Varasdates or Varazdat (, Varazdat) was an Armenian prince who succeeded his uncle King Papes as King of Armenia in 374.

Following the murder of King Papes, Valens sent Varazdat, a nephew of Pap, a young man highly reputed for his mental and physical gifts, to hold the Armenian throne.  Shapur II, having failed on the battlefield, now proposed to Valens in 375 that Armenia be divided between the two powers. The Emperor rejected the proposal, but sent Victor Magistrianus to the Persian King to discuss the question. This emissary was cozened into exceeding the bounds of his authority and agreeing to the Persian proposal. In the meantime, the internal condition of Armenia was imperiled through friction between King Varazdat and the nakharars, culminating in the assassination of Musel Mamikonian, the leader of the latters' party. Manuel, the son of Musel, took up arms against the King and compelled him to flee from Armenia in 378, after four years of reign.  Varazdat's life was saved, but the country was thrown into confusion. The Persians took advantage of the turmoil and invaded Armenia; but their occupation was a short-lived one. Shapur II died in 379, and the Persians evacuated in haste. Manuel, the dynamic Mamikonian, had rallied a formidable national force for action.

Related pages
 List of Armenian Kings

Monarchs of Armenia

Varazdat


The Times Square Ball is a time ball (a ball dropped at a certain time) at the top of the One Times Square building in Times Square in New York City. It is used as part of the New Year's Eve celebration held yearly in Times Square.
Every year at 11:59 p.m. EST, the ball is lowered 141 feet (43 m) from a flagpole, reaching the bottom at midnight to signal the start of a new year. The first ball drop took place on December 31, 1907. It has been dropped every year since then (except in 1942 and 1943 because of World War II). The ball's design has been changed many times over the years. The current design has LED lighting and triangle-shaped crystal panels. Starting in 2009, the ball is shown in One Times Square throughout the year.

The Times Square ball drop is one of the best-known New Year's Eve celebrations in the world. Over one million people come to Times Square every year to see the ball drop. The ball drop is shown on several major television networks. The best known is ABC, which broadcasts Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve, hosted by Dick Clark until his death in 2012. Ryan Seacrest has hosted the show since 2005-06. In 1904 they organized an New Years Eve party at Times Square without the ball.

References

Other websites
Official website
Times Square New Year's Eve website

Manhattan

Times Square Ball


Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry, 1st Baronet (born Bournemouth, 27 February  1848; died Rustington, near Worthing, Sussex, 7 October  1918) was an English composer. His music influenced other English composers such as Elgar and Vaughan Williams.  Parry wrote a great deal of music, but by far the best known piece he wrote is the song Jerusalem.  Another piece which is often sung is the anthem I was glad written for the coronation of Edward VII.

His early life
Parry was born into a rich family.  He went to school in Eton and got his music degree while he was still there.  He then went to Oxford to study.  He learned from the English-born composer Henry Hugo Pierson in Stuttgart, and with William Sterndale Bennett and the pianist Edward Dannreuther in London.  He started to compose a lot of chamber music which was first performed at Dannreuther's house.  He became famous in 1880 when Dannreuther played his piano concerto and his choral work Prometheus Unbound was performed at the Gloucester Festival.  Other choirs started to ask him to write music for them.  One of his best choral pieces was the ode Blest Pair of Sirens (1887).  Other choral works include Ode on Saint Cecilia's Day (1889), the oratorios Judith (1888) and Job (1892).  "Judith" includes a tune which became a well-loved hymn tune called "Repton" sung in churches to the words "Dear Lord and Father of Mankind".

His orchestral works from this period include four symphonies, a set of Symphonic Variations in E minor, the Overture to an Unwritten Tragedy (1893) and the Elegy for Brahms (1897). He also wrote for the Greek play  'The Birds' by Aristophanes.

Mid career
As Parry became more famous he got many invitations to important jobs.  He started teaching at the Royal College of Music in 1884 and became its director in 1894, a post he held until his death. In 1900 he succeeded John Stainer as professor of music at Oxford University.   In 1908 his doctor advised him to resign from  his Oxford job.

Later years
During the last decade of his life he wrote some of his best works, including the Symphonic Fantasia '1912''' (also called Symphony No. 5), the Ode on the Nativity (1912), Jerusalem (1916) and the Songs of Farewell'' which includes the song "My Soul, there is a Country".  These were songs about the needless suffering in the war. He died of influenza in Rustington, Sussex.

His influence
Parry had a lot of influence on English music in the 20th century.  This was not just because of his music, but also through his teaching and his writings about music.  The composers he liked best and who influenced his style were Bach and Brahms.  His music is firmly tonal (always in clear major or minor keys), and Elgar and Vaughan Williams learned a lot from studying his music.

Parry was a man who always liked to help people, and so he took on a great deal of work, which did not do his health much good.  When he had free time he enjoyed driving fast cars and sailing.

He was made a knight, and the first Baronet of Highnam in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom in 1902.

The house in Richmond Hill, Bournemouth where he was born is marked with a blue plaque.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians ed Stanley Sadie (1980)

1848 births
1918 deaths
Deaths from influenza
20th-century English composers
People from Bournemouth
Romantic composers

Hubert Parry


Population dynamics is the study of marginal and long term changes in the numbers, individual weights and age composition of individuals in one or several populations, and biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.

Population dynamics is the dominant branch of mathematical biology, which has a history of more than 200 yéars. The éarly period was dominated by demographic studies such as the work of Benjamin Gompertz (5 March1779-14 July1865) and Pierre François Verhulst (28 October1804-15 February1849), who refined and adjusted the Malthusian demograhical modél.

A more general modél formulation was proposed by F.J. Richards in 1959, by which the modéls of Gompertz, Verhulst and also Ludwig von Bertalanffy are covered as special cases of the general formulation.
The computer game SimCity tries to simulate some of these population dynamics.
Population dynamics also attempts to study topics such as aging populations or population decline.

See also: System dynamics, Volterra-Lotka equations

Fisheries science

Dinamika populasi


Intersectionality or intersectional theory studies the relation between the many different ways that people are kept in a lower social position, controlled, and left out of important parts of society because of their differences. Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw gave the name "intersectionality" to this concept in 1989.

Sometimes a society decides that a group of people are different from themselves. When they do this, they other that group, or marginalize them. Intersectionality points out that people are often othered for more than one reason.

These reasons might be

 gender
 race
 class
 ability
 sexual orientation
 religion
 caste
 age
 nationality
 language
 or other parts of identity.

Because of this, it suggests that these types of othering cannot be looked at by themselves. They must be looked at together. For example, a person can be othered because they are a woman, a person of color, a poor person, and a disabled person at the same time. These different forms of othering make each other worse, shape each other, and prop each other up. This means that the experience of being othered for all of these reasons is different from what would happen if you added them all up. Because of this, fighting each one alone would not help the people who experience many of them at the same time.

Intersectionality says that the different ways people are othered and forced into a lower social position, such as racism, sexism, classism, ableism, homophobia, transphobia, xenophobia and bigotry based on belief, create an entire system. In this system, each of the ways people are held down by society contributes to the other. So if someone wanted to understand how a society began to other a group of people as a race apart from themselves (racialization), they would have to look into the ways that gender, class, sexuality, and other parts of identity shaped this process.

Intersectionality began as a way to understand the ways that women of color in American society were othered. The women who developed the theory were challenging the feminism of their time. They saw it as being too focused on the issues of wealthy white women. They felt that this left behind the women who needed feminism the most, and only helped the women who already had the most power. They were also criticizing the Civil Rights Movement. They saw it as being too focused on men and leaving women of color behind. They believed they had a place in both of these movements, and that these parts of their lives could not be separated. Intersectional theory quickly grew to include the relation between all of the many other ways that people are othered and kept in a lower social position, such as sexuality, ability, and the gender binary.

Civil rights
Discrimination
Feminism

Intersectionality


The seicont (seembol: s) is a unit o time, an ane o the seiven SI base units. It is the time taen by 9,192,631,770 cycles o radiation that comes frae electrons movin atween twa virr levels o the caesium-133 atom.

A seicont is 1/60 o a meenit, an 1/3600 o an oor an aw.

The seicont (SI seembol: s), whiles abbreviate sec., is the name o a unit o time, an is the Internaitional Seestem o Units (SI) base unit o time.

SI prefixes aften gae thegither wi the wird seicont tae denote subdiveesions o the seicont, e.g., the milliseicont (ane thoosant o a seicont) an nanoseicont (ane thoosand milliont o a seicont). Tho SI prefixes micht can be uised for tae mak multiples o the seicont an aw (sic as "kiloseicont", or ane thoosand seiconts), sic units are anely uised rarely in practice. Mair commonly met, non-SI units o time sic as the meenit, oor, an day increase by multiples o 60 an 24 (raither nor by pouers o ten as in the SI seestem).

Historical origin
Oreeginally, the seicont wis kent as a "seicont meenit", meanin the seicont minute (i.e. smaw) diveesion o an oor. The first diveesion wis kent as a "prime minute" an is equivalent tae the meenit we ken the day.

Centimetre–gram–seicont seestem o units
Orders o magnitude (time)
SI base units
Units o time

Seicont


Manuel Vicente Tolsá Sarrión (Enguera, Valencia, Spain, May 4, 1757 – Mexico City, December 24, 1816) was a prolific Neoclassical architect and sculptor in Spain and Mexico. He served as the first director of the Academy of San Carlos.

Biography
Tolsá studied at the Royal Academy of San Carlos in Valencia and the Royal Academy of San Fernando in Madrid. He was a student of José Puchol in sculpture and of Ribelles, Gascó and Gilabert in architecture. In Spain he was the sculptor of the king's chamber, minister of the Supreme Junta of Commerce, Minting and Mines, and an academic in San Fernando. In 1790 he was named director of sculpture at the recently created Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City. He sailed from Cádiz in February, 1791, bringing with him to New Spain, in accordance with the king's instructions, books, instruments of his profession, and plaster copies of classic sculptures from the Vatican Museum. He married María Luisa de Sanz Téllez Girón y Espinosa in the port of Veracruz.

