The Tanya () is an early work of Hasidic philosophy, by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of Chabad Hasidism, first published in 1796.  Its formal title is  Likkutei Amarim (, Hebrew, "collection of statements"), but is more commonly known by its first Hebrew word tanya, which means "it has been taught", where he refers to a baraita section in "Niddah", at the end of chapter 3, 30b. Tanya is composed of five sections that define Hasidic mystical psychology and theology as a handbook for daily spiritual life in Jewish observance.

The Tanya is the main work of the Chabad philosophy and the Chabad approach to Hasidic mysticism, as it defines its general interpretation and method. The subsequent extensive library of the Chabad school, authored by successive leaders, builds upon the approach of the Tanya. Chabad differed from "Mainstream Hasidism" in its search for philosophical investigation and intellectual analysis of Hasidic Torah exegesis. This emphasised the mind as the route to internalising Hasidic mystical dveikus (emotional fervour), in contrast to general Hasidism's creative enthusiasm in faith. As a consequence, Chabad Hasidic writings are typically characterised by their systematic intellectual structure, while other classic texts of general Hasidic mysticism are usually more compiled or anecdotal in nature.

As one of the founding figures of Hasidic mysticism, Schneur Zalman and his approach in the Tanya are venerated by other Hasidic schools, although they tend to avoid its meditative methods. In Chabad, it is called "the Written Torah of Hasidus", with the many subsequent Chabad writings being relatively "Oral Torah" explanation. In it, Schneur Zalman brings the new interpretations of Jewish mysticism by the Baal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidism, into philosophical articulation and definition. This intellectual form synthesises Hasidic Divine Omnipresence and Jewish soulfulness with other historical components of Rabbinic literature, embodied in the Talmud, Medieval philosophy, Musar (ethical) literature and Lurianic Kabbalah. The Tanya has therefore been seen in Chabad as the defining Hasidic text, and a subsequent stage of Jewish mystical evolution.

Background to the Chabad approach

The Tanya deals with Jewish spirituality, psychology and theology from the point of view of Hasidic philosophy and its inner explanations of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism). It offers advice for each individual on how to serve God in their daily life.

Early Hasidic movement
The first few generations of the Hasidic movement established the various approaches of its different schools. The third generation great students of Dov Ber of Mezeritch, who spread out across Eastern Europe, became the leaders of Hasidism in Ukraine, Poland, Hungary and Russia. Among them, Schneur Zalman articulated a different approach to Hasidic philosophy from general Hasidism. The founding Hasidic mysticism of the Baal Shem Tov, and subsequent Hasidic Masters, emphasised the emotions of dveikus to cleave to the Omnipresent Divine. The intellectual ("Chabad") approach of Schneur Zalman, continued by successive Lubavitch Rebbes, emphasised the mind as the route to the inner heart. The Chabad school requires knowledge of Godliness, drawn from Hasidic philosophy, to establish Hasidic mystical faith. This enabled Schneur Zalman to take Hasidus to Lithuanian Jews from nearby White Russia, and aroused the opposition of their early leaders. In this, Chabad is a separate offshoot of general Hasidism, and to its students is the profound fulfillment of systematically articulating its inner depths. Therefore, in Chabad, the Baal Shem Tov and Schneur Zalman, who share the same birthday, are called the "two great luminaries" (after Genesis 1:16, according to the Midrashic account, before the moon was diminished), representing heart and mind.

Kabbalah and Hasidism
The historical development of Kabbalah, from the 12th century, and its new formulations in the 16th century, explained the subtle aspects and categories of the traditional system of Jewish metaphysics. Hasidic spirituality left aside the abstract focus of Kabbalah on the Spiritual Realms, to look at its inner meaning and soul as it relates to man in this World. The founder of Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov, brought the Kabbalistic idea of Omnipresent Divine immanence in Creation into daily Jewish worship of the common folk. This enabled the popularisation of Kabbalah by relating it to the natural psychological perception and emotional dveikus (fervour) of man. The mystical dimension of Judaism became accessible and tangible to the whole community. Outwardly this was expressed in new veneration of sincerity, emphasis on prayer and deeds of loving-kindness. The unlettered Jewish folk were cherished and encouraged in their sincere simplicity, while the elite scholars sought to emulate their negation of ego through study of Hasidic exegetical thought. Hagiographic storytelling about Hasidic Masters captured the mystical charisma of the tzaddik. The inner dimension of this mystical revival of Judaism was expressed by the profound new depth of interpretation of Jewish mysticism in Hasidic philosophy. Great scholars also followed the Baal Shem Tov as they saw the profound meanings of his new teachings. The Baal Shem Tov's successor Dov Ber of Mezeritch became the architect of the Hasidic movement, and explained to his close circle of disciples the underlying meanings of the Baal Shem Tov's explanations, parables and stories.

Chabad
Mind versus heart. Among Dov Ber's disciples, Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi formed Hasidic philosophy into a profound intellectual system, called "Chabad" after the Kabbalistic terms for the intellect, that differs from mainstream Hasidic emotional approaches to mystical faith. This seeks inward Jewish observance, while downplaying charismatic Hasidic enthusiasm, that it sees as external. The mysticism of Schneur Zalman did not seek cold intellectual investigation. In common with all of Hasidism, it awakens joy and negation of self-awareness, from the Jew's perception of the Divine in all things. But in Chabad, later to be called after its Russian village of Lubavitch, external emotional expression is seen as superficial if devoid of inner contemplation. In this vein, it is related that the second Lubavitch Rebbe, Dov Ber Schneuri, would pray motionless for hours. Emotional expression was replaced with inner, hidden emotional ecstasy from his intellectual contemplation of Hasidic philosophy during prayer. At the end of praying, his hat and clothing would be soaked in perspiration. Typically, he wrote one of the most personal mystical accounts in Judaism, his "Tract on Ecstasy", that instructs the Chabad follower in the levels of contemplation. This explains his father's concept of the Chabad articulation of Hasidism. While the Baal Shem Tov stressed the heart, Schneur Zalman stressed the mind, but it was a warm, fiery mystical intellectualism.

Intellect versus faith. By giving Hasidus philosophical investigation, the Chabad school explained the inner meanings of the "Torah of the Baal Shem Tov". Its systematic investigation enables the mind to grasp and internalize the transcendent spirituality of mainstream Hasidism. If the mind can bring the soul of Hasidism into understanding and knowledge through logic, then its effects on the person can be more inward. The classic writings of other Hasidic schools also relate the inner mysticism of Hasidic philosophy to the perception of each person. The aim of the Hasidic movement is to offer the Jewish mystical tradition in a new, internal form that speaks to every person. This would awaken spiritual awareness and feeling of God, through understanding of its mystical thought. Mainstream Hasidism relates this mystical revival through charismatic leadership and understanding based faith. The path of Schneur Zalman differs from other Hasidism, as it seeks to approach the heart through the development of the mind. Chabad writings of each generation of its dynasty, develop this intellectual explanation of Hasidic mystical ideas, into successively greater and more accessible reach. In recent times the last two Rebbes expressed the spiritual warmth of Chabad in terms of daily reality, language and relevance, in the Yiddish translations and memoires of Yosef Yitzchak Schneersohn, and especially the Likkutei Sichos of Menachem Mendel Schneerson.

Chabad Hasidus and other dimensions of Jewish thought. Because the approach of Chabad explains Hasidus in intellectual form, it can incorporate into its explanation the other aspects of historical Jewish thought. Complimentary or initially contradictory explanations of Jewish thought from Rabbinic Judaism, Jewish philosophy and Kabbalah can become synthesised into one unity. It can connect the different disciplines of mysticism (Kabbalah) and Jewish philosophy (Hakira), by relating to a higher, essential unity in Divinity, that harmonises diverse ideas. This approaches classic questions of theology from a different route than Hakira. The Jewish philosophers of the Middle Ages, such as Maimonides, reconciled Judaism with Greek philosophy. Their explanations of the nature of the Divine, are related from man's independent understanding from first principles. Hasidic thought looks to the inner meaning of Kabbalah, a conceptual system of metaphysics from mystical encounters with revelation. The insights it brings to theological questions, brought out in its Chabad explanation, are related from a mystical, higher reality "from above". When Hasidic thought addresses traditional questions, such as Divine Providence, immanence and transcendence, it offers "Inner Torah" explanations of spirituality, that can also be harmonised with the explanations of the "Revealed Torah". It is the ability of Hasidic thought to bring the abstract, esoteric systems of Kabbalah into conscious perception and mystical faith, by relating them to man's inner psychological awareness. The ideal of the Chabad approach is to articulate this spiritual perception in terms of man's understanding and knowledge.

Structure
According to legend, Rabbi Shneur Zalman published his Likkutei Amarim anonymously in 1797. Later editions incorporated additional writings by Shneur Zalman. The latest version of this work, dating from 1814, consists of five parts:

 Sefer shel Beinonim ("The Book of the Average Men"). This book is a Hasidic guide to the psychological drama of daily Jewish spiritual life. It describes how contemplating the mystical greatness of the Creator and the union that a Jew has with Him through the Torah's commandments, can achieve the love and fear of God necessary for sincere worship. This approach is the fundamental theme of Chabad teaching: to achieve emotional refinement during prayer and Jewish observance. However, in the path offered, this emotion must stem from intellectual understanding of Hasidic mysticism. That is why this approach and the movement are called Chabad, after the three intellectual Sephirot (God's emanations in Kabbalah): Chochmah (Wisdom), Binah (Understanding), Da'at (Knowledge). A Hasidic psychology of a Jew's two souls is investigated, the Divine soul and the Natural soul. The Divine soul is a true "part of God", a historic emphasis in Jewish thought, though based on earlier sources. The book's guidance is for the intermediate person who is tempted by natural instincts, while the service of the true tzaddik in mystical thought is transcendent and only involved with holiness.
 Sha'ar ha-Yichud ve'ha'Emunah ("The Gateway of Unity and Belief"). This book outlines the theological background to the first section's Hasidic life. It is an investigation of the meaning of God's Unity in Hasidism. The Panentheism (all creation takes place "within God") taught by the Baal Shem Tov is systematically articulated in Kabbalistic philosophy. God is all, but all is not God. Two levels of God's Unity are both paradoxically true, based on the Kabbalistic doctrine of the Tzimtzum. In the "Lower Unity" all Creation is nullified to God. In the "Higher Unity", Creation is an acosmic illusion as only God truly exists. The apparent plurality in Creation is only an effect of the concealments of Divinity. The origin of everything is nullification within the Divine Unity.
 Iggeret HaTeshuvah ("Letter of Repentance"). This gives the Hasidic interpretation and Chabad method of Teshuvah (Return to God). This section is also known as the "Tanya Katan" ("Brief Tanya") as it is the gateway to all personal spiritual redemption. It describes the mystical return that not only leads to forgiveness for the sins but can fully enable the repenting person to be elevated to a spiritual place that is higher than where they were before the sin. In Hasidism any spiritual descent is only a preparation for a higher ascent. Two levels of Teshuvah are described, based on their meanings in Kabbalah. The "Lower Teshuvah" redeems sin. The "Higher Teshuvah" brings constant elevation unconnected to sin. Because of this, the founder of Hasidism taught that even saintly tzadikim are able to be inspired to do Teshuvah.
 Iggeret HaKodesh ("Letter of Holiness"). This section was not published until 1814, after Rabbi Shneur Zalman's passing. It is a collection of letters which the author wrote to his disciples and different Hasidic communities, in which he talked about mystical aspects of certain commandments, such as charity, Torah study, or in general all commandments concerned with physical deed. Today it is used as a source of certain in-depth concepts of the "Written Hasidism" not concerned specifically with emotion felt during service or repentance. It is a more esoteric and detailed work of Kabbalistic commentary than the previous sections. Schematically it would relate to a person who had internalised the fundamental first three sections, and could progress higher.
 Kuntres Acharon ("Last Thesis"). This section was not published until 1814, after Rabbi Shneur Zalman's passing. It is also a series of letters in which the author resolved certain seeming controversies in Kabbalah. This section is an even more in-depth investigation of profound mystical notions than the previous one. Like the fourth section, it can be seen as an addition to the first three fundamental sections.

