Colin Skinner (born 1965) is a British author, adventurer and molecular biologist who is attempting to walk around the world.  As of mid-2014, he has walked over  and has crossed Great Britain, Iceland, United States and New Zealand. He has used the walks to raise money and awareness for various causes, including conservation biology, people with disabilities, cancer relief, AIDS, and hospice.

Education
Skinner earned his Bachelor of Science (BSc) combined honours degree in biochemistry and genetics from the University of Leeds.  He earned his PhD in molecular biology from University College London.  He earned his Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in secondary science from Canterbury Christ Church University.

Walking around the world

Scotland to England in 1984
He began at the age of 18 at John o' Groats (at the northern tip of Scotland) in 1984, and walked to Land's End in England.  On this journey, which he carried out with three other people, he pushed a wheelchair  and raised £3,500 for The Forelands School for handicapped children.  In 1983, he had already run  around a 400-metre track to raise further money for The Forelands School for handicapped children, at Broadstairs in Kent.

Iceland in 1986
In 1986, at the age of 20, whilst at the University of Leeds, he crossed Iceland, together with three other students (Andrew Backhouse, David Brock and Shaun Fagan), from Seyðisfjörður in the east, through the interior to the north of the Vatnajökull ice fields, and then west to Reykjavík.  The team encountered an 'ash storm', where storm force winds had whipped up fine black volcanic ash, and had to wear goggles and face masks to push on into the winds.  In the rain shadow of the Vatnajökull, they ran out of water, then encountered a flash flood, as mud rushed down from the melting glaciers. They also had to survive on food contaminated with petrol that had leaked from their petrol stoves.  This journey of  raised £2,000 for the Royal Association for Disability and Rehabilitation.  As part of the training for the walk across Iceland he ran the Leeds Marathon, in a time of 3 hours and 41 minutes.

On the Icelandic trek, he came up with the idea of walking , across Britain and America to raise money for Macmillan Cancer Support in Britain and hospice in America and Canada.

Scotland to England in 1988
On 1 May 1988, he set off again from John o' Groats, this time walking through the West Highlands, down the Pennine Way and then south to Land's End: a distance of  in seven weeks.  As part of the training for this walk he ran the gruelling Snowdonia Marathon, in a time of 4 hours and 40 minutes.  The walk through Scotland and England raised £2,000 for Macmillan Cancer Support.

Across the U.S.A. in 1988/1989

The journey across the United States began on 15 July 1988.  On the journey he slept in bushes beneath the World Trade Center, camped outside Kennedy Airport in a tent, then headed west.  On Staten Island he collapsed from heat exhaustion at 105 degrees Fahrenheit.  In Utah the temperatures went down to minus 30 Fahrenheit.  Carrying a tent and a backpack, with no backup, he walked alone to Niagara Falls, through Ontario in Canada, to Detroit, between the Great Lakes, across the Great Plains, through the Rockies in winter, to Yellowstone National Park, then south to the Grand Canyon, on to Las Vegas, through Death Valley and then snowshoed over the Sierras to reach San Francisco.  In Death Valley, down to his last $13, Skinner found $200 in the desert, and he had $1 left when he crossed the Sierras to reach Yosemite Valley.  The total distance he walked from New York City to San Francisco, was .

On the journey he visited 70 hospices and appeared on television, radio and in newspapers to encourage support for hospices across the U.S. and Canada.  The mayor of San Francisco, Art Agnos, proclaimed 21 March 1989, "Colin Skinner Day," in recognition of the attention he brought to the work of hospices with AIDS patients in the city.

Returning to Britain after this walk, he obtained a job as a research assistant in Chemical Pathology at the Middlesex Hospital and went on to obtain a PhD in Molecular Biology at University College London.  In 1992, whilst studying for his PhD, he also ran the London Marathon, in a time of 4 hours and 41 minutes, to raise money to buy a computer for a young boy with physical disabilities.  Skinner's PhD involved developing genetic tests to detect congenital adrenal hyperplasia in children. He had work published in a number of scientific journals. In 1994 he had his work published in Human Molecular Genetics.

In 1994, Skinner married Dr. Monica Schneider (also a molecular biologist), and in 1996 their son James was born.  From 1994 to 1996 Skinner worked as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, in Nashville, Tennessee. The work he carried out there involved gene sequencing and protein purification of cytochrome P450 enzymes.  His work was published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. From 1996 to 1997 Skinner took care of his infant son, James, whilst his wife continued to work at Vanderbilt University Medical Center.

New Zealand in 1998
In 1998 he walked from Cape Reinga in the North Island, to Bluff, at the southern tip of New Zealand; a distance of .  On the journey he walked through the active volcano at White Island, experienced earthquakes up to 4.9 on the Richter Scale, clambered over glaciers, swam with seals and reported on conservation biology projects involving endangered species.  Information from the journey was posted on the Internet for schoolchildren in the U.S. via the Scholastic Corporation Scholastic Network. In December 2010 Skinner completed a book about the journey and conservation biology, New Zealand – 1500 miles on foot through – The Land of the Long White Cloud on an Internet website.

In 1999 he obtained a PGCE (Postgraduate Certificate in Education) from Canterbury Christ Church University in Canterbury, England.  In 2000 he worked as a secondary school science teacher at St. Edmund's School in Dover, teaching 11 to 16-year-olds.

In 2001 he worked as a volunteer at a wildlife park, working on enrichment activities for animals.  From 2001 until 2003 he worked part-time at a post office. During this time, he also taught science to primary school children, in a 'Link-Scientist' scheme run by the pharmaceutical company Pfizer, and took care of his son.

In 2003 his mother died from pancreatic cancer, at the age of 59.  This prompted him to write the story of the  journey across Britain and America.  In 2006 he finished the book Beyond the Setting Sun, with an introduction by Ranulph Fiennes, the renowned polar explorer and adventurer. The book was written to raise money for hospices in Britain, Canada and America.

Scotland to England in 2007
On 29 April 2007, he began walking again at John o' Groats and arrived at Land's End on 8 June, having covered  in 6 weeks. On the walk in Britain he visited 20 hospices and raised £10,000 for hospice through sales of his Beyond the Setting Sun book.

U.S.A. in 2009

Starting on 22 August 2009, he walked from Kennedy Airport in New York City to within 15 miles of Devil's Lake, North Dakota.  This was a distance of  and Skinner stopped his journey on 3 December 2009, after three days with windchills down to −30 Fahrenheit.  During the trip Skinner had to make incisions in his feet to relieve the pressure from blisters, suffered food poisoning, met up with a wolf in Upper Michigan, had to face down two wild dogs, and had ski masks frozen to his beard in North Dakota.  On the journey he appeared on television, radio and in newspaper articles. He also wrote a daily blog for the National Hospice Foundation. He met hospice patients, including one woman with a terminal illness, who said that at times she could forget she was ill, thanks to the care she received in a hospice house in Buffalo, New York.  He also met a man with lung cancer who could not sleep in hospitals, where there was always someone coming to check on him. In the hospice house in Windsor, Ontario, the man had a peaceful room to himself, where he could finally get some rest.

