the debut of "The Ethicist", an advice column written by humorist Randy Cohen that quickly became a highly contentious part of the magazine.  In 2011, Ariel Kaminer replaced Cohen as the author of the column, and in 2012 Chuck Klosterman replaced Kaminer. Klosterman left in early 2015 to be replaced by a trio of authors—Kenji Yoshino, Amy Bloom, and Jack Shafer—who used a conversational format; Shafer was replaced three months later by Kwame Anthony Appiah, who assumed sole authorship of the column in September 2015. "Consumed", Rob Walker's regular column on consumer culture, debuted in 2004. The Sunday Magazine also features a puzzle page, edited by Will Shortz, that features a crossword puzzle with a larger grid than those featured in the Times during the week, along with other types of puzzles on a rotating basis (including diagramless crossword puzzles and anacrostics).

In September 2010, as part of a greater effort to reinvigorate the magazine, Times editor Bill Keller hired former staff member and then-editor of Bloomberg Businessweek, Hugo Lindgren, as the editor of The New York Times Magazine.  As part of a series of new staff hires upon assuming his new role, Lindgren first hired then–executive editor of O, The Oprah Magazine Lauren Kern to be his deputy editor and then hired then-editor of TNR.com, The New Republic magazine's website, Greg Veis, to edit the "front of the book" section of the magazine. In December 2010, Lindgren hired Joel Lovell, formerly story editor at GQ magazine, as deputy editor.

In January 2012, humorist John Hodgman, who hosts his comedy court show podcast Judge John Hodgman, began writing a regular column "Judge John Hodgman Rules" (formerly "Ask Judge John Hodgman") for "The One-Page Magazine".

In 2014, Jake Silverstein, who had been editor-in-chief at Texas Monthly, replaced Lindgren as editor of the Sunday magazine.

Supplements

In 2004, The New York Times Magazine began publishing an entire supplement devoted to style. Titled T, the supplement is edited by Deborah Needleman and appears 14 times a year.
In 2009, it launched a Qatari Edition as a standalone magazine.

In 2006, the magazine introduced two other supplements: PLAY, a sports magazine published every other month, and KEY, a real estate magazine published twice a year.

Poetry
US Poet Laureate Natasha Trethewey selects and introduces poems weekly, including from poets Tomas Tranströmer, Carlos Pintado, and Gregory Pardlo.

Puzzles
The magazine features the Sunday version of the crossword puzzle along with other puzzles.  The puzzles have been very popular features since their introduction.  The Sunday crossword puzzle has more clues and squares and is generally more challenging than its counterparts featured on the other days of the week.  Usually, a second puzzle is included with the crossword puzzle.  The variety of the second puzzle varies each week.  These have included acrostic puzzles, diagramless crossword puzzles, and other puzzles varying from the traditional crossword puzzle.

The puzzles are edited by Will Shortz, the host of the on-air puzzle segment of NPR's Weekend Edition Sunday (introduced as "the puzzlemaster").

The Funny Pages
In the September 18, 2005, issue of the magazine, an editors' note announced the addition of The Funny Pages, a literary section of the magazine intended to "engage our readers in some ways we haven't yet tried—and to acknowledge that it takes many different types of writing to tell the story of our time". Although The Funny Pages is no longer published in the magazine, it was made up of three parts: the Strip (a multipart graphic novel that spanned weeks), the Sunday Serial (a genre fiction serial novel that also spanned weeks), and True-Life Tales (a humorous personal essay, by a different author each week).  On July 8, 2007, the magazine stopped printing True-Life Tales.

The section has been criticized for being unfunny, sometimes nonsensical, and excessively highbrow; in a 2006 poll conducted by Gawker.com asking, "Do you now find—or have you ever found—The Funny Pages funny?", 92% of 1824 voters answered "No".

Strips

Sunday serials

Of the serial novels, At Risk, Limitations, The Overlook, Gentlemen of the Road, and The Lemur have since been published in book form with added material.

References

External links
 Official website

1896 establishments in New York City
Fashion magazines
Fashion photography
Magazines established in 1896
News magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in New York City
Newspaper supplements
Sunday magazines

The New York Times Magazine


In physics, a phonon is a quantized lattice vibration.  The word quantized is used in physics to mean that only certain values of something are allowed.  Something that is quantized can be thought of as stairs; you can only move from step to step and you can't stand in between steps.  Something that is not quantized can be thought of as a ramp or smooth incline; you can move any distance up or down.  A lattice is the repeating or periodic structure of a crystal.  A crystal is made up of atoms or molecules in a certain pattern.  The points on the pattern at which the atoms or molecules are located is the lattice.  Solids, liquids, and gases can all experience vibrations.  A vibration being quantized means that only certain frequencies of vibrations are allowed.

