The Warrior Xtreme Cagefighting (WXC) is a Michigan-based mixed martial arts promotion and is one of the smallest promotions in the world. Based in the United States, the WXC has eight weight divisions and enforces the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. Norbert Pasztor serves as the president of the WXC.

Inspired by UFC, the first WXC event was held in 2008 in Monroe, Michigan. Showcasing fighters of different disciplines — including Boxing, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Tae Kwon Do, Wrestling, Muay Thai, Karate and other styles — the WXC sought to provide authentic and most effective martial art in a real fight.

Rules
The current rules for the Warrior Xtreme Cagefighting are the rules established by the New Jersey Athletic Control Board. The "Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts" that New Jersey established has been adopted in other states that regulate mixed martial arts, including Nevada, Louisiana, and California. These rules are also used by many other promotions within the United States, becoming mandatory for those states that have adopted the rules, and so have become the standard de facto set of rules for professional mixed martial arts across the country.

Rounds
WXC matches vary in maximum length, depending on whether the match is for a Championship title, or is a fight card's "main event" fight. In all fights, each round can be no longer than five minutes.  Championship fights last for a maximum of five rounds. Non-championship "main event" fights (i.e. the final fight on the card), will also last for a maximum of five rounds. Bouts which re either on the preliminary card, or on the main card prior to the main event, last for a maximum of three rounds.  There is a one-minute rest period between rounds.

Weight divisions

The WXC currently uses eight weight classes:

Super Heavyweight: 265+ (no weight limits)

Cage

The WXC stages bouts in a six-sided enclosure officially named "The Hexagon".

The WXC cage is a hexagon structure with walls of metal chain-link fence coated with black vinyl and a diameter of , allowing  of space from side to side. The fence is  to  high. The cage sits atop a platform, raising it from the ground. It has foam padding around the top of the fence and between each of the six sections. It also has two entry-exit gates opposite each other. The mat, painted with sponsorship logos and art, is replaced for each event.

Attire

All competitors must fight in approved shorts, without shoes. Shirts, gis or long pants (including gi pants) are not allowed. Fighters must use approved light-weight open-fingered gloves, that include at least 1" of padding around the knuckles, (110 to 170 g / 4 to 6 ounces) that allow fingers to grab. These gloves enable fighters to punch with less risk of an injured or broken hand, while retaining the ability to grab and grapple.  A mouthguard and jockstrap with protective cup are also required and is checked by a State Athletic Committee official before being allowed to enter the cage/ring.

Match outcome

Submission: a fighter clearly taps the mat or his opponent, or verbally submits. Also a technical submission may be called when a fighter either loses consciousness or is on the verge of serious injury while in a hold.
Knockout: a fighter is put into a state of unconsciousness resulting from any legal strike.
Technical Knockout (TKO): If the referee decides a fighter cannot continue, the fight is ruled as a technical knockout. Technical knockouts can be classified into three categories:
referee stoppage (the referee ends the fight because one fighter is unable to intelligently defend himself)
doctor stoppage (a ring side doctor decides that it is unsafe for the fighter to continue the bout due to excessive bleeding or physical injuries)
corner stoppage (a fighter's cornerman signals defeat for their own fighter)
Judges' Decision: Depending on scoring, a match may end as:
unanimous decision (all three judges score a win for fighter A)
majority decision (two judges score a win for fighter A, one judge scores a draw)
split decision (two judges score a win for fighter A, one judge scores a win for fighter B)
unanimous draw (all three judges score a draw)
majority draw (two judges score a draw, one judge scoring a win)
split draw (one judge scores a win for fighter A, one judge scores a win for fighter B, and one judge scores a draw)

Note: In the event of a draw, it is not necessary that the fighters' total points be equal. However, in a unanimous or split draw, each fighter does score an equal number of win judgments from the three judges (0 or 1, respectively).

A fight can also end in a technical decision, technical submission, disqualification, forfeit, technical draw, or no contest. The latter two outcomes have no winners.

Judging criteria
The ten-point must system is in effect for all WXC fights; three judges score each round and the winner of each receives ten points, the loser nine points or fewer.  Scores of 10–8 are typically awarded for very dominant rounds.

Fouls
Butting with the head
Eye gouging of any kind
Biting
Hair pulling
Fish hooking
Groin attacks of any kind
Putting a finger into any orifice or into any cut or laceration on an opponent (see Fish-hooking)
Small joint manipulation
Striking to the spine or the back of the head (see Rabbit punch)
Striking downward using the point of the elbow (see Elbow (strike))
Throat strikes of any kind, including, without limitation, grabbing the trachea
Clawing, pinching or twisting the flesh
Grabbing the clavicle
Kicking the head of a grounded opponent
Kneeing the head of a grounded opponent
Stomping a grounded opponent
Kicking to the kidney with the heel
Spiking an opponent to the canvas on his head or neck (see Piledriver)
Throwing an opponent out of the ring or fenced area
Holding the shorts or gloves of an opponent
Spitting at an opponent
Engaging in unsportsmanlike conduct that causes an injury to an opponent
Holding the ropes or the fence
Using abusive language in the ring or fenced area
Attacking an opponent on or during the break
Attacking an opponent who is under the care of the referee
Attacking an opponent after the bell (horn) has sounded the end of a round
Flagrantly disregarding the instructions of the referee
Timidity, including, without limitation, avoiding contact with an opponent, intentionally or consistently dropping the mouthpiece or faking an injury
Interference by the corner
Throwing in the towel during competition

When a foul is charged, the referee in their discretion may deduct one or more points as a penalty. If a foul incapacitates a fighter, then the match may end in a disqualification if the foul was intentional, or a no contest if unintentional. If a foul causes a fighter to be unable to continue later in the bout, it ends with a technical decision win to the injured fighter if the injured fighter is ahead on points, otherwise it is a technical draw.

Match conduct
After a verbal warning the referee can stop the fighters and stand them up if they reach a stalemate on the ground (where neither are in a dominant position or working towards one). This rule is codified in Nevada as the stand-up rule.
If the referee pauses the match, it is resumed with the fighters in their prior positions.
Grabbing the cage brings a verbal warning, followed by an attempt by the referee to release the grab by pulling on the grabbing hand. If that attempt fails or if the fighter continues to hold the cage, the referee may charge a foul.
Early WXC events disregarded verbal sparring / "trash-talking" during matches. Under unified rules, antics are permitted before events to add to excitement and allow fighters to express themselves, but abusive language during combat is prohibited.

Fighter salaries
A WXC fighter generally does not have a salary, Amateur fighters do not get paid. Professional fighters are paid per fight, with amounts depending on how well-known the fighters are and how well sponsored a fighter and an event is. Fighters will typically get paid money to fight with an additional bonus if they win. Cash bonuses are also typically awarded for "Fight of the Night", "Knockout of the Night", and "Submission of the Night." The size of these bonuses varies by event, but, for less well-known fighters, they can be several times larger than the contracted amount for the fight.

Media

Music
WXC: Xtreme Beat Downs, Vol. 1, an album of music featured in and inspired by the WXC.

DVD
Every pay-per-view WXC event has been released onto DVD.

References

External links

2008 establishments in Michigan
Organizations established in 2008
Mixed martial arts organizations
Mixed martial arts television shows

Warrior Xtreme Cagefighting


The Angels' Share is a 2012 comedy-drama film directed by Ken Loach and starring Paul Brannigan, John Henshaw, and William Ruane. Set in Glasgow, Scotland, it tells the story of a young father who narrowly avoids a prison sentence. He is determined to turn over a new leaf and when he and his friends from the same community payback group visit a whisky distillery, a route to a new life becomes apparent. The title is from "the angels' share", a term for the portion (share) of a whisky's volume that is lost to evaporation during aging in oak barrels.

Plot

In the opening scenes, the protagonists are sentenced to hours of community payback. During his first community payback session, Robbie (Paul Brannigan), under the guidance of Harry (John Henshaw), is interrupted and taken to the hospital by Harry as his girlfriend, Leonie (Siobhan Reilly), has gone into labour. At the hospital, Robbie is assaulted by two of his girlfriend's uncles and her dad (Gilbert Martin) before he can see her. Harry takes Robbie back to his house to clean him up, at which point Leonie calls to announce Robbie's son, Luke, has been born. Harry insists that he and Robbie celebrate, and brings out a vintage whisky. With Leonie's encouragement, Robbie agrees to meet with a victim of his former violent crimes, Anthony (Roderick Cowie), who recollects the attack in front of both his family and Leonie. Afterwards, Leonie makes clear that she does not want her son to grow up around violence and long-term feuds.

Harry takes the group to a distillery as a reward for their good behaviour, where they learn what "the angels' share" is. Afterwards, the tour guide gives them each a dram of whisky and asks them to smell it, and Robbie is complimented on his ability to identify flavours.
Mo (Jasmin Riggins) steals several miniatures from the gift shop.
Robbie, Mo, Rhino (William Ruane) and Albert (Gary Maitland) get together later for their own whisky tasting with the stolen miniatures.

However, Robbie is still being pursued by his old enemy, Clancy (Scott Kyle). He is about to undergo a beating by Clancy and his followers when he is unexpectedly rescued by Leonie's father. Robbie pleads to be given one last chance but the older man tells him that it's too late, and even if he wanted to change, he cannot escape the feuds and violence of the world he grew up in. Leonie's father tells him that the only way for him to escape the cycle is to leave Glasgow altogether and go to London, but without Leonie. He offers Robbie £5,000 to sweeten the deal and leaves Robbie to think it over.

At the next community service session, Harry asks Robbie if he'd like to come to a whisky tasting in Edinburgh.
Mo overhears and invites herself, Albert and Rhino.
Reluctantly, Harry agrees to take all four of them to Edinburgh, where they learn about a cask of priceless whisky, the Malt Mill, set to go on auction soon, and Robbie is passed a business card by a whisky collector, Thaddeus (Roger Allam).
After they leave, Mo reveals she spotted and stole documents detailing the warehouse in which the "Malt Mill" is kept but Robbie tells her that he is not interested in crime and is determined to stay straight for the sake of Leonie and Luke.

Robbie and Leonie view a flat which they could rent for six months while the owner is away. Robbie seems touched but it is then revealed they have been followed by one of Clancy's men and Clancy will know where they are going to live. Robbie, realising that he can't continue living under threat of assault on himself and his family, begins planning to steal the Malt Mill with his community service partners. They secure an invitation to the tasting and auction, during which Robbie slopes off to the warehouse to siphon some of the whisky into empty Irn-Bru bottles, before he is interrupted by Thaddeus and Angus Dobie (David Goodall). Robbie covertly witnesses Thaddeus attempting to bribe Dobie into selling him some of the whisky before the cask goes on auction but he refuses and the two leave, after which Robbie then tops up the cask with cheaper whisky from an adjacent cask. At the auction, the group see Thaddeus outbid by an American, who tastes the cask, and is apparently happy with the slightly diluted blend.