U.S. in 2011
On 10 September 2011, Skinner set off from mile marker 283 on U.S. Route 2,  before Devil's Lake, North Dakota, and walked  to Tuolumne Meadows in Yosemite National Park, California.  The walk took him through North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Nevada and into California.  Skinner snow-shoed over Tioga Pass and camped in a tent in the Sierra Mountains for several nights, but was forced to stop walking after suffering from frostbite in both feet. On the journey he appeared on television, radio and in newspapers and encouraged support for hospices taking care of people with serious illnesses. Skinner is now writing a book about this journey, entitled America- 12000 miles on foot, a wing and a prayer.

In September 2012, Skinner completed a short story, entitled Chenga, and published this on an Internet website. In October 2012, Skinner completed the second part of a science-fiction fantasy trilogy, entitled Djara, and published this on an Internet website.

Skinner has now begun writing the third part of the science-fiction fantasy trilogy, entitled Tau. The Chenga, Djara, Tau trilogy includes the themes of time travel, parallel universes, vampires, shapeshifters, angels, demons and descendants of the fabled giants known as the Nephilim.

In 2012 Skinner published four short poems: Gaia, The Dreaming, New Zealand Water Torture and Life Jim But Not As We Know It on an Internet website.

He is planning future walks through Australia, Japan, China, Tibet, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Egypt and Europe.

Books
Beyond the Setting Sun – 6000 miles on foot for hospice.
New Zealand – 1500 miles on foot through the Land of the Long White Cloud.

See also
 List of pedestrian circumnavigators

References

External links
Dr Colin Skinner, Part 1: Stepping Out on YouTube
Colin Skinner, Part 2: Heat & Cold on YouTube

1965 births
Living people
Pedestrian circumnavigators of the globe
English biologists
English travel writers
Walkers of the United Kingdom
Alumni of Canterbury Christ Church University
British male writers
Male non-fiction writers

Colin Skinner


The term Witches' Sabbath was used to describe the belief that there were people, called witches, who regularly met for secret gatherings. The name is used for the gathering. One part of the name refers to the Sabbath, the day of rest in Judaism and other Abrahamic religions. The term was in common use in the Middle Ages. At that time, the Jews were shown as evil in many European countries. It was believed that the witches killed people in secret rituals or  poisoned wells during the Witches Sabbath. From about the 14th century, the Holy Inquisition used this belief to organise pogroms against people it called heretics. The Catholic Church developed a whole set of ideas about witches. According to this theory, the Witches Sabbath is one of the five elements that characterize a witch. The other elements are witches' flight, a pact with the devil, the idea that they entered into a sexual relationship with the devil, and that they used black magic to harm people. The idea of a conspiracy theory was thematised more and more in the fifteenth century. People feared a secret society or sect of witches and warlocks (male witches) that would do harm.

Witchcraft

Witches' Sabbath


A DIN connector is a type of round electronic connector. It is named for the Deutsches Institut für Normung, the German national standards regulator. DIN plugs can be used in audio systems and MIDI connections.The Mini-DIN connector is similar but smaller. Before USB connectors, keyboards and mice used mini-DIN connectors.

Electrical connectors

DIN connector


Frank Lloyd Wright (ឈ្មោះកំណើត Frank Lincoln Wright, មិថុនា 8, 1867 – មេសា 9, 1959) ជា ស្ថាបត្យករ ជនជាតិអាមេរិចកាំង, អ្នកតុបតែងលម្អផ្នែកខាងក្នុង, អ្នកនិពន្ធ, និងជាអ្នកអប់រំ, គាត់បានឌីហ្សាញរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធ អគារ ជាង១០០០ ក្នុងនោះ៥៣២ប្រភេទ ទទួលបានជោគជ័យជាស្ថាពរ។ រ៉ាយស៍ ជឿថា រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធសំណង់អគារទាំងនោះ វានឹងធ្វើឲ្យមានភាពសុខដុមរម្យនាជាមួយមនុស្សលោក និងបរិស្ថាន។ ក្នុងភាសាទស្សនៈវិជ្ជាគាត់ហៅការឌីហ្សាញនេះថា organic architecture។ ទស្សនៈនេះគឺជាឧទាហរណ៍ពិេសសមួយរបស់  Fallingwater (1935) ដែលបានហៅថា "the best all-time work of American architecture". រ៉ាយស៍ ក៏ជាអ្នកដឹកនាំចលនាការវិវត្តន៍ស្ថាបត្យកម្ម និងការវិវត្តន៍ផ្ទះសម្បែកប្រភេទUsonian នៅក្នុងសាលា Prairie School ដែរ។ ទស្សនៈតែមួយគត់របស់គាត់ គឺធ្វើយ៉ាងណាឲ្យនគរូបនីយកម្មរបស់ សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិច រីកចំរើន។ ក្នុងសម័យកាល នៃការបង្កើតថ្មី របស់គាត់ គឺមានរយៈពេលលើសពី៧០ឆ្នាំឯណោះ។

គាត់បានសិក្សាលើគម្រោងបង្កើតថ្មី ប្រកបដោយភាពច្នៃប្រឌិត ក្នុងនោះមានដូចជា៖ អគារការិយាល័យ, វិហារសាសនា (គ្រីស្ទ), សាលារៀន, អគារខ្ពស់ៗ, សណ្ឋាគារ និងសារៈមន្ទីរជាដើម។ គាត់តែងតែឌីហ្សាញផ្នែកខាងដើមនៃអគាររបស់គាត់ជានិច្ច ដូចជា៖ គ្រឿងសង្ហារឹម និង stained glass។ គាត់ក៏បានសរសេរសៀវភៅ២០ក្បាលដែរ និងមានអត្ថបទជាច្រើនផ្សេងទៀត ហើយក៏ជាសាស្ត្រាចារ្យដ៏ល្បីឈ្មោះនៅ សហរដ្ឋអាេមរិច និងអឺរ៉ុបដែរ។ ជីវិតរបស់គាត់ គឺពោរពេញដោយភាពស្រស់ស្រាយ និងអ្វីដែលគួរឲ្យចាប់អារម្មណ៍គឺត្រង់ អគ្គីភ័យឆ្នាំ១៩១៤ និងឃាតកម្មនៅក្នុង Taliesin studio របស់គាត់ជាដើម។ ភាពល្បីរន្ទឺនៃកេរ្ត៏ឈ្មោះ នៅក្នុងជីវិតរបស់គាត់ គឺកាលពីឆ្នាំ១៩៩១ នៅពេល វិទ្យាស្ថានស្ថាបត្យករអាមេរិច  American Institute of Architects  បានទទួលស្គាល់ថាគាត់ជា ស្ថាបត្យករអាមេរិចអស្ចារ្យជាងគេគ្រប់ជំនាន់ "the greatest American architect of all time".

ជីវប្រវត្តិ
Frank Lloyd Wright was born Frank Lincoln Wright in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. His father, William Carey Wright (1825–1904), was a locally admired orator, music teacher, occasional lawyer, and itinerant minister. William Wright met and married Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39 – 1923), a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith. Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States. Both of Wright's parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. According to his biography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition. The family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1870 for William to minister a small congregation.