In general, the first book is a universal Jewish guidebook to avodah, everyday Divine service, through Schneur Zalman's innovative system, applying Jewish mysticism step-by-step to the internal drama of human psychology. As a formative approach guidebook in Judaism, the English translator of the first section, in his introduction, compares its position with Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, but contrasts the spiritual guidance aim of Tanya with the philosophical aim of Maimonides. The second section's philosophical exposition of Hasidic mystical Panentheism is the underlying foundation for contemplation methods in the first part, and gives the theoretical definition of Hasidism's theology of God. The third section guides individuals in a Habad Hasidic approach to repentance, to be able to prepare more deeply for the first part's guidance. The last two added sections give more complicated and in-depth Hasidic exposition of Kabbalistic concepts, the author uniting abstract ideas with the importance of everyday service and an emotion that must accompany it. These discourses are similar to the exegetical commentaries of Schneur Zalman in his other works, though here they sometimes take the form of letters to his followers, with more direct advice.

Subject matter
Most of the work's first part, "The Book of the Average Man", the beinoni, serves as a fundamental and basic guide to the spiritual service of God.

Unlike other early Hasidic works, this book is not a collection of sermons or stories, but rather a systematic exposition of Shneur Zalman's philosophy. Lubavitcher Hasidim are enjoined to study from this work each day as part of Chitas - an acronym for Chumash, Tehillim and Tanya. The Rebbes of Chabad taught that it is a sacred duty to publish and distribute this book as widely as possible.

The Tanya seeks to demonstrate to the "average" Jewish man or woman that knowledge of God is there for the taking, that spiritual growth to ever higher levels is real and imminent, if one is willing to engage in the struggle. Although many view the Tanya as a work of explanation on Kabbalah or Jewish mysticism, its approbations make clear that Tanya is first and foremost a book of advice in the practical service of God.

Levels of divine service
The Tanya describes five levels:
The complete tzaddik ("righteous person") has transformed his animal soul completely, to the point that it is able to reach intense Godly delight in its connection to Godliness, and is averse to all worldly pleasures.
The incomplete tzaddik no longer desires evil in a way that will be externally expressed, even on the level of thought; however, a minute amount of desire for very subtle evil remains.
The beinoni (lit. "intermediate one") possesses an animal soul that still desires evil, but he succeeds at constantly restraining himself from sin in action, speech, and even thought; this, however, requires ongoing tension and struggle. This struggle is not simply the confrontation between good and evil, but rather the ongoing encounter between one's two souls - the animal and the divine - the soul that draws downward toward the earth, and the soul that aspires upward toward Hashem.
The incomplete rasha ("evil person") will commit sins, however depending on the level of good in the incomplete rasha he will either repent or merely thoughts of repentance will enter his thoughts.
The complete rasha has sinned so frequently that none of his thought, speech, or action are controlled by the divine soul (though it remains in an "external" state of makkif attached to him), and he is exclusively controlled by his animal soul.

Jewish criticism

The Tanya's theory of two souls, and the statement that the souls of the Gentile populace of the world are different from those of Jewish souls (originating from the realm of evil), have been controversial.
Various writers have asserted that this idea has the potential to either develop into or to provide support for racism  or that it endorses a kind of "metaphysical racism",.

The description in the Tanya of soul differences follows on from a particularist-universalist debate in Judaism concerning the meaning of Jews as a chosen people. Among Medieval Jewish philosophy, Yehudah Halevi follows a proto-kabbalistic approach that distinguishes Jewish and Gentile souls, while Maimonides describes a universalist rationalist approach. Kabbalistic mysticism follows Halevi, developed in Hasidism. However, non-literalist, universalist readings have been found among Kabbalists and Hasidim. In normative Chabad, righteous Gentiles have souls similar in Divine receptivity to Jewish souls, while Jews can be distanced from Divine consciousness. Consequently, the Tanya has been read as describing two universal levels of psychological consciousness.

Exposition
In Chabad, the Tanya is said to be the Written Torah of Hasidic philosophy, for it is the first work of Hasidic philosophy recorded by its own author, in contrast to the works of the Ba'al Shem Tov and the Maggid of Mezritch, whose words were transcribed by their disciples. This implies that the teachings of Hasidic philosophy in general are all an exposition of the Tanya, just as the Torah teaches that the entire purpose of the Oral Torah is to elucidate the Written Torah.

In his preface to the Tanya, the author writes that anyone with questions about the meaning or application of the Tanya'''s guidance should approach "the great ones in his city." In Chabad Hasidic parlance such a guide is known as a Mashpia. Such a person is trained by his predecessors in correct application of the Tanya.

Many works have been written explaining the Tanya, in particular: the Lubavitcher Rebbe's Reshimos on the Tanya, HaLekach VehaLibuv, Shiu'rim BeSefer HaTanya (in its English translation, known as  "Lessons in Tanya"), Maskil Le'Eisan, Biurei Ha'Tanya, and "Opening The Tanya," "Learning the Tanya," and "Understanding the Tanya" by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

The Tanya had a great influence upon Rabbi Kalonymus Kalman Shapira of Piaseczno who quotes it many times in his works. In his "Mevo HaShearim" he contrasts the approach of the Tanya to that of Karliner Hasidism.

Aphorisms
"Our understanding in Tanya is like a goat looking at the moon"--Rabbi Sholom Dovber Schneersohn.

"It is a wonder that Schneur Zalman of Liadi has managed to put such a great God into such a small book"--Rabbi Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev

"With the Tanya the Jewish people will go to greet the Messiah"--Rabbi Zusha of Hanipol

See also
 Devekut
 Jewish meditation
 Judah Loew ben Bezalel articulated Kabbalah in philosophical forms
 Sholom Dovber Schneersohn advocated the use of pilpul in expounding Hasidic thought
 Dovber Schneuri differentiated between general Hasidic emotional "enthusiasm" and the Habad ideal of intellectually formed "ecstasy"
 Shene luhoth ha-berit influenced Hasidism and is echoed in the Tanya
 Torah study #Study cycles

References

Further reading
 HaRav Shneur Zalman of Liadi, Tanya: Likutei Amarim: Sefer Shel Benonim'' (It was taught, Collected Sayings: Book of Intermediates) with added notes explaining the Mystical concepts by Rabbi Nissan Mindel PH.D.& Rabbi Ya'acov Immanuel Schochet, Bi-Lingual Hebrew-English edition, Kehot Publishing.com

External links
Watch Live Tanya Class
 Hitbonenut-Paths of the Tanya series - Dr. Yehiel Harari
Kabbalah and the Psychology of the Soul
The Sacred Writ of Hasidism: The Tanya and the Spiritual Vision of R. Shneur Zalman of Liady
Hebrew full-text
Tanya in translation with commentary (Lessons in Tanya)
Daily Tanya Study in Hebrew
Tanya Learning

 The printing of Tanya

3000+ copies of Tanya at the National Library of Israel

Chabad-Lubavitch texts
Hasidic literature
Jewish mystical texts
Jewish philosophical and ethical texts
Shneur Zalman of Liadi
Aramaic words and phrases
Kabbalistic words and phrases
Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings
Sifrei Kodesh

Tanya (Judaism)


José Maria Mendes Ribeiro Norton de Matos, GCTE, GCL (23 March 1867 in Ponte de Lima, Portugal – 3 January 1955 in Ponte de Lima) was a Portuguese general and politician.

1880s
After attending college in Braga, and attending the Escola Académica in Lisbon in 1880, Norton de Matos became part of the mathematics faculty at the University of Coimbra in 1884. He later went to military school and, in 1898, departed for Portuguese India. There, he began his career in colonial administration.

1910s–1920s
Norton de Matos' return to Portugal coincided with the transformation of the political system of Portugal into a republic. He was prepared to serve the new regime, and he soon became the chief of staff of the 5th military division. In 1912 he gained the post of governor-general of Angola. His leadership was considered instrumental in protecting the Portuguese colony from foreign powers such as Britain, Germany and France.

Norton de Matos was recalled to Portugal in 1915 due to a new political situation that arose in Portugal during the First World War and named Minister of War. In this capacity, he was responsible for organizing the Portuguese intervention on the Western Front.

In 1917, Norton de Matos exiled himself to London after disagreements with the new republic. He later returned and became the Portuguese delegate to the Paris Peace Conference, which led to the Treaty of Versailles. Later he returned to Angola as High Commissioner of the Republic, from 1921 to 1923, before becoming Portuguese ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1923 to 1926. In 1929 he was elected a Grand Master of the Masons in Portugal.

1940s
Norton de Matos returned to teaching, accepting a position as professor at the Instituto Superior Técnico, but was dismissed from his chair. He then became a leading opposition figure against the Salazar regime. In 1943, he was named to the National Council of Movement of National Antifascist Unity, or MUNAF, and on his 81st birthday, he was named the candidate of the opposition now united under the Movement of Democratic Unity (MUD, the successor organization to the MUNAF after 1945) for President in the election of 1949, under the dictatorial Estado Novo regime, while demanding freedom to advertise his message and the close inspection of votes. The regime refused these demands, and Norton de Matos withdrew from the election on 12 February 1949.