Afterwards, Robbie approaches Thaddeus and negotiates a sale of three bottles for £200,000, and "a real job". They plan to make the exchange in Glasgow, and so begin the trek home, but inadvertently break two of their four bottles during an encounter with the police. Robbie is furious, but goes ahead with meeting Thaddeus, and negotiates a sale for £100,000 and a permanent job far away from Glasgow. Afterwards, Robbie reveals to his friends that he didn't sell two bottles, but one. The scene cuts to show Harry coming home to find a bottle of Irn Bru sitting on his kitchen table next to an open window, with a note thanking him for giving him a chance, and not giving up on him and presenting his "angels' share", next to a newspaper piece showing a photo of the community payback group next to the cask. He smells the bottle and rejoices gleefully at the Malt Mill inside.

In the final scene, we see Robbie and Leonie leave for Stirling in an immaculate old Volkswagen Type 2, having made temporary goodbyes to the rest of the group. After they leave, the rest of the group resolve to go get wasted. The film ends with The Proclaimers' "500 Miles" playing.

Cast
 Paul Brannigan as Robbie
 John Henshaw as Harry
 Gary Maitland as Albert
 Jasmin Riggins as Mo
 William Ruane as Rhino
 Roger Allam as Thaddeus
 David Goodall as Dobie
 Siobhan Reilly as Leonie
 Roderick Cowie as Anthony
 Scott Kyle as Clancy
 Neil Leiper as Sniper
 Gilbert Martin as Matt

Production
The film was produced by Sixteen Films, Why Not Productions and Wild Bunch. It was backed financially by the BFI, Les Films du Fleuve, Urania and France 2 Cinéma. Filming in Glasgow and Edinburgh started 25 April 2011.

Release
The film competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, and Loach won the Jury Prize. It is Loach's 11th film in 31 years to compete at the French festival. Entertainment One acquired the distribution rights for the United Kingdom and Ireland, where the film went on general release on 1 June.

Critical reception
The Angels' Share was met with critical acclaim. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 89% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on a sample of 101 reviews, with a rating average of 7.1 out of 10. On Metacritic, the film received a score of 66 based on 26 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The film was nominated for the Magritte Award for Best Foreign Film in Coproduction and at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival won the Jury Prize (the third-most prestigious prize at the film festival).

Home media
Entertainment One released The Angels' Share on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on 24 September 2012, in the United Kingdom.

See also
 Cinema of Scotland
 Cinema of France

References

External links

2012 films
2012 in Scotland
2012 comedy-drama films
Belgian comedy-drama films
British comedy-drama films
2010s English-language films
English-language Scottish films
English-language Belgian films
English-language French films
English-language Italian films
Films scored by George Fenton
Films about alcoholic drinks
Films directed by Ken Loach
Films set in Edinburgh
Films set in Glasgow
Films shot in Argyll and Bute
Films shot in Edinburgh
Films shot in Glasgow
Films shot in Highland (council area)
French comedy-drama films
British heist films
Italian comedy-drama films
Scots-language films
Scottish comedy-drama films
2010s British films
2010s French films
English-language comedy-drama films

The Angels' Share


The Etruscan civilization lasted from about 900 BC to 27 BC and was a culture in ancient Italy. The Romans called the people Etrusci or Tusci. The Ancient Greeks called them Tyrrhenoi or Tyrrsenoi. The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna.

The Etruscan civilization began in pre-history. They lived in an area which included modern Tuscany, but was larger. At their height, they had three confederacies (like modern states): Etruria, Latinum and the Po Valley, and Campania. The Etruscans ruled Rome until 396 BC.

Language
Not much is known about the Etruscan language. Not much of its writing survives. Most what survives is from engravings on tombstones. The Etruscans used an alphabet similar to those in Phoenicia and Greece.

The language is related to the Tyrrhenian language family and is not clearly related to other languages. Some Etruscan letters were used by the Romans in the Latin alphabet, which many languages use. Some Romans, such as the emperor Claudius, could read and speak Etruscan.

The lack of texts makes knowledge of their society and culture depend on much later Roman sources. Politics was based on the small city and probably the family unit. In their heyday, the Etruscan elite became rich by trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, and filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries. Ancient Greece had a huge influence on their art and architecture, and Greek mythology was evidently very familiar to them.

Etruscan does not survive in any great literary works, unlike Greek and Latin. An Etruscan religious literature existed, and evidence suggests that there was a body of historical literature and drama as well. For example, the name of a playwright, Volnius, is known. He wrote the "Tuscan tragedies". Although there is no evidence of notation, it is possible that Etruscan music had a written form.

History
The Etruscans mined metals like copper and iron. They became rich and powerful and travelled around the Mediterranean Sea. The Etruscans began to lose power in the 5th century BC. The Romans began conquering parts of Etruscan land. By the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Etruscans had been entirely defeated.

Art
Etruscan art included wall paintings, metalwork and sculpture in terracotta. Sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived because bronze was valuable and so was often recycled.

Etruscan religion
Etruscan religion was a set of stories, beliefs, and religious practices. These came from the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. They were heavily influenced by the mythology of ancient Greece and Phoenicia. They had similarities to Roman mythology and religion. As the Etruscan civilization was assimilated into the Roman Republic in the 4th century BC, the Etruscan religion and mythology were partially absorbed. There was a Roman tendency to absorb local gods and customs of conquered lands.

References

History of Italy

Etruscan civilization


Martyniaceae is a family of flowering plants in the Lamiales order that are restricted to the Americas.  The family was included in Pedaliaceae in the Cronquist system (under order Scrophulariales) but is recognized as a separate family by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group on the basis of phylogenetic studies that show that the two families are not closely related.  Both families are characterized by having mucilaginous hairs — which give the stems and leaves a slimy or clammy feel — and fruits with hooks or horns. Some members of the genus Proboscidea are known as "unicorn plant" or "devil's claw" because of their horned seed capsules.

Genera
 Craniolaria
 Holoregmia
 Ibicella
 Martynia
 Proboscidea

References

External links
 Martyniaceae

Lamiales families

Martyniaceae


Yohoho! Puzzle Pirates is a Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game. It is developed by Three Rings Design. In this game, the player plays a role of a pirate. The player sails the ocean, plays different puzzles and earn PoE (Pieces of Eights).

Anyone over 13 years of age can play Puzzle Pirates. Pirates can join a crew, which in turn joins a flag. The flags forms alliances and blockade islands.

The game encourages players to use pirate-themed words like "Ahoy", "Yarr!", "Shiver me Timbers", etc. As of December 2008, there are 4 million pirates registered to the game. On August 31, 2011, the game was made free-to-play on Steam.

Online games

Puzzle Pirates


Plastic wrap (also cling wrap, food wrap, or clingfilm) is a thin plastic material. It is used for sealing food in containers. It keeps food fresh over a long period of time without spoiling. It is usually sold on rolls in boxes with a cutting edge.

Plastic wrap was first made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A common, cheaper alternative to PVC is low-density polyethylene (LDPE). LDPE doesn't stick to itself as well as PVC.

In the United States and Japan, Plastic wrap has sometimes been made of polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC). PVdC was the main ingredient in Saran Wrap, a popular brand of plastic wrap. Now, Saran Wrap is made with polyethylene.

Research shows that plastic wrapping of food is often not wasteful, because the food lasts longer. A study showed that only 3% of wrapped food was wasted in the UK, but up to 50% of food was wasted in an African country, where it was sold unwrapped.

References

Related pages
Cellophane
Polyethylene

Polymer chemistry

Synthetic materials

Plastic wrap


The EFREI (École d'ingénieur généraliste en informatique et technologies du numérique) (Engineering School of Information and Digital Technologies) is a French private engineering school located in Villejuif, Île-de-France, at the south of Paris. Its courses, specializing in computer science and management, are taught with support from the state. Students who graduate earn an engineering degree accredited by the CTI (national commission for engineering degree accreditation). The degree is equivalent to a master's degree in the European higher education area. Today, there are more than 6,500 EFREI graduates working in companies dealing with many different activities: education, human resources development, business/marketing, company management, legal advice and so on.

History

EFREI was founded in 1936 as the École Française de Radioélectricité (EFR). The school's facilities were located at 10, Rue Amyot in the 5th arrondissement of Paris.

In 1945 an agreement with the government allowed students to receive financial assistance for the first time.
In 1947 an engineering department was created and in 1957 the EFR qualification was certified by the commission for engineering qualifications.  The teaching of computer science was introduced in 1969 and networking also became part of the syllabus.  In 1987, a second site in Villejuif was opened; student numbers increased from 70 to 160. More extension projects have taken place since, and in September 2001, EFREI was moved, the entire campus being situated at 30, Avenue de la République, Villejuif. The faculty of Information Technology and Systems Management numbered more than 300 students for the first time.

In 2003 its curriculum was made compliant with the Bologna process and is now delivering a degree that is equivalent to a master's degree in the European higher education area. The same year the school stopped renting the building in Rue Amyot; all classes take now place at the Villejuif site.  The college became briefly known as the College for Engineering, Information Technology and Business Studies but the name change was reversed in 2008.

Notable alumni
EFREI's most notable alumnus is André Truong who created the Micral, the earliest commercial personal computer based on a microprocessor.  In France, he is referred to as the father of the personal computer.

Pol Pot attended but failed his exams.

See also
Grandes écoles

References

External links
 Official Website of EFREI
 EFREI Students clubs websites
 EFREI alumni website

Engineering universities and colleges in France
Grandes écoles
Universities and colleges established in 1936
Villejuif
1936 establishments in France

EFREI


The Cidade de Deus (, City of God) is a West Zone neighborhood of the city of Rio de Janeiro. It is also known as CDD among its inhabitants.

The neighborhood was founded in 1960, planned and executed by the government of Guanabara State as part of the policy to systematically remove slums (favelas) from the center of Rio de Janeiro and resettle their inhabitants in the suburbs.

It is used as backdrop in the 2002 film City of God.  In 2009, it was occupied by a Pacifying Police Unit.

Basic statistics

 Area (2003): 1.2058 km2 (0.4656 mi2; 298 acres)
 Population (2000): 38,016
 Residences (2000): 10,866
 Administrative region: XXXIV - Cidade de Deus

In literature and film
Known in English as City of God, Cidade de Deus is the eponymous name of a 1997 semi-autobiographical novel by Paulo Lins, about three young men and their lives of petty crime during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s in the favela where Lins grew up. An English translation by Alison Entrekin was published in 2006. The novel was filmed by Fernando Meirelles (director of The Constant Gardener and Blindness) in 2002 under the same title City of God, with most of the cast from real-life favelas and in some cases, from Cidade de Deus itself. After filming, the producers set up help groups promising to help those involved to build more promising futures. In 2004, the film received four Academy Award nominations for cinematography, for director Meirelles, for editing and for adapted screenplay by Mantovani. In 2005, Time chose it as one of the 100 greatest films of all time. The tagline "If you run, the beast catches; if you stay, the beast eats", is analogous to the English aphorism "Damned if you do, damned if you don't".