In 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and saw an exhibit of educational blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his innovative kindergarten curriculum. A trained teacher, Anna was excited by the program and bought a set of blocks for her family. Young Wright spent much time playing with the blocks. These were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. This is how Wright described, in his autobiography, the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: "For several years I sat at the little Kindergarten table-top ... and played ... with the cube, the sphere and the triangle—these smooth wooden maple blocks ... All are in my fingers to this day ..." Many of Wright's buildings are notable for their geometrical clarity.

The Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children.

Soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated. Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of physical affection. William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again. At this time he changed his middle name from Lincoln to Lloyd in honor of his mother's family, the Lloyd Joneses. As the only male left in the family, Wright assumed financial responsibility for his mother and two sisters.

ការសិក្សា និង ការងារ (1885–1888)
Wright attended Madison High School, but there is no evidence he ever graduated. He was admitted to the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student in 1886. There he joined Phi Delta Theta fraternity, took classes part-time for two semesters, and worked with a professor of civil engineering, Allan D. Conover.
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In 1887, Wright left the school without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from the University in 1955) and arrived in Chicago in search of employment. As a result of the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and recent population boom, new development was plentiful in the city. He later recalled that his first impressions of Chicago were that of grimy neighborhoods, crowded streets, and disappointing architecture, yet he was determined to find work. Within days, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with the architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee. Wright previously collaborated with Silsbee—accredited as the draftsman and the construction supervisor—on the 1886 Unity Chapel for Wright's family in Spring Green, Wisconsin.
While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: All Souls Church in Chicago for his uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts. Other draftsmen who worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher, and George G. Elmslie. Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home.

In his autobiography, Wright recounts that he also had a short stint in another Chicago architecture office. Feeling that he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee (at $8 a week), the young draftsman quit and found work as a designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton. However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready to handle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbee—this time with a raise in salary.

Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more "gracefully picturesque" than the other "brutalities" of the period. Still, Wright aspired for more progressive work. After less than a year had passed in Silsbee's office, Wright learned that the Chicago firm of Adler & Sullivan was "looking for someone to make the finish drawings for the interior of the Auditorium Building". Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan's ornamental designs and two short interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm.

Adler & Sullivan (1888–1893)
Wright did not get along well with Sullivan's other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred between them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his employees as well. In spite of this, "Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great design responsibility." As an act of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as Lieber Meister (German for "Dear Master"). He also formed a bond with office foreman Paul Mueller. Wright would later engage Mueller to build several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923.

On June 1, 1889, Wright married his first wife, Catherine Lee "Kitty" Tobin (1871–1959). The two had met around a year earlier during activities at All Souls Church. Sullivan did his part to facilitate the financial success of the young couple by granting Wright a five-year employment contract. Wright made one more request: "Mr. Sullivan, if you want me to work for you as long as five years, couldn't you lend me enough money to build a little house?" With Sullivan's $5,000 loan, Wright purchased a lot at the corner of Chicago and Forest Avenues in the suburb of Oak Park. The existing Gothic Revival house was given to his mother, while a compact Shingle style house was built alongside for Wright and Catherine.

According to an 1890 diagram of the firm's new, 17th floor space atop the Auditorium Building, Wright soon earned a private office next to Sullivan's own. However, that office was actually shared with friend and draftsman George Elmslie, who was hired by Sullivan at Wright's request. Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled all residential design work in the office. As a general rule, Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but they obliged when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm's major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at his home studio. He would later claim total responsibility for the design of these houses, but careful inspection of their architectural style and accounts from historian Robert Twombly suggest that it was Sullivan who dictated the overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects from Sullivan's sketches. During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan's bungalow (1890) and the James A. Charnley bungalow (1890) both in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House (1891) and Louis Sullivan's House (1892) both in Chicago, and the most noted 1891 James A. Charnley House also in Chicago. Of the five collaborations, only the two commissions for the Charnley family still stand.

Despite Sullivan's loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly short on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries he designed into his house. To supplement his income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions for at least nine houses. These "bootlegged" houses, as he later called them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike the prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans which would become hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today including the Thomas Gale, Robert P. Parker House, George Blossom, and Walter Gale houses.

As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, he designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivan knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a Frank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan's townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright's involvement. Since Wright's five-year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan's firm. A variety of stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different versions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a breach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five years. Wright could not bear the new hostility from his master and thought the situation was unjust. He "threw down [his] pencil and walked out of the Adler and Sullivan office never to return." Dankmar Adler, who was more sympathetic to Wright's actions, later sent him the deed. On the other hand, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices (as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel also accounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their illegal nature. Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for twelve years.

Transition and experimentation (1893–1900)
After leaving Louis Sullivan's firm, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan designed Schiller Building (1892, demolished 1961) on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the building because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Although Cecil Corwin followed Wright and set up his architecture practice in the same office, the two worked independently and did not consider themselves partners. Within a year, Corwin decided that he did not enjoy architecture and journeyed east to find a new profession.

With Corwin gone, Wright moved out of the Schiller Building and into the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall Building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins. These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what would become known as the Prairie School. They were joined by Perkins apprentice, Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright's team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings. Mahony, the third woman to be licensed as an architect in Illinois and one of the first licensed female architects in the U.S., also designed furniture, leaded glass windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright's houses. Between 1894 and the early 1910s, several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright's future employees launched their careers in the offices of Steinway Hall.

Wright's projects during this period followed two basic models. On one hand, there was his first independent commission, the Winslow House, which combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on simple geometry and horizontal lines that is typical in Wright houses. The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971), Heller House (1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897), and Husser House (1899, demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For more conservative clients, Wright conceded to design more traditional dwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen Anne style Charles E. Roberts House (1896). As an emerging architect, Wright could not afford to turn down clients over disagreements in taste, but even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional Sullivan inspired details.

Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and other examples of Wright's work; he offered to finance a four-year education at the École des Beaux-Arts and two years in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham's firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteed success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the World's Columbian Exposition was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was making a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the École lacked creativity and was altogether at odds with his vision of modern American architecture.

Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 in order to bring his work and family lives closer. This move made further sense as the majority of the architect's projects at that time were in Oak Park or neighboring River Forest. The past five years had seen the birth of three more children — Catherine in 1894, David in 1895, and Frances in 1898 — prompting Wright to sacrifice his original home studio space for additional bedrooms. Thus, moving his work space necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio addition to the north of the main house. The space, which included a hanging balcony within the two story drafting room, was one of Wright's first experiments with innovative structure. The studio was a poster for Wright's developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which the next ten years of architectural creations would emerge. The renovation included a playroom with high vaulted ceilings for his children. The fireplace takes up the majority of one wall of the playroom. A skylight at the top of the arc runs almost the length of the room. Made of Roman brick, the fireplace lies below a mural from the story "The Fisherman and the Genie" from Arabian Nights created by the artist Charles Corwin. Wright believed that the fireplace was an integral architectural feature within the home, often calling the hearth the heart of the home.

Prairie houses
By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote:  "William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches and recognition today!"Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been identified as the onset of the "Prairie style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations. Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style. At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design. Bok also extended the offer to other architects, but Wright was the sole responder. "A Home in a Prairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans were ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years.