Despite his fierce opposition to Salazar, Norton de Matos also defended Portuguese colonialism but in a more progressive way. In 1953 he published a book titled "Africa Nossa" ("Our Africa") where he made an appeal for policies that would promote massive territorial occupation by Portuguese white settlers in Africa and at the same time support the gradual assimilation of the African populations.

Norton de Matos continued to lead a democratic opposition movement centered in the city of Oporto. He died in his hometown in 1955.

References

Portuguese colonial governors and administrators
Portuguese generals
1867 births
1955 deaths
Candidates for President of Portugal
Portuguese anti-fascists
Portuguese military personnel of World War I
Ambassadors of Portugal to the United Kingdom
Governors of Portuguese Angola
1910s in Angola
1940s in Angola
Portuguese Freemasons
People from Huambo
People from Ponte de Lima
20th-century Portuguese politicians
Portuguese people of British descent
Recipients of the Order of the Tower and Sword

José Norton de Matos


Lindisfarne (often called Holy Island), is a tidal island off the north-east coast of England. It is connected to the mainland of Northumberland by a causeway and is cut off twice a day by tides – something well described by Sir Walter Scott:

For with the flow and ebb, its style
Varies from continent to isle;
Dry shod o'er sands, twice every day,
The pilgrims to the shrine find way;
Twice every day the waves efface
Of staves and sandalled feet the trace.

According to the 2001 census it had a usual population of 162.

Nature reserve
Large parts of the island, and all of the adjacent inter-tidal area, are protected as Lindisfarne National Nature Reserve to help safeguard the internationally important wintering bird populations.
Grey seals are frequent visitors to the rocky bays at high tide.

Lindisfarne Priory

The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded by Irish-born Saint Aidan. He was brought from Iona off the west coast of Scotland to Northumbria around AD 635 by King Oswald of Northumbria. It became the base for Christian evangelising in the North of England and also sent a successful mission to Mercia. Monks from the community of Iona settled on the island.

Northumberland's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was a monk and later Abbot of the monastery, and his miracles and life are recorded by the Venerable Bede. Cuthbert later became Bishop of Lindisfarne.

In the early 700s the famous illuminated manuscript known as the Lindisfarne Gospels (an illustrated Latin copy of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) was made, probably at Lindisfarne.

Later, a monk named Aldred added an Anglo-Saxon translation to the Latin text. This made (late 10th century) the earliest surviving Old English copies of the Gospels.

History
In 793 a Viking raid on Lindisfarne scared many people throughout the Christian West. The year 793 is often called the beginning of the age of Viking raids. A very famous passage in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reads:

"In this year fierce, foreboding omens came over the land of Northumbria. There were excessive whirlwinds, lightning storms, and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky. These signs were followed by great famine, and on January 8th of the same year, the ravaging of heathen men destroyed God's church at Lindesfarne."

Eventually the monks fled the island. They took with them the body of St Cuthbert, which is now buried at Durham Cathedral. The priory was re-established in Norman times as a Benedictine house and continued until its dissolution in 1536 under Henry VIII. It is now a ruin in the care of English Heritage, who also run a museum/visitor centre nearby. The neighbouring parish church (see below) is still in use.

Lindisfarne also has the small castle, based on a Tudor fort and open to visitors.

J.M.W. Turner, Thomas Girtin and Charles Rennie Mackintosh all painted on Holy Island.

Other websites
The island's own web site
Lindisfarne Holy Island Safe Crossing Times 2006
Lindisfarne Holy Island Safe Crossing Times 2007
Photographs and Description

History of England

Tidal islands

Lindisfarne


Colossamite was an American math rock band based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. They were one of the most prominent exponents of the genre.

Colossamite's members included Nick Sakes (vocals, electric guitar), Ed Rodriguez (electric guitar), John Dieterich (electric guitar), and Chad Popple (drum set); the group had no bass player.  All except Sakes were transplanted Wisconsinites.

Like similar groups such as Zeni Geva, Craw, U.S. Maple, or Dazzling Killmen (this last group for which Sakes sang before relocating to Minnesota) Colossamite's music was almost hyperbolically brutal, chaotic, and rhythmically and formally complex.  Rather than relying, as most heavy metal bands, on guitar distortion to produce an intense sound, Colossamite instead often relied on very loud "clean" (undistorted) guitars, played dissonantly, in conjunction with vocals that were screamed rather than sung.  Songs featured jarring shifts in tempo and mood, with the overall sound being extremely raw, heavy and often slow.

Colossamite released three recordings on the Chicago-based Skin Graft Records and one split CD on Italy's Freeland Records.  The group, however, did not last long, perhaps because the extreme and uncompromising nature of its music (as with much contemporary classical music, which incidentally Colossamite's music resembles) was appreciated mainly by a niche audience, thus proving fairly uncommercial.

The group disbanded in 1998. Three of the four members now play in the experimental rock band Gorge Trio, based in Oakland, California.

Discography
1997 - All Lingo's Clamor EP (Skin Graft)
1998 - Gust's of Lead split 7-inch with White Tornado (Skin Graft)
1998 - Economy of Motion (Skin Graft)
1998 - Frisbee EP - came with a Colossamite frisbee (aka Camera Within EP, Skin Graft)

References

External links
 Colossamite page at Southern Records site
Colossomite photos from Skin Graft Records site]
Colossamite page
Interview about Colossamite (2003)
[ AllMusic entry for Colossamite]

Listening
Colossamite audio samples

Musical groups disestablished in 1998
Math rock groups
Rock music groups from Minnesota

Colossamite


Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (), kent universally as Paul von Hindenburg (; 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) wos a Generalfeldmarschall an statesman that commanded the German militar in the seicont hauf o Warld War I afore later bein electit Preses o the Weimar republic in 1925. He played a key role in the Nazi "Seizur o Pouer" in Januar 1933 whan, unner pressur, he appyntit Adolf Hitler chancellor o a "Govrenment o Naitional Concentration", even tho the Nazis war a minority in cabinet.

Hindenburg reteert frae the airmy for the first time in 1911, but wis recawed shortly efter the ootbreak o Warld War I in 1914. He first cam tae naitional attention at the age o 66 as the veector o the decisive Battle o Tannenberg in August 1914. Upon bein named Germany's Chief o the General Staff in August 1916, his popularity amang the German public increased exponentially tae the pynt o giein rise tae an undeemous personality cult. As Kaiser Wilhelm II increasinly delegatit his pouer as Supreme Warlaird tae the German heich command, Hindenburg an his depute Erich Ludendorff ultimately formed a de facto militar dictatorship that dominatit German policymakkin for the rest o the war.

Hindenburg reteert again in 1919, but returned tae public life in 1925 tae be electit the seicont Preses o Germany. In 1932, Hindenburg wis persuadit tae run for re-election as German Preses, awtho 84 year auld an in puir heal, acause he wis conseedert the anerly candidate that coud defeat Hitler. Hindenburg wis re-electit in a runaff. He wis opponed tae Hitler an wis a major player in the increasin poleetical instability in the Weimar Republic that endit wi Hitler's rise tae pouer. He dissowled the Reichstag twice in 1932 an feenally, unner pressur, greed tae appynt Hitler Chancellor o Germany in Januar 1933. Hindenburg did this tae satisfee Hitler's demands that he shoud play a pairt in the Weimar Govrenment, syne Hitler wis the leader o the Nazi pairty that haed wan the lairgest plurality in the November 1932 elections (na pairty achieved a majority). In Februar, he signed aff on the Reichstag Fire Decree, that suspendit various ceevil liberties, an in Mairch he signed the Enablin Act o 1933, that gae Hitler's regime arbitrar pouers. Hindenburg dee'd the follaein year, efter that Hitler declared himsel Führer, or supreme leader, that supersedit baith the Preses an Chancellor.

1847 births
1934 daiths

Fowk frae Poznań
Field marshals o Proushie
Field marshals o the German Empire
German militar personnel o the Franco-Proushie War
German militar personnel o Warld War I
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Recipients o the Airn Cross (1870), 1st cless
Grand Crosses o the Militar Order o Max Joseph
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Recipients o the Friedrich Cross
Grand Crosses o the Order o the Cross o Vytis
Grand Commanders o the Hoose Order o Hohenzollern
Grand Crosses o the Militar Order o St. Henry
Independent politeecians in Germany
Knichts o the Militar Merit Order (Württemberg)
Recipients o the Hoose an Merit Order o Peter Frederick Louis
Recipients o the Militar Merit Cross (Mecklenburg-Schwerin), 1st cless
Buirials at St. Elizabeth's Kirk, Marburg
Daiths frae buff cancer
Cancer daiths in Germany

Paul von Hindenburg


Deep Purple are a rock band started in Hertford, England, in 1968. Their best known song is "Smoke on the water" from the album "Machine Head". Some of their other albums like  "Deep Purple in Rock" where a great hit and was rated #1 in Germany. Deep Purple are one of the pioneering bands and founders of the hard rock and heavy metal genre.

History

Forming, and Mark I (1967–1969)
In 1967, a drummer called Chris Curtis was putting a new band together, where members would only be part of it when it suited them (or would "get on and off"). Because of this format, the band was called Roundabout. The first musicians to be hired were guitar player Ritchie Blackmore and keyboard player Jon Lord. Curtis behaved in a disorderly way, and so was fired from his own project. Blackmore and Lord wanted to continue, and so finished putting the band together themselves, with singer Rod Evans, bass player Nick Simper, and drummer Ian Paice. They renamed the band "Deep Purple" after a song Blackmore's mother liked, disliking the name "Roundabout".

This band lineup, known as "Mark I", released three albums, called "Shades of Deep Purple" (1968), "The Book of Taliesyn" (1968) and a self-titled (1969). They released a fairly popular single called "Hush", thought to be radio friendly in America, but, apart from that, did not have any success. Eventually, Blackmore and Lord decided to change the style of music the band would play from soft progressive rock to hard rock. While Ian Paice agreed to the change, they decided Evans and Simper would not fit this new style, and were let go from the band.

Mark II and success (1969–1973)
The band found a new singer called Ian Gillan and a new bass player called Roger Glover, forming Mark II. Jon Lord used to play in orchestras, and at this time, wanted to go back to them and base the Deep Purple sound around that. Whilst the band did perform as an orchestra (with new singer Ian Gillan writing lyrics) gaining the band some publicity, Gillan and Blackmore were not happy about the band being associated with orchestras, and were firm about Deep Purple being a hard rock band, though Jon Lord would write another orchestral piece for the band.