On his arrival in Mexico City the ayuntamiento (city government) made him supervisor of the drainage and water supply systems of the city and assigned him the tasks of the replanting the Alameda park in the center of the city and the grounds of the coliseum. For these services he did not receive compensation. Thereafter he dedicated himself to the artistic and civil works for which he is now remembered. He also built furniture, made adornments for altars (candelabra, crucifixes, etc.), cast cannons, opened a bathhouse, built coaches and established a kiln. He donated a collection of molds and figures and 300 medals and coins to the Academy of San Carlos.

Tolsá died in 1816 of a gastric ulcer. His remains were interred in the church of Santa Veracruz, and later transferred to San Fernando.

Tolsá's works in Mexico
 Conclusion of the work on the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, including statuary (cupola and facade). This was finished in 1813.
 The Palacio de Minería, Mexico City (1797–1813)

 Equestrian statue of Charles IV (known as El Caballito) (1796–1803; cast on August 4, 1802). Alexander von Humboldt wrote of this statue, "M. Tolsa, professor of sculpture at Mexico, was even able to cast an equestrian statue of King Charles the Fourth; a work which, with the exception of the Marcus Aurelius at Rome, surpasses in beauty and purity of style everything which remains in this way in Europe."
 The old palace of Buenavista (today the Museum of San Carlos)
 The palace of the marqués del Apartado, in front of the Templo Mayor, Mexico City (1810). This is where King Ferdinand VII would have stayed if he had arrived in Mexico.
 Main altar principal of the Cathedral of Puebla and an extant statue of the Virgin in wood, also at Puebla
 Main altar of the church of Santo Domingo
 Main altar of the church of La Profesa. The face of the Virgin seen on the right was apparently modeled on that of "La Güera" Rodríguez (María Ignacia Rodríguez de Velasco y Osorio Barba).
 Altar "La Purísima Concepción" in the church of La Profesa
 Main altar of the Carmelite convent dedicated to San Felipe de Jesús (not extant)
 The fountain at the beginning of the Camino Real to Toluca — an obelisk and a pyramid (not extant)
 Bust of for the tomb of Hernán Cortés, in the Hospital de Jesús
 Bronze statues of Jesus in the Cathedral of Morelia
 Design of the Neoclassical part of the Church of Loreto
 Plans of the Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara
 Plans of the convent of the Propaganda Fide in Orizaba
 Unrealized projects for a bull ring, the palace of the governor of Durango, a cemetery, a convent, etc.
 Celda de la Marquesa de Selva Nevada in the Ex convento de Regina Porta Coeli. Now is the Celda Contemporánea in to Universidad del Claustro de Sor Juana (Cloister of Sor Juana University) in Mexico City.

References

"Tolsá, Manuel," Enciclopedia de México, v. 13. Mexico City: 1987.

External links
 Short biography, a portrait and a photo of the statue of Charles IV

1757 births
1816 deaths
People from Canal de Navarrés
Spanish architects
Mexican architects
Spanish sculptors
Spanish male sculptors
Mexican sculptors
Male sculptors
Spanish neoclassical architects
Colonial Mexico
People from Enguera

Manuel Tolsá


is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Akabeisoft2 and first released for Windows as a DVD on May 29, 2008, in limited and regular editions. The gameplay follows an interactive branching plot line with multiple scenarios, and focuses on the appeal of the four female main characters. The title "G Senjō no Maō" comes from August Wilhelmj's "Air on the G String", an adaptation of J.S. Bach's original "Air", and Schubert's Erlkönig known as Maō in Japan.

Gameplay

Much of the gameplay in The Devil on G-String requires little interaction from the player, because the majority of the time is spent reading the text that appears on the game's screen. The text being displayed represents the thoughts of the characters or the dialogue between them. The player is occasionally presented with choices to determine the direction of the game. Depending on what is chosen, the plot may progress in a specific direction. There are four different routes in total.

Characters
The player assumes the role of , the protagonist of The Devil on G-String and adopted son of a powerful yakuza boss. Though he acts kind and understanding in most social situations, this persona is a pretense used to hide his work as a highly intelligent and ruthless businessman. As the president of one of his father Gonzō's corporations, Kyōsuke employs brutal—and often illegal—business tactics in order to pay off a massive debt accruing intense interest. This debt is held against him by his father and is supposedly partially representative of the costs of raising him, "down to the last sheet of toilet paper". Due to Gonzō's abusive "education" and the severity of Kyōsuke's debt, he views money as the means, end, and purpose of life. Kyōsuke also notably loves classical music.

 is an alias of the primary antagonist of the game. At the start of the game, "Maō's" background is shrouded in secrecy and little is known about him. He seemingly derives his name from Schubert's lied "Erlkönig", but the game later adds multiple layers to this by including references to old role-playing games in which a Demon King is the primary antagonist and to codenames of the character's previous associates.

 is the main heroine of The Devil on G-String. She can be considered a game-theoretical and observational genius as well as a musical prodigy, but her social skills are severely lacking, as evidenced by her awkwardly long, unkempt hair. Haru has a long history with "Maō" but is hesitant to discuss it with the rest of the game's cast. Other characters include: , a close friend of Kyōsuke who harbors a comedic dark side beneath his boy-next-door facade; , Kyōsuke's classmate and an obsessive diary keeper; , the only natural child of Kyōsuke's adoptive father and a world-class figure skater; , another of Kyōsuke's classmates and the daughter of their school's owner; and , Haru's close friend with a talent for criminal psychology and negotiations.

Plot
The Devil on G-String'''s story revolves around Kyōsuke Azai, the adopted son of , a yakuza leader. Kyōsuke works under Gonzō in order to pay off the sum total of a loan taken out by his biological father and the costs of raising Kyōsuke himself under Gonzō's wing. He eventually hopes to reunite with his mother, from whom he was separated many years earlier. At the beginning of the game, a girl named Haru Usami transfers into Kyōsuke's school and introduces herself as "a hero". She initially ignores Kyōsuke, but soon asks him if he knows a person named "Maō". Kyōsuke replies to the peculiar question in the negative, but later that evening, receives a bizarre email from a "Maō". Due to his possible connection to yakuza turf wars, Gonzō instructs Kyōsuke to find and capture the enigmatic figure. The game's expository first chapter ends with "Maō" directly challenging Haru to discover his identity.

The second chapter of the game, "Kidnapping Spree", centers on the struggles of the Miwa family to keep their family's orchard, despite both Kyōsuke and "Maō" independently working with a developer who wishes to buy the land. When "Maō" kidnaps the youngest child of the Miwa family and asks for an exorbitant sum as ransom, Kyōsuke helps the eldest, his classmate Tsubaki, obtain the necessary funds via a yakuza loan. Depending on the player's choices, the Miwa family can be saved (granting an ending showing Tsubaki and Kyōsuke cohabitating years later) or forced to accept the developer's offer in order to repay their debt. In all scenarios, "Maō's" demands are met despite the best efforts of the protagonists and Tsubaki's brother is returned safely. It is first strongly suggested in this chapter that "Maō" may in fact be an alter ego of Kyōsuke: his psychiatrist is shown to be acutely interested in memory lapses that coincide with severe headaches and, for the player, with "Maō's" activity.

The third chapter of the game, "The Mephistopheles Murders", sees "Maō" take on an accomplice in order to kill people involved with Kanon Azai's skating career. He poses as a radical nationalist to gain the trust of his similarly idealistic accomplice; Haru, Kyōsuke, and Haru's friend Yuki work to save Kanon and her chance at an Olympic quota. After capturing and interrogating the accomplice, the protagonists follow his information into a trap: the entire plot was actually a diversion. "Maō's" actual target was Gonzō, whose enemies he had been arming in order to draw his target out personally. Gonzō had considered this possibility and evades the car bombing which was meant to kill him. It is possible for the player to follow an alternate path in this chapter which sees Kanon and Kyōsuke build a romantic relationship, and portrays her figure skating career in a more detailed manner.

In the fourth chapter, "Blind Spot in Negotiations", one of Kyōsuke's classmates takes Mizuha Shiratori and a teacher hostage on the school grounds after hours. Depending on the player's choices, this can be resolved quickly and segue into a romantic subchapter involving Mizuha, or can become a drawn-out affair which eventually leads to "Maō's" final plan. In the latter case, Kyōsuke and his fellow yakuza surround the school while Yuki Tokita, with her extensive knowledge of the criminal mind, negotiates with the captor. Surprisingly, the hostage scenario ends with the revelation that Yuki had enabled the captor to escape at the very beginning of negotiations, and was herself the mastermind behind the event in an attempt to financially ruin Mizuha's father. Furthermore, Yuki is revealed to be Mizuha's neglected half-sister, illuminating her motive. A second, farcical hostage situation occurs when Yuki appears to take Mizuha captive for the second time, but she has no intent to harm her captive. The situation is resolved just as news reaches Kyōsuke that his mother had been killed by a drunk driver.

Shortly thereafter, "Maō" succeeds in killing Gonzō, who had apparently to the player discovered that "Maō" was indeed Kyōsuke. Though by all prior indications "Maō" had been a dissociated identity of the protagonist, the fifth chapter, "G Senjō no Maō", reveals it to be Kyōsuke's supposedly dead older brother Kyōhei. he bears a grudge against Haru and Gonzō because Haru's father, a con artist and civil engineer, took advantage of the death of Kyōsuke's little sister to manipulate his family into accepting Haru's father's enormous gambling debt. Ultimately, Kyōsuke's father murdered Haru's father in revenge, and awaits execution. Similarly, Haru's mother was killed by "Maō" years later; thus orphaned, the familial hatred became mutual in a sense. The title of the game is revealed to be taken from a recurring hallucination associated with post traumatic stress disorder stemming from the moment of Haru's mother's murder: whenever she attempts to play her mother's violin, she sees a demon creep up the instrument's G string. It is revealed that Haru and Kyōsuke met briefly and connected as children.