Wright's residential designs were known as "prairie houses" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago. These houses featured extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressed chimneys, overhangs and terraces all using unfinished materials. The houses are credited with being the first examples of the "open plan". Windows whenever possible are long, and low, allowing a connection between the interior and nature, outside, that was new to western architecture and reflected the influence of Japanese architecture on Wright. The manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings are hallmarks of his style.

Public buildings in the Prairie style include Unity Temple, the home of the Unitarian Universalist congregation in Oak Park. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down in 1905. The community agreed to hire him and he worked on the building from 1905 to 1909. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and became an architect of space. Many architects consider it the world's first modern building, because of its unique construction of only one material: reinforced concrete. This would become a hallmark of the modernists who followed Wright, such as Mies van der Rohe, and even some post-modernists, such as Frank Gehry.

Many examples of this work are in Buffalo, New York as a result of a friendship between Wright and Darwin D. Martin, an executive of the Larkin Soap Company. In 1902, the Larkin Company decided to build a new administration building. Wright came to Buffalo and designed not only the Larkin Administration Building (completed in 1904, demolished in 1950), but also homes for three of the company's executives including the Darwin D. Martin House in 1904, and later, their summer residence, the Graycliff Estate, also designed for Darwin D. Martin and his wife, Isabelle.

Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the late Prairie Period (1907–2000) are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. This building had a profound influence on young European architects after World War I and is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism". However, Wright's work was not known to European architects until the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio.

Midlife controversy and architecture

ការបោះបង់ចោលគ្រួសារ

Local gossips noticed Wright's flirtations, and he developed a reputation in Oak Park as a man-about-town. His family had grown to six children, but Wright was not paternal and he relied on his wife Catherine to care for them. In 1903, Wright designed a house for Edwin Cheney, a neighbor in Oak Park, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney. Mamah Cheney was a modern woman with interests outside the home. She was an early feminist and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal. The two fell in love, and they became the talk of the town, as they often could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park. Wright's wife, Kitty, sure that this attachment would fade as the others had, refused to grant him a divorce. Mamah had to live in Europe for two years in order to obtain a divorce from Edwin on the grounds of desertion.

In 1909, even before the Robie House was completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney went together to Europe, leaving their own spouses and children behind. By this point Wright "rejected" the Prairie Style single-family house model of the upper-middle class, and hoped to work on more democratic architecture. He was not getting larger commissions for commercial or public buildings, which frustrated him.

What drew Wright to Europe was the chance to publish a portfolio of his work with Berlin publisher Ernst Wasmuth. The resulting two volumes, titled Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, were published in 1911 in two editions, creating the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained more than 100 lithographs of Wright's designs and was commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio.

Wright remained in Europe for almost a year and set up home first in Florence, Italy — where he lived with his eldest son Lloyd — and later in Fiesole, Italy where he lived with Mamah. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted Mamah a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright returned to the United States in October 1910, he persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called Taliesin, by May 1911. The recurring theme of Taliesin also came from his mother's side: Taliesin in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician, and priest. The family motto was Y Gwir yn Erbyn y Byd which means "The Truth Against the World"; it was created by Iolo Morgannwg who also had a son called Taliesin, and the motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the Eisteddfod in Wales.

Catastrophe at Taliesin studio
On August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, Julian Carlton, a male servant from Barbados who had been hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned. The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha; a gardener; a draftsman named Emil Brodelle; a workman; and another workman's son. Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom, William Weston, helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed hydrochloric acid immediately following the attack in an attempt to kill himself. He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville jail. Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack, despite medical attention.

Divorce and further troubles
In 1922, Kitty Wright finally granted Wright a divorce. Under the terms of the divorce, Wright was required to wait one year before he could marry his then-partner, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg at a Petrograd Ballet performance in Chicago. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon Olgivanna was pregnant with their daughter, Iovanna, born on December 2, 1925.

On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone system were deemed to be responsible for the blaze, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright estimated to be worth $250,000 to $500,000. Wright rebuilt the living quarters, naming the home "Taliesin III".

In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota. The charges were later dropped. During this period, Wright designed Graycliff (1926–31), the summer estate of Isabelle and Darwin D. Martin.

Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927, and once again, Wright was required to wait for one year before remarrying. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928.

California and the textile block houses
In the 1920s, Wright designed a number of houses in California using precast "textile" concrete blocks reinforced by an internal system of bars. Wright first used his textile block system on the John Storer House in Hollywood, California, in 1923. The house is now used in films, television, and print media to represent the future. Typically Wrightian is the joining of the structure to its site by a series of terraces that reach out into and reorder the landscape, making it an integral part of the architect's vision. According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together. Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole. To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors.

With the Ennis House and the Samuel Freeman House (both 1923), Wright had further opportunities to test the limits of the textile block system. He also designed a textile block house for Aline Barnsdall, the Community Playhouse ("Little Dipper"), which was never constructed. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman and Ennis Houses. Architectural historian Thomas Hines has suggested that Lloyd's contribution to these projects is often overlooked.

រចនាប័ទ្មសរីរាង្គចាស់ទុំ
During the later 1920s and 1930s Wright's Organic style had fully matured with the design of Graycliff, Fallingwater and Taliesin West.

Graycliff, located just south of Buffalo, NY is an important mid-career (1926–1931) design by Wright; it is a summer estate designed for his long-time patrons, Isabelle and Darwin D. Martin. Created in Wright's high Organic style, Wright wrote in a letter to the Martins that "Coming in the house would be something like putting on your hat and going outdoors." Graycliff consists of three buildings set within 8.5 acres of landscape, also designed by Wright. Its site, high on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie, inspired Wright to create a home that was transparent, with views through the building to the lake beyond. Terraces and cantilevered balconies also encourage lake views, and water features throughout the landscape were designed by Wright to echo the lake as well.

One of Wright's most famous private residences was built from 1934 to 1937—Fallingwater—for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr., at Mill Run, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. It was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of the building. Wright wanted the new residents to live with the waterfalls, to make them part of their everyday lives. He didn't want them to just look at them every now and again. Constructed over a 30-foot waterfall, the house may look very big on the outside but on the inside it is quite small, which surprises some visitors. It was made with three bedrooms, a massive living room and a dining room. The house was more of a design for a family getaway, not for a live-in family. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of $8,000. It was one of Wright's most expensive pieces. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed.

Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, Arizona, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937 to his death in 1959. Now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation and archives, it continues today as the site of the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture.

Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932, and unveiled a  model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. He continued developing the idea until his death.

Usonian Houses

Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. An early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis; but the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including sandwich walls that consisted of layers of wood siding, plywood cores and building paper, a significant change from typically framed walls. Usonian houses most commonly featured flat roofs and were mostly constructed without basements, completing the excision of attics and basements from houses, a feat Wright had been attempting since the early 20th century. The Jacobses also commissioned the "Solar Hemicycle" by Wright in 1944, a seminal project in the solar house movement.