The band eventually got back to their plans of playing hard rock, and released "Deep Purple in Rock" in 1970, which became a big success. The famous album cover shows the band members' faces engraved into Mount Rushmore. The album itself had popular songs such as "Speed King" "Child in Time" and "Bloodsucker" (which was later re-recorded by the band in 1998). Critics and fans were pleased with new singer Ian Gillan's high pitched singing and screaming, and the album has since been considered a classic of the time, along with Black Sabbath's "Paranoid" and Led Zeppelin's "Led Zeppelin II".

The band followed "In Rock" up with "Fireball" in 1971, which did show hints of creative progressive rock but was still as heavy as the last album. Just weeks later, the band started working on the next album, which would become "Machine Head". An incident at a Frank Zappa & the Mothers of Invention concert would inspire the band to write their most popular song, "Smoke on the Water" which ended up on the album. "Machine Head", released in 1972, was another success and featured several other popular songs like "Highway Star" and "Space Truckin'".

Mark II's last album was "Who Do We Think We Are" in 1973, and it featured another hit song for the band, "Woman from Tokyo". Ian Gillan left the band that year as he did not like the band's touring and recording schedule, because at the time he wanted a break. He was also arguing with Ritchie Blackmore. Roger Glover left shortly after, also because of arguing with Blackmore.

Marks III and IV (1973–1976)
David Coverdale and Glenn Hughes were hired to replace Ian Gillan and Roger Glover. Glenn Hughes also had singing talent so it was decided he would act as lead singer on some of the band's songs too. In fact, since Hughes was hired first, the band considered performing as a 4-piece from then on, with Hughes singing full-time as well as playing bass.

Mark III's first album, "Burn", released in 1974, was successful and seemed to point a positive picture for the band's future without Gillan or Glover. The singing harmonies from Coverdale and Hughes had something of a blues and funk style to them. These styles were explored more on the band's next album, "Stormbringer", released later the same year. Ritchie Blackmore left after he became more unhappy with this style of music, feeling it was just "shoeshine music".

Although many fans were wondering if Deep Purple could carry on without Blackmore, who had been their highly regarded guitar player from their formation up until this point, they chose to continue, and hired American guitar player Tommy Bolin (forming mark IV). The next album, "Come Taste The Band", showed Bolin bringing a further funk influence into the band's music, having a more creative output than Blackmore did when he left the band.

Breakup, and other projects (1976–1984)
Ian Paice and Jon Lord, the last remaining founding members, agreed to end Deep Purple in 1976 after touring was over, but did not inform any other members. Shortly after, Coverdale informed them he was leaving the band, and only then did Jon Lord tell him: "David, there's no band to leave!" Glenn Hughes and Tommy Bolin were excited about the next Deep Purple album before they too were told that Paice and Lord had ended the band.

David Coverdale started a band of his own called Whitesnake, and Ian Paice and Jon Lord were members for a period of time. Ian Gillan had been performing in a solo band since he left in 1973. Ritchie Blackmore had started a band called Rainbow after leaving in 1975, releasing some successful albums with Ronnie James Dio as lead singer, who would carry on his fame in Black Sabbath and Dio (his own solo band). However, Tommy Bolin would only release one more solo album before he died in 1976, due to drug use.

Rod Evans put together a band and tried to perform as "Deep Purple", advertising it as a reunion although he was the only member who had ever been part of the band during its initial time together. Legal action was taken against him by the real representatives of Deep Purple, who sued him for using the band name without permission.

Mark II reformations and Marks V and VI (1984–1994)
A real Deep Purple reunion happened in 1984 when the Mark II lineup got back together, and released the album "Perfect Strangers" that same year. It sold very well and was well received from fans who were excited about the return of the band's iconic lineup. The songs "Knockin' At Your Back Door" and "Perfect Strangers" were popular. The band also enjoyed success on tour.

"The House of Blue Light" was the next album to come from the band, in 1987. Some fans noticed that the band sounded more "modern" on this album than before, which led to mixed opinions. A new version of the band's 1968 minor hit "Hush" was re-recorded in 1988 by the Mark II lineup to mark the 20th anniversary of Deep Purple. However, Ian and Ritchie started arguing again over the future of the band, and their differences had torn their working relationship too far apart, meaning Gillan was fired in 1989. Blackmore seemed to want to make the band sound more commercial (something he had tried to do with his band Rainbow back in the early 1980s). He hired Joe Lynn Turner (also a former Rainbow singer) to replace Gillan, and the Mark V band released "Slaves and Masters" in 1990.

However, the band's popularity was declining, and Turner was forced out in 1992 by the record company, who wanted the iconic lineup with Gillan back for the band's 25th anniversary. And so, the Mark II lineup released one more album together in 1993 called "The Battle Rages On...". However, during the tour, audience attendances were getting lower, and problems between band members arose, with Ritchie Blackmore walking out on the band for good. Joe Satriani filled in for the rest of the tour, but did not become a full-time member afterwards, due to his label commitments. The band decided to hire American Steve Morse in 1994.

Revival with Steve Morse and Jon Lord's retirement (Marks VII and VIII) (1994–present)
With Steve Morse in the band, Deep Purple enjoyed renewed success on tour. Ian Gillan was especially pleased that Ritchie Blackmore was no longer in the band, as he felt his departure saved them from a breakup. Since 1994, Deep Purple have enjoyed more success touring than with their studio albums, although their material written with Morse has received good reviews, with fans and critics feeling the band has more creativity again. Mark VII released two albums, "Purpendicular" (1996) and "Abandon" (1998), before Jon Lord retired in 2002, feeling the need to step down from the band's hard touring schedule. He was replaced by Don Airey.

Over the next few years, Deep Purple released two more albums, "Bananas" (2003) and "Rapture of the Deep" (2005). Their next tour, the "Rapture of the Deep tour" started in 2006, and finished in 2011, making it their longest tour to date. In 2012, Jon Lord died after battling cancer at the age of 71. The band continue to record as well as tour, and released their nineteenth and latest album, "Now What?!", in 2013.

Band members

Current
 Ian Gillan - Vocals (1969–1973, 1984–1989, 1992–present)
 Steve Morse - Guitar (1994–present)
 Roger Glover - Bass (1969–1973, 1984–present)
 Ian Paice - Drums (1968–1976, 1984–present)
 Don Airey - Keyboards, organ (2002–present)

Former
 Ritchie Blackmore - Guitar (1968–1975, 1984–1993)
 Jon Lord - Keyboards, organ, vocals (1968–1976, 1984–2002)
 David Coverdale - Vocals (1973–1976)
 Glenn Hughes - Bass, vocals (1973–1976)
 Rod Evans - Vocals (1968–1969)
 Tommy Bolin - Guitar, vocals (1975–1976)
 Joe Lynn Turner - Vocals (1989–1992)
 Joe Satriani - Guitar
 Nick Simper - Bass, vocals

Lineups
Ian Paice is the only member to be in all of the band's lineups.

Mark I (1) (1968–1969):

The first complete lineup of the band. They released a single that was fairly successful in America called "Hush". Rod Evans and Nick Simper were fired as the other members wanted to play heavier rock music and did not think they would play this style of music well.

 Lead singer - Rod Evans
 Guitar player - Ritchie Blackmore
 Bass player - Nick Simper
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark II (2) (1969–1973, 1984–1989, 1992–1993):

This is the band's most famous lineup, releasing albums such as "Deep Purple in Rock" and songs such as "Smoke on the Water". In 1973, Ian Gillan left the band as he did not like the band's touring and recording schedule, because at the time he wanted a break. He was also arguing with Ritchie Blackmore. Roger Glover left shortly after, also because of arguing with Blackmore.

In 1984, this lineup of the band got back together. However, Ian and Ritchie started arguing again over the future of the band, meaning Gillan was fired in 1989. He rejoined in 1992, bringing this band lineup together for the third time, although Blackmore left a year later, this time, for good.

 Lead singer - Ian Gillan
 Guitar player - Ritchie Blackmore
 Bass player - Roger Glover
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark III (3) (1973–1975):

David Coverdale and Glenn Hughes were hired to replace Ian Gillan and Roger Glover. Glenn Hughes also had singing talent so it was decided he would act as lead singer on some of the band's songs too. Ritchie Blackmore left after he became more unhappy with the style of music of the band, which was more funk rock at this time.

 Lead singer - David Coverdale
 Guitar player - Ritchie Blackmore
 Bass player - Glenn Hughes (also occasional lead singer)
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark IV (4) (1975–1976):

After making the hard decision to carry the band on without Blackmore, the band hired American guitar player Tommy Bolin and carried on the funk-rock music style Blackmore was unhappy about.

 Lead singer - David Coverdale
 Guitar player - Tommy Bolin
 Bass player - Glenn Hughes
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark V (5) (1989–1992)

Ritchie Blackmore had before played with Joe Lynn Turner in Blackmore's solo band called Rainbow, and suggested he join the band to replace Ian Gillan, who was brought back 3 years later because of record label pressures, as the band's 25th anniversary was coming up and they wanted the iconic Mark II lineup together again.

 Lead singer - Joe-Lynn Turner
 Guitar player - Ritchie Blackmore
 Bass player - Roger Glover
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark VI (6) (1993–1994):

The band still needed to play concerts after Ritchie Blackmore, so they hired American guitar player Joe Satriani, although he did not stay with the band after the tour.

 Lead singer - Ian Gillan
 Guitar player - Joe Satriani
 Bass player - Roger Glover
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark VII (7) (1994–2002):

Joe Satriani turned down the chance to be a member of Deep Purple, so the band found another American guitar player called Steve Morse. In 2002, Jon Lord retired from the band after 26 years with them (not counting the 8 years the band was split up) leaving Ian Paice as the only founding member left. He was replaced with Don Airey.

 Lead singer - Ian Gillan
 Guitar player - Steve Morse
 Bass player - Roger Glover
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Jon Lord

Mark VIII (8) (2002–present)

This has remained the lineup since Jon Lord's departure from Deep Purple and the hiring of Don Airey to replace him.

 Lead singer - Ian Gillan
 Guitar player - Steve Morse
 Bass player - Roger Glover
 Drummer - Ian Paice
 Keyboard player - Don Airey

Discography
Studio albums
 Shades of Deep Purple (1968)
 The Book of Taliesyn (1968)
 Deep Purple (1969)
 Deep Purple in Rock (1970)
 Fireball (1971)
 Machine Head (1972)
 Who Do We Think We Are (1973)
 Burn (1974)
 Stormbringer (1974)
 Come Taste the Band (1975)
 Perfect Strangers (1984)
 The House of Blue Light (1987)
 Slaves and Masters (1990)
 The Battle Rages On... (1993)
 Purpendicular (1996)
 Abandon (1998)
 Bananas (2003)
 Rapture of the Deep (2005)
 Now What! (2013)
 Infinite (2017)
 Whoosh! (2020)
Turning to Crime (2021)

Other websites
 Deep Purple Official Website www.deeppurple.org
 The Highway Star

1968 establishments in England
1960s British music groups
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
Blues bands
English hard rock bands
English heavy metal bands
Musical groups established in 1968
Warner Bros. Records artists

Deep Purple


The Thar Desert (, ), also known as the Big Indian Desert, is a desert. About 85 per cent is in western Republic of India and the rest in southeastern Pakistan.