Later in the chapter, Kyōhei initiates an elaborate scheme that drives the entire downtown area into chaos. Kyōhei informs the police that he will demand his army of trained mercenaries and rebellious youths to stand down pending the release of several criminals, including his father. At the end of the event, as Kyōsuke escapes the area, Kyōhei calls him and fakes an emotional suicide. The ruse is quickly discovered and the police engage in a shootout with Kyōhei, apparently ending in his death.

In the epilogue, Kyōhei is revealed to have faked his death yet again, and pays Haru a visit at Kyōsuke's home. After a struggle and a chase, Haru nearly murders an unarmed Kyōhei out of rage; Kyōsuke takes the shot instead, in a selfless attempt to spare her from the guilt. When the police question him, rather than attempt to generate sympathy by painting the victim as a brutal killer, Kyōsuke attempts to enrage the investigators with a confession of cruel intent in order to blind them to the facts implicating Haru. He successfully eliminates her association with the crime, but is sentenced to eight years in prison. At his release, he is met by Haru and her daughter, who is revealed to be nearly eight and thus Kyōsuke's. At first, he regrets siring a child who will live with the stigma of a criminal father (like himself, his brother, and Haru), but he is soon overcome by the love in his daughter's eyes, and finally lets go of the past to live for the future.

DevelopmentThe Devil on G-String is Akabeisoft2's ninth game in three years, and the second of four games released in 2008 alone. The project is notable as having very few people credited for having taken a part in the creation of the game. Planning for the project and the scenario were headed by Loose Boy. Art direction and character design were done by Alpha.

Release history
Before The Devil on G-Strings initial release, two free game demos became available for download at Akabeisoft2's official website. In the demos, the player is introduced to the main characters in the game that is typical of the gameplay found in a visual novel which includes times during gameplay where the player is given several choices to make in order to further the plot in a specific direction. The full game was first released on May 29, 2008, in limited and regular editions playable as a DVD on a Microsoft Windows PC. The limited edition contained an art collection from Akabeisoft2's previous titles Sharin no Kuni, Himawari no Shōjo, that game's fan disc Sharin no Kuni, Yūkyū no Shōnenshōjo, and Sono Yokogao o Mitsumeteshimau: A Profile Kanzenban, a desk calendar, and a demo of Tayutama: Kiss on my Deity from Akabeisoft2's sister brand Lump of Sugar released two months after The Devil on G-String. An all-ages English version of The Devil on G-String published by Sekai Project was released on Steam on November 5, 2015.

Related media
Two drama CDs set in The Devil on G-String universe were released in 2009, the first on January 9 and the second on June 26. Fourteen episodes of an Internet radio show to promote the drama CDs titled  was distributed on the visual novel's official website between November 7, 2008, and May 8, 2009. The show was hosted by Rino Kawashima and Mahiru Kaneda, the voices of Haru and Eiichi in the visual novel, respectively. The show also featured four other voice actors from the game and drama CDs as guests: Sumire Murasakibana (voice of Tsubaki), Hokuto Minami (voice of Yuki), Satoshi Tsuruoka (voice of Ryūhei Oda (drama CD-only character)), and Jun Fukuyama (voice of Maō, Kyōhei in the drama CDs).

Ichijinsha released a manga anthology titled G Senjō no Maō Comic Anthology on September 25, 2008, under their DNA Media Comics imprint. Ichijinsha also released a fan book titled G Senjō no Maō Visual Fan Book on July 14, 2009.

Music
Most of the game's soundtrack is made up of classical music renditions, arranged by Tiko-μ. In order to enhance this aspect of the game and spread an appreciation for the works the soundtrack is based on, the game includes a feature to show the current soundtrack playing alongside its original classical piece (when applicable). The visual novel has three main theme songs, one opening theme, one insert song played near the end of the game, and one ending theme. The opening theme, "Answer", is sung by Rekka Katakiri, written by Kanoko, and composed by Junpei Fujita. The insert song, "Close Your Eyes", is sung by Ayane, and is written and composed by Chiyomaru Shikura. The ending song, , is performed by Barbarian On The Grove featuring Chata and is written and arranged by Bassy. The two theme songs were included on the compilation album The Best Game Vocals of Akabeisoft2 released on February 23, 2007 featuring theme songs from several games by Akabeisoft2. The game's original soundtrack was released by 5pb. on April 24, 2009 in a three-disc set.

Reception
From mid-March to mid-April 2008, about two months before The Devil on G-String's release, the game ranked second in national PC game pre-orders in Japan. The limited edition of The Devil on G-String ranked second in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in May 2008, and the regular edition ranked twenty-sixth for the same month. The limited edition ranked again for June 2008 at 23rd-highest selling in Japan. The Devil on G-String ranked first for the month of May 2008, in terms of sales at Getchu.com. The game ranked again at sixteen the following month in the same ranking. For the first half of 2008, The Devil on G-String'' ranked third best in sales at Getchu.com. The game received first prize at the Bishōjo Game Awards for 2008.

References

External links
Akabeisoft2's official The Devil on G-String website

2008 video games
Bishōjo games
Eroge
Japan-exclusive video games
Romance video games
Video games developed in Japan
Visual novels
Windows games
Windows-only games
Works about the Yakuza
Single-player video games
Sekai Project games

The Devil on G-String


Euteleostomi is the largest group of vertebrates. Except for hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous fishes all vetebrates are part of this group. All Euteleostomi have a skeleton made of bone, and a skull. In the case of several fish related to the sturgeon, most of the skeleton has again been transformed to cartilage.

References
Vertebrates

Euteleostomi


Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal, until its birth. Mammals can have more than one embryo or fetus at the same time.

The time between fertilization of an ovum and the birth of the young is called the gestation period. Humans have a gestation period of around 37 weeks or about 9 months and 1 week. Syrian hamsters have a gestation period of 16 days. That is believed to be the shortest gestation period for a mammal. The time the gestation period takes depends on the size of the animal, smaller ones have short lengths and bigger ones have the opposite.

Biological reproduction

Gestation


Hi there,

We run an Instagram growth service, which increases your number of followers safely and practically.

We aim to gain you 400-1200+ real human followers per month, with all actions safe as they are made manually (no bots).

The price is just $60 (USD) per month, and we can start immediately.

Let me know if you wish to see some of our previous work.

Kind Regards,
Megan

Ringai zve:

 Vakristu
 Vajudha

Vasalama
Uyisalama

Vasalama


The Berlin State Opera, known in Germany as Staatsoper Unter den Linden is a world famous German opera company. Its permanent home is the Opera House on the Unter den Linden boulevard in Berlin.

Early history
The opera house was opened on 7 December 1742. It was the beginning of a 250-year co-operation between the Staatsoper and the orchestra called Berlin Staatskapelle.  Famous conductors and composers associated with the opera house include Gaspare Spontini, Giacomo Meyerbeer and Richard Strauss.

On 18 August 1843 the Linden Opera was destroyed by fire. The new building was built a year later.  It was called Königliches Opernhaus (Royal Opera House), and it opened with a performance of Meyerbeer's Ein Feldlager in Schlesien.

In 1821, the Berlin Opera gave the first performance of Weber's Der Freischütz. In 1849, it gave the first performance of Otto Nicolai's The Merry Wives of Windsor, conducted by the composer himself.

20th century
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the Royal Court Opera, Berlin, had many famous conductors. They included Felix von Weingartner, Karl Muck, Richard Strauss, and Leo Blech.

After the collapse of the German Empire in 1918, the Opera was renamed Staatsoper unter den Linden and the Königliche Kapelle became Kapelle der Staatsoper.

In the 1920s, Wilhelm Furtwängler, Erich Kleiber, Otto Klemperer, Alexander von Zemlinsky, Bruno Walter
conducted. In 1925, Alban Berg's Wozzeck, was given its first performance conducted by Erich Kleiber with the composer in the audience.

After having had many repairs and improvements, the Linden Opera reopened in April 1928 with a new production of Die Zauberflöte. In the same year, the famous Russian bass Feodor Chaliapin and Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes with conductor Ernest Ansermet were guest performers. In 1930 Erich Kleiber conducted the first performance of Darius Milhaud's Christoph Columbus.

In 1934, when symphonic pieces from Alban Berg's Lulu were performed by Kleiber, the Nazis created a scandal and Kleiber had to go into exile.

When Hitler came to power all the Jews in the orchestra had to leave.  Many went into exile, including the conductors Otto Klemperer and Fritz Busch. During the Third Reich, Robert Heger,  Herbert von Karajan (1939-1945) and Johannes Schüler were the "Staatskapellmeister".

In 1945 The Lindenoper was once again destroyed on 3 February. The second rebuilding took a long time. From 1945, the opera company played in the former Admiralspalast (today's Metropoltheater). From 1949, the company served as state opera of the GDR. It moved back to its original home after the rebuilding in 1955. The newly rebuilt opera house was opened, again, with Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg.

After the Berlin Wall was built in 1961, the Opera continued to perform music from the classical and romantic periods together with contemporary ballet and operas.

After the Germany Reunification, the Linden Opera had links again with the operatic world.  In the 1990s, the opera was officially renamed "Staatsoper Unter den Linden".

In 1992, the Argentine-Israeli conductor Daniel Barenboim was appointed Music Director. In 2000, the orchestra (according to its official website) gave Barenboim the title "conductor for life." During the 2002 Festtage, he led a Wagner cycle in ten parts.