Intended to be highly practical houses for middle-class clients, and designed to be run without servants, Usonian houses often featured small kitchens — called "workspaces" by Wright — that adjoined the dining spaces. These spaces in turn flowed into the main living areas, which also were characteristically outfitted with built-in seating and tables. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas focused on the fireplace. Bedrooms were typically isolated and relatively small, encouraging the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of rooms was a development of the Prairie ideal; as the built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts principles from which Wright's early works grew. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new model for independent living, and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost. The diversity of the Usonian ideal can be seen in houses such as the Gregor S. and Elizabeth B. Affleck House (1941) in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, which projects over a ravine; and the Hanna-Honeycomb House (1937) in Palo Alto, California, which features a honeycomb planning grid. Gordon House, completed in 1963, was Wright's last Usonian design. Fewer than 60 of Wright's Usonian houses were built.

His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that was a feature of countless developers. Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright, including open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building.

Personal style and concepts

Some of the built-in furniture remains, while other restorations have included replacement pieces created using his plans. His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).

As Wright's career progressed, so did the mechanization of the glass industry. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join together solid walls. By utilizing this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career.
Wright responded to the transformation of domestic life that occurred at the turn of the 20th century, when servants became less prominent or completely absent from most American households, by developing homes with progressively more open plans. This allowed the woman of the house to work in her 'workspace', as he often called the kitchen, yet keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. Much of modern architecture, including the early work of Mies van der Rohe, can be traced back to Wright's innovative work.

Wright also designed some of his own clothing. His fashion sense was unique and he usually wore expensive suits, flowing neckties, and capes. He had a fascination with automobiles, purchasing his first car in 1909, a Stoddard-Dayton roadster, and owned many exotic vehicles over the years. During the cash-strapped Depression, Wright drove cheaper vehicles. Some of his last cars in the 1950s included four Volkswagens and a Chevrolet Nomad wagon along with flashier articles such as a Jaguar Mark VII. He owned some 50 cars between 1909 and his death, of which ten are known to be extant.

Wright strongly believed in individualism and did not affiliate with the American Institute of Architects during his career, going so far as to call the organization "a harbor of refuge for the incompetent," and "a form of refined gangsterism." When an associate referred to him as "an old amateur" Wright confirmed, "I am the oldest."

Significant later works

Wright turned 80 shortly after WWII ended, yet remained busy as ever. The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright for 16 years (1943–1959) and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral from its site on Fifth Avenue; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell. Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easily experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp, the floor of which is embedded with circular shapes and triangular light fixtures to complement the geometric nature of the structure. However, when the museum was completed, a number of details of Wright's design were ignored, such as his desire for the interior to be painted off-white. Further, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walking up the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level.

The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing vertically oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. It opened to the public in February 1956. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in the state of Oklahoma.

គម្រោងផ្សេងទៀត
Wright designed over 400 built structures of which about 300 survive . Four have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. The Ennis House in California has also been damaged by earthquake and rain-induced ground movement. In January 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire.

In addition, other buildings were intentionally demolished during and after Wright's lifetime, such as: Midway Gardens (1913, Chicago, Illinois) and the Larkin Administration Building (1903, Buffalo, New York) were destroyed in 1929 and 1950 respectively; the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (both located in Chicago and designed in 1895) were destroyed in 1971 and 1974, respectively; the Geneva Inn (1911) in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin was destroyed in 1970; and the Banff National Park Pavilion (1911) in Alberta, Canada was destroyed in 1939. The Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo (1913) survived the Great Kantō earthquake but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures.

One of his projects, Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between the original design and the completion of the structure.

Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world's largest single-site collection of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture.

A lesser known project that never came to fruition was Wright's plan for Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe. Few Tahoe locals know of the iconic American architect's plan for their natural treasure.

A house design that Wright completed shortly before his death in 1959 was realized in late 2007 in the Republic of Ireland.

The Kalita Humphreys Theater in Dallas, Texas was Wright's final project before his death.

ការធ្វើផែនការសហគមន៍
Frank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design.

His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the "Quadruple Block Plan." This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses, which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the Ladies' Home Journal, were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910.

The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc. This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist "factories side by side with farm and home."

Notable community planning designs
 1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt)
 1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony, town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, Montana
 1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section
 1934–59 – Broadacre City, theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model
 1938 – Suntop Homes, also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development
 1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of rammed earth and earth berm construction (unbuilt)
 1945 – Usonia Homes, A47 homes (three designed by Wright) in Pleasantville, New York
 1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, five homes (four designed by Wright) in Charleston Township, Michigan
 1949 – Parkwyn neighborhood, a plat in Kalamazoo, Michigan developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian homes on circular lots with common spaces in between (since replatted)

សិល្បៈជប៉ុន
Though most famous as an architect, Wright was an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily ukiyo-e woodblock prints. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients; he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it. For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. Wright was also an avid collector of Japanese prints and used them as teaching aids with his apprentices in what were called "print parties".

Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition of works by Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago. For many years, he was a major presence in the Japanese art world, selling a great number of works to prominent collectors such as John Spaulding of Boston, and to prominent museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. He penned a book on Japanese art in 1912.

In 1920, however, rival art dealers began to spread rumors that Wright was selling retouched prints; this combined with Wright's tendency to live beyond his means, and other factors, led to great financial troubles for the architect. Though he provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, this marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer. He was forced to sell off much of his art collection in 1927 to pay off outstanding debts; the Bank of Wisconsin claimed his Taliesin home the following year, and sold thousands of his prints, for only one dollar a piece, to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck.

Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using prints as collateral for loans, often relying upon his art business to remain financially solvent.

The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades until, in 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller—'F. L. Wright'" and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz, in 1918-22. These discoveries, and subsequent research, led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.

ការស្លាប់និងកេរ្តិ៍ដំណែល
Turmoil followed Wright even many years after his death on April 9, 1959, shortly after undergoing surgery in Phoenix, Arizona, to remove an intestinal obstruction. After the death of his third wife, Olgivanna in 1985, it was learned that her dying wish had been that Wright, she, and her daughter by her first marriage all be cremated and interred together in a memorial garden being built at Taliesin West. By then, and according to his own wishes, Wright's body had lain for over 25 years in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, near Taliesin, Wright's beloved home in Spring Green, Wisconsin. Although Olgivanna had taken no legal steps to move Wright's remains and against the wishes of other family members as well as the Wisconsin legislature, Wright's remains were removed from his grave by members of the Taliesin Fellowship, cremated and sent to Scottsdale where they were later interred in the memorial garden. Today, the original gravesite in Wisconsin, while empty, is still marked with Wright's name.

Colleagues and influences

Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences:
 Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his Lieber Meister (dear master),
 Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life,
 Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven),
 Japanese art, prints and buildings,
 Froebel Gifts
He also routinely claimed the architects and architectural designers who were his employees' work as his own design and claimed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators and subordinates. But, as with any architect, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin and Walter Burley Griffin.

The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond, recognized as the father of modern architecture in Japan, worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial hotel. His own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright and became an internationally successful architect.

Later in the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb and Paolo Soleri in architecture and Santiago Martinez Delgado in the arts. As a young man, actor Anthony Quinn applied to study with Wright at Taliesin. However, Wright suggested that he first take voice lessons to help overcome a speech impediment.

Bruce Goff never worked for Wright but maintained correspondence with him. Their works can be seen to parallel each other.

Simon & Garfunkel recorded So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright as a tribute to Wright.