It is mostly in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. In Pakistan's Punjab province it is known as the Cholistan desert. Tharparkar District of province Sindh Pakistan is also a part of Thar desert. The Thar Desert is bounded on the northwest by the Sutlej River, on the east by the Aravalli Range, on the south by the salt marsh known as the Rann of Kachchh (parts of which are sometimes included in the Thar), and on the west by the Indus River.The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent that covers an area of 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) in India and Pakistan. It is the world's 20th-largest desert, and the world's 9th-largest hot subtropical desert.

Its boundary to the large thorny steppe to the north is not well defined. Depending on what areas are included or excluded, the nominal size of the Thar can vary.

Deserts of Pakistan
Geography of India
Rajasthan

Thar Desert


Soho Theatre is a theatre in the Soho district of the City of Westminster in London, England. It presents new works of theatre, together with comedy and cabaret. The Soho Theatre was formed in 1969 by Verity Bargate and Fred Proud at Old Compton Street in Soho. It shifted many times before finally settling at Dean Street, also in Soho, in 2000. The present building has a 140-seat hall and an 85/100-seat studio. The theatre is also home to a Writers' Centre which helps to develop new writers to work in theatre, as well as film, television, and radio. The Centre accepts scripts from new writers.

Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Theatres in the United Kingdom

Soho Theatre


Gouda is a kind of soft cheese made from cows' milk. The cheese is named after the city of Gouda, which is famous for it. The name Gouda is not protected, so Gouda is made all over the world. There is also a protected designation of origin Noord-Hollandse Gouda (Gouda from North Holland). This may seem inaccurate, because the city of Gouda is in South Holland. Most of the cows however graze in North Holland.

There are two varieties of Gouda for export: Young gouda, which is between one and six months old. Young gouda is usually sold with a yellow or red coating of paraffin wax.

Gouda that is older, is usually sold with a black coating. It is more brittle, and has a stronger scent.

There are other variations, like Smoked Gouda, which is a processed cheese, and Leyden Gouda.

There is also spiced gouda which has spices in it to make it have more flavour.

References

Dutch cheeses
Gouda

Gouda cheese


Edward Calvert (20 September 179914 July 1883) was an English printmaker and painter.

Edward Calvert was born in Appledore, near Bideford in Devon, the son of Captain Roland Calvert.  After a spell in the Navy he studied art at Plymouth and the Royal Academy Schools (1824). His early visionary work was greatly inspired by William Blake, and he became a member of the Blake-influenced group known as The Ancients which met at Samuel Palmer's in Shoreham, Kent in the later 1820s and early 1830s.

Amongst Calvert's finest works are exquisite miniature wood engravings which date from this early period; his wood and copper engravings all date from 1827–31, but were only seen by friends until published by his son in 1893 in an edition of 350.  He also made etchings.  In 1844 he visited Greece.

Much of his subsequent life was spent with his wife Mary, in Dalston and nearby Hackney, a short distance from London. His work from this later period (not considered his best) shows a Classical influence.

Edward Calvert and his wife are buried at Abney Park Cemetery, Stoke Newington, London; the headstone reads He was welcomed in Helicon.

The British Museum has some 65 of his drawings, and about 40 prints, as well as many of the printing blocks and plates for them.

His third son, Samuel Calvert, was an artist and engraver active in Australia and produced a memoir of his father in 1893.

Notes

1799 births
1883 deaths
Artists from Bideford
19th-century English painters
English male painters
English printmakers
English romantic painters
British engravers
British wood engravers
Burials at Abney Park Cemetery
People from Dalston
19th-century English male artists

Edward Calvert (painter)


The James-Lange Theory is a hypothesis about emotions. It is one of the earliest theories of emotion. The theory is that emotions come from the physiological response to what is happening around us.

It was developed independently by two 19th-century scholars, William James and Carl Lange. The basic idea of the theory is that physiological arousal triggers the experience of a specific emotion. The theory is that the physiological change is primary, and emotion is caused by the information from the body's nervous system.

The theory has been criticised and modified over the course of time. There are several competing theories.

References

Emotions

James–Lange theory


The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1793 with few changes.  France fought the First coalition.

In the Alps, there was little change.  The French invasion of Piedmont failed. On the Spanish border, the French under General Dugommier came from their defensive positions at Bayonne and Perpignan, to move the Spanish out of Roussillon.  They invaded Catalonia. Dugommier was killed in the Battle of the Black Mountain in November.

On the northern front in the Flanders Campaign, the Austrians and French both prepared in Belgium.  The Austrians went towards Mons and Maubeuge. The French got ready on multiple fronts.  There were two armies in Flanders under Pichegru and Moreau. Jourdan attacked from the German border. The French had damage in the Kortrijk, Tourcoing and Fleurus in June. The French armies drove the Austrians, British, and Dutch beyond the Rhine.  Then they moved into Belgium, the Rhineland, and southern Holland.

On the middle Rhine front in July General Michaud's Army of the Rhine tried two offensives in July.  This sector of the front was largely quiet over the course of the year.

At sea, the French Atlantic Fleet was able to hold off a British attempt to stop an important cereal convoy from the United States. In the Caribbean, the British fleet landed in Martinique in February, and in

By the end of the year French armies had won victories on all fronts.

Wars involving France
1794 in France

Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars


Ephraim Kishon (: August 23, 1924 – January 29, 2005) was a Hungarian-born Israeli author, dramatist, screenwriter, and Oscar-nominated film director. He was one of the most widely read contemporary satirists in Israel, and was also particularly popular in German-speaking countries.

Biography
Ephraim Kishon was born on August 23, 1924, by the name of Ferenc Hoffmann into a middle-class Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary. In his youth he knew neither Hebrew nor Yiddish. His father worked as a bank manager and his mother was a former secretary. Kishon also had a sister who was a writer.

His writing talent became evident in his youth. In 1940 he won his first prize for writing a novel for high school students. Due to the racial laws applied in Hungary during World War II, he was not allowed to continue his studies at the university and therefore he began to study jewelry making in 1942.

During World War II the Nazis imprisoned him in several concentration camps. At one camp his chess talent helped him survive, as he played chess with the guards. In another camp, the Germans lined up the inmates and shot every tenth person, but passed him by. He later wrote in his book The Scapegoat, "They made a mistake—they left one satirist alive". He eventually managed to escape the concentration camps while being transported to the Sobibor extermination camp in Nazi German Occupied Poland, and hid the remainder of the war disguised as "Stanko Andras", a Slovak laborer.

After the war when he returned to Budapest he discovered that his parents and sister had survived, but many other family members had been murdered in the gas chambers at Auschwitz. In 1945, he changed his surname from Hoffmann to Kishont and returned to Hungary, where he continued to study art and writing. In 1948 he completed his studies in metal sculpturing and art history and began publishing humorous articles under the name Franz Kishunt.

In 1949 he immigrated to the newly founded state of Israel, together with his first wife Eva (Chawa) Klamer, to escape the Communist regime. When arriving in Israel an immigration officer officially Hebraicized his name to "Ephraim Kishon". According to Kishon, the Jewish Agency clerk asked him for his name and when he answered "Ferenc" the clerk said: There is no such thing, and wrote "Ephraim", and afterwards he went ahead and Hebraicized his family name as well, Kishon being a river near Haifa, the Israeli city on  Mount Carmel.

His first marriage to Eva (Chawa) Klamer in 1946 ended in divorce. In 1959, he married Sara (née Lipovitz), who died in 2002. In 2003, he married the Austrian writer Lisa Witasek. Kishon had three children: Raphael (b. 1957), Amir (b. 1963), and Renana (b. 1968).

In 1981, Kishon established a second home in the rural Swiss canton of Appenzell after feeling unappreciated in Israel, but remained a staunch Zionist.

Kishon died on January 29, 2005, at his home in Switzerland at the age of 80 following a cardiac arrest. His body was flown to Israel and he was buried at the Trumpeldor Cemetery in Tel Aviv.

Being a popular Israeli writer, he still felt he was getting negative treatment from the Israeli media due to the fact he was rather right wing in his political views.

Literary career
Kishon initially lived in the "Sha'ar Ha'Aliyah" transit camp near Haifa, and soon afterwards moved to Kibbutz Kfar Hahoresh, in which he worked as a nurse while learning the Hebrew language during his free time with the help of his neighbor Joseph Bilitzer. During this period he wrote several humorous lists for the Hungarian newspaper "Új Kelet". Afterwards Kishon moved to a housing project. He studied Hebrew at the Ulpan "Etzion" in Jerusalem, and soon became proficient in the language. Nevertheless, his heavy Hungarian accent accompanied him throughout his life.

Mastering the Hebrew language with remarkable speed, in 1951 Kishon began writing a satirical column in the easy-Hebrew daily, Omer, after only two years in the country. Later on Kishon began writing for the newspaper "Davar" (which was very influential at the time) in which he published a satire called "The Blaumilch Canal". That same year he published his first book in Israel "Ha-ole Ha-Yored le-Chayenu"- "The Pestering Immigrant", (a pun on the Hebrew word for "Immigrant") which was written in Hungarian and translated into Hebrew by Avigdor Hameiri. The book was mostly about the life experiences of new immigrants in Israel during the 1950s.

In 1952 Kishon began writing a regular satirical column called "Had Gadya" ("One Young Goat" in Aramaic, taken from the Passover Seder liturgy) in the daily Hebrew tabloid "Ma'ariv". Kishon kept writing the column for about 30 years, while in the first two decades he published a new column almost every day. Within a few years after launching his writing career in Israel Kishon became one of the most prominent humorists and satirists in the country.

Kishon's extraordinary linguistic inventiveness and flair for creating characters was carried over into his work for the theater. Collections of his humorous writings have appeared in Hebrew and in translation. Among the English translations are Look Back Mrs. Lot (1960), Noah's Ark, Tourist Class (1962), The Seasick Whale (1965), and two books on the Six-Day War and its aftermath, So Sorry We Won (1967), and Woe to the Victors (1969). Two collections of his plays have also appeared in Hebrew: Shemo Holekh Lefanav (1953) and Ma´arkhonim (1959).