Intuitively, there is no reason for lattice vibrations to be quantized.  The macroscopic or large-scale vibrations of a material are not quantized and can take on essentially any frequency.  It is only when we consider the tiny vibrations of the particles that make up a material—atoms and molecules—that the concept of quantization and phonons becomes important.  To understand why phonons exist, complicated quantum mechanics is needed.  Without going into too much detail, the interactions between the constituent atoms or molecules of a crystal are analyzed quantum mechanically.  Because of their arrangement in a pattern that repeats, when one arrives at a mathematical expression for the frequency of oscillation, one finds that there are only distinct quantized values allowed.  There is unfortunately no simple way to explain this.

Physics

Phonon


During World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union (1940–1941), Nazi Germany (1941–1944), and the Soviet Union again in 1944. Resistance during this period took many forms. Significant parts of the resistance were formed by Polish and Soviet forces, some of which fought with Lithuanian collaborators. This article presents a summary of the organizations, persons and actions involved. Lithuania was de facto independent from June 24, 1941, until June 30, 1941, when Nazi Germany took full control of the area.

First Soviet occupation

In 1940, President Antanas Smetona fled to Germany, not wanting his government to become a puppet of the Soviet occupation. Soviet attempts to capture him were unsuccessful, and he was able to settle in the United States.

In 1940, Jan Zwartendijk, the Dutch consul in Kaunas, and Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Kaunas, and his wife Yukiko disobeyed orders and saved thousands of Jewish refugees from Poland by granting them visas.

In 1941, the Lithuanian Activist Front () formed an underground government, and following the June uprising, the Provisional Government of Lithuania maintained sovereignty for a brief period.

Nazi German occupation

Soviet partisans began sabotage and guerrilla operations against German forces immediately after the Nazi invasion of 1941. The activities of Soviet partisans in Lithuania were partly coordinated by the Command of the Lithuanian Partisan Movement headed by Antanas Sniečkus and partly by the Central Command of the Partisan Movement of the USSR.

In 1943, the Nazis attempted to raise a Waffen-SS division from the local population as they had in many other countries, but due to widespread coordination between resistance groups, the mobilization was boycotted. The Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force (Lietuvos vietinė rinktinė) was eventually formed in 1944 under Lithuanian command, but was liquidated by the Nazis only a few months later for refusing to subordinate to their command.

There was no significant violent resistance directed against the Nazis. Some Lithuanians, encouraged by Germany's vague promises of autonomy, cooperated with the Nazis. Pre-war tensions over the Vilnius Region resulted in a low-level civil war between Poles and Lithuanians. Nazi-sponsored Lithuanian units, primarily the Lithuanian Secret Police, were active in the region and assisted the Germans in repressing the Polish population. In the autumn of 1943, the Home Army began retaliatory operations against the Lithuanian units and killed hundreds of mostly Lithuanian Auxiliary policemen and other collaborators during the first half of 1944. The conflict culminated in the massacres of Polish and Lithuanian civilians in June 1944 in the Glitiškės (Glinciszki) and Dubingiai (Dubinki) villages. See also Polish-Lithuanian relations during World War II.

Also in 1943, several underground political groups united under the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania (Vyriausias Lietuvos išlaisvinimo komitetas, or VLIK). The committee issued a declaration of independence that went largely unnoticed. It became active mostly outside Lithuania among emigrants and deportees, and was able to establish contacts in Western countries and get support for resistance operations inside Lithuania (see Operation Jungle). It would persist abroad for many years as one of the groups representing Lithuania in exile.

Lithuanian Freedom Army during Nazi Germany's occupation opposed German policies, but did not begin armed resistance. The armed struggle began in mid-1944 when Red Army reached the Lithuanian borders after the Minsk Offensive. The LLA became the first wave of the Lithuanian partisans, armed anti-Soviet guerrilla fighters. It attempted to become the central command of the armed struggle. However, the organization headquarters was liquidated by the Soviet security forces (NKVD and KGB) by April 1946. Many Lithuanian Freedom Army fighters joined Lithuanian partisans.

Jewish partisans also fought against the Nazi occupation. In September 1943, the United Partisan Organization, led by Abba Kovner, attempted to start an uprising in the Vilna Ghetto, and later engaged in sabotage and guerrilla operations against the Nazi occupation.