ការទទួលស្គាល់

Later in his life and well after his death in 1959, Wright received much honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received Gold Medal awards from The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1941 and the American Institute of Architects (AIA Gold Medal) in 1949. The medal was a symbolic "burying the hatchet" between Wright and the AIA. In a radio interview he commented, "Well, the AIA I never joined, and they know why. When they gave me the gold medal in Houston, I told them frankly why. Feeling that the architecture profession is all that's the matter with architecture, why should I join them?" He was awarded the Franklin Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his "alma mater", the University of Wisconsin) and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "The Building of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House and the Johnson Wax Building.

In 1992, the Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals, including a June 2013 revival at Fallingwater, in Bull Run, Pennsylvania, by Opera Theater of Pittsburgh. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater.

In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp. Several of Wright's buildings have been proposed by the United States to be UNESCO World Heritage sites.

In 1957, Arizona made plans to construct a new Capitol building. Believing that the submitted plans for the new Capitol were tombs to the past, Frank Lloyd Wright offered an alternative to the people of Arizona. Wright felt that Arizona's Capitol should inspire the citizens to loftier heights. Wright's architectural dream of the Oasis captures the spirit of his vision - an oasis from the heat of the desert, an oasis from the mediocrity of our past decisions, an oasis for open government and unconstrained ideas.

This collection also includes an early version of the Oasis with three spires, a typewritten transcript where Wright expresses his opinions regarding the various plans for Arizona's Capitol Building, and images of the restoration work completed by Kenneth C. Truong.
In 2004, one of the spires included in his design was erected in his memory. Consisting of roughly 1,700 individual pieces of steel, the Frank Lloyd Wright Spire is visible from nearly everywhere in residential Scottsdale and illuminates the night sky with a stunning, futuristic architectural ambiance of teal and blue.

គ្រួសារ
Frank Lloyd Wright was married three times and fathered seven children, four sons and three daughters. He also adopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright.

His wives were:
 Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959); social worker, socialite (married in June 1889; divorced November 1922)
 Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930), artist (married in November 1923; divorced August 1927)
 Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985), dancer and writer (married in August 1928)
One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright, Jr., known as Lloyd Wright, was also a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd Wright's son (and Wright's grandson), Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in Malibu, California where he has a practice of mostly residences, but also civic and commercial buildings.

Another son and architect, John Lloyd Wright, invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced extensively in the San Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham, was an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and died September 15, 2013, of congestive heart failure. She is the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt Institute.

Wright designed a house for David Samuel Wright, his son by his first marriage to Catherine, and David's wife, Gladys.

The Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter was Wright's granddaughter. Baxter was the daughter of Catherine Baxter, a child born of Wright's first marriage. Baxter's daughter, Melissa Galt, currently lives and works in Atlanta as an interior designer.

His step-daughter Svetlana (daughter of Olgivanna) and her son Daniel died in an automobile accident in 1946. Her widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph Stalin. They divorced after she could not adjust to the communal lifestyle of the Wright communities, which she compared to life in the Soviet Union under her father, and because of the constant interference of Wright's widow. Peters served as Chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to 1991.

A great-grandson of Wright, S. Lloyd Natof, currently lives and works in Chicago as a master woodworker who specializes in the design and creation of custom wood furniture.

Archives
From Wright's death in 1959 most of his collections were stored at the headquarters of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation — Taliesin, in Spring Green, Wisconsin, and Taliesin West. The collection includes more than 23,000 architectural drawings, about 40 large-scale architectural models, some 44,000 photographs, 600 manuscripts and more than 300,000 pieces of office and personal correspondence. The archive's architectural models include notable Wright projects like the unrealized St. Mark's Tower and a version of the Guggenheim. Most of these models were not made for clients; they were constructed for MoMA's retrospective of Wright in 1940.

In order to guarantee a high level of conservation and access as well as to transfer the considerable financial burden of maintaining the archive, the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation in 2012 partnered with the Museum of Modern Art and the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library to move the archive to New York. Wright's furniture and art collection remain with the foundation, which will also have a role in monitoring the archive. Together the three parties established an advisory group to oversee exhibitions, symposiums, events and publications.

Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Residence and Frank Lloyd Wright Records, 1924–1974, Collection includes drawings, correspondence, and other materials documenting the construction of two homes for the Jacobs as well as research files on Wright's life. The Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan Collection, 1945–1988, consists of research documents, including photocopied correspondence between Wright and his clients, used for the book "Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan." The Wrightiana Collection, c. 1897–1997 (bulk 1949–1969), includes a variety of printed materials and photographs about Wright and his projects. The Joseph J. Bagley Cottage Collection, c. 1916–1925, contains photographs and drawings documenting the Bagley cottage which was completed in 1916.

The architect's personal archives are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wright archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing through Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center in Los Angeles, also has copies of Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their "Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection". Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin, which is available at larger libraries.

ស្នាដៃដែលបានជ្រើសរើស
 Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1956–1961
 Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954
 Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941–1958, site of the largest collection of the architect's work
 Dana-Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902
 Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905
 Dr. G.C. Stockman House, Mason City, Iowa, 1908
 Edward E. Boynton House, Rochester, New York, 1908
 Ennis House, Los Angeles, 1923
 Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Bear Run, Pennsylvania, 1935–1937
 First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947
 Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1909
 Frank Thomas House, Oak Park, Illinois, 1901
 Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964
 Graycliff. Derby, New York, 1926
 First Jacobs House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1936–1937
 Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937
 Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, 1919–1921
 Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya, Japan, 1976)
 Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936
 Kenneth Laurent House, the only home Wright designed to be handicapped accessible
 Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956
 Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 (demolished, 1950)
 Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957–1966
 Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960
 Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929)
 Clubhouse at the Nakoma Golf Resort, Plumas County, California, designed in 1923; opened in 2000
 Park Inn Hotel, the last standing Wright designed hotel, Mason City, Iowa, 1910
 Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956
 Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909
 R.W. Lindholm Service Station, Cloquet, Minnesota, 1958
 Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1956–1959
 Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 & 1925
 Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937
 The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt)
 Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904
 Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s
 V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, 1948
 Westhope (Richard Lloyd Jones Residence, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1929
 William H. Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894
 Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener's Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901

ឯកសារយោង

Further reading

Wright's philosophy
 Hoffmann, Donald. Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-486-28364-X
 Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses. San Francisco: Promegranate Artbooks, 1994. ISBN 1-56640-998-5
 McCarter, Robert (ed.). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. ISBN 1-878271-26-1
 Meehan, Patrick, ed. Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1987. ISBN 0-471-84509-4
 Nisbet, Earl. Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright. Petaluma, Calif.: Meridian Press, 2006. ISBN 0-9778951-0-6
 Rosenbaum, Alvin. Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America. Washington, DC: Preservation Press, 1993. ISBN 0-89133-201-4
 Russell, Virginia L. "You Dear Old Prima Donna: The Letters of Frank Lloyd Wright and Jens Jensen", Landscape Journal, 20.2 (2001): 141-155.
 Sergeant, John. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: The Case for Organic Architecture. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984. ISBN 0-8230-7178-2
 Treiber, Daniel. Frank Lloyd Wright. 2nd ed. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2008. ISBN 978-3-7643-8697-9
 Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1943.
 Wright, Frank Lloyd. "In the Cause of Architecture", Architectural Record, March 1908. Reprinted in Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1: 1894–1930. New York: Rizzoli, 1992. ISBN 0-8478-1546-3
 Wright, Frank Lloyd. The Natural House. New York: Horizon Press, 1954.