Kishon's books have been translated into 37 languages and sold particularly well in  Germany. Kishon rejected the idea of universal guilt for the Holocaust. He said: "It gives me great satisfaction to see the grandchildren of my executioners queuing up to buy my books." Until his death in 1979, Friedrich Torberg translated his work into German. Thereafter Kishon did the German translations himself.

Chess

Kishon was a lifelong chess enthusiast, and took an early interest in chess-playing computers. In 1990, German chess computer manufacturer Hegener & Glaser together with Fidelity produced the Kishon Chesster, a chess computer distinguished by the spoken comments it would make during a game. Kishon wrote the comments to be humorous, but were also carefully chosen to be relevant to chess and the position in the game.

Published works

Books

 Ha-ole Ha-Yored le-Chayenu (1951)
 Thousand of Gadia and Gadia (1954)
 Ein Kamonim (1955)
 Do not worry (1957)
 Skeches (1959)
 It all depends (1958)
 Be-Echad Ha-Emeshim  (1961)
 He and She (1963)
 Somersaults (1964)
 Bone in the throat (1966)
 So sorry we won! (1967) (with illustrations by Dosh)
 Gomzim Gomzim (1969)
 For (1970)
 Oh, winners (1970)
 Department of Ephraim Kishon (1972)
 Wole in the screen (1973)
 Partachia my love (1974)
 My Family Right or Wrong (1977)
 Smile drought (1978)
 Family Book (1980–current)
 Jonathan voyage (1981) children books
 The cup is ours (1981) children books
 Uncles on the wires (1981) children books
 Unfinished adventure (1981) children books
 Gum with stripes (1981) children books
 Seven Comedies (1981)
 Satire book I (1981)
 Arbinkea (1991)
 Satire book II (1991)
 Satire book III (1992)
 58 Skeches (1995)
 Ants war (1995) children books
 Hercules and the seven midgets (1995) children books
 The Taming of the Shrew dog (1995) children books
 Hairy, hell (1998)
 state protocol (1999)
 The Redhead with the Key (2002) children books
 Book of Travels (2003)
 Partachia (2004)
 Picasso's Sweet Revenge (2004)

Plays

 His reputation precedes him (1953)
 Black on White (1957)
 Ha-Ketubbah (1959)
 No word to Morgenstein (1960)
 Take the plug out (1968)
 Oh, oh, Juliet (1972)
 Salah Shabati the musical  (1988)
 Open for renovation  (2004) not yet seen
 The Policeman (2009)

Kishon's sketches and plays have been performed, in translation, on stages and television networks worldwide.

Films
Kishon expanded into cinema in the early 1960s. He wrote, directed and produced five feature films (all of them comedic /satirical movies). Three movies were nominated for major international awards (The Golden Globe award), two were nominated for the Oscar:
 Sallah Shabati (1964), nominated for Oscar for best foreign language film), Israeli comedy film about the chaos of Israeli immigration and resettlement. This social satire placed the director Ephraim Kishon among the first Israeli filmmakers to achieve international success. It also introduced actor Chaim Topol (Fiddler on the Roof) to audiences worldwide.
 Ervinka (1967), written and directed by Kishon. The film, starring Topol, is a comical tale of a con man who falls in love with a police officer.
 Blaumilch Canal, also known as The Big Dig (1969, nominated for Golden Globe 1971), an Israeli comedy which depicts the madness of bureaucracy through a municipality's reaction to the actions of a lunatic.
 Ha-Shoter Azoulay (literally, Constable Azoulay), also known as The Policeman (1971, nominated for Oscar for best foreign language film, awarded 1972 Golden Globe for best foreign language film). It won several other awards, such as best foreign film in the Barcelona film festival and best director in the Monte Carlo festival. In Israel it is considered a cinematic classic.
  The Fox in the Chicken Coop (1978), based on Kishon's satirical book by the same name (Hebrew: Ha Shu'al B'Lool HaTarnegolot), features many prominent Israeli actors of the time, most notably Shaike Ophir and Seffy Rivlin. The film takes a satirical, comic look at the old generation of Israeli politicians.

Awards
 In 1953, Kishon won the Nordau Prize for Literature;
 In 1958, he won the Sokolov Prize for Journalism;
 In 1964, he won the Kinor David Prize;
 In 1970, he won the Herzl Award for literature;
 In 1998, he was the co-recipient (jointly with Nurit Guvrin and Aryeh Sivan) of the Bialik Prize for literature;
 In 2002, he was awarded the Israel Prize for lifetime achievement & special contribution to society and the State of Israel. Upon receiving the prize, he remarked: "I've won the Israel Prize, even though I'm pro-Israel. It's almost like a state pardon. They usually give it to one of those liberals who love the Palestinians and hate the settlers."

Kishon was nominated twice for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and three times for a Golden Globe Award. He won two Golden Globe Best Foreign Language Film Awards, for Sallah Shabati (1964), and The Policeman (1971).

See also
List of Bialik Prize recipients
List of Israel Prize recipients
Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film#1960s.

References

External links

Ephraim Kishon: Official website
Ephraim Kishon at Israeli Dramatists Website
Ephraim Kishon – Biography, Satires, Obituaries, Photos, Prizes
Ephraim Kishon Obituary, [London], The Times, February 2, 2005
Lives Remembered Comments by Irene Lancaster  and Victor Ross on the Times obituary. [London], The Times, [February 8, 2005]
The funniest man in the world: the wild and crazy humor of Ephraim Kishon at Internet Archive. 1989 New York, Shapolsky Publishers; London, Prion

1924 births
2005 deaths
Hungarian Jews
Hungarian writers
Holocaust survivors
Hungarian emigrants to Israel
Israel Prize for lifetime achievement & special contribution to society recipients
Israeli male dramatists and playwrights
Israeli expatriates in Switzerland
Israeli film directors
Israeli humorists
Israeli Jews
Israeli male screenwriters
Israeli people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
Israeli satirists
Jewish dramatists and playwrights
Jewish concentration camp survivors
Jewish escapees from Nazi concentration camps
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
20th-century Israeli dramatists and playwrights
Maariv (newspaper) people
20th-century screenwriters
Burials at Trumpeldor Cemetery

Ephraim Kishon


John L. Hess (December 27, 1917 – January 21, 2005) was a prominent American investigative journalist who worked for many years at The New York Times.  He left the Times in 1978 and wrote a memoir about his years there, My Times: A Memoir of Dissent.

Biography
Hess was born in New York City, and studied history at City College of New York.  He began in journalism with the Bisbee Daily Review in Bisbee, Arizona, a town controlled by the Phelps Dodge copper company, but he left the newspaper — also owned by Phelps Dodge — when it interfered with his reporting.  He served in the United States Merchant Marine during World War II.

After jobs with United Press, the Associated Press, New York Daily News, and The New York Post, Hess started working at the Times in 1954; first on the foreign copy desk, later becoming a night-shift reporter.  In 1964, he moved to Paris to help start a European edition of the International Herald Tribune.

He returned to New York City in 1972 and was briefly the Times''' food editor.  Hess hated the term "gourmet" because he believed that those who used the term sought or advertised prestige and price rather than quality and taste.  He once gave the neighborhood of Chinatown four stars - the only four stars he awarded while the Times food editor.  The Taste of America, which he co-wrote with his wife Karen Hess, excoriated American cooking and singled out such celebrity chefs as Julia Child and Craig Claiborne as contributing to the decline of the American palate.

In 1974, he won a citation from the US Department of Health, Education and Welfare for an investigation into corrupt nursing home operators.

After his retirement, Hess contributed regularly to The Nation, CounterPunch and Extra!, among other publications, in addition to work in television and radio journalism.  He also served as media watchdog for WBAI, the New York City listener-sponsored radio station.

In addition to his memoirs, Hess also published several other books: Vanishing France, The Case for De Gaulle, and The Grand Acquisitors, about the business of art museums.

John Hess died in Manhattan on January 21, 2005, of pneumonia at the age of 87.

 References

 External links
 John L. Hess: Dissents; John L. Hess's blog
 Extra! articles by John L. Hess
 "John L. Hess and His Times," by Alexander Zaitchik, New York Press, January 26, 2005 (obituary)
 "And We Call It the 'Paper of Record'!" by Louis Proyect, Swans, January 31, 2005 (review)
 "Correction," The New York Times'', February 14, 2005 (correction to obituary)

1917 births
2005 deaths
American male journalists
20th-century American journalists
American food writers
American sailors
City College of New York alumni

John L. Hess


The Battle of Solway Moss took place on Solway Moss near the River Esk on the English side of the Anglo-Scottish border in November 1542 between English and Scottish forces.

The Scottish King James V had refused to break from the Catholic Church, as urged by his uncle King Henry VIII, who then launched a major raid into south-west Scotland. The Scottish army that marched against them was poorly led and organised, and many Scots were either captured or drowned in the river. News of the defeat is believed to have hastened the early death of James V.

Background
When Henry VIII of England broke from the Roman Catholic Church, he asked James V of Scotland, his nephew, to do the same. James ignored his uncle's request and further insulted him by refusing to meet with Henry at York. Furious, Henry VIII sent troops against Scotland. In retaliation for the massive English raid into Scotland, James responded by assigning Robert, Lord Maxwell, the Scottish Warden of West March, the task of raising an army.

James V wrote to the Pope Paul III on 9 November 1542 about the English raid, and explained that he defied Henry VIII's attempts to convert him to the Protestant faith by waging war with his vast resources gained from the dissolution of the monasteries.

Battle
On 24 November 1542, an army of 15,000–18,000 Scots advanced into England. Lord Maxwell, though never officially designated commander of the force, declared he would lead the attack in person. A report of George Douglas of Pittendreich, who was not present, and some later chronicle accounts, say that in the absence of Maxwell, Oliver Sinclair, James V's favourite, declared himself to be James's chosen commander. According to this account of the battle, the other commanders refused to accept his command and the command structure disintegrated. The English commanders Lord Wharton and Sir William Musgrave made reports of the battle. William Musgrave reported that Maxwell was still in charge and fought with the rest of the Scottish nobles, who were forced to dismount on the bank of the River Esk.

The Scots' advance into England was met near Solway Moss by Lord Wharton and his 3,000 men. The battle was uncoordinated and may be described as a rout. Sir Thomas Wharton described the battle as the overthrow of the Scots between the rivers Esk and Lyne. The Scots, after the first encounter of a cavalry chase at "Akeshawsill", now Oakshawhill, moved "down" towards Arthuret Howes. They found themselves penned in south of the Esk, on English territory between the river and the Moss (a peat bog), and after intense fighting surrendered themselves and their 10 field guns to the English cavalry. Wharton said the Scots were halted at the Sandy Ford by Arthuret mill dam. The Scots were 'beguiled by their own guiding', according to one Scottish writer.  Several hundred of the Scots may have drowned in the marshes and river.