Local currency
In 2011, a local currency called CDD was created for use exclusively in the Cidade de Deus, to encourage inhabitants to spend more locally, thus boosting the local economy. The currency is subsidized. Its value is indexed to about 20% higher than the national currency, the Brazilian real.

References

External links

 Cidade de Deus Web Portal (in Portuguese)
 Cidade de Deus on Google Maps
 Inside City of God - slideshow by The New York Times
 City of God movie official website

Favelas
Neighbourhoods in Rio de Janeiro (city)
Populated places established in 1960
1960 establishments in Brazil

Cidade de Deus, Rio de Janeiro


Gili Meno is an island in Indonesia. It is the middle of Lombok's three Gilis. It has population of about 300, mainly concentrated  on the center of the island. The main income of the population comes from tourism, coconut plantation, and fishing. On the west side of the island there is a small shallow lake that produces salt in the dry season. Until a few years ago there was also a small production of seaweed on the reef at the north end of the island. It has swimming beaches all around the island, as well as an impressive bird sanctuary.

Related pages
 Gili Air
 Gili Trawangan

Lesser Sunda Islands
Lombok

Gili Meno


Antonio Joseph (1921- May 7, 2016) was a Haitian artist.

Biography
Born in Barahona, Dominican Republic, to Haitian parents, Joseph practises painting, sculpture, and screen-printing. He worked as a tailor while studying watercolor and sculpture in Haiti and screen-printing in the United States. He joined the Centre d'Art in 1944 and worked with DeWitt Peters. Joseph was twice awarded a fellowship by the Guggenheim Foundation, in 1953 and again in 1957, for his work as a painter. He traveled extensively in 1963, visiting Morocco and much of Europe. In 1972, he joined the administrative council of the Museum of Haitian Art at St. Pierre College in Port-au-Prince. He taught drawing and screen-printing at the Centre d'Art. His works have been exhibited in the United States, Mexico, Jamaica, and Spain.

References

1921 births
2016 deaths
Haitian painters
Haitian male painters
Haitian sculptors
Haitian expatriates in the Dominican Republic
Haitian expatriates in the United States

Antonio Joseph (artist)


Sam Taylor (October 25, 1934 – January 5, 2009) was an American jump blues musician and songwriter.

Taylor's more popular recordings included "Funny", "Drinking Straight Tequila", and "Voice of the Blues". He variously worked with Joey Dee and the Starliters, Otis Redding, B.T. Express, The Drifters, Big Joe Turner, T-Bone Walker, Sam & Dave, Tracy Nelson, Mother Earth, and The Isley Brothers. Taylor was inducted to the Long Island Music Hall of Fame.

Biography
Born Samuel Willis Taylor Jr. in Crichton, a suburb of Mobile, Alabama, Taylor began singing gospel at the age of three. His Long Island connection began in 1957, during his service in the United States Air Force. He was stationed at the Westhampton Beach Air Force Base, which was near the Blue Bird Inn.

After leaving the service in 1959, Taylor lived in Riverhead. His first major professional gig was as Maxine Brown's bandleader at the Apollo Theater and his first number one R&B hit single was "Funny". Taylor himself, often using the name Sammy Taylor, recorded for various labels including Capitol, Enjoy, and Atlantic Records.

The songwriter of hundreds of songs, many of them hits such as "Peace Pipe", performed by the B.T. Express, Taylor's efforts were recorded by Freddie King, Chubby Checker, Son Seals, Jimmy Witherspoon, Brook Benton, Jay and the Americans, Joey Dee, Maxine Brown, and Joe Tex. Taylor also was the bandleader and/or guitarist for Big Joe Turner, The Isley Brothers, Tracy Nelson, Otis Redding, and Sam & Dave.

Taylor and his songwriting partner, Bennie Earl, mentored young Florida duo Sam & Dave, writing two of their early hits, "People in Love" and "Listening For My Name", when the duo recorded for Roulette Records, predating their later success with Stax/Volt. Taylor was also an original member and guitarist/songwriter for Joey Dee and the Starliters. With fellow Starliter Dave Brigatti, Taylor had a strong influence on The Rascals, which included Brigati's younger brother Eddie. He also wrote some of the first songs for The Vagrants, which included Leslie West, who would later go on to form Mountain. After recording and appearing in two films with the Starliters including Two Tickets to Paris, Taylor took his friend Jimi Hendrix with him to tell Joey Dee and Morris Levy to let the young upstart take his place in the group.

At the start of the 1970s, Taylor and Earl were hired as staff songwriters for The Beach Boys' record label, Brother Records, until Brian Wilson burned the studio, with Taylor and Earl's demos for the group going up in flames. At that time, Taylor released his first solo album, Tunnels Of My Mind, on the GRT label. He was later hired by Roadshow Records as an A&R/songwriter for the acts they were signing. He was told by the record producer Jeff Lane that, in exchange for helping them build up the company, he would be granted a solo deal for three albums. One of these acts was King David House Rockers who became B.T. Express. Taylor played rhythm guitar on all tracks of the group's first five albums, with the first three being million sellers, Do It ('Til You're Satisfied), Non-Stop, and Energy to Burn. He also played the organ on the group's million seller, "Do It Your Satisfied". Taylor's song "Peace Pipe" became one of the group's biggest hits. Taylor also produced and wrote songs for Norma Jenkins' debut album, Patience is a Virtue, which included the soul track, "Reachin Out in Darkness".

By the late 1970s, he moved to Santa Monica, California, where at Venice Beach he and his weekly night show with his band A Band Called Sam attracted fellow artists such as Rickie Lee Jones, Gregory Hines, and Tom Waits, but drug addiction and medical problems threatened to dull his musical edge. In 1986, Taylor was featured alongside actress Galyn Görg in the indie cult film Living The Blues. It received a FilmTrax Award for original music at the Ghent International Film Festival.

Taylor then moved to Tucson, Arizona, to get clean and became a prime figure in Arizona's heavy music scene, where he hosted his own television program, Down To Earth, and a popular radio show called "The Blues According To Sam" on KXCI. It was also in Arizona that Taylor began a modest acting career, appearing movies and television with Lou Gossett Jr, Mario Van Peebles, and Barbara Eden. He also appeared in the music film, Tapeheads. Taylor also saw two of his compositions used in the film. He rebooted his career by releasing three albums that he recorded in Arizona: Signature, Voice Of The Blues, and Bluzman.

Taylor's music has been sampled by rap artists. His sole composition for B.T. Express, "Everything That's Good To Ya (Aint Always Good For Ya)", became a popular hip hop lift used by EPMD, Beanie Sigel, Mase, Jay-Z, Lil' Kim, and DMX's on his first number one platinum hit single, "Get at Me Dog". Though the original B.T. Express song was never released as a single, it became the most sampled song in B.T. Express' catalog. His rhythm guitar licks from B.T. Express songs were sampled for SWV's "Use Your Heart" and EPMD's "So Wat Cha Sayin".

Upon his son Bobby's death, Taylor returned to New York. He was a resident of Central Islip until his own demise. There Taylor released five albums: Blue Tears, Keep The Blues Alive, I Came From The Dirt, Bluzman Back Home, and Portrait: The Funky Side Of Sam, which featured the song "Freaks" (a duet with his grandson L*A*W). Taylor also hosted WUSB (FM)'s Blues With A Feeling radio show. Along with Joan Jett, Billy Joel, Vanilla Fudge, KISS, Mountain, Shadow Morton, Run–D.M.C., and Twisted Sister, Taylor was inducted by L*A*W into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2006, and the Arizona Blues Hall Of Fame in 1997. Just before his death, he released his autobiography, Caught in the Jaws of the Blues. In 2013, Sam was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame, which his grandson accepted on his behalf.

Taylor died on January 5, 2009, at his home in Islandia, New York, of complications associated with heart disease. He was 74.

Taylor had seven known children; two of them, Bobby and Sandra Taylor, followed in his footsteps and became musicians. Sandra Taylor was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame.

References

External links
 Sam Taylor in EMOL Music Entertainment Magazine, 2009
 Obituary by Reverend Keith A. Gordon in about.com
 Sam Taylor in discogs.com
  Unscrubbed - documentary film on Sam Taylor's life

1934 births
2009 deaths
American blues singers
American rhythm and blues singers
People from Long Island
Songwriters from Alabama
Jump blues musicians
Musicians from Mobile, Alabama
New York blues musicians
People from Central Islip, New York
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male singers
American male songwriters

Sam Taylor (blues musician)


The Germanic peoples are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples.  They came from Northern Europe and are identified by their use of the Germanic languages.  During the migration period Germanic peoples spread throughout Europe, mixing with existing local populations (like Celts, Slavs/Vends, and Romans).  They eventually formed the basis of many nations.  These nations are connected by similar languages, common history, and culture.

The Latin word Germani was first used by Julius Caesar.

The Germanic tribes did not have a name for themselves that described all Germanic-speaking people. In English, German is first attested in 1520, replacing earlier use of Almain or Dutch. Today, in English, "Dutch" means the language or people of the Netherlands.

In the 1st century CE, Roman authors like Caesar and Tacitus wrote that Germanic-speaking peoples had divided into tribal groupings. The different tribes lived in different areas:
 The East Germanic tribes lived around the rivers Oder and Vistula, in what is now Poland.
 The Istvaeones lived around the lower Rhine River.
 The Irminones lived around the Elbe River, in what is now Germany.
 The Ingvaeones lived in Jutland and other islands that now belong to Denmark.

The Irminones, Ingvaeones, and Sons of Mannus Istvaeones are called West Germanic tribes.  The Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia called North Germanic. The groups all developed separate dialects, which eventually developed into different Germanic languages.

The Germanic peoples did not call themselves West Germanic, East Germanic, or North Germanic.  Those categories were created in modern times.

Each Germanic tribe was politically independent, under a hereditary king.  Each tribe had a myth about who first created the tribe.  For example, myths stated:

 Angul created the Angles
 Aurvandil created the Vandals (though historians are not certain this actually happened)
 Burgundus created the Burgundians
 Cibidus created the Cibidi
 Dan created the Danes
 Nór created the Norwegians
 Gothus created the Goths
 Ingve created the Ynglings
 Irmin created the Irminones
 Longobardus created the Lombards
 Saxneat created the Saxons
 Valagothus created the Valagoths
 Suiones created the Swedes (Svear)

Some Germanic kings claimed that they should have power because they were related to their tribe's mythical founders.

Origin

The early Germanic tribes spoke different dialects, but could understand each other.  They shared a common culture and mythology (see Germanic mythology).  Beowulf and the Volsunga saga make this clear.

At this time, the Romans forced the different peoples of Italy to be part of one big empire.  Unlike Italy, no large empire forced Germanic people to unite.  Because of this, the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders.

Other websites
 Germanic Roots of Great Britain, A Genetic Study
 On the origins of Anglo-Saxons
 Anglo-Saxons and Britons

Ancient people

Germanic peoples


Fast chess is similar to a normal game of chess, but played at a faster than usual rate. The player who runs out of time first (or is checkmated, whichever happens first) loses the match.