Musical directors

Related pages
 Berlin Staatskapelle

Other websites
 Berlin State Opera website

Buildings and structures in Berlin
Opera houses in Germany

Berlin State Opera


ग्रुप सिद्धान्त गणितयागु छगु ख्यः ख। थुकिगु छ्येलेज्या भौतिकशास्त्र व रसायनशास्त्रय् जुइ।

पुचः यागु छ्येलेज्या गणितय् यक्व थासे अप्वयाना इन्टर्नल सिमेट्रि क्याप्चर यायेत अटोमर्फिज ग्रुप यागु रुपे जुइ। An internal symmetry of a structure is usually associated with an invariant property; the set of transformations that preserve this invariant property, together with the operation of composition of transformations, form a group called a symmetry group.

In Galois theory, which is the historical origin of the group concept, one uses groups to describe the symmetries of the equations satisfied by the solutions to a polynomial equation. The solvable groups are so-named because of their prominent role in this theory.

Abelian groups underlie several other structures that are studied in abstract algebra, such as rings, fields, and modules.

In algebraic topology, groups are used to describe invariants of topological spaces (the name of the torsion subgroup of an infinite group shows the legacy of this field of endeavor). They are called "invariants" because they are defined in such a way that they do not change if the space is subjected to some deformation. Examples include the fundamental group, homology groups and cohomology groups.

The concept of the Lie group (named after mathematician Sophus Lie) is important in the study of differential equations and manifolds; they combine analysis and group theory and are therefore the proper objects for describing symmetries of analytical structures. Analysis on these and other groups is called harmonic analysis.

In combinatorics, the notion of permutation group and the concept of group action are often used to simplify the counting of a set of objects; see in particular Burnside's lemma.

An understanding of group theory is also important in physics and chemistry and material science. In chemistry, groups are used to classify crystal structures, regular polyhedra, and the symmetries of molecules. In physics, groups are important because they describe the symmetries which the laws of physics seem to obey. Physicists are very interested in group representations, especially of Lie groups, since these representations often point the way to the "possible" physical theories.
Physics examples: Standard Model, Gauge theory

इतिहास
There are three historical roots of group theory: the theory of algebraic equations, number theory and geometry. Euler, Gauss, Lagrange, Abel and French mathematician Galois were early researchers in the field of group theory. Galois is honored as the first mathematician linking group theory and field theory, with the theory that is now called Galois theory.

An early source occurs in the problem of forming an th-degree equation having as its roots m of the roots of a given
th-degree equation (). For simple cases the problem goes back to Hudde (1659). Saunderson (1740) noted that the determination of the quadratic factors of a biquadratic expression necessarily leads to a sextic equation, and Le Sœur (1748) and Waring (1762 to 1782) still further elaborated the idea.

A common foundation for the theory of equations on the basis of the group of permutations was found by mathematician Lagrange (1770, 1771), and on this was built the theory of substitutions. He discovered that the roots of all resolvents (résolvantes, réduites) which he examined are rational functions of the roots of the respective equations. To study the properties of these functions he invented a Calcul des Combinaisons. The contemporary work of Vandermonde (1770) also foreshadowed the coming theory.

Ruffini (1799) attempted a proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic and higher equations. Ruffini distinguished what are now called
intransitive and transitive, and imprimitive and primitive groups, and (1801) uses the group of an equation
under the name l'assieme delle permutazioni. He also published a letter from Abbati to himself, in which the group idea is prominent.

Galois found that if  are the  roots of an equation, there is always a group of permutations of the 's such that (1) every function of the roots invariable by the substitutions of the group is rationally known, and (2), conversely, every rationally determinable function of the roots is invariant under the substitutions of the group. Galois also contributed to the theory of modular equations and to that of elliptic functions. His first publication on group theory was made at the age of eighteen (1829), but his contributions attracted little attention until the publication of his collected papers in 1846 (Liouville, Vol. XI).

Arthur Cayley and Augustin Louis Cauchy were among the first to appreciate the importance of the theory, and to the latter especially are due a number of important theorems. The subject was popularised by Serret, who devoted section IV of his algebra to the theory; by Camille Jordan, whose Traité des Substitutions is a classic; and to Eugen Netto (1882), whose Theory of Substitutions and its Applications to Algebra was translated into English by Cole (1892). Other group theorists of the nineteenth century were Bertrand, Charles Hermite, Frobenius, Leopold Kronecker, and Emile Mathieu.

It was Walther von Dyck who, in 1882, gave the modern definition of a group.

The study of what are now called Lie groups, and their discrete subgroups, as transformation groups, started systematically in 1884 with Sophus Lie; followed by work of Killing, Study, Schur, Maurer, and Cartan. The discontinuous (discrete group) theory was built up by Felix Klein, Lie, Poincaré, and Charles Émile Picard, in connection in particular with modular forms and monodromy.

The classification of finite simple groups is a vast body of work from the mid 20th century, which is thought to classify all the finite simple groups.

Other important mathematicians in this subject area include Emil Artin, Emmy Noether, Sylow, and many others.

ग्रुप सिद्धान्त विचातः

ग्रुपयागु अर्थ
मू पौ: पुचः (गणित)
A group (G, *) is a set G with a binary operation * : G × G → G (one that assigns each ordered pair (a,b) in G an element in G denoted by a*b) that satisfies the following 3 axioms:

 Associativity: For all a, b and c in G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
 Identity element: There is an element e in G such that for all a in G, e * a = a * e = a.
 Inverse element: For each a in G, there is an element b in G such that a * b = b * a = e, where e is an identity element.

Order of groups and elements
The order of a group G is the number of elements in the set G. If the order is not finite, then the group is an infinite group.

The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive integer n such that an=e, where an is multiplication of a by itself n times.

For finite groups, it can be shown that the order of every element in the group must divide the order of the group.

Subgroups
A set H is a subgroup of a group G if it is a subset of G and is a group using the operation defined on G. In other words, H is a subgroup of (G, *) if the restriction of * to H is a group operation on H.

If G is a finite group, the order of H divides the order of G.

A subgroup H is a normal subgroup of G if for all h in H and g in G, ghg-1 is also in H. An alternate definition is that a subgroup is normal if its left and right cosets coincide.

Normal subgroups are useful because they can be used to create quotient groups.

Special classes of groups
A group is abelian (or commutative) if the operation is commutative (that is, for all a, b in G, a * b = b * a). A non-abelian group is a group that is not abelian. The term "abelian" is named after the mathematician Niels Abel.

A cyclic group is a group that is generated by a single element.

A simple group is a group that has no nontrivial normal subgroups.

A solvable group , or soluble group, is a group that has a normal series whose quotient groups are all abelian. The fact that S5, the symmetric group in 5 elements, is not solvable proves that some quintic polynomials cannot be solved by radicals.

Operations on groups
A homomorphism is a map between two groups that preserves the structure imposed by the operator. If the map is bijective, then it is an isomorphism. An isomorphism from a group to itself is an automorphism. The set of all automorphisms of a group is a group called the automorphism group. The kernel of a homomorphism is a normal subgroup of the group.

A group action is a map involving a group and a set, where each element in the group defines a bijective map on a set. Group actions are used to prove the Sylow theorems and to prove that the center of a p-group is nontrivial.

Some useful theorems
 Some basic results in elementary group theory
 Lagrange's theorem: if G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then the order (that is, the number of elements) of H divides the order of G.
 Cayley's Theorem: every group G is isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group on G.
 Sylow theorems: perhaps the most useful of the group theorems. Among them, that if pn (and p prime) divides the order of a finite group G, then there exists a subgroup of order pn.
 The Butterfly lemma is a technical result on the lattice of subgroups of a group.
 The Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms relates the structure of two objects between which a homomorphism is given, and of the kernel and image of the homomorphism.
 Jordan-Hölder theorem: any two composition series of a given group are equivalent.
 Krull-Schmidt theorem: a group G, subjected to certain finiteness conditions of chains of subgroups, can be uniquely written as a finite product of indecomposable subgroups.
 Burnside's lemma: the number of orbits of a group action on a set equals the average number of points fixed by each element of the group

Miscellany

James Newman summarized group theory as follows:

The theory of groups is a branch of mathematics in which one does something to something and then compares the results with the result of doing the same thing to something else, or something else to the same thing.

One application of group theory is in musical set theory.

Group theory is also very important to the field of chemistry, where it is used to assign symmetries to molecules. The assigned point groups can then be used to determine physical properties (such as polarity and chirality), spectroscopic properties (particularly useful for Raman spectroscopy and Infrared spectroscopy), and to construct molecular orbitals.

In Philosophy, Ernst Cassirer related the theory of group to the theory of perception as described by Gestalt Psychology; Perceptual Constancy is taken to be analogous to the invariants of group theory.

लिधंसा

   A standard modern reference.
  An inexpensive and fairly readable textbook (somewhat outdated in emphasis, style, and notation).
  Pleasant to read book that explains the importance of group theory and how its symmetries lead to parallel symmetries in the world of physics and other sciences. Really helps congeal the importance of group theory as a practical tool).

पिनेयागु स्वापूतः
 एब्स्ट्र्याक्ट ग्रुप कन्सेप्टयागु इतिहास
 Higher dimensional group theory

गणित

ml:ഗ്രൂപ്പ് സിദ്ധാന്തം

ग्रुप सिद्धान्त


Food preservation is about the ways and means which help to preserve food. Food spoils from bacteria if it is not treated.  For thousands of years, humans have used methods of preserving food, so that they can store food to eat later. The simplest methods of preserving food, such as drying strips of fish or meat in the hot sun have been used for thousands of years, and they are still used today by indigenous peoples. The other ancient method is to use salt, and often drying and salting are done together.