James, who was not present at the battle (he had remained at Lochmaben), withdrew to Falkland Palace humiliated and ill with fever. The news that his wife had given birth to a daughter instead of a son further crushed his will to live, and he is reported to have stated that the House of Stewart "came with a lass and will go with a lass". He died at Falkland two weeks later at the age of thirty. According to George Douglas, in his delirium he lamented the capture of his banner and Oliver Sinclair at Solway Moss more than his other losses.

Aftermath
Gervase Phillips has estimated that only about seven Englishmen and 20 Scots were killed but 1,200 Scottish prisoners were taken, including Sinclair, the Earls of Cassilis, Glencairn, and Maxwell. Prisoners taken to England included Lord Gray, and Stewart of Rosyth. A number of captured Scottish earls, lords, and lairds were released; they sent hostages, called "pledges" into England in their place. On 14 December 1542, Thomas Wharton's report of the battle was read to Privy Council, and they ordered that Scottish prisoners entering London should wear a red St Andrew's cross. Among the captured guns were four falconets with the cast cipher of 'JRS' for 'Jacobus Rex Scotorum' and the Scottish royal arms with an imperial crown.

Eustace Chapuys reported that the Scottish prisoners attended Henry's court on Christmas Day wearing swords and dirks. They were able to talk to the French ambassador and Henry gave them each a present of a gold chain. These hostages and prisoners were mostly well treated in England, as it was hoped that when they returned to Scotland after their ransoms were paid, they would further the English cause. Some of the high-ranking prisoners taken at the battle were exchanged for their 'pledges' at Carlisle on 10 January 1543. Chapuys said the return of some prisoners was prevented at this time by the Scottish government which claimed they were traitors for losing the battle, or suspected they were now being influenced by Henry. As their families were arrested, these prisoners could not provide their pledges and stayed on the border at Berwick-upon-Tweed.

However, a modern historian Marcus Merriman sees the battle and hostage-taking more as the culmination of James V's war rather than the beginning of Henry VIII's War of Rough Wooing (also known as the Nine Years' War). He notes that the capture of so many Scottish nobles at the time of the birth and accession of Mary, Queen of Scots did not affect Henry's policy or the Scottish lords' subsequent rejection of the Treaty of Greenwich in December 1543.

Schedules of prisoners, keepers, and pledges
The chief Scottish prisoners were taken to Newcastle upon Tyne, and were listed with their English keepers at that time in a schedule prepared by Sir Thomas Wharton; below the keepers of their substitute 'pledges' or hostages are added from a list compiled later in 1543 amongst the papers of the Earl of Shrewsbury.

 James Douglas of Drumlanrig; keeper, the Master Customar of Carlisle.
 John Maxwell of Cohill; keeper, William Sandes; pledge, Archibald Maxwell, his brother, a child, in Yorkshire.
 James Sinclair; keeper Alexander Musgrave; pledge, as for Oliver Sinclair.
 John Charteris; keeper, William Porter
 Robert Charteris; keeper, John Wharton
 John Maxwell, brother of Lord Maxwell; pledge, his nephew Hugh Maxwell in Yorkshire.
 Patrick Hepburn; keeper Lionel Carnaby
 Walter Ker, laird of Graddon; keeper Thomas Denton; his pledge with Sir William Gascoigne, senior.
 George Hume, laird of Ayton; keeper Thomas Warcup
 Laird of Awncastell (John Maitland, laird of 'Awik Castle', Annan); keeper Simon Musgrave; pledge, his brother with Thomas Wentworth.
 William, Earl of Menteith; keeper Lancelot Lancaster.
 Robert Erskine, son of Lord Erskine; keeper Edward Aglionby.
 Patrick, Lord Gray; keeper Walter Strickland; pledges with the Archbishop of York.
 Laurence, Lord Oliphant: keeper Sir John Lowther; pledges with the Bishop of Durham.
 Oliver Sinclair: keeper Sir John Lowther: pledge, son of the Laird of Cleisburn
 Hugh, Lord Somerville; keeper Sir Thomas Curwen
 Malcolm, Lord Fleming; keeper Sir William Musgrave. Deceased when the Talbot-Shrewsbury papers list was compiled.
 Gilbert Kennedy, Earl of Cassilis; keeper Sir Thomas Wharton: pledge with Archbishop of Canterbury.
 Lord Maxwell; keeper Sir Thomas Wharton; remained at Carlisle in person.
 William Cuninghame, 4th Earl Glencairn, keeper Duke of Norfolk

In March 1544, as the War of Rough Wooing or Nine Years' War commenced in earnest, Henry VIII sent his Richmond Herald, Gilbert Dethick, to the Privy Council of Scotland at Stirling Castle to demand the return to England of a number of these high-ranking prisoners who had been allowed home on licence. These were: the Earls of Cassilis and  Glencairn, Lords Somerville, Maxwell, Gray, Oliphant, and Fleming, with Oliver Sinclair, George Hume of Ayton, Robert Master of Erskine, William Seton, Patrick Hepburn, James Pringle, James Sinclair, Alexander Sinclair, John Maitland of Awencastle, Henry Maxwell brother of lord Maxwell, John Ross of Craigie, the laird of Moncrieff, John Leslie younger son of the earl of Rothes, and John Carmichael. If the council did not organise their return, Henry threatened revenge on their pledges in England, and penalties on future captives.

Commemoration
The battlefield is registered by English Heritage,  and currently under research to be inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.

Notes

Further reading
 Makinson, Albert. "Solway Moss and the Death of James V" History Today (Feb 1960) 19#2 pp. 106–115.
 Sinclair, George A. "The Scots at Solway Moss." Scottish Historical Review 2.8 (1905): 372–377. .
 Bain, Joseph, ed., Hamilton Papers, vol. 1 (London, 1898), pp. lxxiii–lxxvi, Wharton's report
 Cameron, Jamie, James V, The Personal Rule, (Tuckwell, East Linton, 1998), 314–322

 , ed. Thomas Thomson, Bannatyne Club (Edinburgh, 1833), 25.
 Phillips, Gervase, The Anglo-Scots Wars, 1513–1550, (Boydell Press, 1999),
 , 1542, vol. 17 (1900)
 Way, Albert, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries Scotland, vol. 2, (1855–6), 238–42,
 State Papers of Henry VIII, vol. 5 (part IV part 2), Record Commission (London, 1836)

External links
 Battle of Solway Moss @ Everything2
 English Heritage, Solway Moss in the Battlefields Register, with link to map of designated area
 English Heritage battlefield report: Solway Moss (1995)

1542 in England
1542 in Scotland
16th century in Cumberland
16th-century military history of Scotland
Battles between England and Scotland
Conflicts in 1542
Henry VIII
History of Cumbria
James V of Scotland
Military history of Cumbria
Registered historic battlefields in England

Battle of Solway Moss


Philip Tyler Keaggy (born March 23, 1951 in Youngstown, Ohio) is an American musician. He is most famous for playing Contemporary Christian music. He has won seven Dove Awards for his instrumental albums and he has been nominated twice for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Gospel Album. The style of guitar playing he is most famous for is his "fingerpicking" style which means he usually plucks the strings with his fingers rather than use a plastic guitar pick. Many guitar magazines have voted him as one of the best in the world at the fingerpicking style.

Notes

Other websites
 PhilKeaggy.com

American guitarists
American singer-songwriters
Singers from Ohio
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1951 births
Living people
Musicians from Youngstown, Ohio

Phil Keaggy


Sir Garfield St Aubrun Sobers (born 28 July 1936 in Bridgetown, Barbados) is a former West Indian cricketer. He is often known as Garry.

Sobers was a very good batsman and highly effective bowler. He was able to bowl both fast and as a spinner. Sobers is widely regarded as the greatest all rounder of all time and, with Sir Donald Bradman, as one of the greatest cricketers of any type.

1936 births
Living people
West Indies cricketers
Barbadian cricketers

Garfield Sobers


In some countries, a municipal court is a court with limited jurisdiction, both in people and laws. Most commonly, municipal courts only deal with the laws and citizens of one city or town. But in some places they make decisions for an entire county, and may be involved with early hearings of cases that will be tried in a higher court. Some things that often involve municipal courts are traffic tickets, leash laws, and building code violations and death.

Mississippi
Municipal courts in Mississippi are "Judge Alone" courts. This means that judges alone hear the presented cases and offenders(and alleged offenders)have no right to jury trials. In felony cases in Mississippi, the Municipal court holds a preliminary hearing and then sends the case to the grand jury of the state. The Municipal court is not a court of record and its cases are summarized by docket.

North Carolina
There are no municipal court facilities in the state. All courthouses are done at the county level. For example, if a speeding ticket violation occurred, it automatically goes to the county seat in which the violation occurs whether it is in a municipality or unincorporated. In the case of some elongated counties like Chatham County, there is an alternate courtroom in Siler City as well as Pittsboro, the county seat. In other cases where there are multiple large population centers like in Guilford County, court cases are handled in Greensboro and High Point. Although a federal issue, traffic violations occurring in military bases are not subject to civilian courts.

American courts

State court (United States)


Two-Face or Harvey Dent is a fictional Batman supervillain who appears in comic books by DC Comics. The character was created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger and first appeared in Detective Comics #66 (August 1942). He was the district attorney of Gotham City before being burned in an explosion or being burned by acid. After his accident, he became a villain because of his anger against Batman and Gotham City. He always flips a coin when he is about to a commit a crime or take action. Half of his coin is burned. He had a girlfriend, but she either died or left him after his accident.

He was played by Billy Dee Williams in Batman, by Tommy Lee Jones in Batman Forever, and by Aaron Eckhart in The Dark Knight, and Nicholas D'Agosto in the television series Gotham. He was voiced by Richard Moll in Batman: The Animated Series.

Other websites

Two-Face at the DC Database Project

Batman characters
DC Comics supervillains
Fictional characters introduced in the 1940s

Two-Face


The term minority rights refers to the rights of minority groups. This includes the individual rights of a group's members and the collective rights of the group itself. These groups can be racial, ethnic, class, religious, linguistic or sexual minorities.

For the rights of ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects their identities. For people with disabilities, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities  exists to protect them, and for LGBT people, the Yogyakarta Principles were written down by the United Nations.

Also, the Council of Europe, European Union and Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe also affirm protection of minority rights as part of human rights and the rule of law.