Fast chess versions, always played with a chess clock:
 Rapid: 15 to 60 minutes per player.
 Blitz: less than 15 minutes per side.
 Bullet: (unofficial category) 2 to 3 minutes per player.

References

Chess competitions

Fast chess


Plaza is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open public space in a city, such as a city square. In Spanish America, the plaza mayor of each city had three things: the cathedral, the cabildo or administrative center, and the audiencia or law court. The plaza might be large enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was a space where many people could be together at once. Similar to Italian piazzas, plazas are still a center of community life, like the market-place.

Most colonial cities in Spanish America were planned around a square plaza de armas, where troops could gather.

A plaza de toros is a bullring.

Shopping center
The first shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, was called "Country Club Plaza" and had Spanish-style architectural details. More recently, plaza has been used to describe a shopping center, similar to a shopping mall. Calling a shopping center a plaza is to give the idea of a center of cultural life.

Related pages

Plaza Mayor of Madrid

Spanish culture

Plaza


Secondary school is the next step up from primary school. Secondary schools are often called high schools or middle school in United States. In Britain, secondary schools may be public schools, grammar schools or comprehensive schools.

In Australia, a person will generally begin secondary school when they are at the age of 12 and finish (or graduate) when they are either 16 or 18 years of age. This is dependent upon whether they finish with year levels (or grades) 11 and 12. In secondary school, a person will advance through the year levels (or grades) each year.

In the United Kingdom, a person starts secondary school at the age of 11 and generally finishes secondary at either 16 or 18 depending on whether the secondary school has a sixth form offering post 16 education.

In the United States school system, secondary school is usually divided into two separate schools. One is called middle school and consists grades 6, 7, and 8. And the other is called high school and has grades 9 through 12. A person generally starts middle school at age 11 or 12 and starts high school at age 14 or 15 and finishes at age 18.

Generally a student goes to the high school for four years. Depending on the laws in each individual state, a student can drop out of high school; the minimum age is 16. If the student does graduate, he/she can plan to continue his/her studies to college or a university, or just join the workforce.

In some schools in Australia years 11 and 12 are just a normal part of high school. Some other schools may only progress through to year 10; in this case students will then go to college (years 11 and 12).

At the end of secondary school, students will usually take a unified examination. For example, students finishing secondary school in England take the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE).

Types of educational institutions

Secondary school


A wide-angle lens is a lens that has a focal length that is shorter than that of the normal lens. Normal lenses have an angle of view of between 40° and 50°. Wide-angle lenses have an angle of view that is bigger.

For the 135 film format (the most popular photographic film type), normal lenses are 50mm focal length. 35mm (with an angle of view of 63 degrees) and 28mm (75°) are slight wide-angle lenses.

24mm (84°), 20mm (94°), 17mm (104°) and 14mm (114°) offer more extreme views (for 35mm film).

This is different for digital photography. Many digital cameras use smaller sensors. This means that the focal lengths have an angle of view that is smaller. That way, an 18mm lens mounted on a digital camera of this type gives an angle of view of the 28mm wide-angle lens, namely 75 degrees, for a multiplier of 1.5.

One kind of wide-angle lens is a fish eye lens.

Telephoto lens is the opposite. It has a long focal length, and a narrow angle of view.

Camera lenses

Wide-angle lens


Interest rate parity is a no-arbitrage condition representing an equilibrium state under which investors interest rates available on bank deposits in two countries. The fact that this condition does not always hold allows for potential opportunities to earn riskless profits from covered interest arbitrage. Two assumptions central to interest rate parity are capital mobility and perfect substitutability of domestic and foreign assets. Given foreign exchange market equilibrium, the interest rate parity condition implies that the expected return on domestic assets will equal the exchange rate-adjusted expected return on foreign currency assets. Investors then cannot earn arbitrage profits by borrowing in a country with a lower interest rate, exchanging for foreign currency, and investing in a foreign country with a higher interest rate, due to gains or losses from exchanging back to their domestic currency at maturity. Interest rate parity takes on two distinctive forms: uncovered interest rate parity refers to the parity condition in which exposure to foreign exchange risk (unanticipated changes in exchange rates) is uninhibited, whereas covered interest rate parity refers to the condition in which a forward contract has been used to cover (eliminate exposure to) exchange rate risk. Each form of the parity condition demonstrates a unique relationship with implications for the forecasting of future exchange rates: the forward exchange rate and the future spot exchange rate.

Economists have found empirical evidence that covered interest rate parity generally holds, though not with precision due to the effects of various risks, costs, taxation, and ultimate differences in liquidity. When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity hold, they expose a relationship suggesting that the forward rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot rate. This relationship can be employed to test whether uncovered interest rate parity holds, for which economists have found mixed results. When uncovered interest rate parity and purchasing power parity hold together, they illuminate a relationship named real interest rate parity, which suggests that expected real interest rates represent expected adjustments in the real exchange rate. This relationship generally holds strongly over longer terms and among emerging market countries.

Assumptions
Interest rate parity rests on certain assumptions, the first being that capital is mobile - investors can readily exchange domestic assets for foreign assets. The second assumption is that assets have perfect substitutability, following from their similarities in riskiness and liquidity. Given capital mobility and perfect substitutability, investors would be expected to hold those assets offering greater returns, be they domestic or foreign assets. However, both domestic and foreign assets are held by investors. Therefore, it must be true that no difference can exist between the returns on domestic assets and the returns on foreign assets. That is not to say that domestic investors and foreign investors will earn equivalent returns, but that a single investor on any given side would expect to earn equivalent returns from either investment decision.

Uncovered interest rate parity

When the no-arbitrage condition is satisfied without the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk, interest rate parity is said to be uncovered. Risk-neutral investors will be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the exchange rate between those countries is expected to adjust such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, thereby eliminating the potential for uncovered interest arbitrage profits. Uncovered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the spot exchange rate. The following equation represents uncovered interest rate parity.

where
 is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
St is the current spot exchange rate at time t
i$ is the interest rate in one country (for example, the United States)
ic is the interest rate in another country or currency area (for example, the Eurozone)

The dollar return on dollar deposits, , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, .

Approximation
Uncovered interest rate parity asserts that an investor with dollar deposits will earn the interest rate available on dollar deposits, while an investor holding euro deposits will earn the interest rate available in the eurozone, but also a potential gain or loss on euros depending on the rate of appreciation or depreciation of the euro against the dollar. Economists have extrapolated a useful approximation of uncovered interest rate parity that follows intuitively from these assumptions. If uncovered interest rate parity holds, such that an investor is indifferent between dollar versus euro deposits, then any excess return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected loss from depreciation of the euro against the dollar. Conversely, some shortfall in return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected gain from appreciation of the euro against the dollar. The following equation represents the uncovered interest rate parity approximation.

where
 is the change in the expected future spot exchange rate
 is the expected rate of depreciation (or appreciation) of the dollar

A more universal way of stating the approximation is "the home interest rate equals the foreign interest rate plus the expected rate of depreciation of the home currency."

Covered interest rate parity

When the no-arbitrage condition is satisfied with the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk, interest rate parity is said to be covered. Investors will still be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the forward exchange rate sustains equilibrium such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on foreign deposit, thereby eliminating the potential for covered interest arbitrage profits. Furthermore, covered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the forward exchange rate. The following equation represents covered interest rate parity.

where
 is the forward exchange rate at time t

The dollar return on dollar deposits, , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits, .

Empirical evidence
Traditionally, covered interest rate parity (CIRP) was found to hold when there is open capital mobility and limited capital controls, and this finding is confirmed for all currencies freely traded in the present day. One such example is when the United Kingdom and Germany abolished capital controls between 1979 and 1981. Maurice Obstfeld and Alan Taylor calculated hypothetical profits as implied by the expression of a potential inequality in the CIRP equation (meaning a difference in returns on domestic versus foreign assets) during the 1960s and 1970s, which would have constituted arbitrage opportunities if not for the prevalence of capital controls. However, given financial liberalization and resulting capital mobility, arbitrage temporarily became possible until equilibrium was restored. Since the abolition of capital controls in the United Kingdom and Germany, potential arbitrage profits have been near zero. Factoring in transaction costs arising from fees and other regulations, arbitrage opportunities are fleeting or nonexistent when such costs exceed deviations from parity. While CIRP generally holds, it does not hold with precision due to the presence of transaction costs, political risks, tax implications for interest earnings versus gains from foreign exchange, and differences in the liquidity of domestic versus foreign assets.

Researchers found evidence that significant deviations from CIRP during the onset of the global financial crisis in 2007 and 2008 were driven by concerns over risk posed by counter parties to banks and financial institutions in Europe and the US in the foreign exchange swap market. The European Central Bank's efforts to provide US dollar liquidity in the foreign exchange swap market, along with similar efforts by the Federal Reserve, had a moderating impact on CIRP deviations between the dollar and the euro. Such a scenario was found to be reminiscent of deviations from CIRP during the 1990s driven by struggling Japanese banks which looked toward foreign exchange swap markets to try and acquire dollars to bolster their creditworthiness. A second period of deviations from CIRP after 2012, at a time of relatively calm markets, led to renewed debate about the extent and origin of deviations from CIRP. Explanations include intermediary constraints that can lead to limits to arbitrage, such as balance sheet costs of arbitrage, raised by a team of researchers at the Bank for International Settlements.  Other explanations question common assumptions underlying the CIRP condition, such as the choice of discount factors. Deviations from CIRP remain subject to ongoing debate.

When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) hold, such a condition sheds light on a noteworthy relationship between the forward and expected future spot exchange rates, as demonstrated below.

Dividing the equation for UIRP by the equation for CIRP yields the following equation:

which can be rewritten as:

This equation represents the unbiasedness hypothesis, which states that the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate. Given strong evidence that CIRP holds, the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis can serve as a test to determine whether UIRP holds (in order for the forward rate and expected spot rate to be equal, both CIRP and UIRP conditions must hold). Evidence for the validity and accuracy of the unbiasedness hypothesis, particularly evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and future spot rate, is mixed as researchers have published numerous papers demonstrating both empirical support and empirical failure of the hypothesis.

UIRP is found to have some empirical support in tests for correlation between expected rates of currency depreciation and the forward premium or discount. Evidence suggests that whether UIRP holds depends on the currency examined, and deviations from UIRP have been found to be less substantial when examining longer time horizons. Some studies of monetary policy have offered explanations for why UIRP fails empirically. Researchers demonstrated that if a central bank manages interest rate spreads in strong response to the previous period's spreads, that interest rate spreads had negative coefficients in regression tests of UIRP. Another study which set up a model wherein the central bank's monetary policy responds to exogenous shocks, that the central bank's smoothing of interest rates can explain empirical failures of UIRP.

A study of central bank interventions on the US dollar and Deutsche mark found only limited evidence of any substantial effect on deviations from UIRP. UIRP has been found to hold over very small spans of time (covering only a number of hours) with a high frequency of bilateral exchange rate data. Tests of UIRP for economies experiencing institutional regime changes, using monthly exchange rate data for the US dollar versus the Deutsche mark and the Spanish peseta versus the British pound, have found some evidence that UIRP held when US and German regime changes were volatile, and held between Spain and the United Kingdom particularly after Spain joined the European Union in 1986 and began liberalizing capital mobility.