Biographies
 Farr, Finis. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Scribner, 1961.
 Friedland, Roger and Harold Zellman. The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship. New York: Regan Books, 2006. ISBN 0-06-039388-2
 Gill, Brendan. Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Putnam, 1987. ISBN 0-399-13232-5
 Huxtable, Ada Louise. Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Lipper/Viking, 2004. ISBN 0-670-03342-1
 Secrest, Meryle. Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography. New York: Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0-394-56436-7
 Twombly, Robert C. Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1979. ISBN 0-471-03400-2
 Wright, Iovanna Lloyd. Architecture: Man in Possession of His Earth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962.

Surveys of Wright's work
 Aguar, Charles and Berdeana Aguar. Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. ISBN 0-07-140953-X
 Blake, Peter. Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1964.
 Fell, Derek. The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Frances Lincoln, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7112-2967-9
 Heinz, Thomas A. Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999. ISBN 0-8101-2244-8
 Hildebrand, Grant. The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991. ISBN 0-295-97005-7
 Larkin, David and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. Frank Lloyd Wright: The Masterworks. New York: Rizzoli, 1993. ISBN 0-8478-1715-6
 Levine, Neil. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-691-03371-4
 Lind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995. ISBN 0-87654-468-5
 McCarter, Robert. Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7148-3148-4
 Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2004. ISBN 3-8228-2757-6
 Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks and Peter Gössel (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: The Complete Works. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2009. ISBN 978-3-8228-5770-0
 Riley, Terence and Peter Reed (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994. ISBN 0-87070-642-X
 Smith, Kathryn. Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Master Architect. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. ISBN 0-7892-0287-5
 Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. ISBN 0-226-77620-4
 Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 0-226-77621-2

Selected books about specific Wright projects
 Toker, Franklin. Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House. New York: Alford A. Knopf, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4026-4
 Whiting, Henry, II. At Nature's Edge: Frank Lloyd Wright's Artist Studio. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87480-877-3

តំណភ្ជាប់ខាងក្រៅ
 Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Official Website
 The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives (The Museum of Modern Art | Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York)
 Frank Lloyd Wright, Wisconsin Historical Society
 Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy
 Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House
 Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture
 Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program
 Frank Lloyd Wright Original Letters Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 Frank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources
 Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932
 Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey
 Complete list of Wright buildings by location
 Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture
 Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from The New York Review of Books
 Article on the 50th anniversary of Wright's only automobile service station
 Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec
 Frank Lloyd Wright  interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957
 Interactive Map of Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings, created in the Harvard WorldMap Platform
 Map of the Frank Lloyd Wright works - Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space
 Appearance on What's My Line?, June 3, 1956
 Fay Jones and Frank Lloyd Wright: Organic Architecture Comes to Arkansas digital exhibit, University of Arkansas Libraries
 Chauncey L. and Johanna Griggs Residence, Tacoma Lakewood Washington 1945

ហ្វ្រេង្ស ផ្លយរ៉ាយស៍


Arterial blood is the oxygenated blood in the circulatory system found in the pulmonary vein, the left chambers of the heart, and in the arteries. It is bright red in color, while venous blood is dark red in color (but looks purple through the translucent skin). It is the contralateral term to venous blood.

Framed in the cardiac cycle, often historically accredited to the Wiggers diagram, arterial blood has just passed through the lungs and is ready to boost oxygen to sustain the peripheral organs. The essential difference between venous and arterial blood is the curve of the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin. The difference in the oxygen content of the blood between the arterial blood and the venous blood is known as the arteriovenous oxygen difference.

See also
 Acidosis
 Alkalosis
 Arterial blood gas
 Chemical equilibrium
 Oxygen saturation
 pH
 pKa

References

Blood
Hematology

Arterial blood


Recognition, or recognize, is when humans or animals know something about the surrounding objects or beings. For example, an animal might recognize another animal as an enemy or friend, dangerous or harmless. These cognitive acts relate to the beings' perception, memory, learning, and experience.

Pattern recognition in software

In computer programs, pattern recognition tries to teach computers to perceive and recognize things as accurately as possible, how people do it or better. Pattern recognition by computers distinguishes objects, images, fingerprints, writing, audio, faces and other things automatically.

Politics

When a country recognizes another country, it means that the first country believes that the second country is legal and has a right to be a country.
Countries that recognize each other have diplomatic relations.  That means they send diplomats to each other, and make different kinds of agreements, about trade, international laws and other things.

Software
Politics
Cognition

Recognition


Clyde Snow (January 7, 1928 – May 16, 2014) was an American forensic anthropologist. Some of his skeletal confirmations include John F. Kennedy, victims of John Wayne Gacy, King Tutankhamun, victims of the Oklahoma City bombing, and Nazi doctor Josef Mengele.

Biography
Snow was born in Fort Worth, Texas in 1928.  He started his higher education at the New Mexico Military Institute where he earned an Associated Degree. He then flunked out of Southern Methodist University. After that, he attended Eastern New Mexico University to earn his Bachelor's Degree. His master's degree in Zoology was then earned at Texas Technical University. Finally, he attended University of Arizona and achieved his Ph.D. in Anthropology in 1967.

In 1968, Snow became the head of the department of Forensic Anthropology at Civil Aeromedical Institute. On September 25, 1978, Snow testified before the House Select Committee on Assassinations about various forensic aspects of the Kennedy assassination. He denied that E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis were among the Three tramps found in a railroad car behind the Grassy Knoll. However, he also testified "[Hunt] has rather protruding ears and in later photographs, they have been brought back closer to his head" with plastic surgery. By 1972, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences recognized forensic work as a specialty of anthropology.

Since 1979, Snow turned his focus to forensics exclusively. He worked with various human rights groups and brought to attention mass graves of civilians in Argentina, and spent five years training many of the founding members of the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense, EAAF). So far, at least five officers in Argentina were convicted partially due to Snow's work in the mass graves. The success of this mission led to the creation of Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Team as well when survivors of the Guatemalan Civil War sought his help in 1991.

In 1991, Snow traveled to San Vicente, Bolivia, to search for the remains of the American outlaws Butch Cassidy (Robert Leroy Parker) and the Sundance Kid (Harry Alonzo Longabaugh). However, the exact location of the grave was only known with an accuracy of several yards, and the grave excavated was found to contain the remains of a German miner named Gustav Zimmer. No remains were found whose DNA matched that of Parker and Longabaugh's families. The search was the subject of the British documentary Wanted - Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, first shown April 22, 1993 in Channel 4's True Stories series.

In 1997, Snow worked on mass graves found in the territory of the former Yugoslavia. Snow also participated in a re-enactment of an excavation of Butch Masters in Illinois that aired on The Discovery Channel episode Science Detectives on Discover Magazine.

In 2004, Snow appeared on the Unsolved History documentary television series episode Hunting Nazis'' on The Discovery Channel.

As of 2005, Snow lived with his wife near Oklahoma City. He continued teaching at the University of Oklahoma, and he also did occasional lectures for Forensic Science organizations and law enforcement personnel.