In July 1944, as part of its Operation Tempest, the Polish Home Army launched Operation Ostra Brama, an attempt to recapture that city. See also Polish–Lithuanian relations during World War II.

As of January 2008, 723 Lithuanians were recognized by Israel as Righteous among the Nations for their efforts in saving Lithuania's Jews from the Holocaust. The total number of people who helped the Jews may be much higher.

Second Soviet occupation

Lithuanian partisans, known as the Forest Brothers, began guerrilla warfare against the Soviet forces as soon as the front passed over them in 1944, and continued an armed struggle until 1953. The core of this movement was made up of soldiers from the Territorial Defense Force who had disbanded with their weapons and uniforms and members of the Lithuanian Freedom Army, established in 1941. The underground had extensive clandestine radio and press. Thousands of people engaged in active and passive resistance against the Soviet authorities. The various resistance organizations eventually united under the Movement of the Struggle for the Freedom of Lithuania (Lietuvos Laisvės Kovų Sąjūdis, or LLKS), issuing a declaration of independence in 1949 that would ultimately be signed into law by the independent Republic of Lithuania in 1999.
The most famous of these partisans is probably Juozas Lukša, author of several books during the resistance and the subject of a recent film.

While armed resistance ended in the 1950s, nonviolent resistance continued in various forms (e.g. through Lithuanians living abroad, the Catholic press, safeguarding local traditions and the Lithuanian language, the Sąjūdis movement, etc.), until 1991 when Russia recognized the independence declared by Lithuania on March 11, 1990.

Significance of February 16
February 16, the date that Lithuania first declared its independence in 1918, played an important symbolic role during this period. The call for volunteers for the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, the VLIK declaration of independence, and the LLKS declaration of independence were all made on February 16. This day has become a national holiday in Lithuania.

See also

Occupation of the Baltic states
Guerrilla war in the Baltic states
Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany
Estonian anti-German resistance movement 1941–1944
Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany
Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940
Latvian resistance movement
Occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany
Belarusian resistance movement
History of Poland (1939–1945)
Polish resistance movement in World War II
Collaboration during World War II
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact

References

Further reading
Remeikis, Thomas. The Decision of the Lithuanian Government to Accept the Soviet Ultimatum of June 14, 1940, Lituanus, Vol. 21, No. 4, Winter 1975. ISSN 0024-5089

Eastern European World War II resistance movements
Jewish Lithuanian history
Resistance in Lithuania
World War II resistance movements
Lithuanian Resistance in World War II

Resistance in Lithuania during World War II


બોમ્બે ડક અથવા બુમાલો (પ્રાદેશિક નામો, બંગાળી: બુમાલો , ગુજરાતી: બુમલા, મરાઠી: બોમ્બીલ) એ તેના નામ પ્રમાણે કોઈ ડક એટલે કે બતક નથી પણ એક માછલી છે. આ માછલી ખાસ કરીને મુંબઈ અને કચ્છની વચ્ચેના અરબ સાગરમાં, અને થોડા પ્રમાણમાં બંગાળની ખાડીમાં પણ મળી આવે છે. ખાસ તે ચીનના સમુદ્રમાં વિશાળ માત્રામાં મળી આવે છે. માછલીને પકડ્યા બાદ તેને મીઠું લગાવીને સૂકવવામાં આવે છે.સૂકાયા બાદ આ માછલીની ગંધ ઘણી આવે છે, એટલે તેને ખાસ કરીને એર-ટાઇટ કન્ટેનરોમાં મૂકી હેરફેર કરવામાં આવે છે.

Etymology

The origin of the term "Bombay duck" is uncertain.  Some authors advance the theory that, during the British Raj, the fish was often transported by rail after drying. The story goes that the train compartments of the Bombay Dak (in English, the Bombay Mail) would smell of the fish, consequently leading the British to euphemistically refer to the peculiar smell as the "Bombay Dak".  A variant of the story is that, though the fish weren't transported on the train, it smelt strongly because of the rotting railway sleepers over which it travelled, and this was thought to resemble the smell of the drying fish.  In either case, this was supposedly corrupted into "Bombay duck". Although the likelihood of this origin is questionable, it does have the authority of a BBC Radio 4 interview in August 2006.

According to local Bangladeshi stories, the term Bombay duck was first coined by Robert Clive, after he tasted a piece during his conquest of Bengal.  It is said that he associated the pungent smell with that of the newspapers and mail which would come in to the cantonments from Bombay. The term was later popularised amongst the British public by its appearance in Indian restaurants across the country.