Real interest rate parity
When both UIRP (particularly in its approximation form) and purchasing power parity (PPP) hold, the two parity conditions together reveal a relationship among expected real interest rates, wherein changes in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes in the real exchange rate. This condition is known as real interest rate parity (RIRP) and is related to the international Fisher effect. The following equations demonstrate how to derive the RIRP equation.

where
 represents inflation

If the above conditions hold, then they can be combined and rearranged as the following:

RIRP rests on several assumptions, including efficient markets, no country risk premia, and zero change in the expected real exchange rate. The parity condition suggests that real interest rates will equalize between countries and that capital mobility will result in capital flows that eliminate opportunities for arbitrage. There exists strong evidence that RIRP holds tightly among emerging markets in Asia and also Japan. The half-life period of deviations from RIRP have been examined by researchers and found to be roughly six or seven months, but between two and three months for certain countries. Such variation in the half-lives of deviations may be reflective of differences in the degree of financial integration among the country groups analyzed. RIRP does not hold over short time horizons, but empirical evidence has demonstrated that it generally holds well across long time horizons of five to ten years.

See also
Carry trade
Covered interest arbitrage
Financial crisis
Foreign exchange derivative
Uncovered interest arbitrage

References

Financial economics
Interest rates
Foreign exchange market
International finance

Interest rate parity


John Hollingshead (9 September 1827 – 9 October 1904) was an English theatrical impresario, journalist and writer during the latter half of the 19th century. After a journalism career, Hollingshead managed the Alhambra Theatre and was later the first manager of the Gaiety Theatre, London. Hollingshead also wrote several books during his life.

An innovative producer, Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together in 1871 to produce their first joint work, a musical extravaganza called Thespis.  Among other theatrical works that he produced, he mounted a long series of popular Victorian burlesques at the Gaiety, engaging Meyer Lutz to compose original scores for them. He also produced operettas, plays and other works. These productions made stars of Nellie Farren and several others. At the Gaiety, in 1878, Hollingshead was the first theatre manager to light his auditorium with electric lights.

Life and career

Hollingshead was born in Hoxton, Greater London, the son of Henry Randall Hollingshead. He was educated at Homerton. He first worked as a bookkeeper for a soft goods company in London in the early 1850s while publishing political essays on finance and social reform. He soon entered into a partnership as a clothing merchant.  During this time, Hollingshead and his friend Moy Thomas began publishing a penny paper called The Mail that proved unsuccessful. In 1854, he decided to close his clothing business and begin working as a writer full-time.  By 1855, Hollingshead was married with two children. He died in London on 9 October 1904 at the age of 77.

Journalist and author
Hollingshead started his journalism career in 1854 under the tutelage of Charles Dickens at Household Words magazine and then under W. M. Thackeray at Cornhill Magazine. In 1861, he acted as the "special correspondent" for The Morning Post during the London famine.  He also wrote essays, short stories and dramatic criticism. Beginning in 1864, and for several years thereafter, he contributed to Punch magazine, mostly writing on political topics related to social reform. He advocated the principles of Mill and Jeremy Bentham.  One of his best-known essays was an 1857 piece called "The City of Unlimited Paper", which became famous during the monetary panic of 1857. In the 1860s he was on the staff of Good Words under Norman Macleod as editor.

Hollingshead wrote a number of books from the 1850s into the 1860s, including On the canal: a narrative of a voyage from London to Birmingham (1858); Under Bow Bells (1860, a collection of some of his essays), Rubbing the Gilt Off (a collection of his early political essays (1860) Odd Journeys (1860, a collection of travels), Ways of Life (1861, a volume of humorous papers), Ragged London (1861, a collection of his reports for the Morning Post), and Underground London (1862).  Other publications included a collection of humorous stories entitled Rough Diamonds and two volumes of miscellaneous essays called Today.  He also wrote plays.

In the 1880s, Hollingshead returned to writing, producing books mostly about the theatre, including Plain English (1880), and Footlights (1883). Beginning in the 1890s, he wrote a number of memoirs and more books about the theatres that he had managed.  In 1892, he also published The Story of Leicester Square, tracing the history, geography and architecture of the London neighbourhood from earliest times through the date of publication.  His memoir entitled My Lifetime, published in 1895, explores his life and career through that date.

Producer and theatre manager

The Alhambra Theatre and theatrical innovations
In the 1860s, Hollingshead turned to theatre management. He helped establish the Alhambra Theatre and was the stage manager there from 1865 to 1868, in addition to producing musical pieces and ballets there. He made it famous for its sumptuous staging, alluring corps de ballet and the notorious front-of-house Promenade bar, where the young ladies of the ballet hinted at more than terpsichorean pleasure.

During his tenure at the Alhambra, Hollingshead introduced London audiences to the Can-Can. Hollingshead is also credited with inventing the practice of holding general matinées. Hollingshead was one of the first London theatre managers to eliminate fees for programmes and coat check.

He left the Alhambra to manage the newly redesigned Gaiety Theatre. In addition, Hollingshead managed shows at the Opera Comique from time to time. He produced a revival of Gilbert's Princess Toto there in 1881, paired with Rutland Barrington's short play, Quid Pro Quo.

The Gaiety Theatre
In 1868, Hollingshead took over the Gaiety Theatre, which had been a large music hall. The auditorium was rebuilt and, under Hollingshead, it became a venue primarily for musical burlesque, variety, continental operetta, including several operettas by Jacques Offenbach, and light comedy, under Hollingshead's management, from 1868 to 1886.  The theatre opened on 21 December 1868, with the successful Robert the Devil, by W. S. Gilbert, a burlesque of the opera Robert le Diable. Gilbert also wrote An Old Score for the theatre in 1869.  Another early production was Alfred Thompson's Columbus!, or the Original Pitch in a Merry Key (1869). Nellie Farren starred in both Columbus and Robert the Devil.  She continued as "Principal Boy" at the Gaiety for the next 25 years, first under Hollingshead and then under George Edwardes.  Other Gaiety stalwarts were Edward Terry, Kate Vaughan and Fred Leslie.  The theatre's music director, Meyer Lutz, composed or arranged the music for many of its most successful burlesques.

In 1870, Henry James Byron's Uncle Dick's Darling starred a young Henry Irving.  This was the last play that theatre buff Charles Dickens saw before his death.  Other pieces at Hollingshead's Gaiety in 1870 included Dot (Dion Boucicault's version of The Cricket on the Hearth); and The Princess of Trebizonde, based on the Jacques Offenbach operetta (1870).  Thespis, the first collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan, played at the theatre in 1871, with Farren as Mercury and J. L. Toole in the title role.  Offenbach's Les deux aveugles played in 1872, starring Fred Sullivan.  This was followed by such works as Shilly-Shally (1872) by Anthony Trollope and Charles Reade; Antony and Cleopatra (1873); and The Battle of Life, (based on Charles Dickens's Christmas story of that title).  Two other Dion Boucicault plays produced by Hollingshead's company in the early 1870s were Night and Morning and Led Astray.  Boucicault's Don Caesar de Bazan was travestied in Byron's Little Don Caesar de Bazan.

In the late 1870s, the theatre became the first to install electric lighting on its auditorium. Hollingshead's productions there included The Bohemian G-yurl and the Unapproachable Pole (1877), Byron's farce Little Doctor Faust (1878) Byron's Handsome Hernani, or The Fatal Penny-Whistle (1879); and Robbing Roy (1879).  Meyer Lutz's Ali Baba and The Forty Thieves was performed in 1880 (Hollingshead had produced a highly successful charity production called The Forty Thieves at the Gaiety in 1878), and a burlesque of Aladdin, by Robert Reece, in 1881.  These were followed by Little Robin Hood (1882), a burlesque by Reece, Blue Beard (1882), Ariel (1883, by F. C. Burnand, based on The Tempest), Don Yuan, Byron's Little Don Caesar de Bazan (a send-up of Boucicault's play), Mazeppa (1884), Little Jack Sheppard (1885), Monte Cristo Jr. (1886), and dozens of others. John D'Auban choreographed the Gaiety burlesques from 1868. In addition to these burlesques, the theatre produced comedies such as Congreve's Love for Love, Vanbrugh's Relapse, The Grasshopper (1877, an adaptation by Hollingshead of Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy's La Cigale), and a number of farces.

Nevertheless, burlesque and risque operettas were the normal fare at the Gaiety.  Hollingshead called himself a "licensed dealer in legs, short skirts, French adaptations, Shakespeare, taste and musical glasses." In 1886, George Edwards took over the lease to the Gaiety.

Notes

References
Hollingshead, John.  Alhambra: Theatre of Varieties, Leicester Square, London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. (1893)
Hollingshead, John.  My Lifetime, 2 vols., London: Sampson, Low, & Marston (1895)
Hollingshead, John.   here Gaiety Chronicles, London: A. Constable & Co. (1898)
Hollingshead, John.  Good Old Gaiety: An Historiette & Remembrance, London: Gaiety Theatre Co. (1903)
Spielmann, Marion Harry.  The History of Punch, London: Cassell (1895)

External links

Hollingshead in the 1907 edition of Who's Who
Information about Hollingshead and Whistler

People associated with Gilbert and Sullivan
English theatre managers and producers
English writers
English male journalists
1827 births
1904 deaths
English male non-fiction writers
19th-century English businesspeople

John Hollingshead


A patron saint is someone who has devoted their whole life to something greater than themselves. They are someone who worked hard to make the world a better place. Catholics traditionally take a name of a patron saint to help them throughout their life.

Here is a list of patron saints and the things that they are the patron saint of:

Countries
Saint Andrew (Scotland, Russia)
Catherine of Siena Italy and Europe
Saint David (Wales)
Saint Denis (France)
Saint George (Canada, England, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Malta, Moldova, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Ethiopia, Aragon, Catalonia, Moscow)
Francis of Assisi Italy
Saint Patrick (Ireland)
Saint Piran (Cornwall)
Saint James (Spain)

Saints

Patron saint


Loyalists were people in the Thirteen Colonies who opposed the American Revolutionary War. They were also called Tories. They fought with the British against the Continental Army and Continental Congress that they felt was oppressing them. In many areas, Loyalists were treated very roughly by revolutionaries (who often called themselves "Patriots").  Tory lands and other properties were taken away, and sometimes they were put into jail or even killed. Some formed militias, fighting along with the British Army against the rebels.

After the war, many Loyalists sought asylum in Canada to escape the new United States and to stay loyal to King George and the British Empire.

Loyalists came from all walks of life. The majority were small farmers, artisans and shopkeepers. Not surprisingly, most British officials remained loyal to the Crown. Wealthy merchants tended to remain loyal, as did Anglican ministers, especially in Puritan New England. Loyalists also included some blacks (to whom the British promised freedom), Indians, indentured servants and some German immigrants, who supported the Crown mainly because George III was of German origin.