Food is spoiled because microorganisms change it.  There are five basic techniques which make food last longer:
 Killing the microorganisms, or preventing them from multiplying
 Contact of microoganisms with food is prevented
 Certain additives prevent or slow the growth of microoganisms; this is often called curing
Usually several of the techniques are combined.

Methods of preserving food

Common ways of preserving food are:

Heating the food or baking it (a hard corn-flour biscuit stays edible much longer than a bowl of fresh corn)
Pasteurization: Louis Pasteur found that simply heating food kills most microorganisms and makes it last longer. Liquids such as milk are commonly pasteurized. However, the heating has to be done precisely according to a procedure
Converting the food into a longer-lasting form (for example, fresh goat's milk can be converted into cheese or yogurt, which lasts much longer than fresh milk)
Pickling: putting vegetables, meat, or fish in salty water (brine). Salting the food:  Covering it with dry salt
Putting the food in a jar with alcohol (ethanol) or vinegar, also called pickling
Putting large amounts of sugar into the food (for example, as with jam or fruit jarred in sugar and water)
Drying in the sun or in an oven
Smoking the food with the smoke from burning wood. Usually, this is done to food that was salted first.
Keeping the food cold or frozen, including freeze-drying
Adding other preservatives such as sorbates (sorbic acid), sulfites and nitrites.

Multiple methods
Many common methods use several of these approaches at the same time. For example, pickles preserved in a jar are heated then put in a mixture of vinegar and brine. Fruit jams and jellies are heated and mixed with a large amount of sugar. Some preserved fruit is heated and then mixed with alcohol (for example, Brandy) and a large amount of sugar. Smoked hams are cured in brine and then exposed to the smoke from burning wood chips.

Food preservation


The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first international treaty that focuses exclusively on the protection of cultural property in armed conflict. It was signed at The Hague, Netherlands, on 14 May 1954 and entered into force on 7 August 1956. , it has been ratified by 133 states.

The provisions of the 1954 Convention were supplemented and clarified by two protocols concluded in 1954 and 1999. All three agreements are part of International Humanitarian Law, which, in the form of further agreements, primarily includes provisions defining the permissible means and methods of warfare and aiming at the widest possible protection of persons not involved in the fighting. In contrast to these parts of International Humanitarian Law, the agreements on the protection of cultural property were drawn up under the auspices of the United Nations (UN); the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is primarily responsible for the dissemination and monitoring of compliance. In addition to rules designed to ensure the protection and respect of cultural property during an armed conflict, these agreements also provide for security measures to be implemented in times of peace.

Blue Shield International, based in The Hague, is active in the field of international coordination with regard to military and civil structures for the protection of cultural assets.

The guiding principles of the Convention and the motivation for its conclusion, dissemination and respect are summarised in the preamble, which states, among other things:

States parties

, 133 states are party to the treaty and there are 110 States Parties to the First Protocol, while the Second Protocol has 84 States Parties.

Cultural property
For the purposes of the present Convention, the term 'cultural property' shall cover, irrespective of origin or ownership:

(a) movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or secular; archaeological sites; groups of buildings which, as a whole, are of historical or artistic interest; works of art; manuscripts, books and other objects of artistic, historical or archaeological interest; as well as scientific collections and important collections of books or archives or of reproductions of the property defined above;

(b) buildings whose main and effective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable cultural property defined in sub-paragraph (a) such as museums, large libraries and depositories of archives, and refuges intended to shelter, in the event of armed conflict, the movable cultural property defined in sub-paragraph (a);

(c) centers containing a large amount of cultural property as defined in sub-paragraphs (a) and (b), to be known as 'centers containing monuments'.

Cultural property is the manifestation and expression of the cultural heritage of a group of people or a society. It is an expression of the ways of living developed by a community and passed on from generation to generation, including the customs of a people, their practices, places, objects, artistic endeavours and values. The protection of cultural property during times of armed conflict or occupation is of great importance, because such property reflects the life, history and identity of communities; its preservation helps to rebuild communities, re-establish identities, and link people's past with their present and future.

History

Preceding conventions
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 preceded the Hague Convention of 1954. The multilateral agreement of 1899 and the slightly amended later version of 1907 contained in Article 27 the commandment for the attacking party to spare historical monuments, educational institutions and institutions of religious, not-for-profit, artistic or scientific significance as far as possible during sieges and bombardments. The party under attack is called upon to mark appropriate buildings. Article 56 also contained a general ban on the confiscation, destruction or damage of such facilities. However, during the First World War, acceptance of these first Hague Conventions was severely restricted by the so-called all-participation clause. It stated that, in the event of war or armed conflict, this Agreement should apply only if all States involved in that conflict are parties to the Convention.

The Russian lawyer, painter and writer Nicholas Roerich, who witnessed the destruction of cultural assets in Russia during the First World War and the October Revolution, initiated the development of an independent treaty at the beginning of the 1930s to protect cultural assets during armed conflicts. On his initiative, Georges Chklaver of the Institute for Higher International Studies at the University of Paris drew up a corresponding draft in 1929. This proposal was subsequently discussed by the International Museum Office of the League of Nations and at private conferences in Bruges in 1931 and 1932 and in Washington, D.C. in 1933. The seventh international conference of American states, which took place in Buenos Aires in 1933, recommended the adoption of the draft. The Board of the Pan-American Union subsequently presented a treaty "on the protection of artistic and scientific institutions and historical monuments", which was signed on 15 April 1935 in the White House by 21 states in North, Central and South America. Ten of the signatory states also became parties by ratification, the first of which was the United States on 13 July 1935 and the last of which was Colombia on 20 February 1937. The agreement, also known as the Roerich Pact after its initiator, entered into force on 26 August 1935.

The Roerich Pact contained eight articles and several significant innovations compared with the general provisions of Articles 27 and 56 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. On the one hand, the treaty established the status of neutrality for historical monuments, museums, scientific and artistic institutions as well as educational and cultural institutions. This legal position, comparable to the neutrality of medical personnel and comparable institutions during a war, resulted in respect for these goods by all parties involved in a conflict and thus their protection. The Parties should send lists of monuments and sites for which they claimed protection under the Treaty to the Pan-American Union, which should forward them to all States Parties.

In addition, the Treaty defined a protection mark for the marking of cultural objects, consisting of three red dots in a red circle on a white background. Nicholas Roerich, who designed it with early symbolism in mind, described the significance of the three points as a symbol of art, science and religion as the three most important cultural activities of humanity, with the circle as the element that linked these three aspects in the past, present and future. The symbol was also called the "Banner of Peace", the movement based on the Roerich Pact under the name Pax Cultura in analogy to the Geneva Conventions as the "Red Cross of Culture".

However, the acceptance of the Roerich Pact was limited to the United States and the countries of Central and South America. Not a single country in Europe and Asia, the geopolitical focus of the Second World War that began a few years later, signed or ratified the treaty. Even though it remains valid in relations between the parties and the Organization of American States (OAS) and continues to act as a depositary in succession to the Pan-American Union, the Roerich Pact remained without significant practical relevance. As the USA is not party to the 1999 Second Protocol of the Hague Convention, the Roerich Pact is therefore still of importance as a contractual obligation in the area of cultural property protection. Nevertheless, with the establishment of a protective label and the administration of lists of cultural assets worthy of protection by a central international institution, this treaty introduced two important far-reaching principles in the area of the protection of cultural assets in armed conflicts that remain important today.

Only four years after the Roerich Pact was signed, the government of the Netherlands presented a draft for a new convention, in the drafting of which the International Museum Office of the League of Nations was also significantly involved. However, the start of the Second World War in the same year prevented all further steps to develop and implement this proposal. After the end of the war, in 1948 the Netherlands again submitted a proposal to UNESCO, which had been founded three years earlier. In 1951, the General Conference of UNESCO decided to set up a committee of governmental experts to draft a new convention. A year later, this committee submitted a draft to the General Conference, which forwarded it to the national governments for further discussion. From 21 April to 14 May 1954, an international conference was held in The Hague with the participation of 56 states, which drew up a final version and adopted it as the "Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict". The agreement entered into force on 7 August 1956. After the 1948 Genocide Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, this was the second important agreement in the field of international humanitarian law to which the United Nations played a major role in its creation and implementation.

Destruction of cultural property in World War II

The Nazis and "degenerate art"
The Nazi Party headed by Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933 after the country's crippling defeat, and its socioeconomic distress during the years following World War I. World War II was aimed at reclaiming the glory of the once great Germanic state. Cultural property of many European nations and significant ethnic and social groups within them fell victim to Nazi Germany. The Nazi party, through the Third Reich, confiscated close to 20% of all Western European art during the war. By the end of the Second World War, the Nazi party had looted and collected thousands of objects, art works and artefacts from occupied nations, destroyed many, or stored them in secret.

With artists depicting the hardship of the German people after World War I, and further expressing the fear of anti-Semitism and fascism, the Nazi party and Hitler himself soon realised the dangerous power of art, and began to clamp down on artistic production and forcing both artists and the public alike to adhere to a Nazi-approved style.

Inherent within the Nazi's ideology was the idea of supremacy of the Aryan Race and all that it produced; as such the Nazi campaign's aims were to neutralize non-Germanic cultures and this was done through the destruction of culturally significant art and artefacts. This is illustrated greatest in the Jewish communities throughout Europe; by devising a series of laws that allowed them to justify and regulate the legal confiscation of cultural and personal property. Within Germany the looting of German Jewish cultural property began with the confiscation of non-Germanic artwork in the German state collection. Further, artists that were Jewish and artworks that did not match the Nazi ideology, or posed a threat to it, were stamped as degenerate art. Degenerate works of art, culminating in the infamous exhibition with the same name, were those whose subject, artist, or art was either Jewish or expressed Anti-Nazi sentiments, and was as such offensive to the Third Reich.