In cuisine
Despite the rather unpleasant odour of the fish, it is often considered to be a delicacy by connoisseurs of Indian cuisine. If freshly caught, it is sometimes eaten fried in a batter; and in its dried form, it is commonly eaten in a curry. It is also prepared as a pickle. The bones of the fish are soft and easily chewable.

In Teochew cuisine of China, it is called (), fresh fish of this kind is very common and eaten fried with flour. It is salted and peppered when eaten. In Hong Kong, it is called () and common, too.

It is also eaten in South Africa.

European Union restrictions on imports
In 1997, Bombay Duck was banned by the European Commission (EC) of the European Union. The EC admitted that it had no "sanitary" evidence against the product and the UK Public Health Laboratory Service confirmed that there are no recorded cases of food poisoning, or bacterial contamination, associated with Bombay Duck. It was banned because the EC only allows fish imports from India from approved freezing and canning factories. Bombay Duck is not produced in factories.

According to "The Save Bombay Duck campaign" , the Indian High Commission approached the European Commission about the ban. The EC adjusted the regulations so that the fish can still be dried in the open air but has to be packed in an "EC approved" packing station. Now a Birmingham wholesale merchant has found a packing source in Mumbai/Bombay and the product is again available.

The BBC notes that consumption in the United Kingdom prior to the ban was over 13 tonnes per year.

Bombay Duck is available fresh in Canada in cities with large Indian populations, such as Toronto and Montreal and is generally known as bumla.  Although mainly popular with Indians from southern Gujarat, it is increasingly consumed by the other South Asian populations.

In music
The popular instrumental rock band, The Ventures, famous for such tunes as the 1960 hit "Walk, Don't Run", "Slaughter On Tenth Avenue", among countless covers, covered their own rendition of the title "Bombay Duck", and was featured as the closing track of their 1968 album "Pops in Japan No.2".  Besides The Ventures, The Shadows also released a cover of "Bombay Duck" as a single in 1967.

References

જળચર
માછલી

બુમલા માછલી


The AN/APQ-181 is an all-weather, low probability of intercept (LPI) phased array radar system designed by Hughes Aircraft (now Raytheon) for the U.S. Air Force B-2A Spirit bomber aircraft. The system was developed in the mid-1980s and entered service in 1993. The APQ-181 provides a number of precision targeting modes, and also supports terrain-following radar and terrain avoidance.  The radar operates in the Ku band (a subset of the J band). The original design uses a TWT-based transmitter with a 2-dimensional passive electronically scanned array (PESA) antenna.

In 1991, the B-2 Industrial Team (including Hughes as a major subcontractor) was awarded the Collier Trophy in recognition of the "design, development, production, and flight testing of the B-2 aircraft, which has contributed significantly to America's enduring leadership in aerospace and the country's future national security."

In 2002, Raytheon was awarded a contract to develop a new, active electronically scanned array (AESA) version of the APQ-181. This upgrade will improve system reliability, and will also eliminate potential conflicts in frequency usage between the B-2 and commercial satellite systems that also use the J band.

In 2008 the Federal Communications Commission accidentally sold the APQ-181 frequency to a commercial user resulting in the need for installing new radar arrays at a cost of over $1 billion. All B-2 aircraft are expected to have the upgraded radar by 2010.

See also
 List of radars
 Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS)

References

External links
Raytheon product description
spacedaily.com article

Aircraft radars
Raytheon Company products
Radars of the United States Air Force
Military radars of the United States
Military equipment introduced in the 1990s

AN/APQ-181


Pasig, officially the City of Pasig () is a city of Metro Manila in the Philippines. It was capital of the province of Rizal prior to the formation of the National Capital Region. The current mayor of this city is "Vico Sotto".

The demonym of Pasig is "Pasigueño".

History
The Augustinians built Pasig City in 1572 making it one of the oldest towns in the Philippines. But after the Government combined Pasig with Rizal making Pasig the capital of Rizal province in June 1901.  It became the provincial capital, not until Metro Manila is formed in 1975 by the Metro Manila Commission making Pasig a city. Soon the government considered Pasig as a highly urbanized city. President Fidel V. Ramos signed it to become a law after five months on December 8, 1994. Pasig residents approved this through a referendum on January 21, 1995.