Other Page
International human rights law

Politics
Rights

Minority rights


Walter Jackson Ong  (November 30, 1912 – August 12, 2003) was an American Jesuit priest, professor of English literature, cultural and religious historian, and philosopher. His major interest was in exploring how the transition from orality to literacy influenced culture and changed human consciousness. In 1978 he served as elected president of the Modern Language Association.

Biography
Ong was born in Kansas City, Missouri, to a Protestant father and a Roman Catholic mother; he was raised as a Roman Catholic.  In 1929 he graduated from Rockhurst High School.  In 1933 he received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Rockhurst College, where he majored in Latin.  During his time at Rockhurst College, he founded a chapter of the Catholic fraternity Alpha Delta Gamma.  He worked in printing and publishing prior to entering the Society of Jesus in 1935, and was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1946.

In 1941 Ong earned a master's degree in English at Saint Louis University. His thesis on sprung rhythm in the poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins was supervised by the young Canadian Marshall McLuhan. Ong also received the degrees Licentiate of Philosophy and Licentiate of Sacred Theology from Saint Louis University.

After completing his dissertation on the French logician and educational reformer Peter Ramus (1515–1572) and Ramism under the supervision of Perry Miller at Harvard University in 1954, Ong returned to  Saint Louis University, where he would teach for the next 30 years. In 1955 he received his PhD in English from Harvard University.

In 1963 the French government honored Ong for his work on Ramus by dubbing him a knight, Chevalier de l'Ordre des Palmes académiques. In 1966–1967 he served on the 14-member White House Task Force on Education that reported to President Lyndon Johnson. In 1971 Ong was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In April and May 1974, he served as Lincoln Lecturer, presenting lectures in French in Cameroun, Zaire, and Senegal and in English in Nigeria. In 1967 he served as president of the Milton Society of America. In 1978 he served as elected president of the Modern Language Association of America. He was very active on the lecture circuit as well as in professional organizations.

Ong died in 2003 in St. Louis, Missouri.

Summary of Ong's works and interests

A major concern of Ong's works is the impact that the shift from orality to literacy has had on culture and education. Writing is a technology like other technologies (fire, the steam engine, etc.) that, when introduced to a "primary oral culture" (which has never known writing) has extremely wide-ranging impacts in all areas of life. These include culture, economics, politics, art, and more. Furthermore, even a small amount of education in writing transforms people's mentality from the holistic immersion of orality to interiorization and individuation.

Many of the effects of the introduction of the technology of writing are related to the fact that oral cultures require strategies of preserving information in the absence of writing. These include, for example, a reliance on proverbs or condensed wisdom for making decisions, epic poetry, and stylized culture heroes (wise Nestor, crafty Odysseus). Writing makes these features no longer necessary, and introduces new strategies of remembering cultural material, which itself now changes.

Because cultures at any given time vary along a continuum between full orality and full literacy, Ong distinguishes between primary oral cultures (which have never known writing), cultures with craft literacy (such as scribes), and cultures in a transition phase from orality to literacy, in which some people know of writing but are illiterate - these cultures have "residual orality".

Some of Ong's interests:
 the historical development of visualist tendencies in Western philosophic thought
 the mathematical transformation of thought in medieval and early modern logic and beyond
 oral cyclic thought, which is characteristic of primary oral cultures, versus linear or historical or evolutionary thought, which depends on writing
 the movement from oral heroic poetry to mock-heroic poetry in print culture to the realist tradition in literature to the modern antihero
 the historical development in manuscript culture and print culture of the inward turn of personalized ego-consciousness, or individuality
 the new dimensions of orality fostered by modern communication media that accentuate sound, which Ong calls secondary orality as it succeeds from, relies on, and coexists with writing
 the origins and development of the Western educational system
 the role and effects of Learned Latin in Western culture

Major works

Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (1958)
According to Adrian Johns' foreword to the 2004 edition, Ong was urged to research Ramus after his graduate mentor, Marshall McLuhan had no particular interest in Ong's original subject, Gerard Manley Hopkins. McLuhan vigorously encouraged Ong's work, and eventually drew upon his former student's perspective on Ramism to write his own pivotal work, The Gutenberg Galaxy.

Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (1958) elaborates the contrast between the visual and the oral that Ong found in Louis Lavelle's La parole et l'ecriture (1942). Ong details how the spatialization and quantification of thought in dialectic and logic during the Middle Ages enabled "a new state of mind" to emerge in print culture, which is associated with the emergence of modern science.

The companion volume, Ramus and Talon Inventory (1958) is a notable work that contributes to the field known today as book history. Therein, Ong briefly describes more than 750 volumes (mostly in Latin) that he had tracked down in more than 100 libraries in Europe.

Peter Ramus (1515–1572), was a French humanist, logician, and educational reformer whose textbook method of analyzing subjects was very widely adopted in many academic fields.  In "Ramist Classroom Procedure and the Nature of Reality", Ong discusses Ramism as a transition phase between the Classical style of education and the modern one. He writes, "...Ramism might seem merely quaint, perhaps artistically lethal, but of no great importance. Yet its great spread will hardly allow us to regard it as educationally insignificant. As a matter of fact, it has educational significance of the headiest sort, for it implies no less than that it is the "arts" or curriculum subjects which hold the world together. Nothing is accessible for "use," that is, for active intussusception (the assimilation of new material and its dispersal among preexistent matter) by the human being, until it has first been put through the curriculum. The schoolroom is by implication the doorway to reality, and indeed the only doorway."

The Presence of the Word (1967)
The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (1967) is an expanded version of his 1964 Terry Lectures at Yale University. It is a pioneering work in cultural studies and media ecology.

He writes, "[my] works do not maintain that the evolution from primary orality through writing and print to an electronic culture, which produces secondary orality, causes or explains everything in human culture and consciousness. Rather, [my] thesis is relationist: major developments, and very likely even all major developments, in culture and consciousness, are related, often in unexpected intimacy, to the evolution of the word from primary orality to its present state. But the relationships are varied and complex, with cause and effect often difficult to distinguish".

Fighting for Life (1981)
Ong subsequently developed his observations regarding polemic in The Presence of the Word (192–286) in his book length study Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality, and Consciousness (1981), the published version of his 1979 Messenger Lectures at Cornell University.

Orality and Literacy (1982)
In Ong's most widely known work, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982), he attempts to identify the distinguishing characteristics of orality by examining thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of literacy (especially writing and print) are unfamiliar to most of the population.

Ong drew heavily on the work of Eric A. Havelock, who suggested a fundamental shift in the form of thought coinciding with the transition from orality to literacy in Ancient Greece.  Ong describes writing as a technology that must be laboriously learned, and which effects the first transformation of human thought from the world of sound to the world of sight. This transition has implications for structuralism, deconstruction, speech-act and reader-response theory, the teaching of reading and writing skills to males and females, social studies, biblical studies, philosophy, and cultural history generally.

An Ong Reader (2002)
This 600-page selection of Ong's works is organized on the themes of orality and rhetoric. It includes his 1967 encyclopedia article on the "Written Transmission of Literature" (331–44); his most frequently cited article, his 1975 PMLA article "The Writer's Audience Is Always a Fiction" (405–27); and his most frequently reprinted article, his 1978 ADE Bulletin article "Literacy and Orality in Our Times" (465–78). Taken together, these three essays make up a coherent approach to the study of written literature against the background of oral tradition.

Publications

Lectures
 1964 Terry Lectures at Yale University, The Presence of the Word: Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967)
 1979 Cornell University Messenger Lectures on the Evolution of Civilization, Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality, and Consciousness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981)
 1981 Alexander Lectures at the University of Toronto, Hopkins, the Self and God (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986)
 1985 Wolfson College Lectures at Oxford University, Opening Lecture, "Writing Is a Technology That Restructures Thought." In The Written Word: Literacy in Transition, ed. Gerd Baumann (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)

Books
Frontiers in American Catholicism (New York: Macmillan, 1957)
Ramus and Talon Inventory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958)
Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958)
American Catholic Crossroads (New York: Macmillan, 1959)
The Barbarian Within (New York: Macmillan, 1962)
In the Human Grain (New York: Macmillan, 1967)
Rhetoric, Romance, and Technology (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971)
Interfaces of the Word (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977)
Hopkins, the Self, and God (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986)
Faith and Contexts, 4 vols. Ed. Thomas J. Farrell and Paul A. Soukup. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992–1999)
Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2002); has been translated into 11 languages
An Ong Reader: Challenges for Further Inquiry. Ed. Thomas J. Farrell and Paul A. Soukup. (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 2002)

See also
Johannes Piscator
Philosophical terminism, a term coined by Ong

References

Further reading
A critique of Ong has been written by the British literary critic Frank Kermode; it was originally published in the New York Review of Books (March 14, 1968: 22-26), and later reprinted in Kermode's Modern Essays (Fontana, 1971: 99–107).
A critique of Ong's apparent misunderstandings of certain aspects of Peter Ramus's thought has been published by Howard Hotson of St Anne's College, Oxford, in his book Commonplace Learning: Ramism and Its German Ramifications, 1543–1630 (Oxford UP, 2007).
A critique of Ong's influential 1949 essay about sprung rhythm in the poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins has been published by James I. Wimsatt of the University of Texas at Austin in his book Hopkins's Poetics of Speech Sound: Sprung Rhythms, Lettering Inscape (University of Toronto Press, 2006).
Further information about Ong's thought can be found in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism (1st ed. 1994: 549–52; 2nd ed. 2005: 714–17); Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory: Approaches, Scholars, Terms (University of Toronto Press, 1993: 437-39); Encyclopedia of Literary Critics and Criticism (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999: 822–26).
A 400-page Festschrift for Walter Ong has been published as a double issue in the journal Oral Tradition (1987). Subsequently, three other collections of essays have been published about his thought: Media, Consciousness, and Culture (1991) and Time, Memory, and the Verbal Arts (1998) and Of Ong and Media Ecology (2012).
Thomas J. Farrell, Walter Ong's Contributions to Cultural Studies: The Phenomenology of the Word and I–Thou Communication (Hampton Press, 2000).

External links
 Walter J. Ong Manuscript Collection at Saint Louis University
 Orality and Literacy page from the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory
 Walter J. Ong's Publications compiled by Betty R. Youngkin
 Walter J. Ong Project - digital archives Saint Louis University
 Notes from the Walter Ong Collection

1912 births
2003 deaths
Writers from Kansas City, Missouri
American humanists
20th-century American Jesuits
21st-century American Jesuits
20th-century American philosophers
Catholic philosophers
American literary critics
Theorists on Western civilization
Literacy and society theorists
Mass media theorists
Postmodernism
North American cultural studies
Rockhurst University alumni
Harvard University alumni
Saint Louis University alumni
Clergy from St. Louis
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Walter J. Ong