The number of Loyalists in each colony varied. Recent estimates suggest that half the population of New York was Loyalist; it had an aristocratic culture and was occupied throughout the Revolution by the British. In the Carolinas, back-country farmers were Loyalist, whereas the Tidewater planters tended to support the Revolution.

During the Revolution, most Loyalists suffered little from their views. However, a minority, about 19,000 Loyalists, armed and supplied by the British, fought in the conflict.

The Paris Peace Treaty required Congress to restore property confiscated from Loyalists. The heirs of William Penn in Pennsylvania, for example, and those of George Calvert in Maryland received generous settlements. In the Carolinas, where enmity between rebels and Loyalists was especially strong, few of the latter regained their property. In New York and the Carolinas, the confiscations from Loyalists resulted in something of a social revolution as large estates were parceled out to yeoman farmers.

About 100,000 Loyalists left the country, including William Franklin, the son of Benjamin, and John Singleton Copley, the greatest American painter of the period. Most settled in Canada. Brantford, Ontario for example was started by Iroquois refugees. Some eventually returned, although several state governments excluded the Loyalists from holding public office. Most of the Black Loyalists left, as they faced re-enslavement if they remained in the USA. In the decades after the Revolution, Americans preferred to forget about the Loyalists. Apart from Copley, the Loyalists became nonpersons in American history.

Other websites
 United Empire Loyalists -Citizendium

American Revolutionary War

Loyalist (American Revolution)


A paperback is a type of book. It has a cover of thick paper or thin cardboard. Paperback book covers can bend and be folded. The covers are laminated (have layers), and some of the methods are more durable (lasting) than others. Another name for paperback is soft cover.

Paperback books may be glued or held by sewing. If the pages are held only by adhesive, the book will eventually come apart. The quality of the paper also varies. It is generally less white than bound hardback books because it is less bleached.

Usually, paperback books cost less money than hardback books. In the middle 20th century a "mass market" type of paperback became commonplace, having a standard size, fitting a standard display rack, and glued.

Book terminology

Paperback


This is a list of compositions by Frédéric Chopin by genre. There is a separate list by opus number.

Most of Frédéric Chopin's compositions were for solo piano. He also composed piano concertos (his concertos No. 1 and No. 2 are two of the romantic piano concerto repertoire's most often-performed pieces) as well as some other music for ensembles.

This listing uses the traditional opus numbers where they apply; other works are listed by number from the catalogues of Maurice J. E. Brown (B), Krystyna Kobylańska (KK), and Józef Michał Chomiński (A, C, D, E, P, S).

Piano solo

Ballades

 Op. 23: Ballade No. 1 in G minor (composed 1835-36)
 Op. 38: Ballade No. 2 in F major (1836–39)
 Op. 47: Ballade No. 3 in A-flat major (1841)
 Op. 52: Ballade No. 4 in F minor (1842–43)

Études

Fanciful nicknames have been given to most of Chopin's Études from time to time, although Chopin himself never used nicknames for these pieces, and none are authentic. Only about three such nicknames are widely used: Op. 10, No. 5 Black Keys; Op. 10, No. 12 Revolutionary; and Op. 25, No. 11 Winter Wind. A number of occasionally suggested nicknames are shown below.
 Op. 10, 12 Études:
 No. 1: Étude in C major, Waterfall (composed 1830)
 No. 2: Étude in A minor, Chromatic (1830)
 No. 3: Étude in E major, Tristesse, or L'adieu (1832)
 No. 4: Étude in C-sharp minor, Torrent (1832)
 No. 5: Étude in G-flat major, Black Keys (1830)
 No. 6: Étude in E-flat minor (1830)
 No. 7: Étude in C major, Toccata (1832)
 No. 8: Étude in F major, Sunshine (1829)
 No. 9: Étude in F minor (1829)
 No. 10: Étude in A-flat major (1829)
 No. 11: Étude in E-flat major, Arpeggio (1829)
 No. 12: Étude in C minor, Revolutionary (1831)
 Op. 25, 12 Études:
 No. 1: Étude in A-flat major, Aeolian Harp, or Shepherd Boy (composed 1836)
 No. 2: Étude in F minor, The Bees (1836)
 No. 3: Étude in F major, The Horseman (1836)
 No. 4: Étude in A minor (1832–1834)
 No. 5: Étude in E minor, Wrong Note (1832–1834)
 No. 6: Étude in G-sharp minor, Double Third (1832–1834)
 No. 7: Étude in C-sharp minor, Cello (1836)
 No. 8: Étude in D-flat major, Sixths (1832–1834)
 No. 9: Étude in G-flat major, Butterfly (1832–1834)
 No. 10: Étude in B minor, Octave (1832–1834)
 No. 11: Étude in A minor, Winter Wind (1834)
 No. 12: Étude in C minor, Ocean (1836)
 Trois nouvelles études (1839):
 No. 1:  Étude in F minor
 No. 2:  Étude in A-flat major
 No. 3:  Étude in D-flat major

Impromptus
 Op. 29: Impromptu No. 1 in A-flat major (1837)
 Op. 36: Impromptu No. 2 in F-sharp major (1839)
 Op. 51: Impromptu No. 3 in G-flat major (1843)

Posthumously published
 Op. posth. 66: Fantaisie-Impromptu in C-sharp minor (1834)

Mazurkas

 Two Mazurkas (unnumbered; 1826; pub. 1826, without Op. number; B. 16, KK IIa/2-3, S 1, No. 2):
 a. Mazurka in G major
 b. Mazurka in B-flat major
 Op. 6, Four Mazurkas (Nos. 1-4):
 No. 1: Mazurka in F-sharp minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in C-sharp minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in E major
 No. 4: Mazurka in E-flat minor
 Op. 7, Five Mazurkas  (Nos. 5-9):
 No. 1: Mazurka in B-flat major
 No. 2: Mazurka in A minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in F minor
 No. 4: Mazurka in A-flat major
 No. 5: Mazurka in C major
 Op. 17, Four Mazurkas (Nos. 10-13):
 No. 1: Mazurka in B-flat major
 No. 2: Mazurka in E minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in A-flat major
 No. 4: Mazurka in A minor
 Op. 24, Four Mazurkas  (Nos. 14-17):
 No. 1: Mazurka in G minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in C major
 No. 3: Mazurka in A-flat major
 No. 4: Mazurka in B-flat minor
 Op. 30, Four Mazurkas  (Nos. 18-21):
 No. 1: Mazurka in C minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in B minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in D-flat major
 No. 4: Mazurka in C-sharp minor
 Op. 33, Four Mazurkas (Nos. 22-25):
 No. 1: Mazurka in G-sharp minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in D major
 No. 3: Mazurka in C major
 No. 4: Mazurka in B minor
 Op. 41, Four Mazurkas  (Nos. 26-29):
 No. 1: Mazurka in C-sharp minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in E minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in B major
 No. 4: Mazurka in A-flat major
 Mazurka in A minor (No. 50; "Notre Temps"; 1840; pub. 1841 in Six morceaux de salon, without Op. number; B. 134; KK IIb/4; S 2/4)
 Mazurka in A minor  (No. 51; "Émile Gaillard"; 1840; pub. 1841 in Album de pianistes polonais, without Op. number; B. 140; KK IIb/5; S 2/5)
 Op. 50, Three Mazurkas (Nos. 30-32):
 No. 1: Mazurka in G major
 No. 2: Mazurka in A-flat major
 No. 3: Mazurka in C-sharp minor
 Op. 56, Three Mazurkas  (Nos. 33-35):
 No. 1: Mazurka in B major
 No. 2: Mazurka in C major
 No. 3: Mazurka in C minor
 Op. 59, Three Mazurkas (Nos. 36-38):
 No. 1: Mazurka in A minor
 No. 2: Mazurka in A-flat major
 No. 3: Mazurka in F-sharp minor
 Op. 63, Three Mazurkas  (Nos. 39-41):
 No. 1: Mazurka in B major
 No. 2: Mazurka in F minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in C-sharp minor

Posthumously published

With opus numbers
 Op. posth. 67, Four Mazurkas (Nos. 42-45; 1835–49; pub. 1855):
 No. 1: Mazurka in G major
 No. 2: Mazurka in G minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in C major
 No. 4: Mazurka in A minor
 Op. posth. 68, Four Mazurkas (Nos. 46-49; 1827–49; pub. 1855):
 No. 1: Mazurka in C major
 No. 2: Mazurka in A minor
 No. 3: Mazurka in F major
 No. 4: Mazurka in F minor

Without opus numbers
 Mazurka in C major (1833; pub. 1870; B. 82; KK IVB/3; P 2/3)
 Mazurka in D major (1829; pub. 1875; B 31/71; KK IVa/7; P 1/7)
 Mazurka in B-flat major (1832; pub. 1909; B. 73; KK IVb/1; P 2/1)
 Mazurka in D major "Mazurek" (1820; pub. 1910; B. 4; KK Anh Ia/1; A 1/1)
 Mazurka in A-flat major (1834; pub. 1930; B. 85; KK IVb/4; P 2/4)
 Mazurka in D major (1832; pub. ?; P 2/2)

Nocturnes

 Op. 9, Three Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in B-flat minor
 No. 2: Nocturne in E-flat major
 No. 3: Nocturne in B major
 Op. 15, Three Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in F major (1830–1831)
 No. 2: Nocturne in F-sharp major (1830–1831)
 No. 3: Nocturne in G minor (1833)
 Op. 27, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in C-sharp minor
 No. 2: Nocturne in D-flat major
 Op. 32, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in B major (1836–1837)
 No. 2: Nocturne in A-flat major (1836–1837)
 Op. 37, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in G minor
 No. 2: Nocturne in G major
 Op. 48, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in C minor
 No. 2: Nocturne in F-sharp minor
 Op. 55, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in F minor
 No. 2: Nocturne in E-flat major
 Op. 62, Two Nocturnes:
 No. 1: Nocturne in B major
 No. 2: Nocturne in E major

Posthumously published

With opus number
 Op. posth. 72:
 No. 1: Nocturne in E minor

Without opus numbers
 P. 1/16: Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Lento con gran espressione (1830)
 P. 2/8: Nocturne in C minor (1837)
 A. 1/6: Nocturne in C sharp minor (Nocturne oubliée) (spurious)

Polonaises

 Op. 26, Two Polonaises:
 No. 1: Polonaise in C-sharp minor
 No. 2: Polonaise in E-flat minor
 Op. 40, Two Polonaises:
 No. 1: Polonaise in A major, Military
 No. 2: Polonaise in C minor
 Op. 44: Polonaise in F-sharp minor
 Op. 53: Polonaise in A-flat major, Heroic or Drum
 Op. 61: Polonaise-Fantaisie in A-flat major

Posthumously published

With opus numbers
 Op. posth. 71, Three Polonaises:
 No. 1: Polonaise in D minor (1825)
 No. 2: Polonaise in B-flat major (1828)
 No. 3: Polonaise in F minor (1828)

Without opus numbers
 KK IIa No. 1: Polonaise in G minor (1817)
 KK IVa, Five Polonaises:
 No. 1: Polonaise in B-flat major (1817)
 No. 2: Polonaise in A-flat major (1821)
 No. 3: Polonaise in G-sharp minor (1822)
 No. 5: Polonaise in B-flat minor, Adieu à Guillaume Kolberg (1826)
 No. 8: Polonaise in G-flat major (1829).