Snow died May 16, 2014, aged 86, in Norman, Oklahoma. In accordance with his wishes, his ashes were scattered in Sector 134 of Avellaneda Cemetery in Buenos Aires, in Guatemala, and in Iraqi Kurdistan.

References

External links
 Minnesota State University biography
 History of The Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense, EAAF)

Forensic anthropologists
People from Fort Worth, Texas
Southern Methodist University alumni
Eastern New Mexico University alumni
University of Arizona alumni
1928 births
2014 deaths
Burials in Argentina
Burials in Guatemala
Burials in Iraq

Clyde Snow


Grammatical number is the way numbers and counting are fitted into sentences.

Most languages have ways to express differences of number.
 That apple on the table is fresh.
 Those two apples on the table are fresh.

Common categories of grammatical number are singular (one) or plural (not one). Some languages, also have a notion of dual, for two, or of paucal, for "a few".

Some languages (like Chinese) do not have the concept of grammatical number, and numbers or other quantifiers are used if necessary. Finally, there may be words that have only one form or are not countable.

Advanced sources
Greenberg, Joseph H 1972. Numeral classifiers and substantival number: problems in the genesis of a linguistic type. Working Papers on Language Universals 9, Stanford University, pp. 1–39.
Laycock, Henry 2005. Mass nouns, count nouns and non-count nouns. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.

References

Linguistics

Grammatical number


Northern Europe is the northern part of  the  European continent. Most people see the following states as part of it:
 The Nordic countries, including Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden, as well as Åland, the Faroe Islands and occasionally Karelia and the Kola Peninsula.
 Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands (but see also Western Europe)
 The Baltic states, i.e. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
 Areas bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, e.g. north-western Russia, northern Poland (most often referred to as Eastern Europe), the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and northern Germany.

Europe, the planet's 6th largest continent, includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies, islands and territories.

Before the 19th century, the term 'Nordic' or 'Northern' was commonly used to mean Northern Europe in a sense that included the Nordic countries, European Russia, the Baltic countries (at that time Livonia and Courland) and Greenland.

In earlier eras, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region (i.e. the Roman Empire), everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including Germany, the Low Countries, and Austria. In medieval times, the term (Ultima) Thule was used to mean a semi-mythical place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent.

In a European Union context, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are often seen as belonging to a Northern group.

References

Regions of Europe

Northern Europe


Cognitive dissonance is a concept in social psychology. It is the discomfort felt by a person who holds conflicting ideas, beliefs or values  at the same time. In this state, people may feel surprise, dread, guilt, anger, or embarrassment. Reacting to this unpleasant state, people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance was developed to predict and explain how people reacted to this situation.

Cognitive dissonance theory says that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a process he termed "dissonance reduction". This can be got in one of three ways:
lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors,
adding consonant elements, or
changing one of the dissonant factors. This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even destructive behavior.

People in dissonance may change their feelings, thoughts or memories so they are less in conflict. However, often they do not, and instead set out to manipulate the social scene around them so that their embarrassment is less. For example, they may try to explain away the dissonance with a wider theory or they may intensify their efforts at persuasion and publicity so that others join them in their beliefs.

Case study
Festinger's book When Prophecy Fails is the story of how a cult leader reacted when her prophecy of doom failed.

Festinger and his associates read an interesting item in their local newspaper: "Prophecy from planet Clarion call to city: flee that flood". The prophecy came from Dorothy Martin (1900–1992), a Chicago housewife who experimented with automatic writing. She had previously been involved with L. Ron Hubbard's Dianetics movement, and her cult incorporated ideas from what was to become Scientology.

The group of believers had taken steps which showed their commitment to the belief. They had left jobs, college, and spouses, and had given away money and possessions. They prepared for their departure on a flying saucer, which was to rescue the group of true believers. She claimed to have received a message from a fictional planet named Clarion. These messages revealed that the world would end in a great flood before dawn on December 21, 1954.

After the failure of the prediction, Dorothy Martin left Chicago after being threatened with arrest and involuntary commitment. She later founded the Association of Sananda and Sanat Kumara. Under the name 'Sister Thedra', she continued to practice channeling and to participate in contactee groups until her death in 1992. The Association is active to this day.

Sequence of events
Festinger and his colleagues infiltrated Martin's group and reported the following sequence of events:
Before December 20. The group shuns publicity. Interviews are given only grudgingly. Access to her house is only for those who can convince the group that they are true believers. The group evolves a belief system—provided by the automatic writing from the planet Clarion—to explain the details of the cataclysm, the reason for its occurrence, and the manner in which the group would be saved from the disaster.
December 20. The group expects a visitor from outer space to call upon them at midnight and to escort them to a waiting spacecraft. As instructed, the group goes to great lengths to remove all metallic items from their persons. As midnight approaches, zippers, bra straps, and other objects are discarded. The group waits.
12:05 A.M., December 21. No visitor. Someone in the group notices that another clock in the room shows 11:55. The group agrees that it is not yet midnight.
12:10 A.M. The second clock strikes midnight. Still no visitor. The group sits in stunned silence. The cataclysm itself is no more than seven hours away.
4:00 A.M. The group has been sitting in stunned silence. A few attempts at finding explanations have failed. One member begins to cry.
4:45 A.M. Another message by automatic writing is sent to Martin. It states, in effect, that the God of Earth has decided to spare the planet from destruction. The cataclysm has been called off: "The little group, sitting all night long, had spread so much light that God had saved the world from destruction".
Afternoon, December 21. Newspapers are called; interviews are sought. In a reversal of its previous distaste for publicity, the group begins an urgent campaign to spread its message to as broad an audience as possible.

The experiences supported the idea that the group did have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. In fact, events had proved conclusively the falsehood of their ideas, but the group rearranged their explanations to give themselves the least psychological pain.

References

Cognition

Cognitive dissonance


The Sorbian languages are Slavic languages, a branch of the Indo-European languages.

They are the Sorbs' native languages, who are a Slavic minority in eastern Germany. The languages used to be known as Wendish or Lusatian.

There are two languages: Upper Sorbian (hornjoserbsce), spoken by about 40,000 people in Saxony, and Lower Sorbian (dolnoserbski), spoken by about 10,000 people in Brandenburg. Both languages are spoken is an area known as Lusatia (Łužica in Upper Sorbian, Łužyca in Lower Sorbian and Lausitz in German).

In Germany, Upper and Lower Sorbian are officially recognized and protected as minority languages by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In the home areas of the Sorbs, both languages are officially equal to German.

The city of Bautzen, Upper Lusatia, is the centre of Upper Sorbian culture. Bilingual signs can be seen around the city, including the name of the city, "Bautzen/Budyšin".

The city of Cottbus (Chóśebuz) is considered the cultural centre of Lower Sorbian. Cottbuss also has bilingual signs.

Sorbian is also spoken in the small Sorbian ("Wendish") settlement of Serbin in Lee County, Texas. Until recently newspapers were published in Sorbian there. The local dialect has been heavily influenced by surrounding speakers of German and English.

American and Australian communities often prefer to call themselves "Wends" or "Wendish" since think that "Sorb" and "Sorbian" are bad words.

Other websites
Sorbian language tree
Euromosaic information page

Slavic languages
Sorbs
Languages of Germany

Sorbian languages