Jewish collections were looted the most throughout the war. German Jews were ordered to report their personal assets, which were then privatized by the country. Jewish owned art galleries were forced to sell the works of art they housed. The Nazis concentrated their efforts on ensuring that all art within Germany would be Aryan in nature, speaking to the might of the Germanic state rather than Jewish art which was deemed as a blight on society. In a feat to "purge" German museums and collections, confiscation committees seized approximately 16,000 items within Germany. The remaining unexploited art was destroyed in massive bonfires. As the war progressed, the Nazi party elite ordered the confiscation of cultural property throughout various European countries.

Nazi plunder in Eastern Europe

In the Soviet Union, Nazi plunder of cultural significant art is best illustrated in the Third Reich's pillage of the Catherine Palace near St Petersburg and its famous Amber Room dating to the early 1700s. In October 1941, the Nazis had occupied the western portion of the Soviet Union, and began removing art treasures to the west. The entirety of the Amber Room was removed to Königsberg and reconstructed there. In January 1945, with the Russian army advancing on the city, the Amber Room was ordered to be moved again but its fate is thereafter unclear. A post-war Russian report concluded that 'summarizing all the facts, we can say that the Amber Room was destroyed between 9 and 11 April 1945' during the battle to take the city. However, in the absence of definitive proof, other theories about its fate continue to be entertained to the present day. With financial assistance from German donors, Russian craftsmen reconstructed a new Amber Room during the 1990s. The new room was dedicated by Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder at the 300th anniversary of the city of Saint Petersburg.

After World War II
With the conclusion of the Second World War and the subsequent defeat of the Axis Powers, the atrocities which the Nazi leadership condoned, leading to the removal of culturally significant items and the destruction of numerous others could not be allowed to occur in future generations. This led the victorious Allied forces to create provisions to ensure safeguards for culturally significant items in times of war. As a result, following the signature of the Roerich Pact by the American States in 1935, attempts were undertaken to draft a more comprehensive convention for the protection of monuments and works of art in time of war. In 1939, a draft convention, elaborated under the auspices of the International Museums Office, was presented to governments by the Netherlands. Due to the onset of the Second World War the draft convention was shelved with no further steps being taken. With the conclusion of the war, a new proposal was submitted to UNESCO by the Netherlands in 1948. The General Conference of UNESCO in 1951 decided to convene a committee of government experts to draft a convention. This committee met in 1952 and thereafter submitted its drafts to the General Conference. The intergovernmental Conference, which drew up and adopted the Convention and the further Acts, took place at The Hague from 21 April to 14 May 1954 where 56 States were represented. Following this international agreement The Hague Convention For the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict would come into force in 1956 in order to be an instrument of non derogation for the states bound by the document to stop the looting and destruction of cultural property.

The Hague Convention
The Hague Convention outlines various prohibitions and obligations which States Parties are expected to observe, both in peacetime and in times of conflict.

Broadly, the Hague Convention requires that States Parties adopt protection measures during peacetime for the safeguarding of cultural property. Such measures include the preparation of inventories, preparation for the removal of movable cultural property and the designation of competent authorities responsible for the safeguarding of cultural property.

States Parties undertake to respect cultural property, not only located within their own territory, but also within the territory of other States Parties, during times of conflict and occupation. In doing so, they agree to refrain from using cultural property and its immediate surroundings for purposes likely to expose it to destruction or damage in the event of armed conflict. States Parties also agree to refrain from any act of hostility directed against such property.

The Convention also requires the establishment of special units within national military forces, to be charged with responsibility for the protection of cultural property. Furthermore, States Parties are required to implement criminal sanctions for breaches of the Convention, and to undertake promotion of the Convention to the general public, cultural heritage professionals, the military and law-enforcement agencies.

An example of the successful implementation of the Hague Convention was the Gulf War, in which many members of the coalition forces (who were either party to the Convention or who, in the instance of the US, were not party to the Convention) accepted the Convention's rules, most notably by creating a "no-fire target list" of places where cultural property was known to exist.

Safeguarding cultural property
The obligation of States Parties to safeguard cultural property in peacetime is outlined in Article 3. It stipulates:

'The High Contracting Parties undertake to prepare in time of peace for the safeguarding of cultural property situated within their own territory against the foreseeable effects of an armed conflict, by taking such measures, as they consider appropriate.'

Respect for cultural property
The Hague Convention sets out a minimum level of respect which all States Parties must observe, both in relation to their own national heritage as well as the heritage of other States Parties. States are obliged not to attack cultural property, nor to remove or misappropriate movable property from its territory of origin. Only exceptional cases of 'military necessity' will excuse derogation from this obligation. However, a State Party is not entitled to ignore the Convention's rules by reason of another Party's failure to implement safeguarding measures alone.

This is set out in Article 4 of the Hague Convention:

Occupation
The rules set out in the Hague Convention also apply to States who are Occupying Powers of territory during conflict or otherwise. The Convention obliges Occupying Powers to respect the cultural property of the occupied territory, and to support local national authorities in its preservation and repair when necessary. This obligation is articulated in Article 5:

Special protection
The Hague Convention establishes a 'special protection' regime, which obliges States Parties to ensure the immunity of cultural property under special protection from acts of hostility (Articles 8 and 9). Under Article 8, this protection may be granted to one of three categories of cultural property: (1) refuges intended to shelter movable cultural property in the event of armed conflict; (2) centers containing monuments; and (3) other immovable cultural property of very great importance. To receive special protection, cultural property must also be located an adequate distance from an industrial center or location which would render it vulnerable to attack, and must not be used for military purposes.

First Protocol to the Hague Convention
The First Protocol was adopted at the same time as the Hague Convention, on 14 May 1954. It specifically applies to movable cultural property only, and prohibits the export of movable property from occupied territory and also requires its return to its original territory at the conclusion of hostilities (Article 1). States Parties under the obligation to prevent the export of such property may be required to pay an indemnity to States whose property was removed during hostilities.

Second Protocol to the Hague Convention

Criminal acts committed against cultural property in the late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s highlighted the deficiencies in the implementation of the Hague Convention and its First Protocol. As a result of the 'Boylan review' (a review of the Convention led by Professor Patrick Boylan), the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention was adopted at a Diplomatic Conference held at The Hague in March 1999. The Second Protocol seeks complement and expand upon the provisions of the Hague Convention, by including developments in international humanitarian law and cultural property protection which had emerged since 1954. It builds on the provisions contained in the Convention relating to the safeguarding of and respect for cultural property, as well as the conduct of hostilities; thereby providing greater protection for cultural property than that conferred by the Hague Convention and its First Protocol.

Enhanced protection

One of the most important features of the Second Protocol is the 'enhanced protection' regime it establishes. This new category of cultural property is outlined in Chapter Three of the Second Protocol. Enhanced protection status means that the relevant cultural property must remain immune from military attack, once it is inscribed on the List of Cultural Property Under Enhanced Protection. While the 1954 Hague Convention requires States not to make any cultural property the object of attack except for cases of 'military necessity', the Second Protocol stipulates that cultural property under enhanced protection must not be made a military target, even if it has (by its use) become a 'military objective'. An attack against cultural property which enjoys enhanced protection status is only excusable if such an attack is the 'only feasible means of terminating the use of property [in that way]' (Article 13).

To be granted enhanced protection, the cultural property in question must satisfy the three criteria stipulated in Article 10 of the Second Protocol. The three conditions are:

Currently there are 13 cultural properties from 8 States Parties inscribed on the Enhanced Protection List. These include sites in Azerbaijan, Belgium, Cambodia, Cyprus, Georgia, Italy, Lithuania, and Mali.

The Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
Article 24 of the Second Protocol establishes a 12-member Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Its members are elected for a term of four years, and an equitable geographic representation is taken into account at the election of its members. The Committee meets once a year in ordinary session, and in extraordinary sessions if and when it deems necessary.

The Committee is responsible for the granting, suspension and cancellation of enhanced protection to cultural properties nominated by States Parties. It also receives and considers requests for international assistance which are submitted by States, as well as determining the use of the Fund for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Under Article 27 of the Second Protocol, the Committee also has a mandate to develop Guidelines for the implementation of the Second Protocol.

The Fund for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict
Article 29 of the Second Protocol establishes the Fund for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Its purpose is to provide financial or other assistance for 'preparatory or other measures to be taken in peacetime'. It also provides financial or other assistance in relation to 'emergency, provisional or other measures to protect cultural property during periods of armed conflict', or for recovery at the end of hostilities. The Fund consists of voluntary contributions from States Parties to the Second Protocol. In 2016, the sums of US$50,000 and US$40,000 were provided to Libya and Mali respectively from the Fund, in response to their requests for assistance in the installation of emergency and safeguarding measures.

Sanctions and individual criminal responsibility
Chapter Four of the Second Protocol specifies sanctions to be imposed for serious violations against cultural property, and defines the conditions in which individual criminal responsibility should apply. This reflects an increased effort to fight impunity through effective criminal prosecution since the adoption of the Hague Convention in 1954. The Second Protocol defines five 'serious violations' for which it establishes individual criminal responsibility (Article 15):
 making cultural property under enhanced protection the object of attack;
 using cultural property under enhanced protection or its immediate surroundings in support of military action;
 extensive destruction or appropriation of cultural property protected under the Convention and this Protocol;
 making cultural property protected under the Convention and this Protocol the object of attack; and
 theft, pillage or misappropriation of, or acts of vandalism directed against cultural property protected under the Convention.
States are obligated to adopt appropriate legislation to make these violations criminal offences under their domestic legislation, to stipulate appropriate penalties for these offences, and to establish jurisdiction over these offences (including universal jurisdiction for three of the five serious violations, as set out in Article 16(1)(c)).