Preludes

 Op. 28, 24 Preludes:
 No. 1: Prelude in C major (composed 1839)
 No. 2: Prelude in A minor (1838)
 No. 3: Prelude in G major (1838–1839)
 No. 4: Prelude in E minor (1838)
 No. 5: Prelude in D major (1838–1839)
 No. 6: Prelude in B minor (1838–1839)
 No. 7: Prelude in A major (1836)
 No. 8: Prelude in F-sharp minor (1838–1839)
 No. 9: Prelude in E major (1838–1839)
 No. 10: Prelude in C-sharp minor (1838–1839)
 No. 11: Prelude in B major (1838–1839)
 No. 12: Prelude in G-sharp minor (1838–1839)
 No. 13: Prelude in F-sharp major (1838–1839)
 No. 14: Prelude in E-flat minor (1838–1839)
 No. 15: Prelude in D-flat major, Raindrop (1838–1839)
 No. 16: Prelude in B-flat minor (1838–1839)
 No. 17: Prelude in A-flat major (1836)
 No. 18: Prelude in F minor (1838–1839)
 No. 19: Prelude in E-flat major (1838–1839)
 No. 20: Prelude in C minor, Chord or Funeral March (1838–1839)
 No. 21: Prelude in B-flat major (1838–1839)
 No. 22: Prelude in G minor (1838–1839)
 No. 23: Prelude in F major (1838–1839)
 No. 24: Prelude in D minor (1838–1839)
 Op. 45: Prelude in C-sharp minor (1841)

Posthumously published
 P. 2/7: Prelude in A-flat major (1834, published 1918; ded. Pierre Wolff)
 A. 1/2: Prelude in F major
 Prelude in E flat minor, Devil's Trill

Rondos
 Op. 1: Rondo in C minor (1825; arr. piano 4-hands 1834)
 Op. 5: Rondo à la mazur in F major (1826)
 Op. 14: Rondo à la Krakowiak in F major (1828)
 Op. 16: Rondo in E-flat major (1832)

Posthumously published
 Op. posth. 73: Rondo in C major, versions for solo piano and two pianos (1828)

Scherzos
 Op. 20: Scherzo No. 1 in B minor (1831)
 Op. 31: Scherzo No. 2 in B-flat minor (1837)
 Op. 39: Scherzo No. 3 in C-sharp minor (1839)
 Op. 54: Scherzo No. 4 in E major (1843)

Sonatas
 Op. 35: Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat minor, Funeral March (1839)
 Op. 58: Piano Sonata No. 3 in B minor (1844)

Posthumously published
 Op. 4: Piano Sonata No. 1 in C minor (1828)

Variations

 Op. 12: Variations brillantes in B-flat major on "Je vends des scapulaires" from Hérold's Ludovic (1833)
 B. 113: Variation in E for Hexameron (1837; pub. 1839)

Posthumously published
 B.9: Variations in E for flute and piano on "Non più mesta" from Rossini's La Cenerentola, KK. Anh. Ia/5, (? 1824; pub. 1955) - doubtful
 KK. IVa/6: Introduction, Theme and Variations in D on a Venetian air, piano 4-hands (1826; pub 1965)
 B. 12a: Variations in D major or B minor on an Irish National Air (from Thomas Moore) for 2 pianos, P. 1/6 (1826)
 B. 14: Variations in E major on the air "Der Schweizerbub: Steh'auf, steh'auf o du Schweitzer Bub", aka Introduction et Variations sur un Lied allemand (1826; pub. 1851)
 B. 37: Variations in A, Souvenir de Paganini (1829; pub. 1881)

Lost
 KK. Ve/9: Variations, (January 1818)
 KK. Vb/2: Variations in F, piano 4-hands or 2 pianos (1826)
 KK. VIIa/3: Variations on a Ukrainian Dumka for violin and piano, by Antoni Radziwill, completed by Chopin (by June 1830)

Waltzes

 Op. 18: Grande valse brillante in E-flat major (1833)
 Op. 34, Trois grandes valses brillantes:
 No. 1: Waltz in A-flat major (1835)
 No. 2: Waltz in A minor (1831)
 No. 3: Waltz in F major (1838)
 Op. 42: Waltz in A-flat major (1840)
 Op. 64, Three Waltzes:
 No. 1: Waltz in D-flat major, Minute Waltz (1846)
 No. 2: Waltz in C-sharp minor (1846)
 No. 3: Waltz in A-flat major

Posthumously published

With opus numbers
 1852: Two Waltzes, Op. posth. 69:
 No. 1: Waltz in A-flat major, L'Adieu  (1835)
 No. 2: Waltz in B minor
 1855: Three Waltzes, Op. posth. 70:
 No. 1: Waltz in G-flat major
 No. 2: Waltz in F minor
 No. 3: Waltz in D-flat major

Without opus numbers
 1868: Waltz in E minor, B. 56, KK IVa/15, P. 1/15
 1871-72: Waltz in E major, B. 44, KK IVa/12, P. 1/12
 1902: Waltz in A-flat major, B. 21, KK IVa/13, P. 1/13
 1902: Waltz in E-flat major, B. 46, KK IVa/14, P. 1/14
 1932: Waltz in F-sharp minor, Valse mélancolique, KK Ib/7, A. 1/7  (now considered spurious)
 1955: Waltz in A minor, B. 150, KK IVb/11, P. 2/11
 1955: Waltz in E-flat major (Sostenuto), B. 133, KK IVb/10 (not always classified as a waltz)

Miscellaneous pieces for solo piano

 Op. 19: Bolero
 Op. 43: Tarantelle in A-flat major
 Op. 46: Allegro de concert in A major
 Op. 49: Fantaisie in F minor
 Op. 57: Berceuse in D-flat major
 Op. 60: Barcarole in F-sharp major

Posthumously published

With opus numbers
 Op. posth. 72:
 No. 2: Marche funèbre in C minor (1829; B.20)
 No. 3: Three Écossaises (1830)
No. 1 in D major
No. 2 in G major
No. 3 in D-flat major

Without opus numbers

 B. 151: Album Leaf (Moderato) in E major
 KK. Vb/1: Andante dolente in B-flat minor (lost)
 B. 117: Andantino in G minor (arr. of the piano part of the song Wiosna; 5 different MS exist)
 B. 160b: 2 Bourrées
 B. 129a: Canon in F minor
 B. 84: Cantabile in B-flat major
 B. 17: Contredanse in G-flat major (doubtful)
 KK. Ve/3: Écossaise (? date; lost)
 KK. Vb/9: Écossaise in B-flat major (1827; lost)
 B. 144: Fugue in A minor
 KK. VIIa/2: 3 Fugues (A minor, F major, D minor; arr. from Cherubini's Cours de contrepoint et de fugue)
 P. 2/13: Galopp in A-flat (Galop Marquis)
 P. 2/6: Klavierstück in B-flat (1834)
 P. 2/5: Klavierstück in E-flat (1837)
 P. 2/10: Klavierstück in E-flat "Sostenuto" (1840; sometimes classified as a waltz)
 B. 109a: Largo in E-flat major

Piano and orchestra

Concertos
 Op. 11: Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor (composed 1830)
 Op. 21: Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor (1829–1830)

Miscellaneous
 Op. 2: Variations on "Là ci darem la mano" from Mozart's Don Giovanni, in B-flat major (1827)
 Op. 13: Fantaisie brillante on Polish Airs, in A major (1828)
 Op. 14: Rondo à la Krakowiak, in F major (1828)
 Op. 22: Andante spianato et grande polonaise brillante, in E-flat major (1830–1831)

Cello and piano
 B. 70: Grand Duo concertant in E major (1832; written jointly with Auguste Franchomme)
 Op. 3: Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major (1829–1830)
 Op. 65: Cello Sonata in G minor (1845–46)

Violin, cello and piano
 Op. 8: Trio for Violin, Cello and Piano in G minor

Voice and piano

Posthumously published

With opus numbers
Op. posth. 74, 17 Songs (1829–1847; Polish)
No. 1 The Wish (Życzenie) (1829)
No. 2 Spring (Wiosna) (1838)
No. 3 The Sad River (Smutna Rzeka) (1831)
No. 4 Merrymaking (Hulanka) (1830)
No. 5 What She Likes (Gdzie lubi) (1829)
No. 6 Out of My Sight (Precz z moich oczu) (1830)
No. 7 The Messenger (Poseł) (1830)
No. 8 Handsome Lad (Śliczny chłopiec) (1841)
No. 9 From the Mountains, Where They Carried Heavy Crosses [Melody] (Z gór, gdzie dźwigali strasznych krzyżów brzemię [Melodia]) (1847)
No. 10 The Warrior (Wojak) (1830)
No. 11 The Double-End (Dwojaki koniec) (1845)
No. 12 My Darling (Moja pieszczotka) (1837)
No. 13 I Want What I Have Not (Nie ma czego trzeba) (1845)
No. 14 The Ring (Pierścień) (1836)
No. 15 The Bridegroom (Narzeczony) (1831)
No. 16 Lithuanian Song (Piosnka litewska) (1831)
No. 17 Leaves are Falling, Hymn from the Tomb (Śpiew z mogiłki) (1836)

Without opus numbers
 Enchantment (Czary) (1830)
 Reverie (Dumka) (1840)

Notes

References

Other websites
 Klasikal.com  - Website dedicated to classical music. Includes video performances and sheet music of many compositions of Frederic Chopin.
 Complete list of Chopin's works  with background information, study guides, sheet music and recordings.
 Chopin: the poet of the piano Complete list of Chopin music with illustration, years of composition and publication, dedications, analyses, and quotes
 The Chopin Project has more information, links, resources, and audio on demand of Chopin's solo keyboard works.
 PDF Sheet Music from the Mutopia Project

List of compositions by Frédéric Chopin by genre


A superconductor is a substance that conducts electricity without resistance when it becomes colder than a "critical temperature." At this temperature, electrons can move freely through the material. Superconductors are different from ordinary conductors, such as copper. Ordinary conductors lose their resistance (get more conductive) slowly as they get colder. In contrast, superconductors lose their resistance all at once. This is an example of a phase transition. High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state. Some examples of superconductors are the metals mercury and lead, ceramics and organic carbon nanotubes.

Normally, a magnet moving by a conductor produces currents in the conductor by electromagnetic induction. But a superconductor actually pushes out magnetic fields entirely by inducing surface currents. Instead of letting the magnetic field pass through, the superconductor acts like a magnet pointing the opposite way, which repels the real magnet. This is called the Meissner effect, and it can be demonstrated by levitating a superconductor over magnets or vice versa.