Public Services
Pasig recognizes the efforts of its residents and students, that's why they give back school supplies yearly to public school students. Examples are free complete PE uniforms from shirts to rubber shoes and even complete school uniforms. The public government also enhanced the PCIST  (Pasig City School of Science and Technology) by adding more school courses and programs such as auto mechanic, soldering, welding, refrigerator fixing and more. They have also expanded the Rainforest park in Pasig that is also for the youth of the city. The expansion of RAVE (Rainforest Adventure Experience) such as adding libraries, music halls, auditoriums and a sports center.

Because the Pasig River is rich in water lilies, the government made livelihood programs of making baskets from water lilies and other recycled items. The government also made a market for these businesses to give them a regular place to trade. They also provided jobs for smart and hardworking students who wanted to work on their summer vacation. SPES (Summer Program for Employment Services) program accepts 2,000 students who apply and is given an opportunity to work for the government. The government also gives job fairs 4 times a year for people who are having a hard time to look for a job with the college courses that they studied.

Tourist Sites

	One of the most famous parks in Metro Manila is RAVE or the Rainforest Adventure Experience. It opened in 1977 and was known as the Pasig Central Park. Right now the park consists of many different recreational activities and a mini zoo. It also has an Olympic-sized swimming pool which is offered for the citizens of Pasig with a lower price. Pasig is also known for the place Ace Water Spa. The spa is an all-weather indoor place that has a pool that uses water for helping people feel better.

The Philippines is also known to have huge malls around the country and because Pasig is the center of Metro Manila it can access a lot of nearby malls and the malls inside its city itself such as SM Megamall. SM Megamall is the 3rd biggest SM (Shoe Mart) mall in the country owned by the famous Henry Sy. "Kapitolyo" is also famous for its neighborhood filled with restaurants and bars that can be found in East Capitol Drive of the "Barangay". Pasig is also occupied by food parks that a person with good taste in food will enjoy. As for historical places, one famous place is the "Bahay na Tisa" which translates to House of Chalk. It is called House of Chalk because of its white walls. In Martial Law this house was used for two party lists of the Martial Law to hold their meetings and gatherings. The first Marian Parish is also found in the middle of Pasig called Immaculate Conception Cathedral. It was founded by the Augustinians (the founders of Pasig as well) in 1572. Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary was the original a female patron of the church.

Reference List

Cities in the Philippines
Metro Manila
Uses of Wikidata Infobox

Pasig


The Château de Largoët (), also known as the Tours d'Elven (Elven Towers), is a medieval castle in Elven, in the Morbihan département of France, 13 km from Vannes.

History

A castle is mentioned for the first time in 1020, belonging to the baron of Elven, Derrien I, but the present building was constructed between the 13th and 15th centuries.  The manor became the property of the Malestroit family in the 13th century. The houses of Blois and Montfort fought for it during the Breton War of Succession, before it came to the Rieux family in the 15th century.  It was during this period (between 1474 and 1476) that Jean IV, lord of Rieux, protected Henry Tudor, Duke of Richmond, future King Henry VII of England.  In 1490, Charles VIII of France, dismantled the castle, but it was restored under the influence of Anne de Bretagne.

Nicolas Fouquet bought it in 1656 and, after his death, it was sold to Michel de Trémeurec and stayed in his family.  In the 19th century, it was proposed to demolish Largoët, given its dilapidation, but it was saved thanks to Prosper Mérimée, who had it classed as a monument historique in 1862. Beginning in the 1970s, there has been a programme of restoration.

Architecture

The ruins of Largoët maintain their imposing aspect, notably because of the 14th century octagonal keep.  At 45 m, it is one of the highest in France (for comparison, the keep at the Château de Vincennes reaches 52 m).  There are five floors and the walls are between 6 and 10 m thick.  On the sixth or seventh floor is the room where Henry Tudor stayed.

As well as this colossal edifice, Largoët also boasts:

 A 15th-century gatehouse, marking the entrance to the fortress, built against another 13th-century building.
 A round tower of three storeys, from the 15th century, with cannon openings on the first level, and covered with a hexagonal building.  It was furnished in the 20th century as a hunting lodge.  It has been used as a location for historical films, including Lancelot du Lac and Chouans.
 The remains of the enclosing walls, dried up moats and a lake.
 The ruins of a construction known as an ice house (glacière), used as a food store.
 The entrance to a vast cellar which was used to store wood.

An underground mystery

A tunnel at one time provided an exit from the fortress, but its entrance has not been found.  Works in the Lion d'Or inn, in the centre of Elven, could bring this to light.

See also
List of castles in France

References

External links

 Visiting information

Castles in Brittany
Châteaux in Morbihan
Monuments historiques of Morbihan

Château de Largoët