An example of prosecution for crimes against cultural property is The Prosecutor v Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi case, handed down by the International Criminal Court on 27 September 2016. Al Mahdi was charged with and pleaded guilty to the war crime of intentionally directing attacks against historic monuments and buildings dedicated to religion, and sentenced to nine years' imprisonment. Al Mahdi was a member of the Ansar Eddine group (a group associated with Al Qaeda), and a co-perpetrator of damaging and destroying nine mausoleums and one mosque in Timbuktu, Mali, in 2012.

Military Manual

In 2016 UNESCO, in collaboration with the Sanremo International Institute of Humanitarian Law, published a manual titled 'Protection of Cultural Property: Military Manual'. This manual outlines the rules and obligations contained in the Second Protocol, and provides practical guidance on how these rules should be implemented by military forces around the world. It also contains suggestions as to best military practices in relation to these obligations. It relates only to the international laws governing armed conflict, and does not discuss military assistance that is provided in connection with other circumstances such as natural disasters.

Implementation of the Convention

Punishment for infringements
The Rome Statute, adopted in July 1998 and entering into force four years later, as the legal basis of the International Criminal Court (ICC), defines in Article 8(2) deliberate attacks against buildings of a religious, educational, artistic, scientific or non-profit nature and against historical monuments as war crimes in both international and non-international armed conflicts. The International Criminal Court is thus authorised to prosecute such crimes if such an act was committed either by a national of a Contracting Party or on the territory of a Contracting Party. However, it only exercises its competence if the country concerned is unwilling or unable to ensure effective prosecution itself. Since September 2015, Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi has been charged with the destruction of mausoleums in Timbuktu in the first trial before the ICC over the destruction of cultural assets.

Siege of Dubrovnik and the Mostar Bridge

Article 3 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia also contains provisions that allow the prosecution of violations of the fundamental principles of the Hague Convention of 1954. On the basis of this article, for the first time since the conclusion of the Convention, proceedings were brought in an international court for the destruction of cultural property during an armed conflict.

From the time of its establishment the city of Dubrovnik was under the protection of the Byzantine Empire; after the Fourth Crusade the city came under the sovereignty of Venice 1205–1358 CE, and by the Treaty of Zadar in 1358, it became part of the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom. Following the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the city was annexed by Austria and remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the conclusion of the First World War. From 1918 to 1939 Dubrovnik was part of the Zetska Banovina District that established its Croatian connections. From 1945 to 1990 Croatia would become part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. One of the most striking features of the historic city of Dubrovnik, and that which gives its characteristic appearance are its intact medieval fortifications. Its historic city walls run uninterrupted encircling the Old-City. This complex structure of fortification is one of the most complete depictions of medieval construction in the Mediterranean, consisting of a series of forts, bastions, casemates, towers and detached forts. Within the Old City are many medieval churches, cathedrals, and palaces from the Baroque period, encircled by its fortified wall, which would ensure its listed place by UNESCO as a world heritage site in 1972. The Old Town is not only an architectural and urban ensemble of high quality, but it is also full of museums and libraries, such as the collection of the Ragusan masters in the Dominican Monastery, the Museum of the History of Dubrovnik, the Icon Museum, and the libraries of the Franciscan and Dominican Monasteries. It also houses the archives of Ragusa, which have been kept continuously since the 13th century and are a very important source for Mediterranean history. The archives hold materials created by the civil service in the Republic of Ragusa.

The Siege of Dubrovnik was a military engagement fought between the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and Croatian forces which defended the city of Dubrovnik and its surroundings during the Croatian War of Independence. The Old Town was specifically targeted by the JNA even though it served no military purpose to bomb this town. At the heart of the bombing efforts by the JNA elite was the complete eradication of the memory of the Croatian people and history by erasing their cultural heritage and destroying their cultural property. The court's convictions, which among other charges were also based on this article, were issued in February 2001 against Dario Kordić, a commander of the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) during the war in Bosnia, against Miodrag Jokić, a senior commander in the navy of the Yugoslav People's Army during the Battle of Dubrovnik in 1991, and against Milan Martić, a politician and military leader of the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina. The attacks on the Herzegovinian city of Mostar, which in November 1993 led to the destruction of the Stari most bridge, internationally recognised as an outstanding cultural asset, led to the trial of six defendants before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in April 2006. Among them is the Croatian General Slobodan Praljak, who is suspected of having ordered the fire on the bridge.

The historic town of Mostar, spanning a deep valley of the Neretva River, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries as an Ottoman frontier town and during the Austro-Hungarian period in the 19th and 20th centuries. Mostar was mostly known for its old Turkish houses and specifically the Old Bridge; the Stari Mostar, after which it is named. In the 1990s conflict with the former Yugoslavia, however, most of the historic town and the Old Bridge were destroyed purposely by Croatian Army and their allies. This type of destruction was in step with that of the Old Town of Dubrovnik, where the aim was the eradication of the memory of the people that once occupied the land, an effort reminiscent of the Third Reich and the Nazi party. The attacks on the Herzegovinian city of Mostar, which in November 1993 led to the destruction of the Stari most bridge, internationally recognised as an outstanding cultural asset, led to the trial of six defendants before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in April 2006. Among them is the Croatian General Slobodan Praljak, who is suspected of having ordered the firing of the bridge.

Khmer Rouge Tribunal

The Khmer Rouge Tribunal, established by the United Nations together with the government of Cambodia in July 2006, has the possibility of prosecuting the destruction of cultural assets during the Khmer Rouge dictatorship from April 1975 to January 1979, with explicit reference to the Hague Convention of 1954, pursuant to Article 7 of the Law on the Establishment of Extraordinary Chambers. During this time, most of the more than 3,300 temples and 130 mosques in Cambodia were severely damaged by the Khmer Rouge. They also destroyed all 73 Catholic churches and many other sites of religious or cultural significance. The Hague Convention of 1954 can be applied in principle, since Cambodia became a party to the Convention in 1962, before the Khmer Rouge came to power, and because Article 19 of the Convention stipulates that even in non-international armed conflicts, each party to the conflict is bound at least by the provisions on respect for cultural property.

However, it is not yet known whether and to what extent trials will be instituted in the court which are based on the destruction of cultural property. A possible problem with the application of Article 7 and thus with the Hague Convention, is that it is a legal requirement to establish the existence of an armed conflict. This would then resemble the definition commonly used in international humanitarian law. Whether such an assessment of the Khmer Rouge dictatorship will be possible, cannot yet be predicted.

Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL

Deliberate destruction and theft of cultural heritage has been conducted by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant since 2014 in Iraq, Syria, and to a lesser extent in Libya.  The destruction targets various places of worship under ISIL control and ancient historical artifacts. In Iraq, between the fall of Mosul in June 2014 and February 2015, ISIL has plundered and destroyed at least 28 historical religious buildings. The valuable items from some buildings were looted in order to smuggle and sell them to finance ISIL activities.

Although Libya, Syria and Iraq ratified the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict in 1957, 1958 and 1967 respectively, it has not been effectively enforced.

International acceptance and partnering organisations
As of June 2018, 131 states have become party to the Hague Convention of 1954 and 109 states to the first protocol. 77 states have become party to the Second Protocol of 1999.

Of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, France became a party in 1957. Russia is contracting party in legal succession of the Soviet Union, which also became party in 1957. the People's Republic of China ratified the convention in 2000 and the United States acceded in 2009. The United Kingdom signed the Agreement in 1954 and ratified the Convention and acceded to the Protocols in 2017.

The main reason for the long period between signature and ratification by the United States were the reservations of the US Department of Defense during the Cold War, that the Convention's obligations regarding the possible use of nuclear weapons could not be fulfilled. The Joint Chiefs of Staff, to which the commanders-in-chief of all units of the American armed forces belong, unanimously declared itself in 1995 in favour of voluntary compliance with the Convention. On 6 January 1999, then US President Bill Clinton recommended that the US Senate ratify both agreements. In his opinion, they were not only in accordance with the principles and methods of the American Armed Forces, but were even based on them in essential aspects. After the Senate approved accession in September 2008, the US Ambassador to UNESCO, Stephen Engelken, handed over the instrument of ratification to Kōichirō Matsuura, Secretary-General of UNESCO on 13 March 2009. On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the signing of the Convention on 14 May 2004, the Government of the United Kingdom declared its intention to become a party to the Convention and the two Protocols. This was due to the conclusion of the Second Protocol of 1999, which, in the view of the British government, eliminated essential weaknesses and ambiguities of the 1954 Convention. A draft law containing ratification of the Convention, the two protocols and criminal law provisions was announced by the UK government in November 2006.

UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a legally independent specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris, working in the field of dissemination and implementation of the protection of cultural property in armed conflicts. It acts as depositary of the Hague Convention of 1954 and its two Protocols and administers the International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection.

Blue Shield International

In addition, Blue Shield International (formerly the International Committee of the Blue Shield, ICBS; in French Comité International du Bouclier Bleu, CIBB) has existed since 1996. Its mission is to improve international cooperation in the field of cultural heritage protection and to support local and regional activities. The Second Protocol of 1999 explicitly mentions in Articles 11 and 27 the consultative role of the International Committee of the Blue Shield in the implementation of the Agreement. Since the International Committee was founded in 1996, national Blue Shield Committees have been established in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Brazil, Chile, Curaçao, Denmark, France, Georgia, Guatemala, Haiti, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Madagascar, Macedonia, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Senegal, Spain, the Czech Republic, Ukraine and the US, comparable to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. The Association of the National Committees of the Blue Shield (ANCBS) was established on September 28, 2006 as the umbrella organization for the national committees. ANCBS and ICBS merged in 2016, to become the Blue Shield. International activities are now represented by Blue Shield International, who also work to coordinate and support the work of the national committees.