Explanation
Physicists explain superconductivity by describing what happens when temperatures get cold. The thermal energy in a solid or liquid shakes the atoms so they randomly vibrate, but this gets less as the temperature drops. Electrons carry the same negative electric charge which makes them repel each other. At higher temperatures each electron behaves as if it were a free particle. There is also however a very weak attraction between electrons when they are in a solid or liquid. At rather large distances ( many hundreds of nanometers apart) and low temperatures (near absolute zero), the attractive effect and lack of thermal energy allows pairs of electrons to hang together. This is called a cooper pair and it is a quasiparticle, that is it acts as if it were a new kind of particle in its own right even though it is made up of two fundamental electrons.

Many overlapping cooper pairs can exist in the same nanometer sized space. Since paired electrons constitute a boson the motions of all of the cooper pairs within a single superconductor synchronize and they function as if they are a single entity. Small disturbances such as scattering of electrons are forbidden in this state, and it moves as one, showing no resistance to its motion. Thus, it is now a superconductor.

History of superconductors

Applications
 Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
 Powerful magnets
 Particle accelerators
 Small particle accelerators in health
 Levitating trains
 Nuclear fusion
 MRI Scanner

References

Electronics
Magnetism

Superconductor


A camera lens is the part of a camera that directs light to the film or, in a digital camera, to a computer chip that can sense the light. Many cheap lenses are plastic but better ones are made from glass. The lens makes an image by focusing the light.

The majority of cameras only have one lens that users cannot change or take out. This is called a fixed lens design. More expensive cameras usually have lenses that come off, so anyone can take out one lens and put in another. A lens may be simple, or may actually be made of several lenses.

Photographers can use different lenses (objectives) to make different kinds of pictures. For example, a telephoto lens can take a picture of something far away. A  wide-angle lens is the opposite. A zoom lens is more versatile; it can do both. There are many kinds of lenses.

The study of lenses and how they work is called optics.

Lenses for large sheet film cameras are especially difficult to design. Cameras and their lenses have been made since the 19th century. Some from before World War II, are still usable today. Computers now let engineers make better lenses, though, because they can calculate the way that light goes through the lens and find the best design for each task. Together with lenses, filters, macro lenses, teleconverters, wide-angle and tele attachments are used.

Camera lenses

Camera lens


Guillem or Guilhem Magret (; fl. 1195–1210) was a troubadour and jongleur from the Viennois. He left behind eight poems, of which survive a sirventes and a canso with melodies.

According to his vida, he was a gambler and publican who could not keep the money he earned but spent it away gambling and frequenting taverns, and so he was always ill-equipped for riding. In Maigret, pujat m'es el cap, a tenso with Guilhem Rainol d'Apt, he is despised by his debate partner as a joglar vielh, nesci, badoc: "an old, silly, stupid jongleur". Despite this, his biographer notes that he was well liked and honoured and his songs were "good".

Guillem travelled widely in Spain, sojourning at the courts of Peter II of Aragon and Alfonso IX of León. Eventually he entered a hospital in Spain, in the land of "Lord Roiz Peire dels Gambiaros" (probably Pedro Ruiz de los Cameros), and there ended his life. Among the dates which can be established for Guillem's life are 1196, when he composed a song on the death of Alfonso II and succession of Peter II in Aragon, and 1204, when he wrote a song to celebrate the November coronation of Peter by Pope Innocent III in Rome.

Guillem's music is rich, diverse, motivically-varied, and neumatically-textured. L'aigue puge contremont contains four unusual B–F leaps, which Guillem probably intended as a motive.

Sources

Aubrey, Elizabeth. The Music of the Troubadours. Indiana University Press, 1996. .
Egan, Margarita, ed. and trans. The Vidas of the Troubadours. New York: Garland, 1984. .

External links
Maigret, pujat m'es el cap at Rialto.

13th-century French troubadours
12th-century births
13th-century deaths
People from Vienne, Isère

Guillem Magret


Hermeticism is the study and practice of occult philosophy and magic. The name comes from the fact that the first books about Hermeticism  are said to have been written by the god Hermes Trismegistus ("Thrice-Greatest Hermes"), who combines aspects of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth.

Hermeticism is also connected with astrology and alchemy.  These beliefs were strong in Europe during the Renaissance. The Hermetic Corpus was translated by Marsilio Ficino in 1463 and published in 1471. At this time, the Hermetic Corpus was thought to be older than both Plato and Pythagoras.

In 1614, Isaac Causabon showed that the texts were actually written sometime between 200 and 300 AD. This view was based on careful study of the way language was used in the original writings.

Hermeticism was revived in the 19th century in Western Europe. The most famous group involved in this revival was the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

Related page
Supernatural

Philosophical movements and positions
Creation myths

Hermeticism


Don Raye (born Donald MacRae Wilhoite Jr., March 16, 1909 – January 29, 1985) was an American songwriter, best known for his songs for The Andrews Sisters such as "Beat Me Daddy, Eight to the Bar", "The House of Blue Lights", "Just for a Thrill" and "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy." The latter was co-written with Hughie Prince.

While known for such wordy novelty numbers, he also wrote the lyrics to "You Don't Know What Love Is," a simple, poetic lament of unusual power. He also composed the song "(That Place) Down the Road a Piece," one of his boogie woogie songs, which has a medium bright boogie tempo. It was written for the Will Bradley Orchestra, who recorded it in 1940, but the song was destined to become a rock and roll standard, recorded by The Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis, Foghat, Amos Milburn, Harry Gibson, and countless others. In 1940, he wrote the lyrics for the patriotic song "This Is My Country".

In 1985, Don Raye was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.

History
Raye started his career as a dancer, going on to win the "Virginia State Dancing Championship." He started work in vaudeville as a song and dance man often writing his own songs for his act. In 1935, he started work as a songwriter, collaborating with composers Sammy Cahn and Saul Chaplin, and bandleader-saxophonist Jimmie Lunceford.

His great success with "Beat Me Daddy, Eight to the Bar" (co-written with Bradley's drummer Ray McKinley) led Raye to write follow-up songs, in collaboration with Hughie Prince: "Scrub Me Mama, with a Boogie Beat" and "Bounce Me Brother, with a Solid Four." Raye and Prince were signed by Universal Pictures to score musical comedies with The Andrews Sisters, The Ritz Brothers, and Abbott and Costello; the Andrews trio recorded some of the Raye-Prince compositions for Decca Records. Raye and Prince also penned a risqué, best-selling novelty hit, "She Had to Go and Lose It at the Astor."

Raye joined the United States Army in 1941, and served in World War II. Upon his return he resumed songwriting in Hollywood and worked alongside Gene de Paul at Universal Studios, penning the Dinah Shore hit "Daddy-O, I'm Gonna Teach You Some Blues."  Their biggest hit was "I'll Remember April."  He and de Paul wrote three original songs for Walt Disney's The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad as well as A Song is Born. Raye and de Paul also wrote "Beware the Jabberwock," a song for Disney's Alice in Wonderland, which was not included in the final version of the film. A demo was recorded, and is included on the 2004 and 2010 DVD releases of the Disney movie.

Raye co-wrote "The Ballad of Thunder Road" with its script writer and star, Robert Mitchum. The Robert Mitchum version of the song did not appear in the 1958 movie Thunder Road, but was released by Capitol Records.

He co-wrote "The House of Blue Lights" in 1946 with Freddie Slack, a song which was recorded originally by Freddie Slack with Ella Mae Morse on vocals, by The Andrews Sisters, Merrill Moore (1952), Chuck Miller (1955), Chuck Berry, George Thorogood and the Destroyers, Asleep at the Wheel, and Jerry Lee Lewis.

Publications
In 1971, the Charles E. Tuttle Company published Raye's Like Haiku, a collection of poems. He called them "not haiku in the true sense. They are 'like' haiku. An Occidental songwriter's haiku. I have merely used that stringent form to frame my own pictures of wonder, my moments of awareness of those things which have made me feel."

References

External links

1909 births
1985 deaths
Songwriters from Washington, D.C.
American male songwriters
Vaudeville performers
20th-century American musicians
20th-century male musicians
Walt Disney Animation Studios people

Don Raye


Burhou (pronounced bu-ROO) is a small island approximately   northwest of Alderney that is part of the Channel Islands. No one lives on Burhou, and it is a bird sanctuary, so landing there is banned from 15 March to 27 July. The island's wildlife includes a colony of puffins (declining in numbers) and large numbers of rabbits.

It has no landing stage as such, but visitors use a small inlet. In rough weather it may be impossible to land.

The Guernsey botanist E.D. Marquand called it, "the most desolate and lonely of all the islands in our archipelago." He had to spend the night there, as his return journey was delayed by fog.

The 1906 book, The Channel Pilot states -

"Between Ortac, Verte Tête and Burhou Island, are scattered many dangerous rocks, and ledges among which the streams run with great velocity."

The States of Alderney member, John Beaman has political responsibility for the island.

Burhou, like many other Channel Islands (e.g. Lihou, Jethou), has the Norman suffix -hou, meaning a small island, from the Old Norse holmr. According to Dr. S.K. Kellet-Smith, "bur" refers to a storehouse - "Burhou is just the place where a fisherman would place a depository for his gear".

Signs of human occupation/visitation are much older. Flint flakes have been found on the island, and one is currently in the Alderney Museum. In 1847, F.C. Lukis found two standing stones, but these have since been lost, according to the archaeologist David Johnston.

The hut
According to the Assize Roll of the 14th century, Burhou was a rabbit warren, and a refuge for fishermen. This would have meant that there would have been some kind of shelter there, as it would be difficult for the fishermen to take refuge without it.

A hut was built on the island in 1820 as a shelter for fishermen and sailors at the instigation of General Le Mesurier (The Governor), but was destroyed during the German occupation of the Channel Islands (the Nazis used it for target practice during WWII). The hut was replaced in 1953, with basic accommodation which is rented out to visitors by Alderney Harbour Office.

Attempts have been made to raise sheep there. In 1900, a French couple lived there for a year. The soil is thin, and spray often goes right over the island, so the soil is very salty. The island has no fresh water supply for much of the year, and has to rely on shipments, or formerly tanks.

Flora and fauna
The island's animals are mainly birds, although rabbits are long established here. The island has many puffins and some storm petrels. Although the latter have declined, they used to nest in the cottage's storm loft. Roderick Dobson in Birds of the Channel Islands  said that puffins had been plentiful for over a century. The Birds of Guernsey (1878) by Cecil Smith states likewise. The puffins have had to compete with gulls, and in 1949, hundreds died from red mite infestation. The rabbit holes on the island make good nesting for them.

Amongst the plants noted here are sea spurry, forget-me-nots, scarlet pimpernel, field bugloss, bracken and nettles. E.D. Marquand counted 18 species of plant here in 1909, but by the late twentieth century Frances Le Sueur and David McClintock found 45, which they wrote up in the Transactions of La Société Guernesiaise

Related pages
 List of places with fewer than ten residents

References
 Channel Islets - Victor Coysh
 BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (Oxford UP, 1971)

Other websites
Burhou Island

Uninhabited islands of the Bailiwick of Guernsey

Burhou