While in many wars the freedom of movement of United Nations personnel is significantly restricted due to security concerns, Blue Shield is regarded as particularly suitable due to its structure to act flexibly and autonomously in armed conflicts. Despite the partial dissolution of state structures and the very unclear security situation resulting from the wars and unrest in Iraq, Syria, Mali, Egypt and Libya, the employees of Blue Shield and its national organizations then carried out very robust undertakings to protect the cultural assets there. This concerns in particular the collection of cultural assets to be protected, the compilation with local experts of "no-strike lists" (which preserve the coordinates of important cultural monuments), the linking of civil and military structures and the training of local military personnel with regard to the protection of cultural assets. From Blue Shield's point of view, it is not enough to develop and adopt international law norms such as the Second Protocol to the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict or the Doha Statement of the Conference of 'Ulamâ on Islam and Cultural Heritage'. It is necessary to implement these standards effectively on a global scale. This also concerns the prevention of the illicit trade in antiquities and stolen cultural assets to finance military conflicts. As a result of the destruction of cultural assets by armed conflict, war and unrest in Iraq, Syria, Mali or Afghanistan, but also by earthquakes such as in Haiti or Nepal, cooperation has developed between Blue-Shield and national armed forces such as the US Army or the British Army.

Other civil society structures
The "International League of National Societies for the Protection of Cultural Property", based in the Swiss city of Freiburg, was also established in May 1997 as an international umbrella organisation. Through the activities of these national and international organisations and associations, which also include the protection of cultural property against disasters in times of peace, civil society structures will play an increasing role in the field of cultural property protection and support the work of state and international institutions.

One example of international cooperation in the protection of cultural assets was the temporary storage of art treasures from the National Museum in Kabul, Afghanistan, in Switzerland. The art objects, which were severely threatened in the National Museum both by the Afghan Civil War (1996–2001) that lasted until 1995 and by the subsequent rule of the Taliban regime, were moved to a so-called "Afghanistan Museum in Exile" in the Swiss town of Bubendorf in 1999 with the consent of all parties to the conflict. The exhibition, which was supported primarily by the voluntary work of Swiss citizens and exiled Afghans, as well as by donations of around 1.5 million Swiss francs and supervised by the Swiss Afghanistan Institute based in Bubendorf, was open to the public from October 2000 to October 2006 and was visited by around 50,000 people during this time. In March 2007, the objects were returned to Kabul under the direction of UNESCO and with the support of the German Air Force. According to the spokesman of the Bubendorf Museum, this was the largest return of art objects since the end of the Second World War.

In contrast, the Iraqi National Museum in Baghdad was heavily plundered and damaged from 8 to 12 April 2003, some three weeks after the start of the Iraq War. The museum was reopened only three years earlier on 28 April 2000, nine years after its closure as a result of the Second Gulf War. Later investigations carried out by a US commission in collaboration with museum staff found evidence of at least three independent incidents. According to the Commission's findings, the looting was sometimes spontaneous and indiscriminate. However, a number of indications also pointed out that the thieves had a good knowledge of the museum and expert knowledge of the cultural assets on display. Although particularly valuable objects were kept in the cellar of the museum in the run-up to the war, considerable losses were also incurred here. The Commission corrected initial estimates of some 170,000 stolen works of art to 11,000–15,000 stolen objects. By the time the study results were published in 2005, about 5,000 of them had been recovered in various ways.

See also
 National heritage site
 Roerich pact
 The Blue Shield

Notes

References
 International Council on Monuments and Sites — Contains the full text of the Treaty
 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict - 1954 (information by UNESCO)
 "Implementing the 1954 Hague Convention and its Protocols: legal and practical implications" Patrick J Boylan, City University London, UK Feb 2006
 "The destruction of cultural property during armed conflict" Asser Institute 16 December 2004
 The Blue Shield International website
 U.S. Committee of the Blue Shield
 "International Humanitarian Law - Treaties & Documents" 2005
 "UNESCO"

Further reading
 Patrick J. Boylan, Review of the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property for the Protection in the Event of Armed Conflict (The Hague Convention of 1954),  Paris, UNESCO (1993), Report ref. CLT-93/WS/12.
 Emma Cunliffe and Paul Fox. 2022. Safeguarding Cultural Property and the 1954 Hague Convention: All Possible Steps. Boydell & Brewer.
 Jiri Toman, La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé - Commentaire de la Convention de la Haye du 14 mai 1954, Paris, (1994).
 Fabio Maniscalco, Jus Praedae, Naples (1999).
 Fabio Maniscalco (ed.), Protection of Cultural Heritage in war areas, monographic collection "Mediterraneum", vol. 2 (2002).
 Fabio Maniscalco, World Heritage and War - monographic series "Mediterraneum", vol. VI, Naples (2007).
 Nout van Woudenberg & Liesbeth Lijnzaad (ed.). Protecting Cultural Property in Armed Conflict - An Insight into the 1999 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, publ. Martinus Nijhoff. Leiden - Boston (2010)
 Peter Barenboim, Naeem Sidiqi, Bruges, the Bridge between Civilizations: The 75 Anniversary of the Roerich Pact, Grid Belgium, 2010.

International humanitarian law treaties
Art and cultural repatriation
UNESCO treaties
Treaties concluded in 1954
Treaties entered into force in 1956
Art and culture treaties
Treaties of Afghanistan
Treaties of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania
Treaties of Angola
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Azerbaijan
Treaties of Bahrain
Treaties of Bangladesh
Treaties of Barbados
Treaties of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
Treaties of Belgium
Treaties of Benin
Treaties of Bolivia
Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Treaties of Botswana
Treaties of the Second Brazilian Republic
Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Treaties of Burkina Faso
Treaties of Cameroon
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Chad
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of the People's Republic of China
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Ivory Coast
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of Cyprus
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Czechoslovakia
Treaties of the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of Djibouti
Treaties of the Dominican Republic
Treaties of Ecuador
Treaties of the Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Equatorial Guinea
Treaties of Eritrea
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of the French Fourth Republic
Treaties of Gabon
Treaties of Georgia (country)
Treaties of West Germany
Treaties of East Germany
Treaties of Ghana
Treaties of Greece
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Guinea
Treaties of the Holy See
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic
Treaties of India
Treaties of Indonesia
Treaties of Pahlavi Iran
Treaties of the Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)
Treaties of Ireland
Treaties of Israel
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Japan
Treaties of Jordan
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of Kuwait
Treaties of Kyrgyzstan
Treaties of Latvia
Treaties of Lebanon
Treaties of the Kingdom of Libya
Treaties of Liechtenstein
Treaties of Lithuania
Treaties of Luxembourg
Treaties of Madagascar
Treaties of Malaysia
Treaties of Mali
Treaties of Mauritius
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of Monaco
Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic
Treaties of Montenegro
Treaties of Morocco
Treaties of Myanmar
Treaties of the Netherlands
Treaties of New Zealand
Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Niger
Treaties of Nigeria
Treaties of Norway
Treaties of Oman
Treaties of Pakistan
Treaties of the State of Palestine
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Papua New Guinea
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Peru
Treaties of Poland
Treaties of Portugal
Treaties of Qatar
Treaties of Moldova
Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania
Treaties of the Soviet Union
Treaties of Rwanda
Treaties of San Marino
Treaties of Saudi Arabia
Treaties of Senegal
Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro
Treaties of Seychelles
Treaties of Slovakia
Treaties of Slovenia
Treaties of South Africa
Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Sri Lanka
Treaties of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of the United Arab Republic
Treaties of Tajikistan
Treaties of Thailand
Treaties of North Macedonia
Treaties of Tunisia
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of Turkmenistan
Treaties of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Treaties of Tanzania
Treaties of Togo
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of Uzbekistan
Treaties of Venezuela
Treaties of the Yemen Arab Republic
Treaties of South Yemen
Treaties of Yugoslavia
Treaties of Zimbabwe
1954 in the Netherlands
Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands
Treaties extended to Greenland
Treaties extended to Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Treaties extended to the Caribbean Netherlands
20th century in The Hague


Brodmann area 31, also known as dorsal posterior cingulate area 31, is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined cingulate region of the cerebral cortex. In the human, it occupies portions of the posterior cingulate gyrus and medial aspect of the parietal lobe. Approximate boundaries are the cingulate sulcus dorsally and the parieto-occipital sulcus caudally. It partially surrounds the subparietal sulcus, the ventral continuation of the cingulate sulcus in the parietal lobe. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded rostrally by the ventral anterior cingulate area 24, ventrally by the ventral posterior cingulate area 23, dorsally by the gigantopyramidal area 4 and preparietal area 5 and caudally by the superior parietal area 7 (H) (Brodmann-1909).

See also

 Brodmann area

References

31
 Medial surface of cerebral hemisphere

Brodmann area 31


Paulie is a 1998 family movie about a talking parrot named "Paulie". It was directed by John Roberts and written by Laurie Craig, and it was produced by Mark Gordon, Gary Levinsohn, and Allyson Lyon Segan for Mutual Film Company and DreamWorks Pictures. It stars Jay Mohr as Paulie's voice and Tony Shalhoub as a janitor who finds the parrot kept captive in a biological research laboratory. It also stars Gena Rowlands, Cheech Marin, Bruce Davison, Trini Alvarado, and Buddy Hackett in his final film role.

The film was released on VHS in 1998 by DreamWorks Home Entertainment.

1998 movies
American family movies
English-language movies
Movies about birds

Paulie (movie)


220.127.116.11 is a British 2010 crime-thriller movie. The movie is about four friends, all 19, during the late 2000s decade. One of them (Shannon) has one bad day after another. She gets mugged, assaulted and rejected. Another, Joanne (or simply Jo, played by Emma Roberts), works inside a 24-hour retail store. The reviews mixed. It was released in June 2010.

2010s crime thriller movies
2010 crime drama movies
2010 thriller movies

4.3.2.1